Cell membrane

As Biology ( WBI11)
Jan 2025
5/11/2024
Part 1
Cell membrane

Classwork :
1. Describe structure of cell membrane
2. Describe fluid mosaic model
3. State factors affecting fluidity of membrane
4. Explain how intrinisc proteins are embedded in membrane
5. What are the properties tf cell membrane that contributes in fluidity
6. describe
A) phospholipid
B) cholesterol
C) Transport proteins
D) glycoproteins
Cell membrane

m· mm
• phospholipid bilayer
• Visible by electro microscope
• With phosphate head of phospholipid facing outside
• Fatty acid hydrophobic ( hydrocarbon ) tail inside away from water
• they have transport proteins …intrinsic protein
• Glycoprotein ( proteins + carbohydrates )……..receptors /
antigens
• Glycolipid ( lipids + carbohydrate ) ….receptors / antigens
• Cholesterol

Glycolipid ( receptors / antigens )

Phosphate head
Phospholipid Fatty acid tail

Protein + carbohydrate ..as receptors / antigens Intrinsic protein .

Extrinsic protein ( enzymes)
Transport protein
 Fluid mosaic model

• fluid : the phospholipid move about / diffuse within their monolayer …gives flexible structure ti the membrane
and makes it constantly changing

• Mosaic : different proteins molecules are scattered in the cell surface membrane ( within phospholipid
bilayer )

What affect the fluidity of the membrane:

1. Percentage of unsaturated fatty acids ( C=C) ,,kinks , thus increase fluidity

2. temperature, increase temperature , increase kinetic energy so break interaction between fatty acids
tails , so phospholipid can move within the monolayer ( increasing the movement of phospholipids ) in
the phospholipid bilayer , so increase fluidity.
3. Tail length …longer tail ..decrease in the fluidity
4. Cholesterol Intrinsic proteins = transport proteins ( channel proteins / carrier proteins )

Explain how the intrisinic proteins are embedded between phospholipids ?

A) the region of the polypeptide with hydrophilic R groups of

amino acids are facing / interacting with hydrophilic phosphate
head
B) the region of the polypeptide with hydrophobic R groups of
amino acids interact with hydrophobic fatty acid tail .
 What are the properties of the cell membrane that contributes in the fluid mosaic model ?

Phospholipid bilayer …with phospholipid each with phosphate hydrophilic heads facing outside ( cytosol ) and hydrophobic
core formed form fatty acid tails facing inside
Phospholipids diffuse within their monolayer

So phospholipid are able to move freely making the membrane fluid

Protein molecules scattered between phospholipids

Extrinsic / peripheral protein

Find on the outer surface of

membrane
Such as enzymes , play a
role in cell signaling
Intrinsic protein
Embedded in the membrane
How transport proteins which are
globular interact with phospholipid to
stay in membrane ?

Transport proteins interact with phospholipid .

A) region with hydrophilic R groups of amino acids ,interact with phosphate head of phospholipid
B)region with hydrophobic R groups of amino acids interact with hydrophobic fatty acid tail .
3. Transport proteins Glycoproteins ( intrinisc proteins ) Read
Channel /carrier proteins

Lined with polar R groups to allow the passage of polar molecules / ions through cell membrane .

Channel proteins Carrier proteins

For ions and polar molecules

Allow movement of polar molecules / ions by facilitated diffusion Specific proteins open at one side of the membrane
Allow molecules to pass / move by

Non gated Gated

G
Facilitated diffusion Active transport

Remain closed until

Stay open all the time Uniporter Symporter Antiporter
it receives a signal
Allow ions and polar molecules to Facilitated diffusion Secondary Nom

I
active
flow through cell membrane transport

V
4. Glycoproteins proteins .
If

iii
Protein molecules with chain of carbohydrate attached to it
Function :
1)carbohydrate part can form hydrogen bond with water and help stabilise the
membrane

