MODULE 4

Pile Construction : Piling – Single pile and a group piles (Bored and Driven) bored piles,
Working loads and ultimate loads on driven and cast- in-situ piles, Piles in land and marine
structures. Construction details of precast piles, pre stressed piles, steel piles and friction piles.
Pile Capacity - Load test on piles initial and routine for vertical, horizontal, uplift loads and
integrity test, failure of piles and causes, Methods of pile driving by Vibration and Construction
of micro piles, Diaphragm Walls.

Piles and Piling

A pile is a long, slender structural element driven or cast into the ground to transfer structural
loads to deeper, stable soil layers or rock. Piles are used where surface soil is weak or where
large structures require deep foundations. Piling refers to the process of driving or casting
structural elements (piles) into the ground to support loads from structures, especially in weak or
unstable soil conditions. Piles are used in land and marine structures for transferring loads to
deeper, stable soil layers or rock.

Types of Piles
Piles are classified based on their material, construction method, and load transfer
mechanism.
1. Based on Material
1. Concrete Piles:
o Made of reinforced or prestressed concrete.
o Can be cast-in-situ (bored) or precast.
o Durable and resistant to corrosion when designed properly.
2. Steel Piles:
o Made of hollow pipes, H-sections, or sheet piles.
o High strength, suitable for large loads, and often used in marine applications.
o Require corrosion protection in aggressive environments.
3. Timber Piles:
o Made of treated wood (like cedar or pine).
o Economical but prone to decay unless treated or submerged permanently.
4. Composite Piles:
o Combine two materials (e.g., steel and concrete) to utilize the strengths of both.
o Often used when piles need to function under varied conditions.
2. Based on Construction Method
1. Bored Piles (Cast-in-Situ):
o Created by drilling a hole into the ground and filling it with concrete.
o Commonly used where vibrations must be avoided (e.g., near existing buildings).
o Suitable for loose or soft soils.
2. Driven Piles:
o Prefabricated piles driven into the ground using hammers or vibrators.
o Includes steel, concrete, and timber piles.
o Suitable for compact soils but can generate vibrations.
3. Precast Piles:
o Reinforced or prestressed concrete piles manufactured off-site and transported for
driving.
o Offer high-quality control during production.
4. Prestressed Piles:
 o Precast concrete piles with pre-applied compressive stresses to resist tensile forces
during installation and service.
o Common in projects with high tensile loads.
5. Micro Piles:
o Small-diameter piles (typically less than 300 mm).
o Used in constrained spaces, retrofitting, or for structures subjected to light loads.
3. Based on Load Transfer Mechanism
1. End-Bearing Piles:
o Transfer loads directly to a strong, firm layer of soil or rock.
o Acts like a column, with most of the load supported at the tip.
2. Friction Piles:
o Rely on skin friction between the pile surface and surrounding soil for load
transfer.
o Used where hard strata are deep or inaccessible.
3. Combination (Friction + End-Bearing) Piles:
o Use both skin friction and end-bearing mechanisms for load transfer.
o Common in layered soil profiles.
4. Tension or Uplift Piles:
o Resist uplift forces caused by wind, seismic activity, or buoyancy.
o Common in towers, chimneys, and offshore platforms.
5. Batter Piles:
o Driven at an angle to resist horizontal forces or a combination of horizontal and
vertical loads.
o Used in bridge abutments, retaining walls, and marine structures.
Applications of Piles
 Buildings: Provide stable foundations for high-rise and heavy structures.
 Marine Structures: Jetties, wharves, and offshore platforms.
 Bridges: Support piers and abutments.
 Earth Retention Systems: Sheet piles or diaphragm walls for retaining soil during
excavation.
Each type of pile is selected based on factors like soil conditions, load requirements, and
environmental constraints.

