ZNOTES.

ORG

UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

EDEXCEL IGCSE
PSYCHOLOGY
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
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EDEXCEL IGCSE PSYCHOLOGY

During the Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years), children

1. Development rely on their senses and motor skills to explore the
world. They develop the concept of object permanence,
understanding that something exists even if it's out of
1.1. Early Brain Development sight, and often repeat actions.
In the Pre-operational stage (2-7 years), children
A long tube develops at 3 to 4 weeks old, dividing into engage in symbolic play, using one object to represent
three round sections: the forebrain, midbrain and others. They tend to be egocentric, viewing the world
hindbrain. from their perspective, and may display animism. They
It splits into the anterior and posterior sections by five have difficulty understanding conservation, such as the
weeks, with the midbrain remaining undivided. idea that the volume of tall and small glasses can be the
Around six weeks, the cerebellum becomes visible, which same.
plays a role in fear and muscle activity. The Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years) focuses
Around the 20th week, the medulla oblongata connects on concrete thinking and morality. Children develop skills
the upper brain to the spinal cord and is responsible for like seriation (sorting objects by size), conservation,
automatic responses. decentration (considering multiple aspects), and
reversibility (mentally undoing actions).
Parts of the Brain In the Formal Operational Stage (11 years and
The forebrain is located in the anterior part of the brain beyond), abstract thinking and a more complex
and consists of two hemispheres. understanding of morality emerge, allowing individuals
The midbrain is situated in the middle section of the to consider consequences in a broader sense.
central nervous system (CNS). Application in Education & Intelligence
The hindbrain is found in the lower part of the brain and | Concept | Application | |----|----| | Egocentrism |
includes the cerebellum, pons, and medulla. Recognising that egocentrism is a part of development and
The Medulla Oblongata is a structure that connects the the ability to provide guidance and support to understand
upper brain to the spinal cord and governs automatic other individuals’ perspectives. | | Sensorimotor Stage |
responses (e.g., sneezing, heart rate and breathing) Using mediums like rhythm and singing to stimulate
Anterior is the section of the brain that’s directed language development and incorporate more hands-on
towards the front experiences. | | Pre-operational Stage | Incorporating more
Posterior is the section of the brain that’s directed hands-on exploration and experiment-based learning, Visual
towards the back learning approaches can be highly effective. | | Difference in
The Cerebellum controls the motor movements of the Development | Recognizing that children don't think like
body adults and develop at different rates highlights the
importance of tailored teaching approaches. |

1.3. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive

Development

1.2. Piaget’s Stages of Development

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EDEXCEL IGCSE PSYCHOLOGY
| Strengths | Weakness | |----|----| | Practical Application:
Piaget proposed that children learn through schemas Presence in educational settings, implementing more growth
and mental frameworks for organizing and interpreting mindset praise | Ecological Validity: most of the studies
information. that we’ve done were mostly in artificial settings, which
Schema/Schemata: Mental Representations of the makes it difficult to apply in real-life settings | | Evidence:
world based on one’s own experiences. Strong evidence to support their theory such as Yeager &
Assimilation: fitting new experiences into existing Dweck (2012): Mindsets that promote resilience (states that
schemas students require a mindset that allows them to face
Accommodation: when existing schemas are modified challenges and overcome failure); Gunderson et al. (2013)
to make new experiences shows the impact of praise on effort on mindset | Shift in
Equilibrium: a balanced state of mind reached when focus: the child may be the focus when problems arise with
schemas can explain all an individual experiences. their progress in place of the teacher’s quality of teaching. |
| Positive Psychology (helps society as a whole) |
Strengths Evidence: Some studies show that the theory may be
inaccurate, such as Bouchard & McGue (1981), who show
Practical Application: can be integrated into
that 111 studies showed a correlation between genetics and
educational settings, supporting the idea of designing of intelligence. |
classroom activities
Evidence: support from studies such as the Piaget &
Inhelder (1956) Three Mountain Task 1.5. Willingham’s Learning Theory
Weakness Willingham's Theory emphasises the importance of
factual knowledge in problem-solving and learning.
Subjective Nature of the theory factual knowledge precedes skill
Cultural and Social Considerations: the theory doesn’t the importance of practice, and effort
consider the other factors that may affect the child's
development. Practice and Effort
Practice and Effort are essential for mastering knowledge
1.4. Dweck’s Mindset Theory and skills.
Short-term memory benefits from practice.
Ability: what we can do
Problem-solving and creativity are crucial for success.
Effort: Doing better using determination STM involves practice which must be repeated for
Dweck introduced the idea of mindsets, which are a set information to stick; with enough practice, the
of beliefs information will be fixed in the LTM (long-term
Two main mindsets are growth and fixed mindset memory)
Fixed Mindset: the belief that abilities are fixed and
are unchangeable Strategies for Cognitive, Physical and Social
Growth Mindset: belief that there’s potential for Development
improvement through practice and effort
Teachers play a pivotal role in shaping a child’s mindset Cognitive development can be enhanced by using new
This can affect a child’s performance in several ways, problems that align with a child's stage of development.
such as refusal to take on challenges, low self-esteem Physical development requires practice, focusing on
and ability to improve. appropriate movements. (e.g, using scissors)
Social development involves building a child's
decentration ability, helping them control impulsive
behaviour, and fostering suitable responses and
friendships through delayed rewards for self-control.

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| Strengths | Weaknesses | |----|----| | Practical
Application: Presence in education to promote the positive 1. Mountain Model Setup:
development of children | Individual Considerations: Due A 1-meter square model represents three
to the universal strategies proposed in his theory, it doesn’t mountains.
account for the individual differences in learning for other The model, measuring 1 meter squared, stood
children | | Evidence: Repacholi & Gopnik (1997) found that at approximately 12 centimetres in height.
children needed prior knowledge to perform the task in The lowest mountain was adorned in green
Piaget’s & Inhelder's study (referred to later) | Not one and featured a house on its summit, along
singular theory: His ideas come from many areas of with a descending path.
neuroscience, memory and cognitive development, which The second mountain, brown in hue,
means his ideas aren’t one singular theory. | showcased a red cross on its peak and had a
flowing stream.
The third mountain, the tallest trio, exhibited
1.6. Piaget & Inhelder (1956): Three a grey colour with a white top representing
Mountain Task snow.
Four viewpoints labelled A, B, C, and D are
Aims: identified around the model.
A doll is moved to each of these positions.
To study children's perspectives and investigate The child is given ten pictures of the mountains
relationships between the child’s viewpoint and their taken from various positions.
perception of the viewpoint of others. Ten precise pictures were captured from
different vantage points to emphasize the
Sample: colours and distinctive characteristics.
Three coloured boards, shaped to match each
100 children were used: mountain, are provided for arrangement.
2. Trial One: Child's Perspective (Arranging Boards):
21 were aged between 4 and 6 years old The child seated in position A arranges boards to
30 were aged between 6 and 8 years old represent the mountains from that viewpoint.
33 were aged between 8 and 9 years old With the doll placed in position C, the child
16 were aged between 9 and 12 years old. arranges boards to represent the doll's
perspective.
Procedure It continues until the child views the model from
all four positions.
3. Reconstruction Task:
The child is asked to reconstruct their board
arrangement from a previous viewpoint.
4. Second Trial: Photograph Selection:
The child and doll move around the mountains.
The child selects the doll's viewpoint from 10
presented photographs.
5. Third Trial: Picture Matching:
The child selects a picture and places the doll on
the model to match the depicted view.

