Papal primacy - Wikipedia 31/12/2024, 23:25

Papal primacy
(Redirected from Primacy of the bishop of Rome)

Papal primacy, also known as the primacy of the

bishop of Rome, is an ecclesiological doctrine in
the Catholic Church concerning the respect and
authority that is due to the pope from other bishops
and their episcopal sees. While the doctrine is
accepted at a fundamental level by both the Catholic
Church (Eastern and Western) and the Eastern
Orthodox Church, the two disagree on the nature of
primacy.

English academic and Catholic priest Aidan Nichols Boniface VIII and his cardinals. Illustration of
wrote that "at root, only one issue of substance a 14th-century edition of the Decretals

divides the Eastern Orthodox and the Catholic

Churches, and that is the issue of the primacy."[1] French Eastern Orthodox researcher Jean-
Claude Larchet wrote that, together with the Filioque controversy, differences in interpretation
of this doctrine have been and remain the primary causes of schism between the Catholic
Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church.[2] In the Eastern Orthodox churches, some
understand the primacy of the bishop of Rome to be merely one of greater honour, regarding
him as primus inter pares ("first among equals"), without effective power over other
churches.[3] A prominent 20th century Eastern Orthodox Christian theologian, Fr. Alexander
Schmemann, envisioned a primacy that sums up rather than rules over: "Primacy is power, but
as power it is not different from the power of a bishop in each church. It is not a higher power
but indeed the same power, only expressed, manifested, and realized by one." [4]

The Catholic Church attributes to the primacy of the pope "full, supreme, and universal power
over the whole Church, a power which he can always exercise unhindered,"[5] a power that it
attributes also to the entire body of the bishops united with the pope.[6] The power that it
attributes to the pope's primatial authority has limitations that are official, legal, dogmatic, and
practical.[7]

In the Ravenna Document, issued in 2007, representatives of the Eastern Orthodox Church and
the Catholic Church jointly stated that both accept the bishop of Rome's primacy at the
universal level, but that differences of understanding exist about how the primacy is to be
exercised and about its scriptural and theological foundations.[8]

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Dogma within Latin and Eastern Catholic Churches

The Catholic dogma of the primacy of the bishop of Rome is codified in both codes of canon law
of the Catholic Church – the Latin Church's 1983 Code of Canon Law (1983 CIC) and the
Eastern Catholic Churches' 1990 Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches (CCEO). The Second
Vatican Council's 1964 dogmatic constitution Lumen gentium (LG) declared that the "pope's
power of primacy" is by "virtue of his office, that is as Vicar of Christ and pastor of the whole
Church", and is "full, supreme and universal power over the Church" which he "is always free to
exercise".[9][10] The primacy of the bishop of Rome, according to John Hardon in Catholic
Dictionary, is "primacy of jurisdiction, which means the possession of full and supreme
teaching, legislative, and sacerdotal powers in the Catholic Church"; it is authority "not only in
faith and morals but Church discipline and in the government of the Church."[11]

In 1983 CIC canon 331, the "bishop of the Roman Church" is both the "vicar of Christ" and
"pastor of the universal Church on earth".[12] Knut Walf, in New commentary on the Code of
Canon Law, notes that this description, "bishop of the Roman Church", is only found in this
canon, and the term Roman pontiff is generally used in 1983 CIC.[13] Ernest Caparros et al's
Code of Canon Law Annotated comments that this canon pertains to all individuals and groups
of faithful within the Latin Church, of all rites and hierarchical ranks, "not only in matters of
faith and morals but also in all that concerns the discipline and government of the Church
throughout the whole world".[14] Heinrich Denzinger, Peter Hünermann, et al. Enchiridion
symbolorum (DH) states that Christ did not form the Church as several distinct
communities,[15] but unified through full communion with the bishop of Rome and profession
of the same faith with the bishop of Rome.[16]

The bishop of Rome is a subject of supreme authority over the sui iuris Eastern Catholic
Churches.[17] In CCEO canon 45, the bishop of Rome has "by virtue of his office" both "power
over the entire Church" and "primacy of ordinary power over all the eparchies and groupings of
them" within each of the Eastern Catholic Churches. Through the office "of the supreme pastor
of the Church," he is in communion with the other bishops and with the entire Church, and has
the right to determines whether to exercise this authority either personally or collegially.[18]
This "primacy over the entire Church" includes primacy over Eastern Catholic patriarchs and
eparchial bishops,[19] over governance of institutes of consecrated life,[20] and over judicial
affairs.[21]

Primacy of the bishop of Rome was also codified in the 1917 Code of Canon Law (1917 CIC)
canons 218–221.[22]

Development of the doctrine

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The Catholic Church bases its doctrine of papal primacy on the primacy among the apostles that
Jesus gave to Peter in Matthew 16:16–19 (https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ma
tthew+16:16–19&version=rsvce):[23]

Blessed are you, Simon Bar-Jonah. For flesh and blood has not revealed this to you,
but my Father who is in heaven. And I tell you, you are Peter, and on this rock I will
build my church, and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it. I will give you the
keys of the kingdom of heaven, and whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in
heaven, and whatever you loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven

and in John 21:15–17 (https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John+21:15–17&versio

n=rsvce): "Feed my lambs [...] Feed my sheep."