Group Piles
A group pile refers to multiple piles arranged in a pattern to support a single structural element
like a column or a footing. Group piles are typically used when individual piles cannot support
the required load or when the load needs to be distributed across a larger area. The pile group is
capped with a pile cap, which transfers the structural loads to the individual piles.
Features of Group Piles
1. Arrangement:
o Piles are arranged in a grid or circular pattern based on the load and structural
design.
o Common configurations: 2x2, 3x3, or circular layouts.
2. Load Distribution:
o The pile cap ensures the even distribution of loads among the piles.
o The total load is shared by both the end-bearing and frictional resistance of all
piles.
3. Interaction Effects:
 o The presence of multiple piles influences soil stresses, leading to group
efficiency, which is often less than 100%. This phenomenon is known as group
action.
4. Pile Cap:
o A concrete slab connects the tops of the piles and transfers the load from the
structure to the piles.
Types of Group Piles
1. Based on Load Distribution:
o Uniform Load Distribution: Equal loads on all piles.
o Non-Uniform Load Distribution: Piles closer to the load center carry more load.
2. Based on Application:
o Vertical Group Piles: Transfer primarily vertical loads.
o Inclined or Batter Piles in Groups: Resist lateral and uplift loads.
Design Considerations for Group Piles
1. Pile Spacing:
o Generally, the center-to-center distance is 2.5 to 3 times the pile diameter.
o Adequate spacing prevents overlapping of stress zones.
2. Group Efficiency:
o Efficiency (η\eta) depends on the number of piles and their arrangement.
o Efficiency can be calculated using formulas like
Efficiency = (Load Capacity of Group) / (Sum of Individual Pile Capacities).
3. Settlement:
o Settlement of a pile group is generally more than that of a single pile due to
overlapping soil stresses.
4. Soil-Pile Interaction:
o The design considers factors like soil type, pile length, and depth to bedrock.
Advantages of Group Piles
1. Higher Load Capacity: Combines the strength of multiple piles for heavy loads.
2. Lateral Stability: Increases resistance to lateral forces, especially with batter piles.
3. Flexibility: Can accommodate complex load conditions with different configurations.
Applications of Group Piles
1. High-rise buildings where heavy loads require deep foundations.
2. Bridge piers and abutments to resist vertical and horizontal forces.
3. Marine structures like jetties and offshore platforms.
4. Retaining walls and earth support systems in combination with diaphragm walls.
Group piles offer a practical solution when the soil's bearing capacity is inadequate or where
deep foundations are essential for load stability.

Working Loads and Ultimate Loads on Piles

Piles, whether driven or cast-in-situ, are designed to carry specific loads based on their material,
dimensions, and the surrounding soil's bearing capacity. Understanding the concepts of working
loads and ultimate loads is critical for the safe and efficient design of pile foundations.

1. Working Load on Piles: The load that a pile is designed to safely carry during normal
operation without exceeding allowable stresses in the pile material or surrounding soil.
o Includes loads from the structure (e.g., vertical, lateral, and uplift loads).
o Based on the factor of safety (FOS) applied to the ultimate load.
o Accounts for serviceability conditions such as settlement and deflection limits.
  Working Load Formula:

o Common FOS values range from 2 to 3, depending on the project and site
conditions.

2. Ultimate Load on Piles: The maximum load a pile can withstand before failure (structural or
geotechnical). It represents the pile's ultimate capacity under idealized conditions.
o End-Bearing Capacity: Load transferred to the soil or rock at the pile tip.
o Skin Friction Capacity: Load transferred along the pile shaft through friction
between the pile surface and surrounding soil.
 Ultimate Load Formula:
Qu=Qb+Qs
Where:
Qu: Ultimate load.
Qb: End-bearing resistance.
Qs: Skin friction resistance.
Factors Influencing Working and Ultimate Loads
1. Pile Type:
o Driven Piles: Higher initial capacity due to soil compaction during driving.
o Cast-in-Situ Piles: Capacity depends on soil disturbance during drilling and
concrete placement quality.
2. Soil Characteristics:
o Load capacities vary with soil type (e.g., clay, sand, or rock).
o Strength parameters like cohesion (c) and angle of internal friction (ϕ) are key
inputs.
3. Pile Dimensions:
o Diameter and length determine the surface area available for friction and the tip
area for bearing resistance.
4. Installation Method:
o Methods like hammer driving, vibratory installation, or drilling impact the
surrounding soil structure.
Comparison of Driven and Cast-In-Situ Piles
Aspect Driven Piles Cast-In-Situ Piles
Prefabricated and driven into the Constructed by drilling and pouring
Installation
ground. concrete.
Soil Compacts surrounding soil, increasing
Disturbs soil, reducing initial capacity.
Interaction friction.
Higher initial capacity due to Depends on soil quality and proper
Ultimate Load
compaction. construction.
Working Typically predictable from pre-driving Requires load tests for accurate
Load tests. estimation.