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| Strengths | Weaknesses | |----|----| | Use of Qualitative
Results and Quantitative Data | Ecological Validity: lacks mundane
realism | | Standardised Procedure: each child went
4 to 6-Year-Olds: through the same procedure, increasing reliability and
Trial One (Board Rearrangement): replicability | Control Variables; allowing comparison | | |
Repacholi & Gopnik (1997) said that the task was innately
Children rearrange boards to depict their own viewpoint difficult, replicated the study and found that younger
of the three mountains. 6-year-olds may attempt to children could identify others’ perspectives when everyday
represent the dolls but often revert to their own objects were used. |
perspective.
Children demonstrate the ability to recollect and
reproduce previous viewpoints from memory. 1.7. Gunderson et al. (2013)
Trial Two (Picture Selection): Aim
Children choose a picture representing their own Examining the types of praise parents commonly use,
viewpoint of the three mountains. Some may randomly focusing on whether personal or process praise could
select any image of the model. predict motivational frameworks five years later.
Trial Three (Doll Placement):
Background
The doll is often placed randomly on the model or in its
initial position. Children receive two types of praise affecting their
motivational framework (how they understand ideas and
7 to 12-Year-Olds: facts when deciding).
7 to 9-Year-Olds: Person praise (praising the individual) leads to an entity
motivational framework.
Attempt to reflect the viewpoint of the doll, but Entity Framework: Believing behaviour and ability
consistency is lacking. are fixed and based on a child's nature.
9 to 12-Year-Olds: Process praise (praising the child's behaviour) leads to an
incremental motivational framework.
Consistently replicate the doll's viewpoint during trials. Incremental framework: Believing behaviour and
ability can be changed with effort.
Conclusions
~~Sample~~
Pre-operational Stage (Stage 2):
Only see their own viewpoint. 53 children from Chicago. (29 boys, 24 girls)
Egocentrism is the cause, according to Piaget and Selected from a larger pool of 63 families involved in a
Inhelder. language development study.
Can replicate views but struggle to predict other The sample mirrors the demographics of Chicago,
perspectives due to reasoning limitations. including income, race, and ethnicity.
Concrete Operational Stage (Stage 3):
Start to understand others' viewpoints. Procedure
Initially, choose pictures based on their perspective
and later adjust for the doll.
This marks the beginning of realizing the doll's
distinct viewpoint.
By the stage's end, we can modify arrangements and
select pictures reflecting the doll's perspective,
showing a decrease in egocentrism.

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Double-blind technique: Process praise fostered an incremental framework,

Both the researcher and parent weren’t aware that where children believed effort could lead to
the recordings would be studied for praise improvement.
Longitudinal Study: No clear link was observed between parents giving
Assessment points at 14 months, 26 months, and 38 person praise and children developing an entity
months. motivational framework.
Five years later, motivation was reviewed. Early personal praise did not appear to result in fixed
Questionnaires covered motivation, morality, beliefs, frameworks later in a child's life.
and intelligence.
Participants and data collectors were unaware of the Conclusions
study's proper focus (they assumed it was about
language development). 1. A strong correlation was observed: Parents using
Parent-Child Interactions: process praise align with children adopting an
Parents conducted typical day activities during incremental motivational framework, reflecting a
assessments. belief in changeable abilities.
Caregiver-child interactions were videotaped in 90- 2. No evidence was found: Parental use of personal
minute sessions. praise does not lead children to develop an entity
Follow-Up at 7-8 Years Old: motivational framework, implying that fixed abilities
Children answered questionnaires on intelligence are not associated with this form of praise.
and moral behaviour. 3. Gender: Males were more likely to receive process
18 items covered children's motivational frameworks praise in comparison to females
regarding intelligence and socio-moral views.
| Strengths | Weaknesses | |----|----| | Natural Experiment;
Results High Ecological Validity as it is a real-life situation | Ethical
Concerns: use of deception with parents unaware of the
Parental Praise Pattern: aims | | Double Blind trial; reduce bias | Potential Parental
Bias: Awareness of being observed might change behaviour
Only 3% of parental comments to children constituted |
praise.

Types of Praise: 1.8. Issues & Debate: Morality

Process praise represented 18% of all praise. Morality: this is a general term for human conduct
Person praise constituted 16% of all praise. which comes about because of their morals – it is largely
Other forms of praise comprised the remaining 66%. concerned with the separation of good and bad
behaviour
Gender Differences in Process Praise: Morals: these are the specific ‘rules’ that govern the
behaviour and actions that a person will take on a daily
Boys received more process praise (24.4%) than girls basis
(10.3%).

Relationship between Parental Praise and Children's Piaget’s theory on Moral Development:
Framework:

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Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development: Damon (1999) on Developing a Moral Self:

Pre-conventional Morality (Age up to 9 years old): Early Infancy:
Obedience and Punishment: Children act to avoid Children exhibit global empathy, with feelings
punishment, focusing on external consequences. towards others similar to those towards themselves.
Individualism: Children prioritize personal gain, Ages 1 to 2 years:
considering what benefits they receive from moral Children recognize others' distress but may not know
actions. how to respond effectively.
Conventional Morality (Most young people and Early Childhood:
adults): Children overcome egocentrism, understanding
Relationships: Individuals act morally to maintain a different viewpoints and reacting to someone's
positive image among peers, aligning with group distress.
norms. Ages 10 to 12 years:
Law and Order: Moral behavior is driven by Children grasp societal issues, realizing challenges
upholding societal rules, viewing it as a duty to like poverty and disabilities in others.
maintain social order.
Post-conventional Morality (Only 10% of the
population reach this stage): 2. Memory
Social Contract: Individuals see laws as social
contracts, acknowledging moral differences based on 2.1. Memory and Information
agreed-upon laws.
Universal Principles: Development of personal morals Processing
and laws independent of societal norms.
Input – Sensory information in the environment
Encoding – Turning sensory information into a form that
can be stored
Acoustic Encoding – Storing sounds in memory
Visual Encoding – Storing visual information
Semantic Encoding – Storing meaningful information
Output – Recalling information (e.g., behavioural
response)

