Electrical Measuring Instruments | Types Accuracy Precision Resolution

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Basically there are three types of measuring instruments and they are

1. Electrical measuring instruments

2. Mechanical measuring instruments.
3. Electronic measuring instruments.

Electrical instruments measure the various electrical quantities like electrical power factor,
power, voltage and current etc. All analog electrical instruments use mechanical system for
the measurement of various electrical quantities but as we know the all mechanical system
has some inertia therefore electrical instruments have a limited time response.

Now there are two characteristics of electrical measuring instruments and measurement
systems. They are written below:
Static Characteristics
In these type of characteristics measurement of quantities are either constant or vary slowly
with the time. Few main static characteristics are written below:
1. Accuracy:
It is desirable quality in measurement. It is defined as the degree of the closeness with
which instrument reading approaches the true value of the quantity being measured.
Accuracy can be expressed in three ways
1. Point accuracy
2. Accuracy as the percentage of scale of range
3. Accuracy as percentage of true value.
2. Sensitivity:
It is also desirable quality in the measurement. It is defined as the ratio of the magnitude
response of the output signal to the magnitude response of the input signal.
3. Reproducibility:
It is again a desirable quality. It is defined as the degree of the closeness with which a given
quantity may be repeatedly measured. High value of reproducibility means low value of
drift. Drift are of three types
1. Zero drift
2. Span drift
3. Zonal drift
Dynamic Characteristics
These characteristics are related with the rapidly changing quantities therefore in order to
understand these types of characteristics we are required to study the dynamic relations
between the input and the output.

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Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) Instruments

When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a force and
tends to move in the direction as per Fleming’s left hand rule.
If the first and the second finger and the thumb of the left hand are held so that they are at right
angle to each other, then the thumb shows the direction of the force on the conductor, the first
finger points towards the direction of the magnetic field and the second finger shows the
direction of the current in the wire.

The interaction between the induced field and the field produced by the permanent
magnet causes a deflecting torque, which results in rotation.

The three important torque involved in this instrument are:

Deflecting torque:

The force F which will be perpendicular to both the direction of the current flow and the
direction of magnetic filed as per the fleming’s left hand rule can be written as

F = NBIL

where N: turns of wire on the coil

B: flux density in the air gap

I: current in the movable coil

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L: vertical length of the coil

Theoretically the torque (here electro-magnetical torque) is equal to the multiplication

of force with distance to the point of suspension.

Hence Torque on left side of the cylinder TL = NBIL x W/2 and torque on right side of
the cylinder TR = NBIL x W/2

Therefore the total torque will be = TL + TR

T = NBILW or NBIA where A is effective area (A= LxW)

Controlling Torque

This torque is produced by the spring action and opposes the deflection torque so as
the pointer can come to rest at the point where these two torques are equal
(Electromagnetic torque = control spring torque). The value of control torque depends
on the mechanical design of spiral springs and strip suspensions.

The controlling torque is directly proportional to the angle of deflection of the coil.

Control torque Ct =Kθ where, θ = deflection angle in radians and K = spring constant
Nm /rad .

Damping torque

This torque ensures the pointer comes to an equilibrium position i.e. at rest in the scale
without oscillating to give accurate reading. In PMMC as the coil moves in the magnetic
filed, eddy current sets up in a metal former or core on which the coil is wound or in
the circuit of the coil itself which opposes the motion of the coil resulting in slow swing
of pointer and than come to rest quickly with very little oscillation.

Working

When a current flow through the coil, it generates a magnetic field which is proportional
to the current in case of an ammeter. The deflecting torque is produced by the
electromagnetic action of the current in the coil and the magnetic field.

When the torques are balanced the moving coil will stopped and its angular deflection
represent the amount of electrical current to be measured against a fixed reference,
called a scale. If the permanent magnet field is uniform and the spring linear, then the
pointer deflection is also linear.

The controlling torque is provided by two phosphorous bronze flat coiled helical
springs. These springs serve as a flexible connection to the coil conductors.

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Damping is caused by the eddy current set up in the aluminum coil which prevents the
oscillation of the coil.

Applications

The PMMC has a variety of uses onboard ship. It can be used as:

1) Ammeter:

When PMMC is used as an ammeter, except for a very small current range, the moving
coil is connected across a suitable low resistance shunt, so that only small part of the
main current flows through the coil.

The shunt consists of a number of thin plates made up of alloy metal, which is usually
magnetic and has a low temperature coefficient of resistance, fixed between two
massive blocks of copper. A resistor of same alloy is also placed in series with the coil
to reduce errors due to temperature variation.

2) Voltmeter:

When PMMC is used as a voltmeter, the coil is connected in series with high
resistance. Rest of the function is same as above. The same moving coil can be used
as an ammeter or voltmeter with an interchange of above arrangement

3) Galvanometer:

Galvanometer is used to measure small value of current along with its direction and
strength. It is mainly used onboard to detect and compare different circuits in a system.

4) Ohm Meter:

The ohm meter is used to measure resistance of the electric circuit by applying a
voltage to a resistance with the help of battery. A galvanometer is used to determine
the flow of current through the resistance. The galvanometer scale is marked in ohms
and as the resistance varies, since the voltage is fixed, the current through the meter
will also vary.

Advantages

 The PMMC consumes less power and has great accuracy.

 It has uniformly divided scale and can cover arc of 270 degree.
 The PMMC has a high torque to weight ratio.
 It can be modified as ammeter or voltmeter with suitable resistance.
 It has efficient damping characteristics and is not affected by stray magnetic field.
 It produces no losses due to hysteresis.

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 Disadvantage

 The moving coil instrument can only be used on D.C supply as the reversal of current
produces reversal of torque on the coil.
 It’s very delicate and sometimes uses ac circuit with a rectifier.
 It’s costly as compared to moving coil iron instruments.
 It may show error due to loss of magnetism of permanent magnet.

Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) is only used for DC measurements. Moving
Iron (MI) i.e PMMI type instruments can be used for both AC & DC measurements.
Moving Iron Instrument (PMMI)
Moving iron type instruments are of mainly two types-
Attraction type and
Repulsion type instrument.
Whenever a piece of iron is placed nearer to a magnet it would be attracted by the magnet.
The force of this attraction depends upon the strength said magnetic field. If the magnet is
electromagnet then the magnetic field strength can easily be increased or decreased by
increasing or decreasing current through its coil.
Accordingly the attraction force acting on the piece of iron would also be increased and
decreased. Depending upon this simple phenomenon attraction type moving iron instrument
was developed.
Whenever two pieces of iron are kept side by side and a magnet is brought nearer to them
the iron pieces will repulse each other. This repulsion force is due to same magnetic poles
induced in same sides the iron pieces due external magnetic field.
This repulsion force increases if field strength of the magnet is increased. Like case if the
magnet is electromagnet, then magnetic field strength can easily be controlled by controlling
input current to the magnet. Hence if the current increases the repulsion force between the
pieces of iron is increased and it the current decreases the repulsion force between them is
decreased. Depending upon this phenomenon repulsion type moving iron instrument was
constructed.
Construction of Moving Iron Instrument

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The basic construction of attraction type moving iron instrument is illustrated bellow.
A thin disc of soft iron is eccentrically pivoted in front of a coil. This iron tends to move inward
that is from weaker magnetic field to stronger magnetic field when current flowing through
the coil. In attraction moving instrument gravity control was used previously but now gravity
control method is replaced by spring control in relatively modern instrument. By adjusting
balance weight null deflection of the pointer is achieved. The required damping force is
provided in this instrument by air friction. The figure shows a typical type of damping system
provided in the instrument, where damping is achieved by a moving piston in an air syringe.
Theory of Attraction Type Moving Iron Instrument
Suppose when there is no current through the coil, the pointer is at zero, the angle made by
the axis of the iron disc with the line perpendicular to the field is φ. Now due current I and

corresponding magnetic field strength, the iron piece is deflected to an angle θ. Now
component of H in the direction of defected iron disc axis is Hcos{90 - (θ + φ) or Hsin (θ + φ).
Now force F acting on the disc inward to the coil is thus proportional to H 2sin(θ + φ) hence
the force is also proportional to I2sin(θ + φ) for constant permeability. If this force is acting on
the disc at a distance l from the pivot, then deflection torque,

Since l is constant.

Where,
k is constant.
Now, as the instrument is gravity controlled, controlling torque will be

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Where, k' is constant.
At steady state condition,

Where, K is constant.