HEART
2) act as receptors ( for signaling mechanism )
3) act as enzymes ( peripheral proteins)
4) transport proteins Transport proteins
Hydrogen bond Receptors
Enzymes
Antigens

Glycoproteins :
1. Act as receptors
2. Form hydrogen bond with water to
help stabilise the membrane
3. Act as enzymes
4. Antigens ( cell recognition )
5. Transport proteins
Si
Channel protein Carrier protein

Facilitated diffusion Open only at one side , specific binding site

Specific to specific molecules .
Facilitated diffusion or active transport

Transport proteins
9/11/2024
Part 2
Movement of molecules

Class work
1. Define simple diffusion , osmosis , facilitated diffusion
2. Compare types of solution s ( hypotonic , isotonic , hypertonic)
3. State what meant by solute potential, pressure potential
4. Explain hypotonic solution properties
5. Explain hyper tonic solution properties
 A Movement of molecules

Passive movement
No need for energy

A) Simple diffusion Facilitated diffusion. C) osmosis .

Osmosis

Wi win i win Wi
Channel Carrier Aquaporins
Movement of non polar molecules through phospholipid
Movement of polar molecules / ions the Type of channel proteins
bilayer down their concentration gradient
Due to kinetic energy and random movement of channel proteins or carrier proteins Water molecules diffuse down water potential
molecules gradient through aquaporins ( channel
CO2, O2 , Urea , steroids , Glycerol ( alcohol) They are specific for specific
proteins ) , yet few molecules can diffuse
molecules allowing movement of
Factors affecting rate : through phospholipid bilayer
polar molecules/ ions
1. Temperature As they are very small molecules with high
Polar molecules such as glucose and
2. Concentration gradient
amino acids kinetic energy
3. Surface area to volume ratio.
Down their concentration gradient Yet most of water pass through aquaporines

Increase temp …..increase kinetic energy of

molecules .+ increase the fluidity of membrane
….increase rate of diffusion
 Read to understand Types of solutions

Hypotonic solution Isotonic solution

Hypertonic solution

• Diluted solution • Same concentration

• concentrated solution
• With high water potential of solute
• With lower water potential
• Solute concentration is • No net movement of
• Solute concentration is higher
lower than that in water molecules
than cytoplasm of cell
cytoplasm of the cell

Osmotic pressure ….measure the tendency of the solution to take in pure solvent by osmosis

= water potential

Same osmotic pressure High osmotic pressure

Low osmotic pressure relative
relative to the cell
to the cell

• Hypotonic solution • Hypertonic solution

• Diluted solution • Concentrated solution
• With higher water potential • With a lower water potential
 Water potential …tendency of water to move in or out of the cell Read

1. Solute potential ( solute concentration ) Potential

Extent to which the solute decrease the water potential

Fi Pressure potential
2

O Distilled water
2.pressure potential ( pressure on liquid ) Water potential Concentration

Pressure that resist entrance of water - Solute potential

Y = Ys + Yp
Water potential =solute potential + pressure potential The more the solute concentration

-ve +VE The lower the solute potential ( more

Zero or -ve
negative )
Zero in distilled water Zero in distilled Zero in distilled

/ negative water/ negative water / positive

-2= -3 + 1 The more the negative the water

-4 = -5 + 1 potential , the lower the water
More negative water potential More negative solute potential

Reducing water potential potential of the solution

Lower solute potential

More solute concentration

Explain the increase in volume of the cell

• water enter by osmosis

• Down water potential gradient
• Through a partially permeable membrane

• where the solution outside the cell is hypotonic

• With LOW SOLUTE CONCENTRATION ( DILUTED )
• AND HIGHER WATER POTENTIAL
• LESS negatuve SOLUTE POTENTIAL / HIGHER SOLUTE
POTENTIAL

• where the cytoplasm inside the cell is hypertonic

• WITH MORE SOLUTE CONCENTRATION
• AND LOWER WATER POTENTIAL
• WITH MORE NEGATIVE SOLUTE POTENTIAL / LOWER
SOLUTE POTENTIAL

