applied

sciences
Review
Application of Distributed Acoustic Sensing in Geophysics
Exploration: Comparative Review of Single-Mode and
Multi-Mode Fiber Optic Cables
Muhammad Rafi 1,2, *, Khairul Arifin Mohd Noh 2 , Abdul Halim Abdul Latiff 1 , Daniel Asante Otchere 3 ,
Bennet Nii Tackie-Otoo 1 , Ahmad Dedi Putra 1 , Zaky Ahmad Riyadi 1 and Dejen Teklu Asfha 1

1 Centre for Subsurface Imaging, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Seri Iskandar 32610, Malaysia;
[email protected] (B.N.T.-O.)
2 Department of Geosciences, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Seri Iskandar 32610, Malaysia
3 Institute for Computational & Data Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, PA 16802, USA; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The advent of fiber optic technology in geophysics exploration has grown in its use in
the exploration, production, and monitoring of subsurface environments, revolutionizing the way
data are gathered and interpreted critically to speed up decision-making and reduce expense and
time. Distributed Acoustic Sensing (DAS) has been increasingly utilized to build relationships in
complex geophysics environments by utilizing continuous measurement along fiber optic cables with
high spatial resolution and a frequency response of up to 10 KHz. DAS, as fiber optic technology
examining backscattered light from a laser emitted inside the fiber and measuring strain changes,
enables the performance of subsurface imaging in terms of real-time monitoring for Vertical Seismic
Profiling (VSP), reservoir monitoring, and microseismic event detection. This review examines the
most widely used fiber optic cables employed for DAS acquisition, namely Single-Mode Fiber (SMF)
and Multi-Mode Fiber (MMF), with the different deployments and scopes of data used in geophysics
Citation: Rafi, M.; Mohd Noh, K.A.; exploration. Over the years, SMF has emerged as a preferred type of fiber optic cable utilized for
Abdul Latiff, A.H.; Otchere, D.A.; DAS acquisition and, in most applications examined in this review, outperformed MMF. On the other
Tackie-Otoo, B.N.; Putra, A.D.; Riyadi, side, MMF has proven to be preferable when used to measure distributed temperature. Finally, the
Z.A.; Asfha, D.T. Application of
fiber optic cable deployment technique and acquisition parameters constitute a pivotal preliminary
Distributed Acoustic Sensing in
step in DAS data preprocessing, offering a pathway to improve imaging resolution based on DAS
Geophysics Exploration: Comparative
measurement as a future scope of work.
Review of Single-Mode and
Multi-Mode Fiber Optic Cables. Appl.
Keywords: fiber optic technology; distributed acoustic sensing (DAS); single-mode fiber (SMF);
Sci. 2024, 14, 5560. https://doi.org/
10.3390/app14135560
multi-mode fiber (MMF)

Academic Editor: Yoshiyuki Kaneda

Received: 18 March 2024

Revised: 23 May 2024 1. Introduction
Accepted: 24 May 2024 Subsurface imaging is a crucial aspect of geophysical exploration that involves char-
Published: 26 June 2024 acterizing the subsurface properties, which frequently contain essential information that
can be utilized for hydrocarbon exploration and event detection. Seismic and reservoir
monitoring activities offer geophysicists an array of data sources that can be examined
to extract essential details regarding the attributes and physical properties. The data fur-
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
nished by these sources can establish a connection with subsurface physical attributes,
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
either individually or synergistically. Other commonly used methods include well logging
This article is an open access article
for sonic and gamma-ray log for the characterization of reservoirs [1]. However, certain
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
data interpretations encompass intricate and non-linear characteristics. Seismic data pro-
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
vide detailed images of structural features present in the subsurface with high imaging
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ resolution, but their acquisition work is associated with high costs [2]. The information
4.0/). obtained from these data sources can be interpreted quantitatively in terms of subsurface

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 5560. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14135560 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 5560 2 of 27

physical properties to provide pivotal information. The engineering sector has developed
complex time- and cost-effective methods to infer geophysics measurements from seismic
and fiber optic technology. The oil and gas sector has been recognized as one of the major
players in adopting DAS technology to replace geophones in VSP, geophysics exploration
in applied machine learning (ML), and the monitoring of reservoir integrity and imaging
performance [3]. Numerous documented advantages of fiber optic technology surpass
those of conventional empirical correlations within the scope of geophysics exploration
through DAS [4,5]. The main reasons for these advantages of DAS include that it is a
valuable tool in geophysics exploration, offering improved performance, reliability, and
versatility compared to conventional empirical acquisition tools such as geophones [4].
DAS appears as an advanced seismic technology that utilizes fiber optic cable along
the measurement length to detect acoustic waves. This makes it useful for continuous
sensing, with the ability to perform real-time monitoring. This real-time monitoring of fiber
optic cables by DAS helps achieve savings in terms of finances, time, and equipment. An
elevated and refined subsurface imaging process necessitates a substantial and sustained
level of resolution for further analysis and interpretation. This resilience serves to mitigate
potential losses in terms of human resources and investments [6]. Over the past two
decades, DAS has been utilized with typical fiber optic cables made of two important parts,
namely a silica glass core and silica glass cladding. The two major types of fiber optics used
for DAS applications are SMF and MMF [7]. This review focuses on these fiber types.
Over the years, SMF has evolved as a type of fiber optic cable in DAS systems for
various applications and is commonly used in subsurface seismic monitoring. The most
widely used technique for SMF employed in DAS is the detection principle of Rayleigh
backscattered light. This technique enables distributed strain sensing, where the fiber optic
cable itself acts as the sensing element in DAS. This allows for the detection of acoustic
frequency strain signals over large distances [8]. This capability of DAS can be applied to
address various applications requiring distributed strain sensing [9]. Some advantages of
using SMF is that it reduces signal dispersion and external interference, and SMF with a
single light input can reduce light scattering. On the other hand, the main disadvantage of
SMF is the presence of tighter tolerances that create coupling light due to the smaller size
of the fiber core [3,10].
According to Bisyarin et al. (2017), the revolution in fiber optic sensing technology
has brought about a paradigm shift in distributed multi-parameter acquisition, accompa-
nied by applications that harness its potential [11]. This distributed sensing technology
has been effectively applied in many industries and has attracted interest from industry
practitioners all over. MMF has been effectively implemented in reservoir environments
to monitor and enhance VSP. The use of fiber optics for VSP surveys for optimum data
enhancement has evolved into a reasonably established application for DAS [12,13]. Some
merits of these fiber optic technologies include their capability within a narrow instrument
deployment, offering distinct advantages, such as small size, light weight, immunity to
electromagnetic interference (EMI), and embedding capability [14–17]. Therefore, in this
paper, we provide a comprehensive comparative review of the use of SMF and MMF in
geophysics exploration. The literature research used in this review is dependent on the
type of geophysics exploration conducted, mostly focused on the deployment of fiber optic
cables, as well as their performance and measurement efficiency, amongst other parameters.
This comparative review also considers the ML approach using data acquired from both
types of optic cable.

1.1. Aim and Scope

Currently, there is no specific comparative review regarding the performance of these
fiber optic cables based on DAS measurement and the desired output within the scope of
relevant geophysics exploration. Hence, the primary objective of this review is to provide
a comparative overview of the relative performance and evaluation of SMF and MMF
in geophysics exploration based on VSP, reservoir monitoring, and microseismic event
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 5560 3 of 27

detection in terms of ML processing. Accordingly, this review presents a comparison of

SMF and MMF in terms of acquisition factors like spatial resolution, cable deployment
method, and measurement result particularly tailored to the applications. The advantages
and limitations of using SMF and MMF for subsurface imaging in DAS measurement are
also highlighted, as each cable type has certain advantages. The pertinent information
regarding their comparative performance will help in the selection of suitable fiber optic
cables for deployment in DAS data acquisition for future geophysics exploration research.
The combined deployment of SMF and MMF cable for subsurface imaging is also reviewed
to distinguish the utility of each cable when deployed in the same fiber optic cables. This
review also aims to enhance the application of SMF and MMF in geophysics exploration
when DAS data acquisition is applied for each type of fiber optic cable using an ML
algorithm, as it provides the best choice in terms of improving prediction, minimizing error,
and generating a high-accuracy model for geophysics exploration.
This paper comprehensively reviews the application of fiber optic cables in DAS
paradigms, assessing their effectiveness and potential for subsurface imaging over conven-
tional geophysics exploration methods such as seismic and VSP geophone applications.
The literature forming the foundation of this review was selected based on a search of vari-
ous geoscience and electrical engineering academic databases, such as Geoscience World,
Society of Exploration Geophysics journal, and IEEE Xplore. Accordingly, we used specific
keywords, which include SMF, MMF, and specific applications in geophysics. Based on the
literature search conducted for this review paper, most of the SMF and MMF geophysics
applications are DAS VSP or fiber optic cables deployed along the wellbore instead of
surface DAS. Therefore, most of the reviewed papers discuss DAS VSP. The innovation of
enhancing the fiber optic cable data efficiency of these DAS data processing frameworks
through an ML approach is also reviewed. This review also present the conclusions of our
comparative study, as well as possible routes for the future development of optimized DAS
data for various applications in geophysics exploration.
Other types of fiber optic cables, like Few-Mode Fiber (FMF), are also applicable as
a sensing medium in optical fiber sensing [18]. FMF cable has the advantage of having a
higher nonlinear threshold level, as well as a higher capture fraction for scattered light [11].
However, FMF can have larger splicing loss compared to SMF, which can negatively
impact its performance and might cause coupling between modes, which can degrade its
performance in DAS systems, although it can be useful for other applications [19]. The
selection of these two fiber optic cable types stems from the fact that SMF is the most
utilized in DAS acquisition, whereas MMF has lower consumed costs associated with its
devices and components that are installed during acquisition; furthermore, the coupling
light input of MMF requires less stringent tolerances, corresponding to its distributed
temperature sensing (DTS) ability [12].

