Applications of Service

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Sandy White Watson

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Table of Contents

Preface.................................................................................................................................................. xiv

Chapter 1
Multidisciplinary Service Learning in Higher Education: Concepts, Implementation, and Impact....... 1
Muhammad Usman Tariq, Abu Dhabi University, UAE

Chapter 2
Promoting Diversity and Inclusivity Through Service Learning in Higher Education......................... 20
Surjit Singha, Kristu Jayanti College (Autonomous), India

Chapter 3
Life Skills for Personal Well-Being....................................................................................................... 35
Jishamol Thomas, Christ University, India
Sheeja Ramani Karalam, Christ University, India

Chapter 4
Fostering Mindfulness and Compassion: Strategies, Benefits, and Challenges.................................... 45
Ranjit Singha, Christ University, India

Chapter 5
Incorporating Service-Learning in People-Centered Sciences: Three Instructional Approaches......... 65
Kathryn A. Carroll, University of Central Arkansas, USA
Rebekah R. Luong, University of Central Arkansas, USA
Monica Lieblong, Johns Hopkins University, USA
Lesley Graybeal, University of Central Arkansas, USA

Chapter 6
Bucs Abroad: International Service-Learning at a State College.......................................................... 89
Katharine O’Connor, Florida SouthWestern State College, USA
Jordan Donini, Florida SouthWestern State College, USA
Michael Messina, Florida SouthWestern State College, USA
Angus Cameron, Florida SouthWestern State College, USA


 

Chapter 7
Crossing the Red Tape: Service-Learning Relationships With Government Agencies....................... 108
Bailey R. Fairbanks, University of Central Arkansas, USA
Sherry L. Skaggs, University of Central Arkansas, USA
Kisha A. Hardwick, University of Central Arkansas, USA
Lesley Graybeal, University of Central Arkansas, USA

Chapter 8
Global Service-Learning on a Continuum: Shallow and Deep Service-Learning in Rwanda............ 133
Leah Horton, University of Central Arkansas, USA
Riva Brown, University of Central Arkansas, USA

Chapter 9
Exploratory Approaches to Service Learning Within a University’s Student-Run Free Clinic
Program................................................................................................................................................ 156
Belinda Hernandez, Stanford University School of Medicine, USA

Chapter 10
Attitudes Towards Service Learning in Turkish Higher Education: Perspectives and Practical
Approaches.......................................................................................................................................... 176
Ayse Yilmaz Virlan, Marmara University, Turkey

Chapter 11
The Past and Present of Service Learning in Biology Education........................................................ 195
Dilek Sultan Acarlı, Hacettepe University, Turkey

Chapter 12
Service Learning and Social Innovation Initiatives for Higher Education in Singapore and Hong
Kong..................................................................................................................................................... 213
Intan Azura Mokhtar, Singapore Institute of Technology, Singapore
Charlene Tan, Life University, Cambodia

Chapter 13
An International E-Community Engagement Initiative Exploring College and Career Pathways: A
Literature Review................................................................................................................................. 233
Audrey Faye Falk, Merrimack College, USA
Sameerah Tawfeeq Saeed, English Language Teaching Department, Tishk International
University, Erbil, Iraq
Martina Jordaan, University of Pretoria, South Africa
Madasu Bhaskara Rao, ICFAI Foundation for Higher Education, India
Nour El Houda Chaoui, Ibn Tofail University, Morocco


Chapter 14
Service-Learning in Higher Education Marketing Courses: The Use of a Marketing Plan................ 261
Rosario Vazquez-Carrasco, Pablo de Olavide University, Spain
Ana Olavarria-Jaraba, Pablo de Olavide University, Spain
Emily Mary Grott, Pablo de Olavide University, Spain
Maria Angeles Ramon-Jeronimo, Pablo de Olavide University, Spain

Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 289

About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 332

Index.................................................................................................................................................... 339
Detailed Table of Contents

Preface.................................................................................................................................................. xiv

Chapter 1
Multidisciplinary Service Learning in Higher Education: Concepts, Implementation, and Impact....... 1
Muhammad Usman Tariq, Abu Dhabi University, UAE

This chapter explores the exciting field of transdisciplinary service learning in higher education,
providing an in-depth look at its theoretical underpinnings, real-world applications, and significant
effects. After providing an overview of the larger service learning environment, the emphasis shifts
to clarify the subtleties of interdisciplinary methods. The theoretical foundations of service learning,
which have expanded to include a variety of academic fields, provide the framework for a thorough
analysis of planning and design techniques. The chapter skillfully navigates the complexities of project
planning, emphasising identifying community needs and ensuring alignment with curriculum goals.
The foundation for thoroughly examining the implementation stage is laid by insights into promoting
cooperation across academic departments, students, and community partners during the planning stage.
The logistical complexities, efficient communication techniques, and resource management essential to
successful execution are demonstrated via real-world examples and case studies.

Chapter 2
Promoting Diversity and Inclusivity Through Service Learning in Higher Education......................... 20
Surjit Singha, Kristu Jayanti College (Autonomous), India

This chapter explores the profound impact of service learning on Higher Education, focusing on its
capacity to foster inclusive and diverse environments. Forming the basis of theoretical frameworks such as
critical pedagogy and transformative learning, service learning provokes significant changes in students’
perspectives. This chapter examines faculty development, curriculum integration, and assessment in
depth, highlighting the mutually beneficial nature of community partnerships. Emerging trends, such
as integrating technology and adopting global perspectives, highlight the dynamic nature of service
learning. By combining academic knowledge with practical experiences, service learning influences the
trajectory of higher education by promoting intellectual development, nurturing social responsibility,
encouraging diversity, and encouraging global engagement.





Chapter 3
Life Skills for Personal Well-Being....................................................................................................... 35
Jishamol Thomas, Christ University, India
Sheeja Ramani Karalam, Christ University, India

This investigation examines the integrative and transformative qualities of service learning in higher
education, specifically focusing on its contribution to developing personal well-being-related life
skills. By integrating significant community service with academic goals, service learning provides a
comprehensive educational experience. Its defined components, theoretical framework, and real-world
applications underscore the subject’s significance. Student experiences and case studies illustrate its
influence on empathy, resiliency, and communication. Strategic implementation approaches serve as
a compass for purposeful undertakings. Service learning connects theoretical concepts with practical
application, cultivating globally literate and socially conscious individuals who can navigate the ever-
changing realm of higher education.

Chapter 4
Fostering Mindfulness and Compassion: Strategies, Benefits, and Challenges.................................... 45
Ranjit Singha, Christ University, India

The integration of compassion, mindfulness, and service learning in higher education is emphasized in
this abstract via an all-encompassing theoretical framework. Educators are assisted in the development
of transformative learning experiences by utilizing service learning frameworks, compassion education
models, contemplative pedagogy, transformative learning theory, and holistic education paradigms. Civic
responsibility, self-awareness, and critical reflection are emphasized within the framework. By traversing
this conceptual terrain, educators make a valuable contribution to the comprehensive growth of pupils,
nurturing individuals who are conscientious, empathetic, and socially accountable, thereby equipping
them to confront the intricacies of existence.

Chapter 5
Incorporating Service-Learning in People-Centered Sciences: Three Instructional Approaches......... 65
Kathryn A. Carroll, University of Central Arkansas, USA
Rebekah R. Luong, University of Central Arkansas, USA
Monica Lieblong, Johns Hopkins University, USA
Lesley Graybeal, University of Central Arkansas, USA

For an instructor in higher education, implementing service-learning (S-L) into a new or existing course
can simultaneously be an exciting but potentially challenging experience. While S-L has the potential
to make positive impacts on both the community of interest and subsequent students, instructors
implementing S-L may face challenges such as project and partner identification. Another potential
challenge for the instructor is determining which type of instructional approach they should select to
implement S-L. To help guide higher education instructors in this selection process, this chapter features
a collective case study of S-L projects conducted within three different undergraduate courses, using
three different instructional approaches, at the University of Central Arkansas. Each of these courses has
successfully utilized a different instructional approach: 1) collaborative consultation, 2) guided discovery,
and 3) learner-centered. Using a collective case study of S-L courses, this chapter discusses in detail the
implementation of each S-L project from start to finish.
 

Chapter 6
Bucs Abroad: International Service-Learning at a State College.......................................................... 89
Katharine O’Connor, Florida SouthWestern State College, USA
Jordan Donini, Florida SouthWestern State College, USA
Michael Messina, Florida SouthWestern State College, USA
Angus Cameron, Florida SouthWestern State College, USA

This chapter focuses on showcasing two case studies of multidisciplinary, international service-learning
courses offered on the state college level. The authors will focus on best practices of multidisciplinary,
international service-learning such as understanding student demographics in order to recruit and
prepare students for study abroad experiences. Preparation of student expectation, cultural mentors, and
identifying service-learning partners will be covered. The chapter will also offer insights into creative
research projects also known as “UnEssays” as a pedagogical tool.

Chapter 7
Crossing the Red Tape: Service-Learning Relationships With Government Agencies....................... 108
Bailey R. Fairbanks, University of Central Arkansas, USA
Sherry L. Skaggs, University of Central Arkansas, USA
Kisha A. Hardwick, University of Central Arkansas, USA
Lesley Graybeal, University of Central Arkansas, USA

This chapter explores the processes used by faculty and administrators at a regional comprehensive
university in the South to develop partnerships with bureaucratic agencies including a criminology course
partnership with local law enforcement agencies, a multidisciplinary partnership with the local juvenile
court, and a public administration local government course partnership with a public housing agency
and homelessness task force. The intention of the chapter is to provide a roadmap for the development
of service or experiential learning processes with government agencies. The nature of developing
service-learning partnerships with bureaucratic agencies can often create unique challenges during
the development including establishing contact with appropriate agency contacts, developing plans to
effectively managing the time and capacity of government agencies, as well as managing the additional
legal and risk management requirements that are inherent to collaborating with bureaucratic partners.

Chapter 8
Global Service-Learning on a Continuum: Shallow and Deep Service-Learning in Rwanda............ 133
Leah Horton, University of Central Arkansas, USA
Riva Brown, University of Central Arkansas, USA

This book chapter explores student learning and growth after participating in the Science, Society, and
Service-Learning in Rwanda study abroad program. The students participated in what the authors define
as deep service-learning, one experience that took place over a few days, allowing for more meaningful
engagement, and shallow service-learning, two separate experiences that each occurred over a few hours,
allowing for less interaction. The authors used Likert-scale and open-ended post-trip questions to assess
the students in three categories: 1) global competency and cultural awareness, 2) personal growth and
development, and 3) communication and teamwork. The students rated the first category the highest. The
authors also assess the effectiveness of the service-learning experiences by including the perspectives
of the Rwandan community partners.


Chapter 9
Exploratory Approaches to Service Learning Within a University’s Student-Run Free Clinic
Program................................................................................................................................................ 156
Belinda Hernandez, Stanford University School of Medicine, USA

University-administered student run free clinics provide health care and enabling services to community
members experiencing limited access to care, simultaneously offering direct educational experiences
to students interested in careers in medicine. Programs vary in size and scope and are dependent on
university and community commitment that considers the needs of the targeted patient population. This
descriptive chapter illustrates Stanford University’s Cardinal Free Clinic’s inclusion of critical service-
learning pedagogy within student didactics and experiential learning. The chapter is shared from an
administrator’s perspective to benefit higher education institutions considering establishing or expanding
their SRFC program. While the environment and social context are essential to understand, the inclusion
of community cultural wealth awareness, social identity exploration, and active self-reflection within the
program will be highlighted. This chapter may benefit administrators interested in including elements
of critical service-learning pedagogy in their programs.

Chapter 10
Attitudes Towards Service Learning in Turkish Higher Education: Perspectives and Practical
Approaches.......................................................................................................................................... 176
Ayse Yilmaz Virlan, Marmara University, Turkey

This chapter provides a comprehensive examination of service learning in Turkish higher education.
Exploring the historical evolution of service learning, it aims to offer valuable insights to international
readers regarding specific practices in the Turkish educational context. Objectives include investigating
diverse methodologies, discussing challenges, and identifying case studies. Through an in-depth analysis,
the chapter aims to derive meaningful insights contributing to a comprehensive service learning framework.
Additionally, it explores service learning from the perspectives of educators, administrators, and students,
highlighting benefits, challenges, and impacts on the educational experience. This chapter is significant
for the global academic community and Turkish higher education administrators, serving as inspiration
for developing and integrating service learning components within institutions.

Chapter 11
The Past and Present of Service Learning in Biology Education........................................................ 195
Dilek Sultan Acarlı, Hacettepe University, Turkey

In this study, firstly, the meaning, benefits and difficulties of service learning are explained and the
development of the perspective and deficiencies on this subject are tried to be revealed with selections
from the research published on service learning in biology education since the year 2000, marking the
onset of the 21st century. In addition, it was discussed and suggestions were made about how biology
issues, which are particularly prominent with their socio-scientific aspects and are important for society,
can be addressed in service learning projects and how studies on this subject can be made more effective.
As a result, the past and present of service learning in biology education were discussed and a study was
presented as a guide for researchers who want to work in this field in the future.
 

Chapter 12
Service Learning and Social Innovation Initiatives for Higher Education in Singapore and Hong
Kong..................................................................................................................................................... 213
Intan Azura Mokhtar, Singapore Institute of Technology, Singapore
Charlene Tan, Life University, Cambodia

This chapter examines service learning and social innovation initiatives for higher education institutions
(HEIs) in Singapore and Hong Kong. It is reported that the service learning and social innovation
initiatives for HEIs in both cities are varied, substantial, and robust. Underpinning and influencing the
design, planning and enactment of these initiatives is the value of collectivism that prevails in Confucian
Heritage Cultures. This chapter also highlights some common challenges for service learning and social
innovation initiatives for HEIs in Singapore and Hong Kong.

Chapter 13
An International E-Community Engagement Initiative Exploring College and Career Pathways: A
Literature Review................................................................................................................................. 233
Audrey Faye Falk, Merrimack College, USA
Sameerah Tawfeeq Saeed, English Language Teaching Department, Tishk International
University, Erbil, Iraq
Martina Jordaan, University of Pretoria, South Africa
Madasu Bhaskara Rao, ICFAI Foundation for Higher Education, India
Nour El Houda Chaoui, Ibn Tofail University, Morocco

This chapter provides a literature review and conceptual framework for a current international e-community-
engagement project which is taking place from January through March 2024. Through the initiative,
students from five higher education institutions are placed on international teams and are tasked with
developing interactive presentations on careers which are delivered remotely to youth in South Africa.
The chapter explores the literature on e-community-engagement; first-generation college students;
students learning about college majors and careers; near-peer mentoring; international, e-community-
engagement; internationalization; global teamwork; and global citizenship. The chapter contributes to
the discussion surrounding the impact of e-service-learning in higher education, particularly in remote
and international settings. In addition, it aims to stimulate innovative research and programs that prepare
youth for the workforce of the future.

Chapter 14
Service-Learning in Higher Education Marketing Courses: The Use of a Marketing Plan................ 261
Rosario Vazquez-Carrasco, Pablo de Olavide University, Spain
Ana Olavarria-Jaraba, Pablo de Olavide University, Spain
Emily Mary Grott, Pablo de Olavide University, Spain
Maria Angeles Ramon-Jeronimo, Pablo de Olavide University, Spain

This work focuses on presenting a service-learning experience, resulting from the concern of the teaching
staff as to the extent to which students of the business faculty, in particular marketing students, acquire
a service orientation during their degree studies, as this can help guide them in their future careers. As


such, service-learning methodology is proposed as an appropriate means to foster a service orientation.

