Geography Chapter-6 Minerals

1. Daily Household Items Made of Metals:

o Utensils (e.g., spoons, forks, knives, pots, pans) - typically made of stainless steel,
aluminum, or copper.
o Electronics (e.g., phones, computers, televisions) - contain metals like copper, gold, and
aluminum.
o Appliances (e.g., refrigerators, microwaves, washing machines) - primarily made of steel,
aluminum, and copper.
o Furniture (e.g., metal chairs, bed frames) - often made of steel or aluminum.
o Plumbing fixtures (e.g., taps, pipes) - made of copper, brass, or stainless steel.
o Lighting (e.g., lamps, bulbs) - components made of metals like aluminum and copper.
o Decorative items (e.g., photo frames, sculptures) - made of metals like brass, bronze, or
silver.
2. Sources of Metals:
o These metals are extracted from minerals found in the earth's crust.
o Stainless steel and iron come from iron ore.
o Aluminum is extracted from bauxite.
o Copper comes from copper ore.
o Gold is extracted from gold ore.
o Silver is obtained from silver ore.
3. Importance of Minerals in Everyday Life:
o Minerals are crucial for manufacturing everything from small household items to large
structures.
o Infrastructure: Railway lines, roads, and bridges are constructed using minerals.
o Transportation: Vehicles like cars, buses, trains, and airplanes are made from minerals and
run on energy derived from fossil fuels, which are also mineral-based.
o Machinery and Tools: Industries and agriculture rely heavily on machinery made from
minerals.
o Daily Essentials: Even food contains essential minerals necessary for health.
o Cultural and Ceremonial Use: Minerals have been used throughout history for decoration,
rituals, and various cultural practices.
4. Human Dependence on Minerals:
o From ancient times to modern civilization, minerals have played a key role in human
development and survival.

Where the minerals used in toothpaste and its packaging come from:
1. Silica:
o Source: Quartz sand is the primary source of silica.
o Locations: Silica is found in large deposits worldwide, including the United States (Illinois,
Texas), India, Brazil, and Australia.
2. Limestone:
o Source: Composed primarily of calcium carbonate (CaCO₃).
o Locations: Major limestone deposits are found in the United States (Kentucky, Indiana),
China, India, and the United Kingdom.
3. Aluminium Oxide:
o Source: Also known as alumina, it is extracted from bauxite ore.
o Locations: Bauxite is found in Australia, Guinea, Brazil, Jamaica, and India.
4. Phosphate Minerals:
o Source: Derived from minerals like apatite, which contain calcium phosphate.
 o Locations: Major deposits are in Morocco, the United States (Florida), China, and Russia.
5. Fluorite:
o Source: The mineral fluorite (calcium fluoride, CaF₂) is the primary source of fluoride.
o Locations: Significant fluorite deposits are found in China, Mexico, South Africa, and the
United States (Illinois, Kentucky).
6. Titanium Oxide:
o Source: Extracted from minerals like rutile, ilmenite, and anatase.
o Locations: These minerals are found in Australia, South Africa, Canada, India, and Ukraine.
7. Mica:
o Source: A group of silicate minerals that provide the sparkle in some toothpaste.
o Locations: India (particularly in the states of Jharkhand and Bihar) is one of the largest
producers, along with Madagascar, Brazil, and China.
8. Plastics (for toothbrush and tube):
o Source: Plastics are derived from petroleum, which is a fossil fuel.
o Locations: Major oil-producing countries include Saudi Arabia, Russia, the United States,
Iran, and Canada.

Minerals Used in a Light Bulb:

A typical light bulb, such as an incandescent or LED bulb, involves several minerals in its construction:
1. Tungsten:
o Use: The filament in incandescent bulbs is made of tungsten.
o Source: Tungsten is extracted from minerals like wolframite and scheelite.
o Locations: China, Russia, Canada, Bolivia, and Portugal.
2. Aluminum:
o Use: The base of the bulb is often made of aluminum.
o Source: Extracted from bauxite ore.
o Locations: Australia, Guinea, Brazil, Jamaica, and India.
3. Copper:
o Use: Used in the wiring inside the bulb.
o Source: Extracted from copper ore.
o Locations: Chile, Peru, the United States, Australia, and Russia.
4. Glass (Silica):
o Use: The bulb's outer casing is made from glass, which is derived from silica.
o Source: Quartz sand is the primary source of silica.
o Locations: Found globally, with significant deposits in the United States, India, and
Brazil.
5. Molybdenum:
o Use: Used to support the tungsten filament.
o Source: Extracted from the mineral molybdenite.
o Locations: China, the United States, Chile, and Peru.
6. Nickel:
o Use: Often used in the bulb's base or in alloys for the filament.
o Source: Extracted from laterite and sulfide ores.
o Locations: Russia, Canada, Australia, and New Caledonia.
7. Phosphor Compounds (for Fluorescent and LED Bulbs):
o Use: Used to coat the inside of fluorescent and LED bulbs to produce light.
o Source: Phosphor is derived from phosphate minerals.
o Locations: Morocco, China, the United States, and Russia.
8. Rare Earth Elements (for LEDs):
 o Use: Elements like europium, yttrium, and cerium are used in LED bulbs to create
different colors.
o Source: Extracted from rare earth minerals such as bastnäsite and monazite.
o Locations: China, the United States, Australia, and India.

