Boiler Construction

Learning Outcome
When you complete this learning material, you will be able to:

Explain Code requirements, in general terms, and describe construction and assembly methods for
the major components of a large boiler.

Learning Objectives
You will specifically be able to complete the following tasks:

1. Explain bottom and top support and describe the support techniques for various
components of a large boiler, including lateral supports for furnace walls. Explain allowances
for expansion.
2. Explain the purpose, design, locations and installation methods for boiler casing insulation,
refractory, and cladding.
3. Describe the methods used to fabricate boiler tubes.
4. Describe the preparation, fabrication, and testing of boiler drums.
5. Describe methods of attaching tubes to drums and headers, including expanding and
welding, and explain where each method would be used.
6. Describe methods of attaching nozzles to boiler drums and headers and explain Code
requirements for such attachments.
7. Explain code requirements/sizes for, and describe the designs and installation of, manholes
and handholes, including welded handholes. Explain procedures for removing and installing
covers.
8. Describe the field assembly of a large boiler or steam generating unit.

Objective One
When you complete this objective you will be able to…

Explain bottom and top support and describe the support techniques for various components of a
large boiler, including lateral supports for furnace walls. Explain allowances for expansion.

Learning Material
TOP-SUPPORTED BOILERS

The large steam generating units are top-supported by means of steel columns, which require
massive foundation piers. These large boilers are top-supported by means of hangers, which extend
from the structural steel to the various components of the boiler. Fig. 1 illustrates the structural
steel components of a large steam generator. In this way, the boiler pressure parts are allowed to
expand downwards from the main supports at the top.
 Figure 1
Boiler Structural Steel (Combustion Engineering)

Upon completion of the structural steel installation, the “U” shaped hangers are attached to the
structural steel for support of the main steam drum. As shown in Fig. 2, a steam drum is being
hoisted into place.

The drum is supported by U-bolts, which permit linear movement of the drum with temperature
variations. The drum is used as the major anchor point for other boiler components, and for this
reason, accurate location is important.
 Figure 2
Lifting Lugs and Tackle for Hoisting Drums

With the drum now secured in its final position, various components such as superheater and
economizer headers are positioned in relation to the drum. Superheaters, economizer, and wall
tubes are aligned and welded or expanded to the drums and headers.

The furnace wall tubes are assembled and welded into panels at the manufacturer’s facility and then
shipped as unit sections then welded into place in the field. Fig. 3 shows a furnace wall panel being
manufactured in the shop.
 Figure 3
Furnace Wall Panel Manufacturing

Support of Boiler Components

Fig. 4 illustrates the supporting columns and overhead steelwork used for a top-supported boiler.
The concrete foundations upon which the columns are placed are not visible, but the method of
supporting the top drum headers and furnace wall tube sections is shown. In large top supported
boilers the majority of components are supported from the steelwork. The method of support for the
major components can be seen in Fig. 4.

 Steam drum: is hung from the top steelwork.

 Large steam piping and superheaters: they are hung from the top by large spring hangers.

 Furnace walls: tubes are welded into the top headers. They expand downward. The furnace
walls also need lateral support. Fig. 5 shows a bucktsay support system. The buckstays are
external beams or trusses. They give the furnace wall additional lateral support. Fig. 5
illustrates how the buckstays are joined at the corners of a furnace. For this type of
membrane wall support, the channel bar is welded to the membrane bar between the tubes.

 Ducts: the ducts are supported from the steel beams. Expansion joints must be used, where
the ducting is attached to boiler casings, fans, or other auxiliary equipment.

 Fans: the fans rest on the cement foundations. There are expansion provisions in the piping
and ducting, which connects the fans to the boiler.

 Air preheater: It is supported from the beams at its side. The air ducts have ex pansion
joints.
 Figure 4
Steam Generator Structural Steel and Support Columns
 Figure 5
Tie Bar and Buckstay Arrangement at Corners of Furnace

Bottom-Supported Boiler

The bottom-supported boiler in Fig. 6 has concrete drum foundations, which support the bottom
drum and bottom headers. The boiler tubes themselves are used to support the top drum. These
tubes connecting the two drums are expanded into position, and then the furnace wall panels are
erected and welded into place.
 Figure 6
Bottom Supported Boiler

The bottom drum supports have sliding pads or feet, which allow for expansion. The walls have
lateral supports, which attach to the steelwork. All piping and ductwork must have provision for
expansion.