Ohmmeter Working Principle of Ohmmeter

The OHMMETER means that it is an instrument which measures resistance of a quantity.
Resistance in the electrical sense means the opposition offered by a substance to
the current flow in the device. Every device has a resistance, it may be large or small and it
increases with temperature for conductors, however for semiconducting devices the reverse
is true. There are many types of ohmmeters available such as
1. Series ohmmeter.
2. Shunt ohmmeter.
3. Multi range ohmmeter.
Working Principle of Ohmmeter

The instrument is connected with a battery, a series adjustable resistor and an instrument
which gives the reading. The resistance to be measured is connected at terminal ob. When
the circuit is completed by connecting output resistance, the circuit current flows and so the
deflection is measured. When the resistance to be measured is very high then current in the
circuit will be very small and the reading of that instrument is assumed to be maximum
resistance to be measured. When resistance to be measured is zero then the instrument
reading is set to zero position which gives zero resistance.

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D’arsonval Movement
This type of movement is used in DC measuring instruments. The main principle in these types
of instruments is that when a current carrying coil which is placed in a magnetic field, it feels
a force and that force can deflect the pointer of a meter and we get the reading in the
instrument.
This type of instruments consists of permanent magnets and coil which carries current is
placed in between them. The coil may be of rectangular or circular in shape. The core is
provided which iron core which is used to provide flux of low reluctance so it produces high
intensity magnetic field. Due to high intensity magnetic fields the deflecting torque produced
is of large value due to which sensitivity of the meter is also increased. Current which entered
comes out of two control springs, one in the upper side and one in the lower side. If the
direction of current is reversed in these types of instruments, then torque direction will also
be reversed so these types of instruments are applicable in DC measurements only. The
deflecting torque is directly proportional to the deflection angle hence these types of
instruments have the linear scale. To limit the deflection of the pointer we have to use
damping which provides an equal and opposite force to the deflecting torque and hence the
pointer comes to rest at a certain value.
The indication of the breeding is given by a mirror in which a beam of light is reflected on to
the scale and hence deflection can be measured. There are many advantages due to which
we use D’Arsonval type instrument. They are-
1. They have uniform scale.
2. Effective eddy current damping.
3. Low power consumption.
4. No hysteresis loss.
5. They are not affected by stray fields.
Owing to posses those major advantages we can use this type of instrument.

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However they suffer from drawbacks such as-
1. It cannot be used in AC.
2. Costlier compared to MI instruments.
3. There may be error due to ageing of springs by which we may not get accurate result.
However in case of resistance measurement we go for DC measurement because of the
advantages offered by PMMC instruments and we multiply that resistance by 1.6 to find out
AC resistance, so these instruments are much widely used due to their advantages. The
disadvantages offered by it are dominated by the advantages so they are used.

Series type Ohmmeter

The series type ohmmeter consists of a current limiting resistor R1, Zero adjusting resistor R2,
EMF source E, Internal resistance of D’Arsonval movement Rm and the resistance to be
measured R. When there is no resistance to be measured, current drawn by the circuit will be
maximum and the meter will show a deflection. By adjusting R2 the meter is adjusted to a full
scale current value since the resistance will be zero at that time. The co-responding pointer
indication is marked as zero. Again when the terminal AB is opened it provides very high
resistance and hence almost zero current will flow through the circuit.

In that case the pointer deflection is zero which is marked at very high value for resistance
measurement. So a resistance between zeros to a very high value is marked and hence can
be measured. So, when a resistance is to be measured, the current value will be somewhat
less than the maximum and the deflection is recorded and accordingly resistance is measured.
This method is good but it posses certain limitations such as the decrease in potential of the
battery with its use so adjustment must be made for every use. The meter may not read zero
when terminals are shorted, these types of problem may arise which is counteracted by the
adjustable resistance connected in series with the battery.

Shunt type Ohmmeter

In this type of meters we have a battery source and an adjustable resistor is connected in
series with the source. We have connected the meter in parallel to the resistance which is to
be measured. There is a switch by the use of which we can on or off the circuit. The switch is
opened when it is not in use. When the resistance to be measured is zero, the terminals A and
F are shorted so the current through the meter will be zero.

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The zero position of the meter denotes the resistance to be zero. When the resistance
connected is very high, then a small current will flow the terminal AF and hence full scale
current is allowed to flow through the meter by adjusting the series resistance connected
with the battery. So, full scale deflection measures very high resistance. When the resistance
to be measured is connected between A and F, The pointer shows a deflection by which we
can measure the resistance values. In this case also, the battery problem may arise which can
be counteracted by adjusting the resistance. The meter may have some error due to its
repeated use also.

Multi range Ohmmeter

This instrument provides the reading up to a very wide range. In this case we have to select
the range switch according to our requirement. An adjuster is provided so that we can adjust
the initial reading to be zero. The resistance to be measured is connected in parallel to the
meter. The meter is adjusted so that it shows full scale deflection when the terminals in which
the resistance connected is full scale range connected through the range switch. When the
resistance is zero or short circuit, there is no current flow through the meter and hence no
deflection.

Suppose we have to measure a resistance under 1 ohm, then the range switch is selected at
1 ohm range at first. Then that resistance is connected in parallel and the corresponding meter
deflection is noted. For 1 ohm resistance it shows full scale deflection but for the

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resistance other that 1 ohm it shows a deflection which is less than the full load value and
hence resistance can be measured. This is the most suitable method of all
the ohmmeters as we can get accurate reading in this type of meters. So this meter is most
widely used now days.

Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instrument or PMMC Instrument

The permanent magnet moving coil instrument or PMMC type instrument uses two
permanent magnets in order to create stationary magnetic field. These types of instruments
are only used for measuring the DC quantities as if we apply AC current to these type of
instruments the direction of current will be reversed during negative half cycle and hence the
direction of torque will also be reversed which gives average value of torque zero. The pointer
will not deflect due to high frequency from its mean position showing zero reading. However
it can measure the direct current very accurately.

We will see the construction of these types of instruments in five parts and they are described
below:
 Stationary Part or Magnet System:
In the present time we use magnets of high field intensities, high coercive force instead of
using U shaped permanent magnet having soft iron pole pieces. The magnets which we
are using nowadays are made up of materials like alcomax and alnico which provide high
field strength.
 Moving Coil:
The moving coil can freely moves between the two permanent magnets as shown in the
figure given below. The coil is wound with many turns of copper wire and is placed on
rectangular aluminium which is pivoted on jeweled bearings.
 Control System:
The spring generally acts as control system for PMMC instruments. The spring also serves
another important function by providing the path to lead current in and out of the coil.
 Damping System:
The damping force hence torque is provided by movement of aluminium former in the
magnetic field created by the permanent magnets.
 Meter:
Meter of these instruments consists of light weight pointer to have free movement and
scale which is linear or uniform and varies with angle.
General expression for torque in permanent magnet moving coil instruments or PMMC
instruments. We know that in moving coil instruments the deflecting torque is given by the
expression:
Td = NBidI
where N is number of turns,
B is magnetic flux density in air gap,
l is the length of moving coil,
d is the width of the moving coil, and
i is the electric current.
Now for a moving coil instruments deflecting torque should be proportional to current,
mathematically we can write

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 Td = GI.
Thus on comparing we say G = NBidl.
At steady state we have both the controlling and deflecting torques are equal. T c is
controlling torque, on equating controlling torque with deflection torque we have
GI = K.x
where x is deflection thus current is given by

Since the deflection is directly proportional to the current therefore we need a uniform
scale on the meter for measurement of current.
Now we are going to discuss about the basic circuit diagram of the ammeter.
Let us consider a circuit as shown below

The current I is shown which breaks into two components at the point A. The two components
are Is and Im. The shunt resistance should be able to carry high value of current without much
rise in temperature. Usually manganin is used for making DC resistance. Thus we can say that
the value of Is much greater than the value of Im as resistance of shunt is low.

Where, Rs is resistance of shunt and

Rm is the electrical resistance of the coil.

From the above two equations we can write,

Where, m is the magnifying power of the shunt.