Short-Term Memory (STM)

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| | Encoding | Duration | Capacity | |----|----|----|----| |
Input initially enters the STM store, a temporary Sensory | sense-specific | 0.5 seconds | limited to 1
repository lasting about 18 seconds. sensation | | STM | mainly acoustic | 15-30 seconds | up to
STM capacity is approximately seven items, encoding 9 | | LTM | mainly semantic | unlimited | unlimited |
information acoustically through repetition. | Strengths | Weakness | |----|----| | Evidence: there’s
Rehearsed information can transition to the Long-Term evidence of the existence of STM and LTM in cases of
Memory (LTM), supporting Daniel Willingham's learning memory deficiency in amnesia patients | Overemphasis on
theory. rehearsal, which is not the only factor that determines
whether or not something is remembered | | Murdock
Long-Term Memory (LTM) (1962), evidence for serial positioning for the duration aspect
of memory, found that recall is higher with words at the
Encoding in the LTM is predominantly semantic but may beginning and end. | Specific Impairments: showing there’s
also be visual or acoustic. not only one STM and LTM store with selective memory
LTM holds limitless information and can endure for
impairments in amnesia patients ex, Clive Wearing |
minutes or even a lifetime.

Forgetting Mechanisms 2.3. Peterson & Peterson (1959): Short-

In STM, forgetting can occur through displacement,
Term Retention
where new information replaces older data as the STM
reaches capacity.
Aim
In LTM, memory decay may happen if the memory trace Investigate the duration of short-term memory.
is unused for an extended period or overwritten by new Examine the role of interference in forgetting.
information (interference).
Background
2.2. Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968): Multi-
Memory processes encompass encoding, storage, and
Store Model of Memory retrieval.
Interference theory argues that forgetting happens when
new information disrupts the retention of previously
acquired material.

Sample
Participants: 24 psychology students.
The multi-store model of memory comprises the sensory All the students were from the same university.
register; The sample had similar characteristics, reducing
individual differences.
Short-Term Memory (STM)
Long-Term Memory (LTM). Procedure
The sensory register briefly holds all incoming sensory
information,
transferring what we attend to into our STM; otherwise,
it decays.
Types of sensory registers include iconic memory
(visual), echoic memory (auditory), gustatory memory
(taste), olfactory memory (smell), and tactile memory
(touch and texture).

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Participants received trigrams (meaningless three- To investigate how cultural schemas influence memory.
consonant syllables) intended to inhibit rehearsal. To examine how people recall and reconstruct unfamiliar
Each trial comprised three phases: encoding, stories.
interference task, and recall.
During encoding, participants received a trigram and Background
were instructed to count backwards in threes from a
three-digit number for varying durations (3, 6, 9, 12, 15, Schema theory says people rely on their existing knowledge
or 18 seconds). and cultural schemas to interpret and recall information.
The interference task, counting backwards, aimed to Bartlett, intrigued by this idea, explored how cultural
prevent rehearsal. schemas influence memory, particularly in the context of
Following the interference task, participants were tasked unfamiliar stories.
with recalling the initial trigram.
Distinct trigrams were employed for each trial to reduce Sample
recognition.
20 British participants in his study (Cambridge
Results University).
the participants were not familiar with Native
Experiment 1: American folk stories (War of Ghosts)
Longer counting backwards led to decreased
accurate trigram recall. Procedure
80% correct recall after 3 seconds, dropping to less
than 10% after 18 seconds. Participants read the War of the Ghosts (WOG) story
Experiment 2: twice.
Increased time boosted recall frequency. They were then required to recall the story using serial
A similar decline in recall over time was observed. reproduction and repeated reproduction.
Serial Reproduction:
Conclusion A technique involving participants retelling stories to
each other, creating a chain, and then participants
Supported the idea that STM information is lost through retelling the story 15-30 minutes later.
interference when rehearsal is prevented. Repeated Reproduction:
Provided evidence for the limited duration of short- This involves participants repeatedly retelling a story
term memory. The findings reinforced the role of and then participants write out the story 15 minutes
interference in forgetting. later.
Understanding memory processes and the factors Recall is tested after minutes, days, hours, months,
that affect memory retention, particularly in the and years.
short-term memory stage.
Results
| Strengths | Weakness | |----|----| | Standardized
Procedure: replicability and reliability | Lacks Mundane Participants exhibited changes and connections
Realism; Trigrams don’t reflect things that we usually try to (rationalization) in serial and repeated reproduction.
remember | | Practical Application: revision in small chunks Example: 'Something black came out of his mouth'
|| transformed into “a man's dying breath.'
Omissions occurred for unfamiliar or simplified details,
2.4. Bartlett’s (1932): War of Ghosts such as 'canoe' becoming 'boat' and 'hunting' turning
into 'fishing.'
Aims In repeated reproduction, rewrites often adhere to a
similar form or the initial reproduction's outline.

Conclusion

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Memory is a reconstructive process in which individuals

modify unfamiliar information to align it more closely 2.6. Bartlett’s (1932): Theory of
with their schemas. Reconstructive Memory
Our pre-existing knowledge and cultural
understanding influence interpretation and War of the Ghosts Story:
reconstruction. Bartlett utilized this story to examine the process of
active reconstruction in memory.
| Strengths | Weaknesses | |----|----| | Ecological Validity; Memories as Interpretations:
remembering a story is representative of everyday activity, Memories are not precise replicas of events but
however the story was unfamiliar and illogical which can also interpretations influenced by our schemas.
be a weakness | Qualitative Analysis; may have biases | | Active Reconstruction:
Qualitative Analysis; rich in detail | Lacks standardized Memory is reconstructed and shaped by existing
procedure; lower reliability as participants were given the schemas or mental frameworks from life
flexibility to read at their own pace | experiences.
Four Ways Schemas Influence Memory:
2.5. Issues & Debates: Reductionism & Schemas impact memory through:
Omissions: Leaving out unfamiliar or unpleasant
Holism information.
Reductionism: Transformation: Changing details to make them
The theory explains phenomena by breaking it down rational or familiar.
into basic constituent parts. Rationalisation: Adding details to justify
something initially incongruent.
Associated with scientific methods, allowing isolation
and control of factors affecting behavior. Familiarisation: Altering details to align them
It is desirable for scientific practice but may result in more closely with our schemas.
overly simplistic conclusions by ignoring other | Strengths | Weakness | |----|----| | Real-World Application:
potential causes (e.g., attributing aggression solely to understanding distorted memories and eyewitness
an inherited gene without considering upbringing or testimonies | Subjective Analysis on memory reconstruction:
gene interactions). forming bias concerning the accuracy of the results | |
Holism: Ecological validity reflected real-life experiences |
Theory explaining phenomena as a whole. Unscientific Procedures |
Linked to qualitative methods for in-depth
understanding of individual behavior causes.
Regarded as unscientific and challenging to achieve. 2.7. Understanding Amnesia
Findings are specific to an individual and lack
generalizability.
Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Multi-store Model of Memory:
Reductionist as it describes memory in distinct parts
with specific functions.
Bartlett's Work:
A holistic approach using qualitative analysis.
Considerable emphasis on establishing participant
character and background to understand schema
formation.