Objective Two
When you complete this objective you will be able to…

Explain the purpose, design, locations and installation methods for boiler casing, insulation,
refractory, and cladding.

Learning Material

BOILER CASING

Boiler casing is the term used to describe the airtight metal casing of a boiler wall. In general inner
or outer boiler casing is used in areas that are not membrane wall construction. It is insulated from
the heat of the furnace by a combination of water-wall tubes, refractory and block insulation. It is
made of steel plate and will withstand temperatures to 400°C. It also provides support for the
refractory. On the outside of the boiler casing is another layer of block or blanket insulation and an
outer skin or metal lagging.
Support structure for boiler walls may be welded to the casing as in Fig. 7. Here a beam or channel
tie bar is welded to the casing. Another beam or buckstay attaches to the tie bar. Note that this is
not a rigid connection, but a sliding foot arrangement, allowing for movement.

Figure 7
Boiler Wall With Studded Tubes

Insulation

Insulation is used as heat protection for personnel and to stop the loss of heat from the boiler
internal sections.

Insulation can be in the form of:

 Mineral wool blanket: is made of mineral wool fibers compressed into blanket form. It is
used for temperatures to 650°C.

 Mineral wool base block: is made of mineral wool fibers and clay, molded under heat and
pressure. It is designed to insulate tube walls and casings, and can withstand temperatures
up to 1000°C, depending upon the grade. It is used in a layer between a refractory wall and
the boiler steel casing, and also between the boiler casing and lagging.

 Calcium silicate block: is used on enclosures and piping for temperatures below 650°C.
  High temperature plastic: comes in a moldable cement form and is used to fill gaps in
refractory and in block insulation. It has a temperature limit of 1050°C.

 Ceramic fiber: is made of high purity fibers, which have a melting point above 1650°C. It is
used to make seals for tube enclosures, or in spots where high temperature insulation is
specified.

Refractory

Refractory is cement like. It is used to withstand very high temperatures in areas such as burner
throats and boiler target walls. The walls often have two layers of castable refractory. One layer
such as 90% alumina castable will be for extreme heat. The next layer is more of an insulating type
of castable such as insulating castable 1500. There is a layer of block insulation between the
castable and the steel boiler casing.

The use of membrane or water-cooled walls has reduced the use of castables in modern watertube
boilers. A thin layer of castable material can be applied to membrane wall tubes to protect them
from erosion or corrosion. Castable walls are poured into moulds similar to how cement is poured
and can also be troweled in thin layers, as required Thick walls require a controlled dryout or curing
procedure. The dryout is used to remove any moisture in a slow and controlled manner. Rapid
drying of the castable would result in blistering.

Fig. 8 shows the temperature gradient through a furnace wall with layers of firebrick (castable) and
block insulation. The castable temperature is nearly as high as the furnace temperature. The main
function of the castable is to protect the block insulation from the direct heat of the furnace. The
block insulation has a higher insulation value. The outside temperature of the block insulation is
60°C, while the surface contacting the castable is 681°C.
 Figure 8
Temperature Gradient Through a Furnace Wall

Cladding

Cladding (also called lagging) is the metal covering, which protects the outer surface of the boiler. It
is made of light gauge galvanized steel or aluminum sheets. It can be made water tight for outdoor
installations. Fig. 9 shows a membrane wall with metal lagging or cladding. It is an external covering
for most boiler wall enclosures. Cladding is usually installed using screws or pins, attaching it to the
boiler casing as in Fig. 10. The cladding is not used to seal out the flue gases. It is the outer skin
protecting the insulation from the elements.