Nutritional Facts on Food Labels: To understand how minerals are important to our diet, you can
examine the "Nutritional Facts" printed on food labels. Key minerals often listed include:
1. Calcium: Vital for bones and teeth, muscle function, and nerve signaling.
2. Iron: Essential for blood production, oxygen transport, and energy metabolism.
3. Magnesium: Important for muscle function, nerve function, and energy production.
4. Potassium: Helps with muscle contraction, nerve signals, and fluid balance.
5. Sodium: Regulates blood pressure, helps with nerve function, and muscle contractions.
6. Zinc: Necessary for immune function, wound healing, and DNA synthesis.

Understanding Minerals:
What is a Mineral?
 Definition: Geologists define a mineral as a "homogeneous, naturally occurring substance
with a definable internal structure."
 This means that minerals are
o pure substances formed through natural processes, and
o they have a specific chemical composition and
o a crystalline structure.
Variety of Minerals:
 Minerals are found in a wide range of forms in nature, from the hardest substances like diamond
to the softest like talc.
 This variety exists because minerals are
o formed under different physical and chemical conditions,
o leading to differences in their properties such as color, hardness, crystal structure,
luster, and density.
Rocks and Minerals:
 Rocks are made up of combinations of minerals. Some rocks, like limestone, may consist of a
single mineral, while most rocks contain several minerals in varying proportions. Although over
2,000 minerals have been identified, only a few are commonly found in the majority of rocks.
Formation of Minerals:
 The specific mineral that forms from a combination of elements depends on the physical and
chemical conditions during its formation. These conditions determine the mineral's
characteristics, which geologists use to classify and identify them.

Study of Minerals by Geographers and Geologists:

Geographers:
 Focus: Geographers study minerals as part of the Earth's crust to better understand landforms
and the distribution of mineral resources. They are particularly interested in how these resources
impact economic activities and the geographic distribution of these resources.
Geologists:
 Focus: Geologists are more concerned with how minerals are formed, their age, and their
physical and chemical composition. They study minerals to understand the Earth's history, the
processes that formed different minerals, and their applications in various industries.

Where are these minerals found?

Minerals Location: Minerals are typically found in ores.
 Definition of Ore: An ore is an accumulation of minerals mixed with other elements.
Concentration for Viability: The mineral content in the ore must be sufficient in concentration to
make extraction commercially viable.
Formation Types: The type of formation or structure in which minerals are found determines the
ease of mining.
Cost of Extraction: The type of formation also affects the cost of extraction.
Importance of Understanding Formations: Understanding the main types of formations is crucial
for determining the mining and extraction processes.

Classification and Occurrence of Minerals:

Minerals are classified based on their occurrence in different types of geological formations. The way
minerals are formed and found in nature affects how easily they can be extracted and their commercial
viability. Here’s a detailed explanation of the various modes of occurrence of minerals:
1. Minerals in Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks:
o Occurrence: Minerals are found in the cracks, crevices, faults, or joints of igneous and
metamorphic rocks.
o Formations:
 Veins: Smaller mineral deposits found in cracks or crevices.
 Lodes: Larger mineral deposits.
o Formation Process: These minerals form when molten or gaseous minerals are forced
upwards through cavities in the Earth's crust. As they rise, they cool and solidify, forming
veins or lodes.
o Examples: Tin, copper, zinc, and lead are commonly extracted from veins and lodes.
2. Minerals in Sedimentary Rocks:
o Occurrence: Minerals occur in horizontal beds or layers within sedimentary rocks.
o Formation Process: These minerals are formed through the deposition, accumulation, and
concentration of material over long periods, often under conditions of great heat and
pressure.
o Examples:
 Coal and Iron Ore: Formed from organic material under heat and pressure.
 Gypsum, Potash Salt, and Sodium Salt: Formed through the evaporation of water,
particularly in arid regions.
3. Minerals from Weathered Surface Rocks (Residual Deposits):
o Occurrence: Minerals form through the decomposition of surface rocks, where soluble
components are removed, leaving behind a residual mass that contains ore.
o Examples: Bauxite, an important ore of aluminum, is formed this way.
4. Alluvial Deposits (Placer Deposits):
o Occurrence: These minerals are found in the sands of valley floors and at the base of hills.
o Formation Process: Minerals that are resistant to corrosion by water accumulate in these
areas, forming placer deposits.
o Examples: Gold, silver, tin, and platinum are commonly found in placer deposits.
5. Minerals in Ocean Waters and Beds:
o Occurrence: Oceans contain vast quantities of minerals, although many are too diffused to
be economically significant.
o Extraction:
 From Ocean Waters: Common salt, magnesium, and bromine are primarily
extracted.
 From Ocean Beds: Rich deposits of manganese nodules are found on the ocean
floor.
 Rat-Hole Mining in Northeast India
What is Rat-Hole Mining?
 Definition: Rat-hole mining is a method of coal mining that is predominantly practiced in the
northeastern states of India, particularly in Meghalaya. In this method, miners dig small, narrow
tunnels, often only large enough for one person to enter, to extract coal. These tunnels, called
"rat-holes," can extend deep into the ground horizontally.
Ownership of Minerals:
 Nationalization: In most parts of India, minerals are nationalized, meaning they are owned by
the state, and their extraction is regulated by the government. Companies and individuals must
obtain permission from the government to mine these resources.
 Tribal Areas Exception: In contrast, in many tribal areas of northeastern India, particularly in
Meghalaya, minerals are often owned by individuals or communities. This traditional ownership
allows local people to mine and use these resources, sometimes without formal regulation.
Rat-Hole Mining in Meghalaya:
 Locations: Rat-hole mining is especially prevalent in areas like Jowai and Cherrapunjee.
 Minerals Extracted: This method is mainly used for coal mining, but the region is also rich in
other minerals like iron ore, limestone, and dolomite.
Environmental and Legal Issues:
 Environmental Impact: Rat-hole mining has severe environmental consequences. It leads to
deforestation, soil erosion, and contamination of water bodies. The unregulated nature of this
mining practice makes it particularly harmful to the environment.
 Legal Status: The National Green Tribunal (NGT), which is a specialized body set up under
India's legal system to handle environmental cases, has declared rat-hole mining illegal. The
NGT has recommended that these activities be stopped immediately due to their detrimental
impact on the environment and the dangerous conditions under which miners work.
Social and Economic Context:
 Local Economy: Despite its illegality, rat-hole mining continues in some areas due to the
economic dependence of local communities on this practice. It provides a livelihood for many
families, even though it is fraught with risks, including poor working conditions and low wages.
 Health and Safety Concerns: The tunnels are often unstable, leading to frequent accidents, and
the miners, including children, work in hazardous conditions without proper safety measures.