While acknowledging that "the New Testament contains no explicit record of a transmission of
Peter's leadership; nor is the transmission of apostolic authority in general very clear,"[24] it
considers that its doctrine has a developmental history and that its teaching about matters such
as the Trinity, the divinity of Christ, and the union of his two natures in a single person
developed as the result of drawing out from the original revealed truth consequences that were
not obvious at first: "Thanks to the assistance of the Holy Spirit, the understanding of both the
realities and the words of the heritage of faith is able to grow in the life of the Church 'through
the contemplation and study of believers who ponder these things in their hearts'; it is in
particular 'theological research [which] deepens knowledge of revealed truth.'"[25]

Accordingly, it would be a mistake to expect to find the modern fully developed doctrine of
papal primacy in the first centuries, thereby failing to recognize the Church's historical
reality.[26] The figure of the pope as leader of the worldwide church developed over time, as the
figure of the bishop as leader of the local church seems to have appeared later than in the time
of the apostles.[a]

That the Christian scriptures, which contain no cut-and-dried answers to questions such as
whether or not there is forgiveness for post-baptismal sins, and whether or not infants should
be baptized, gradually become clearer in the light of events, is a view expressed, when
considering the doctrine of papal primacy, by Cardinal John Henry Newman, who summed up
his thought by saying:

[...] developments of Christianity are proved to have been in the contemplation of its
Divine Author, by an argument parallel to that by which we infer intelligence in the
system of the physical world. In whatever sense the need and its supply are a proof of
design in the visible creation, in the same do the gaps, if the word may be used, which
occur in the structure of the original creed of the Church, make it probable that those
developments, which grow out of the truths which lie around them, were intended to
fill them up."[28]

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Modern Eastern Orthodox writers such as Nikolay Afanásiev and Alexander Schmemann have
written that the phrase "presiding in agape", used of the Church of Rome in the letter that
Ignatius of Antioch addressed to it in the early 2nd century, contains a definition of that
Church's universal primacy;[29] but the Catholic writer Klaus Schatz warns that it would be
wrong to read this letter and the even earlier First Epistle of Clement (the name of Clement was
added only later), in which the Church of Rome intervenes in matters of the Church of Corinth,
admonishing it in authoritative tones, even speaking in the name of God, as statements of the
developed Catholic teaching on papal primacy.[30] It was only later that the expression of
Ignatius of Antioch could be interpreted as meaning, as agreed by representatives of both the
Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox Churches, that "Rome, as the Church that 'presides in love'
according to the phrase of St Ignatius of Antioch (To the Romans, Prologue), occupied the first
place in the taxis [lit. 'arrangement, order')], and that the bishop of Rome was therefore the
protos [lit. 'first')] among the patriarchs".[31]

The same agreement stated:

In the history of the East and of the West, at least until the ninth century, a series of
prerogatives was recognised, always in the context of conciliarity, according to the
conditions of the times, for the protos or kephale [lit. 'head')] at each of the established
ecclesiastical levels: locally, for the bishop as protos of his diocese with regard to his
presbyters and people; regionally, for the protos of each metropolis with regard to the
bishops of his province, and for the protos of each of the five patriarchates, with regard
to the metropolitans of each circumscription; and universally, for the bishop of Rome
as protos among the patriarchs. This distinction of levels does not diminish the
sacramental equality of every bishop or the catholicity of each local Church.[32]

Basis of claims to primacy

Peter and Paul

The evolution of earlier tradition established both Peter and Paul as the forefathers of the
bishops of Rome, from whom they received their position as chief shepherd (Peter) and
supreme authority on doctrine (Paul).[33] To establish her primacy among the churches of the
Western half of the empire, the bishops of Rome relied on a letter written in 416 by Innocent I
to the Bishop of Gubbio, to show how subordination to Rome had been established. Since Peter
was the only apostle (no mention of Paul) to have worked in the West, thus the only persons to
have established churches in Italy, Spain, Gaul, Sicily, Africa, and the Western islands were
bishops appointed by Peter or his successors. This being the case then, all congregations had to
abide by the regulations set in Rome.[34]