Figure 9
 Membrane Wall With Metal Lagging (Cladding)

Figure 10
Cladding Installation on Membrane Wall

Objective Three
When you complete this objective you will be able to…

Describe the methods used to fabricate boiler tubes

Learning Material
WELDED TUBES

Boiler tubes may be fabricated in a seamless form, or they may be welded. Welded tubes are
formed from a flat strip of carbon steel rolled into a tubular form. The edges are then butt welded
together. The procedure for the manufacture of Electric-resistance-welded (ERW) tubes is described
as follows.

Flat strips are formed into a tubular shape by rolling. A welding machine having two electrodes,
which straddle the tube joint, then welds the tube. The welding current passes between the
electrodes through the tube joint thus producing enough heat to fuse the edges together.
The tubing is then accurately straightened and cut to the required length in a sizing mill. The tubes
are then normalized in a controlled-atmosphere furnace to produce a uniform metallurgical structure
throughout.

During this heat treatment, the tubes receive a rust-retardant oxide finish. As the tubes emerge
from the furnace, they are conveyed through rotary straighteners to the cutoff machines.

Tubes for boiler application are either hot-finished, or cold-drawn depending on the size, tolerance,
and finish desired. The metallurgy of the two is similar; the difference is mainly in surface finish and
the permissible tolerance in dimensions. To obtain a smooth and even surface with close tolerances,
stainless steel tubing is generally finished by cold drawing only as shown in Fig. 11. The newly
formed tube is drawn through a die, which is the exact size of the required outside tube diameter.
Inside the tube there is a mandrel the size of the required inside diameter. The tube has a fine
surface finish and close tolerance after being cold drawn.

Figure 11
Drawbench for Producing Close Tolerance
Fine Surface Finish, Cold-Drawn Tubes

Seamless Tube Fabrication

Seamless tubes have no welded joints. During manufacture, a hot, solid round billet of carbon steel
or alloy steel is forced over a piercing point bar by means of conical shaped rolls. The piercing
operation is shown in Fig. 12.
 Figure 12
Piercing Operation

After piercing, the bar is withdrawn from the inside of the tube and the rough pierced “hollow” may
be reheated in a suitable furnace to the correct temperature for rolling.

The function of the rolling mill is to lengthen the tube and reduce the wall thickness to the
approximate dimensions required. As shown in Fig. 13, a ram forces the tube into the grooves of the
rolls, the rotation of which carries it forward over a plug and bar, working the metal between the
grooved surfaces of the rolls and the plug.
 Figure 13
Rolling Operation in Tube-Rolling Mill

Directly after rolling and while the tube is still hot, a reeling machine shown in Fig. 14 smooths the
outer surface. This is called burnishing. The tube is rounded and expanded some in diameter, but
the wall thickness remains nearly constant; or depending upon the pressure applied, could be
slightly reduced.

Figure 14
Reeling Operation
After reeling, the tube is taken to the sizing mill to be annealed or heat-treated, straightened, cut to
length, hydrostatically tested, and submitted for final inspection.

In cases where tubes require a finer finish, closer dimensional tolerances, or smaller sizes that
cannot be obtained by the hot-finish process, they are cold-drawn.

Extrusion Process for Seamless Tubes

Another method used to produce seamless tubes is known as extrusion. Fig. 15 illustrates the
extrusion process.

Figure 15
Extrusion Process

A hot, hollow billet is squeezed between a die and mandrel by a ram. The outside diameter of the
tube is controlled by the die, and the inside diameter is controlled by the mandrel. A special glass
lubricant is used to lubricate the mandrel, billet, and die during the operation. After the hot
extrusion process is finished, cold drawing is used to bring the tubes to the desired size.

All pressure tubes are subjected to either a hydrostatic pressure test or a nondestructive test over
their entire length and periphery as specified in ASME Code, Section I, PW-54 and American Society
for Testing and Materials.

Materials used in boiler tube fabrication are specified in ASME Code Section I, PG. 9 and maximum
tube size is 127 mm OD as stated in PG. 27.