Distribution and Importance of Mineral Resources in India

India is rich in mineral resources, but these are unevenly distributed across the country. The distribution
of minerals is largely determined by the geological structure and processes that have occurred over time.
Here’s an overview of the mineral wealth and its distribution in India, with a focus on ferrous minerals,
particularly iron ore:
Geological Distribution of Minerals in India:
1. Peninsular Rocks:
o Minerals: These rocks contain most of the reserves of coal, metallic minerals (like iron
ore), mica, and many other non-metallic minerals.
o Regions: Peninsular India, including states like Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, and
Jharkhand.
2. Sedimentary Rocks:
o Minerals: Found on the western and eastern flanks of the peninsula, these rocks contain
most of the petroleum deposits.
o Regions: Gujarat and Assam are key areas with significant petroleum reserves.
3. Rajasthan:
o Minerals: The rock systems in Rajasthan are rich in non-ferrous minerals like copper,
lead, zinc, and others.
 4. Alluvial Plains of North India:
o Minerals: These regions are almost devoid of economic minerals due to their geological
structure.
Factors Affecting Economic Viability of Mineral Deposits:
 Concentration of Minerals in Ore: Higher concentrations make extraction more economically
viable.
 Ease of Extraction: Geologically simpler and safer extraction processes reduce costs.
 Closeness to Markets: Proximity to industrial centers reduces transportation costs and makes
mining more profitable.
 When these factors align favorably, a mineral deposit becomes economically viable, leading to the
development of a mine.

Ferrous Minerals:
 Importance: Ferrous minerals make up about three-fourths of the total value of metallic mineral
production in India. They are crucial for the development of metallurgical industries.
 Export: India exports a significant amount of ferrous minerals after meeting its domestic needs.
Iron Ore:
 Importance: Iron ore is the basic mineral that forms the backbone of industrial development,
particularly in the steel industry.
 Types of Iron Ore:
o Magnetite: The finest iron ore, with an iron content of up to 70%. It has excellent
magnetic properties, making it valuable in the electrical industry.
o Hematite: The most important industrial iron ore, widely used due to its availability. It
has a slightly lower iron content (50-60%) compared to magnetite.
 Distribution:
o Major Producing States:
 Odisha: A leading producer of iron ore.
 Chhattisgarh: Significant reserves and production.
 Karnataka: Another key producer.
 Jharkhand: Also contributes a substantial amount to the total production.
o Other States: Contribute around 3% to the total production.
In 2018–19, nearly 97% of India’s iron ore production came from the states of Odisha, Chhattisgarh,
Karnataka, and Jharkhand, highlighting the concentrated nature of this resource.
State Percentage (%) Estimated Production (Million
Tonnes)
Odisha 54 111.48
Chhattisgarh 18 37.16
Karnataka 16 33.03
Jharkhand 10 20.64
Madhya Pradesh 3 6.19
Others 9 18.58
Iron ore production Data as per 2018-19 survey
 Percentage (%)
Jharkhand
10%
Karnataka
16%

Odisha
Chhattisgarh 55%
18%

Did you Know.

That's a fascinating connection between geography and local language! In Karnataka, the naming of
natural features often reflects their physical appearance or shape:
 Kudre: The highest peak in the Western Ghats of Karnataka is called Kudre, which means
"horse" in Kannada. Its shape resembles the face of a horse.
 Bailadila: This hill range is named "Bailadila," which translates to "hump of an ox." The hills
are shaped like an ox's hump, giving them their distinctive name.