The results show that service-learning can stimulate a service orientation in students, help develop a
social dimension and gain knowledge of marketing. This specific service-learning experience involved
developing a marketing plan in profit and non-profit organizations.

Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 289

About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 332

Index.................................................................................................................................................... 339
xiv

Preface

Universities cannot afford to remain shores of affluence, self-importance, and horticultural beauty at the
edge of island seas of squalor, violence, and despair (Ira, Harkavy: University of Pennsylvania Center
for Community Partnerships, p. A48).
Service-learning is a unique strategy that melds service and learning and involves course-based edu-
cational experiences that address community and human needs (Jacoby, 2014, p. 1), facilitate students to
become responsible citizens, help students gain a broader appreciation for their disciplines (Bringle &
Hatcher, 1996), while gaining an experiential understanding of content, moving beyond the traditional
purpose of coursework in degree programs - preparing students for careers. Some maintain that the
hyphen in service-learning represents reflection and that the relationship between service and learning
is symbiotic (Clayton et al., 2013), indeed, this author contends that reflection is a vital component of
service-learning and that both the community and the service provider should benefit in such a collabora-
tion. Increasingly, institutions of higher education are finding immense value in and thus are embracing
service-learning as a pedagogical strategy, and are bringing the strategy to local, regional, national, and
international communities to meet identified human and community needs.
The author of this book, Dr. Sandy Watson, first gained experience in community work via volun-
teering with various organizations across her lifetime including working with Hurricane Katrina relief,
various food banks, the Salvation Army, environmental preservation, historic commissions, homeless
initiatives, Habitat for Humanity, Abba’s House Children’s Center in the Dominican Republic and more.
It wasn’t until fairly recently that the stars aligned, allowing her to focus on incorporating volunteerism
in the university courses she teaches in the form of service-learning. Having served at three different
universities, the one that placed the most emphasis on community service was her current institution,
the University of Louisiana Monroe, which made service-learning a core component of their mission
statement and strategic plan, and promised to support those endeavors.
After talking with another faculty member in pharmacy, Dr. Rotundo, Drs. Watson and Rotundo agreed
to collaborate on a cross-college, cross-program service-learning initiative that was set to take place in
Cienfuegos, Dominican Republic. The University of Louisiana Monroe delivered on their commitment
to service-learning and agreed to fund the travel and lodging costs of all of the student participants.
After two years of planning, in April 2023, 26 faculty and students traveled to the Dominican Republic
to participate in a six-day interdisciplinary service-learning project. Students participated in multiple
activities related to their programs of study that also benefitted the Cienfuegos community.
Before and after the experience, students completed a modified version of the Community Service
Attitudes Scale (Shiarella et al., 2000). The scale is based on Schwartz’s altruistic helping behavior
model (Schwartz, 1977) and includes statements related to awareness, actions, ability, connectedness,



Preface

moral obligation, empathy, and helping. Twenty-one out of 25 items showed significant improvement
after the trip, demonstrating the value of the experience for the participating students. In fact, Fullerton
et al. (2015) described such experiences as “epiphanic,” which is echoed in one ULM student’s feedback
after this service-learning experience: “This experience has helped to confirm that I am in the right
profession” (Watson et al., 2024).

THE CHALLENGE

The value of service-learning experiences has been proven in multiple contexts for higher education,
however, the intricate details of putting such an experience in place have not always been clear. Often,
these projects manifest with faculty members (champions) who envision such collaboration for the
students in their courses, but understanding the nuances of service-learning is critical for a successful
implementation, thus faculty considering these initiatives could benefit from faculty development to be
certain they fully understand and then can plan and execute them. Once an understanding is established,
how would a faculty member start the planning process? What would these preparations look like?
We know that service-learning experiences must connect to content while also fulfilling a community/
human need, but how is that connection with content established? How can service-learning experi-
ences be directly connected with course objectives? How can this connection occur without diminishing
the other critical elements of course content? The melding of course curricula and community service
must be a thoughtful and deliberate process so that in the end, students develop an understanding of the
causal structural disparities present in the broader society. How have universities with service-learning
embedded courses established these connections?
One of the central components of service learning is self-reflection as reflection is in itself a gen-
erator of student learning outcomes. Reflecting fosters self-awareness and enhances learning. Student
reflections on service-learning experiences often involve describing and explaining the experiences by
answering questions such as “What were the circumstances?” “What did you do?” “Who was involved?”
“How did you react?” “What did you think? “Why did it happen?” “Why did you respond in the way
you did?” One of the primary objectives of reflection in this context is to help students connect the
experience with content objectives (Kawai, 2021). When considering the implementation of a service-
learning experience, stakeholders must consider how to optimally frame reflection in the experience so
that student learning outcomes are realized. How can one do so?
Service-learning also seeks to develop compassion and mindfulness among its participants, qualities
that are gaining recognition as essential and transformative elements of education Mindfulness provides
opportunities to increase one’s self-awareness, become less judgmental, and enact change. Integrating
elements of compassion and mindfulness into service-learning can spur transformation (Lyon et al., 2022).
How can service-learning experiences be designed so participants achieve mindfulness and compassion?
Another challenge often faced when considering service-learning is the assessment of student learn-
ing outcomes. In what ways can assessment be accomplished when experiential learning comprises
a portion of the pedagogical strategies employed? When the experiences might occur outside of the
instructor’s supervision?
Finally, moving beyond one service-learning experience tied to one course to a multidisciplinary
effort across multiple courses, programs, and colleges seems a daunting task. Where to begin?

xv
 Preface

THE SOLUTION

The author of this book does not maintain that there is one right solution to all of these challenges and
concerns, however, she does seek to offer a glimpse into how these issues are addressed at universities
across the globe in this text. Many of the chapters herein discuss the strategies employed to address each
of these areas of concern. For example, several of the chapters in this book address the preparatory strate-
gies undertaken by universities across the globe in advance of a service-learning project. For example,
in Chapter 5, “Incorporating Service-Learning in People-Centered Sciences: Three Instructional Ap-
proaches,” the authors address pre-course planning procedures followed, the identification of appropriate
community partners, and project implementation. In addition, in Chapter 6, “Bucs Abroad: International
Service-Learning at a State College” and Chapter 7, “Crossing the Red Tape: Service-Learning Rela-
tionships with Government Agencies,” similar preparatory procedures are discussed. Chapter 8, “Global
Service-Learning on a Continuum: Shallow and Deep Service-Learning in Rwanda,” provides specific
suggestions for faculty who might be interested in developing service-learning programs. Chapter 11,
“The Past and Present of Service-Learning in Biology Education,” presents a study to serve as a guide
for researchers wishing to develop service-learning projects in biology. Finally, Chapter 15, “Service-
Learning in Higher Education Marketing Courses: The Use of a Marketing Plan,” provides a schedule
of replicable activities for the service-learning project they implemented.
Details concerning procedures related to connecting service with course objectives are addressed in
Chapter 6, “Bucs Abroad: International Service-Learning at a State College.” Here, the author includes
examples of projects created by students to fulfill course objectives and examples of student reflections.
Chapter 7, “Crossing the Red Tape: Service-Learning Relationships with Government Agencies,” the
authors share how course objectives were aligned with the service-learning experience and identify stu-
dent learning outcomes. Chapter 9, “Exploratory Approaches to Service Learning within a University’s
Student-Run Free Clinic Program,” provides examples of course connections to their clinical service-
learning project.
The literature has identified the importance of self-reflection in conjunction with service-learning
projects (Kawai, 2021). Many of the chapters in this book address reflection in the context of service-
learning. For example, in Chapter 2, “Promoting Diversity and Inclusivity through Service-Learning in
Higher Education,” the authors discuss the importance of students critically reflecting on their service
experiences as a means of comparing and deconstructing prevailing power structures, referring to critical
reflection as a theoretical framework. In addition, Chapter 7, “Crossing the Red Tape: Service-Learning
Relationships with Government Agencies,” explores cases of service-learning and includes reflection
assignments with students writing answers to reflective questions such as, “What have you learned from
participating in and researching these selection activities? How do these activities help us to identify the
best possible candidates? How can public participation in these activities (such as your participation)
help improve police-community relations?” And, the authors of Chapter 3, “Life Skills for Personal
Wellbeing,” touch on the importance of reflection for developing resilience to better approach and con-
quer barriers and difficulties. Self-reflection is also addressed in various capacities in other chapters.
The importance of embedding elements of compassion and mindfulness has been well-established
in the literature (Lyon et al., 2022; Morris, 2020) and is addressed in Chapter 4, “Fostering Mindfulness
and Compassion: Strategies, Benefits, and Challenges.” This chapter is entirely devoted to the process
of developing mindfulness and compassion through the integration of various theories of contemplative

xvi
Preface

education with particular emphasis on the use of mindfulness for developing self-awareness, emotional
intelligence, and making ethical decisions in the service-learning context.
Assessment of service-learning has been a concern among faculty across all disciplines. Assessment
will take different forms for various disciplines. Chapter 15, “Service-Learning in Higher Education
Marketing Courses: The Use of a Marketing Plan,” includes an example of a rubric utilized to assess stu-
dents’ social marketing plans for contributing to the well-being of their population. In chapter 8, “Global
Service-Learning on a Continuum: Shallow and Deep Service-Learning in Rwanda,” the authors shared
that students were assessed via daily journal entries, group discussions, and a final project and provided
details of those strategies. In Chapter 7 “Crossing the Red Tape: Service-Learning Relationships with
Government Agencies,” a section on service-learning assessment is included that details three service-
learning projects students were required to complete and includes project directions in the Appendix.
In Chapter 6, “Bucs Abroad: International Service-Learning at a State College,” the authors shared that
students created research reports of their experiences via an “Unessay” and provided examples of student
projects such as the American Portrayal in Italian Cinema, How Service-Learning Elicits Empathy, and
Regional Foods of Italy.
Chapter 1, “Multidisciplinary Service-Learning in Higher Education: Concepts, Implementation,
and Impact” addresses the difficulties presented by constructing a multidisciplinary service-learning
experience that incorporates multiple different programs of study and colleges. The author of this
chapter addresses multidisciplinary service-learning, its advantages, and challenges, transitioning to
multidisciplinary forms of service-learning, matching objectives to subject-specific results, promoting
the idea to academic departments, implementing strategies, communicating effectively, and more. The
author goes on to include three case studies as illustrative examples of interdisciplinary collaboration
in the context of service-learning.

ORGANIZATION OF THE BOOK

This book is organized into 14 chapters.

Chapter 1, “Multidisciplinary Service-Learning in Higher Education: Concepts, Implementation,
and Impact,” analyzes the complex field of transdisciplinary service-learning, examining its theoretical
underpinnings, complex implementation techniques, and significant ramifications for a range of stake-
holders in the higher education ecosystem.
Chapter 2, “Promoting Diversity and Inclusivity through Service-Learning in Higher Education,”
explores the impact of service-learning on fostering diversity and inclusivity in higher education, with
emphasis on its impact on student attitudes, behaviors, and worldviews. The authors examine the vari-
ous effects of service-learning and add to the dialogue surrounding novel pedagogical approaches that
address diversity and inclusiveness in tertiary education.
Chapter 3, “Life Skills for Personal Wellbeing,” addresses the role service-learning plays in higher
education, focusing on the influence it has on acquiring life skills necessary for individual welfare. These
skills include critical thinking, problem-solving, communication, adaptability, and interpersonal skills.
Chapter 4, “Fostering Mindfulness and Compassion: Strategies, Benefits, and Challenges,” explores
the intricate relationship between service learning, compassion, and mindfulness in higher education.
The authors examine how intentionally integrating mindfulness and compassion into service-learning
can enhance students’ intellectual and emotional growth, elucidate relevant pedagogical approaches,

xvii
 Preface

discuss practical strategies for fostering interconnectedness among stakeholders, and analyze each ap-
proach, culminating in a discussion of the benefits of such partnerships.
Chapter 5, “Incorporating Service-Learning in People-Centered Sciences: Three Instructional Ap-
proaches,” features a collective case student of service-learning projects as components of three different
undergraduate courses in family and consumer sciences. Each case study contains a detailed discussion
of the instructor’s approach to pre-course planning with service-learning objectives, identifying a need
in a local community and appropriate community partner organizations, project implementation details,
challenges and lessons learned, and student reflections, feedback, and evaluation.
Chapter 6, “Bucs Abroad: International Service-Learning at a State College,” discusses Florida
SouthWestern State College’s integration of service-learning in two study-abroad trips (case studies) in
Italy and Costa Rica. The authors include information about the identification of partnering agencies
within these two settings, preparation details, particular service experiences, students’ stories about how
the experiences impacted their learning, examples of related student projects, and student reflections.
Chapter 7, “Crossing the Red Tape: Service-Learning Relationships with Government Agencies,”
addresses the process followed to create an opportunity for local governmental service-learning experi-
ences with local agencies (law enforcement, juvenile justice court system, homelessness task force, and
public housing agency). The authors include course planning details, information about building trust
with government agencies and selecting appropriate agencies for service-learning initiatives, recommen-
dations for communicating expectations, and tools for managing the time and capacity of government
partners. Finally, the authors discuss student outcomes, alignment and development of course objectives,
value to the service-learning partner, and limitations and concerns.
Chapter 8, “Global Service-Learning on a Continuum: Shallow and Deep Service-Learning in Rwan-
da,” explores the University of Central Arkansas’ service-learning study abroad program in Rwanda. In
particular, the authors explain details as to how the project developed, how trust was established with
Rwanda partners and students’ perspectives and reflections on the service-learning experience. The
chapter closes with suggestions for faculty and administrators seeking to develop similar global programs.
Chapter 9, “Exploratory Approaches to Service Learning within a University’s Student-Run Free Clinic
Program,” describes how critical service-learning pedagogy is embedded in Stanford University’s School
of Medicine’s Cardinal Free Clinics program which is student-run and located in the San Francisco Bay
Area. The authors also share the history of the program, the program’s service-learning perspective, the
role of self-reflection of involved students, faculty, and administration (including community cultural
wealth and social identity reflection), the current program’s structure, related courses, and more.
Chapter 10, “Attitudes Towards Service-Learning in Turkish Higher Education Perspectives and
Practical Approaches: Service-Learning in Turkish Higher Education,” explores the historical evolution
of service learning and specific related practices in the Turkish educational context. Specifically, the
authors examine diverse methodologies, discuss challenges, and identify pertinent case studies, all in
an effort to identify a comprehensive service-learning framework.
Chapter 11, “The Past and Present of Service-Learning in Biology Education,” the author describes
the meaning, benefits, and difficulties of service-learning and then reveals the service-learning per-
spectives and deficiencies by examining the literature since 2000 on research on service-learning in the
context of biology education. The author next ruminates upon how biology issues can be addressed in
service-learning projects and how related studies can be made more effective. In conclusion, the author
presents a study as a guide for researchers who are interested in service-learning in biology education.

xviii
Preface

Chapter 12, “Service Learning and Social Innovation Initiatives for Higher Education in Singapore
and Hong Kong: Singapore and Hong Kong,” examines service-learning and social innovation initiatives
for higher education institutions in Singapore and Hong Kong. The authors address the design, planning,
and enactment of these service-learning initiatives infused with the value of collectivism that prevails
in Confucian Heritage Cultures and highlight some common challenges for service-learning and social
innovation initiatives for Higher Education Institutions in Singapore and Hong Kong.
Chapter 13, “An International, E-Community-Engagement Initiative Exploring Career Pathways,”
provides an extended literature review for a proposed future international e-community-engagement
project that is about to take place. The chapter explores the literature on first-generation college students;
students learning about college majors and careers; career-focused community engagement; near-peer
mentoring; international e-community-engagement; internationalization; global teamwork; and global
citizenship. Finally, the authors provide a rationale for their proposed initiative which is grounded in
the review of the literature.
Chapter 14, “Service-Learning in Higher Education Marketing Courses: The Use of a Marketing
Plan,” presents an accounting of an experience at Pablo De Olavide University, Seville in which a service-
learning methodology was put into place in a marketing course. In particular, the authors explain why
a service-learning methodology was employed, how they planned and executed a teaching experience
based on a service-learning methodology, share their schedule of activities, and provide conclusions
from the experience.