Objective Four
When you complete this objective you will be able to…

Describe the preparation, fabrication, and testing of boiler drums

Boiler shells and drums are fabricated from steel plates, the thickness of which depends upon the
pressure they must withstand, the composition of the steel, and the diameter of the finished drum or
shell. Plates used in boiler manufacturing range in thickness from 6.4 mm to 250 mm, (ASME Section
I, PG-16.3 and PFT 9.1). Guidelines for the selection of the material to be used are given in PG-6.1.

To form a drum or shell of the required diameter, the plates must be rolled to the correct curvature
as shown in Fig. 16. If the plate is thin, it may be rolled without heating to form the complete
cylinder. Thick plates, however, are sometimes first heated and then formed into half cylindrical
sections, which are subsequently welded together at the longitudinal seams to form the complete
drum.

Figure 16
Cold- Rolling Boiler Plate

When short courses, or drum sections, must be used because of the material dimensions or heat
treatment requirements, the plate is rolled into a cylindrical course. For large drums, the normal
procedure is to press plate into half-cylinders in lengths up to 12.2 m and to form a course by
welding two half cylinders together longitudinally. The desired drum length is obtained by
circumferentially joining courses as required. The automatic submerged-arc welding process
normally makes longitudinal and circumferential seams in drums. More detailed information of this
process can be found in Module 3-3-14; Welding Procedures and Inspection.

Drumheads are formed from flat plate by hot pressing with suitable forming dies, and then
machining the circumferential welding grooves. Circumferential welds are used to join the heads to
the drum, and also to join cylindrical drum sections together to form a longer drum.
 Figure 17
Half Cylindrical Section of Thick Drum

Welding

Prior to, and throughout all welding operations, a preheat treatment specified in the ASME Code
Section I, PW-38 may be applied to the weld area to avoid detrimental stress conditions and
metallurgical transformations. For some applications, this preheat is maintained after welding until
the vessel is stress relieved, or postweld heat-treated. More welding information is found in Module
3-3-14; Welding Procedures and Inspection.

Tube Holes

The tube holes are drilled in the drum (Fig. 18) or flat head and checked for proper size; then any
burrs or projections are removed.

Note: ASME Code Section I, PG. 52 states the rules for openings in pressure vessels, and Figs. 2, 3,
and 4,
PG. 52 of the code illustrate these definite patterns.

Nozzles and stubs for connecting the drum to tubes and piping are formed by hot forging from a
solid steel cylinder, or “billet”. Larger connections may be integral with the heads, and are formed
from rolled plate or made from pierced and drawn pipe.

These nozzles are used to connect the safety valves, steam outlets, water column connections, and
downcomers.

The stubs form the connection for the attachment of the boiler steam generating tubes to the drum
and the saturated steam outlet tubes from the top or steam space of the drum.

Attachments to the drum are by a hand welding metal arc process. Upon completion of all welding,
every drum must be subjected to a postweld heat treatment. This stress relieving is done in a
furnace which is large enough to accommodate the entire drum and in which heat is maintained
under controlled conditions. These conditions for the stress relieving or postweld heat treatment are
specified in the ASME Code Section I, PW-39. The specified temperature varies according to the type
of material and TABLE PW-39 lists the temperatures used for the materials and the minimum holding
time based on the thickness of the material.

It is not allowed to make any welds directly to the drum after stress relieving has been completed.
Welds are made only to nozzles and attachments. If for any reason, welding has to be done to the
drum after it has been stress relieved, field stress relieving of the drum is performed as per ASME
code guidelines.

Figure 18
Drilling Tube Holes In Drum

Inspection and Tests

Before postweld heat treatment, the weld surfaces are smoothened by grinding, inspected and
tested as specified in ASME Code Section I, PW-51, 52, 53, and CSA B51, Section 4.

Radiographic examinations are performed on the longitudinal and circumferential seam welds of a
drum. This is accomplished using the X-ray method. The film cassette is positioned on the inner
surface. (Fig. 19 shows a longitudinal drum) of the weld being X-rayed.