Major Iron Ore Belts and Non-Ferrous Minerals in India

Iron Ore Belts:
1. Odisha-Jharkhand Belt:
o Location: Odisha and Jharkhand.
o Key Areas:
 Odisha: High-grade hematite ore is found in the Badampahar (बादामपहाड़)
mines in Mayurbhanj and Kendujhar districts.
 Jharkhand: Hematite iron ore is mined in Gua and Noamundi in the Singbhum
district.
o Importance: This region is crucial for India's iron ore supply, with high-quality deposits
supporting significant steel production.
2. Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur Belt:
o Location: Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra.
o Key Areas:
 Bailadila Range: Located in the Bastar district of Chhattisgarh, known for very
high-grade hematite iron ore.
 Deposits: Comprise 14 deposits of super high-grade hematite ore, ideal for steel
making.
 Exports: Iron ore from this region is exported to Japan and South Korea via the
Vishakhapatnam port.
o Importance: Noted for its excellent physical properties for steel production and
significant export contribution.
3. Ballari-Chitradurga-Chikkamagaluru-Tumakuru (तुमकुरु)Belt:
o Location: Karnataka.
o Key Areas:
 Kudremukh Mines: Located in the Western Ghats, these mines are a 100%
export unit with some of the largest iron ore deposits globally.
 Transportation: Ore is transported as slurry through a pipeline to a port near
Mangaluru.
o Importance: Known for large reserves and significant export activity.
4. Maharashtra-Goa Belt:
 o Location: Goa and Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra.
o Key Areas:
 Goa: Iron ore is efficiently exploited despite not being of very high quality.
 Export: Ore is exported through the Marmagao port.
o Importance: Significant for regional iron ore production and export.

Manganese:
 Usage: Mainly used in steel manufacturing and ferro-manganese alloy production. Also used in
producing bleaching powder, insecticides, and paints.
 Requirement: About 10 kg of manganese is needed to produce one tonne of steel.

Madhya Pradesh, the leading manganese ore producing State, accounted for 33% of the
total production in 2018-19, which is followed by Maharashtra (27%) and Odisha (16%)

Non-Ferrous Minerals: Copper, Bauxite, Lead, Zinc, Gold.

1. Copper:
o Importance: Essential for electrical cables, electronics, and chemical industries due to its
malleability, ductility, and conductivity.
o Major Producers:
 Balaghat Mines: Madhya Pradesh.
 Khetri Mines: Rajasthan.
 Singhbhum District: Jharkhand.
o Issue: India faces a critical deficiency in copper reserves and production.

 Madhya Pradesh was the leading producer State of copper concentrates accounting for
about 53% of the production during 2018-19, followed by Rajasthan with 42% and
Jharkhand with 4 per cent. The number of reporting mines was five in both the years, i.e.,
2017-18 and 2018-19
2. Bauxite:
o Importance: Primary source of alumina and aluminium, valued for its strength,
lightness, conductivity, and malleability.
o Formation: Bauxite deposits formed from the decomposition of rocks rich in aluminium
silicates.
o Major Deposits:
 Amarkantak Plateau: Madhya Pradesh.
  Maikal Hills: Madhya Pradesh.
 Bilaspur-Katni Plateau: Madhya Pradesh.
 Panchpatmali Deposits: Koraput district, Odisha.
o Production: Odisha was the largest producer of bauxite in India in 2016-17, with
Panchpatmali deposits being the most significant.

The Production of bauxite at 22,313 thousand tonne during 2018-19 registered a decrease of 10%
as compared to the previous year.
 Odisha with 65% contribution was the leading producer of bauxite followed by Gujarat
(9%), Jharkhand (10%), Chhattisgarh (6%) and Maharashtra (6%) and the remaining 3%
of production was contributed by Madhya Pradesh and Goa.

Interesting Facts
 Discovery of Aluminum: Aluminium was discovered and became known for its unique properties.
 Emperor Napoleon III's Preference:
 Emperor Napoleon III of France recognized aluminium as a precious metal.
 He adorned his clothes with buttons and hooks made of aluminium, symbolizing its value.
 Aluminum Utensils for Distinguished Guests:
 Napoleon III served food to his most distinguished and illustrious guests in aluminium utensils.
 Less honourable guests were served in gold and silver utensils, indicating that aluminium was
considered more prestigious at the time.
 Changing Perception of Aluminium:
 Within thirty years of this event, the perception of aluminium drastically changed.
 Aluminium, once considered rare and valuable, became so common that even beggars in Paris
used aluminium bowls.

Non-Metallic Minerals: Mica and Limestone

Mica:
 Characteristics:
o Structure: Mica is composed of a series of thin, plate-like layers that can be split into
very thin sheets. These sheets can be so thin that a thousand can be stacked into a mica
sheet just a few centimeters high.
o Colors: Mica can appear in various colors, including clear, black, green, red-yellow, and
brown.
o Properties: Mica is valued for its
 excellent dielectric strength,
 low power loss factor,
 insulating properties, and
 resistance to high voltages.
 Uses:
 o Electrical and Electronic Industries: Due to its insulating properties and ability to
withstand high voltages, mica is crucial in the manufacturing of electrical insulators,
capacitors, and other electronic components.
 Geographical Distribution:
o Jharkhand: The Koderma-Gaya-Hazaribagh belt is the leading producer of mica in
India.
o Rajasthan: The area around Ajmer is a significant mica-producing region.
o Andhra Pradesh: The Nellore mica belt is also an important source of mica.

 As per NMI database based on UNFC system, the total reserves/resources of mica in the
country as on 1.4.2015 has been estimated at 6,35,302 tonnes out of which 1,14,433 tonnes
are placed under Reserves category and 5,20,869 tonnes under Remaining Resources
category.
 Andhra Pradesh leads with 41% share in country's total resources followed by Rajasthan
(28%), Odisha (17%), Maharashtra (13%), Bihar (2%) and a small quantity of resources is
found in Jharkhand and Telangana
Limestone:
 Characteristics:
o Formation: Limestone is primarily composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) or a
combination of calcium and magnesium carbonates. It is commonly found in sedimentary
rock formations.
o Uses:
 Cement Industry: Limestone is a fundamental raw material for producing
cement.
 Iron Smelting: It is essential for smelting iron ore in blast furnaces, where it acts
as a flux to remove impurities.
 Geographical Distribution:
o Widespread: Limestone deposits are found in various regions across India, particularly
in sedimentary rock formations. Specific major deposits include those in Rajasthan,
Madhya Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.