1.2. Brief Explanation of DAS

The adoption of fiber optic technology to address subsurface monitoring problems
has gained significant traction across various industries, including the petroleum sector.
While most studies published using DAS as fiber optic technology have focused on fibers
deployed in wells, several studies have explored oil and gas production and CO2 seques-
tration. The implementations reported in these studies were designed for microseismic
monitoring during hydraulic fracturing [20,21], repeatable VSP imaging [10,22,23], or fluid
flow monitoring through production [10]. A notable discovery from this research indicates
the significance of installation techniques; cables securely clamped to the well’s side exhib-
ited superior performance compared to loosely laid straight fibers, and cables embedded in
cement outperformed clamped cables [22]. Ideally, geophysicists should be able to use a
dense array of high-resolution, multi-component receivers. However, the deployment and
sustainable maintenance costs of such an array might be difficult, particularly in crowded
areas where permitting permission is more challenging to maintain and theft and damage
to sensors are more significant concerns. In terms of these objectives, the fiber optic cable
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 5560 4 of 27

deployment methods exhibited substantial variation, with less emphasis on standardizing

installation techniques for diverse near-surface and shallow seismic recording objectives
due to the high-spatial-resolution advantage compared to more concerted efforts among
geoscientists engaged in downhole seismic recording [24]. Fiber optic cables can be effec-
tively buried within a trench or even placed within an existing telecommunications conduit,
mitigating potential permitting issues. Trenching burial for surface DAS measurement is
the most common deployment of fiber optic cables to increase coupling with the ground
due to its measurement sensitivity [7].
DAS applications for subsurface imaging have undergone great development due
to the improvements in geophysics exploration, starting from the year of 2000, when
the author of [25] introduced fiber optic seismic sensors to conduct field experiments.
A summary of research applying DAS for geophysics exploration throughout years is
illustrated in Figure 1 below. Furthermore, DAS fiber optic cables were initially deployed
within the wellbore; utilized for well monitoring [26]; and deployed in unconventional
reservoirs for hydraulic fracturing monitoring [27], trials of DAS VSP [23], microseismic
detection [21], and DAS for the assessment of CO2 storage [28].

Figure 1. Research progress of DAS in geophysics exploration [21,23,25–29].

The latest progress of DAS techniques has also been described with respect to ML [29],
including a study of the application of ML algorithms in pipeline surveillance systems
based on DAS measurement. Further research activity within the scope of ML in the coming
years is expected to be applied to DAS data with a robust grounding in the utilization of
thorough methodologies.
DAS employs a single-laser interrogator unit powered by a single source to investigate
data acquired through fiber optic cables. This probing process derives an axial strain-rate
profile along the fiber over time, transforming it into an array of numerous seismic sensors
with a density spanning only a short distance. Subsequently, an interrogator unit linked to
one end of the fiber consistently emits brief laser pulses through the fiber, as depicted in Fig-
ure 2. Reflected photons are then subjected to interferometry with the transmitted reference
pulse, resulting in a quasi-linear phase shift proportionate to the total strain along the fiber’s
direction. A laser repeatedly pulses a short distance into the cable; then, an optical interfer-
ometry sensor captures the backscattered light and gates that signal into short segments
in time, correlating changes in the backscattered light signal at the two-way travel time of
light in the fiber to a location in the fiber. Changes from one ping of the fiber to the next
are converted into changes in the strain-rate profile [22]. Furthermore, the optical instru-
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 5560 5 of 27

mentation is comparable to optical time-domain reflectometry (OTDR) technology [24].

Figure 2. Schematic diagram of DAS measurement using the OTDR principle to detect the seismic
wave incident.

The signal is segmented into channels, leading to data comprising time series that
reflect the strain within individual fiber optic channels. The optical interferometric sensing
process involves the tallying of photons across a certain gauge length. Over this range,
optical phase shifts are measured, and the results indicate a nearly linear relationship with
the degree of stretching or compression of the corresponding fiber section [30]. Channels
might overlap if the gauge length value exceeds the channel spacing. When devising an
interrogator unit or deciding on the emerging trade-offs of recording parameters, an ex-
panded gauge length might compromise spatial data resolution but concurrently diminish
statistical uncertainty across the gauge, whereas a narrower channel spacing has the poten-
tial to augment spatial resolution but might result in challenging data volume management
and data processing. The main reasons for further research on the principle and processing
of DAS are to enhance computational efficiency and set optimized acquisition parameters.

2. Single-Mode Fiber (SMF)

2.1. Theory and Sensing Principle
SMF is a common type of fiber optic cable in DAS systems. Within an SMF, the core
glass typically maintains a diameter of approximately 9 µm, ensuring the predominance of
a solitary, straight signal propagation path along the fiber. Silica, a form of glass, remains
the predominant and most widely used material for fiber optics. Silica’s suitability for fiber
optic cables is attributed to its exceptional characteristics, including extremely low optical
attenuation (signifying minimal loss of light intensity) and its ability to be drawn into
fragile fibers while maintaining remarkable tensile strength [31]. However, it is noteworthy
that SMF facilitates the propagation of two polarization-state modes that are orthogonal and
degenerate. In this scenario, the total power is distributed between these two polarization
modes [7]. In this context, the relative phase relationships of the two polarization states can
undergo alterations due to variations in elastic stress and temperature along the fiber. This
phenomenon holds particular significance in interferometric sensing applications, notably
in scenarios like DAS.
Utilizing such fiber optics results in exceedingly feeble Rayleigh backscattered light,
causing the optical sensing signal’s signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) to be notably diminished,
ultimately leading to poor SNR conditions [9]. Moreover, due to the activation of a laser
pulse with a slim linewidth and heightened coherence in the fiber, the interference arising
from Rayleigh scattering points within a single pulse gives rise to interference cancellation.
This phenomenon leads to the coherent attenuation of backscattered light, consequently
creating a loss zone along the sensing range [32]. Recently, efforts have been directed toward
addressing the limitations of low SNR values and the susceptibility to phase demodulation
in SMF DAS systems. Various noise attenuation technologies, including coherent fading,
have been developed to counter these issues by performing median filtering in the data
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 5560 6 of 27

preprocessing step [7]. However, these advancements have augmented system complexity
and elevated costs, entailing trade-offs in terms of the response frequency band and sensing
range [33,34]. Furthermore, it is important to improve the efficiency of the sensing fiber.
The development of specialized fibers tailored for DAS technology presents substantial
potential for future advancements [9]. When a pulse wave is emitted along the fiber, it
induces axial strain, resulting in a change in the phase of the Rayleigh backscattering signal
within the fiber. The concept of Ryleigh scattering is a type of elastic scattering that does
not involve nonlinear effects, and Rayleigh-scattered light from a distinct location might be
differentiated by its reflection time back to the fiber launch point. The optical fiber phase
extraction technique, which is specifically reliant on phase-sensitive OTDR, has become
widely used within DAS systems [35,36].

2.2. Limitations of SMF

Although SMF DAS technology has found applications in diverse fields in subsurface
imaging, including reservoir monitoring, microseismic event detection, and oil exploration,
and boasts attributes like distributed detection, superior spatial resolution, and heightened
sensitivity, it still grapples with limitations arising from interference fading and inadequate
signal consistency. When a seismic wave strikes the optical fiber, axial strain is produced by
the fiber [9]. This results in a phase difference of the Rayleigh backscattering; Equation (1)
shows the relation between axial strain and the SMF optical-phase difference, referring to
the photoelastic effect.
n2
 
∆φ = β 1 − ( p12 + 2p11 ) ∆X (1)
2
where p12 and p11 are fiber tensor coefficients, n is the fiber refraction index, and β is light
propagation. The phase difference between points C and D can be measured, and the
quantitative parameter of the acoustic seismic signal can be identified. Specifically, when
the pulse-width value is short enough upon measuring the arrival time of the backscattered
light, the Rayleigh backscattering signals originating from points C and D (Figure 3) can be
identified. An emitted laser travels through the SMF core glass with minimum scattering
in a single, simple path and is highly sensitive to axial strain changes in response to the
seismic wave signal. The probe pulse defines a pulse width, and because the probe lights
increased coherence, the Rayleigh scattering signals from scattering points within this
pulse width often interfere with one another [9,37]. The interference outcome of Rayleigh
scattering merely portrays a segment of the fiber in proximity to points C and D.

Figure 3. The sensing principle of SMF cable in DAS.