Sandy White Watson

University of Louisiana at Monroe, USA

REFERENCES

Bringle, R. G., & Hatched, J. A. (1996). Implementing service learning in higher education. Higher
Education, 16, https://digitalcommons.unomaha.edu/slcehighered/16
Chupp, M. G., & Joseph, M. L. (2010). Getting the most out of service learning: Maximizing student,
university, and community impact. Journal of Community Practice, 18(2-3), 190–212. doi:10.1080/10
705422.2010.487045
Clayton, P.H., Bringle, R.G. & Hatched, J.A. (2013). Research on service learning: Conceptual frame-
works and assessment: Students and faculty.
Jacoby, B. (2014). Service-learning essentials: Questions, answers, and lessons learned. Jossey-Bass.
IUPUI Series on Service Learning Research, v. 2A.
Kawai, T. (2021). A theoretical framework on reflection in service learning: Deepening reflection through
identity development. Frontiers in Education, 5, 604997. Advance online publication. doi:10.3389/
feduc.2020.604997

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 Preface

Lyon, M. L., Sikes, K. L., Clayton, P. H., & Bringle, R. G. (2022). Designing transformative service-
learning: Mindfulness and healing-centered engagement. In Handbook of research on learner-centered
approaches to teaching in an age of transformational change (pp. 21–41). IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-
1-6684-4240-1.ch002
Morris, T. H. (2020). Transformative learning through mindfulness: Exploring the mechanism of change.
Australian Journal of Adult Learning, 60(1), 44–65.
Shiarella, A., McCarthy, A., & Tucker, M. (2000). Development and construct validity of scores on
the community service attitudes scale. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 60(2), 286–300.
doi:10.1177/00131640021970510

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 1

Chapter 1
Multidisciplinary Service
Learning in Higher Education:
Concepts, Implementation, and Impact

Muhammad Usman Tariq

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7605-3040
Abu Dhabi University, UAE

ABSTRACT
This chapter explores the exciting field of transdisciplinary service learning in higher education, provid-
ing an in-depth look at its theoretical underpinnings, real-world applications, and significant effects.
After providing an overview of the larger service learning environment, the emphasis shifts to clarify
the subtleties of interdisciplinary methods. The theoretical foundations of service learning, which have
expanded to include a variety of academic fields, provide the framework for a thorough analysis of
planning and design techniques. The chapter skillfully navigates the complexities of project planning,
emphasising identifying community needs and ensuring alignment with curriculum goals. The founda-
tion for thoroughly examining the implementation stage is laid by insights into promoting cooperation
across academic departments, students, and community partners during the planning stage. The logisti-
cal complexities, efficient communication techniques, and resource management essential to successful
execution are demonstrated via real-world examples and case studies.

1-OVERVIEW

Higher education now stands on the shoulders of service learning, a pedagogical strategy that blends
academic study with community involvement and promotes all-encompassing learning experiences.
This chapter thoroughly analyses the complex field of transdisciplinary service learning, examining its
theoretical underpinnings, complex implementation techniques, and significant ramifications for a range
of stakeholders in the higher education ecosystem.

DOI: 10.4018/979-8-3693-2133-1.ch001

Copyright © 2024, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
 
Multidisciplinary Service Learning in Higher Education

Philosophical Bases

The first section lays a strong basis by outlining the historical development of service learning in higher
education. Drawing on foundational writings (Bringle & Hatcher, 1995; Dewey, 1938), emphasis is
placed on the importance of fusing academic knowledge with real-world applicationThe chapter then
deftly shifts to a targeted examination of interdisciplinary service learning, which is the blending of
several academic fields to solve intricate societal issues.

Conceptual Foundations

The origins of experiential and transformational learning theories are traced back to the theoretical foun-
dations of service learning (Kolb, 1984; Mezirow, 1991). The development of these ideas to consider
interdisciplinary methods is outlined, demonstrating the paradigm change in understanding the dynamic
interaction between community participation and education.

Strategies for Design and Planning

Beyond theory, the chapter thoroughly analyses the planning stages of transdisciplinary service learning
projects. After reviewing pertinent research (Eyler & Giles, 1999; Jacoby, 2015), the section explores
methods for determining needs in the community, integrating multiple academic fields with ease, and
matching project objectives with curriculum results. When designing a project, consideration is given
to encouraging collaboration across academic departments, community partners, and students.

Dynamics of Implementation

The next part moves on to the implementation stage and thoroughly examines the processes and rela-
tionships involved in carrying out transdisciplinary service learning initiatives. The chapter delves into
how resource management, good communication, and coordination across varied teams lead to the suc-
cessful completion of major projects, drawing on findings from groundbreaking research (Furco, 2010;
Stanton et al., 2002). Case studies and real-world examples highlight creative approaches and answers
to everyday problems (Tariq, 2024).

Evaluation Techniques

Using various methodological techniques, the chapter then carefully reviews evaluation methodologies
for transdisciplinary service learning projects (Conway et al., 2015; Eyler et al., 2001). This involves
assessing the project’s overall efficacy and its effects on the community and students’ learning results.
This section explores evaluation techniques and approaches, including questionnaires, reflective assign-
ments, and community feedback channels.

Analysis of Stakeholder Impact

An examination of the effects of transdisciplinary service learning projects on students, professors, and
community partners is a crucial component of this investigation. The chapter summarises the results

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Multidisciplinary Service Learning in Higher Education

of empirical research (Clayton & Bringle, 2010; Strage, 2008) and clarifies the progress that students
and faculty members have experienced personally and academically, as well as the concrete advantages
the community has reaped. How these initiatives deepen students’ comprehension of civic engagement,
social justice, and their capacity for societal change are highlighted in particular.

Implications and Suggestions

The chapter critically analyses the difficulties interdisciplinary service learning initiatives entail as the
story develops. This entails maintaining long-term collaborations, guaranteeing equitable community
involvement, and coordinating efforts across multiple disciplines. These difficulties are identified and
studied by expert views and lessons learnt from noteworthy case studies (Butin, 2006; Hart et al., 2016).

Final Thoughts and Upcoming Projects

The chapter concludes by summarising the main conclusions and highlighting the crucial part that
transdisciplinary service learning plays in enhancing higher education. It emphasises how important
these initiatives are for creating all-encompassing learning experiences beyond the typical classroom’s
confines. The conclusion also emphasises the importance of service learning as a crucial component of
the curriculum in higher education and the necessity for ongoing creativity, teamwork, and dedication
to it. In closing, the chapter provides best practice suggestions that point the way ahead for creating and
maintaining successful interdisciplinary service-learning programmes in higher education. This thorough
synopsis establishes the framework for delving further into each issue and offers a path forward for the
subsequent conversations on interdisciplinary service learning in higher education (Tariq, 2024).

2-INTRODUCTION TO MULTIDISCIPLINARY SERVICE LEARNING

Service learning is central to modern higher education, an educational approach that combines academic
study with community involvement and represents a dedication to experiential learning and societal
impact. The importance of service learning in the changing educational landscape cannot be empha-
sised. This section examines the significant influence that service learning has on students’ educational
experiences and on meeting social demands.

Importance of Education via Service

The philosophical underpinnings of John Dewey (1938), who promoted experiential learning and em-
phasised the fusion of theory and practice, are where service learning originated. Building on Dewey’s
theories, modern researchers (Bringle & Hatcher, 1995) highlight the transformational potential of
service learning. Service learning has grown in popularity due to the demand for a more relevant and
engaged education. It gives students a feeling of civic duty, practical skills, and academic knowledge.
Higher education institutions have realised the value of service learning in recent decades since it
may help students develop a sense of civic engagement and social responsibility (Eyler & Giles, 1999).
Additionally, service learning has been connected to improved academic performance, personal growth,
and the development of critical thinking abilities (Jacoby, 2015). As learner-centred and community-

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Multidisciplinary Service Learning in Higher Education

oriented paradigms grow more prevalent in academia, service learning is becoming essential to education
beyond the classroom walls.

Multidisciplinary Service Learning: Particular Advantages and Difficulties

Integrating several academic fields adds complexity and richness to the educational experience, even
if service learning has intrinsic value. Students and instructors from several areas work together in
multidisciplinary service learning to address complicated community concerns. This method has spe-
cial advantages, including encouraging multidisciplinary cooperation and communication skills and a
comprehensive grasp of complicated issues (Furco, 2010; Stanton et al., 2002).
Nonetheless, several things could be improved with this connection. It can be difficult to coordinate
efforts across several disciplines, match academic objectives, and guarantee fair contributions from each
area (Butin, 2006). A distinct set of difficulties arises when maintaining a unified project vision while
juggling disciplinary knowledge (Hart et al., 2016). Therefore, investigating transdisciplinary service
learning requires comprehensively comprehending its advantages and drawbacks (Tariq, 2024).

Conceptual Foundations

Prominent educational theories prioritising experiential and transformational learning constitute the
intellectual underpinnings of service learning. This section examines the development of service learn-
ing, especially its move towards incorporating interdisciplinary approaches, and gives an outline of these
theoretical foundations (Tariq, 2024).

Theoretical Underpinnings of Volunteer Education

Service learning is fundamentally influenced by Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning theory, which
holds that learning is a cycle that includes active experimentation, abstract conceptualisation, reflective
observation, and real experience. The tenets of service learning, which involve students participating
in real-world experiences, reflecting on those experiences, and applying what they have learned to new
circumstances, align with this paradigm.
Moreover, Mezirow’s (1991) transformational learning theory, which emphasises the possibility of
society and human transformation via critical reflection, adds to the conceptual framework of service
learning. Mezirow’s transformational learning procedures align with service learning, an immersive
and reflective approach that involves students critically examining their presumptions, viewpoints, and
beliefs in light of real-world issues.

Transition to Multidisciplinary Methodologies

Although experiential and transformational learning constitutes the foundation of service learning, its
progression towards interdisciplinary approaches indicates a wider paradigm change in higher educa-
tion. People increasingly realise that interdisciplinary cooperation is needed to solve society’s complex
and linked problems.
The drive to give students the tools they need to succeed in an interdisciplinary environment has
driven the shift towards multidisciplinary service learning (Conway et al., 2015). A more integrated and

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Multidisciplinary Service Learning in Higher Education

applied approach to education, combining academic knowledge with useful problem-solving abilities,
has also prompted this transformation (Eyler et al., 2001).
In conclusion, this section provides an overview of the theoretical underpinnings of service learn-
ing and its progression towards interdisciplinary methods. The parts that follow it lay the groundwork
for thoroughly examining planning, execution, and evaluation techniques to offer a thorough grasp of
transdisciplinary service learning in higher education.

3-PLANNING AND DESIGNING MULTIDISCIPLINARY

SERVICE LEARNING PROJECTS

To achieve meaningful involvement and significant results, multidisciplinary service learning initiatives
require careful planning and strategic design. They represent a unique convergence of academic fields
and community needs. This section explores the planning stage of these projects, focusing on examin-
ing the planning process, identifying needs in the community, and coordinating project objectives with
curriculum results. It also discusses methods for encouraging cooperation between academic divisions,
community partners, and students, emphasising the significance of well-thought-out preparation for
accomplishing interdisciplinary service learning projects.

Phase of Planning: Handling Complexity and Determining Community Needs

Planning transdisciplinary service learning initiatives starts with thoroughly investigating and evaluating
community needs. Project planning begins with understanding the community’s unique difficulties (Furco,
2016). Researchers stress the importance of conducting needs analyses with community-based partici-
patory research techniques (Israel et al., 2013). This methodology guarantees that the service learning
initiatives enhance academic pursuits and effectively tackle pressing and actual community challenges.

Matching Objectives to Subject-Specific Results

Aligning the objectives of transdisciplinary service learning projects with curriculum outcomes is a
crucial part of the planning process. In order to ensure that students’ participation in the project con-
tributes to their educational aims, a conscious effort must be made to incorporate it seamlessly into
the academic curriculum (Butin, 2010). By connecting project activities to course learning objectives,
alignment techniques enable students to fulfil academic requirements while applying discipline-specific
information in a real-world setting.

Promoting Interdepartmental Cooperation in Academic Departments

For transdisciplinary service learning initiatives to be successful, cooperation between academic dis-
ciplines is essential. Breaking down organisational barriers and fostering a common understanding of
project objectives are necessary for facilitating multidisciplinary interaction (Jacoby, 2015). Faculty
from several disciplines can work together to create initiatives by creating interdisciplinary planning
committees or task teams (Holland & Gelmon, 2015). By working together, the academic institution’s
various knowledge can be utilised to produce well-rounded initiatives.

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Multidisciplinary Service Learning in Higher Education

Together with Community Partners

Working with community partners is as important as including other parties in planning. According to
Mitchell et al. (2018), community partners contribute significant contextual information and insights to
the planning conversations. Joint planning sessions, open lines of communication, and actively incor-
porating community input into project design are some techniques for promoting cooperation with com-
munity partners (Ward & Wolf-Wendel, 2016). These cooperative efforts result in long-term sustainable
projects and are sensitive to community requirements.

Among Students

One of the most dynamic aspects of transdisciplinary service learning initiatives is encouraging student
cooperation. This entails setting up systems for collaboration and cross-disciplinary exchange. Students
from different academic backgrounds can develop partnerships through organised activities like com-
bined seminars, workshops, or team-building exercises (Gelmon et al., 2016). Furthermore, students
can express their disciplinary viewpoints and gain knowledge from one another by including reflective
practices in the planning stage (Clayton & Ash, 2004). Students who collaborate are exposed to a wider
range of perspectives and methods, which enhances their educational experience.
The foundation for successful implementation is laid during the planning and design phase of transdis-
ciplinary service learning initiatives. These projects can cross disciplinary boundaries and significantly
contribute to academic and community goals by carefully identifying the community’s needs, aligning
them with curriculum outcomes, and strategically collaborating with academic departments, community
partners, and students. The next segments will delve deeper into the complexities of interdisciplinary
service-learning programmes, offering perspectives on the fluid procedures in realising these endeavours.