Rajasthan was the leading producing State accounting for (20%) of the total production of
limestone, followed by Madhya Pradesh & Andhra Pradesh (13% each), Chhattisgarh (11%),
Karnataka (9%), Telangana (8%), Gujarat (7%), Tamil Nadu (6%) and the remaining 13% was
contributed by Assam, Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Jharkhand, Kerala,
Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Odisha and Uttar Pradesh.

India's ranking in 2018

India's ranking in 2018 compared to world production for the minerals and metals you listed is as
follows:
1. Steel (Crude): India ranked 2nd in the world in crude steel production in 2018, overtaking
Japan and coming in just behind China.
2. Chromite, Iron Ore, Aluminium (Primary) & Zinc (Slab):
o Chromite: India was the 3rd largest producer of chromite.
o Iron Ore: India ranked 4th in iron ore production.
o Aluminium (Primary): India was the 3rd largest producer of primary aluminium.
o Zinc (Slab): India ranked 4th in zinc slab production.
3. Bauxite: India ranked 5th in bauxite production in 2018.
4. Manganese Ore and Copper (Refined):
o Manganese Ore: India was the 5th largest producer of manganese ore.
o Copper (Refined): India ranked 7th in refined copper production.

Health Hazards for Miners:

1. Pulmonary Diseases:
o Dust Inhalation: Miners are often exposed to dust and noxious fumes, which can lead to
respiratory problems such as
1. Pneumoconiosis (black lung disease),
2. Silicosis, and
3. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).
o Silica Dust: Silica dust, in particular, is a major health risk in mining operations and can
cause serious lung conditions.
2. Accidents and Injuries:
o Mine Roof Collapse: The risk of roof collapse or cave-ins is a constant threat in
underground mining, potentially leading to fatal accidents or serious injuries.
o Inundation: Flooding of mines due to water ingress can pose significant hazards to
miners.
o Fires: Fires in coal mines, often caused by spontaneous combustion or equipment
malfunction, can be extremely dangerous and difficult to control.

Environmental Hazards:
1. Water Contamination:
o Acid Mine Drainage: Mining activities can lead to the leaching of acids into nearby
water sources, contaminating rivers and streams with heavy metals and other pollutants.
o Sedimentation: Runoff from mining sites can increase sedimentation in water bodies,
affecting aquatic life and water quality.
2. Land Degradation:
o Waste Dumping: The disposal of mining waste and slurry can lead to land degradation,
including erosion and loss of vegetation.
o Soil Pollution: Chemicals used in mining processes can contaminate the soil, affecting
agricultural productivity and ecosystem health.
3. Stream and River Pollution:
o Chemical Contaminants: The release of chemicals from mining operations can pollute
streams and rivers, harming aquatic ecosystems and potentially impacting human health
through the consumption of contaminated water.
Mitigation Efforts:
To address these hazards, the mining industry and governments implement various safety measures and
regulations:
 Health and Safety Regulations: Ensuring proper ventilation, dust control, and regular health
check-ups for miners.
 Environmental Management: Implementing waste management practices, controlling acid
mine drainage, and restoring mining sites after closure.
 Training and Equipment: Providing miners with appropriate training and safety equipment to
minimize the risks of accidents and health issues.

Conservation of Minerals:
Understanding the Importance:
 Minerals play a crucial role in industry and agriculture, and their extraction impacts our
environment and economy.
 However, given that minerals are finite and non-renewable, it is essential to implement strategies
for their conservation to ensure their availability for future generations.
Challenges in Mineral Conservation:
1. Finite Resources:
o Volume: The workable volume of mineral deposits constitutes only about 1% of the Earth’s
crust.
o Non-Renewable Nature: Geological processes that formation of minerals are extremely
slow, making replenishment rates negligible compared to current consumption rates.
2. Increasing Costs:
o Deeper Extraction: As easily accessible ores are depleted, mining operations must reach
greater depths, increasing extraction costs.
o Decreasing Quality: Over time, the quality of ores generally decreases, which can make
mining less economically viable.