The presence of inhomogeneous doping during the optical fiber’s fabrication intro-
duces randomness to the Rayleigh scattering interference pattern, thereby exerting an
inevitable influence on the efficacy of phase demodulation. To precisely characterize the
Rayleigh scattering phenomenon within SMF, researchers formulated a dedicated scattering
model for SMF [38]. In cases where interference signals undergo interference cancellation,
the signal’s intensity weakens, leading decreased optical SNR. This cancellation in light
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 5560 7 of 27

intensity eventually brings it to the level of acquisition noise, effectively submerging the
demodulated phase information within the noise domain. This phenomenon gives rise to a
region of blind detection termed interference fading. Furthermore, owing to the stochastic
nature of the reflectivity amplitude associated with the corresponding scattering point, the
positions corresponding to the signals received at different time instances show variance [9].
In essence, the unpredictability inherent in the intensity and positioning of Rayleigh scatter-
ing within conventional SMF engenders challenges like interference fading and insufficient
temporal consistency of the signal in DAS. These issues hinder the seamless execution of
exact sound wave tracing, particularly when scrutinizing the inherent attributes of the
medium’s interior [32].

3. Multi-Mode Fiber (MMF)

3.1. Theory and Sensing Principle
MMF is another typical type of telecommunication fiber used in DAS systems. Differ-
ing from SMF, MMF has notably larger glass cores, typically ranging from 50 µm to 62.5 µm
in diameter (Figure 4). These large core sizes facilitate the phenomenon of multipathing,
wherein multiple paths of light allow for propagation within the fiber. Hence, multiple
lasers propagate within larger glass cores, increasing the dispersion of lasers and light
collected back by the DAS interrogator unit. The optical source is essential, with as many
as several hundred modes, each accounting for a proportion of the total power being trans-
mitted. Owing to the larger core size of MMF, a significantly greater amount of light can be
efficiently introduced into the fiber. Each light pulse experiences temporal spreading due
to intermodal distortion or intermodal delay in MMF. This phenomenon restricts the fiber’s
maximum length or bandwidth product and also makes MMF measure for a wider range of
angles of incident and modes in fiber optics. The limitation primarily stems from chromatic
dispersion caused by a non-zero-source spectral linewidth. Optical sources are defined
by their small spectral bandwidths and are extensively more preferred in long-distance
fiber optic sensing systems. This choice is based on their high modulation speed, optical
power-coupling efficiency, and minimum wave chromatic dispersion characteristics [7].

Figure 4. The sensing principle of MMF cable in DAS.

Despite its sensing principle, MMF can accommodate several hundred modes, with
the entirety of these modes collectively contributing to its sensing capabilities. This is
primarily due to the simpler approach of diminishing intermodal coupling by augmenting
the discrepancy between the propagation constant values of individual modes [39]. The
sensing principle of MMF that causes a phase difference in Rayleigh backscattering is the
same as that of SMF, as mentioned in Equation (1); however, the measured axial strain is
different and might affect the data resolution [40].
In contrast to SMF, MMF has achieved extensive and broad prevalence due to its
inherent insensitivity to alignment and cost-effectiveness. Consequently, MMF finds wider
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 5560 8 of 27

use, particularly in short-distance applications [22]. A notable instance is the installation of

numerous MMFs in general hydrocarbon wells for diverse applications, including DTS [41].
A study highlighted the utilization of an MMF to measure concurrently distributed sensing
of acoustic signals and temperature variations. This exemplified the capability of MMF
in easing applications within the scope of DAS [42]. The capabilities of MMF have been
utilized in the last few years for DTS applications [40]. Contrary to SMF, MMF stands as the
favored platform for DTS measurements. This preference is mostly caused by the substan-
tial specific area and high threshold power of nonlinearity present in standard MMF. These
attributes enable the sustenance of requisite high injected pump power without compromis-
ing the overall performance of DTS systems that measure differences in backscattered light
according to changes in temperature [22]. The work reported in [39] showed a compromise
of MMF in performing DTS measurement, resulting a high spatial resolution and the de-
sired temperature variation across extended measurement distances. This configuration
involved the development of a fiber optic DAS using phase-sensitive OTDR.

3.2. Limitations of MMF

The use of fiber optic cables has experienced significant growth and progress in the
past few decades, primarily owing to their distinctive advantages in terms of suitability
for operation in challenging environments. In various sensing applications demanding
the utilization of high optical power, standard MMF is employed, as it possesses a no-
table nonlinearity threshold [43]. Conversely, employing MMF as a main alternative for
multi-parameter DAS is sometimes not advisable because of the significant and frequently
unpredictable intermodal coupling associated with MMF. This intermodal coupling in-
variably introduces noise into most MMF-based sensors [44], demanding complex control
systems [45]. In terms of mode-dependent absorption sensing, the intensities of the modes
in MMF undergo rapid fluctuations throughout the fiber due to intermodal coupling,
even in the absence of interaction with a measured parameter. As a result, intermodal
coupling’s impact can significantly reduce the effectiveness of MMF mode-dependent,
absorption-based sensors [46].
Optical fiber designed for sensing implementation requires two different operation
principles and systems, specifically Rayleigh scattering for DAS and Raman scattering
for DTS [47,48]. In contrast to a Raman signal, Rayleigh scattering exhibits comparatively
higher intensity and does not demand the same elevated pump power levels required by
DTS systems [49]. Hence, when below the fiber’s nonlinearity threshold, it is feasible to
use MMF for DAS measurement. However, the efficacy of DAS depends on the coherent
interference of Rayleigh signals reflected by scattering centers on the cable throughout the
fiber optic [48]. In this context, MMF introduces notable levels of noise within DAS images.
The reason for this is that a common MMF accommodates the propagation of a significant
number of modes, and each of these modes possesses a distinctive interference pattern.
These patterns collectively generate a resultant Rayleigh signal that remains independent
of vibrations [46].
The type of fiber optic cables in DAS measurement has a significant impact on the
acquisition of data, and each type has advantages and limitations that affect DAS data.
Table 1 summarizes the trade-offs between SMF and MMF discussed above.
Table 1. Summary of advantages and limitations for each fiber optic cable type.

Fiber Optic Cable Type Advantages Limitations

Most widely used in DAS monitoring and imaging
Sensitive into acquisition optical noise
SMF Higher spatial resolution
Lower signal loss that minimizes signal attenuation Interference fading
Capable of DTS measurement Unpredictable signal that can produce noisy data
MMF Lower manufacturing cost
Intermodal coupling due to multiple paths of laser travel
Suitable for sort-distance DAS measurement
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 5560 9 of 27

4. Application of Fiber Optic Cables in Geophysics Exploration

4.1. VSP of SMF
Single-mode researchers such as the authors of [23] have introduced DAS for borehole
seismic applications. DAS has the potential to expand beyond its initial use and encompass
other surveillance domains, including production and completion reservoir monitoring.
This extension is made feasible by leveraging existing fiber optic networks for enhanced
data acquisition and monitoring capabilities. However, applying a suitable DAS data
acquisition and processing workflow is also crucial in obtaining the best images; hence,
many papers have utilized diverse DAS outputs that are applicable to exploration activity.
VSP data are used to complement seismic data through the process of separating the signals
from multiple sources that overlap in time and were acquired by deploying seismic sensors
in a wellbore and recording the response of the subsurface to a controlled seismic source [50].
Figure 5 shows a schematic deployment for land VSP acquisition. DAS offers the distinct
advantage of remarkable spatial sampling, spanning the complete length of a well.

Figure 5. Schematic layout of a typical land DAS VSP acquisition system modified in [28].

Furthermore, as the underlying technology, SMF optic cable presents enhanced robust-
ness compared to conventional geophones. This robustness mitigates the potential hazards
of deploying mechanical and electrical components within a well [51]. This makes SMF
an excellent tool for replacing geophones, providing subsurface properties, in addition to
having been used widely in various subsurface applications.
In 2015, the authors of [52] located an indication of a reservoir of the Aquistore CO2
geological storage project through elementary imaging using DAS in Paleozoic carbonates
and Mesozoic sandstones and shales. SMF optical fiber cables were permanently installed
inside steel tubing, strapped behind casing, and cemented in placed in observation wells
during completion, even though it was only the fiber optic cable deployed in the observa-
tion well that eventually operated well. SMF within the observation well was employed to
conduct comparisons with geophone VSP measurements. A processing framework was
executed for each shot obtained through both DAS and conventional geophones. The
general processing framework encompassed trace balancing; correction for spherical diver-
gence, notches, and low-pass filtering; and a frequency-wavenumber filtering algorithm
of the down-going wavefield. To compare it with geophones, DAS trace gathering was
superimposed with the geophone traces within a specific depth range. SMF DAS and
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 5560 10 of 27