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| Episode | Symptoms | Features | |----|----|----| | Mild |
Amnesia: Memory loss often caused by disease, Four symptoms displayed | The patient might find their
accident, or injury. symptoms upsetting, but they will probably be able to carry
Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new long-term on with most day-to-day activities. | | Moderate | Five or six
memories. Intact short-term memory but impaired symptoms were displayed | Patients might have serious
transfer to long-term memory. problems doing day-to-day activities | | Severe | Seven or
Retrograde Amnesia: Impaired recall of memories more symptoms (plus a general feeling of worthlessness) |
before a brain injury. It may be limited to a traumatic The patient may have suicidal thoughts or engage in self-
incident or specific time frame, and patients may forget harm to cope with their feelings |
personal identity and origin.
Henry Molaison's Case: Incidence of Depression Overtime
Underwent brain surgery for epilepsy-related
seizures. Martin Seligman (1988) documented a tenfold surge in
Damage to the hippocampus resulted in both depression diagnoses compared to the 1940s.
anterograde and retrograde amnesia. King’s Fund (2008) anticipates a growth in diagnosed
Could recall childhood memories but not experiences depression cases from 1.24 million in 2007 to 1.45
a few years before surgery. million by 2026 in England.
Brandon Hidaka (2012) attributes the heightened
3. Psychological Problems prevalence of depression to the stress associated with
"modern living," encompassing factors like sleep
deprivation, poor diet, and increased social isolation.
3.1. Depression Jean Twenge et al. (2010) observed a greater likelihood
of depression diagnosis in young adults in 2007
Unipolar Depression is characterized by a consistent and compared to 1938.
severe lowering of mood, pulling the emotional state in one Liu Yi Lin et al. (2016) establish a connection between
direction, thereby impacting daily functioning. increased social media usage and a heightened risk of
Main symptoms from International Classification of depression in young American participants.
Diseases version 10 (ICD-10)
How Depression Affects Individuals and Society
Persistent sadness or low mood
Loss of interest or motivation Depression may lead to higher suicide rates as
Fatigue or low-energy individuals experiencing feelings of worthlessness and
Other symptoms sadness seek an escape.
Disturbed sleep Workplace productivity is significantly affected, with the
Poor concentration or indecisiveness Health and Safety Executive estimating 9.9 million
Low self-confidence workdays lost in 2014-15 due to stress, depression, or
Poor or increased appetite anxiety related to work.
Suicidal thoughts or acts The increasing rates of depression escalate the cost of
Guilt or self-blame treatment, including expensive antidepressant
Agitation or slowing of movements prescriptions and the need for trained therapists for
At least 1 of the main symptoms- present most of the therapies like counselling.
time - on most days for 2 WEEKS In 2007, depression cost the National Health Service
(NHS) an estimated £1.7 billion, potentially straining NHS
resources and services.

3.2. Genetic Explanation for Depression

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EDEXCEL IGCSE PSYCHOLOGY
Cognitive theory examines the processing of information in
Genetic Influence on Depression: the brain.
Depression is hereditary, carried in our DNA, and
more likely to occur in families. Craig Hyde et al. Aaron Beck's Cognitive Triad:
(2016) identified 17 gene variations linked to
depression development. Comprises three negative thought patterns known as
Genetic Predisposition: cognitive biases.
Refers to the tendency to become depressed due to Originates from negative experiences in an individual's
one's genes. past.
Diathesis-stress Model: This results in a negative self-schema, where the entire
Suggests that individuals possess a gene belief system is saturated with negativity, causing
predisposing them to depression, which is triggered individuals to perceive every situation as more adverse
by a stressful event. than it is.
Genetic predisposition + environmental factors =
depression

Albert Ellis’s ABC model – three stages that can cause us to

develop negative thought processes/ depression
Twin Studies:
Peter McGuffin et al. (1996) found that if one
genetically identical (monozygotic) twin became
depressed, there was a 46% chance the other would
too. In contrast, if a dizygotic twin became depressed,
there was only a 20% chance their twin would follow
suit. This supports both genetic predisposition and
the diathesis-stress model. | Strengths | Weaknesses | |----|----| | Takes into account
what the individual experiences and life events | Difficult to
| Strengths | Weaknesses | |----|----| | Lots of Research determine whether irrational thoughts are a cause or a
Evidence | Deterministic shows that if you have certain symptom of depression | | The Cognitive Theory is utilized
genes, you are bound to be depressed. | | Decreases the in CBT | thought processes are difficult to point out as the
stigma around it as it is inherited | Reductionists; doesn’t main determinant of depression |
consider other factors | | Free will; choice to succumb to
depression | | 3.4. Treatments for Depression
3.3. Cognitive Explanation for Drug Therapy:
Depression

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Antidepressants increase neurotransmitter levels. Depression linked to stressful life experiences.