Conservation Strategies:
1. Sustainable Mining Practices:
o Planning and Regulation: Implementing stricter safety regulations and environmental laws
to manage the impact of mining activities.
o Rehabilitation: Restoring mining sites after extraction to prevent land degradation and
environmental damage.
2. Technological Advancements:
o Improved Technologies: Developing and adopting new technologies that allow for the
extraction and processing of lower-grade ores at lower costs.
o Efficient Mining Techniques: Enhancing mining methods to reduce waste and improve ore
recovery rates.
3. Recycling and Reuse:
o Metal Recycling: Recycling metals from scrap materials to reduce the need for new mining
and conserve existing mineral resources.
o Substitute Materials: Researching and using alternative materials to replace scarce minerals
where possible.
4. Resource Management:
o Conservation Planning: Creating and implementing plans for the responsible use and
management of mineral resources.
o Public Awareness: Educating stakeholders and the public about the importance of mineral
conservation and sustainable practices.
 Energy
 Energy Requirements:
 Energy is essential for all activities, including cooking, lighting, heating, transportation, and
industrial operations.
 Sources of Energy:
 Energy can be generated from fuel minerals (coal, petroleum, natural gas, uranium) and
electricity.
 Classification of Energy Resources:
 Conventional Sources:
o Include firewood, cattle dung cake, coal, petroleum, natural gas, and electricity (hydel
and thermal).
 Non-Conventional Sources:
o Include solar, wind, tidal, geothermal, biogas, and atomic energy.
 Usage in Rural India:
 Firewood and cattle dung cake are the most common energy sources in rural India.
 Over 70% of the energy requirements in rural households are met by these two sources.
 Challenges with Firewood and Cattle Dung Cake:
 The use of firewood is becoming difficult due to decreasing forest areas.
 The use of dung cake is discouraged as it consumes valuable manure that could otherwise be
used in agriculture.
Coal as a conventional source of energy:
1. Importance of Coal in India:
o Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel in India.
o It plays a significant role in meeting the nation's energy needs, including power generation,
industrial energy supply, and domestic use.
o India is highly dependent on coal for its commercial energy requirements.
2. Formation of Coal:
o Coal is formed from the compression of plant material over millions of years.
o The type of coal depends on the
 degree of compression,
 depth,
 And time of burial.
3. Types of Coal:
o Peat:
 Formed from decaying plants in swamps.
 Has low carbon content, high moisture content, and low heating capacity.
o Lignite:
 Low-grade brown coal, soft, with high moisture content.
 Principal reserves are in Neyveli, Tamil Nadu, and are used for electricity
generation.
o Bituminous Coal:
 Formed from deeper burial and increased temperatures.
 Most popular coal for commercial use.
o Metallurgical Coal:
 A high-grade bituminous coal with special value for smelting iron in blast furnaces.
o Anthracite:
 The highest quality hard coal.
 Formation: Formed under high pressure and temperature
 High Carbon Content: 86% to 97% carbon, making it the most carbon-rich coal.
  High Energy Density: Produces more heat, burns longer.
 Low Impurities: Low sulfur, moisture, and volatile matter; burns cleaner.
 Hard and Brittle: Shiny, metallic luster; breaks with a conchoidal fracture.
 Uses: Primarily for heating and industrial processes requiring high heat.

4. Geological Ages of Coal in India:

o Gondwana Coal:
 Over 200 million years old.
 Major resources are metallurgical coal located in the Damodar Valley (West Bengal-
Jharkhand).
 Important coalfields: Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro.
 Other deposits: Godavari, Mahanadi, Son, and Wardha valleys.
o Tertiary Coal:
 About 55 million years old.
 Occurs in the northeastern states: Meghalaya, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, and
Nagaland.
5. Location of Industries and Power Stations:
o Coal is a bulky material that loses weight when used (reduced to ash).
o Hence, heavy industries and thermal power stations are typically located near coalfields.

Petroleum as a conventional source of energy: Also known as Crude Oil or Mineral

Oils.
1. Significance of Petroleum in India:
o Petroleum, or mineral oil, is the second major energy source in India after coal.
o It is used as fuel :
 For heat and lighting,
 As lubricants for machinery, and
 As a raw material for various manufacturing industries.
 For vechile
2. Role of Petroleum Refineries:
o Petroleum refineries are considered "nodal industries" as they support several other
industries like
 Synthetic textiles,
 Fertilizers, and
 Various chemical industries.
3. Geological Occurrence of Petroleum:
o Most petroleum in India is found in anticlines and fault traps within rock formations from
the tertiary age.
o In regions of folding, petroleum is trapped in the crests of upfolds (anticlines) or domes.
o The oil-bearing layers are usually porous limestone or sandstone, which allow the oil to flow.
o Non-porous layers prevent the oil from rising or sinking.
o Petroleum is also found in fault traps, where it is trapped between porous and non-porous
rocks.
o Natural gas, being lighter, is typically found above the oil.
Note:
Anticlines: Anticlines are geological formations where layers of rock are folded upwards into an arch-like
shape. Here are some key points:
 Arch Shape: The rock layers in an anticline curve upwards, creating a crest at the top.
 Oldest Rocks at Core: In an anticline, the oldest rock layers are found at the center of the fold.
 Oil and Gas Traps: Anticlines can trap oil and natural gas, making them important in the petroleum
industry.
 Opposite of Synclines: Anticlines are the opposite of synclines, where the rock layers fold downwards.
Fault traps: Fault traps are geological structures that can trap hydrocarbons like oil and natural gas,
making them important in the petroleum industry. Here's a quick overview:
 Formed by Faults: Fault traps occur when a rock layer is displaced along a fault line, creating a
barrier that prevents the movement of oil or gas.
 Sealing Rock: A non-permeable rock layer (often clay or shale) acts as a seal above or alongside
the fault, trapping the hydrocarbons in a porous rock layer.
 Hydrocarbon Accumulation: Oil and gas accumulate in the porous rock on one side of the
fault, unable to migrate further due to the sealing rock.
 Important in Exploration: Fault traps are common targets in oil and gas exploration because
they can hold significant amounts of hydrocarbons.

4. Major Petroleum Production Areas in India:

o Mumbai High (offshore field): About 63% of India's petroleum production is from Mumbai
high.
o Gujarat: 18% from Gujarat
 Ankleshwar is the most important oil field.
o Assam: 16% from Assam.
 Assam is the oldest oil-producing state in India.
 Important oil fields: Digboi, Naharkatiya, and Moran-Hugrijan.
5. Offshore Fields in Western India:
o The three major offshore fields in western India, though not explicitly named here, typically
include Mumbai High, Heera, and Bassein.