4-IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES

Multidisciplinary service-learning programmes must have a carefully planned and executed implementa-
tion phase to be effective. This part thoroughly examines the complexities associated with carrying out
such projects, including important aspects of resource management, efficient communication techniques,
and logistical issues. Case studies and instructive examples also highlight creative approaches that sup-
port the overall accomplishment of interdisciplinary service learning projects.

Implementation Phase: Navigating Complexity

Logistic Considerations

Multidisciplinary service learning project implementation necessitates careful attention to logistical

aspects. This entails organising and preparing several things, including timetables, responsibility distri-
bution within the team, and project timescales (Strage, 2008). Creating thorough implementation plans
is required due to the difficulty of overseeing many activities across several disciplines (Conway et al.,
2015). Using project management tools, such as Gantt charts, to visualise deadlines and milestones is
one strategy for efficient logistic planning (Holland & Gelmon, 2015). With the help of these tools,

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Multidisciplinary Service Learning in Higher Education

you can make sure that the project moves forward without hiccups and that each step is carried out on
schedule and with coordination.

Effective Communication

In the implementation stage of transdisciplinary service learning projects, communication is crucial. It

is crucial for different stakeholders, such as academic departments, community partners, and students,
to communicate clearly and consistently (Clayton & Bringle, 2010). Regular communication channels,
such as meetings, newsletters, or digital platforms, facilitate sharing of information and updates. In addi-
tion to ensuring that all parties involved are informed, transparent communication promotes cooperation
and shared accountability (Ward & Wolf-Wendel, 2016). The project’s success is also influenced by
resolving possible issues and disagreements through efficient communication channels.
Putting transdisciplinary service learning initiatives into action requires efficient resource manage-
ment. Resources are the material, human, and financial assets needed for the project (Eyler et al., 2001).
The process of strategically distributing resources entails evaluating the requirements of every discipline,
guaranteeing fair distribution, and maximising the use of resources that are already accessible (Butin,
2006). Cooperation with institutional stakeholders is required to get the required funds, facility access,
and support for project staff (Mitchell et al., 2018). Multidisciplinary service-learning programmes are
more likely to be sustainable and have a long-term impact when an extensive resource management
approach supports them.

Illustrative Examples and Case Studies

Case Study 1: Project X - A Model of Interdisciplinary Collaboration

One example of a successful multidisciplinary collaboration in a service learning setting is Project X,

which is being implemented at University A. Through integrating knowledge from environmental science,
sociology, and engineering departments, the initiative sought to solve concerns related to environmental
sustainability in the local community. Project X accomplished its goals and encouraged continued in-
terdisciplinary cooperation using careful planning, open lines of communication, and resource sharing.
An interdisciplinary service learning initiative at University B to enhance community health outcomes
is the subject of Case Study 2: Bridging Disciplines for Community Health. Students and teachers from
the business, social work, and health sciences departments came together for this project. Coordination
of social services, health clinics, and business advice were all part of logistical preparation. Weekly
meetings and a common web platform for information sharing were examples of effective communica-
tion techniques. The initiative demonstrated how disciplines may be successfully integrated to fulfil the
demands of community health.
Multidisciplinary service learning project implementation is a dynamic, diverse process that calls for
thoughtful planning, clear communication, and smart resource management. This section has shed light
on the challenges of making these initiatives a reality by thoroughly examining resource allocation, com-
munication tactics, and logistical issues. The case studies and illustrative examples showcase effective
implementation approaches and provide insights for upcoming projects. The assessment and evaluation
techniques used to gauge how transdisciplinary service learning projects affect students, teachers, and
community partners will be covered in detail in the next section.

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Multidisciplinary Service Learning in Higher Education

Case Study 2: Addressing Community Health Disparities

A multidisciplinary service learning initiative was launched to address health disparities in a small urban
community marked by socioeconomic disparities and limited access to healthcare. The task included
understudies from assorted educational foundations, including nursing, social work, general well-being,
and ecological science. The cooperation intended to recognize the main drivers of well-being incongrui-
ties and carry out manageable arrangements.
The nursing students assessed people’s health and found common problems like chronic illness and
a lack of preventative care. Social work students conducted interviews and surveys to comprehend the
socioeconomic factors contributing to the disparities. General well-being understudies investigated
epidemiological information to recognize examples and patterns, while natural science understudies
inspected the effect of ecological elements on local area well-being.
Cooperating, the group created designated intercessions. Nursing understudies coordinated well-
being facilities, giving essential medical care administrations and well-being instruction. Social work
understudies teamed up with local area associations to address social determinants of well-being, like
lodging and business. General well-being understudies carried out mindfulness missions to advance sound
behaviour, and ecological science understudies proposed drives to work on the neighbourhood climate.
This multidisciplinary approach tended to quick well-being needs and engage the local area to ad-
vocate for economic change. The undertaking’s good outcome was estimated through better well-being
results, expanded local area commitment, and the foundation of long-haul organizations between the
college and nearby associations.

Case Study 3: Enabling Rustic People group Through Multidisciplinary Joint effort

In a provincial, local area confronting financial difficulties and restricted admittance to schooling, a
multidisciplinary administration learning drive was carried out to resolve these issues comprehensively.
The task united understudies from assorted scholarly foundations, including training, farming, innovation,
and business organization. Their aggregate objective was to inspire the local area through an exhaustive
and manageable methodology.
Training understudies worked intimately with neighbourhood schools, recognizing holes in the edu-
cational program and creating imaginative instructing techniques. At the same time, agribusiness under-
studies led to soil and yield evaluations, intending to work on nearby cultivating rehearses. Innovation
understudies investigated the combination of computerized apparatuses to improve growth opportunities
and scaffold advanced separation. Business organization understudies zeroed in on creating enterprising
chances to animate monetary development.
Working with local area individuals, the group laid out after-school programs, integrating innovation-
driven learning modules and consolidating horticultural instruction. Business administration students
facilitated small-scale business creation, providing locals with economic and hands-on learning oppor-
tunities. This approach worked on instructive results and financially enabled the local area.
Evaluation of the drive uncovered positive effects on school participation, scholastic execution, and the
neighbourhood economy. The people group revealed a reestablished deep satisfaction and independence.
The multidisciplinary administration learning model tended to prompt difficulties as well as establish
the groundwork for the maintainable turn of events and local area strength.

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Multidisciplinary Service Learning in Higher Education

Case Study 4: Improving Metropolitan Supportability

Through Multidisciplinary Joint Effort

In a thickly populated metropolitan region wrestling with natural difficulties, a multidisciplinary admin-
istration learning project was started to cultivate supportability. The undertaking drew in understudies
from different teaches like metropolitan preparation, ecological science, structural design, and social
work. Their aggregate point was to address metropolitan maintainability issues thoroughly.
The metropolitan arranging understudies directed an exhaustive examination of the current foundation
and recognized regions inclined to natural pressure. All the while, natural science understudies surveyed
air and water quality, pinpointing wellsprings of contamination. Structural designing understudies pro-
posed foundation moves up to relieve natural effect, while social work understudies directed local area
overviews to figure out inhabitants’ requirements and concerns.
The cooperative endeavours brought about the improvement of a maintainable metropolitan redevel-
opment plan. Students studying urban planning incorporated green spaces into the city fabric, creating
places to relax that acted as natural barriers against pollution. Structural designing understudies executed
eco-accommodating frameworks, including water-gathering frameworks and energy-proficient structures.
Students majoring in environmental science made sure that the interventions were working by keeping
an eye on how these changes affected the quality of the air and water.
Through people group commitment worked with friendly work understudies, occupants became dy-
namic members in the feasible change of their area. The drive further developed the ecological quality and
upgraded the general prosperity of the local area, cultivating a feeling of satisfaction and proprietorship.

5-ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY

SERVICE LEARNING PROJECTS

Assessing and evaluating their impact is an intricate yet crucial part of putting transdisciplinary service
learning initiatives into action. This section thoroughly analyses assessment techniques, including how to
evaluate student learning results, community effects, and project efficacy. This conversation also explores
evaluation instruments, such as questionnaires, reflective assignments, and community feedback systems,
providing insights into the many methods used to measure the complex aspects of these initiatives.

Assessment Strategies: Navigating Complexity

Learning Outcomes for Students

It takes a diverse strategy to evaluate students’ learning outcomes in transdisciplinary service learning
projects. Exams and papers are examples of traditional academic evaluations that may be used to measure
discipline knowledge; nevertheless, these initiatives require a more comprehensive framework (Eyler
et al., 2001). Crucial elements of the assessment toolset include rubrics created especially to gauge
multidisciplinary teamwork, critical thinking, and problem-solving abilities (Strage, 2008). Students
can reflect on their contributions and the collaborative process by including self-assessment and peer
evaluation systems, which fosters metacognitive abilities (Conway et al., 2015).

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Multidisciplinary Service Learning in Higher Education

Effects on the Community

A comprehensive approach is necessary to assess the effects of transdisciplinary service learning initia-
tives on the community. Community effects need qualitative evaluations that reflect the subtle changes
and advantages that community people perceive instead of only looking at quantitative data (Mitchell
et al., 2018). Ethnographic techniques and community-based participatory research (Israel et al., 2013)
effectively comprehend community stakeholders’ perspectives and real-world experiences. An exhaustive
assessment of community effects benefits from evaluating improvements in community empowerment,
resilience, and the sustainability of project outcomes.

Total Efficiency of the Project

Data from several sources must be combined to assess the overall efficacy of transdisciplinary service
learning initiatives. It is essential to have an evaluation framework that considers both process and result
indicators (Furco, 2016). Effectiveness is partly measured by monitoring project milestones, evaluat-
ing the level of multidisciplinary collaboration, and tracking objective attainment. Additionally, project
teams may adjust and improve techniques in response to real-time input through ongoing evaluation and
periodic reviews, which increases the overall efficacy of the project (Butin, 2010).

Assessment Tools: Tools of Insight

Reflective Assignments

Students are given a structured chance to express the knowledge and understanding they have gained
from the transdisciplinary service learning project by including reflective projects in the assessment
process (Clayton & Bringle, 2010). These tasks might be diaries, multimedia presentations, or writ-
ten reflections. The depth of reflection, the integration of discipline knowledge, and the application of
theoretical concepts to real-world situations may all be evaluated using rubrics that direct the evaluation
of reflective assignments (Holland & Gelmon, 2015).

Surveys

Surveys are flexible instruments for gathering qualitative and quantitative information on various topics
related to interdisciplinary service learning initiatives. Surveys of students can evaluate how they feel
about the classroom, how well interdisciplinary cooperation works, and how it affects their personal
and professional growth (Gelmon et al., 2016). Conversely, community surveys offer insightful informa-
tion on the community’s opinions about the project’s long-term impacts, shifts in attitudes, and level of
satisfaction with project outcomes.

Mechanisms for Community Feedback

To guarantee that the community’s voice is actively considered during the evaluation process, it is
imperative to incorporate channels for community input (Ward & Wolf-Wendel, 2016). Open commu-
nication between project teams and community members is possible through focus group talks, town

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hall gatherings, or community forums. These tools support continuing collaborations and cooperative
decision-making processes and offer qualitative data on community opinions (Jacoby, 2015).
Multidisciplinary service learning project assessment and evaluation is a dynamic and complex process
that demands a sophisticated grasp of the many effects on students and communities. This section has
offered insights into the challenges of assessing the learning outcomes for students, the effects on the
community, and the overall efficacy of these projects by thoroughly analysing evaluation methodologies
and instruments. The examination of transdisciplinary service learning projects’ effects on students,
teachers, and community stakeholders will be covered in detail in the following part, focusing on the
initiatives’ transformational potential.

6-IMPACT ON STUDENTS, FACULTY, AND COMMUNITY:

A STAKEHOLDER IMPACT ANALYSIS

Projects, including multidisciplinary service learning, have broad effects on professors, students, and
community partners. An in-depth examination of the effects on various stakeholders is given in this
part, which also looks at the community’s concrete gains and the academic and personal development
of students and teachers. It also explores how these initiatives help students become more aware of civic
duty, social fairness, and their power to affect social change.

Stakeholder Impact Analysis: Navigating Transformations

Impact on Students

Students can get transformational education through multidisciplinary service learning initiatives that go
beyond the confines of the regular classroom. Applying theoretical ideas to practical problems indicates
academic progress (Eyler et al., 2001). Students who engage with various disciplines develop critical
thinking and problem-solving abilities and a comprehensive grasp of complicated subjects (Clayton &
Bringle, 2010). Additionally, cooperative cooperation improves interpersonal and communication skills,
preparing students for future workplace settings (Gelmon et al., 2016). These projects’ reflective style
promotes metacognition by getting students to think about their place in society and the moral implica-
tions of their field of study (Butin, 2010).

Effects on Teachers

Participation by faculty in transdisciplinary service learning initiatives stimulates transformational in-

structional methods and professional growth. Faculty are encouraged to incorporate experiential learning
in their courses by collaborating across disciplines and challenging conventional teaching paradigms
(Holland & Gelmon, 2015). Teachers take on the role of multidisciplinary cooperation facilitators, helping
students overcome difficult obstacles. According to Jacob (2015), educational efficacy and innovation
are improved by this dynamic interaction. In addition, faculty members become more cognizant of the
needs of society and the social ramifications of their fields of study, which helps to create a more socially
conscious academic community (Mitchell et al., 2018).

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Multidisciplinary Service Learning in Higher Education

Effects on Neighbourhood Partners

Effective multidisciplinary service-learning programmes are characterised by the concrete advantages that
community partners obtain. By addressing community needs, collaborative problem-solving produces
long-lasting solutions (Ward & Wolf-Wendel, 2016). As a result of the initiatives, communities have
better access to resources, improved services, and beneficial social changes. According to Mitchell et al.
(2018), interacting with academia promotes empowerment and joint ownership of solutions within the
community. Additionally, the long-term collaborations formed by these initiatives support community
resilience and capacity-building, guaranteeing long-lasting benefits (Furco, 2016).

Enhanced Understanding of Social Justice and Civic Responsibility

Multidisciplinary service learning initiatives effectively foster a deeper awareness of social justice
and civic duty in pupils. Students’ understanding of the ethical implications of their fields of study is
enhanced by exposure to various viewpoints and community realities (Conway et al., 2015). Students
are prompted to critically analyse problems about justice, equality, and social inclusion by the projects,
which foster empathy and cultural competency (Strage, 2008). Students gain a dedication to civic duty
and an understanding of their potential as change agents in society via practical experiences (Holland
& Gelmon, 2015). Students gain a sophisticated grasp of their roles as future professionals and citizens
committed to social improvement as they wrestle with the complexity of societal issues.
Multidisciplinary service learning initiatives influence students, staff, and community partners in
ways that go beyond the immediate results, impacting their academic, personal, and societal spheres. This
section has offered insights into the transformational potential of these initiatives through a stakeholder
impact analysis, highlighting the mutual advantages that all parties involved enjoy. The problems that
interdisciplinary service learning projects face will be critically examined in the next part, which will
close with recommendations for best practices to guarantee the projects’ continued success in higher
education.