So water will move into the cell

 16 January 2020 Code: WBI11/01 Paper1
2A.2. Cell transport and diffusion

br
l Ga
ha
Ni
&

Direct Water enters by osmosis

n

Where the pond has has higher water potential ,which is

-
wa

hypotonic solution ,than cytoplasm

So pond has higher solute potential and lower osmotic pressure
ag
.N
Dr

As the paramecium has no cell wall

So when water continue to enter the cell by osmosis
Thinking
The cell will swell thus increasing internal pressure so will burst

Dr.Nagwan Gabr& Dr. Nihal Gabr 253

 2A.2. Cell transport and diffusion, 2A.3.Osmosis & 2A.4. Active transport
(5)

Net movement of water is in

br
Ga
Control exp to

l
compare the results

ha
Ni
&
n
wa
ag
.N
Dr

Dr.Nagwan Gabr& Dr. Nihal Gabr 254

 Direct
Needs good understanding

Pond water
Water enter by osmosis
And the contractile vacuole pump out water to prevent swelling and
bursting .
Used as a control experiment to compare the results / the effect of
solutions A and B

br
Ga
Solution A Less water is pumped out compared to control ( pond water and B )
As solution A has lower water potential compared to pond water

l
ha
So less water taken into the paramecium
Ni
Yet as the solution in side the paramecium is lower than outside so still
water will enter
&

Solution B
n

More water is pumped out compared to control ( pond water and A )

wa

As solution B has higher water potential compared to pond water

ag

So more water taken into the paramecium

.N

Also solution B has higher water potential compared to solution A so

higher more water taken into paramecium so higher rate of pumping
Dr

water out .

Dr.Nagwan Gabr& Dr. Nihal Gabr 255

 Active movement

Active transport Bulk transport

Protein carrier only

Active process
1) active transport

• Need energy from hydrolysis of ATP

• Allow passage of polar molecules or ions through carrier proteins
• Where these molecules have complementary shape to bonding site on the carrier protein in cell membrane
• One molecule can fit and bind to carrier protein , change in shape ( conformational change ) of protein using
ATP allowing specific molecules or ions to pass against their concentration gradient .
• The protein molecule will return passively to original shape allowing more molecules / ions to enter .
Evidence for active transport:

1. Occurs only in living cells

2. high number of mitochondria
3. Respiratory poison ( cyanide ) stop the process .

Factors affecting active transport

1. Number of mitochondria ..ATP ( ATP synthase)

2. Number of protein carriers .
3. Oxygen and glucose concentration. Inhibit respiration in mitochondria …inhibit
4. Presence of respiratory poison production of ATP …no energy ..no active
transport

Adenosine triphosphate
ATP synthase ….enzyme for formation of ATP
ATP ……..molecule that carries energy
ATPase ….enzyme hydrolysis of ATP into ADP to release energy

PPP Cyanide : a metabolic poison that stops the mitochondria from working

ATP ADP +Pi

Store of Release
energy energy
12/11/2024
Part 3
Bulk transport

Classwork :
1. Compare between endocytosis and exocytosis
2. Describe process of endocytosis
3. Describe pinocytosis
4. Describe exocytosis
5. Describe structure of ATP
6. Plan an investigation on effect of temperature on cell membrane
7.Plan an investigation on effect of alcohol on cell membrane
.
Active process
Endocytosis and exocytosis are processes that move large molecules into a cell or out of cell
2) Bulk transport

Endocytosis Exocytosis

'Both involves vesicles , and involve the use of energy from ATP
1. Involves the substances entering the cell 1. Involves leaving the cells
2. Involves the formation of vesicles from 2. Involves fusion of vesicles with the cell
the cell surface membrane surface membrane .