Errors in Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instruments
There are three main types of errors:
1. Errors due to permanent magnets: Due to temperature effects and aging of the magnets
the magnet may lose their magnetism to some extent. The magnets are generally aged by
the heat and vibration treatment.
2. Error may appear in PMMC Instrument due to the aging of the spring. However the error
caused by the aging of the spring and the errors caused due to permanent magnet are
opposite to each other, hence both the errors are compensated with each other.
3. Change in the resistance of the moving coil with the temperature: Generally the
temperature coefficients of the value of coefficient of copper wire in moving coil is 0.04
per degree Celsius rise in temperature. Due to lower value of temperature coefficient the
temperature rises at faster rate and hence the resistance increases. Due to this significant
amount of error is caused.

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Advantages of Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instruments
1. The scale is uniformly divided as the current is directly proportional to deflection of the
pointer. Hence it is very easy to measure quantities from these instruments.
2. Power consumption is also very low in these types of instruments.
3. Higher value of torque is to weight ratio.
4. These are having multiple advantages, a single instrument can be used for measuring
various quantities by using different values of shunts and multipliers.
Instead of various advantages the permanent magnet moving coil instruments or PMMC
Instrument posses few disadvantages.

Disadvantages of Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instruments

1. These instruments cannot measure ac quantities.
2. Cost of these instruments is high as compared to moving iron instruments.

Ammeter Working Principle and Types of Ammeter

we know, the unit of current is Ampere. Ammeter means Ampere-meter which measures
ampere value. Ampere is the unit of current so an ammeter is a meter or an instrument which
measures current.
Working Principle of Ammeter
The main principle of ammeter is that it must have a very low resistance and also inductive
reactance. Now, why do we need this? Can't we connect an ammeter in parallel? The answer
to this question is it has very low impedance because it must have very low amount of voltage
drop across it and must be connected in series connection because current is same in the
series circuit. Also due to very low impedance the power loss will be low and if it is connected
in parallel it becomes almost a short circuited path and all the current will flow through
ammeter as a result of high current the instrument may burn. So due to this reason it must
be connected in series. For an ideal ammeter, it must have zero impedance so that it has zero
voltage drop across it so the power loss in the instrument is zero. But the ideal is not
achievable practically.

Classification or Types of Ammeter

Depending on the constructing principle, there are many types of ammeter we get, they are
mainly -
1. Permanent Magnet Moving Coil(PMMC) ammeter.
2. Moving Iron(MI) Ammeter.
3. Electrodynamometer type Ammeter.
4. Rectifier type Ammeter.
Depending on this types of measurement we do, we have-
1. DC Ammeter.
2. AC Ammeter.
DC Ammeter are mainly PMMC instruments, MI can measure both AC and DC currents.
Description of Different Types of Ammeters

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PMMC Ammeter
Principle PMMC Ammeter:
When current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field, a mechanical force acts on the
conductor, if it is attached to a moving system, with the coil movement, the pointer moves
over the scale.

Explanation: As the name suggests it has permanent magnets which are employed in this kind
of measuring instruments. It is particularly suited for DC measurement because here
deflection is proportional to the current and hence if current direction is reversed, deflection
of the pointer will also be reversed so it is used only for DC measurement. This type of
instrument is called D Arnsonval type instrument. It has major advantage of having linear
scale, low power consumption, high accuracy. Major disadvantage of being measured only DC
quantity, higher cost etc.
Deflecting torque,

Where,
B = Flux density in Wb/m².
i = Current flowing through the coil in Amp.
l = Length of the coil in m.
b = Breadth of the coil in m.
N = No of turns in the coil.

Extension of Range in a PMMC Ammeter:

Now it looks quite extraordinary that we can extend the range of measurement in this type
of instrument. Many of us will think that we must buy a new ammeter to measure higher
amount of current and also many of us may think we have to change the constructional
feature so that we can measure higher currents, but there is nothing like that, we just have
to connect a shunt resistance in parallel and the range of that instrument can be extended,

this is a simple solution provided by the instrument.

In the figure I = total current flowing in the circuit in Amp.
Ish is the current through the shunt resistor in Amp.

Rm is the ammeter resistance in Ohm.

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MI Ammeter
It is a moving iron instrument, used for both AC and DC, It can be used for both because the
deflection θ propotional square of the current so what ever is the direction of current, it
shows directional deflection, further they are classified in two more ways-
1. Attraction type.
2. Repulsion type.
Its torque equation is:

Where,
I is the total current flowing in the circuit in Amp.
L is the self inductance of the coil in Henry.
θ is the deflection in Radian.
1. Attraction Type MI Instrument Principle:
When an unmagnetised soft iron is placed in the magnetic field, it is attracted towards the
coil, if a moving system attached and current is passed through a coil, it creates a magnetic
field which attracts iron piece and creates deflecting torque as a result of which pointer moves
over the scale.

2. Repulsion Type MI Instrument Principle:

When two iron pieces are magnetized with same polarity by passing a current than repulsion
between them occurs and that repulsion produces a deflecting torque due to which the
pointer moves.
The advantages of MI instruments are they can measure both AC and DC, cheap, low friction
errors, robustness etc. It is mainly used in AC measurement because in DC measurement error
will be more due to hysteresis.

Working Principle of Voltmeter and Types of

Voltmeter
Voltmeter is a voltage meter. Which measures the voltage between the two nodes. We
know the unit of potential difference is volts. So it is a measuring instrument which
measures the potential difference between the two points.

Working Principle of Voltmeter

The main principle of voltmeter is that it must be connected in parallel in which we
want to measure the voltage. Parallel connection is used because a voltmeter is
constructed in such a way that it has a very high value of resistance. So if that high
resistance is connected in series than the current flow will be almost zero which means
the circuit has become open.
If it is connected in parallel, than the load impedance comes parallel with the high
resistance of the voltmeter and hence the combination will give almost the same the
impedance that the load had. Also in parallel circuit we know that the voltage is same so
the voltage between the voltmeter and the load is almost same and hence voltmeter
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measures the voltage.
For an ideal voltmeter, we have the resistance is to be infinity and hence the current
drawn to be zero so there will be no power loss in the instrument. But this is not
achievable practically as we cannot have a material which has infinite resistance.
Classification or Types of Voltmeter
According to the construction principle, we have different types of voltmeters, they are
mainly -
1. Parmanent Magnet Moving coil (PMMC) Voltmeter.
2. Moving Iron (MI) Voltmeter.
3. Electro Dynamometer Type Voltmeter.
4. Rectifier Type Voltmeter
5. Induction Type Voltmeter.
6. Electrostatic Type Voltmeter.
7. Digital Voltmeter (DVM).
Depending on this types of measurement we do, we have-
1. DC Voltmeter.
2. AC Voltmeter.
For DC voltmeters PMMC instruments are used, MI instrument can measure both AC and
DC voltages, electrodynamometer type, thermal instrument can measure DC and AC voltages
as well. Induction meters are not used because of their high cost, inaccuracy in measurement.
Rectifier type voltmeter, electrostatic type and also digital voltmeter (DVM) can measure both
AC and DC voltages.

PMMC Voltmeter
When current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field, a mechanical force acts on
the conductor, if it is attached to a moving system, with the coil movement, the pointer moves
over the scale.
PMMC instruments have permanent magnets. It is suited for DC measurement because here
deflection is proportional to the voltage because resistance is constant for a material of the
meter and hence if voltage polarity is reversed, deflection of the pointer will also be reversed
so it is used only for DC measurement. This type of instrument is called D Arnsonval type
instrument. It has advantages of having linear scale, power consumption is low, high accuracy.
Major disadvantages are –

It only measures DC quantity, higher cost etc.

Where,
B = Flux density in Wb/m².
i = V/R where V is the voltage to be measured and R is the resistance of the load.
l = Length of the coil in m.
b = Breadth of the coil in m.
N = No of turns in the coil.

Extension of Range in a PMMC Voltmeter

In the PMMC voltmeters we have the facility of extending the range of measurement of
voltage also. Just connecting a resistance in series with the meter we can extend the range of
measurement.
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Let,
V is the supply voltage in volts.
Rv is the voltmeter resistance in Ohm.
R is the external resistance connected in series in ohm.
V1 is the voltage across the voltmeter.
Then the external resistance to be connected in series is given by

MI Voltmeter
MI instruments mean moving iron instrument. It is used for both AC and DC measurements,
because the deflection θ proportional square of the voltage assuming impedance of the meter
to be constant, so what ever is polarity of the voltage, it shows directional deflection, further
they are classified in two more ways,
1. Attraction type.
2. Repulsion type.