A final test which is carried out in the manufacturer’s shop is a hydraulic or hydrostatic test,
(conducted according to the ASME Code Section I, PW-54), at a pressure of 1.5 times the design
pressure. When the drum has passed the hydrostatic test, it is then considered to be complete and
ready for the stress-relieving process. An internal inspection of a steam drum is being carried out in
Fig. 20.

Figure 19
X-Raying of Drum Welds

Figure 20
Internal Inspection of Tube Connections
Objective Five
When you complete this objective you will be able to…

Describe methods of attaching tubes to drums and headers, including expanding and welding, and
explain where each method would be used.

Learning Material
TUBE ATTACHMENT

Boiler tubes are attached to drums or sheets by expanding the tube ends in the tube holes as
illustrated in Figs. 21 and 22. The position of the expander and mandrel after the tube is expanded
and flared is shown in Fig. 21. A tube expander and tube attachments are shown in Fig. 22 and 23,
respectively. Fig. 24 shows retractive expansion in a watertube boiler.

A tube expander consists of three rollers mounted in a cage, which fits inside the tube end. A
tapered mandrel or spindle fits between the rollers and when the mandrel is turned, the rollers are
rotated and forced out against the tube wall pressing in against the tube hole.

Figure 21
Expander and Mandrel
 Figure 22
Tube Expander

Figure 23
Tube Attachment
 Figure 24
Water Tube Boiler (Babcock & Wilcox)

Boiler tubes are sometimes welded to stubs, which have already been welded to the headers or
drum. This method of attachment is often used for superheater tubes. Fig. 25 illustrates nozzles or
stubs being attached to a header before the header is stress relieved. After stress relieving, the
tubes are welded to the stubs, eliminating the need for welding directly to the header or drum. Fig.
26 shows tubes that have been welded to the stubs on a header. It also illustrates how handholes
are installed into the header. They allow internal inspection of the header and can be used for back
welding of tubes.
 Figure 25
Tube Stub Installation in Header

Figure 26
Header with Welded Stubs and Tubes

Objective Six
When you complete this objective you will be able to…

Describe methods of attaching nozzles to boiler drums and headers and explain Code requirements
for such attachments.

Learning Material
NOZZLES
Nozzles and stubs for connecting the drum to tubes and piping are formed by hot forging from a
solid steel cylinder, or “billet”. Larger connections may be integral with the heads, and are formed
from rolled plate or made from pierced and drawn pipe. These nozzles provide places to connect the
safety valves, steam outlets, water column connections, and downcomers.

The stubs form the connection for the attachment of the boiler generating tubes to the drum and the
saturated steam outlet tubes from the steam space of the drum.

Attachments are welded to the drum using a hand welding metal arc process. Upon completion of all
welding, every drum fabricated must be subjected to postweld heat treatment.

Postweld Heat Treatment (Stress-Relieving)

Postweld heat treatment, often called stress-relieving, consists of heating the welded parts
uniformly, to a temperature sufficient to relieve most of the stresses created by the heat from the
welding. The parts are then cooled at a constant rate.

Various methods may be used in stress-relieving. At the boiler manufacturers shop the entire boiler
drum may be heated in a special stress-relieving furnace under controlled conditions. In the field,
the stress-relieving of welded pipe joints may be accomplished by means of electrical induction
coils, which are wrapped around the welded section of the pipe. Another method is to use gas
burner rings to heat the metal in the welded section.

The requirements for postweld heat treatment are contained in paragraph PW-39 in the Code.
Required holding temperatures and times for various materials are listed in this paragraph as well as
detailed rules and instructions.

In general, the Code states that unless specifically excepted, all welded pressure parts of power
boilers shall be postweld heat treated at a specified temperature. The welded parts shall be heated
slowly to this temperature and held for the required time and then allowed to cool slowly in a still
atmosphere to a temperature of 315°C or below

Fig. 27 shows a steam drum with nozzles welded in place, ready for stress relieving. After stress
relieving, only the nozzles, not the drum, will be used for welding attachments.