Natural gas as a conventional source of energy:

1. Occurrence of Natural Gas:
o Natural gas is found with petroleum deposits and is released when crude oil is brought to the
surface.
o It is an important clean energy resource formed in association with or without petroleum.
o It is used as raw material in Petro-chemical industry.
2. Uses of Natural Gas:
o Domestic and Industrial Fuel: Used for heating, cooking, and as a fuel in industries.
o Power Generation: Used as fuel in the power sector to generate electricity.
o Raw Material: Utilized in chemical, petrochemical, and fertilizer industries.
o Transport Fuel: Emerging as a preferred transport fuel in the form of Compressed Natural
Gas (CNG).
 o Cooking Fuel: Used as Piped Natural Gas (PNG) in homes.
3. Expansion of Gas Infrastructure:
o With the development of gas infrastructure and city gas distribution (CGD) networks, natural
gas is becoming a preferred transport and cooking fuel.
4. Major Gas Reserves in India:
o Mumbai High and Allied Fields: Located along the west coast.
o Cambay Basin: Supplementary reserves found in this region.( The Cambay Basin is a rich
petroleum basin in India, located in Khambhat Taluka in the Anand district of Gujarat).
o Krishna-Godavari Basin: New reserves discovered along the east coast.
5. Development of Gas Pipelines:
o The Hazira-Vijaipur-Jagdishpur (HVJ) gas pipeline is the first cross-country pipeline in
India, linking Mumbai High and Bassein gas fields with fertilizer, power, and industrial
complexes in western and northern India.
o The Indian gas infrastructure has expanded significantly, from 1,700 km to 18,500 km of
cross-country pipelines.
o The gas grid is expected to expand further to over 34,000 km, connecting all gas sources and
consuming markets across the country, including the northeastern states.

Electricity:
 Importance of Electricity:
 Electricity has a wide range of applications in modern life.
 Per-capita electricity consumption is considered an index of development.
 Methods of Electricity Generation:
 Hydroelectricity:
o A renewable resource of energy.
o Generated by running water that drives hydro turbines.
o Uses fast-flowing water, which is a renewable resource.
o Accounts for 25% of the total electricity produced in India.
o Hydel power potential is 150000 MW.
o Total installed capacity 23488 MW.
o Important Hydel power producing states Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka.
o India has several multi-purpose projects, such as
 Bhakra Nangal,
 Damodar Valley Corporation, and
 Kopili Hydel Project that produces hydroelectric power.

 Thermal Power:
o Generated by burning fuels like coal, petroleum, and natural gas.
o Thermal power stations use non-renewable fossil fuels to produce electricity.
o Obtained by using Coal, Petroleum and Natural Gas.
o Out of the total production, share of thermal electricity is about 70%.
o Over 310 thermal power plants distributed in Assam, Jharkhand, Gujarat, Madhya
Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Punjab and Haryana, Rajasthan,
Karnataka, Orissa and Delhi.
 Nature of Electricity:
 Once generated, electricity is the same regardless of whether it comes from hydro or thermal
sources.
 Installed capacity 104917 MW and per capita consumption 379 kwh.
Non-conventional sources of energy:
1. Dependence on Fossil Fuels:
a) The growing consumption of energy has led to increased reliance on fossil fuels like coal,
oil, and gas.
b) This dependence has raised concerns due to
(i) rising prices,
(ii) potential shortages, and
(iii) the resulting uncertainties about the security of energy supply.
2. Impact on Economy and Environment:
a) Uncertainty in fossil fuel supply can have serious repercussions (नतीजों) on the growth of
the national economy.
b) The increasing use of fossil fuels is also linked to significant environmental problems.
3. Need for Renewable Energy:
a) To address these issues, there is a pressing need to utilize renewable energy sources, which
are considered non-conventional energy sources.
b) Examples include solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy, biomass, and energy derived from
waste materials.
4. India's Renewable Energy Potential:
a) India is fortunate to have an abundance of sunlight, water, wind, and biomass.
b) The country has one of the largest programs for the development of renewable energy
resources.

"India is very rich as far as non-conventional sources of energy are concerned."

Wind energy is used for pumping water, irrigating farms and generating electricity. The states of
Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Orissa and Maharashtra are in better position to produce and use such an
energy.
The gulf of Kuchch and Cambay are suitable for the development of tidal energy.
Geothermal energy is produced from hot springs in Himachal Pradesh. It is used for running cold
storage plants.
Every effort is being made to make use of biomass comprising energy plantation, urban waste, farm
waste, human waste etc. to generate power.
Energy plantations like fast-growing shrubs and trees with high calorific value are being grown on
waste and denuded lands.
Urban or municipal waste and sewage in cities are also used for generating gas and electricity.
Electricity can also be produced from farm wastes like rice husk and bagasse (sugarcane waste).
Animal and poultry wastes and human excreta etc. have also been used in 'bio-gas' plants to provide
power in rural areas for different purposes.
The sun provides abundant and inexhaustible amount of energy. It has a huge potential and is
a universal source of energy.
Nuclear or Atomic Energy:
1. Generation Process:
o Nuclear energy is generated by altering the structure of atoms, releasing a large amount of
energy in the form of heat.
o This heat is used to generate electric power.
2. Key Resources:
o Uranium and Thorium are the primary materials used for generating nuclear power.
o These materials are found in
 Jharkhand,
 The Aravalli ranges of Rajasthan, and
 The Monazite sands of Kerala.
3. Nuclear Power Stations:
o India has six nuclear power stations.
o The task is to locate these stations and identify the states where they are situated:
 Tarapur (Maharashtra)
 Kudankulam (Tamil Nadu)
 Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu)
 Kaiga (Karnataka)
 Narora (Uttar Pradesh)
 Rawatbhata (Rajasthan)