Where, I is the total current flowing in the circuit in Amp. I = V/Z

Where, V is the voltage to be measured and Z is the impedance of the load.
L is the self inductance of the coil in Henry.
θ is the deflection in Radian.

Attraction type MI Instrument Principle

If an unmagnetised soft iron is placed in the magnetic field, it is attracted towards the coil, if
a pointer is attached to the systems and current is passed through a coil as a result of the
applied voltage, it creates a magnetic field which attracts iron piece and creates deflecting
torque as a result of which pointer moves over the scale.

Repulsion type MI Instrument Principle

When two iron pieces are magnetized with the same polarity by passing a current which done
by applying a voltage across the voltmeter than repulsion between them occurs and that
repulsion produces a deflecting torque due to which the pointer moves. The advantages are
it measure both AC and DC, it is cheap, low friction errors, Robust etc. It is
mainly used in AC measurement because in DC measurement error will be more due to

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hysteresis.

Electronic DC Voltmeter
The electronic voltmeters are most widely used now a day, with the advancement of
semiconductor devices they are becoming increasingly popular. Now, why do we use
electronic voltmeters instead we have cheap electromechanical voltmeter available?? The
answer is that they posses certain advantages so that they are popular. There are many types
of electronic voltmeters available and accordingly we choose what we want. These types of
voltmeters are constructed by the use of PMMC meters, rectifiers, voltage dividers, amplifiers,
so that the current is directly proportional to the deflecting torque.
Description of the Components used in DC Voltmeter

Diode
The diode is a two terminal device which is capable of blocking the current when it is in reverse
biased condition. It conducts when it is in forward biased state. So this arrangement is used
when we want to find out the average of the AC voltage.
The AC voltage is first rectified and then there we have to connect a PMMC instrument in
order to measure the average voltage.

Transistor
The transistor is a three terminal device which is used for amplification purpose. When a signal
is applied to its base, then the signal is amplified by it as it has low input resistance and high
output resistance when connected to active region.
However the transistor has a considerable loss of power for that we use the transistor which
has high input impedance. The types of transistors use when the loss has to be low are-

Field effect transistor or FET and Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor or MOSFET.

Amplifier
For a small signal we have to use amplifier in order to measure it. The amplifier generates the

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power required for measuring instruments so that there will not be any loading effect in the
circuit and the original signal is retained after measurement also. Without the use of
amplifiers we cannot measure very small signals typically used in communication circuits
where the voltage level and power levels are very small.

Voltage Divider
The voltage divider is provided in order to have the voltage tapping. Suppose the voltage we
want is less then we go for voltage divider by connecting series resistance and output is taken
across the desired resistor.

Also, if we want to adjust the offset voltage, then also we can provide
a potentiometer type arrangement in order to nullify the offset.

PMMC Meter
The instrument is used to indicate movement of the instrument that is to measure the current
in the circuit. In this type of circuit, we use a taut suspension but in case of the other
measurement types use pivot and jewel bearing arrangements. This is called the analog mode
of operation,
Average Reading Diode Vacuum Tube Voltmeter

19
 however if we want digital data we have to use A/D converter in order to have the digital
reading. The main advantage of taut and suspension arrangement is that we do not require
jewel bearings and the moving element is balanced. Jewel bearing has certain disadvantages
such as friction is more due to damaged pivots or distorted control springs.
The circuit is used to measure the average of AC voltage. Value of R should be very high in
order to have almost all the voltage drop across the resistor so that it can be fed to amplifier
and meter.

Advantages
1. Simple Construction.
2. High resistance at the input so the power consumption is lower.
Disadvantages

1. Low bandwidth.
2. Non linear operation when the voltage is low.
Difference Amplifier type Electronic Voltmeter

The main principle of difference amplifier is that it amplifies the difference of the signal
applied at both ends. Here, transistor is used but for better results we may use FET as well. In
the output terminal we can connect a PMMC meter in order to get the reading. The transistor
should be perfectly matched so that we get zero offset, if they are not matched then an offset
null can be done by the use of a voltage divider across Vcc. When a PMMC meter is connected
at the output and the voltage being applied at one end and base of transistor 2 is grounded
say, then meter will deflect in proportion to the voltage applied at the base of first transistor
so we get the reading in the meter. The resistance may be connected in series with the PMMC
meter in order to limit the current.
Advantages of Electronic Voltmeter
Low Level Signal Detection
If the signal levels were low then the other mechanical deflection types of instruments
produce a loading effect that means the instrument will consume an appreciable amount of
power and there is a high chance that the signal may be lost, but electronic instruments are
capable of providing power so that we can measure a voltage in terms of micro volts also.

20
Low Power Consumption
The power consumed by these instruments are low is as they can provide very high input
impedance up to a few hundred mega ohms so the current in the circuit is much small and
hence the power loss is also reduced.
High Frequency Range
In the electronic voltmeter, the measurement is almost independent of the frequency of
operation. They have a very high range of operating frequencies up to a few Mega Hertz. The
frequency response is much wider as the capacitance of the input circuit is very small.
Disadvantages of Electronic Voltmeter
High Cost
The cost of electronic voltmeters is very high as there are a lot of components involved such
as a diode, transistors, resistors etc. On the other hand, PMMC instruments have low cost.
Damage
As we know, in case of electronic circuits, if one component is damaged by some means then
the whole circuit should be replaced, this disadvantage also holds good in electronic
voltmeter.

Digital Voltmeters Working Principle of Digital Voltmeter

Voltmeter is an electrical measuring instrument which is used to measure potential
difference between two points. The voltage to be measured may be AC or DC. Two types of
voltmeters are available for the purpose of voltage measurement i.e. analog and digital.
Analog voltmeters generally contain a dial with a needle moving over it according to the
measure and hence displaying the value of the same.
With the passage of time analog voltmeters are replaced by digital voltmeters due to the
same advantages associated with digital systems. Although analog voltmeters are not fully
replaced by digital voltmeters, still there are many places where analog voltmeters are
preferred over digital voltmeters. Digital voltmeters display the value of AC or DC voltage
being measured directly as discrete numerical instead of a pointer deflection on a continuous
scale as in analog instruments.
Advantages Associated with Digital Voltmeters
 Read out of DVMs is easy as it eliminates observational errors in
measurement committed by operators.
 Error on account of parallax and approximation is entirely eliminated.
 Reading can be taken very fast.
 Output can be fed to memory devices for storage and future computations.
 Versatile and accurate
 Compact and cheap
 Low power requirements
 Portability increased

21
Working Principle of Digital Voltmeter

The block diagram of a simple digital voltmeter is shown in the figure.

Explanation of various blocks

Input signal: It is basically the signal i.e. voltage to be measured.

Pulse generator: Actually it is a voltage source. It uses digital, analog or both techniques to
generate a rectangular pulse. The width and frequency of the rectangular pulse is controlled
by the digital circuitry inside the generator while amplitude and rise & fall time is controlled
by analog circuitry.
AND gate: It gives high output only when both the inputs are high. When a train pulse is fed
to it along with rectangular pulse, it provides us an output having train pulses with duration
as same as the rectangular pulse from the pulse generator.

Train pulse

Rectangular pulse

Output of AND gate

NOT gate: It inverts the output of AND gate.

Output of NOT gate

Decimal Display: It counts the numbers of impulses and hence the duration and display the
value of voltage on LED or LCD display after calibrating it.

working of a digital voltmeter :

 Unknown voltage signal is fed to the pulse generator which generates a pulse whose
width is proportional to the input signal.
 Output of pulse generator is fed to one leg of the AND gate.
 The input signal to the other leg of the AND gate is a train of pulses.

22
 Output of AND gate is positive triggered train of duration same as the width of the pulse
generated by the pulse generator.
 This positive triggered train is fed to the inverter which converts it into a negative
triggered train.
 Output of the inverter is fed to a counter which counts the number of triggers in the
duration which is proportional to the input signal i.e. voltage under measurement.
 Thus, counter can be calibrated to indicate voltage in volts directly.
We can see the working of digital voltmeter that it is nothing but an analog to digital converter
which converts an analog signal into a train of pulses, the number of which is proportional to
the input signal. So a digital voltmeter can be made by using any one of the A/D conversion
methods.

On the basis of A/D conversion method used digital voltmeters can be classified as:
 Ramp type digital voltmeter
 Integrating type voltmeter
 Potentiometric type digital voltmeters
 Successive approximation type digital voltmeter
 Continuous balance type digital voltmeter
Now-a-days digital voltmeters are also replaced by digital millimeters due to its multitasking
feature i.e. it can be used for measuring current, voltage and resistance. But still there are
some fields where separated digital voltmeters are being used.