Endocytosis

3
A.Phagocytosis .

1. Membrane enfolds around the bacteria and engulfs

,
Lysosomes
the bacteria
2. Form a vesicle ( phagosome )
3. Can be aided / facilitated by the fluidity of the ::
Phagosome
phospholipid bilayer Lysosomes
4. Then lysosomes containing the hydrolytic enzymes
fuse with phagosome
5. Bacteria will be igested by the hydrolytic enzymes
 B. Pinocytosis

Another example of endocytosis

Such as vitamins and fat droplets

Exocytosis ATP is used in movement of vesicles

1. Vesicle will move towards the cell surface membrane

2. Then vesicle fuse with the cell surface membrane
3. Facilitated by fluidity of the phospholipid bilayer
4. Then the contents released out of the cell by exocytosis using energy from ATP
 For solving

Maintaining a steep concentration gradient

Limiting factor ( saturation)

Diffusion will continue until the

concentration inside of cell is
equal to-that outside the cell
…..equilibrium so no net
movement of molecules

Time
 K…. active transport : as its not
affected by the concentration gradient .

Diffusion : where equilibrium hasn’t been

reached yet so there is still concentration
gradient .

L ……by diffusion until equilibrium .

OR facilitated diffusion until equilibrium .
Core practical 3 https://youtu.be/Hc3Mg0Yc7kI?si=DxbGX_nCwSZvimEE

Investigating effect of temperature and alcohol on the cell membrane

Safety ;
1. Ethanol is high flammable …keep it away from the flame and keep the stoppers on the bottles
2. Wear eye goggles .

A) effect of temperature

1. Carry out the experiment at 5 different temperatures ( 10 to 50C ) using a thermostatic water bath .
2. Get 5 test tubes of same size and add equal volume of water .
3. Cut 5 pieces of beet root using a cork borer all of same size and from a beet root of same species and age
4. Rinse and dry to remove pigments from surface due to cutting .
5. Allow equilibration of the 5 test tubes of water to reach to the experimental temperature by leaving them in
the water bath at the required temperature for 5mins .
6. Add the beet root pieces to the water
7. Use the colorimeter to measure the degree of absorbance
Zero the colorimeter using a blank cuvette filled with distilled water .
Absorbance Transmission

Temp Temp
 Absorbance Transmission
Cell
Tonoplast of
vacuole

Sudden steep increase in rate of diffusion when protein molecules in the cell membrane
%

denatures so begining to lose their tertiary structure .

Explanation
A) at low temperature ( A)
Cell membrane / tonoplast still intact
Pigments are large molecules
So too large to pas through membrane

B) as temperature increase ( B) :
1. Increase in kinetic energy of molecules
Increase movement and diffusion of pigment molecules
2. Phospholipid membrane becomes more fluid ….by decreasing interaction between fatty acid tails ..xo become
more loosely packed ..
SO < INCREASE IN PERMEABILITY of the membrane so more pigment molecules can diffuse outside so % of
light absorbance increase , light transmission decrease .
At very high temperature :
The protein molecules in the cell membrane becomes totally denatured by disrupting the bonds
holding the tertiary structure in place , also the phospholipid melt .
Gaps are formed i the membrane though which pigments flood out

At C ….the level of transmission / absorbance level off /out As the concentration of

pigments inside is equal to that outside the cell ( equilibrium ) .

B) effect of alcohol

1.Carry out the experiment at 5 different alcohol concentrations .

2. Get 5 test tubes of same size and add equal volume of alcohol
3. Cut 5 pieces of beet roots using a cork borer all of same size and from beetroots of same species
and age
4. Rinse and dry to remove pigments from surface due to cutting
5. Leave them in the different alcohol concentrations for 15 mins.
6. Use the forceps to remove the cylinders from each tube …and discard the cylinders but keep the
supernatant liquid .
7. Use the colorimeter to measure the degree of absorbance
Zero the colorimeter using a blank cuvette filled with alcohol .
 Explain the results :
1. Phospholipid are soluble in alcohol , where alcohol dissolve the fatty acids in cell membrane
Altering the hydrophobic orientation …increasing the fluidity of cell membrane
2. At very high alcohol concentration , protein molecules will get denatured, resulting in gaps or
holes in the membrane which allow more pigments to diffuse out of the cell …increasing rate of
absorbance . Decreasing light transmission .