Testing Pile Loads

To ensure safety and reliability, load testing is performed:
 1. Static Load Test:
o Determines the working load by applying loads incrementally and observing
settlement.
2. Dynamic Load Test:
o Used for driven piles to estimate ultimate capacity during driving.
3. Integrity Test:
o Ensures no structural defects impact load-bearing performance.
By applying proper safety factors and testing, engineers ensure that both driven and cast-in-situ
piles meet the required load performance for long-term structural stability.

Pile Capacity
Pile capacity is the total load a pile can support without failure, determined by:
1. End-Bearing Resistance (Qb): Load supported by the soil or rock at the pile tip.
2. Skin Friction Resistance (Qs): Load supported by friction between the pile shaft and
surrounding soil.
3. Uplift Resistance: Resistance to tensile loads due to skin friction along the pile shaft.
Qu=Qb+Qs
Where Qu is the ultimate pile capacity.

Types of Pile Tests

1. Initial Load Tests validate the design assumptions.
2. Routine Load Tests ensure compliance with construction specifications.
3. Integrity Tests verify that piles are free from structural defects.

Load Tests on Piles

Load tests are conducted to:
1. Verify the design assumptions.
2. Ensure safety and reliability under working loads.
3. Detect potential pile or soil failures early.
Types of Load Tests
1. Initial Load Test
 Conducted on test piles to determine ultimate capacity and validate design.
 Performed during the preliminary phase before construction.
 Helps establish the working load and safety factor.
2. Routine Load Test
 Conducted on working piles during or after construction to verify performance under
actual loads.
 Ensures compliance with design specifications.
Testing for Different Load Types
A. Vertical Load Tests
 Purpose: Assess axial compression or tension capacity.
 Procedure:
o Load is applied in increments using a hydraulic jack.
o Settlement is recorded for each increment.
o Load is increased until failure or the target load is reached.
 Result:
o Load-settlement curve to determine ultimate and working loads.
B. Horizontal Load Tests
  Purpose: Evaluate lateral resistance of piles, especially in retaining walls, bridges, and
marine structures.
 Procedure:
o Lateral loads are applied using jacks or anchor systems.
o Displacement at the pile head is measured.
 Result:
o Load-deflection curve indicating lateral capacity.
C. Uplift Load Tests
 Purpose: Determine the pile's ability to resist uplift forces from wind, buoyancy, or
tension loads.
 Procedure:
o Uplift loads are applied by pulling the pile upwards using an anchor system.
o Displacement is measured at each load increment.
 Result:
o Uplift load-displacement curve to calculate safe uplift capacity.

Integrity Test on Piles

 Purpose: Assess the structural integrity and continuity of piles.
 Methods:
1. Low-Strain Integrity Test (Sonic Echo Test):
 A hammer strike generates stress waves that detect defects (e.g., cracks,
voids).
 Non-destructive and widely used.
2. Cross-Hole Sonic Logging (CSL):
 Probes are inserted into pre-installed tubes to measure wave speeds.
 Slower wave speeds indicate defects.
3. Pile Driving Analyzer (PDA):
 Monitors driving stresses, energy transfer, and integrity during pile
installation.