Successive ApproximationsType DVM:

The successive approximations principle can be easily understood using a simple example; the
determination of the weight of an object. By using a balance and placing the object on one
side and an approximate weight on the other side, the weight of the object is determined.
If the weight placed is more than the unknown weight, the weight is removed and another
weight of smaller value is placed and again the measurement is performed. Now if it is found
that the weight placed is less than that of the object, another weight of smaller value is added
to the weight already present, and the measurement is performed. If it is found to be greater
than the unknown weight the added weight is removed and another weight of smaller value
is added. In this manner by adding and removing the appropriate weight, the weight of the
unknown object is determined.
The successive approximation DVM works on the same principle. Its basic block diagram is
shown below. When the start pulse signal activates the control circuit, the successive
approximation register (SAR) is cleared. The output of the SAR is 00000000. Vout of the D/A
converter is 0. Now, if Vin > Vout the comparator output is positive. During the first clock pulse,
the control circuit sets the D7 to 1, and Vout jumps to the half reference voltage. The SAR output
is 10000000. If Vout is greater than Vin the comparator output is negative and the control
circuit resets D7. However, if Vin is greater than Vout the comparator output is

23
positive and the control circuits keep D7 set. Similarly the rest of the bits beginning from
D7 to D0 are set and tested. Therefore, the measurement is completed in 8 clock pulses.

At the beginning of the measurement cycle, a start pulse is applied to the start-stop multivibrator.
This sets a 1 in the MSB of the control register and a 0 in all bits (assuming an 8- bit control) its
reading would be 10000000. This initial setting of the register causes the output of the D/A
converter to be half the reference voltage, i.e. 1/2 V. This converter output is compared to the
unknown input by the comparator. If the input voltage is greater than the converter reference
voltage, the comparator output produces an output that causes the control register to retain the
1 setting in its MSB and the converter continues to supply its reference output voltage of 1/2 Vref.
The ring counter then advances one count, shifting a 1 in the second MSB of the control register
and its reading becomes 11000000. This causes the D/A converter to increase its reference output
by 1 increment to 1/4 V, i.e. 1/2 V + 1/4 V, and again it is compared with the unknown input. If
in this case the total reference voltage exceeds the unknown voltage, the comparator produces
an output that causes the control register to reset its second MSB to 0. The converter output then
returns to its previous value of 1/2 V and awaits another input from the SAR.

When the ring counter advances by 1, the third MSB is set to 1 and the converter output rises by
the next increment of 1/2 V + 1/8 V. The measurement cycle thus proceeds through a series
of successive approximations. Finally, when the ring counter reaches its final count, the
measurement cycle stops and the digital output of the control register represents the final
approximation of the unknown input voltage.

24
Ramp Type Digital Voltmeter
Its Operating principle is based on the measurement of the time it takes for a linear ramp
voltage to rise from 0 V to the level of the input voltage, or to decrease from the level of the
input voltage to zero. This time interval is measured with an electronic time-interval counter,
and the count is displayed as a number of digits on electronic indicating tubes.
At the start of the measurement cycle, a ramp voltage is initiated; this voltage can be positive-
going or negative-going. The negative-going ramp, (see Fig. 10) is continuously compared with
the unknown input voltage. At the instant that the ramp voltage equals the unknown voltage,
a coincidence circuit, or comparator, generates a pulse which opens a gate. The ramp voltage
continues to decrease with time until it finally reaches 0 V (or ground potential) and a second
comparator generates an output pulse which closes the gate. An oscillator generates clock
pulses which are allowed to pass through the gate to a number of decade counting units
(DCUs) which totalize the number of pulses passed through the gate. The decimal number,
displayed by the indicator tubes associated with the DCUs, is a measure of the magnitude of
the input voltage.

The sample-rate multivibrator determines the rate at which the measurement cycles are
initiated. The oscillation of this multivibrator can usually be adjusted by a front-panel control
, marked rate , from a few cycles per second to as high 1,000 or more. The sample- rate circuit
provides an initiating pulse for the ramp generator to start its next ramp voltage. At the same
time, a reset pulse is generated which returns all the DCUs to their 0 state, removing the
display momentarily from the indicator tubes.

The working principle i.e., the Conversion from a voltage to a time interval is illustrated by the
waveform below

25
Digital Multimeter
Digital multimeter is a test equipment which offers several electronic measurement task in
one tool. It is also known as the voltmeter or Ohm meter or Volt Ohm meter. The standard
and basic measurements performed by multimeter are the measurements of amps, volts, and
ohms. Apart from that, these digital multimeters perform many additional measurements by
using digital and logic technology. These may include temperature, frequency, continuity,
capacitance etc. The new improved integrated circuits of digital multimeter are more
efficient, faster and work with a large accuracy as compared to an analogue multimeter.
But in the case of additional features, it is not accurate but close to the reading. A good
multimeter is that has continuity and packed with smart features, including the ability to log
and graph data and great for troubleshooting.

Parts of Digital Multimeter

A multimeter is a simple but useful device which has only three parts; Display screen, selection
knob, ports.
Display screen-It has illuminated display screen for better visualization. It has five digits
display screen; one represent sign value and the other four are for number representation.
Selection knob- As we know a single multimeter performs so many tasks like reading
voltage, resistance, and current. The selection knob allows the user to select the different job.
Port- There are two ports on the front of the unit. One is the mAVΩ port which allows the
measurement of all the three units: current up to 200 mA, voltage, and resistance. The red
probe is plugged into this port. The other is COM port which means common and it normally
connected to –ev of a circuit and black probe is plugged into it. There is one particular port is
10A, which is use to measures large current in the circuit.

26
Features of Digital Multimeter
Now a day, wide range of digital multimeters are available in the market. But their features
make it a good multimeter. Some of the features which are very useful and should be there
in a multimeter are:

Auto-Rang
This feature enables multimeter to change their internal range according to the requirement
to detect the correct voltage, current, or resistance of the circuit. It has an ability to stop the
meter at the particular range and prevent the overloading if the meter is in volt range. Such
multimeters are of high quality and have more features.
A Back-Lit LCD

It is a fancy feature, but felt very useful in dark situations when there is no other light source
for watching reading in the multimeter.
Auto-Off
It is a great feature but normally comes in higher end version. It facilitates user to forget to
turn the meter off when it is not in use.
Decent Probes
Decent probes are bonus above all. In multimeters normally leads are used which get damage
at flex point. So it is better to use probes which make work easier and easy to replace if get
damaged.
Auto Polarity
It is an important feature that shows the polarity of the current. When the voltage of current
being measured shows positive reading (i.e. same polarity to meter connections) and if it
shows negative (i.e. opposite polarity to meter connections). Such facility was not available
in an analog multimeter and the

27
meter deflects backward and reverses back to take the reading accurately.
Digital multimeter has two ports; A and µA mA for measurement of current. The reason
behind the two ports is to avoid overloading. In digital multimeter current has to pass through
a fuse and if large current passes through the fuse it will blow out. A port is designated for
large current and µA mA for small current. For measuring large current, plug one of the cords
in A port and other in COM port. For measuring small current in a circuit, plug one cord in µA
mA and the other in COM. While doing the connection, one more thing keeps in consideration
and that is the direction of the current. A multimeter is connected in such a way that current
enters from A port and leaves the DMM from the COM port, as shown in a figure. Most of the
multimeter uses direct current. But if the circuit is drawing alternate current then you should
use non-contact tester rather than the multimeter.

Energy Meter l Watt Hour Meter

Watt-hour meter is in fact a measuring device which can evaluate and records the electrical
power passing through a circuit in a certain time. By implementing the Watt-hour meter, we
can know how much amount of electrical energy is used by a consumer or a residence or an
electrically powered device or a business. Electrical utilities install these meters at their
consumer’s place to evaluate the electrical usage for the purpose of billing. The reading is
taken in each one billing period. Usually, the billing unit is Kilowatt-hour (kWh). This is equal
to the total usage of electrical energy by a consumer of one kilowatt during a period of one
hour and it is also equal to 3600000 joules. The Watt-Hour Meter is often referred as energy
meter or electric meter or electricity meter or electrical meter.