Temperature
1. Increase kinetic energy
2. Increase fluidity
Variables should be kept constant :
3. Protein ,,denature and leave gaps and cause leak
1. Age of beet root and species
2. Size of beet root cylinders
Alcohol
3. Time for equilibration
1. Dissolve fatty acids
4. time of soaking
2. Change orientation of hydrophobic parts
5. Volume of water / alcohol
3. Fluidity increase
6. Volume of solution added to cuvette
4. Proteins , denature , leave gaps , leakage

Break
4:15
19. Jan 2022. WBI11
6 The cell membrane controls which substances can move into the cell or out of
the cell.
Processes by which substances can move into a cell or out of a cell include diffusion,
facilitated diffusion, active transport and osmosis.
(a) A Venn diagram can be used to show the similarities and differences between
diffusion, facilitated diffusion and active transport.
Statements about similarities can be written in the numbered parts of the circles
that overlap.
For example, statements about similarities shared by all three processes would be
written in Part IV.
Statements about differences can be written in the numbered parts of the circles
that do not overlap.

Diffusion

Part 1

Part II Part III

Part IV

Part V Part VI
Part VII

Active transport Facilitated diffusion

Transport protein ( glycoprotein ) channel and carrier proteins

(i) Which part would contain the statement: uses proteins?
(1)
A II

B III

C IV

X D VII

18
*P69498A01828* 
 (ii) Which part would contain the statement: needs energy in the form of ATP?
(1)
A II

X B V Hypotonic ….hypertonic
C VI Diluted ………concentrated
D VII Higher solute potential ..lower
-
2 -
3
(iii) Which part would contain the statement: solutes can only move down a
concentration gradient?
(1)
A II

B III
S
X -S
C V i H
(f
+S

D VII -N /
S G
-
S
,
Not
(b) Osmosis can be defined as the movement of free water molecules through a
partially permeable membrane, down a water potential gradient. -

Explain this definition.

~ (3)

Free Water molecules means water molecules that are not attracted to
. . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................ .............. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

solutes , while other water molecules are attracted to solutes by opposite

Direct
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charge or formation of hydrogen bonds , so they are restricted from

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movement .
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The membrane is said to be partially permeable membrane because the

membrane allows the passage of certain molecules while prevent others
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from passing through it .

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Down water potential gradient , as water move from hypotonic diluted

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solution to a hypertonic, more concentrated one / from low solute

concentration to higher solute concentration / higher solute potential to
lower solute potential

19
 *P69498A01928* Turn over
 *(c) The photograph shows a Chinese mitten crab.

(Source: © WILDLIFE GmbH / Alamy Stock Photo)

Mitten crabs spend most of their lives in fresh water and only return to the sea
to breed.
In an investigation, mitten crabs were kept in fresh water and then moved into
sea water.
The water content and amino acid content in the muscle cells of these crabs were
measured for 15 days after moving them from fresh water into sea water.
The graph shows the results of this investigation.

amino acid content 350

80
As the amino acid
Water content in Amino acid content
muscle cells (%) concentration
in muscle cellsincrease
/ a.u.

inside the cells of crab

300
,amino acids The water potential is
concentrations was low lowered inside cells
when crab first moved 75
So steeper gradient
to sea water between cells of crab
250
So had higher water water content and sea water so
potential than sea increase water content
water so water moved inside the cells gradually
out of cells by osmosis
70 200
So water content 0 5 10 15

decrease when crab

Time after moving mitten crabs
into sea water / days
first moved to sea
water
20
*P69498A02028* 
 High solute concentration = low solute potential

Sea water has a higher concentration of salt than fresh water.