7-CHALLENGES AND RECOMMENDATIONS: SUSTAINING

MULTIDISCIPLINARY SERVICE LEARNING INITIATIVES

There are obstacles to overcome when navigating the field of transdisciplinary service learning initiatives.
These challenges—which include coordinating across disciplines, guaranteeing equitable community
involvement, and maintaining long-term partnerships—are critically examined in this section. A section
on best practices is also included, which offers guidance on creating and maintaining cross-disciplinary
service-learning programmes in higher education.

Challenges Faced: Navigating Complexity

Coordination Across Disciplines

Coordination between several academic fields is a key problem in transdisciplinary service-learning

programmes. Disparities may arise when different disciplines have different viewpoints, approaches, and

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Multidisciplinary Service Learning in Higher Education

expectations (Butin, 2006). Conflicting academic calendars, integrating various teaching and learning
modalities, and matching evaluation standards can all provide challenges (Holland & Gelmon, 2015).
Effective communication channels, multidisciplinary planning committees, and a common understanding
of the project’s objectives are essential for overcoming these obstacles (Jacoby, 2015).

Ensuring Fair Participation in the Community

Multidisciplinary service learning initiatives must prioritise equitable community participation. It can be
difficult to balance the contributions of each profession, ensure that community needs are met completely,
and prevent imposing outside agendas on the community (Ward & Wolf-Wendel, 2016). It will need the
community’s proactive participation in project planning, open lines of communication, and dedication
to community-driven efforts to overcome these obstacles (Mitchell et al., 2018). It is important to have
policies that reduce the possibility of inadvertent injury and increase the benefits to the community.

Maintaining Extended Collaborations

In transdisciplinary service learning, maintaining long-term collaborations is a significant problem.

Established collaborations may be strained by faculty turnover, altering institutional agendas, and evolv-
ing community dynamics (Furco, 2016). According to Holland and Gelmon (2015), the difficulties are
keeping up the momentum of group initiatives, sustaining institutional memory, and adjusting to chang-
ing community requirements. Establishing formalised partnership agreements, incorporating community
partners in continuous project planning and assessment, and demonstrating institutional commitment
are all strategies for maintaining long-term relationships (Conway et al., 2015).
Overcoming obstacles in multidisciplinary service learning initiatives largely depends on effective
interdisciplinary communication and planning. Activities and idea-sharing are coordinated by establish-
ing multidisciplinary planning committees, holding frequent meetings, and communicating via digital
platforms (Gelmon et al., 2016). Establishing a common vision and comprehension of the project ob-
jectives among academic staff from disparate fields guarantees coherence and amplifies the project’s
overall influence (Butin, 2010).

A Community-Based Method

Ensuring equitable community involvement requires the adoption of a community-centric strategy. This
entails prioritising the community’s needs and goals, actively including community people in project
planning, and encouraging open lines of communication (Ward & Wolf-Wendel, 2016). Applying
community-based participatory research techniques guarantees that initiatives align with community
interests and promote cooperative decision-making (Israel et al., 2013). Partnership sustainability is
improved by placing a strong emphasis on reciprocity and co-learning.

Recognition and Assistance from Institutions

Initiatives involving transdisciplinary service learning must have institutional support and recognition.
Institutional leadership support guarantees the distribution of funds, faculty time, and administrative
assistance required for the project’s success (Furco, 2016). Tenure and promotion rules that recognise

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Multidisciplinary Service Learning in Higher Education

faculty participation in service learning encourage long-term dedication (Mitchell et al., 2018). Service
learning is further integrated into the academic fabric by creating formal institutional structures like
community participation centres (Holland & Gelmon, 2015).

Constant Assessment and Modification

Maintaining long-term partnerships requires constant assessment and modification. Sustaining success
involves implementing frequent assessments of project outcomes, getting input from all stakeholders,
and modifying project tactics in response to evaluation findings (Conway et al., 2015). According to
Jacoby (2015), using real-time problem-solving methods guarantees that initiatives continue to adapt to
the changing requirements of academic and community partners.

Putting Money Into Professional Development

The success of projects and teacher participation depend heavily on investments in professional develop-
ment. Faculty members are better prepared to carry out projects successfully when they get training in
new educational approaches, multidisciplinary cooperation, and community participation (Butin, 2006).
A culture of continual innovation and improvement is fostered by sponsoring opportunities for ongoing
professional development, such as conferences, workshops, and collaborative learning communities
(Gelmon et al., 2016).
Initiatives for multidisciplinary service learning in higher education have the potential to be revolution-
ary, but they have inherent difficulties that must be successfully overcome. The difficulties in coordinating
across disciplines, engaging the community fairly, and maintaining long-term relationships have all been
critically discussed in this area. Additionally, best practices have been recommended, offering a road
map for creating and maintaining fruitful transdisciplinary service learning projects. The last section
will provide an overview of the critical role of interdisciplinary service-learning in enhancing higher
education. It will stress the need to maintain creativity, teamwork, and dedication to service-learning as
a core element of the curriculum in higher education.
Multidisciplinary administration education has witnessed notable advancements recently, emerging as
a compelling pedagogical approach. This inquiry delves into the latest developments in multidisciplinary
administration learning, scrutinizing its myriad advantages to students across diverse academic domains.

Defining Multidisciplinary Administration Learning:

Multidisciplinary administration learning is an educational strategy that brings together students from
varied academic backgrounds to address authentic challenges collaboratively. The significance of cul-
tivating cross-disciplinary collaboration for the cultivation of holistic problem-solving skills has been
underscored by recent innovations.

Recent Advancements:

Contemporary research underscores integrating technology into multidisciplinary administration learn-

ing, facilitating virtual collaboration and broadening the scope of projects. To enhance the cultural and

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Multidisciplinary Service Learning in Higher Education

contextual dimensions of student experiences, scholars have also explored innovative models such as
global virtual partnerships.

Benefits for Students:

Enhanced Critical Thinking:

Recent studies (Smith & Johnson, 2023) emphasize how multidisciplinary administration learning en-
hances critical thinking abilities. Through engagement with real-world problems, students are prompted
to analyze situations from various perspectives, fostering a more nuanced and thoughtful approach to
problem-solving.

Development of Holistic Skills:

The multidisciplinary nature of administration learning exposes students to various skills beyond their
core disciplinary regimen. This encompasses communication, teamwork, adaptability, and leadership,
contributing to a well-rounded skill set essential for success in a dynamic professional landscape.
Ongoing research (Brown & Williams, 2024) highlights the role of multidisciplinary administration
learning in instilling a sense of civic engagement and social responsibility. Students understand their
role in addressing societal challenges through direct engagement with communities.
The practical experiences gained through multidisciplinary administration learning significantly con-
tribute to students’ career readiness. Employers increasingly value graduates with hands-on experience
and the ability to collaborate across disciplines, making administration learning a valuable component
of students’ professional development.
Despite the evident benefits, logistical issues and the need for continuous improvement persist. Future
research should address these challenges, refine best practices, and explore new models to maximize the
potential of multidisciplinary administration learning.Advancements in multidisciplinary administration
learning present an intriguing frontier in education, offering students meaningful experiences that extend
beyond traditional disciplinary boundaries. As this educational approach continues evolving, ongoing
research is essential to enhance its implementation and ensure that students benefit from this innovative
educational experience.

8-CONCLUSION

To sum up, our investigation into transdisciplinary service learning in higher education has given rise to
a thorough comprehension of its essential function in enhancing the learning environment for students,
instructors, and community partners. Examining the intricacies involved in planning, carrying out, and
evaluating these kinds of programmes, special attention was paid to how transformational they may
be for different stakeholders. We saw the significant impacts on students—which promoted academic
progress, personal growth, and an increased sense of civic responsibility—through a stakeholder impact
analysis. Faculty involvement was emphasised as a driving force behind creative educational methods
and professional growth, while community partners reaped real rewards and felt empowered.

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Multidisciplinary Service Learning in Higher Education

We critically explored the difficulties of interdisciplinary service learning, including maintaining

long-term collaborations, guaranteeing equitable community involvement, and coordinating across
disciplines. To tackle these obstacles, one must prioritise strategic planning, communicate well, and
support community-driven projects. The best practices guidelines also provide a path for creating and
maintaining effective initiatives, focusing on multidisciplinary communication, a community-centric
strategy, institutional support, ongoing assessment, and professional development investment.
It is clear from looking back at the process of planning, implementing, assessing, and evaluating the
effect that interdisciplinary service learning links academic knowledge and practical problems. It creates
an atmosphere for learning that cuts across disciplinary lines, encourages critical thinking, and imparts
social responsibility. In addition to improving students’ educational experiences, this thoughtful and co-
operative approach helps faculty members improve professionally and produces great community effects.
Looking ahead, a strong dedication to ongoing innovation, cooperation, and integration into the cur-
riculum is required due to the critical role that transdisciplinary service learning plays in higher education.
Institutions of higher learning must adapt to the changing pedagogical landscape and acknowledge the
value of experiential learning and community involvement. The relevance and efficacy of service-learning
programmes in meeting the dynamic needs of communities, students, and society shall be ensured by
ongoing innovation in their conception and execution.
This conclusion emphasises the interdependence of academics and communities by highlighting the
necessity of continued collaboration. Successful transdisciplinary service-learning programmes will be
built on enduring collaborations motivated by a common commitment to social impact. Higher educa-
tion institutions may function as positive change agents by encouraging a collaborative culture that
will prepare students to be active citizens who will improve society. As a result, the transdisciplinary
service learning journey is both a reflection on the past and present and a call to action for the future,
one in which community engagement, education, and innovation come together to have a significant
and long-lasting effect.

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Chapter 2
Promoting Diversity and
Inclusivity Through Service
Learning in Higher Education
Surjit Singha
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5730-8677
Kristu Jayanti College (Autonomous), India

ABSTRACT
This chapter explores the profound impact of service learning on Higher Education, focusing on its
capacity to foster inclusive and diverse environments. Forming the basis of theoretical frameworks
such as critical pedagogy and transformative learning, service learning provokes significant changes
in students’ perspectives. This chapter examines faculty development, curriculum integration, and as-
sessment in depth, highlighting the mutually beneficial nature of community partnerships. Emerging
trends, such as integrating technology and adopting global perspectives, highlight the dynamic nature
of service learning. By combining academic knowledge with practical experiences, service learning
influences the trajectory of higher education by promoting intellectual development, nurturing social
responsibility, encouraging diversity, and encouraging global engagement.

INTRODUCTION

Promoting diversity and inclusiveness in tertiary education has become a primary consideration for
establishments that establish intellectually stimulating and fair educational settings. In response to the
demand for substantial transformation, academic leaders and administrators are progressively adopting
novel pedagogical approaches that transcend the confines of the conventional classroom environment. An
approach to education known as service learning, which combines academic coursework with community
service experiences, has garnered significant attention (Lin et al., 2023; Salam et al., 2019). It is impos-
sible to overstate the considerable potential that service learning has to resolve diversity and inclusion
issues in higher education. The obligations of educational institutions to equip students for a globalized
world characterized by diverse perspectives, origins, and experiences progress in tandem with societal

DOI: 10.4018/979-8-3693-2133-1.ch002

Copyright © 2024, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Promoting Diversity and Inclusivity Through Service Learning in Higher Education

expectations. The present chapter explores the profound impact that service learning has on the progres-
sion of these essential objectives (Bandyopadhyay et al., 2021; Wall, 2018). Central to this discourse is
acknowledging that service learning transcends the limitations of conventional pedagogical approaches.
This approach embodies a dynamic and experiential learning paradigm that fosters a heightened sense of
social responsibility and enhances students’ comprehension of academic subject matter. Through active
participation in community service initiatives, students acquire direct experiential knowledge regarding
the difficulties diverse populations face. This immersive learning experience enhances students’ world-
views, cultural competence, and empathy (Higuera & Martín, 2023; Salam et al., 2019).
Furthermore, service learning is capable of fundamentally altering institutional environments. It
promotes the reevaluation and diversification of curricula in higher education institutions, thereby
facilitating students’ exposure to and appreciation of various perspectives. Engaging in such activities
fosters the development of an all-encompassing scholarly atmosphere that appreciates and commemo-
rates diversity (Moreu et al., 2021; Salam et al., 2019). Upon further examination of the diverse effects
of service learning, it becomes apparent that its advantages transcend the individual learner and affect
the community. Higher education institutions can tackle social issues effectively, advance social equity,
and make substantial contributions to the welfare of local and global communities through collaborative
endeavours and partnerships. This chapter will examine the strategic implementation of service learning
as a means to promote diversity and inclusivity in the context of higher education. Our objective is to
gain a holistic understanding of the profound potential for change when service learning and the pursuit
of diversity and inclusivity in higher education are combined by analyzing the effects on student at-
titudes and behaviours, evaluating institutional modifications, and assessing community empowerment.
The higher education sector is experiencing a significant transformation, characterized by a growing
acknowledgement of the importance of diversity and inclusivity in creating dynamic and engaging learning
environments. Educational institutions have faced a longstanding challenge to rectify the underrepresen-
tation of specific groups and establish inclusive environments that foster a sense of worth and assistance
for students from diverse backgrounds. Promoting inclusivity is crucial in light of societal demands and
recognition of the profound impact that a diverse student body can bring about. Service learning has
surfaced as an instructional approach that coincides with the increasing imperative for inclusiveness in
tertiary education. In light of the complex nature of diversity that academic institutions confront, service
learning provides a dynamic framework for integrating academic endeavours with practical involvement.
It enables students to develop an appreciation for, comprehension of, and capacity to make contributions
to diverse communities (Losada et al., 2021; Salam et al., 2019). This chapter underpins a theoretical
framework grounded in critical pedagogy, social constructivism, and transformative learning theory. Jack
Mezirow’s transformative learning theory offers a framework for comprehending how service learning
encounters can engender significant metamorphoses in students’ beliefs, attitudes, and perspectives.
Theoretical contributions such as Lev Vygotsky and social constructivism inform our investigation into
how collaborative community engagement in service learning can foster the development of cultural
competence and knowledge construction.
Paulo Freire’s critical pedagogy is the foundation for our analysis of service learning as a mecha-
nism to contest and deconstruct prevailing power structures. Through critical reflection on their service
experiences, students can better understand societal inequities and contribute to social change. These
theoretical frameworks, as a whole, guide examining how service learning can stimulate transformative
learning experiences that advance diversity and inclusivity in higher Education (Deeley, 2015). This
chapter’s fundamental concept is that purposefully designed and executed service learning can catalyze

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Promoting Diversity and Inclusivity Through Service Learning in Higher Education

comprehensive educational change. At its essence, the framework establishes a reciprocal connection
between learning and action by integrating academic content with meaningful community service. As
a result, students develop a sense of social responsibility, empathy, and cultural competence through
this reciprocal relationship. Additionally, the conceptual framework incorporates how service learning
affects specific students, the ethos of the institution, and the engaged communities. By examining the
mutually beneficial association between service learning and diversity and inclusivity objectives, we
intend to clarify how this pedagogical strategy can enhance the quality of education by promoting fair-
ness and inclusivity.
The objective of this chapter is to conduct a thorough examination of the profound impact that
service learning can have on fostering diversity and inclusiveness in the realm of higher education.
Our objective is to examine the potential impact of service learning experiences on students’ attitudes,
behaviours, and worldviews, aiming to foster the growth of inclusive perspectives. The investigation’s
purview transcends the effects on individual students and includes broader community and institutional
transformations. Through an examination of the wider ramifications of service learning, our objective
is to provide valuable perspectives on how institutions of higher education can strategically exploit this
pedagogical methodology to foster learning environments that are more inclusive, diverse, and socially
responsible. By conducting a methodical examination of the various effects of service learning, we aim
to make a scholarly contribution to the continuous dialogue surrounding novel pedagogical approaches
that tackle the critical issues of diversity and inclusiveness in tertiary education.