Piles in Land and Marine Structures

1. Piles in Land Structures
 Purpose:
o Transfer structural loads to deeper, more stable soil layers.
o Resist vertical, lateral, and uplift loads.
 Applications:
o High-rise buildings, bridges, retaining walls, and industrial structures.
o Areas with loose or compressible topsoil layers.
 Challenges:
o Settlement control, especially for soft soils.
o Compatibility with other foundation systems like footings or rafts.
2. Piles in Marine Structures
 Purpose:
o Provide stability to structures exposed to water, waves, currents, and buoyancy
forces.
o Resist horizontal and uplift forces due to waves and tides.
 Applications:
o Jetties, wharves, piers, docks, offshore platforms, and breakwaters.
 o Used in coastal and offshore construction.
 Challenges:
o Corrosion due to saline water.
o Increased horizontal forces from waves and currents.

Construction Details for Different Pile Types

1. Precast Concrete Piles
 Description:
o Reinforced or prestressed concrete piles are cast and cured off-site and
transported to the site.
 Construction Details:
o Cast in steel molds or formwork for uniformity and quality.
o Reinforcement provided to resist bending during handling and driving.
o Cured to achieve the required strength before installation.
o Installed by driving using pile hammers or vibratory drivers.
 Advantages:
o High-quality control.
o Immediate load-bearing capacity after driving.
 Disadvantages:
o Limited length due to transportation constraints.
o Risk of cracking during handling.
2. Prestressed Concrete Piles
 Description:
o Precast concrete piles reinforced with prestressed tendons to resist tensile forces
during handling and driving.
 Construction Details:
o Prestressed tendons are tensioned before casting the concrete.
o Concrete poured over tensioned tendons and cured.
o Tendons release after curing, inducing compressive stresses in the pile.
o Driven into place using impact or vibratory hammers.
 Advantages:
o High durability and crack resistance.
o Ideal for marine structures and corrosive environments.
3. Steel Piles
 Description:
o Steel piles are fabricated from hollow tubes, H-sections, or sheet piles.
 Construction Details:
o Manufactured from high-strength steel for large loads and durability.
o Protected with coatings or cathodic protection in corrosive environments.
o Driven into the ground using pile hammers or vibrators.
 Applications:
o Preferred for marine structures due to strength and resistance to large lateral
loads.
 Advantages:
o High load capacity and long lengths.
o Easy to splice for increased length.
 Disadvantages:
o Corrosion-prone without protection.
 o High material cost.
4. Friction Piles
 Description:
o Piles that transfer loads through skin friction along their length, often used in deep
or weak soils.
 Construction Details:
o Can be made of concrete, steel, or timber.
o Surface roughness or coatings enhance frictional resistance.
o Installed using bored or driven methods, depending on soil conditions.
 Applications:
o Areas where hard strata are too deep for end-bearing piles.
 Advantages:
o Effective in soft soils or areas without a firm bearing stratum.
 Disadvantages:
o Requires detailed soil investigation to estimate friction accurately.
Comparison of Pile Types
Type Key Feature Best Application Limitation
Precast Concrete Land and marine, vertical Length limited by
High-quality, durable
Piles loads transport
Crack-resistant, Marine, corrosive
Prestressed Piles High initial cost
durable environments
High strength, long Heavy loads, marine Susceptible to
Steel Piles
lengths structures corrosion
Skin friction load Soft soils, no hard strata Requires accurate soil
Friction Piles
transfer nearby data