Explain the changes in water content and amino acid content in the muscle cells Skills
of the crabs in this investigation.
(6)

,amino acids concentrations was low when crab first moved to sea
. . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................ .............. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

water
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So had higher water potential than sea water so water moved out of
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cells by osmosis
So water content decrease when crab first moved to sea water
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As the amino acid concentration increase inside the cells of crab

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The water potential is lowered inside cells

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So steeper gradient between cells of crab and sea water so increase

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water content inside the cells gradually

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Where the increase in amino acids was due to increase in amount of

. . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................ .............. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

proteins taken in by crabs

. . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................ .............. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Then these insoluble proteins are hydrolysed and broken down into amino
. . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................ .............. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

acids
. . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................ .............. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

These amino acids where absorbed into cells by facilitated diffusion or

. . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................ .............. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

active transport.
Which makes the cytoplasm of cells more concentrated than sea water
. . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................ .............. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

So water enters rather than being lost from crab cells

. . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................ .............. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

So crabs dont die from dehydration

. . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................ .............. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

(Total for Question 6 = 12 marks)

21
 *P69498A02128* Turn over
1. Gas exchange system in small organisms.
Large surface surface area to volume ratio
Low metabolic rate / ;low energy demand
Short diffusion distance
Diffusion alone would be sufficient to supply the needed amount of oxygen

2. Why we need to have a circulatory system in gas exchange : …same as topic mammalian transport
Heart ….ensure mass flow ( where heart generate pressure ) so substances in blood is transported from high
pressure to low pressure

Blood ..to transport oxygen and nutrients ( glucose )

Blood vessels ….capillaries extensive network of capillaries to provide larger surface are for efficient gas
exchange .

3. Factors affecting rate of gas diffusion across a membrane :

1. Surface area …as it increase , so more particles can diffuse at the same time
2. Concentration gradient ……maintained by ventilation , continuous blood flow
3. Thickness of gas exchange system ……the shorter the distance the faster the rate of diffusion .

Surface area x concentration gradient

FICK’S law Rate of diffusion
Thickness of the membrane
4. How human lungs are adapted for efficient gas exchange ?

1. Many alveoli …to provide larger surface area for gas exchange
2. Thin walls of alveoli and capillaries …….shorter diffusion distance
3. Extensive network of capillaries …provides larger surface area for faster gas exchange
4. Ventilation and continuous blood flow in capillaries …..maintain steep concentration
gradient between blood and alveoli
5. Moist…..dissolve gases
6. Haemoglobin in RBCs to carry oxygen
7. Warmer air enables faster diffusion and movement of gases
Where air is warmed because lungs are in core body

5. Labels + function of each part ……..next slide

A) ciliated epithelium + goblet cells
B) pleural membrane + pleural fluid
C) incomplete rings of cartilage

6. Adaptation
1. Cartilage : in trachea and bronchi
Function: support and keep it open , minimizing resistance to air flow , and preventing it from collapse due to
change in pressure during inhalation and exhalation
2. Goblet cells
Produce mucus ……..reducing risk of infection ( notice infection increases mucus production)
 3. Ciliated epithelial cells :
Found in trachea, bronchi , bronchioles
Function : beat back and Forth sweeping mucus containing pathogens and dust particles back to the
throat …….so-reducing risk of lung infection .

7.How diffusion gradient is maintained for gas exchange:

1. Ventilation of lungs , by replacing alveolar air with air from outside the body ….replenishing oxygen
2. Continuous blood flow in capillaries ….bring deoxygenated blood from pulmonary artery and taking away
oxygenated blood in pulmonary vein .