Primacy of Peter the apostle

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Because of its association with the supposed

position of Peter among the apostles, the
function that, within the Catholic Church, is
exercised by the Bishop of Rome among the
bishops as a whole is referred to as the Petrine
function, and is generally believed to be of divine
institution, in the sense that the historical and
sociological factors that influenced its
development are seen as guided by the Holy
Spirit. Not all Catholic theologians see a special
providential intervention as responsible for the
result, but most see the papacy, regardless of its
origin, as now essential to the Church's
structure.[35]
Saint Peter, c. 1529, by Grão Vasco; Peter is
The presence of Peter in Rome, not explicitly portrayed in full papal regalia
affirmed in, but consistent with, the New
Testament, is explicitly affirmed by Clement of
Rome, Ignatius of Antioch, Irenaeus of Lyon and other early Christian writers – and no other
place has ever claimed to be the location of his death.[36][37] The same witnesses imply that
Peter was the virtual founder of the Church of Rome,[36] though not its founder in the sense of
initiating a Christian community there.[38] They also speak of Peter as the one who initiated its
episcopal succession,[36] but speak of Linus as the first bishop of Rome after Peter, although
some hold today that the Christians in Rome did not act as a single united community under a
single leader until the 2nd century.[38]

Classic Roman Catholic tradition maintained that the universal primacy of the bishop
of Rome was divinely instituted by Jesus Christ. This was derived from the Petrine
texts, and from the gospel accounts of Matthew (16:17-19) (https://www.biblegateway.
com/passage/?search=Matthew+16:17&version=rsvce), Luke (22:32) (https://www.bi
blegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke+22:32&version=rsvce) and John (21:15-17) (h
ttps://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John+21:15&version=rsvce)
according to the Roman tradition, they all refer not simply to the historical Peter, but
to his successors to the end of time. Today, scriptural scholars of many traditions agree
that it is possible to discern in the New Testament an early tradition that attributes a
special position to Peter among Christ's twelve apostles. The Church built its identity
on them as witnesses, and responsibility for pastoral leadership was not restricted to
Peter. In Matthew 16:19 (https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+
16:19&version=rsvce), Peter is explicitly commissioned to "bind and loose"; later, in
Matthew 18:18 (https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+18:18&ve
rsion=rsvce), Christ directly promises all the disciples that they will do the same.
Similarly, the foundation upon which the Church is built is related to Peter in Matthew

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16:16 (https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+16:16&version=rsv
ce), and to the whole apostolic body elsewhere in the New Testament (cf. Eph. 2:20 (ht
tps://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ephesians+2:20&version=rsvce)).[39]

Role of Paul in the founding of the Church of Rome

Irenaeus of Lyon (AD 189) wrote that Peter and Paul had founded the Church in Rome and had
appointed Pope Linus to the office of the episcopate, the beginning of the succession of the
Roman see.[b] Although the introduction of Christianity was not due to them, "the arrival,
ministries and especially the martyrdoms of Peter and Paul were the seminal events which
really constituted the Church of Rome. It was from their time, and not before, that an orderly
and meetly ordained succession of Bishops originated."[41]

Historical development
While the doctrine of the primacy of the Bishop of Rome, in the form in which it is upheld today
in the Catholic Church, developed over the course of centuries, often in reaction to challenges
made against exercises of authority by popes, writers both of East and West declare that from a
very early period the Church of Rome was looked to as the centre of reference for the whole
Church. Thus Schmemann wrote:

It is impossible to deny that, even before the appearance of local primacies, the Church
from the first days of her existence possessed an ecumenical center of unity and
agreement. In the apostolic and Judeo-Christian period, it was the Church of
Jerusalem, and later the Church of Rome – presiding in agape, according to St.
Ignatius of Antioch. This formula, and the definition of the universal primacy
contained in it, have been aptly analyzed by Fr Afanassieff and we need not repeat his
argument here. Neither can we quote here all testimonies of the fathers and the
councils unanimously acknowledging Rome as the senior church and the center of
ecumenical agreement. It is only for the sake of biased polemics that one can ignore
these testimonies, their consensus and significance.[29]

In their The See of Peter (1927), non-Catholic academic historians James T. Shotwell and Louise
Ropes Loomis, noted the following:

Unquestionably, the Roman church very early developed something like a sense of
obligation to the oppressed all over Christendom. ... Consequently, there was but one
focus of authority. By the year 252, there seem to have been one hundred bishops in
central and southern Italy but outside Rome there was nothing to set one bishop above
another. All were on a level together, citizens of Italy, accustomed to look to Rome for
direction in every detail of public life. The Roman bishop had the right not only to

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ordain but even, on occasion, to select bishops for Italian churches. ... To Christians of
the Occident, the Roman church was the sole, direct link with the age of the New
Testament and its bishop was the one prelate in their part of the world in whose voice
they discerned echoes of the apostles' speech. The Roman bishop spoke always as the
guardian of an authoritative tradition, second to none. Even when the eastern churches
insisted that their traditions were older and quite as sacred, if not more so, the voice in
the West, unaccustomed to rivalry at home, spoke on regardless of protest or
denunciation at a distance.[42]