vertical-component geophone traces were also imaged for analysis. The results indicated
that geophone data distinctly showcase a higher SNR than DAS data. However, it is worth
noting that the DAS for SMF SNR has significant room for enhancement through the appli-
cation of noise attenuation techniques and the averaging of data over cable lengths, as it
is used in geophone results. In contrast, numerous equivalent reflections are obscured by
noise within the DAS data for the same depth range. However, DAS still has the advantage
of potentially replacing many geophones within one SMF. This may potentially generate
subsurface images by notably enhancing spatial resolution and coverage when compared to
traditional geophones. Moreover, this improved performance can be achieved at a relatively
lower cost.
DAS VSP has also proven to be useful in acquiring VSP data in carbon capture and
geological storage (CCS) projects [53]. By applying multiwell 3D DAS VSP data acquired at
the CO2 CRC Otway, DAS data were processed and analyzed for their applicability for con-
tinuous lime-lapse monitoring of CO2 injection. The acquisition process was performed by
deploying four SMF cables cemented along the well, where two SMF cables were connected
with constellation fiber (CF) and each SMF cable was connected to an iDAS v3 interrogator
unit. The DAS data were recorded under a strain rate with a 5 m depth interval and corre-
lated with vibroseis source sweep data, enabling first-breaks picking. Further DAS VSP
data processing included vertical stacking until 3D migration and plotting with 3D seismic
cross sections. This helped in clearly imaging the key stratigraphy horizon and CO2 injec-
tion target within the SMF cable. This resulted in a good correspondence in the seismic
reflectors in the datasets while comparing a 3D DAS VSP image with surface 3D seismic
imaging. The 3D DAS VSP shows higher image resolution and provides enhanced precision
in determining the depth of reflectors within the well area. Therefore, the implementation
of multiwell DAS VSP emerges as a viable approach for continuous monitoring systems.
The results of multiwell DAS VSP could have been improved by taking more action to
tackle missing seismic volumes from different typical wells.
In 2016, the authors of [54] conducted research to validate DAS VSP data integrity
with a conventional geophone at the Aquistore site for subsurface CO2 storage. This data
acquisition used an SMF cable with a total fiber length of 5.4 km, and the configuration
involved the embedding of the initial portion of the cable near the surface, while the
subsequent section was permanently cemented behind casing and vertically positioned
along the cable deployment. The acquisition also involved active sources, such as dynamite
and vibroseis, to cover entire boreholes. Each near offset and far offset shot were applied
to dynamite shot gather to indicate direct arrival, reflection events, and ground roll in
shallow sections. These three DAS events were compared with geophones in terms of noise
characterization and identified the noise as optical system noise, optical fading, common
mode noise, or checkerboard noise. Initially, the raw DAS data on strain rate were also
converted to geophone-equivalent units to achieve a good comparison of the two raw
data acquisitions for further assessment. Both up- and down-going events managed to
match the polarity between geophone and DAS data. The up- and down-going wave
separation might have been enhanced by a suitable denoising filter between the two input
trace gathers. The result indicated that converting DAS VSP data to equivalent geophone
data can help with the up- and down-going separation step without using deep filters.
With the mitigation of depth calibration in seismic DAS, the data processing workflow can
be improved.
The authors of [55] carried out a DAS VSP field survey to evaluate the effectiveness
of fiber optic DAS by comparing four cable deployment approaches, namely with cables
behind the well casing, behind an inflatable liner, clamped to production tubing, and
deployed with wireline logging. The SMF cable was lowered along the well with a different
approach and connected to a DAS interrogator. To generate seismic waves, active sources
were employed using P-wave and an Envirovibe S-Wave Vibrator. During the final imaging
of VSP for Common Depth Point (CDP) transform, DAS data attenuation accrued for all
cable deployment methods. Noise attenuation reduced the SNR, influencing the quality
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 5560 11 of 27

of the seismic image. The results indicated that the deployment method with the fiber
cable cemented behind casing was considered the most effective method for cable coupling
with the subsurface layer, with a high-quality generated image in the pre-defined velocity
model. Such an improvement can be generated by a depth-calibrated SMF cable against a
reference to account for source statics resulting from variations in elevation. This correction
was essential in achieving optimal resolution in the subsurface imaging.
Further DAS measurement research was carried out by the authors of [56] to conduct
real-time DAS VSP acquisition and processing using an SMF cable with seismic-source
synchronization and real-time DAS data processing to provide contemporary work. The
SMF cables were deployed outside the casing in vertical and lateral sections along the
wellbore. The configuration of the DAS system used a homodyne DAS interrogator, which
was systematically connected to fiber stretchers. This configuration was used for its capacity
to integrate all supplementary seismic source signals that directly connected into the optical
data stream while the obtained data were in velocity. This integration was accomplished
with a sequence of piezoelectric fiber stretchers positioned in line with the SMF cable. The
DAS system was able to continuously monitor the stretching fiber. The DAS maximum
data sampling frequency for SMF was able to reduce the noise power spectral density
of the DAS data stream to achieve real-time processing. The data processing workflow
was conducted by converting raw DAS data to strain rate with weighted stacking for
certain shot points and correlated with vibroseis sweep wavelets and common-mode noise
denoising in SEG-Y format. The signal strength for SMF cable from DAS VSP shot records
was computing SNR in the first break, and the noise level from RMS energy indicated a
lower SNR along the channel. The findings demonstrated that utilizing an SMF cable in a
DAS system facilitates an efficient data acquisition process and enables real-time generation
of seismic and navigation data sampled at specific intervals. These DAS data adhere to
geophysics seismic data formats, reducing the time delay between data acquisition and the
transfer of field data outputs.
Reservoir Monitoring of SMF
Fiber optic applications have achieved remarkable outcomes when deployed in high-
spatial-resolution seismic sensors using cost-effective telecommunications fiber optics
installed along the drilled well to monitor hydrocarbon reservoirs [57–59]. Permanently
installing a seismic array cable within a borehole can streamline equipment deployment,
decrease operational complexities, and offer notable advantages such as enhanced repeata-
bility and the potential for real-time data acquisition [60]. SMF has been widely used to
monitor reservoirs in various subsurface targets.
Research was conducted to evaluate DAS image quality of subsea carbon storage
reservoirs and assess monitoring design concepts [61]. Subsea DAS was deployed within
a single ultra-low-loss signal transmission SMF cable through subsea infrastructure that
connects the DAS interrogator unit to a borehole SMF deployed within a dual-transmission
SMF with a remote circulator. This concept was employed to counteract diminished
optical signals by using an enhanced backscatter of SMF. The synthetic shot records were
augmented with raw DAS records in terms of optical noise to replicate the varying SNR in
SMF scenarios, namely a base case involving a dry tree with common SMF and a subsea
scenario entailing a single transmission fiber and common SMF. The subsea environment
with a single transmitting fiber and standard SMF had a negative value of net DAS noise
gain and lower DAS pulse repetition rate loss. The alteration in the DAS noise floor within
the context of the two scenarios involving SMF was assessed by analyzing the overall gains
or losses resulting from various physical factors influencing system performance. The
result highlighted the repercussions of low SNR in terms of subsea DAS image resolution.
The authors concluded that employing a single transmitting fiber with standard SMF
was not preferable for the subsea environment, especially for characterizing reservoir
formations. The single signal transmitted in fiber optics with standard SMF was filled with
noise, in contrast with the other situation for subsea transmission fiber. These findings can
inform the selection of reservoir monitoring and data acquisition designs using SMF during
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 5560 12 of 27

offshore reservoir research. A possible further improvement of subsea DAS is enhancement

by selecting an appropriate vendor of DAS SMF interrogator units to handle noise. This
would involve the choice of a relevant interrogator vendor before conducting the subsea
DAS survey.
Subsequently, a DAS SMF with active sources generated by rotary seismic sources
was applied to facilitate autonomous permanent reservoir monitoring in the CO2 CRC
Otway Field Site, Australia [62], by utilizing rotary seismic data as an active source that
accurately controls routinely operated signal systems (ACROSS) [63,64]. The DAS data
were continuously collected and recorded in five wells with SMF cable cemented behind
the casing and underwent automated processing at the close of each day. The data collected
through the permanent reservoir monitoring system using DAS SMF and rotary seismic
receivers yielded a notably higher SNR ranging from roughly 50 dB to over 100 dB for
near-offset data shot. The DAS using SMF cable successfully showcased favorable data
quality attributes, encompassing SNR and data repeatability. This was evident in time-lapse
operations for the monitoring carried out using the DAS system. This research can be
improved by enhancing the spectral-frequency content of seismic data by using dual-motor
rotary seismic sources, subsequently combining high-resolution images for time-lapse
acquisitions and the achievement of a high SNR for autonomous reservoir monitoring.
Research applying SMF cables to VSP input DAS data is summarized in Table 2 below.
Table 2. Summary of VSP applications of SMF cables in relevant studies.