The header in Fig. 28 has longer nozzles attached. It has been stress relieved and is ready for
shipping to the field for installation.
 Figure 27
Steam Drum Ready for Stress Relieving

Figure 28
Header with Nozzles Attached

Objective Seven
When you complete this objective you will be able to…

Explain code requirements/sizes for, and describe the designs and installation of, manholes and
handholes, including welded handholes. Explain procedures for removing and installing covers.

Learning Material
MANHOLES AND HANDHOLES

Handholes and manholes are provided in drums and headers to give access to allow for cleaning,
inspection, and repair during the life of the boiler. Manhole and handhole openings are usually
elliptical in shape but may be circular.

The ASME Code Section I specifies that the size of an elliptical manhole shall not be less than 280
mm by 380 mm or 250 mm by 410 mm. Circular manholes shall not be less than 380 mm in
diameter. Handholes shall have a minimum size of 70 mm by 89 mm with larger sizes being
recommended.

When a manhole opening is made in a drum or shell, the area becomes weaker due to the amount of
metal removed. Therefore, reinforcement is provided either by forming a flange around the opening
or by welding a frame to the shell around the opening. See Figs. 29,30, 31,32 and 33.

Figure 29
Bolted Manhole Covers

Figure 30
Section View of Flanged Manhole and Cover
 Figure 31
Solid Flanged Manhole with Cast Steel Cover for Flat Surfaces

Figure 32
Single-Yoke Type Cover for Lower Pressure Application
 Figure 33
Double-Yolk Cover Suitable for High Pressures

The covers fit on the inside of the drum and are held in place by means of bolts and yoke pieces.
When the boiler is in operation, the pressure within the boiler helps to hold the cover in place
against the flange.

Manhole Installation

Drum manhole openings may be elliptical or circular. The manhole cover fits against the inside
surface of the opening, as with the handhole covers. This means that the elliptical shaped covers
can be inserted and removed through the opening but the circular type must remain in place within
the drum.

Manhole covers are often attached to the drum by means of a hinge bar and are held in place to
close the opening by means of yoke pieces with studs and nuts. The gaskets used are the woven
type for pressures up to 3450 kPa and the metallic type for higher pressures. Care is taken to center
the manhole in the drum opening before it is tightened to manufacturer’s specifications. Gaskets are
often changed after a hydrostatic test, as the gasket has been compressed past normal thickness.

Handholes

When larger openings for maintenance or entry are not needed, a handhole is often used. They
provide enough access for purposes such as inspection and cleaning. For pressures up to 8370 kPa
and temperatures up to 454°C, handhole covers with gaskets are used and are bolted into place. For
higher pressures and temperatures handhole gaskets are not used and the handhole cover is seal
welded into place.

Fig. 34 illustrates a gasketed and bolted handhole fitting while Fig. 35 shows a welded handhole
such as would be used for the headers of a high-pressure boiler.

Figure 34
 Bolted and Gasketed Handhole Fitting

Figure 35
Welded Handhole Fitting

Handhole Installation and Removal

The bolted handhole fitting is oval in shape allowing it to be inserted through the opening and the
gasket and shoulder of the cover bar against the inside of the opening. By means of a nut, bolt, and
a yoke the cover can be drawn up tightly against the metal around the opening.

A torque of approximately 400 N·m should be applied when tightening the handhole fitting and this
same torque should be applied again after a hydrostatic test of the boiler. When compressed, the
gasket must not have a thickness greater than 6 mm, according to the ASME.

The welded type handhole covers are circular in shape and, as they also fit against the inside
surface of the header, they must be inserted into the header through a larger “master” handhole
opening. The master handhole is then closed off by a specially designed welded cover, which
features a shoulder around only a portion of its circumference thus allowing it to be inserted through
the master opening.

Gaskets are not used with welded handhole fittings. Instead the cover has a shoulder with a
machined surface, which fits against a similar surface around the inside of the opening. This
shoulder provides the mechanical strength of the fitting while a seal weld around the cover on the
outside of the header provides the leak-tightness.

Objective Eight
When you complete this objective you will be able to…
Describe the field assembly of a large boiler or steam-generating unit.