Pope as arbiter
Eastern Orthodox theologian Nicholas Afanassieff cites Irenaeus in Against Heresies 3:4:1 as
illuminating that during the pre-Nicene period, the Church of Rome acted as arbiter in resolving
disputes between local churches. Rome's support would ensure success, while refusal from
Rome predetermined the attitude the other churches would adopt.[43]

In the aftermath of the Decian persecution, Pope Stephen I (254-257) was asked by Cyprian of
Carthage (d. 258) to resolve a dispute among the bishops of Gaul as to whether those who had
lapsed could be reconciled and readmitted to the Christian community. Cyprian stressed the
Petrine primacy as well as the unity of the Church and the importance of being in communion
with the bishops.[44] For Cyprian, "the Bishop of Rome is the direct heir of Peter, whereas the
others are heirs only indirectly", and he insisted that "the Church of Rome is the root and matrix
of the Catholic Church".[45] Cyprian wrote Pope Stephen asking him to instruct the bishops of
Gaul to condemn Marcianus of Arles, (who refused to admit those who repented) and to elect
another bishop in his stead.[46]

It was to Pope Damasus I (366–384) that Jerome appealed in 376, to settle a dispute as to who,
among three rival claimants, was the legitimate Patriarch of Antioch.[47]

In the strictest sense of the word, "decretal" means a papal rescript (rescriptum), an answer of
the pope when he has been appealed to or his advice has been sought on a matter of discipline.
The oldest preserved decretal is a letter of Pope Siricius (r. 384-399) in response to an inquiry
from Himerius, Bishop of Tarragona (fl. 385), in which Siricius issued decisions on fifteen
different points, on matters regarding baptism, penance, church discipline and the celibacy of
the clergy.[48]

Quartodeciman controversy
The Quartodeciman controversy arose because Christians in the Roman province of Asia
(Western Anatolia) celebrated Easter at the spring full moon, like the Jewish Passover, while the
churches in the West observed the practice of celebrating it on the following Sunday ("the day of
the resurrection of our Saviour").[49]

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In 155, Anicetus, bishop of Rome, presided over a church council at Rome that was attended by
a number of bishops including Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna. Although the council failed to reach
agreement on the issue, ecclesiastical communion was preserved.[50] A generation later, synods
of bishops in Palestine, Pontus and Osrhoene in the east, and in Rome and Gaul in the west,
unanimously declared that the celebration should be exclusively on Sunday.[49] In 193, Victor,
bishop of Rome, presided over a council at Rome and subsequently sent a letter about the
matter to Polycrates of Ephesus and the churches of the Roman province of Asia.[50]

In the same year, Polycrates presided over a council at Ephesus attended by several bishops
throughout that province, which rejected Victor's authority and kept the province's paschal
tradition.[50] Thereupon, Victor attempted to cut off Polycrates and the others who took this
stance from the common unity, but later reversed his decision after bishops, that included
Irenaeus of Lyon in Gaul, interceded and recommended that Victor adopt the more tolerant
stance of his predecessor, Anicetus.[51]

This incident is cited by some Orthodox Christians as the first example of overreaching by the
Bishop of Rome and resistance of such by Eastern churches. Laurent Cleenewerck suggests that
this could be argued to be the first fissure between the Eastern and Western churches.[52]
According to James McCue, Victor's threatened excommunication was an "intradiocesan affair"
between two local churches and did not pertain to the universal church.[53]

First Council of Nicaea

The First Council of Nicaea was convened by the Roman Emperor Constantine I in 325. Canon
IV states: "A bishop is to be chosen by all the bishops of the province, or at least by three, the
rest giving by letter their assent; but this choice must be confirmed by the Metropolitan."[54]
Karl Josef von Hefele says that this was probably in response to Melitius of Lycopolis, who "had
nominated bishops without the concurrence of the other bishops of the province, and without
the approval of the metropolitan of Alexandria, and had thus occasioned a schism. This canon
was intended to prevent the recurrence of such abuses."[54]

First Council of Constantinople and its context

The event that is often considered to have been the first conflict between Rome and
Constantinople was triggered by the elevation of the see of Constantinople to a position of
honour, second only to Rome on the grounds that, as capital of the eastern Roman empire, it
was now the "New Rome".[55] This was promulgated in the First Council of Constantinople
(381) canon 3 which decreed: "The Bishop of Constantinople, however, shall have the
prerogative of honour after the Bishop of Rome because Constantinople is New Rome."[56]
Thomas Shahan says that, according to Photius, Pope Damasus approved the council of
Constantinople, but he adds that, if any part of the council were approved by this pope, it could
have been only its revision of the Nicene Creed, as was the case also when Gregory the Great
recognized it as one of the four general councils, but only in its dogmatic utterances.[57]