Authors Scope of Work SMF Deployment Outcome

Installed inside steel tubing, Comparison of seismic images obtained by a
Harris et al. [52] DAS VSP strapped to the casing, and baseline DAS and traditional geophone VSP at
cemented in the well a CO2 storage site
3D DAS VSP imaging of key stratigraphy
Yurikov et al. [53] 3D DAS VSP Cemented along the four wells
horizon and CO2 injection target
Conversion of DAS VSP data to equivalent
Permanently cemented geophone data proved to help in the up- and
Olofsson and Martinez [54] DAS VSP
behind casing down-going separation step without using
deep filters
Four deployments strategies:
cemented behind casing, cable Cementing the fiber cable behind casing was
Mad et al. [55] DAS VSP behind an inflatable liner, considered the most effective method for
strapped to production tubing, coupling with the subsurface formation
and wireline deployment
Utilization of SMF cable in the DAS system
Permanently deployed behind
facilitated efficient data management and
Ellmauthaler et al. [56] Real-time DAS VSP casing in vertical and lateral
enabled real-time generation of seismic and
sections of a well
navigation data sampled at specific intervals
Attached to subsea
The repercussions of increased noise on the
Wilson et al. [61] Subsea reservoir monitoring infrastructure and deployed
subsea DAS image quality
in a borehole
Evident in time-lapse operations carried out
Autonomous permanent Cemented behind casing inside
Correa et al. [62] using the DAS SMF system with favorable
reservoir monitoring a borehole
data quality attributes and encompassing SNR

4.2. Microseismic Monitoring of SMF

The use of DAS fiber optic sensing technology has been demonstrated to be efficient
in providing sufficient sensitivity to detect a significant subsurface event. In such scenarios,
established reservoir surveillance techniques, including subsurface seismic imaging and
microseismic analysis, are employed. Each of these techniques possesses its own set of
advantages and drawbacks, collectively contributing to an enhanced comprehension of the
treatment processes [65]. The analysis result of the DAS images shows that contemporary
optical fiber technology offers sufficiently higher sensing sensitivity to measure a notable
count of microseismic events. These events can then be integrated with data pertaining to
the strain rate and temperature changes, as demonstrated by previous research [66]. The
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 5560 13 of 27

researchers applied SMF cable to analyze microseismic events in a single horizontal DAS
using guided waves [67]. The DAS data were acquired with an OTDR interrogator unit
conducting on SMF and measuring in terms of strain rate. The acquisition parameters
were1 m channel spacing and 10 m gauge length, with 2000 samples per second. The
SMF cables were installed in a single horizontal well outside the casing in a deviated well
that expanded into an unconventional reservoir formation. SMF cable was also deployed
schematically with offset wells and vertical logging wells. With the aid of an ML learning
approach, the guided waves and DAS measurement were able to automatically detect
microseismic events with high accuracy. The microseismic events were detected based
on a localization process grounded in guided wave dispersion. These properties were
predicted in situ using known perforations as references. Directional measurement DAS
with SMF resolved the uncertainty in certain event locations with guided waves. The
result showed that SMF arrays have excellent potential for event detection due to their
spatial resolution and affection for microseismic events. The research output indicated that
the initial utilization of microseismic event localization using SMF could be achieved and
considered inept without a guided wave.

4.3. ML Application in SMF Processing

Efficient automated processing schemes for raw DAS data have achieved significant
importance. SMF cables have the capacity to consistently monitor acoustic signals and
vibrations across extensive distances, offering high sensitivity and an elevated update
rate [68,69]. DAS SMF measurement conventionally captures numerous complex backscat-
ter profiles in a short time and performs real-time data processing. Given the substantial
volume of generated data, it is essential to devise automatic, efficient, and precise tools for
signal processing. As optical data are complex, have a high bitrate, and must be processed
in real time, state-of-the-art machine learning techniques are ideal for extracting relevant
information [70]. Furthermore, ML can potentially decrease the amount of storage space
needed for data and minimize the time required for data processing to facilitate compre-
hensive analysis [71]. Figure 6 shows general ML processing applied to DAS data and
its output.

Figure 6. General ML processing workflow on DAS data.

Recent research reported in [72] applied classical ML and deep learning algorithms to
SMF DAS event detection. ML was compared with the deep learning result, and the benefits
and limitations of both methods were analyzed for each applied algorithm. The classical ML
workflow involved DAS data collection, preprocessing, feature extraction and classification,
model creation, tracking, and evaluation of event detection. DAS data were acquired using
a simple sensor unit with standard SMF and connected to an interferometer. SMF cable
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 5560 14 of 27

was deployed in a 17 km cable length, with a gauge length of 10 m and a phase-sensitive

OTDR interrogator unit. The DAS data were collected in a suburban area near Vienna,
Austria. The used ML algorithms were random forest, decision tree, and support vector
machine (SVM), while the deep learning algorithms were deep neural networks (DNNs)
and convolutional neural networks (CNNs). Deep learning techniques were employed for
SMF event detection, utilizing the ability to automatically extract relevant attributes from
the raw DAS data. This approach obviates the necessity for extensive domain knowledge.
The implementation of this method offers an achievable approach for optimum sensor
fusion in SMF sensors in DAS systems. A comparative analysis of outcomes between ML
and deep learning methodologies demonstrated that DAS could detect various continuous
events along the pipeline, such as human digging and tapping. Moreover, it can identify
significant events in other SMF systems.
Despite the numerous benefits, DAS data can still be contaminated by various types
of noise from the ambient environment and the optical instruments. Supervised ML tech-
niques were applied to target specific noise types to improve the SNR and denoising (noise
reduction) of DAS data [73]. Recent research implemented supervised ML method DAS-
N2N (Noise2Noise) to denoise DAS data without clean data [74]. The DAS data were
acquired in SMF cable laid out in a 1 km cable length, with sampling at 1000 Hz, channel
spacing of 1 m, and a 10 m gauge length. SMF cables placed within the cable jacket were
spliced at one end to build a looping cable. The results obtained from DAS-N2N were con-
trasted with the outcomes of conventional bandpass filtering. In this comparison, DAS-N2N
demonstrated its ability to attenuate noise within a frequency range identical to that of the
target signal, a task that frequency-based filtering cannot achieve. Furthermore, DAS-N2N
exhibited a processing speed approximately ten times faster than self-supervised learning
methods. The result indicated that DAS data are remarkably lightweight and efficient and
more capable of data processing compared to the acquisition time when fine-tuned with a
single GPU. DAS-N2N outperforms conventional frequency bandwidth filtering routines
enhanced using compiled low-level computation regarding processing speed. Further
improvement in SMF data imaging could be achieved by optimized supervised ML models
compiled and compressed for DAS processing on suitable high-performance devices and
edge networks, which will be appropriate for offshore or remote monitoring scenarios.
Table 3 highlights a summary of all research on SMF for microseismic monitoring and the
ML applications discussed above.
Table 3. Summary of microseismic and machine learning applications of SMF cable used in
relevant studies.

Authors Scope of Work SMF Deployment Outcome

Automatic detection of microseismic
Installed in a horizontal well behind
Karrenbach et al. [66] Microseismic event detection events with high accuracy in an
casing in a deviated drilled well
unconventional reservoir
Machine learning and deep learning
applied to DAS data could detect various
Bublin [72] Machine learning algorithm Laid out on a surface in a suburban area
intrusion events along the pipeline,
including manual digging and tapping
The supervised ML method was able to
Lapins et al. [74] Machine learning-assisted Deployed on the surface in an ice stream denoise DAS data automatically with a
higher SNR and faster processing speed

4.4. VSP of MMF

The subjectivity of VSP usually depends on the interpretation and calibration of the
downhole seismic arrays that can be addressed by applying fiber optic installations. Field
research in a hybrid wireline using MMF cable was conducted to assess the results of a
borehole seismic survey [75]. Two MMF cables with 62.5 µm core diameters were deployed
within a 5 km hybrid optical–electric wireline cable and connected via splicing at the cable
head. This fusion created a length of 10 km up-going and down-going DAS. A real-time
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 5560 15 of 27

active system source controller with a 6 kg dynamite shot triggered the DAS interrogator.
The recording configuration was established to capture measurements at intervals of 0.25 m,
with a sampling rate of 1 ms and encompassing 8 km along the MMF cable. The MMF cable
was set to acquire the strain rate (rate change) within the fiber as the physical property. Raw
DAS VSP data in the preprocessing step showed that there was a high coherence in MMF
cable slapping and ringing noise; this noise was further processed in the following VSP
sequence: seismic trace editing, denoising filter, spherical divergence correction, up–down
separation, and deconvolution. DAS walkaway VSP imaging data were processed to build
a velocity model. This resulted in a wider lateral image from a single well with a larger
vertical aperture than VSP with a geophone. The processing of DAS data yielded improved
outcomes, addressing certain practical challenges associated with the hybrid wireline in
borehole deployment. The result indicated that DAS with MMF cable walkaway VSP
provided an excellent result with vertical and lateral imaging resolution and managed to
detail the structure in the objective area. The application of MMF in the exploration field
can help minimize the operation costs of VSP in vertical wells, owing to its utilization of a
DAS system and its expanded applicability and reliability.
The authors of [56] used fiber optic installations with MMF cable for sensing according
to the principle of Raman DTS applied to real-time DAS VSP data acquisition and process-
ing. MMF cables were synchronized with seismic sources by directly encoding auxiliary
seismic signals onto the optical data stream. This was applied through the incorporation of
piezoelectric fiber optic stretchers aligned with the sensing fiber cables. Inside the schematic
interrogator unit, MMF cables were connected to SMF cables using an SM–MM converter.
MMF cables were deployed through the circulator and sensing fiber along a far offset of the
measurement. MMF was deployed as a scrambler to transfer energy from the fundamental
mode to all the (low-loss) modes. This is essential to increase the amount of light power
emitted. The DAS VSP shot record for MMF was recorded at a 16 kHz pulse rate and a
gauge length of 20 m. The MMF result, in terms of system performance, indicated that
MMF yielded a 2 dB reduction in SNR for DAS VSP, while the optical settings of DAS
interrogators were placed at 5 dB. This implies that MMF measurement managed to have
sufficient capacity for the DAS interrogator and acquired DAS VSP data in the MMF cable
with 8 dB loss. However, a limitation of the researchers findings is that the MMF installation
has shallow image due to the increase in attenuation with significant hydrogen darkening.
For future work, there should be a sufficient SM–MM converter for DAS sensing of MMF
deployed in legacy DTS installations to improve SNR and signal loss.
Reservoir Monitoring of MMF
Improving reservoir monitoring relies on many factors like real-time data analysis and
detailed subsurface imaging, leading to a better utilization of fiber optic technology. Accu-
rate imaging of these fiber optic measurement data is essential in lateral andvertical spatial
distributions in reservoir monitoring. In their advanced research on 4D reservoir monitor-
ing, the authors of [76] applied DAS 4D VSP to MMF cable in a deep-water environment
to reveal injected water-sweep dynamics. MMF was deployed in active wells to perform
detailed monitoring of the water flood injection in two deep hydrocarbon reservoirs in a
field in the Gulf of Mexico. In the technology trials, the research compared DAS VSP and
Ocean Bottom Node (OBN) to obtain the 4D imaging performance of the two data sources.
The DAS data were continuously measured over the years to understand the influence
of small active sources and active well noises in 3D and 4D DAS VSP on MMF imaging
resolution. The progression began with a DAS VSP recording in 2015 within an active
well while water flooding injection operations were ongoing. Subsequently, DAS fibers
captured in a P-cable trial featuring 300 events from three sources in early 2017 served as
benchmarks for additional iterations. Furthermore, in late 2017, a standalone DAS VSP
survey was conducted, distinct from the simultaneous OBN deployment, encompassing
three active injector wells. The measurements encountered additional challenging condi-
tions for DAS, including notable well deviation that resulted in diminished sensitivity to
desired reflections, as well as the presence of extended MMF lengths that contributed to
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 5560 16 of 27