SSRIs block serotonin reuptake (commonly used). Diathesis–stress theories propose genetic vulnerability as
SNRIs block both serotonin and noradrenaline a factor.
reuptake. Investigation focused on serotonin-targeting
MAOIs prevent the breakdown of serotonin and antidepressants (SSRIs).
noradrenaline. Role of 5-HTT gene in serotonin efficiency explored.
TCAs block neurotransmitter reuptake (used since
the 1950s). Aim:
| Strengths: | Weaknesses: | |----|----| | Prevents lack of Examine why some experience depression after stressful
motivation for CBT. | Ignores the cause of depression. | | events.
Placebo pills are less effective. | Relapse is more likely than Investigate the contribution of the 5-HTT gene to
with CBT. | depression.
Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT):
Procedure:
Description:
A systematic approach to address and modify Longitudinal study from age 3 to 26 (96% follow-up).
negative thought patterns and behaviours associated Participants from the Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health
with depression. and Development Study.
A collaborative effort between the patient and Divided into three groups based on 5-HTTLPR genotype.
therapist to identify, challenge, and reframe distorted Stressful life events recorded (employment, financial,
thinking. housing, health, relationships).
Procedure: Depression assessed at age 26 using Diagnostic
Patients discuss symptoms, emotions, and triggers Interview Schedule.
with the therapist. Informants questioned about participants' depressive
Identification of irrational thoughts and beliefs symptoms.
related to events.
The therapist assists in challenging and replacing Results:
irrational thoughts with rational and positive
alternatives. Measure 1 – Stressful Life Events:
Patients maintain a diary to track thoughts and
engage in discussions with the therapist. No differences in experienced stressful life events across
groups.
| Strengths | Weaknesses | |----|----| | - Significant and
lasting improvement in symptoms. | - A lack of patient Measure 2 – Depression:
motivation and engagement may hinder effectiveness. | | -
17% experienced DSM-IV depressive episode in the past
Empowers individuals, reducing feelings of helplessness. | -
year.
Potential for therapist influence and power to be misused. |
3% reported a past-year suicide attempt.

3.5. Caspi et al (2003) Results

Background:

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1. (s) allele carriers showed a stronger interaction 1. Dependence disorder: reliance on substances such
between life events and depression. as alcohol and cocaine.
2. (s) allele carriers had increased depressive symptoms 2. Behavioural addiction: dependence on activities like
from 21 to 26 years old. gambling.
3. Life events after age 21 predicted new depression
cases at 26 for (s) allele carriers. Symptoms of Dependence Disorder
4. Stressful life events predicted major depression
among (s) allele carriers. Compelling urge to consume a substance
5. Stressful life events predicted informant reports of Gradual increase in tolerance for the substance
depression among (s) allele carriers. Difficulty in stopping or reducing substance use
6. Stressful life events predicted suicide ideation among Experience of physical withdrawal symptoms (e.g.,
(s) allele carriers. shaking, sweating) during periods without substance use
7. 5-HTT gene moderated the impact of stressful life Substitution of regular activities with substance use or
events, reducing their effects. recovery from it
Disregard for evidence indicating harm from substance
Conclusions: use

5-HTT gene interacts with life events to predict Symptoms of Behavioural Addiction
depressive symptoms and related outcomes.
(l) allele carriers less likely to develop depression or Compelling need to engage in the activity regularly
suicidality. Difficulty in stopping or reducing the frequency of the
(l) allele moderates effects of childhood maltreatment on activity
depression. Requirement to increase the frequency or engage in
riskier variations for the same level of satisfaction
Substitution of regular activities with the favoured
3.6. Addiction activity
Addiction: characterised by the compelling need for a Disregard for arguments highlighting the harmful nature
specific substance or engagement in a particular activity of the activity
to maintain one's daily routine. Examples include
substance dependencies like drugs or alcohol, as well as 3.7. Genetic Explanation for Addiction
behavioural addictions like gambling or shopping.
Withdrawal: unpleasant physical or psychological 1. Dorit Carmelli et al. (1992):
symptoms experienced when attempting to quit or being Higher chances of both identical twins being
unable to satisfy an addiction. smokers if one engages in smoking, compared to
non-identical twins.
Prevalence of Addiction 2. Donald Goodwin et al. (1973):
Adopted children with at least one biological
In 2015/16, 8,621 individuals were admitted to the parent with alcohol addiction highly likely to show
hospital with drug-related issues. alcohol addiction signs.
There were 15,074 hospital admissions for overdoses. 3. Diana Marinez et al. (2004):
There were 2,479 registered deaths related to drug Heavy cocaine users more likely to possess a
misuse, marking a 10% increase from 2014. specific dopamine receptor gene version.
About 8.4% of adults admitted to taking illicit drugs. 4. Remi Cadoret et al. (1987):
6% of 11-year-olds acknowledged trying drugs at least Adopted children with a biological link to alcohol
once, compared to 24% of 15-year-olds. problems more prone to alcohol-related issues.

Addiction manifests in two primary forms: Strengths:

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Scientific evidence underpins the genetic explanation for Assumption of behaviors being unlearned offers
addiction. potential for addiction treatments.
Controlled environments in twin and adoption studies Operant Conditioning acknowledges the interaction of
help isolate factors influencing addiction. biological and external factors in addiction.
Suggests shared genetic factors within families Classical Conditioning explains relapses, as situations
contribute to the heritability of addictions. associated with addiction trigger urges.

Weaknesses: Weaknesses:
Individuals display varying susceptibilities to addiction, Generally neglects the role of biological factors in
which means that genetics may not be the main addiction theories.
determinant of addiction. Fails to explain why only a small percentage becomes
Reductionist approach overlooks social factors addicted despite exposure to similar conditions.
influencing addiction dynamics. Social Learning Theory suggests discontinuation of
Lack of identification of a singular gene responsible for addiction if role models avoid addiction.
addiction.
The association of the DDR2 A1 gene with both addiction Treatments for Addiction:
and autism raises questions about the gene's specific
role in addiction. Drug Therapy:
Medication aids detoxification effects and reduces
3.8. Learning Theory of Addiction withdrawal symptoms.
Drugs combat cravings, such as methadone for opiates,
Classical Conditioning: nicotine patches or gums for smokers, and naloxone for
alcoholics.
Learning through associations, where two or more
Antidepressants address underlying issues like
occurrences become linked.
Automatic triggering of one thing when the other is depression.
experienced.
Positive associations with a substance or activity lead to
the formation of addictive behaviors.

Operant Conditioning:
Repetition of behaviors due to positive consequences
(rewards).
Positively reinforced behavior increases the likelihood of
repetition.
Negative reinforcement or consequences may
discourage certain behaviors.
Addiction behavior reinforced by positive feelings
increases the likelihood of repetition. Strengths:
Social Learning Theory: Supported by research evidence.
Addresses short-term problems effectively.
Learning behavior by observing and modeling others,
especially role models. Weaknesses:
Imitation of admired figures, potentially leading to
addiction, e.g., mimicking a parent's smoking. Placebo similarities in effectiveness for some
medications.
Strengths: Risk of dependency on certain drugs.