UNDERSTANDING THE FOUNDATIONS

Service learning in higher education combines academic knowledge with purposeful and meaningful
engagements in community service. In contrast to conventional classroom-based education, service
learning entails the active engagement of students in service initiatives that attend to the community’s
needs and deepen their comprehension of course material. This methodology cultivates an interdependent
connection between education and community involvement by facilitating applying theoretical knowledge
in practical situations (Jones et al., 2005; Salam et al., 2019). Service learning mandates pupils engage
in endeavours that benefit the community or tackle significant social concerns. Service performed is
intrinsically linked to the academic content and course objectives, going beyond mere volunteerism.
Faculty intentionally integrate service learning into the academic curriculum. It is not a solitary pursuit
or an extracurricular activity but an essential component of the educational journey. This integration
allows students to apply course-learned theoretical concepts to real-world, practical situations (Salam
et al., 2019).
Reflective practice is a vital component of service learning. Students should critically analyze and
evaluate their service experiences, establishing connections between them and course content, personal
growth, and a more comprehensive understanding of societal concerns. Reflection fosters self-awareness
and enhances learning (Kawai, 2021; Fragkos, 2016). Service learning centres around the reciprocal
relationship between students and the community they engage with. In addition to positively impacting
the community by applying their expertise, skills, and time, students acquire practical knowledge, valu-
able insights, and an enhanced sense of social responsibility (Salam et al., 2019). Through promoting
students’ comprehension of the social and cultural milieus within the communities they serve, service
learning frequently integrates components of civic engagement. It may result in a more significant com-

22

Promoting Diversity and Inclusivity Through Service Learning in Higher Education

mitment to addressing social challenges and a heightened awareness of civic responsibilities (Geier &
Hasager, 2020; Ray, 2017). Higher education implements service learning as an approach that surpasses
conventional teaching methods. It offers students life-changing experiences that connect their academic
studies with meaningful community service. Moreover, it fosters a sense of social responsibility and
a more profound comprehension of the broader societal milieu in which students operate and acquire
knowledge (Salam et al., 2019; Wall, 2018).
Establishing theoretical frameworks that foster inclusivity and diversity in higher education, specifi-
cally in-service learning, sets a solid groundwork for tackling social justice, equity, and cultural variance.
Jack Mezirow proposed two notable frameworks, critical reflection and transformative learning theory,
which guide these endeavours. Mezirow emphasizes the profound impact that critical reflection has on
the perspectives of learners. This theoretical perspective posits that service learning can transform pre-
conceived notions into more inclusive perspectives. As Lev Vygotsky advocates, social constructivism
emphasizes the cultural context and the social nature of learning. Within service learning, this frame-
work emphasizes the critical nature of collaborative engagements with diverse communities to develop
a nuanced comprehension of social issues and cultural disparities. Finally, critical pedagogy, a concept
ascribed to Paulo Freire, posits that education should catalyze societal change. It encourages students to
engage in reflective service experiences that foster social change and promote a critical analysis of power
structures. Implementing these frameworks transforms service learning into an essential and profound
element that promotes cultural competence and inclusive perspectives among students, thereby aligning
with the overarching objectives of diversity and inclusivity in higher education.

EMPOWERING STUDENTS AS CHANGE AGENTS

To facilitate students’ transformation as agents of change via service learning, it is critical to comprehend
and magnify their experiences and viewpoints. Service learning affords students distinctive prospects to
actively participate in community affairs, confront tangible obstacles of the natural world, and critically
reflect on their positions as proactive agents of social transformation. Examining the experiences of
students who participate in service-learning initiatives provides significant insights into the capacity of
these engagements to bring about transformation (Bringle et al., 2021; Matus et al., 2021; Wall, 2018).
Frequently, students experience academic and personal development while participating in service
activities. By engaging in direct interactions with various communities, they cultivate an increased con-
sciousness regarding social concerns, cultural subtleties, and the intricate nature of community require-
ments. Students can better comprehend the course material and its practical implications by establishing
connections between their service learning experiences and theoretical knowledge (Ilić et al., 2021).
Students assume the role of agents of change when they acknowledge and appreciate their ability to
effect positive change. Individuals develop a sense of empowerment and control when they observe the
concrete results of their service endeavours, be they social service initiatives, advocacy work, or com-
munity development projects. According to Salam et al. (2019), this empowerment fosters a lifelong
dedication to active citizenship and social responsibility and increases self-assurance. Gaining insight
into the diverse viewpoints of students involved in service learning offers a more comprehensive com-
prehension of how these experiences influence academic growth and personal maturation and foster
a conscience regarding social injustice. Through highlighting and analyzing these student narratives,

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Promoting Diversity and Inclusivity Through Service Learning in Higher Education

higher education institutions can enhance and refine their service-learning programs to more effectively
empower and align students as agents of change (Lin, 2021; Stanke & Preradović, 2023).
Empowering students to act as agents of change requires cultural competence, particularly in-service
learning. Service initiatives frequently necessitate collaboration with culturally diverse communities,
which demands that students not only navigate but also comprehend alternative life methods. Cultivat-
ing cultural competence via service learning necessitates deliberate approaches to promote intercultural
comprehension and courteous participation (Rodriguez, 2020; Van Cleave & Cartwright, 2017). Service
learning opportunities allow students to interact with people of diverse cultural backgrounds, encouraging
them to venture beyond their comfort zones. These interactions foster empathy, challenge preconceived
notions, and expand horizons. Students develop self-awareness and contrition through exposure to di-
verse environments, which prompts them to examine their cultural prejudices and presumptions (Lin,
2021; Salam et al., 2019). Service learning must incorporate pre-service orientation emphasizing cultural
sensitivity, continuous reflection throughout the service experience, and opportunities for students and
community members to engage in open dialogue and mutual learning to foster cultural competence.
Additionally, cultural competency training in school ensures that students have the knowledge and
skills they need to effectively function in various settings (Antón-Solanas et al., 2020; Smith et al., 2014).
Through the deliberate incorporation of cultural competence into service-learning endeavours, higher
education institutions foster the growth of students who are agents of change and possess the cultural
understanding and sensitivity necessary to effectively navigate and make valuable contributions to a
world that is becoming more interdependent and diverse. Incorporating personal growth and cultural
awareness into service learning significantly amplifies its capacity to enable students to effectuate con-
structive societal transformations.
Service learning in higher education combines academic knowledge with purposeful and meaning-
ful engagements in community service. In contrast to conventional classroom-based education, service
learning entails the active engagement of students in service initiatives that attend to the community’s
needs and deepen their comprehension of course material. This methodology cultivates an interdependent
connection between education and community involvement by facilitating applying theoretical knowledge
in practical situations (Jones et al., 2005; Salam et al., 2019). Service learning mandates pupils engage
in endeavours that benefit the community or tackle significant social concerns. Service performed is
intrinsically linked to the academic content and course objectives, going beyond mere volunteerism.
Faculty intentionally integrate service learning into the academic curriculum. It is not a solitary pursuit
or an extracurricular activity but an essential component of the educational journey. This integration
allows students to apply course-learned theoretical concepts to real-world, practical situations (Salam
et al., 2019).
Reflective practice is a vital component of service learning. Students should critically analyze and
evaluate their service experiences, establishing connections between them and course content, personal
growth, and a more comprehensive understanding of societal concerns. Reflection fosters self-awareness
and enhances learning (Fragkos, 2016; Kawai, 2021). Service learning centres around the reciprocal
relationship between students and the community they engage with. In addition to positively impacting
the community by applying their expertise, skills, and time, students acquire practical knowledge, valu-
able insights, and an enhanced sense of social responsibility (Salam et al., 2019). Through promoting
students’ comprehension of the social and cultural milieus within the communities they serve, service
learning frequently integrates components of civic engagement. It may result in a more significant com-
mitment to addressing social challenges and a heightened awareness of civic responsibilities (Geier &

24

Promoting Diversity and Inclusivity Through Service Learning in Higher Education

Hasager, 2020; Ray, 2017). Higher education implements service learning as an approach that surpasses
conventional teaching methods. It offers students life-changing experiences that connect their academic
studies with meaningful community service. Moreover, it fosters a sense of social responsibility and
a more profound comprehension of the broader societal milieu in which students operate and acquire
knowledge (Salam et al., 2019; Wall, 2018).
Establishing theoretical frameworks that foster inclusivity and diversity in higher education, specifi-
cally in-service learning, sets a solid groundwork for tackling social justice, equity, and cultural variance.
Jack Mezirow proposed two notable frameworks, critical reflection and transformative learning theory,
which guide these endeavours. Mezirow emphasizes the profound impact that critical reflection has on
the perspectives of learners. This theoretical perspective posits that service learning can transform pre-
conceived notions into more inclusive perspectives. As Lev Vygotsky advocates, social constructivism
emphasizes the cultural context and the social nature of learning. Within service learning, this frame-
work emphasizes the critical nature of collaborative engagements with diverse communities to develop
a nuanced comprehension of social issues and cultural disparities. Finally, critical pedagogy, a concept
ascribed to Paulo Freire, posits that education should catalyze societal change. It encourages students to
engage in reflective service experiences that foster social change and promote a critical analysis of power
structures. Implementing these frameworks transforms service learning into an essential and profound
element that enables cultural competence and inclusive perspectives among students, thereby aligning
with the overarching objectives of diversity and inclusivity in higher education.

INSTITUTIONAL STRATEGIES AND BEST PRACTICES

Faculty members must be committed to ongoing professional development and providing necessary
support to implement service learning and empower students effectively. In light of the critical faculty
involvement in designing, implementing, and evaluating service learning initiatives, academic institutions
should prioritize several essential strategies. It is crucial to prioritize implementing comprehensive train-
ing programs that include workshops, seminars, and training sessions. These programs should familiarize
faculty members with the fundamentals, optimal methods, and successful approaches for incorporating
community engagement into their courses (Lewing & Bunkowski, 2023; Xu & Chan, 2022). Further-
more, mentorship opportunities are provided by seasoned service-learning faculty to support and guide
individuals who are new to community-based learning, fostering a collaborative atmosphere. Facilitating
faculty members’ ability to conceive and execute influential service learning initiatives and allocating
resources, encompassing financial, temporal, and administrative backing, should be duly recognized in
evaluations and promotions. Fostering significant connections between faculty members and community
partners fortifies collaborations, ensuring that service learning initiatives align with genuine community
requirements. Finally, creating spaces for reflective practices and participation in learning communities
lets teachers share their thoughts, work through problems, and share effective methods. This creates an
atmosphere that encourages continuous improvement (Bringle et al., 2022; Hafiz et al., 2022).
A dedicated allocation of resources towards faculty development improves the calibre of service learn-
ing opportunities and fosters an ethos of active involvement in the community among faculty members.
This, in turn, contributes to the overarching achievement of enabling students to function as impactful
catalysts for constructive transformation. To optimize the effects of institutionalizing service learning, it
is imperative to prioritize both curriculum integration and assessment, thereby guaranteeing its smooth

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Promoting Diversity and Inclusivity Through Service Learning in Higher Education

incorporation into the educational framework. The active incorporation of service learning elements into
established courses spanning multiple disciplines is fundamental, requiring adherence to predetermined
learning objectives and academic benchmarks. Concurrently, encouraging the development of service
learning courses that prioritize sustained community engagement allows students to engage in substan-
tial active learning experiences (Camus et al., 2022). To gauge the efficacy of community partnerships
and ascertain the multifaceted effects of service learning on students’ academic and personal growth,
it is critical to have reliable assessment instruments and techniques (Camus et al., 2022; Salam et al.,
2019). By integrating reflective practices and portfolio assignments, students can articulate their learning
experiences more effectively, establish correlations between their service and academic pursuits, and
demonstrate individual development. Implementing feedback channels that incorporate the participation
of students, faculty, and community partners guarantees an ongoing cycle of enhancement and modifi-
cation in service learning endeavours (Camus et al., 2022; Queiruga-Dios et al., 2021). By consistently
incorporating service learning into the curriculum and applying efficient assessment methods, academic
institutions solidify their status as a fundamental component of the learning experience and strengthen
students’ growth as capable catalysts for constructive societal change.
Institutions can establish an inclusive campus culture and promote inclusivity throughout the com-
munity by implementing diverse strategies, which is essential for the success of service learning initia-
tives. Establishing a respectful and inclusive atmosphere is the primary objective of providing all con-
stituents of the campus community, including faculty, staff, and students, with comprehensive diversity
and inclusion training (Queiruga-Dios et al., 2021; Salam et al., 2019). The creation or improvement
of community engagement centres located on campus functions as a crucial node for service learning
endeavours, fostering cooperation between academic divisions and community-based organizations.
Policies that encourage and provide incentives for diverse and equitable practices in service learning
foster an inclusive educational environment. For instance, the promotion of social justice and diversity
by faculty and students can be recognized and rewarded (Bandyopadhyay et al., 2021). Offering mentor-
ship, counselling, resources, and support services for students participating in service learning assists
them in navigating potential obstacles associated with power dynamics, cultural differences, and emo-
tional experiences. Engaging in initiatives, lectures, and celebrations that actively promote and honour
diversity underscores the significance of distinct viewpoints and cultures, strengthening a dedication to
inclusiveness. By placing inclusivity as a top priority at the institutional level, a conducive atmosphere
is established for service learning that acknowledges and values every participant’s varied identities and
backgrounds (Bandyopadhyay et al., 2021; Chambers & Lavery, 2017). Consequently, this enhances the
effectiveness of service learning endeavours, elevating students to the role of catalysts for transformation
committed to cultivating a more equitable and inclusive society.