Learning Material
FIELD ERECTION

Larger boilers must be built or put together in the field (field erected). The components are shipped
separately to the customer's facility. A work crew under the charge of the manufacturer’s supervisor
does the assembling or erecting of the boiler.

Foundations

All foundations must be completed before the structural steel can be installed. Large quantities of
cement are used to complete the foundations, which must support the loads from the boiler and all
of the auxiliary equipment. Some parts of the boiler, such as the bottom ash pit may be completed
as part of the cement foundation.

Structural Supports

After the foundations are complete, the structural steel is installed. This structural steel may be part
of the building steel or it may be a separate structure. The weight of the structural steel is placed on
the foundations at the bottom of the structure. The structural steel carries the weight of the steam
drum and the major pressure components. After the steel structure has been put in place and
aligned, the major pressure components can be installed.

Pressure Component Installation

The steam drum is usually the first major pressure component placed in the steel structure. The
steam drum must be carefully positioned and leveled. The various headers, such as superheater and
economizer, are then put into position.

Fig. 36 shows a steam drum being lifted into place. The drum has been placed into position in Fig.
37. Selection of cranes, riggings and procedures is very important. Accurate location of the drum is
also important, as it is the major anchor point for other boiler components.

Headers and large pipes are installed in long lengths to reduce costly field welds. Hanger supports
and steel rods support them from the steel structure.
 Figure 36
Steam Drum Lift
 Figure 37
Steam Drum in Position

The superheater, reheater, and economizer are installed as modules with the headers attached. Fig.
38 shows a superheater module being lifted into place. Superheater, economizer, and wall tubes are
aligned and welded or expanded to the drums and headers.

Figure 38
Lifting of Superheater Module

Sections of furnace wall tubes are assembled and welded into panels at the manufacturer's shop.
These panels are then shipped as sections and welded into place in the field. The furnace wall tubes
form a large percentage of the furnace enclosure. Tubes are connected to drums and headers by
welding and expanding or by a combination of the two methods. High-pressure connections above
10 mPA are often expanded and seal welded. Another method is to weld the tube to shop attached
stubs. Headers ready for installation with stubs are shown in Fig. 39. A membrane wall panel being
lifted into position is shown in Fig. 40.
 Figure 39
Header with Stubs Ready for Installation

Figure 40
Lifting of Membrane Wall Panel
After the tubes, drums, headers etc. have been assembled, and before any brick-work, refractory or
casing has been applied to the boiler, all openings are closed and the boiler is completely filled with
water for a hydrostatic test. The test pressure is 1.5 times the design pressure. During this test any
faulty tube connections will be indicated by leakage. Most of the pressure components have been
hydro tested in the shop, but the field welds need to be tested.

The Boiler Inspector carries out an inspection, which normally includes witnessing the hydrostatic
test. If the test passes (satisfactory to the Inspector) the refractory and casing can be installed.

Assembly of Auxiliary Equipment

Installing auxiliary equipment is often started as the pressure parts are being installed. Some larger
auxiliaries are air heaters, fuel burning equipment, fans, ductwork, and boiler casings. Air heaters
must be in position before the larger air ducts can be installed. Coal pulverizers must be installed
early to allow installation of coal piping to the boiler.

Refractory

Large steam generators are constructed mostly of water-cooled tubes, in the form of membrane
walls. Little refractory is required. Some refractory is still used in areas such as wall penetrations,
door seals, and wall box seals.

Casing

Boiler casing is used in areas that are not constructed of membrane walls. Inner casing is on the
inside of the insulation. It is made of welded steel plates. The purpose of pressure inner casing is to
prevent air leakage from the boiler setting. It also serves as a base for the application of insulation
and lagging.

Insulation and Lagging

Most of the insulation is applied to the outside of the boiler membrane wall or inner casings. It is
typically block or blanket insulation. It must be tight, free of voids, and well anchored. Insulation is
also applied to all hot ductwork and piping.

A light gauge metal lagging is installed over the insulation. For outdoor installations, the lagging
must be waterproof. The lagging serves as a barrier to protect the insulation from water and
physical damage.