Types of Energy Meter l Watt Hour Meter

Basically, the watt-hour meter is classified into three different types as follows:

28
 Electromechanical type induction meter
 Electronic energy meter
 Smart energy meters
Electromechanical Type Induction Meter
In this type of meter, a non-magnetic and electrically conductive aluminium metal disc is
made to revolve in a magnetic field. The rotation is made possible with the power passing
through it. The rotation speed is proportional to the power flow through the meter.

Gear trains and counter mechanisms are incorporated to integrate this power. This meter
works by counting the total number of revolutions and it is relative to the usage of energy.
A series magnet is connected in series with the line and that comprises of a coil of few turns
with thick wire. A shunt magnet is connected in shunt with the supply and comprises of a coil
of large number of turns with thin wire. A braking magnet which is a permanent magnet is
included for stopping the disc at the time of power failure and to place the disc in position.
This is done by applying a force opposite to the rotation of the disc.
A flux is produced by the series magnet that is directly proportional to the current flow and
another flux is produced by the shunt magnet corresponding to the voltage. Because of the
inductive nature, these two fluxes lag each other by 90o. An eddy current is developed in the
disc which is the interface of the two fields. This current is produced by a force that is
corresponding to the product of instantaneous current, voltage and the phase angle among
them. A break torque is developed on the disc by the braking magnet positioned over one
side of the disc. The speed of the disc becomes constant when the following condition is
achieved, Braking torque = Driving torque. The gear arrangement linked with the shaft of the
disc is implemented for recording the number of revolution. This is for single phase AC
measurement. Additional number of coils can be implemented for different phase
configuration.

Electronic Energy Meter

The major feature of the electronic meter other than power usage measurement is that it can
display the energy usage on a LED or LCD display. In some advanced meter, the readings can
be transmitted to remote areas. It can also record the amount of usage energy in on-

29
peak hours and off-peak hours. In addition, this meter can record the parameters of supply
and load like voltages, reactive power used, instantaneous rate of usage demand, power
factor, maximum demand etc.
Induction Type Energy Meter

flux Fp by angle of 90o, also Il is lagging behind El by angle of 90o. The lagging coil produces a
flux Fl. The resultant flux so obtained that cuts the moving disc is the combination of Fl and Fp.
Now the resultant value this flux is in phase with resultant mmf of lag or shading coil and the
resultant value of mmf of shading coil can adjusted by using two methods
1. By adjusting electrical resistance.
2. By adjusting shading bands.
Let us discuss these points in more detail:(1) Adjustment of coil resistance:
If electrical resistance in the coil is high the current will be low and hence mmf of the coil
decreases therefore the lag angle also decreases. So we have to decrease the resistance, and
the resistance can be decreased by using thick wire in coils. So by adjusting electrical
resistance we can indirectly adjust lag angle.

(2) By adjusting the shading bands up and down on the central limb we can adjust lag angle
because when we move shading bands upward, then they embrace more flux hence the
induced emf increases therefore mmf increases with increase in the value of lag angle. When
we move shading bands downwards then it will embrace less flux hence the induced emf will
decreases therefore mmf decreases with decrease in the value of lag angle. So by adjusting
the position of shading bands we can adjust the lag angle.
Error caused by Driving System
1. Error Due to Non Symmetrical Magnetic Circuit

30
 If the magnetic circuit is not symmetrical there produce a driving torque, due to which
meter creep.
2. Error Due to Wrong Phase Angle
If there is not a proper phase difference between the various phasors then it results in
improper rotation of disc. Improper phase angle is due to improper lag adjustment,
variation of resistance with temperature or it may be due to abnormal frequency of supply
voltage.
3. Error Due to Wrong Magnitude of Fluxes
There several reasons for wrong magnitude of fluxes out of these main reasons are
abnormal values of current and voltage.

Q Meter
Definition: The instrument which measures the storage factor or quality factor of the
electrical circuit at radio frequencies, such type of device is known as the Q-meter.
The quality factor is one of the parameters of the oscillatory system, which shows
the relation between the storage and dissipated energy.

The Q meter measures the quality factor of the circuit which shows the total
energy dissipated by it. It also explains the properties of the coil and
capacitor. The Q meter uses in a laboratory for testing the radio frequency of
the coils.

Working Principle of Q meter

The Q meter works on series resonant. The resonance is the condition exists
in the circuit when their inductance and capacitance reactance are of equal
magnitude. They induce energy which is oscillating between the electric and
magnetic field of the capacitor and inductor respectively.

The Q-meter is based on the characteristic of the resistance, inductance and

capacitance of the resonant series circuit. The figure below shows a coil of
resistance, inductance and capacitance connected in series with the circuit.

31
At resonant frequency f0,

The value of capacitance reactance is

At inductive reactance,

At the resonant frequency,

and current at resonance becomes

The voltage across the capacitor is expressed

as

Input voltage

32
The above equation shows that the input voltage E is Q times the voltage
appears across the capacitor. The voltmeter is calibrated for finding the value
of Q factor.

Power Factor Meter

Definition: The power factor meter measures the power factor of
a transmission system. The power factor is the cosine of the angle between
the voltage and current. The power factor meter determines the types of
load using on the line, and it also calculates the losses occur on it.

The power factor of the transmission line is measured by dividing the product
of voltage and current with the power. And the value of voltage current and
power is easily determined by the voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter
respectively. This method gives high accuracy, but it takes time.

The power factor of the transmission line is continuously changed with time.
Hence it is essential to take the quick reading. The power factor meter takes a
direct reading, but it is less accurate. The reading obtained from the power
factor meter is sufficient for many purposes to expect precision testing.

The power factor meter has the moving system called pointer which is in
equilibrium with the two opposing forces. Thus, the pointer of the power factor
meter remains at the same position which is occupied by it at the time of
disconnection.

Types of Power Factor Meter

The power factor meter is of two types. They are

1. Electrodynamometer
 Single Phase Electrodynammeter
 Three Phases Electrodynamometer
2. Moving Iron Type Meter
 Rotating Iron Magnetic Field
 Number of Alternating Field

The different types of power factor meter are explained below in details.

Single Phase Electrodynamometer Power Factor Meter

33
The construction of the single phase electrodynamometer is shown in the
figure below. The meter has fixed coil which acts as a current coil. This coil is
split into two parts and carry the current under test. The magnetic field of the
coil is directly proportional to the current flow through the coil.

The meter has two identical pressure coils A and B. Both the coils are pivoted
on the spindle. The pressure coil A has no inductive resistance connected in
series with the circuit, and the coil B has highly inductive coil connected in
series with the circuit.

The current in the coil A is in phase with the circuit while the current in the coil
B lag by the voltage nearly equal to 90º. The connection of the moving coil is
made through silver or gold ligaments which minimize the controlling torque of
the moving system.

The meter has two deflecting torque one acting on the coil A, and the other is
on coil B. The windings are so arranged that they are opposite in directions.
The pointer is in equilibrium when the torques are equal.

Deflecting torque acting on the coil A is given as

34
θ – angular deflection from the plane of reference.
Mmax – maximum value of mutual inductance between the coils.

The deflecting torque acting on coil B is expressed as

The deflecting torque is acting on the clockwise direction.

The value of maximum mutual inductance is same between both the

deflecting equations.

This torque acts on anti-clockwise direction. The above equation shows that
the deflecting torque is equal to the phase angle of the circuit.

Three Phase Electrodynometer Power Factor Meter

The construction of the three phase meter is shown in the figure below. The
electrodynamometer is only useful for the balanced load. The moving coil is
placed at an angle of 120º. They are connected across different phases of the
supply circuit. Both the coil has a series resistance.

35
 The voltage
across the coil A is V12 and the current across it IA1. The circuit of the coil is
resistive, and hence the current and voltage are in phase with each other.
Similarly, the voltage V13 and the current IB1 is in phase with each other.

The phasor diagram of the three phase electrodynamic meter is shown in the f

Let Φ – phase angle of the circuit.

θ – angular deflection from the plane of reference.

36
Torque acting on coil A is

Torque acting on coil B is

The torque TA and TB are acting on the opposite directions.

Thus the angular deflection of the coil is directly proportional to the phase
angle of the circuit.

Moving Iron Power Factor Meter

The moving iron instrument is divided into two categories. They are the
rotating magnetic field to some alternating fields.