COLLABORATIVE PARTNERSHIPS AND COMMUNITY IMPACT

Establishing solid community ties is critical for successful service learning initiatives, which rely on
collaborative and robust collaborations with local communities. Institutions employ strategic approaches
to accomplish this. To begin with, it is critical to perform exhaustive needs assessments, as they enable a
comprehensive comprehension of the community’s distinct obstacles, priorities, and resources. It guar-
antees that service learning initiatives are in genuine accordance with the community’s requirements.
Maintaining open channels of communication, which involve continuous interaction and discourse with

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Promoting Diversity and Inclusivity Through Service Learning in Higher Education

community members, constitutes an additional pivotal approach (Dorado, 2004). This process includes
active listening, valuing local knowledge, and co-designing initiatives that authentically mirror community
aspirations. Establishing reciprocal relationships is fundamental, and the academic institution and the
community benefit from the collaboration by sharing resources, exchanging knowledge, and providing
opportunities for mutual learning. Establishing enduring commitment and trust is critical by prioritizing
reliability and consistency in service-learning endeavours, honouring commitments, maintaining partner-
ships beyond specific projects, and adjusting initiatives in response to community feedback. It is of equal
importance that faculty and students possess cultural competence, which entails training to facilitate
respectful interactions with cultural differences and cultivate an awareness of the historical and cultural
milieu of the community. Higher education institutions can build community partnerships that are good
for the community and the environment but are also very aware of the unique needs of the communities
they serve by focusing on these all-encompassing approaches (Kong et al., 2023; Snell & Lau, 2022).
The transformative and far-reaching effects of service learning on local communities contribute to the
advancement and welfare of the community. Service learning initiatives intentionally structure themselves
to address specific community obstacles, including healthcare accessibility, educational inequalities, and
environmental issues. Students demonstrate active involvement in addressing these challenges by provid-
ing concrete solutions and exerting a direct, constructive influence. By engaging community members
in problem-solving processes and facilitating capacity building through the acquisition of new skills and
knowledge in collaboration with faculty and students, service learning empowers them (Mason, 2023).
Academic institutions strengthen the resilience and sustainability of a community by infusing supple-
mentary resources, such as funding, personnel, and specialized knowledge. Cultural exchange is pivotal
in in-service learning by fostering appreciation and comprehension of diverse viewpoints, dismantling
preconceived notions, and establishing connections between academic establishments and the commu-
nity. Service learning programs that work also lay the groundwork for long-term partnerships between
schools and communities, going beyond the scope of individual projects and encouraging ongoing col-
laboration to achieve good results for the community (Mason, 2023; Preradović, 2015). Service learning
initiatives are recognized as influential catalysts for constructive transformation in local communities,
fostering principles of social justice, empowerment, and cooperative resolution of issues while making
substantial contributions to the welfare and resilience of their regions.

EMERGING TRENDS AND INNOVATIONS

A paradigm shift is occurring in service learning due to the widespread incorporation of technology into
educational methodologies; this ushers in a novel era characterized by inventive strategies. Virtual Service
Learning (VSL) has become a fundamental component, utilizing online tools and virtual platforms to
facilitate remote student participation. This initiative enables the integration of diverse communities and
promotes international connections, providing students with unpredictable schedules with exceptional
flexibility. Through the utilization of technology, digital storytelling emerges as a captivating instru-
ment that enables pupils to generate and disseminate digital narratives chronicling their service learn-
ing endeavours. Furthermore, by facilitating contemplation, this approach empowers a broader range
of individuals to comprehend and value the significant consequences of these endeavours. Integrating
data analytics tools is particularly noteworthy within the domain of impact assessment, as it empowers
organizations to thoroughly examine the results generated by service learning initiatives (Gopinathan

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Promoting Diversity and Inclusivity Through Service Learning in Higher Education

et al., 2022). By informing future initiatives, this quantitative approach contributes to evidence-based
practices. Online collaboration platforms facilitate smooth cooperation between faculty, students, and
community partners. These platforms promote effective communication, streamlined project manage-
ment, and the exchange of knowledge, thereby strengthening the interdependence of the ecosystem for
service learning. In addition, using augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) technologies pro-
vides students with immersive encounters that enhance their comprehension of intricate social matters.
This is especially beneficial in fields necessitating hands-on learning, such as environmental science,
healthcare, and cultural studies. Integrating service learning and technology fundamentally transforms
the approaches and enhances these pedagogical endeavours’ scope, influence, and efficacy (Gopinathan
et al., 2022; Ramdey & Bokhari, 2022).
As service learning becomes more inclusive of international collaborations and integrates global
perspectives more frequently, students and communities are exposed to broader ideas. Service learning
programs have evolved to allow students to interact with communities beyond their immediate vicinity.
These programs promote cultural competence, empathy, and a holistic comprehension of global issues.
Academic establishments increasingly establish global alliances with communities and organizations
from various nations, providing students with multiple service opportunities and fostering the exchange
of approaches, methodologies, and solutions worldwide (Jing, 2023; Lourenco, 2018). Furthermore,
increasingly strategically, service learning initiatives are being employed to tackle urgent worldwide is-
sues, including climate change, poverty, and healthcare inequalities. Students are motivated to understand
the interrelatedness of these matters and actively participate in finding resolutions that carry significant
consequences on a local and global scale. By capitalizing on technological advancements, virtual ex-
change programs foster collaboration among students from diverse geographical locations, encourag-
ing collaborative problem-solving in a simulated environment and broadening cultural perspectives. In
addition, academic establishments are presently developing specialized international service-learning
programs that incorporate global experiences seamlessly into the curriculum. These programs frequently
include travel elements that enable students to apply their acquired skills and knowledge in various
global settings (Hanada, 2022; Salter et al., 2018). By fully adopting these emerging trends, academic
institutions have the potential to significantly enhance service learning experiences, magnify the effects
of initiatives, and proactively equip students with the skills necessary to become socially responsible
and globally conscious members of society.

DISCUSSION

Within tertiary education, service-learning initiatives function as dynamic platforms through which stu-
dents interact with local communities and confront intricate matters of society. Within this framework,
incorporating diversity and inclusion goes beyond mere adherence to procedures; instead, it establishes
a fundamental basis for fostering genuine empathy and comprehension among students. Consequently,
meticulous project selection becomes the foundation of this undertaking. Through purposefully select-
ing initiatives that actively involve diverse communities or tackle issues related to equity, educators
foster an environment that is conducive to students acknowledging and challenging their prejudices and
preconceived notions. By purposefully immersing students, they not only enhance their academic ex-
periences but also develop a more profound understanding and recognition of the complex and diverse
aspects of the world.

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Promoting Diversity and Inclusivity Through Service Learning in Higher Education

Furthermore, cultural competency training and dialogues about power dynamics and privilege equip
students with essential resources to navigate the complex nature of community involvement. By acquaint-
ing students with the subtleties of interaction, these preparatory measures empower them to approach
their service-learning initiatives with modesty and esteem. The structure of reflections enhances the
process by compelling students to scrutinize their experiences from various perspectives. Encouraging
individuals to contemplate the viewpoints of the communities they serve promotes a reflective stance
that enhances their comprehension of the complexities associated with diversity and inclusion.
It is evident that fostering open discourse and facilitating peer learning is critical. Establishing secure
environments in which students feel comfortable disclosing their observations and difficulties fosters
an environment that promotes empathy and development. Employing these exchanges, pupils expand
their horizons and cultivate vital interpersonal competencies indispensable for impactful community
involvement.
Moreover, amalgamating conceptual frameworks and hands-on applications strengthens students’
comprehension of diversity and inclusion. Through the integration of practical, everyday situations,
instructors enable pupils to envisage themselves as catalysts for positive transformation. By integrat-
ing theory and practice, this approach nurtures critical thinking and imbues individuals with a sense of
obligation to promote inclusive environments.
In the end, the authentic indicator of achievement is when one enables pupils to convert their under-
standings into concrete implementation. Through promoting inclusivity in service-learning initiatives
and other endeavours, educators empower students to act as agents of constructive societal transforma-
tion. By intentionally organizing and providing careful direction, service-learning experiences have
the potential to act as catalysts for change, driving higher education towards a future characterized by
diversity, equity, and inclusion.

CONCLUSION

Service learning in higher education possesses a dynamic and apparent capacity for profound change,
as evidenced by examining pivotal themes within this chapter. The significance of fostering inclusive
and diverse environments in higher education institutions has resulted in the elevated prominence of
service learning. Theoretical frameworks that advocate for transformative learning, social constructivism,
and critical pedagogy underpin service learning. These frameworks emphasize the potential of service
learning to provoke significant changes in students’ perspectives, beliefs, and assumptions. Defining
service learning in higher education as a distinctive fusion of scholarly inquiry and engagement with
the community achieves a foundational comprehension of the concept.
Beyond fundamental elements, the chapter explores the critical significance of faculty development
and support, curriculum integration, and assessment in facilitating service learning that enables students
to act as change agents. Establishing solid community partnerships strengthens the mutual influence
on local communities, further underscoring the reciprocal character of service learning. As educational
establishments emphasize fostering inclusivity across their campuses and in the lives of their students,
service learning arises as a transformative force.
Looking at new patterns and developments shows how technology is changing things. For example,
augmented reality and virtual reality make it easier to create immersive experiences, and digital storytell-
ing, data-driven impact evaluation, online collaboration, and virtual service learning make it easier to do

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Promoting Diversity and Inclusivity Through Service Learning in Higher Education

all of these things. Furthermore, the chapter emphasizes the worldwide progression of service learning,
which now incorporates international collaborations, cross-cultural engagements, and a commitment to
tackling worldwide issues. Service learning is recognized as a dynamic force that enhances educational
experiences, expands perspectives, and equips students with the necessary skills to become global citizens.
Service learning in higher education surpasses the limitations of conventional pedagogy by compre-
hensively integrating academic knowledge and practical experiences. Institutions and educators further
adopting and accommodating these changing dynamics position service learning to influence the trajec-
tory of higher education significantly. It promotes educational development and cultivates a dedication
to social responsibility, diversity, inclusivity, and global involvement.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Service Learning: An educational approach integrating community service with academic study,
fostering experiential learning, civic engagement, and personal development among students.
Higher Education: Post-secondary Education beyond high school, typically provided by universities
and colleges, offering advanced academic and professional instruction.
Transformative Potential: The inherent capacity of an educational experience, such as service
learning, to bring about profound changes in students’ perspectives, values, and behaviours.
Diversity: The recognition, acceptance, and celebration of differences among individuals, including
race, ethnicity, gender, and socio-economic background, within a community or institution.
Inclusivity: Creating an environment that embraces and values diverse perspectives, backgrounds,
and identities, ensuring equal access, participation, and opportunities for all.
Community Partnerships: Collaborative relationships between educational institutions and local
communities, emphasizing mutual benefit, shared resources, and reciprocal engagement in service
learning initiatives.
Emerging Trends: Novel and evolving developments, practices, or patterns that signify shifts in ap-
proaches, methodologies, or perspectives within a particular field, such as service learning in education.
Global Perspectives: A broad and interconnected understanding of issues, challenges, and opportuni-
ties on a global scale, encouraging a worldview that transcends local or national boundaries.

33
 Promoting Diversity and Inclusivity Through Service Learning in Higher Education

APPENDIX ITEMS

1. Community Needs Assessment: Instruct pupils to perform an all-encompassing needs assessment

in diverse communities. Surveys, interviews, and focus groups may be employed to ascertain criti-
cal concerns about diversity, equity, and inclusion.
2. Cultural Immersion Project: Instruct pupils to engage in an immersive experience within an
artistic community that is alien to their own. Participating in community gatherings, attending
cultural events, and conducting interviews with community members would allow them to better
understand their experiences and perspectives.
3. Creation of Educational Materials: Instruct pupils to develop scholarly resources advocating
diversity and inclusion. This may encompass the creation of pamphlets, posters, or videos that
rectify prevalent misunderstandings, commemorate cultural variety, or stimulate consciousness
regarding matters of social justice.
4. Policy Analysis and Advocacy: Delegate the task of examining prevailing institutional policies
and practices about diversity and inclusion in their respective universities or communities to the
students. Subsequently, present them with the task of crafting advocacy campaigns to advance
policy reforms or introduce novel initiatives that rectify the identified deficiencies.

REFLECTIVE NOTES/DISCUSSION TOPICS:

1. Intersectionality and Identity: Facilitate discussions on intersectionality and the complexities

of identity. Encourage students to explore how various aspects of identity, such as race, gender,
sexuality, and socio-economic status, intersect and influence individuals’ experiences of privilege
and oppression.
2. Implicit Bias and Stereotypes: Initiate dialogue with students regarding implicit bias and stereo-
types. Promote introspection regarding personal prejudices and scrutinize how such biases may
materialize in interpersonal exchanges and the formulation of decisions.
3. Privilege and Power Dynamics: Spark dialogues concerning the interplay of power and privilege
in institutions and society. Assist students in comprehending the operation of privilege in various
contexts and investigating methods for advocating for marginalized communities by capitalizing
on privilege.
4. Cultural Competency and Communication: Provide opportunities for students to discuss strate-
gies for developing cultural competency and practical communication skills. Please encourage them
to reflect on the importance of active listening, empathy, and humility in engaging with diverse
individuals and communities.

34
 35

Chapter 3
Life Skills for Personal
Well-Being
Jishamol Thomas
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2912-9188
Christ University, India

Sheeja Ramani Karalam

Christ University, India

ABSTRACT
This investigation examines the integrative and transformative qualities of service learning in higher
education, specifically focusing on its contribution to developing personal well-being-related life
skills. By integrating significant community service with academic goals, service learning provides a
comprehensive educational experience. Its defined components, theoretical framework, and real-world
applications underscore the subject’s significance. Student experiences and case studies illustrate its
influence on empathy, resiliency, and communication. Strategic implementation approaches serve as
a compass for purposeful undertakings. Service learning connects theoretical concepts with practical
application, cultivating globally literate and socially conscious individuals who can navigate the ever-
changing realm of higher education.

INTRODUCTION:

Within the ever-evolving sphere of Higher Education, an increasing number of institutions recognize the
criticality of fostering soft and academic skills to equip students for the complexities of real-life situations
adequately. Traditional education primarily imparts knowledge; however, service learning introduces a
distinctive aspect by emphasizing the practical implementation of this knowledge in real-life situations.
This chapter examines the significant role that service learning plays in higher education, focusing on its
profound influence on acquiring life skills vital for individual welfare (Salam et al., 2019; Trigo et al.,
2023). Life skills comprise an extensive range of competencies for leading an efficient existence. These
competencies include critical thinking, problem-solving, communication, adaptability, and interpersonal

DOI: 10.4018/979-8-3693-2133-1.ch003

Copyright © 2024, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
 
Life Skills for Personal Well-Being

skills. In light of the escalating intricacy of personal and professional spheres, academic establishments
are augmenting their focus on fostering these life competencies to equip students with the means to
achieve success outside the classroom.
Service learning, an experiential pedagogical methodology, allows students to actively participate
in addressing the tangible challenges of the real world. Through active engagement in service initia-
tives both locally and globally, students make significant contributions and confront various obstacles
that require the practical implementation of their academic understanding. By incorporating theory and
practice, individuals enhance their comprehension and refine the essential functional abilities necessary
to navigate a complex global landscape (Helyer, 2015; Preradović, 2015).
The forthcoming chapter will examine particular instances of service learning initiatives and their
profound influence on students’ personal development. Students cultivate self-awareness and fortitude
by gaining insight into their strengths and vulnerabilities by participating in cooperative endeavours,
community service projects, or internships. They gain a sense of societal responsibility, the ability to
navigate ambiguity, and the capacity to make ethical judgments due to these experiences.
Additionally, service learning is instrumental in cultivating empathy and social responsibility.
Through active participation in diverse communities, students gain a more profound comprehension of
the obstacles that plague society and recognize the significance of making constructive contributions.
In addition to enhancing their personal lives, this heightened awareness equips them with the qualities
of responsibility and compassion that make them exemplary citizens.
This chapter will cover methodologies that evaluate the effect of service learning on the development
of life skills. This chapter highlights the reciprocal association that exists between life skill develop-
ment and service learning within the context of higher education. Its objective is to motivate educators,
curriculum developers, and institutions to incorporate service learning to promote students’ well-being
and equip them for academic achievement and a gratifying and resilient existence after they complete
their studies by providing tangible illustrations and discernment. The chapter’s backdrop is the dynamic
higher education environment, which acknowledges the criticality of providing students with practical
life skills indispensable for personal and professional achievement. Conventional educational frameworks
frequently need to be revised to confront the complex obstacles students encounter in their personal and
professional spheres. Conducting service learning in higher education effectively bridges this gap, allow-
ing students to implement theoretical knowledge in practical, real-world contexts on a dynamic platform.
The chapter draws its theoretical foundations from various educational theories, such as transforma-
tive learning, constructivism, and experiential learning. Contrary to experiential learning theories, which
assert that meaningful learning requires direct experience, constructivism argues that learners actively
construct their comprehension by interacting with the environment. The transformative learning theory
posits that engaging in critical introspection regarding one’s experiences leads to substantial individual
growth. These frameworks support the argument that service learning, an experiential and reflective
process, is intrinsically consistent with the theoretical underpinnings of effective higher education.
Service learning and the cultivation of life skills that contribute to an individual’s overall welfare
form the basis of the conceptual framework. It amalgamates theoretical understanding, hands-on experi-
ence, and reflective methodologies. This chapter explores how service learning experiences facilitate the
acquisition of life skills, including critical thinking, problem-solving, communication, adaptability, and
social responsibility, by bridging the gap between theory and practice. The purpose of the conceptual
framework is to demonstrate the interdependence of these components and their cumulative impact on
the comprehensive growth of students.