heightened levels of optical noise. However, this measurement endeavor yielded crucial
insights into acquisition and processing methodologies. It was discovered that DAS 4D
images exhibited qualitative similarity to OBN 4D outcomes. Furthermore, the repeatability
of DAS images proved to be exceptional, as demonstrated by a well-controlled Normalized
Root Mean Square (NRMS). The reservoirs are sandstone reservoirs with turbidite deposits
with high-quality sands composed of different lobes with varying thicknesses across the
field located on deep-water acreage. The results of DAS MMF and OBN were compared
in two reservoirs within the same vertical conformity of the time-lapse signals in both
datasets. These results show that frequent 4D DAS VSP can assist in characterizing all
phases of a water flooding injection; the data were also used for sweep monitoring of
the evolution of the injector. On the other hand, the survey result demonstrated that the
associated costs remained reasonable, while the resultant seismic images proved to be
well-suited for monitoring the immediate surroundings of wells. These images facilitate
the assessment of injector performance, the evolution of sweep processes, the progression
of water towards producers, and the containment dynamics within the reservoir. However,
the study highlighted several limitations of DAS in MMF VSP regarding flow- and injection-
related well noise. Injection noise predominantly presents itself through the propagation
of robust tube waves along the wellbore, characterized by comparatively lower velocities
in DAS data. A data processing framework should be developed to incorporate insights
from 4D DAS VSP data modeling, adding well log data to extract physical properties of
reservoirs and consider the understanding of reservoir dynamics behavior. Nevertheless,
an improved 4D DAS VSP may offer a promising starting point for real-world DAS of
MMF for reservoir monitoring in a thick sand layer. Future research should delve into
comparative analyses with other active seismic sources, explore the deployment MMF cable
with evolving technologies, and assess DAS acquisition parameters involving deployment
in reservoirs. Table 4 below summarizes the works reviewed in this section.

Table 4. Summary of VSP applications of MMF cable used in relevant studies.

Author Scope of Work MMF Deployment Outcome

Deployed within hybrid Excellent vertical and lateral imaging
Yu et al. [75] DAS VSP
optical–electric wireline cable resolution and detailed subsurface structure
Permanently deployed behind casing Reduction in SNR for DAS VSP and MMF had
Ellmauthaler et al. [56] Real-time DAS VSP
in vertical and lateral sections of a well sufficient capacity for the DAS interrogator
DAS 4D images exhibited qualitative
similarity to OBN 4D outcomes and
Kiyashchenko et al. [76] 4D reservoir monitoring Deployed in active deep-water wells
subsurface images, facilitating the assessment
of water flood injection to the reservoir
Attached to subsea infrastructure The repercussions of increased noise for
Wilson et al. [61] Subsea reservoir monitoring
and deployed in a borehole subsea DAS image quality
Evident in time-lapse operations carried out
Autonomous permanent Cemented behind casing
Correa et al. [62] using the DAS SMF system, with favorable
reservoir monitoring inside a borehole
data quality attributes and encompassing SNR

4.5. Microseismic of MMF

Fiber optic cables have the capability to be permanently installed by cementing them
behind a protective casing or temporarily deployed using a wireline method [77,78]. Once
a fiber optic cable has been deployed in a downhole environment, it can serve various
functions, including the monitoring of microseismic activity. Despite the utilization of MMF,
DAS can effectively produce estimations and source mechanisms that provide sufficient
coverage for obtaining a singular-moment tensor solution in microseismic measurements.
Characterization of source parameter estimation using DAS with MMFrecorded microseis-
mic data was conducted in [79]. An MMF cable was deployed within a treatment well
located in the Meramec Shale Formation in Oklahoma. This cable spanned the whole
vertical distance of the well, extending from the surface down to the desired depth. Figure 7
shows an illustration of microseismic event measurement in hydraulic fracturing by DAS
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 5560 17 of 27

fiber optic cables. As a result, almost 1000 channels were recorded through this installation.
During the treatment of two wells, comprehensive measurements were conducted to assess
DTS, strain, and microseismic activity along the full depth of the wells. DAS on MMF
achieved excellent waveform imaging for two microseismic events with S-wave polarity
reversals. This is because DAS microseismic events with consistent amplitude patterns
were observed using event classification considering polarity reversals and horizontal
and vertical MMF distance along the fiber. The resulting variation in nodal planes for
DAS microseismic events showed a shear-wave amplitude pattern and even managed to
generate a nodal plane angle picked manually by considering the horizontal and vertical
axis distances of the microseismic event from the treatment well. The result of using DAS
for seismic monitoring indicated that the MMF was more accurate in characterizing source
features, specifically in estimating moment tensors. Future endeavors might to improve
signal processing techniques and consider anisotropy in subsurface properties and its
effects on the propagation of seismic waves detected by DAS systems.

Figure 7. Illustration of DAS microseismic detection for hydraulic fracturing measurement.

ML Application in MMF Processing

Machine learning methodologies have been extensively employed to enhance the
efficiency and precision of data processing [80–82]. Several ML strategies have been tested
in academic literature to increase the rate of processing of DAS microseismic data; another
such strategy is the utilization of deep learning [83].
The authors of [84] proposed a new and efficient data processing workflow for MMF
DAS microseismic data using an ML-assisted approach. A convolutional neural network
(CNN) algorithm allowed for microseismic event detection, and U-Net modeling was used
for both P- and S-wave arrival-time picking. MMF cables were previously deployed with
two multiwell DAS datasets acquired during hydraulic fracturing well completions in
western Canada. MMF was deployed using a 4 m gauge length, 4 m channel spacing, and
a 2000 Hz sampling rate, and data were converted to strain. The developed ML-assisted
workflow was highlighted in the event detection and 1D arrival time picking after raw
DAS data denoising. The results of applying the CNN algorithm were compared to the
conventional short-term average/long-term average (STA/LTA) approach and geophone
for microseismic event detection. The CNN detection method demonstrated a decreased
false-positive ratio, contributing to a reduction in the time required for quality control. This
makes it suitable for effectively handling the substantial volumes of data generated by DAS
MMF. The findings indicated that the CNN method exhibited a reduced false-trigger rate
and led to an expansion in the size of the microseismic event catalogue. A CNN model can
automatically detect microseismic events (hypocenter location) recorded by low-SNR DAS
with MMF cable data with excellent model accuracy and superior efficiency. Subsequently,
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 5560 18 of 27

the result of microseismic comparison with a 3C geophone revealed that DAS images
have a lower sensitivity in weak events and low frequencies compared to geophones. The
innovative aspect of this work lies in the implementation of ML algorithms, specifically
the CNN model workflow. This workflow can be retrained as additional data become
accessible, enabling the implementation of transfer learning. In other words, it becomes
feasible to train a network using DAS data from one well and subsequently apply it to DAS
data obtained from other wells. This approach presents an effective way to automatically
address the DAS processing workflow through the use of an imaging algorithm. The author
indicated that the limitation of this work was that the number event detection results of
the 3C geophone was more detectable than that of DAS-CNN. However, the outcomes
indicated reasonable counts of microseismic event occurrences observed during each step,
indicating the reliability of the CNN algorithm. Future work could focus on developing
more automated tools to make use of intricate phase data, including reflections, guided
waves, and coda waves. A summary of the relevant literature on microseismic detection
and ML can be found in Table 5 below.

Table 5. Summary of microseismic and machine learning applications of MMF cables in

relevant studies.