A. Rotating Field Power factor Meter – The following are the essential
feature of the rotating magnetic field. The power factor meter has three fixed
coils, and their axes are 120º displaced from each other. The axes are
intersecting each other. The coils are connected to the three phase supply
with the help of the current transformer.

37
The P is the fixed coil connected in series with the high resistance circuit
across the phases 2 and 3. There is an iron cylinder across coil P. The two
iron vanes are fixed to the cylinder. The spindles also carry damping vanes
and pointer.

The phasor diagram of the power factor meter is shown in the figure.

The total torque of the meter is zero for steady state deflection.

The coil P and the iron cylinders generate the alternating flux which interacts
with the flux of the fixed coils. The interaction of the coil generates the moving
system which determined the phase angle of the current. The vanes of the
power factor meter are magnetized by the current of the moving coil which is
in phase with the system line voltage.

Advantages of Moving Iron power Power Factor

1. The meter requires large working force as compared to the

electrodynamometer type meter.
2. The coils of the moving iron instruments are fixed permanently.
3. The range of the scale extends up to 360º.
38
4. The construction of the meter is robust and simple.
5. The moving iron instrument is cheap as compared to electrodynamic
meter.

Disadvantages of moving iron instrument

1. The loss occurs in the iron part of the meter. The losses depend on the
load and the frequency of the meter.
2. The meter has low accuracy.
3. The calibration of the meter is affected because of the variation in supply
frequencies, voltage and waveforms etc.
The power factor meter is used for measuring the power factor of the
balanced load.

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope | CRO

The Cathode Ray Oscilloscope is an instrument which we use in laboratory to display measure
and analyze various waveforms of various electrical and electronic circuits. Actually cathode
ray oscilloscope is very fast X-Y plotters that can display an input signal versus time or other
signal. Cathode ray oscilloscope uses luminous spot which is produced by striking the beam
of electrons and this luminous spot moves in response variation in the input quantity. At this
moment one question must be arise in our mind that why we are using only an electron
beam? The reason behind this is low effects of beam of electrons that can be used for
following the changes in the instantaneous values of rapidly changing input quantity. The
general forms of cathode ray oscilloscope operate on voltages.
So the input quantity that we have talked above is voltage. Nowadays, with the help of
transducers it is possible to convert various physical quantities like current, pressure,
acceleration etc to voltage thus it enable us to have a visual representations of these various
quantities on cathode ray oscilloscope. Now let us look at the constructional details of the
cathode ray oscilloscope.
Construction of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
The main part of cathode ray oscilloscope is cathode ray tube which is also known as the heart
of cathode ray oscilloscope.

39
construction of cathode ray oscilloscope - Basically the cathode ray tube consists of five main
parts and these main parts are written below:

1. Electron gun.
2. Deflection plate system.
3. Fluorescent screen.
4. Glass envelope.
5. Base.
Now we discuss each of the above part in detail :
Electron Gun:
It is the source of accelerated, energized and focused beam of electrons. It consists of six parts
namely heater, a cathode, a grid, a pre-accelerating anode, a focusing anode and an
accelerating anode. In order to obtain the high emission of electrons the layer of barium oxide
(which is deposited on the end of cathode) is indirectly heated at moderate temperature. The
electrons after this passes through a small hole called control grid which is made up of nickel.
As the name suggests the control grid with its negative bias, controls the number of electrons
or indirectly we can say the intensity of emitted electrons from cathode. After passing through
the control grid these electrons are accelerated with the help of pre-accelerating and
accelerating anodes. The pre-accelerating and accelerating anodes are connected to a
common positive potential of 1500 volts. Now after this the function of the focusing anode is
to focus the beam of the electrons so produced. The focusing anode is connected to
adjustable voltage 500 volts. Now there are two methods of focusing the electron beam and
are written below:

1. Electrostatic focusing.
2. Electromagnetic focusing.
Here we will discuss electrostatic focusing method in detail.
Electrostatic Focusing
We know that the force on an electron is given by – qE, where q is the charge on electron (q
= 1.6 × 10-19 C), E is the electric field intensity and negative sign shows that the direction of

40
force is in opposite direction to that of electric field. Now we will this force to defect the beam
of electrons coming out of electron gun. Let us consider two cases:
Case One
In this case we are having two plates A and B as shown in the figure.

The plate A is at potential + E while the plate B is at potential – E. The direction of electric field
is from A plate to plate B at right angle to the surfaces of the plate. The equipotential surfaces
are also shown in the diagram which is perpendicular to the direction of electric field. As the
beam of electron passes through this plate system, it deflects in the opposite direction of
electric field. The deflection angle can be easily varied by changing the potential of the plates.
Case Second
Here we have two concentric cylinders with a potential difference applied between them as
shown in the figure.

41
The resultant direction of electric field and the equipotential surfaces are also shown in the
figure. The equipotential surfaces are marked by the dotted lines which are curved in shape.
Let us consider the curved equipotential surface S as shown below. The potential on the right
side of the surface is + E while the potential on the left side of the surface –E. When a beam
of electron is incident at angle A to the normal then it deflects by angle B after passing through
the surface S as shown in the figure given below. The normal component of velocity of the
beam will increase as force is acting in s direction normal to the surface. It means that the
tangential velocities will remain same, so by equating the tangential components we have
V1sin (A) = V2sin(B), where V1 is the initial velocity of the electrons, V2 is the velocity after
passing through the surface. Now we have relation as sin(A)/sin(B)=V2 /V1. We can
from the above equation see that there is bending of the electron beam after passing through
the equipotential surface. Therefore this system is also called focusing system.

Electrostatic Deflection
In order to find out the expression for the deflection, let us consider a system as shown below:

In the above system we have two plates A and B which are at potential +E and 0 respectively.
These plates are also called deflection plates. The field produced by these plates is in the
direction of positive y axis and there is no force along the x-axis. After deflection plates we
have screen through which we can measure net deflection of the electron beam. Now let us
consider a beam of electron coming along the x-axis as shown in the figure. The beam deflects
by angle A, due presence of electric field and deflection is in the positive direction of y axis as
shown in the figure. Now let us derive an expression for deflection of this beam. By the
conservation of energy, we have loss in potential energy when the electron moves from
cathode to accelerating anode should be equal to gain in

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kinetic energy of electron. Mathematically we can write,

Where, e is the charge on electron,

E is the potential difference between the two plates,
m is the mass of electron,
and v is the velocity of the electron.
Thus, eE is loss in potential energy and
1/2mv1/2 is the gain in kinetic energy.
From equation (1) we have velocity v = (2eE/m)1/2.
Now we have electric field intensity along the y axis is E/d, therefore force acting along the y
axis is given by F = eE /d where d is the separation between the two deflection plates.
Due to this force the electron will deflect along the y axis and let the deflection along y axis
be equal to D which is marked on the screen as shown in the figure. Due to the force F there
is net upward acceleration of the electron along positive y axis and this acceleration is given
by Ee/(d × m).Since the initial velocity along positive y direction is zero therefore by equation
of motion we can write the expression of displacement along y axis as,

As the velocity along the x direction is constant therefore we can write displacement as,

Where, u is velocity of electron along x axis.

From equations 2 and 3 we have,

Which is the equation of trajectory of the electron. Now on differentiating the equation 4
we have slope
i.e.