Electricity generated from Nuclear resources is 2720 MW, 4% of the total production of energy.
"India's Energy hope lies in Nuclear power"
a) 67% of India's current energy requirement comes from coal which is non-renewable and also
pollution creating, so we have to turn towards other sources of power.
b) India has vast deposits of nuclear resources. (about 50% of worlds Thorium deposits which is
used as raw material in nuclear power plant are found in India.)
c) Hydel electricity is pollution free and renewable but has got its own limitations.
Conclusion:
India is a developing country which requires lots of energy for its industrial development which
can be only fulfilled by nuclear power.
Solar Energy:
1. Potential in India:
o As a tropical country, India has immense potential for harnessing solar energy.
o Photovoltaic technology is used to convert sunlight directly into electricity.
2. Rural and Remote Applications:
o Solar energy is gaining popularity in rural and remote areas.
o Large solar power plants are being established across India.
3. Environmental and Agricultural Benefits:
o The expansion of solar energy reduces the dependence of rural households on firewood and
dung cakes.
o This shift contributes to environmental conservation and ensures an adequate supply of
manure for agriculture.
4. Some important points:
o About 20 MW per square Km per annum energy can be produced from solar energy in India.
o Solar Energy can be used for cooking, pumping, heating of water, refrigerator and street
lighting.
o Thar desert can became the biggest solar power house of India.
o India's largest solar power plant is located at Madhapur (Gujarat), is used to sterilize milk
canes.
Wind Power:
 Potential of Wind Power in India:
 India has significant potential for harnessing wind power as a renewable energy source.
 Largest Wind Farm Cluster:
 The largest wind farm cluster in India is located in Tamil Nadu, stretching from Nagarcoil to
Madurai.
 Other Important Wind Farms:
 Key states with important wind farms include Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Kerala, and
Maharashtra.
 The Lakshadweep islands also have notable wind farms.
 Largest wind farm cluster of 150 MW is located in Tamil Nadu.
 Prominent Wind Energy Locations:
 Nagarcoil (Tamil Nadu) and Jaisalmer (Rajasthan) are well-known for their effective use of
wind energy in India.
Biogas:
 Sources of Biogas:
 Biogas is produced from shrubs, farm waste, animal waste, and human waste.
 It is commonly used for domestic consumption in rural areas.
 Production Process:
 Biogas is generated through the decomposition of organic matter.
 It has a higher thermal efficiency compared to kerosene, dung cake, and charcoal.
 Biogas Plant Setup:
 Biogas plants are established at municipal, cooperative, and individual levels.
 In rural India, plants using cattle dung are referred to as "Gobar gas plants."
 Benefits of Biogas:
 Provides energy and improves the quality of manure, offering twin benefits to farmers.
 Biogas is the most efficient use of cattle dung.
 It helps prevent the loss of trees and manure, which often occurs when fuel wood and cow dung
cakes are burned.

Tidal energy:
1. Generation of Tidal Energy:
o Tidal energy is generated using oceanic tides.
o Floodgate dams are constructed across inlets to harness tidal energy.
o During high tide, water flows into the inlet and is trapped when the floodgate is closed.
o As the tide falls outside the floodgate, the trapped water is released back to the sea through a
pipe connected to a power-generating turbine.
2. Ideal Locations for Tidal Energy in India:
o Gulf of Khambhat (Gujarat, western coast)
o Gulf of Kutch (Gujarat, western coast)
o Gangetic Delta in Sundarbans (West Bengal)
These regions provide suitable conditions for the utilization of tidal energy.
Geothermal energy
 Definition and Process:
 Geothermal energy is derived from the heat within the Earth's interior.
 The Earth becomes progressively hotter with increasing depth.
 In areas with a high geothermal gradient, high temperatures are found at relatively shallow
depths.
 Groundwater in these areas absorbs heat from rocks and becomes hot enough to turn into steam
when it reaches the surface.
  The steam is used to drive turbines to generate electricity.
 Potential in India:
 India has several hundred hot springs that could potentially be used to generate electricity.
 Experimental Projects:
 Parvati Valley, Himachal Pradesh: One of the experimental projects for harnessing geothermal
energy.
 Puga Valley, Ladakh: The other experimental project for utilizing geothermal energy.

The conservation of energy resources:

1. Importance of Energy:
o Energy is crucial for economic development across all sectors:
agriculture,
industry,
transport,
commercial, and
domestic.
o Economic development plans since Independence have led to a steady rise in energy
consumption.
2. Need for Sustainable Energy Development:
o There is an urgent need to develop a sustainable path for energy development.
o Promotion of energy conservation and increased use of renewable energy sources are
essential for sustainability.
3. Current Energy Efficiency in India:
o India is currently one of the least energy-efficient countries in the world.
o A cautious approach is necessary to use limited energy resources judiciously.
4. Actions for Energy Conservation:
o Public Transport: Use public transport systems instead of individual vehicles.
o Electricity Use: Switch off electricity when not in use and use power-saving devices.
o Non-Conventional Energy: Utilize non-conventional sources of energy.
5. Principle of Energy Conservation:
o Adhering to the principle "energy saved is energy produced" emphasizes the importance of
conserving energy as a means of increasing overall energy availability.