8. Alveoli adaptation

1. Thin alveolar wall …….short diffusion distance

2. Many alveoli …….provide a large surface area for gas exchange so more molecules can diffuse at the same time
3. Surrounded by extensive network of capillaries
A) extension provide large surface area for efficient gas exchange
B) capillaries have thin walls for shorter diffusion distance
C) allow continuous blood flow to maintain steep gradient
D) close to alveoli for faster diffusion
4.Surfactant secreting cells ..secrete surfactant ( phospholipid and proteins) that decrease force of attraction between
fluid molecules
A) keeping alveolar walls from collapse during exhalation B) help dissolve the gases ( oxygen) to diffuse into blood .
 Force of attraction between water molecules > between water molecules and air=

Surfactant secreting cells surface tension —

= -

..........................

&
Importance of surfactant :

e
Read

• Exhalation …the alveolar walls

don’t collapse as they deflate
during exhalation

- • Help dissolve the oxygen gas to

&
diffuse into blood

IIIIII Surfactant
( phospholipid +
protein)
M

Walls of alveoli have thin moist layer to dissolve gases

-

Reduce force of
F
attraction between
"I
water molecules .
Fry
 Trachea :
A) incomplete rings of cartilage to keep
the trachea open and prevent if from
collapse during inhalation and exhalation
as there is a change in pressure .

B) lined with ciliated epithelial cells and

Contain vocal cords goblet cells ..goblet secrete mucus to

trap dust and bacteria and cilia beats
Allow air to pass
back and forth to sweep mucus out of
the lungs back to the throat and killed by
acidity in stomach .
Thus allowing air ways to stay clean and
reduce risk of infection.

Two thin moist membrane

….release pleural fluid to prevent
friction between ribs and lungs
and act as lubricant

Ribs
Change the volume of
thoracic cavity for breathing
+ protect lungs and heart
9. Breathing ( inhalation and exhalation)

Inhalation ( active ) Exhale ( passive )

External intercostal muscles contract External intercostal muscles relax

Move ribs up and outwards Ribs fall down
Diaphragm contract and flatten Diaphragm relax and move up
So the volume of thoracic cavity increase So the volume of thoracic cavity decrease
Pressure of air in lungs decrease Pressure of air in lungs increase
So air is forced in So air is forced out
If forced exhalation ….internal intercostal muscles
contract ….pulling rib cage downwards and in

10. Role of Respiratory system in gas exchange :

A. Ventilation to remove CO2 and replenishing to oxygen ……thus maintaining steep concentration gradient
B. Alveoli …adaptation
C. Over come the limitation of diffusion ( small surface area to volume ratio , longer diffusion distance . High metabolic rate
and high energy demand and concentration gradient )

11. Ventilation
The process in which physical movement of chest changes the pressure so the air is moved in or out by
diaphragm and intercostal muscles
 Summing up read
Circulatory system …
Limitation of diffusion
A) heart …mass flow
Small surface area to volume ratio Extensive network
B) blood and blood cells
High metabolic rate
C) blood vessels Thin wall
High energy demand Continuous blood flow
Long diffusion distance Gas exchange system Close to alveoli
A) alveoli ..adaptation
B) blood capillaries
Surfactant reduce surface tension to
help dissolve gases

Surrounded by Well ventilation to maintain

Many large
Thin wall steep gradient
surface area extensive network
of capillaries

Role of respiratory system

1) alveoli adaptation
2) maintain concentration gradient
3) replenishing of oxygen and removal of CO2 ( ventilation )
1. Adaptation of small organisms for gas exchange .
Check list
2. Why we need to have circulatory system in gas exchange
3. Factors affecting rate of diffusion …use Fick’s law
4.how human lungs are adapted for efficient gas exchange?
Many alveoli
Blood capillaries
Ventilation
Walls
Hemoglobin
Warmer temp
5. Label of gas exchange system
State importance of
A) cartilage
B) goblet cells
C) ciliated epithelial cells .

6. How diffusion gradient for gas exchange is maintained .

7. Alveoli adaptation,
8. Mechanism of inhale and exhale .
Inhalation ……external intercostal muscles contract
Ribs move up
Diaphragm contract an flattens
Volume of thoracic cavity increase
Pressure in lungs will decrease
So air forced in