Where,
l is the length of the plate.
Deflection on the screen can be calculated as,

Distance L is shown in the above figure. Final expression of D can be written as

,
From the expression of deflection, we calculate deflection sensitivity as,

Graticule: These are the grid of lines whose function is to serve as a scale when the cathode
ray oscilloscope is used for the amplitude measurements. There are three types of graticules
and they are written below:

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1. Internal Graticule:
Internal graticule as name suggests deposited on the internal surface of the cathode ray tube
face plate. There is no problem of parallax errors but we cannot change internal graticules as
they are fixed.
2. External graticule:
Given below is the circuit diagram of cathode ray oscilloscope:
Basic Circuit Diagram of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

Now we will study the basic circuit diagram of cathode ray oscilloscope under the following
main parts.
1. Vertical Deflection System:
The input signal for examining are fed to the vertical deflection system plates with the help
of input attenuator and a number of amplifier stages. The main function of these amplifiers
is to amplify the weak the weak signals so that the amplified signal can produce the
desirable signals.
2. Horizontal Deflection System:
Like the vertical system horizontal system also consists of horizontal amplifiers to amplify
the weak input voltage signals but in contrast to vertical deflection system, horizontal
deflection plates are fed by a sweep voltage that provides a time base as shown above. As
shown in the circuit diagram, the saw tooth sweep generator is triggered by the
synchronizing amplifier when the sweep selector switch is in the internal position and thus
the triggered saw tooth generator gives input to the horizontal amplifier by following this
mechanism. Now there are four types of sweeps:
1. Free Running or Recurrent Sweep
As the name suggests, the saw tooth waveform is repetitive i.e. a new sweep is started
immediately after the previous sweep.
2. Triggered Sweep
Some time the waveform to be observed may not be periodic so it is desired that the
sweep circuit remain inoperative and the sweep be initiated by the waveform under
examination. In such cases we use triggered sweep.
3. Driven Sweep

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 Generally a driven sweep is used where the sweep is free running but triggered by the
signal under test.
4. Non Saw Tooth Sweep
This is used for finding the phase difference between the two voltages. Another
important application is that we can compare frequency of input voltages using non
saw tooth sweep.
3. Synchronization:
There must be synchronization between the sweep and the signal being measured.
Synchronization is done to produce stationary pattern. There are three sources of
synchronization which can be selected by synchronization selector and they are written
below:
1. Internal
In this trigger is obtained from the signal being measured through vertical amplifier.
2. External
In this trigger an external trigger source is required.
3. Line
In this method trigger is obtained power supply.
4. Intensity Modulation
Intensity modulation can be done by inserting the signal between the ground and the
cathode. Intensity modulation causes the brightening of the display.
5. Positioning Controls
Position can be control by applying small independent internal direct voltage sources
to the deflecting plates and with the help of potentiometer (using it as voltage
divider) we can control the position of signal.
6. Focus Control
Focus can be controlled by changing the focal length of the focusing electrode which
acts like a lens and focal length can be changed by the changing potential of the focusing
anode.
7. Intensity Control
The intensity can be varied by changing the grid potential with respect to cathode.
8. Calibration Circuit
Calibrating voltage has a square shape which is usually internally generated of known
amplitude.
9. Astigmatism
By adjusting the focus the spot can be made sharp in order to avoid the problem of
astigmatism.

Phase Measurement l Lissajous Patterns of CRO

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) is very important electronic device. CRO is very useful to
analyze the voltage wave form of different signals. The main part of CRO is CRT (Cathode Ray
Tube). A simple CRT is shown in figure below-

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When both pairs of the deflection plates (horizontal deflection plates and vertical deflection
plates) of CRO (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope) are connected to two sinusoidal voltages, the
patterns appear at CRO screen are called the Lissajous pattern.
Shape of these Lissajous pattern changes with changes of phase difference between signal
and ration of frequencies applied to the deflection plates (traces) of CRO. Which makes these
Lissajous patterns very useful to analysis the signals applied to deflection plated of CRO.
These lissajous patterns have two Applications to analysis the signals. To calculate the phase
difference between two sinusoidal signals having same frequency. To determine the ratio
frequencies of sinusoidal signals applied to the vertical and horizontal deflecting plates.
Calculation of the phase difference between two Sinusoidal Signals having
same frequency
When two sinusoidal signals of same frequency and magnitude are applied two both pairs of
deflecting plates of CRO, the Lissajous pattern changes with change of phase difference
between signals applied to the CRO.
For different value of phase differences, the shape of Lissajous patterns is shown in figure
below,

Sr.No Phase angle difference Lissajous pattern appeared at CRO screen

‘ɸ’

1 00 and 3600

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2 300 and 3300

3 450 and 3150

4 600 and 3000

5 900 and 2700

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 5 1200 and 2400

7 1500 and 2100

8 1800

There are two cases to determine the phase difference ø between two signals applied to the
horizontal & vertical plates,
Case - I: When, 0 < ø < 90o or 270o < ø < 360o : -
As we studied above it clear that when the angle is in the range of 0 < ø < 90o or 270o < ø <
360o, the Lissajous pattern is of the shape of Ellipse having major axis passing through origin
from first quadrant to third quadrant:
Let’s consider an example for 0 < ø < 90o or 270o < ø < 360o, as shown in figure below,

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In this condition the phase difference will be

,
Another possibility of phase difference,

From Above given Lissajous pattern

Another Possibility of Phase Difference,

Case - II: When 90o < ø < 180o or 180o < ø < 270o

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As we studied above it Clear that when the angle is in the range of 0o < ø < 90o or 270o < ø <
360o, the Lissajous Pattern is of the shape of Ellipse having major axis passing through origin
from second quadrant to fourth quadrant:
Let’s consider an example for When, 90o < ø < 180o or 180o < ø < 270o, as shown in figure
below, In this condition the phase difference will be,

Another possibility of phase difference,

From Above given Lissajous pattern

Another Possibility of Phase Difference,

To determine the ratio of frequencies of signal applied to the vertical and horizontal deflecting
plates:
To determine the ratio of frequencies of signal by using the Lissajous pattern, simply draw
arbitrary horizontal and vertical line on lissajous pattern intersecting the Lissajous pattern.
Now count the number of horizontal and vertical tangencies by Lissajous pattern with these
horizontal and vertical line.
Then the ratio of frequencies of signals applied to deflection plates,

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Or

Frequency Measurement
Frequency can be measured on an oscilloscope by investigating the frequency spectrum of a
signal on the screen and making a small calculation. Frequency is defined as the several times
a cycle of an observed wave takes up in a second. The maximum frequency of a scope can
measure may vary but it always in the 100’s of MHz range. To check the performance of
response of signals in a circuit, scope measures the rise and fall time of the wave.

Method to Measure Frequency

1. Increase the vertical sensitivity to get the clear picture of the wave on the screen without
chopping any of its amplitude off.
2. Now adjust the sweep rate in such a way that screen displays a more than one but less
than two complete cycles of the wave.
3. Now count the number of divisions of one complete cycle on the graticule from start to
end.
4. Now take horizontal sweep rate and multiply it with the number of units that you counted
for a cycle. It will give you the period of the wave. The period is the number of seconds
each repeating waveform takes. With the help of period, you can simply calculate the
frequency in cycles per second (Hertz).

Digital Storage Oscilloscope

A digital oscilloscope is an instrument which stores a digital copy of the waveform in the
digital memory which it analyses further using digital signal processing techniques rather than
using analogue techniques. It captures the non-repetitive signals and displays it consciously
until the device gets reset. In digital storage oscilloscope, signals are received, stored and
then displayed. The maximum frequency measured by digital oscilloscope depends upon two
things: one is sampling rate of the scope, and the other is the nature of the converter.
Converter is either analogue or digital. The traces in digital oscilloscope are bright, highly
defined, and displayed within seconds as they are non-stored traces. The main advantage of
the digital oscilloscope is that it can display visual as well as numerical values by analyzing the
stored traces.
The displayed trace on the flat panel could be magnified and also we can change the
brightness of the traces, and minute detailing can be done as per requirement after an
acquisition.
There is a small screen, which shows input voltage on a particular axis for the period of time.
Even it could display three-dimensional figure or multiple wave forms for comparison

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purpose by doing some changes. It has an advantage that it can capture and store electronic
events for the future purpose. The digital oscilloscopes are widely used today because of its
advanced features of storage, display, fast traces rate and remarkable bandwidth. Although,
the digital scope is costlier than the analogue oscilloscope, still it is popular in the market.
Analogue Storage Oscilloscope
In original storage oscilloscope had analogue input stages, and then convert the signals into a
digital format so that it could be stored in special storage memory called cathode-ray tube.
These signals processed before being converted back into an analogue format. Cathode-ray
tube retains the images on an electrode by plotting it as a charge pattern, then these patterns
modulate the electron rays to deliver the picture of the stored signal.
Digital Oscilloscope Technology
First the waveforms are conditioned by some analogue circuits then enter in the second stage
which involves receiving the digital signals. To do so, samples have to pass through analogue
to digital converter and output signals get recorded in digital memory at different interval of
time. These recorded points together make a waveform. The set of points in a waveform show
its length. The rate of samples defines the design of the oscilloscope. The recorded traces are
then processed by the processing circuit and obtained traces are ready to display for visual
assessment.

Uses of Digital Storage Oscilloscope

 used for testing signal voltage in circuit debugging.
 Testing in manufacturing.
 Designing.
 Testing of signals voltage in radio broadcasting equipment.
 In the field of research.
 Audio and video recording equipment.

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