Failure of Piles and Causes

Pile failure occurs when a pile is unable to perform its intended function, either due to structural
inadequacy or geotechnical issues in the surrounding soil. Failure can result in excessive
settlement, instability, or structural collapse.
Types of Pile Failures
1. Structural Failure
o Occurs when the pile material itself fails due to stress, cracking, or deformation.
2. Geotechnical Failure
o Results from inadequate load transfer to the soil, causing excessive settlement or
displacement.
3. Construction or Installation Failure
o Caused by poor workmanship or improper installation techniques.
Common Causes of Pile Failure
1. Structural Causes
 Material Defects:
o Weak or poorly cured concrete in concrete piles.
o Corrosion in steel piles.
o Decay or damage in untreated timber piles.
 Excessive Loads:
 o Loads exceeding the design capacity of the pile.
o Sudden impact loads or seismic forces not accounted for in design.
 Bending Stresses:
o Occurs during handling or installation, particularly in long or slender piles.
2. Geotechnical Causes
 Inadequate Bearing Capacity:
o Weak or compressible soil layers under the pile tip fail to support the load.
 Insufficient Skin Friction:
o Poor soil-pile interaction leading to inadequate load transfer along the shaft.
 Soil Movement:
o Lateral soil displacement due to landslides, excavation, or nearby construction
activities.
 Scour in Marine Environments:
o Erosion of soil around piles due to water flow, weakening their support.
3. Construction and Installation Causes
 Improper Driving:
o Overdriving can damage the pile material.
o Underdriving leads to inadequate embedment depth.
 Defective Construction:
o Voids or segregation in cast-in-situ piles.
o Improper reinforcement placement or concrete curing.
 Pile Misalignment:
o Piles not installed vertically or at the correct angle reduce load-bearing efficiency.
 Contamination:
o Presence of water, mud, or debris in boreholes for cast-in-situ piles affects the
concrete bond.
4. Design Errors
 Underestimation of Load:
o Incorrect calculations of structural or geotechnical loads.
 Ignoring Soil Variability:
o Failure to account for variations in soil layers or groundwater conditions.
 Inadequate Safety Factor:
o Insufficient margin for unexpected conditions.
Signs of Pile Failure
 Excessive or uneven settlement of the structure.
 Tilting or rotation of the structure.
 Visible cracks or deformation in the pile.
 Vibrations or instability under load.
Remedial Measures for Pile Failure
 Strengthening Piles:
o Use of steel jackets or grouting to enhance capacity.
 Replacing Failed Piles:
o Driving additional piles or replacing defective ones.
 Improving Soil Conditions:
o Soil compaction, grouting, or installing ground improvement techniques.
 Retrofitting:
o Adding pile caps, tie beams, or batter piles to redistribute loads.
By addressing these causes and implementing preventive measures, pile failures can be
minimized, ensuring long-term stability and safety.

Pile Driving by Vibration

Vibration-based pile driving is a method used to install piles into the ground by using a
vibratory hammer to induce vertical and horizontal vibrations. The vibrations reduce soil
resistance, allowing the pile to penetrate into the ground under its own weight or with minimal
additional force.
Working Principle
 The vibratory hammer generates high-frequency vibrations, which are transmitted to
the pile.
 The vibrations temporarily reduce soil strength by:
1. Loosening Soil Particles: Reduces inter-particle friction.
2. Creating a Liquefaction Effect: In saturated soils, vibrations can create a fluid-
like behavior, easing pile penetration.
 The pile moves downward under the combined effect of its weight, hammer force, and
reduced soil resistance.
Equipment Used
1. Vibratory Hammer
o Mounted on cranes or excavators.
o Operates at frequencies ranging from 20 to 40 Hz.
o Equipped with clamps to hold the pile securely during driving.
2. Power Source
o Typically hydraulic or electric systems provide energy for the hammer.
3. Pile Types
o Best suited for steel piles, sheet piles, H-piles, and precast concrete piles.
Procedure
1. Positioning:
o Align the pile at the desired location using a guide frame or template.
2. Clamping:
o Secure the pile with the vibratory hammer clamps.
3. Vibratory Driving:
o Activate the hammer to generate vibrations.
o Monitor the pile’s penetration and alignment.
4. Completion:
o Stop vibrations once the pile reaches the desired depth.
o Perform a load test if required to verify capacity.
Applications
 Urban Areas:
o Preferred in areas where noise and ground vibrations from impact driving are
restricted.
 Marine Structures:
o Used to install sheet piles, tubular piles, or dolphins.
 Soft Soils:
o Effective in loose sands, silts, and soft clays.
Advantages
1. Reduced Noise and Vibration:
 o Quieter than impact driving, making it suitable for urban or sensitive
environments.
2. Faster Installation:
o Vibratory hammers drive piles quickly, saving time on projects.
3. Minimal Pile Damage:
o Eliminates high-impact forces, reducing the risk of cracking or bending.
4. Versatility:
o Suitable for various pile shapes and materials.
Limitations
1. Soil Type Dependency:
o Less effective in dense soils, hard clays, or rocky layers.
2. Limited Depth:
o Effective only for moderate depths where soil liquefaction can be induced.
3. Alignment Challenges:
o Requires careful monitoring to maintain verticality.
Safety Measures
1. Proper securing of piles in the clamps to avoid slippage.
2. Regular equipment maintenance to prevent malfunction.
3. Monitoring vibrations to avoid structural damage to nearby buildings.
Alternatives
If vibration driving is ineffective (e.g., in dense soils), alternative methods like impact driving
or jetting may be used. Vibration pile driving is a versatile and efficient method, particularly
suitable for soft soil conditions and urban environments where noise and impact are concerns.