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Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): Participants completed questionnaires gauging their

internet addiction control throughout and post-CBT
Two stages: Functional Analysis and Skills Training. treatment.
Functional Analysis uncovers addiction sources, and Standardised CBT procedures were employed for
Skills Training equips patients to avoid triggers by internet addiction treatment.
teaching them skills to cope with Addiction) Questionnaire data were analyzed to assess CBT's
Patient maintains a diary to discuss feelings in CBT efficacy and its enduring impact on internet addiction.
sessions.
Results:
Strengths:
Young et al. identified CBT as effective, with sustained
Empowers patients to control their behavior. effects observed over six months.
Backed by research evidence. Online CBT emerged as a viable and lasting treatment for
internet addiction.
Weaknesses: Significant improvements in participants' control over
internet use were revealed through the questionnaires.
Requires patient commitment to treatment.
Skill retention and application may vary among patients. Conclusion:
The study advocates for CBT's use in tackling internet
3.9. Young et al. (2007) addiction.
Emphasizes the effectiveness and longevity of online CBT
Aims: for this contemporary issue.
1. Investigate the efficacy of Cognitive-Behavioral CBT suggests that individuals can regain and maintain
Therapy (CBT) in addressing internet addiction. control over internet use.
2. Evaluate the sustainability of CBT effects on internet | Strengths: | Weaknesses | |----|----| | Highlights the
addiction over time. effectiveness of online CBT, offering a discreet option for
those hesitant about in-person therapy. | Response Bias:
Background: Questionnaires | | Standardised procedures, including
designated times for questionnaire completion. | The use of
Growing concern about internet addiction in the
the internet as a medium for treating internet addiction may
contemporary digital era.
impact internal validity. |
CBT has demonstrated effectiveness in treating various
addictive behaviours.
Assess the long-term effectiveness of CBT in diminishing 3.10. Issues & Debate: Nature vs.
internet addiction. Nurture
Sample:
114 participants were selected from the Centre for
Online Addiction
Participants actively seeking treatment for internet
addiction were recruited.
The sample was longitudinally followed to examine the
sustained effects of CBT.

Procedure:

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Caspi et al. (2003) identified a specific version of the 5-

HTT gene influencing the likelihood of depression after a 4.2. Lateralisation of Function
stressful life event.
Nativist theories suggest genetic inheritance Each hemisphere performs distinct functions.
Corpus callosum: A dense bundle of nerve fibers linking
contributes to psychological problems, making behavior
the two hemispheres.
change challenging.
Patients with the short 5-HTT gene version may face a Broca’s Area: Located in the left hemisphere,
higher risk of depression relapse even after accountable for speech production.
treatment. Left hemisphere: Connected with speech, logical
reasoning, mathematical abilities, the right hand, and the
The nature vs. nurture debate involves considering
right visual field.
genetic predispositions (nature) and environmental
influences (nurture) in shaping psychological traits and Right hemisphere: Linked to spatial awareness,
behaviors. creativity, musical talents, the left hand, and the left
Cognitive explanation of depression and learning visual field.
Males often excel in spatial awareness, potentially
theory of addiction propose learned behaviors that can
leading to hemispheric dominance.
be replaced through treatment, supporting the
effectiveness of CBT. Females typically demonstrate superior language skills
The assumption that CBT works for both addiction and possess a thicker corpus callosum.
and depression implies nurture as the cause, not
nature.
Explanations considering an interaction between nature
and nurture posit that a combination of the short 5-HTT
gene and a stressful event increases depression risk.
Genes may predispose individuals to problems, and
environmental factors trigger symptoms.

4. The Brain and

Neuropsychology
4.1. Parts of the Brain
Frontal lobe: Functions in decision-making and
concentration.
Temporal lobe: Engaged in hearing, comprehending
sounds, and processing speech.
Parietal lobe: Responsible for understanding the
surrounding world (perception) and recognizing faces.
Occipital lobe: Manages the ability to see and process
visual information.
Cerebellum: Governs movement, coordination, and
balance.
Brainstem: Links the spinal cord to the upper brain.
4.3. Role of the Nervous System

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CNS (Central Nervous System): 1. Electrical impulse starts within the neuron's cell body.
Includes the brain and spinal cord. 2. Small impulse travels along the axon (a long structure
Relays messages from the brain to the rest of the connecting the neuron's cell body to the terminal
body, providing instructions. button at the end).
PNS (Peripheral Nervous System): 3. Reaches terminal buttons filled with vesicles
Comprises nerves connecting the CNS, especially the containing neurotransmitters.
spinal cord, to the body's skin, muscles, and organs. 4. Vesicles release neurotransmitters into the synaptic
Neurotransmitters: gap.
Chemicals are present in the nervous system. 5. Neurotransmitters are received by receptors on the
Transmit messages from one neuron to another. next nerve cell.
6. This process continues to transmit the message.
The Neuron
| Neurotransmitter | Function | Imbalance Consequences |
The basic unit of the nervous system. |----|----|----| | Dopamine | Role in attention and learning |
Insufficient levels make concentrating on tasks difficult. | |
Serotonin | Affects mood | Insufficient levels can lead to
feelings of depression. | | GABA | Role in calming |
Inadequate levels result in heightened stress levels. |

4.4. Neurological Damage

Visual agnosia: A state where a person possesses
flawless vision but struggles to comprehend visual
stimuli, often stemming from parietal lobe damage.
Prosopagnosia: The incapacity to identify faces despite
having regular vision, usually arising from damage to the
Fusiform Face Area.
The Synapse Prefrontal cortex: A cerebral area responsible for
regulating anger, emotions, and impulses.
Junction between two neurons. Adriane Raine et al. (1997) discovered lower activity
in the pre-frontal cortex among murderers compared
to a non-murderer group, providing an explanation
for the increased propensity for violent behavior in
certain individuals.

4.5. Damasio et al. (1994) The Return of

Phineas Gage
Aims
Investigate the impact of brain damage, specifically to
the ventromedial regions of the frontal lobe, on decision-
making and emotional control.
Synaptic Transmission Determine the role of ventromedial regions in rational
decision-making and emotional regulation.