Authors Scope of Work MMF Deployment Outcome

Installed in a horizontal well behind Automatically detected microseismic events with
Karrenbach et al. [66] Microseismic events detection
a casing in a deviated drilled well high accuracy in an unconventional reservoir
Machine learning algorithm and CNN
Deployed on multiwell DAS
automatically detected microseismic events
Ma et al. [84] Machine learning algorithm datasets acquired during hydraulic
(hypocenter location) recorded in low-SNR
fracturing well completions
DAS data

4.6. Subsurface Imaging of Combined SMF and MMF

The development of subsurface imaging by utilizing DAS technology rely on many
elements, like fiber optic cables, which enable compatibility with an interrogator and data
acquisition. The selection of optical SMF and MMF for DAS measurement is contingent
upon the specific application and desired aim. Combined SMF and MMF have not been
widely employed for the purpose of DAS measurement as a prevalent practice. DAS
commonly depends on SMF cables, owing to its capacity to preserve signal integrity at
extended distances and deliver measurements with high resolution [79]. However, it is
conceivable that advancements have taken place in the scope of fiber optics and distributed
sensing, considering the potential evolution of technology and practices in subsurface
imaging. The combination of the two types of fiber optics is usually contained inside a
single cable equipped with optical SMF and MMF, where MMF is commonly used for DTS
measurements and SMF for DAS measurements.
The authors of [28] carried out simultaneous acquisition of DAS VSP with SFM and
MMF cables at the Aquistore CO2 storage facility. This field acquisition also utilized a
(3C) wireline geophone array for quantitative comparison with DAS measurement results.
The fiber optic cables comprised one MMF cable loop utilized for DTS measurements,
alongside one SMF cable employed for telemetry to downhole gauges and to conduct DAS
measurement. During the first well completion process, the cables were installed outside of
the well casing using cement. The simultaneous DAS VSP acquisitions of SMF were used
as data for the full 3D surface explosive survey as an active source, and MMF was used
for a significant fraction of the survey. All active sources shot data were measured with a
geophone array, and a 3C VSP geophone and DAS fiber optics were used for recording. The
obtained raw measurement data were recorded as strain rate, with further data processing
converting them to particle velocity for equivalence with geophones for comparison. The
SMF and MMF measurement results were compared within the same source shot map. The
comparison result indicated that that there was no quantitatively significant distinction in
the quality of the two recordings. However, it was observed that the SMF data exhibited
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 5560 19 of 27

a slightly higher level of noise. This discrepancy is likely attributed to a little variation
in the used interrogator units rather than being influenced by the type of fiber deployed.
Other findings include that MMF was quite efficient because of the numerous wellbores
in which MMF was deployed for DTS measurement. The comparison of DAS VSP data
with geophone response was consistent, showing similar trace gather within each shot
point. Further DAS VSP data processing in weighted stacking revealed in improvement
in SNR and 3D migrated DAS VSP imaging. Data acquired from SMF and MMF with
identical coupling in the fiber optic demonstrated comparable SNRs and sensitivity. The
comparable SNR and sensitivity of MMF installed in a borehole for DTS can be considered
for VSP acquisition as well. The result of DAS VSP migrated image volume in this field
acquisition at the Aquistore site for continuous monitoring can be expanded to 3D imaging
in future work.
In the study reported in [85], DAS measurements of seismic properties were conducted
on the Store Glacier ice sheets, recording englacial and subglacial seismic properties. DAS
measurements were recorded along seismic shots as an active survey to obtain P-waves
and S-waves at a depth of 1043 m in the formation, and VSP and data were sampled at
10 m with vertical resolution. The fiber optic cables were installed enclosed in a gel-filled,
stainless-steel capillary tube in a borehole on Store Glacier. This cable consisted of two
SMFs for DAS measurements and four MMFs for DTS measurements. The interrogator
unit was set to a 4000 Hz sampling frequency, with a sample length every 1 m along the
cable and a 10 m gauge length for approximately half the expected seismic wavelength.
A seismic source was generated using a sledgehammer along the shot 1 m away from
the well surface and 500 m offset from the wellbore. The fiber optic cables were recorded
continuously without any source. The DAS VSP measurements were able to image 0 m
offset and 300 m offset VSP and detect direct SV-waves and P-waves. The utilization of the
DAS recording technique facilitated the quantification of changes in the properties of P- and
SV-waves. This enabled the identification of transitions associated with ice-crystal fabric
and environmental temperature, which influenced the seismic signal. Additionally, the
presence of a subglacial layer composed of consolidated silt was successfully identified. The
measurement result indicated that DAS offers evident advantages in the characterization of
seismic properties of ice masses with a high image resolution. It is also worth noting that
DAS cables possess the capability to be monitored for DTS, enabling the combined analysis
of seismic and thermal data. Nevertheless, a limitation of DAS is the disadvantage of cables
in terms of applicability as a surfaced receiver in P-wave seismic surveys; however, the
ability of DAS to image distinct seismic responses at roughly 10 m intervals throughout
the ice column can compensate for these drawbacks. Subsequently, the deployment of
DAS interrogators incurs significant expenses, but these costs can be mitigated by the
resulting improvement in survey effectiveness. Once permanently deployed, the DAS cable
consists of SMF and MMF, enabling continuous field monitoring to focus solely on source
deployment. In comparison, traditional seismic surveys necessitate ongoing efforts for the
relocation and operation of both source and receiver systems. In future work, MMF cables
for DTS measurement should be observed in the same vertical borehole to verify the depth
in DAS VSP.
The research reported in [86] applied DAS technology for seismic exploration to
image subsurface geothermal reservoirs in magmatic environments. DAS technology
was used to mitigate the deficiency of downhole seismic survey results for subsurface
geothermal exploration. The fiber optic cables were equipped with an SMF for DAS and
MMF for DTS measurement, operating at temperatures above 400 ◦ C; hence, the cable
was coated with copper. The conceptual acquisition design of the DAS cable installation
was based on a surface layout (buried in a trench) of optical cable deployed in the x
and y directions and along the wellbore installation in the z direction to achieve a three-
dimensional cable array. The cable installation result indicated that the main effect on
the SNR of the measurement was caused by the coupling between the wellbore and fiber
optics. DAS data were recorded along fiber optic cables with a 5.9 km cable length and
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 5560 20 of 27

settings of spatial resolution of 1 m and measured as strain rate. A seismic vibrator truck
was used for DAS measurement as its active source. Subsequently, conventional VSP
used a swept-impact seismic technique as an active source. Further data preprocessing
steps such as shift and stack correlation were performed to generate estimated SNR and
processed along with data recorded by a seismic station network. Measured DAS and
geophone vertical components were compared in terms of SNR at certain depth intervals,
indicating that significant result in terms of quantitative SNR values. The measured signals
of surface optical fiber and a 3C geophone were compared to detect the signal generated by
the seismic vibrator with an appropriate SNR value. Combining the DAS data with data
from a seismic network deployed on the surface increased the resolution of the seismic
survey imaging. These research findings also highlight the use of DAS as an option to
overcome the operating temperature limitation of conventional geophones, as well as the
specifications within a magmatic geothermal environment required for fiber optic cable
material to be able to tolerate the geothermal reservoir temperature. When used to image a
subsurface geothermal reservoir, the result proved that DAS is well-suited to be used for
seismic applications in high-temperature wells.
The research reported in [87] discusses the sensing sensitivity improvement of a
surface-deployed DAS fiber configuration to detect steep-angle P-wave reflections. The
aim of this DAS measurement was to enhance the sensitivity of the existing surface DAS
tests conducted at the site. The sensitivity was improved by augmenting the total vertical
alignment of the fiber inside experimental setups consisting of both helical and straight
fiber segments. The test was conducted using fiber optic cables that consisted of two SMFs
and two MMFs placed inside a stainless-steel tube and wrapped with 0.61 mm stainless-
steel armor wires and a polyethylene jacket. For the horizontal configuration, the cable
was placed along a shallow trench. The specified DAS VSP settings of the acquisition
parameters were a gauge length of 10 m, spatial sampling of 1.02 m, and a fiber cable length
up to 4288 m. The DAS recording was measured as strain rate. During the 3D seismic
survey conducted at the designated site for the DAS test configurations, data were collected
simultaneously. A total of 401 dynamite shots used as active sources were captured by
the DAS test cable. The raw data for single dynamite shots and NMO-corrected receiver
gathers were compared to assess their similarity to geophone data. The variability in the
responses of the various configurations along the test cable was observed to proceed with
significant data processing, NMO correction, and trace stacking. The DAS configurations
of these measurements, the buried geophone, and a receiver from the permanent DAS
fiber were compared, indicating surface coupling within amplitude variation offset (AVO)
plots referring to the data. Subsequently, numerical modeling was applied to assess the
DAS response of the asymmetric helical fiber. This modeling result indicated that the
recorded field response was mostly influenced by the fiber shape rather than the borehole
coupling. The results of the sensitivity analysis showed that the asymmetric helix and
vertical straight fiber configurations had the maximum sensitivity increases with steep-
angle P-wave reflections, which were attained by decreasing the surface-wave response
and increasing the signal response. However, the research result indicated that it was still
associated with uncertainties in locating channels along the fiber and gauge length within
the shot configuration. For future DAS testing, increasing the configuration cable length to
the gauge length is necessary to associate the seismic measurement observed on multiple
channels and reduce the uncertainties of channel authorization using tap tests to obtain the
best cable coupling of the DAS fiber.
The research reported in [88] involved a time lapse of DAS VSP imaging in the
Aquistore CO2 reservoir. The Aquistore project utilized 4D VSP to perform volumetric
reservoir assessment and locate the injected CO2 plume over time. Further processing and
resulting imaging discrepancies in the VSP data for extremely closely spaced images were
analyzed to estimate the time-lapse noise from field recordings. During the data imaging
process, the reduced SNR of the DAS data was mitigated by a noise attenuation algorithm
as measured by NRMS values. Nevertheless, it is clear that the SNR of the DAS data was
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 5560 21 of 27