Construction of Micro Piles

Micro piles (also called mini piles) are small-diameter piles (typically 100–300 mm) that are
used to transfer structural loads to deeper, stable soil or rock layers. They are ideal for situations
where access is restricted, heavy equipment cannot be used, or minimal ground disturbance is
required.
Applications of Micro Piles
1. Foundation Rehabilitation: Strengthening existing foundations.
2. New Construction: Supporting loads in areas with poor soil conditions.
3. Seismic Retrofitting: Providing additional stability in earthquake-prone areas.
4. Underground and Urban Areas: Construction in confined spaces with limited access.
Advantages of Micro Piles
o Versatility: Suitable for all soil types and restricted-access areas.
o Minimal Disturbance: Creates less noise, vibration, and disruption compared to other
piling methods.
o Quick Installation: Lightweight equipment ensures faster installation.
o Adaptability: Can be used for retrofitting or new foundations.
Disadvantages of Micro Piles
o Cost: More expensive per pile compared to larger piles.
o Limited Load Capacity: Typically used for lighter loads or in groups for heavier loads.
o Time-Consuming Grouting: Grouting can take longer in some soil conditions.
Key Applications
o Urban Projects: Supporting buildings in areas with height or vibration restrictions.
o Infrastructure: Strengthening bridges, retaining walls, or other civil structures.
o Seismic Areas: Providing additional stability to resist seismic forces.
Construction Process of Micro Piles
1. Site Preparation
o Survey and Planning: Mark pile locations as per design. Ensure access for
drilling equipment and materials.
o Equipment Setup: Use light-weight and compact drilling rigs suitable for
confined spaces.
2. Drilling the Borehole
o Method: Drill a borehole using rotary, percussion, or rotary-percussion methods.
Suitable for various ground conditions, including soft soils, hard clays, and rock.
o Drill Depth: Drill until the required depth is reached, ensuring the borehole
extends to a load-bearing stratum.
o Casing Installation (if needed): Insert temporary or permanent casing to prevent
borehole collapse in loose or unstable soils.
3. Reinforcement Placement
 Insert a steel reinforcement bar (rebar) or a small-diameter steel pipe into the drilled
hole.
 The rebar is typically central and may include spacers to ensure proper grout cover.
 The reinforcement is designed to resist tensile, compressive, and shear loads.
4. Grouting
o Purpose: Fill the borehole and bond the pile to the surrounding soil or rock.
o Method: Grout is pumped into the borehole under pressure using a tremie pipe to
ensure uniform filling. High-pressure grouting may be used to enhance contact
with the surrounding soil and improve load capacity.
o Grout Material: Typically a mix of cement and water, sometimes with additives
for strength or workability.
5. Curing and Finalizing
 Allow the grout to cure, usually for 7–28 days, to achieve design strength.
 Remove temporary casings if used.
 Conduct load testing to verify capacity.
Construction Considerations
o Access and Space: Micro piles can be installed in restricted spaces or near
existing structures.
o Ground Conditions: Soil and rock strata must be carefully analyzed to determine
borehole stability and grouting requirements.
o Load Requirements: The pile design must consider vertical, lateral, and uplift
forces.