Background

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Inspired by the case of Phineas Gage, who underwent Aims:

personality changes after ventromedial frontal lobe
damage. Investigate the independent and cooperative functioning
Crucial for psychology and neuroscience to comprehend of the two hemispheres in split-brain patients.
how distinct brain regions influence decision-making and Determine the roles of the left and right hemispheres in
emotional control. processing different types of information and assess
their independent capabilities.
Sample:
Background
No traditional sample; focused on the historical figure
Phineas Gage. Built upon previous research suggesting distinct
Analyzed Gage's brain damage effects through a detailed functions for the left and right hemispheres of the brain.
examination. Aims to gain insights into brain lateralization and
functional specialization by studying split-brain patients.
Procedure:
Sample
Aimed to construct a 3D model of Gage's skull to trace
the iron rod's path causing brain damage. Included 11 participants who had undergone corpus
Data was collected on damage to Gage's ventromedial callosum surgical cutting, crucial for investigating split-
frontal lobe. brain functioning.
Examined the impact of the damage on decision-making
and emotional regulation using historical records and Procedure
medical observations.
Utilised various tests and tasks to evaluate participants'
Results abilities, such as presenting images or words to specific
visual fields and assessing responses.
Damasio's findings supported the crucial role of For example, words presented to the right visual field
ventromedial frontal lobe regions in rational decision- allowed participants to speak about what they saw, as
making and emotional control. the left hemisphere controls speech.
White matter damage disrupted signal transmission to
the prefrontal cortex, impairing Gage's ability to make Results
sensible decisions and manage emotions.
Sperry's findings demonstrated the independent and
Conclusion distinct abilities of the two brain hemispheres.
The right hemisphere excelled in spatial awareness and
Provides evidence for the significance of ventromedial creativity, while the left was responsible for language and
frontal lobe regions in decision-making and emotional logical thinking.
regulation.
Establishes a connection between specific brain regions Conclusion
and cognitive/emotional functioning.
Broader implications for understanding brain injuries Confirmed the concept of brain lateralization,
and their effects on behaviour and cognitive processes. highlighting specialized functions of the left and right
hemispheres.
| Strengths | Weaknesses | |----|----| | Scientific methods: Deepened understanding of cognitive abilities in split-
3D scans of the brain were used to identify areas of exit and brain patients and their information processing
entry | Lacks reliability; information dated 150 years back | mechanisms.
| Practical Application: frontal lobe damage | Low Significant implications for neuropsychology and
Generalisability: Brain damage is unique | cognitive science emerged from Sperry's work.

4.6. Sperry (1968) Hemisphere

Deconnection

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| Strengths | Weakness | |----|----| | Practical Application:
detailed information about split-brain patients | Lacks 1. 1848: Phineas Gage
Generalisability; a small sample was used | | Standardised Gage's case study in 1848 contributed
Procedure: increasing reliability and replicability of the study significantly to our contemporary understanding
| Lacks Ecological Validity; unrepresentative of everyday of the brain.
activities. | Brain study during this period was limited to post-
mortem examinations.
2. 1875: Wilhelm Windt
4.7. Issues and Debates: How Has Psychology emerged as a field with the opening of
Psychology Changed Over Time the first laboratory by Wilhelm Windt.
The ability to measure the physical brain and
Researchers aimed to explore how specific areas in the human behaviour became possible.
brain influence human behaviour. 3. 1924: Hans Berger
Case studies of patients with neurological damage across Development of the EEG (Electroencephalogram)
different periods provided insights into the evolving by Hans Berger.
knowledge of the brain. EEG allows the measurement of brain activity in
living individuals.
Timeline of Key Developments: 4. 1947: Bodamer's Prosopagnosia Cases
Bodamer's paper in 1947 explored three cases of
prosopagnosia, shedding light on the brain's role
in facial recognition.
Illustration of how case studies contribute to
understanding brain functions.
5. 1950s: Modern Brain Scans
The introduction of advanced brain scans like PET
(positron emission tomography) and MRI
(magnetic resonance imaging) provided detailed
images of the brain's structure.
6. 1968: Sperry's Lateralised Function
Sperry's ideas in the 1960s on lateralized brain
function were furthered by subsequent research
on sex differences.
McGlone (1980) found greater brain asymmetry in
right-handed males, indicating sex-related
distinctions.
Voyer et al. (1995) observed reduced sex
differences in brain lateralization over time.
Bourne et al. (2010) identified strong links
between sex, gender, and lateralization patterns.

5. Social Influence
5.1. Bystander Effect

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While some personality factors play a role, bystander
Bystander Effect: Hesitation to assist someone in need, intervention is predominantly influenced by situational
assuming others will provide help. factors.
Bystander Apathy: Lack of empathy or shared emotions
with a person requiring assistance.
Bystander Intervention: Decision to assist someone 5.3. Piliavin et. al. (1969) Good
depends on situational and personal factors. Samaritanism
5.2. Factors Affecting Bystander Effect Aims

Factors Affecting Helping Behavior: 1. Investigate real-world bystander intervention in

subway settings.
Situational Factors: 2. Examine factors impacting bystanders' likelihood to
offer help.
1. Diffusion of Responsibility:
Feeling less personally responsible with more Background
people around.
Less likelihood to help in a larger crowd, Extend research on the bystander effect.
assuming others will assist. Explore real-world factors' impact on intervention.
2. Noticing the Event: This was prompted by the Kitty Genovese case
Reduced awareness of events in large crowds. (murder involving people who just watched as Kitty,
Latané and Darley's (1969) experiment showed the victim, was being stabbed several times),
delayed response in group settings. highlighting actual behaviour.
3. Pluralistic Ignorance:
Socially interpreting situations based on others' Participants
actions. A field experiment in New York Subway
If no one helps, perceiving the event as non-
Approximately 4,500 passengers were observed between
emergent; following others if they assist.
11 am and 3 pm
4. Cost of Helping:
Four groups of four students (two males, two females)
Higher costs (time, effort, danger) decrease
using covert observation
likelihood of helping. Victim scenario: Male student falling after the first stop
Helping may occur when victim's costs outweigh
Victim conditions: Sober with a cane, drunk with a bottle;
personal costs, often to avoid guilt.
white or black
Model actions: Providing help after 70 or 150 seconds or
Personal Factors:
remaining still
1. Competence: Observers recorded:
Feeling capable influences the type of assistance Number of people in critical and adjacent areas
provided. Race and sex of passengers
Trained individuals more likely to offer direct Individuals who offered help
help, like CPR. Comments made by passengers
2. Mood: Time taken to provide assistance
Greater likelihood of helping when in a positive
mood. Procedure
3. Similarity:
Covert observation for discreet data collection.
Increased likelihood to help victims perceived as
Staged incidents with confederates posing as drunk or ill
similar to oneself individuals.
Record responses of unaware passengers.