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The increasing involvement of Eastern emperors in church

matters and the advancement of the see of Constantinople over
the sees of Antioch, Alexandria and Jerusalem led successive
bishops of Rome to attempt a sharper definition of their
ecclesial position vis-a-vis the other bishops.[58] The first
documented use of the description of Saint Peter as first bishop
of Rome, rather than as the apostle who commissioned its first
bishop, dates from 354, and the phrase "the Apostolic See",
which refers to the same apostle, began to be used exclusively
of the see of Rome, a usage found also in the Acts of the
Council of Chalcedon. From the time of Pope Damasus, the text
of Matthew 16:18 (https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?se
arch=Matthew+16:18&version=rsvce) ("You are Peter and on
this rock I will build my church") is used to support Roman
primacy. Pope Innocent I (401–417) claimed that all major
cases should be reserved to the see of Rome and wrote: "All
must preserve that which Peter the prince of the apostles
delivered to the church at Rome and which it has watched over
until now, and nothing may be added or introduced that lacks
this authority or that derives its pattern from somewhere
else."[59] Pope Boniface I (418–422) stated that the church of
Rome stood to the churches throughout the world "as the head
to the members",[60] a statement that was repeated by the
delegates of Pope Leo I to the Council of Chalcedon in 451.
Early manuscript illustration of the
Relationship with bishops of other cities First Council of Constantinople

Besides Rome, Jerusalem was also held in high prestige in the

early Church, both because the Crucifixion and Resurrection of Jesus occurred there, and on
account of the 1st-century Council of Jerusalem. Followers of Jesus were first referred to as
"Christians" (as well as "Catholic")[61] in Antioch and was, together with Alexandria, important
in the thought of the early Church. It is important to note, however, that the three main
apostolic sees of the early Church (i.e. the See of Antioch, the See of Alexandria, and the See of
Rome) were directly related to Peter. Prior to becoming Bishop of Rome, Peter was Bishop of
Antioch. Additionally, his disciple Mark founded the church in Alexandria.[62]

Leo I
The doctrine of the sedes apostolica (apostolic see) asserts that every bishop of Rome, as Peter's
successor, possesses the full authority granted to this position and that this power is inviolable
on the grounds that it was established by God himself and so not bound to any individual. In
line with the norm of Roman law that a person's legal rights and duties passed to his heir, Pope
Leo I (440–461) taught that he, as Peter's representative, succeeded to the power and authority

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of Peter, and he implied that it was through Peter that the other apostles received from Christ
strength and stability.[63] Leo argued that the apostle Peter continued to speak to the Christian
community through his successors as bishop of Rome.[64] Pope Gelasius I (492–496) stated:
"The see of blessed Peter the Apostle has the right to unbind what has been bound by sentences
of any pontiffs whatever, in that it has the right to judge the whole church. Neither is it lawful
for anyone to judge its judgment, seeing that canons have willed that it might be appealed to
from any part of the world, but that no one may be allowed to appeal from it."[65]

The historical and juridical development of the "primacy of the Roman Pontiff" from Pope
Gregory I (590–604) to Pope Clement V (1305–1314) was a doctrinal evolution in fidelity of the
depositum fidei (deposit of faith).[66]

Council of Reims
In 1049, the Council of Reims, called by Pope Leo IX, adopted a dogmatic declaration about the
primacy of the Roman Pontiff as the successor of Peter: "declaratum est quod solus Romanae
sedis pontifex universalis Ecclesiae Primas esset et Apostolicus" (literal translation is "it was
declared that only the bishop/pontiff of the see of Rome is the primate of the universal Church
and apostolic").[67]

Emperor Phocas' decree

When Phocas took the Byzantine throne in 602, the Diocese of Rome, Bishop Gregory I, praised
Phocas as a "restorer of liberty" and referred to him as a pious and clement lord.[68] Meanwhile
Gregory I died in 604, and also his successor, Sabinian, in 606. After almost a year of vacancy,
Emperor Phocas appointed Bonafice III as the new bishop of Rome on February 19, 607 AD.
Then Phocas writes through imperial decree of the Roman government, proclaims Boniface III
as the "Head of all the Churches" and "Universal Bishop". Phocas transfers the title of
"Universal Bishop" from Diocese of Constantinople to Diocese of Rome.[69] Boniface sought and
obtained a decree from Phocas which he restated that "the See of Blessed Peter the Apostle
should be the head of all the Churches" and ensured that the title of "Universal Bishop"
belonged exclusively to the Bishop of Rome. This act effectively ended the attempt by Patriarch
Cyriacus of Constantinople to establish himself as "Universal Bishop".[70]

East-West Schism
The dispute about the authority of Roman bishops reached a climax in the year 1054,[71] when
the legate of Pope Leo IX excommunicated Patriarch of Constantinople Michael I Cerularius.
Leo IX had, however, died before the legate issued this excommunication, depriving the legate
of its authority and thereby rendering the excommunication technically invalid. Similarly, a
ceremony of excommunication of Leo IX then performed by Michael I was equally invalid, since
one cannot be posthumously excommunicated. This event led to the schism of the Greek and
Latin churches.[72] In itself, it did not have the effect of excommunicating the adherents of the