Construction of Diaphragm Walls

A diaphragm wall is a deep, continuous, and reinforced concrete wall constructed in the ground
to serve as a retaining wall, cut-off wall, or part of a foundation system. It is widely used for
deep basements, tunnels, underground stations, and water retention systems.
Applications of Diaphragm Walls
o Deep Retaining Structures: For basements, underground parking, and metro
stations.
o Cut-off Walls: To prevent water seepage in dam foundations or containment
systems.
 o Load-Bearing Foundations: Acts as a permanent foundation element for large
structures.
Advantages of Diaphragm Walls
o Strength and Durability: Provides excellent structural stability and resistance to
lateral earth and water pressures.
o Flexibility: Can be designed for various shapes and depths.
o Waterproofing: Effective as a seepage barrier when combined with bentonite
slurry.
o Minimal Ground Disturbance: Suitable for urban areas with adjacent structures.
Disadvantages of Diaphragm Walls
o High Cost: Expensive due to specialized equipment and materials.
o Complex Construction: Requires skilled labor and precise execution.
o Limited Accessibility: Large equipment may not be feasible in restricted sites.
Applications in Infrastructure
o Basement Excavations: Retaining walls for deep basements and underground car
parks.
o Tunnels and Shafts: Boundary walls for tunnels or access shafts.
o Marine Structures: Retaining walls for ports or waterfront developments.
o Dam Foundations: Water cut-off walls to reduce seepage.
Construction Process of Diaphragm Walls
1. Site Preparation
o Survey and Alignment: Mark the wall alignment based on design requirements.
o Preparation of Working Platform: Create a stable platform for the trenching
equipment and operations.
2. Guide Wall Construction
o Purpose: A shallow reinforced concrete wall to guide excavation and ensure
alignment.
o Construction: Construct two parallel walls along the trench line, spaced slightly
wider than the diaphragm wall thickness.
3. Excavation of Trenches
o Equipment Used: Hydraulic grabs, clamshell buckets, or cutter soil mixers for
hard soils.
o Procedure: Excavate in panels (usually 3–7 meters long), going down to the
required depth.
o Use bentonite slurry or polymer fluid to support the trench walls and prevent
collapse.
4. Installation of Reinforcement Cage
o Fabrication: Prefabricate the steel reinforcement cage off-site or near the
construction site.
o Placement: Lower the cage into the excavated trench using cranes. Ensure
alignment and proper positioning using spacers.
5. Concreting the Wall
o Method: Use the tremie method to pour concrete at the bottom of the trench,
displacing the bentonite or polymer slurry upward.
o Bentonite Recovery: The displaced bentonite slurry is collected, filtered, and
reused.
 o Concrete Quality: Use high-quality concrete with proper slump to ensure
flowability and strength.
6. Joint Construction
o Between Panels: Diaphragm walls are constructed in segments or panels. Special
joints, such as water stops or steel connectors, are used to maintain water
tightness and structural integrity.
7. Finishing Works
o Cutting the Wall: Trim the wall to the required level after concrete has set.
o Waterproofing: Apply waterproofing membranes if required.
Construction Details
o Wall Thickness: Typically ranges from 0.6 to 1.5 meters, depending on the
structural and seepage requirements.
o Depth: Can reach depths of 50 meters or more, depending on design.
o Material: Reinforced concrete with high durability and compressive strength.