lowered by the NRMS attenuation of noise. The DAS measurements used fiber optic cables
consisting of two MMFs for DTS and two SMFs for DAS measurement. The cable was
deployed inside stainless-steel production tubing clamped to the outside of the well casing
and cemented in place, as illustrated on Figure 8. The DAS data were recorded using a 10 m
gauge length and 2.036 m sensor spacing and measured as strain rate. The obtained DAS
VSP data were further processed and converted to high time-lapse NRMS values and an
image of the horizon of the reservoirs. The processing and imaging results indicated that
the reservoir baseline exhibited fluctuating SNR characteristics. However, it still achieved
an acceptable level of repeatability to identify time-lapse noise. The research outcome
highlights that DAS VSP is considered a useful technique for time-lapse monitoring of CO2
reservoirs. For future enhancements in DAS VSP results, more attempts should be made
with respect to the processing step and the development of its framework.

Figure 8. Schematic illustration of SMF and MMF along a wellbore.

All relevant literature discussed in this section is summarized in Table 6 below.

Table 6. Summary of subsurface imaging applications of combined SMF and MMF cable used in
relevant studies.

Authors Scope of Work Cable Deployment Outcome

No significant difference in the comparison of
Daley et al. [28] Simultaneous DAS VSP Cemented outside of the well casing SMF and MMF recording results, and SNRs were
improved by weighted stacking pf DAS VSP data
DAS VSP was able to detect the sediment layer
Installed in a borehole enclosed in a and interpret temperate ice and seismic
Booth et al. [85] DAS VSP on Store Glacier
gel-filled, stainless-steel capillary tube properties in transitions of ice-crystal fabric and
temperature regime
DAS with data from the seismic network
Surface layout (x and y directions)
Seismic exploration in deployed at the surface increased the resolution
Reinsch et al. [86] and deployed behind casing inside the
geothermal areas of the seismic data and proved to be suitable for
well (z direction)
geothermal environments
Surface DAS fiber configurations increased the
Cemented behind well casing and
White et al. [87] DAS VSP configuration test sensitivity to steep-angle P-waves of
buried in a shallow trench (surface)
seismic reflections
Inside stainless-steel tubing clamped DAS VSP produced time-lapse monitoring and
Harris et al. [88] Aquistore reservoir imaging to the outside of the well casing and accurately imaged NRMS values and CO2 -based
cemented in place anomalies at specific reservoir depths
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 5560 22 of 27

5. Conclusions
As fiber optic technology, DAS has been shown to be efficient in geophysics exploration
such as VSP, reservoir monitoring, microseismic detection, and the application of ML
approaches, as discussed in the previous chapter. Over the years, the oil and gas sector has
made advancements in implementing DAS technology, mostly due to its cost-effectiveness
in deploying optical fiber cables along linear assets like pipelines and wells [89]. However,
considering prevailing economic conditions, there arises a necessity to optimize data
processing within subsurface images and harness existing datasets for enhanced reservoir
monitoring in the application of DAS. Based on the reviewed literature, it can be concluded
that SMF has been shown to be a better fiber optic cable than MMF, as it is more widely used
and capable in long-distance and higher-resolution sensing [28,57]. The cable deployment
method and acquisition parameters become essential in evaluating these two types of fiber
optic cable in geophysics exploration. VSP provides high confidence in seismic data along
the borehole, and reservoir monitoring is a good tool for exploring reservoirs, whereas
microseismic measurement provides physical data at low frequencies but is limited in terms
of operation for accessible exploration. These DAS data sources are highly complex and,
in most cases, are contaminated by optical noise, although they have been employed to
obtain accurate and excellent measurements of subsurface images. The integration of many
data sources is beneficial in enhancing imaging capabilities, with DAS data specifically
proving valuable for subsurface imaging purposes. SMF has been shown to be effective
in subsurface imaging but faces some limitations, such as interference signals in Rayleigh
backscattered light [90], as well as existence of the noise floor [62]. These limitations
are addressed by employing proper active DAS measurement sources, enhanced spatial
resolution, and SNRs; the use of a deliberate cable deployment method; and selection of
relevant acquisition parameters. Although MMF also faces its own inherent limitations,
its strengths make it preferable when it comes to DTS and shorter-distance cable-length
deployments due to lower prices. Combined SMF and MMF in the same cable deployment
provides various places for measurement, with SMF used for DAS and MMF used for DTS
measurement. The primary conclusions of our review are presented below.
1. Successfully employed SMF cables in the domain of surface and subsurface geophysics
exploration was inspected in this review. The various SMFs were used to record
acoustic properties of a signal along the cable and have become the most used type
of fiber optic cable for DAS. However, in this review, when SMF and MMF were
combined, MMF was found to be preferable for DTS measurement in most research
studies in terms of temperature variations and high bandwidth.
2. The cable deployment technique is a crucial initial factor, leading to considerable ef-
forts with respect to its DAS data processing and application in the field of geophysics
exploration. This can be improved by the enhancement of preprocessing steps not
limited to the control of DAS acquisition parameter optimization, improving SNR
values, in addition to a comparison with other seismic measurement tools such as
conventional geophones.
3. DAS VSP is the most popular technique used to image the subsurface along the
borehole. Furthermore, DAS for microseismic measurement was able to detect small
microseismic events with high resolution. Although this method works well, it has
some major drawbacks that may lead to reduced imaging resolution due to various
noise for both SMF and MMF. To achieve a satisfactory resolution of the DAS data,
preprocessing steps are imperative to improve data denoising. Subsequently, the ML
algorithm approach offers automated DAS data denoising with high accuracy.
The application of DAS is here to stay as petroleum geoscientists are progressively
turning from conventional geophone arrays for boreholes and surface seismic measure-
ment. Individual conventional geophones carry vital information about seismic imaging.
However, when combined with DAS, they are more efficient in terms of accurately and
continuously capturing obtained seismic signal behavior rather than spending time and
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 5560 23 of 27

cost carrying complicated field acquisitions. Field data acquisition is a critical initial step in
subsurface imaging, and the application of DAS has been proven to be effective, as it is able
to acquire data in hard-subsurface environments and can be used for real-time monitoring.
The cost, number of signal data samples along the measurement array, and time to acquire
seismic data can be significantly reduced with the application of DAS if a proper deploy-
ment of a DAS SMF or MMF cable is used to help improve data acquisition parameters
and the data processing of conventional geophones as a comparison for high-resolution
subsurface imaging. SMF and MMF cable deployment has served as the benchmark for
research in this endeavor as more advanced DAS data processing work is being developed
to address this issue.
The enhancement of the data processing framework to obtain higher-resolution images
of subsurface values for the evaluation seismic images has a huge impact on geophysics
field exploration. In the case of fiber optic cables combined with SMF and MMF, the
deployment of an MMF cable is yet to be explored in acoustic parameter sensing. Its
application can be more useful for DTS measurement than SMF, especially when deployed
to record temperature variations. These deployment mechanisms for both SMF and MMF
cable can be employed to enhance the signal resolution and improve the processing of DAS
data, leading to improved seismic imaging and interpretation. This will help to fully utilize
conventional geophone arrays for efficient measurements and imaging of subsurfaces.
Incremental research advances, whether in the study of DAS data acquisition or processing,
play a crucial role in improving the decision-making process within geophysics exploration,
making future developments studies crucial. Future research on the development of SMF
and MMF to improve DAS measurement can be started with a focus on the surface DAS
acquisition layout; these types of fiber optic cables deployed along long-distance trenches
can be compared with geophone responses to find the most suitable acquisition parameter
settings. Subsequently, for further data processing enhancement, it is always better to
begin with synthetic simulation for SMF and MMF responses to understand the processing
framework, including a filter for conversion of the DAS strain rate to geophone units and
exploration of more ML algorithms that might result in better data or model classification
and denoising.

Author Contributions: The M.R. contributed to study conception, the literature review, material
preparation, data collection, and analysis. K.A.M.N., A.H.A.L., D.A.O., B.N.T.-O., A.D.P., Z.A.R.
and D.T.A. reviewed the manuscript and offered advice. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work is supported by Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS under Rotal Energies cost
centre 015MD0-162.
Acknowledgments: I would like to acknowledge the financial support by Universiti Teknologi
PETRONAS and thanks to Daniel from Institute for Computational & Data Sciences, The Pennsylvania
State University and other authors who helped me during conceptual understanding and guidance.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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