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respective churches, as the tit-for-tat excommunications, even had they been valid, would have
applied to the named persons only. At the time of the excommunications, many contemporary
historians, including Byzantine chroniclers, did not consider the event significant.[73]

Post-schism period

Second Council of Lyon (1272–1274)

On 31 March 1272, Pope Gregory X convoked the Second Council of Lyon to act on a pledge by
Byzantine emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos to reunite the Eastern church with the West.[74]
Wishing to end the East-West Schism that divided Rome and Constantinople, Gregory X had
sent an embassy to Michael VIII, who had reconquered Constantinople, putting an end to the
remnants of the Latin Empire in the East.

On 29 June 1274 (the Feast of Peter and Paul, the patronal feast of popes), Gregory X celebrated
Mass in St John's Church where both sides took part. The council declared that the Roman
church possessed "the supreme and full primacy and authority over the universal Catholic
Church."

The council was seemingly a success, but did not provide a lasting solution to the schism.
Michael's death in December 1282 put an end to the union of Lyon. His son and successor
Andronikos II Palaiologos repudiated the union.

Reformation
The primacy of the Pope was again challenged in 1517 when Martin Luther began preaching
against several practices in the Catholic Church, including some itinerant friars' abuses
involving indulgences. When Pope Leo X refused to support Luther's position, Luther claimed
belief in an "invisible church" and called the pope the Antichrist.

Luther's rejection of the primacy of the Pope led to the start of the Protestant Reformation,
during which numerous Protestant sects broke away from the Catholic Church. The Church of
England also broke away from the Catholic Church at this time, although for reasons different
from Martin Luther and the Protestants.

First Vatican Council

The doctrine of papal primacy was further developed in 1870 at the First Vatican Council, where
ultramontanism achieved victory over conciliarism with the pronouncement of papal
infallibility (the ability of the pope to define dogmas free from error ex cathedra) and of papal
supremacy, i.e., supreme, full, immediate, and universal ordinary jurisdiction of the pope.

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The First Vatican Council's dogmatic constitution Pastor aeternus declared that "in the
disposition of God the Roman church holds the preeminence of ordinary power over all the
other churches." This council also affirmed the dogma of papal infallibility, deciding that the
"infallibility" of the Christian community extended to the pope himself, at least when speaking
on matters of faith.

Vatican I defined a twofold Primacy of Peter — one in papal teaching on faith and morals (the
charism of infallibility), and the other a primacy of jurisdiction involving government and
discipline of the Church — submission to both being necessary to Catholic faith and
salvation.[75]

Vatican I rejected the ideas that papal decrees have "no force or value unless confirmed by an
order of the secular power" and that the pope's decisions can be appealed to an ecumenical
council "as to an authority higher than the Roman Pontiff". Paul Collins argues that "(the
doctrine of papal primacy as formulated by the First Vatican Council) has led to the exercise of
untrammelled papal power and has become a major stumbling block in ecumenical
relationships with the Orthodox (who consider the definition to be heresy) and Protestants."[76]

Forced to break off prematurely by secular political developments in 1870, Vatican I left behind
it a somewhat unbalanced ecclesiology. "In theology the question of papal primacy was so much
in the foreground that the Church appeared essentially as a centrally directed institution which
one was dogged in defending but which only encountered one externally", according to Cardinal
Joseph Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI).[77]

Anticipating Vatican II
Pope Paul VI acknowledged with regret that "the primacy of honor and jurisdiction which Christ
bestowed on the Apostle Peter, and which We have inherited as his Successor" is regarded as an
obstacle to ecumenical reconciliation, but could not see grounds for abandoning the principle of
a supreme pastoral office within the church.[78]

Eastern Orthodox view

The Eastern Orthodox Church considers the Bishop of Rome to be the primus inter pares, that
is, first among equals.[79] An example of this would be the Chief Justice in the United States
Supreme Court, who holds a pre-eminent honor, but cannot give orders to his fellow justices.