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Definition: Adjusting behaviour or beliefs to align with

others, either to fit in or due to uncertainty in unfamiliar
situations.
Compliance: Agreeing with the majority despite
personal disagreement.
Normative Social Influence: Compliance driven by the
desire to belong to a group.
Internalisation: Adopting group beliefs due to
uncertainty about proper behaviour.
Informational Social Influence: Conforming when
unsure, relying on others for behavioural cues.
Results
Types of Conformity
62 out of 65 times victims had a cane – passengers
helped before the model 1. Identification
19 out of 38 times, the victim appeared drunk – 2. Compliance
passengers helped before the model 3. Internalisation
In 81 out of 103 trials, the victim was helped before the
model planned to help 5.5. Factors Affecting Conformity
In 60% of trials, more than one person helped
90% of the first helpers were male Locus of Control:
64% of the first helpers were white Internal locus of control: belief in personal control
68% of helpers who aided white victims were also white over behaviour
50% of white passengers assisted black victim External locus of control: belief in external factors
The tendency for same-race helping if the victim appears controlling behaviour (e.g., fate/religion)
drunk Age:
No diffusion of responsibility was found Adolescents are more prone to conformity than older
Greater speed in helping more people than with fewer individuals (Steinberg and Monahan, 2007)
Personality Factors:
Conclusion Larger groups increase the likelihood of conformity
Unanimity among the majority enhances conformity
Revealed factors influencing bystander intervention. by reducing social support for non-conformity
Contributed to understanding real-world bystander More challenging tasks lead to higher conformity as
behaviour. individuals seek guidance from others for the correct
Emphasized the importance of considering the context in answer
analyzing helping behaviour.

| Strengths | Weaknesses | |----|----| | Ecological Validity: a 5.6. Obedience

natural experiment | Unethical; no Informed consent and
protection from harm | | No demand characteristics; Obedience: Following orders from a higher authority
participants unaware of observation | | Blind Obedience: Unquestioningly following orders of
an authority figure
Milgram's Obedience Experiment (1963):
5.4. Conformity 1. A study on obedience was conducted at Yale
University.
2. Revealed the alarming extent to which individuals
obeyed authority figures, administering perceived
electric shocks despite the harm it implied.

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5.7. Factors Affecting Obedience 5.8. Crowd Behaviour

Factors Influencing Obedience in Milgram's Crowd Behavior: Collective behaviour of a large group
Experiment: of individuals (mob mentality).
1. Proximity of the Victim: Personal Responsibility Reduction: Decrease in the
Mr Wallace's situated elsewhere led to easier individual sense of responsibility.
continuity. Deindividuation: Anonymity within the crowd, leading
Same-room scenarios or forcing hands to reduced individual identity.
decreased obedience (40% and 30%,
respectively). Types of Crowds:
2. Proximity of the Authority Figure:
Mr. William's present in the room resulted in 1. Active Crowds:
65% obedience. Participation in protests or demonstrations.
Instructions via telephone reduced obedience 2. Passive Crowds:
to 20%. Engagement in activities like listening at a
3. Authority Figure Characteristics: religious service.
Mr. William's lab coat and legitimacy
correlated with 65% obedience. Behaviour Classifications:
Replacement by an ordinary person
decreased obedience by 20%. 1. Anti-Social Behavior:
4. Legitimacy of Context: Unhelpful, destructive, and aggressive actions.
Conducted in Yale: 65% obedience. 2. Pro-Social Behavior:
Replicated in a run-down office: 47.5% Acts perceived as kind, helpful, cooperative, and
obedience. peaceful.
5. Personal Responsibility:
Participants asking another to administer 5.9. Haney, Banks & Zimbardo (1973) A
shocks increased obedience to over 90%.
6. Support of Others:
Study of Prisoners and Guards in a
Confederates refusing shocks at 150 and 210 Simulated Prison
volts provided social support.
Only 10% continued to 450 volts. Aims:
Preventing Blind Obedience:
1. Social Support: 1. Investigate the psychological impact of perceived
Presence of supportive individuals. power and authority within a simulated prison
2. Familiarity with the Situation: setting.
Creating a known and comfortable 2. Understand how individuals conform to assigned
environment. roles in a controlled environment, specifically as
3. Distance: prisoners or guards.
Physical or psychological distance from the 3. Examine the dynamics of interactions between
authority figure. prisoners and guards and their influence on
4. Education: behaviour.
Providing knowledge on the consequences
and ethical implications. Background:
Influenced by the Stanford prison experiment, aiming to
explore the psychological consequences of power and
authority in a prison context.
Seeks to replicate and extend findings from the Stanford
prison experiment to deepen understanding of
psychological dynamics in such situations.

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Sample: Society: Refers to a community of people.

Social Issue: Denotes a problem or conflict that impacts
Volunteer college students are randomly assigned roles a community.
as prisoners or guards. Culture: Encompasses a collection of traditions, beliefs,
and values a group shares.
Procedure: Individualistic Culture: Highlights independence,
autonomy, and individuality, leading to less obedience.
Conducted in a simulated prison environment with cells ~~Collectivist Cultur~~e: Stresses group membership,
and appropriate uniforms. interdependence, and cooperation, resulting in more
"Guards" were given authority, including batons;
obedience.
"prisoners" were arrested by actual police officers.
Guards exhibited aggressive and authoritarian Examples
behaviours, leading to prisoner rebellion.
Initially planned for two weeks, it was terminated after Nazi Germany:
six days due to extreme psychological distress. Milgram's Obedience Experiment: Demonstrates
how individuals may follow authority figures,
Results: contributing to understanding the obedience seen in
Nazi Germany.
Participants quickly adapted to assigned roles, with Deindividuation: Explains how a large group may
guards becoming increasingly authoritarian and lead to the loss of personal identity, fostering an
prisoners experiencing significant distress and rebellion.
environment where individuals may commit harmful
Demonstrated people's capacity to conform to assigned
acts with reduced accountability.
roles, even in a simulated environment. Black Friday (Consumer Behaviour):
Unexpected and extreme behaviours led to early Crowd Psychology: Describes the chaotic and
termination. aggressive behaviour during Black Friday sales,
emphasizing the reduction in personal responsibility
Conclusion:
and deindividuation within a crowd.
Haney, Banks, and Zimbardo's study underscores the Normative Social Influence: Highlights how
substantial impact of perceived power and authority on consumers may conform to aggressive shopping
human behaviour in a simulated prison. behaviours influenced by the social norm during
Emphasises individuals' tendency to conform to assigned sales events.
roles and the importance of ethical considerations in Rioting Behaviour:
psychological research. Social Identity Theory: Analyzes rioting through the
Contributes to a better understanding of the lens of social identity theory, where strong
psychological dynamics of power and authority in identification with a group leads to increased
controlled settings. intergroup conflicts.
Collective Behavior: Views rioting as a form of
| Strengths | Weaknesses | |----|----| | Controls variables & collective behaviour, where individuals act collectively
Inter-rater reliability; the observation was recorded | Lacks beyond normal behaviour due to shared emotions
Generalisability; small and all-male sample | | Practical and goals.
Application: gives an understanding of prisoners’ behaviour
and obedience | No protection from harm/ distress | |
Ethical Considerations: had rules to prevent abuse | |

5.10. Issues and Debates: Individualistic

vs Collectivistic Cultures

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Edexcel IGCSE
Psychology

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