The Eastern Orthodox point out that Jesus gave the power to "bind" and "loose" not only to
Peter but to all the Apostles equally (Matthew 18:18). Many Church Fathers noted Jesus' giving
this authority more broadly: Tertullian,[c] Hilary of Poitiers,[d] John Chrysostom,[e] and
Augustine.[83][f][85][86][g]

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It has been argued that church councils did not consider papal decisions binding. The Third
Ecumenical Council was called, even though Pope Celestine I condemned Nestorius as a heretic
which Michael Whelton, Catholic convert to Orthodoxy, argues shows that the council did not
consider the papal condemnation as definitive.[88][89]

Catholic Cardinal and theologian Yves Congar stated

The East never accepted the regular jurisdiction of Rome, nor did it submit to the
judgment of Western bishops. Its appeals to Rome for help were not connected with a
recognition of the principle of Roman jurisdiction but were based on the view that
Rome had the same truth, the same good. The East jealously protected its autonomous
way of life. Rome intervened to safeguard the observation of legal rules, to maintain
the orthodoxy of faith and to ensure communion between the two parts of the church,
the Roman see representing and personifying the West...In according Rome a 'primacy
of honour', the East avoided basing this primacy on the succession and the still living
presence of the apostle Peter. A modus vivendi was achieved which lasted, albeit with
crises, down to the middle of the eleventh century.[90]

21st century relations with other Christian denominations

In the document Responses to some questions regarding certain aspects of the doctrine on the
Church of 29 June 2007 the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith reiterated that, in the
view of the Catholic Church, the Christian communities born out of the Protestant Reformation
and which lack apostolic succession in the sacrament of orders are not "Churches" in the proper
sense. The Eastern Christian Churches that are not in communion with Rome, such as the
Eastern Orthodox Church, Oriental Orthodoxy and the Assyrian Church of the East, are
Churches in the proper sense and sister Churches of the Catholic particular Churches, but since
communion with the Pope is one of the internal constitutive principles of a particular church,
they lack something in their condition, while on the other hand the existing division means that
the fullness of universality that is proper to the church governed by the successor of St Peter and
the bishops in communion with him is not now realised in history.[91]

Efforts at reconciliation

Anglican-Roman Catholic International Commission

The Anglican-Roman Catholic International Commission (ARCIC) statement of Venice (1976)
states that the ministry of the bishop of Rome among his brother bishops was "interpreted" as
Christ's will for his church; its importance was compared "by analogy" to the position of Peter
among the apostles.[92]

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Communion with the bishop of Rome does not imply submission to an authority which
would stifle the distinctive features of the local churches. The purpose of the episcopal
function of the bishop of Rome is to promote Christian fellowship in faithfulness to the
teaching of the apostles.[93]

Joint worship service with the Archbishop of Canterbury

At a joint service during the first official visit of the then Archbishop of Canterbury, Robert
Runcie, to the Vatican, Runcie appealed to Anglicans to consider accepting papal primacy in a
reunified church. At the same time, Pope John Paul II stressed that his office must be more than
a figurehead.[94]

Ut unum sint
John Paul II invited, in Ut Unum Sint, his 1995 encyclical on commitment to ecumenism, the
"pastors and theologians" of Churches and Ecclesial Communities not in full communion with
the Catholic Church to suggest how to exercise papal primacy in ways that would unite rather
than divide.[95]

Joint International Commission for Theological Dialogue

In October 2007, the Joint International Commission for Theological Dialogue Between the
Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church, agreed that the pope has primacy among all bishops
of the Church, something which has been universally acknowledged by both churches since the
First Council of Constantinople in 381 (when they were still one Church) though disagreements
about the extent of his authority still continue.

The document "draws an analogy among the three levels of communion: local, regional, and
universal, each of which appropriately has a 'first' with the role of fostering communion, in
order to ground the rationale of why the universal level must also have a primacy. It articulates
the principle that primacy and conciliarity are interdependent and mutually necessary."[96]
Speaking of "fraternal relations between bishops" during the first millennium, it states that
"these relations, among the bishops themselves, between the bishops and their respective protoi
(firsts), and also among the protoi themselves in the canonical order (taxis) witnessed by the
ancient Church, nourished and consolidated ecclesial communion." It notes that both sides
agree "that Rome, as the church that 'presides in love' according to the phrase of St Ignatius of
Antioch, occupied the first place in the taxis (order) and that the bishop of Rome was, therefore,
the protos (first) among the patriarchs. They disagree, however, on the interpretation of the
historical evidence from this era regarding the prerogatives of the bishop of Rome as protos, a
matter that was already understood in different ways in the first millennium";[97][98][99][100]
and "while the fact of primacy at the universal level is accepted by both East and West, there are
differences of understanding with regard to the manner in which it is to be exercised, and also
with regard to its scriptural and theological foundations".[101][102]

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Discussions continued at Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, (a drafting committee) in September–October

2008; at Paphos, Cyprus, in October 2009;[103] and Vienna, Austria in September 2010.[104]
Hegumen Filipp Ryabykh, the deputy head of the Russian Orthodox Church Department for
External Church Relations said:

The fact that the Pope of Rome claims universal jurisdiction is simply contrary to
Orthodox ecclesiology, which teaches that the Orthodox Church, whilst preserving
unity of faith and church order, nevertheless consists of several [autocephalous] Local
Churches[105]

A 2008 draft text on "The Role of the Bishop of Rome in the Communion of the Church in the
First Millennium" topic prepared by the Joint International Commission for Theological
Dialogue Between the Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church was leaked in 2010,[106] which
the Vienna meeting asked to be revised and amplified. This document states that "Catholics and
Orthodox agree that, from apostolic times, the Church of Rome has been recognised as the first
among the local Churches, both in the East and in the West."[107] Both sides agree that "the
primacy of the see precedes the primacy of its bishops and is the source of the latter".[108] While
in the West, "the position of the bishop of Rome among the bishops was understood in terms of
the position of Peter among the apostles ... the East tended rather to understand each bishop as
the successor of all the apostles, including Peter"; but these rather different understandings "co-
existed for several centuries until the end of the first millennium, without causing a break of
communion".[109]

Opposition to the doctrine

American religious author Stephen K. Ray, a Baptist convert to Catholicism, asserts that "There
is little in the history of the Church that has been more heatedly contested than the primacy of
Peter and the See of Rome. History is replete with examples of authority spurned, and the
history of the Church is no different."[110]

Protestant view
The topic of the Papacy and its authority is among the main differences between the Catholic
Church and many other Christian denominations. For those who hold to the doctrine of sola
scriptura, the Bible is considered to be the sole authority on Christian doctrine and theology.

In his book Repair My House: Becoming a "Kingdom" Catholic, Michael H. Crosby, author and
Capuchin Franciscan friar, points out that Matthew 18:18 shows that the power of "binding" and
"loosing" was not given to Peter alone, but to all the Apostles. Some Church Fathers, like St.
John Chrysostom, considered Peter's proclamation of faith, rather than Peter himself, to be the

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"rock" Jesus praised and said he would make the foundation of the faith. [111] Other Christian
writers say that, even if Peter is the "rock", it does not mean he has exclusive power over the
Church.[112]

See also
Collegiality (Catholic Church)
Conciliarism
Dogma in the Catholic Church
Donation of Constantine
Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, primus inter pares among Eastern Orthodox
prelates
First Vatican Council
Gregorian Reform
History of the papacy
Neo-ultramontanism
Papal infallibility
Pontifex Maximus
Roman Curia
Servant of the servants of God
Temporal power (papal)
Theological differences between the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church
Ultramontanism
Unam Sanctam
Translatio imperii

Notes
a. "It is not a greater difficulty that St. Ignatius does not write to the Asian Greeks about Popes,
than that St. Paul does not write to the Corinthians about Bishops. [...] No doctrine is
defined till it is violated."[27]
b. the "[...] the very great, the very ancient, and universally known Church founded and
organized at Rome by the two most glorious apostles, Peter and Paul; as also [by pointing
out] the faith preached to men, which comes down to our time by means of the successions
of the bishops. [...] The blessed apostles, then, having founded and built up the Church,
committed into the hands of Linus the office of the episcopate."[40]
c. "What, now, (has this to do) with the Church, and your (church), indeed, Psychic? For, in
accordance with the person of Peter, it is to spiritual men that this power will
correspondently appertain, either to an apostle or else to a prophet."[80]
d. "This faith it is which is the foundation of the Church; through this faith the gates of hell
cannot prevail against her. This is the faith which has the keys of the kingdom of heaven.
Whatsoever this faith shall have loosed or bound on earth shall be loosed or bound in
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heaven. This faith is the Father's gift by revelation; even the knowledge that we must not
imagine a false Christ, a creature made out of nothing, but must confess Him the Son of
God, truly possessed of the Divine nature."[81]
e. "For (John) the Son of thunder, the beloved of Christ, the pillar of the Churches throughout
the world, who holds the keys of heaven, who drank the cup of Christ, and was baptized
with His baptism, who lay upon his Master's bosom, with much confidence, this man now
comes forward to us now"[82]
f. "...Peter, the first of the apostles, receive the keys of the kingdom of heaven for the binding
and loosing of sins; and for the same congregation of saints, in reference to the perfect
repose in the bosom of that mysterious life to come did the evangelist John recline on the
breast of Christ. For it is not the former alone but the whole Church, that bindeth and
looseth sins; nor did the latter alone drink at the fountain of the Lord's breast, to emit again
in preaching, of the Word in the beginning, God with God, and those other sublime truths
regarding the divinity of Christ, and the Trinity and Unity of the whole Godhead."[84]
g. "How the Church? Why, to her it was said, "To thee I will give the keys of the kingdom of
heaven, and whatsoever thou shall loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven, and
whatsoever thou shall bind on earth shall be bound in heaven."[87]

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clopedia_(1913)/The_Pope). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
"Synodality and Primacy During the First Millennium: Towards a Common Understanding in
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n_curia/pontifical_councils/chrstuni/ch_orthodox_docs/rc_pc_chrstuni_doc_20160921_sino
dality-primacy_en.html). www.vatican.va. Retrieved 20 May 2020.

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