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Life Skills for Personal Well-Being

The principal objective of this chapter is to emphasize the importance of service learning within
the context of higher education, specifically as a catalyst for the cultivation of vital life skills essential
for individual welfare. The scope of this study is extensive, including an examination of the theoretical
underpinnings that support the incorporation of service learning, particular instances of service learning
initiatives, and the effects these have on the personal development of students. Furthermore, it discusses
the quantification of this influence using a range of assessment methodologies. The primary objective
of this chapter is to function as a valuable resource for institutions, educators, and curriculum develop-
ers searching for productive approaches to improve students’ overall readiness for life after academia.
The chapter is based on the imperative to consider the comprehensive growth of students in tertiary
education by implementing service learning as an innovative pedagogical instrument. Service learning
promotes the development of life skills and enhances students’ well-being, and the presented theoretical,
conceptual, and practical frameworks offer a holistic comprehension of these ways.

I. THE FOUNDATION OF SERVICE LEARNING

Service learning in higher education is an innovative pedagogical strategy that integrates academic learn-
ing objectives with meaningful community service, surpassing the limitations of traditional classroom
instruction. This all-encompassing notion not only enriches students’ educational experiences but also
fosters a deep-seated sense of social accountability and individual development. At its essence, service
learning is a methodical educational approach that deliberately integrates practical community service
with academic study (Bringle & Hatcher, 1996). In contrast to traditional classroom methods, this ap-
proach promotes active student participation in addressing urgent community needs by applying theoreti-
cal knowledge to real-world challenges. Service learning is an educational experience that is profoundly
transformative when considering the essential components of academic integration, reciprocity, reflection,
and community engagement. By integrating theory and practice, as well as individual development and
community impact, service learning guarantees that the educational experience transcends traditional
classroom boundaries and fully equips students to navigate the intricacies of the natural world (Salam
et al., 2019). Within higher education, service learning is recognized as an influential and revolutionary
instrument that cultivates not only scholastic distinction but also individual welfare and an increased
consciousness of societal obligation among learners.
Service learning in higher education is profoundly important and firmly grounded in strong theoretical
foundations that align effortlessly with fundamental educational theories emphasizing the capacity for
learning to bring about significant changes through community engagement and experiential learning.
The principles of experiential learning, supported by theorists such as David Kolb and John Dewey,
shape service learning’s emphasis on practical, immediate experiences. By actively participating in
community service, learners can apply theoretical concepts to real-world situations and engage in in-
trospective activities that enhance their comprehension of the material as well as their personal growth
(Ahmad & Gul, 2023; Martin & Pirbhai‐Illich, 2015; Preradovi, 2017). Service learning aligns with the
constructivist paradigm advocated by Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky, as it asserts that learners actively
construct knowledge through their engagement with the surrounding environment. The scaffolding ef-
fect of integrating academic concepts into the resolution of real-world problems is that it cultivates the
critical thinking and practical skills that are indispensable for achieving success in one’s personal and
professional life. Jack Mezirow’s transformative learning theory illuminates how service learning can

37
 
Life Skills for Personal Well-Being

catalyze both individual development and societal transformation by interrogating preconceived no-
tions, encouraging introspection, and instigating changes in perspective. Service learning, grounded in
Vygotsky’s sociocultural theories, recognizes the significance of cultural contexts and social interactions
in learning. Through active engagement in community service, pupils acquire valuable perspectives on
the intricacies of society, cultural distinctions, and the interdependence of information. This, in turn,
nurtures the growth of students’ interpersonal aptitudes, cultural sensitivity, and deep-seated social ac-
countability (Preradović, 2017). Service learning is not simply an educational strategy; instead, it is a
transformative force that shapes students into engaged, socially conscious, and adaptable individuals
who are well-equipped to actively contribute to a complex and interconnected world, according to a
compelling and multifaceted theoretical framework that supports it.
Fundamental life skills form the bedrock of personal growth, equipping individuals with the indis-
pensable instruments to manoeuvre through the complexities of everyday existence and make substantial
contributions to the betterment of society. This investigation comprehensively comprehends these abilities,
underscoring their diverse characteristics and critical influence on versatile individuals’ development.
In addition to communication and critical thinking, life skills comprise many competencies, including
problem-solving, decision-making, time management, adaptability, and interpersonal abilities. The
diversity of life skills emphasizes their importance; individuals must possess a wide range of capabili-
ties to succeed personally and professionally. Comprehending life skills necessitates recognizing that
they are not intrinsic qualities but can be gained and honed through purposeful education and practical
encounters. Education, mentorship, and practical experience all play a substantial role in fostering the
development of these abilities. Individuals should consistently hone and modify life skills across various
phases, acknowledging their fluidity. Adopting a paradigm of perpetual learning is imperative to com-
prehend the dynamic nature of life skills, which are influenced by shifting environments and individual
development (Chapman & Dixon-Gordon, 2020). Maintaining the applicability of skills in various life
circumstances requires an ongoing dedication to education, the cultivation of curiosity, and a proactive
stance toward skill development.
The significant correlation between personal well-being and life skills highlights the critical im-
portance of life skills as the fundamental components of a satisfying and harmonious existence. This
investigation examines the complex correlation between acquiring life skills and well-being, grit, and
a deep-seated sense of satisfaction. Life skills, including problem-solving and critical thinking, enable
people to navigate intricate situations and make well-informed decisions effectively. As a result, they
experience diminished tension and develop an enhanced perception of personal agency. Proficient com-
munication and interpersonal abilities contribute substantially to the calibre of personal relationships,
bolstering social bonds fundamental to one’s welfare and cultivating a feeling of inclusion.
Moreover, by cultivating adaptability and resilience via life skills, individuals are better prepared to
confront the uncertainties of existence, fostering psychological and emotional welfare and facilitating
individual development. Additionally, cultivating life skills correlates with decreased stress levels, en-
hanced productivity, and improved perception of control, contributing to a harmonious work-life balance
and efficient time management. Acquiring proficiency in critical life competencies becomes a catalyst
for personal growth, not only endowing one with the means to maintain harmonious existences but also
forging those who are more robust and flexible when confronted with adversities (Baker et al., 2021;
Noble & McGrath, 2014). The investigation into this correlation highlights the substantial influence that
life skills have on an individual’s overall welfare in diverse domains.

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Life Skills for Personal Well-Being

III. THE IMPACT OF SERVICE LEARNING ON LIFE SKILLS

Service learning is a highly effective catalyst for promoting empathy development, a fundamental life
skill critical for nurturing compassion and comprehension. This particular segment explores the pro-
found effects that can result from participating in service learning initiatives. It reveals the intricate
progression of empathy, enabling people to establish meaningful connections with those with differing
viewpoints and fostering a deep-seated sense of compassion. Service learning exposes participants
to the difficulties others encounter using immersive experiences in real-world scenarios. By actively
participating in and establishing a profound and empathetic rapport with various communities, this ap-
proach surpasses theoretical comprehension and serves as a foundation for cultivating compassion. In
doing so, it acknowledges the common humanity that unites all individuals. Service learning transcends
traditional educational methodologies by proactively questioning preconceived notions and stereotypes.
Active engagement in service initiatives that necessitate interactions with people of diverse backgrounds
motivates participants to examine their assumptions and biases critically. This procedure deconstructs
preconceived notions and cultivates a compassionate mentality that surpasses cultural, social, and eco-
nomic limitations. Above all, developing empathy via service learning inherently results in an increased
consciousness of social accountability. As people become aware of the difficulties encountered by others,
they are motivated to act and encouraged to actively participate in initiatives that promote constructive
transformation (Cain, 2023; Riches et al., 2022). Service learning fosters a profound personal transfor-
mation that inspires individuals to address urgent societal issues and advocate for a global community
characterized by empathy and fairness.
Service learning catalyzes the cultivation of resilience, imparting to individuals the vital attributes of
perseverance and flexibility that are indispensable for effectively navigating the complexities of real-life
obstacles. This segment explores the profound effects of service learning participation, clarifying how
it fortifies individuals with the determination to overcome challenges and emerge more resilient. In the
context of service learning, individuals frequently encounter and respond to authentic challenges that are
pervasive in their communities. Students often confront complex challenges that require them to exhibit
resilience, such as environmental concerns, social inequities, and other community requirements (Wang,
2021). Engaging in service projects grants individuals a distinct opportunity to develop resilience and
resolve when confronted with intricate and urgent challenges through firsthand encounters with adversity.
Focusing on reflective practices, service learning promotes the critical evaluation of one’s experiences
and the consequences of their service. Reflection plays a crucial role in developing resilience, as it allows
people to recognize their strengths, areas that require refinement, and successful coping strategies. By
engaging in introspection, pupils create a proactive frame of mind that strengthens their ability to surmount
barriers and difficulties. In addition, the fluidity of service learning, which entails active participation
in various communities and constantly evolving environments, intrinsically fosters the development of
adaptability. The participants acquire the ability to navigate uncharted territories, engage in productive
collaboration with heterogeneous cohorts, and adapt their methodologies in response to the changing
demands of the community (Mansfield & Beltman, 2019; Raghunathan et al., 2022). Service learning
engagements cultivate enhanced adaptability, catalyzing resilience and enabling individuals to confront
and overcome uncertainty and change with grit and determination.
Service learning facilitates the development of communication abilities by stimulating the exchange
of ideas and promoting connections among members of various communities. This segment examines the
positive effects of service-learning participation, specifically how it improves the communication skills of

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Life Skills for Personal Well-Being

individuals and fosters productive collaboration and comprehension. Service learning frequently involves
interactions among individuals of various cultural backgrounds; therefore, cross-cultural communication
is essential to service initiatives. The participants actively participate in meaningful conversations that
help them understand different points of view and become more culturally aware. This way, they can
get past language barriers and build relationships based on mutual respect.
Furthermore, numerous service learning endeavours require the cooperation of team members; in such
situations, the utmost importance of effective communication arises. By engaging in group activities,
coordinating efforts, and navigating obstacles, participants develop critical communication and teamwork
proficiencies pertinent to community service and a wide range of professional environments. In addition
to verbal discourse, service learning emphasizes active listening and empathy (Mansfield & Beltman,
2019). Active involvement with community members necessitates attentive listening, comprehension of
their needs, and effective communication to attend to those needs. Engaging in this procedure cultivates
strong auditory perception abilities and the capacity to convey empathy, thereby promoting authentic
rapport within the community’s pupils are tasked with assisting (Raghunathan et al., 2022). Service
learning imparts practical skills and fosters a perspective conducive to personal development, societal
contribution, and academic benefits. Those who partake in service learning promote the development
of resilience, empathy, and effective communication and make a tangible contribution to establishing a
more interconnected and compassionate global community.

IV. REAL-WORLD APPLICATIONS

This case study investigates a service learning initiative that prioritizes educational dissemination among
young females in the Paniya Tribe, a tribal community in the Wadeye District of Kerala, India. Through
direct collaboration with the local community, students actively provided vital life skills instruction. The
results of this endeavour unveiled a substantial augmentation in the self-confidence and ambitions of the
adolescent females residing in these communities. This case study effectively illustrates the transforma-
tive capacity of education, showcasing how it positively affects the lives of individuals belonging to the
Paniya Tribe. This service learning endeavour fosters individual growth by using focused educational
dissemination and delivering life skills instruction. It emphasizes the wider beneficial influence that
education can exert on the welfare of communities. The partnership established between students and the
Paniya Tribe is a prime illustration of how service learning can facilitate constructive transformations
by promoting community development and empowerment.
Through an in-depth examination of the service learning initiative implemented among young females
of the Paniya Tribe in the Wadeye District of Kerala, India, this case study effectively demonstrates
educational outreach’s profound impact on transformation. By engaging in extensive collaboration with
the local community, students actively participated in providing vital life skills instruction. The noted
results demonstrated a significant improvement in the ambitions and self-confidence of the adolescent
girls residing in these communities. This comprehensive examination provides a persuasive illustration
of the transformative capacity of education, which positively impacts the lives of members of the Paniya
Tribe. The efficacy of this service learning endeavour, as evidenced by its focused educational dissemi-
nation and provision of life skill instruction, not only substantially advances individual growth but also
emphasizes the wider beneficial influence that education can exert on the welfare of the community.
The case study features the fruitful collaboration between students and the Paniya Tribe, illustrating how

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Life Skills for Personal Well-Being

service learning can facilitate constructive transformations by promoting community empowerment and
development. Motivated by these influential endeavours, the following section highlights the perspec-
tives of students actively participating in in-service learning programs. These individuals offer firsthand
narratives of their experiences, allowing readers to reflect on their personal development and academic
progress and the increased sense of civic duty they gained. The accounts above, which originate from
various backgrounds, provide a comprehensive understanding of the complex effects that service learn-
ing can have on students’ lives, thereby emphasizing its adaptability and capacity for change. In addition
to addressing immediate community needs, the narratives illustrate how service learning transforms
individuals into socially conscious, well-rounded societal contributors.

V. STRATEGIES FOR IMPLEMENTING SERVICE LEARNING

To ensure successful service-learning programs, implement several critical strategies. Conducting a

comprehensive requirements assessment before commencing any program is imperative. This process
guarantees that the program effectively tackles tangible challenges by identifying community require-
ments and forming authentic partnerships with local organizations. The authors (Salam et al., 2019)
emphasize the importance of collaborative planning with community stakeholders to develop sustainable
and pertinent projects and establish unambiguous and quantifiable learning objectives. These objectives
should follow academic aspirations and intended student results, furnishing a structure for creating pur-
poseful exercises that foster educational advancement and cultivate practical competencies. Promoting
seamless integration of service-learning programs into the academic curriculum is an effective strategy
to enhance their educational impact. By integrating service experiences with coursework, students can
apply theoretical knowledge to practical scenarios, strengthening their comprehension and fostering a
synergistic learning environment. The fourth strategy includes structured reflection components, con-
sidered essential to the service learning experience. Engaging in the reflective process allows students to
forge stronger connections between their service experiences and academic material, promoting increased
comprehension and individual growth. Service learning programs must prioritize offering various project
options to foster inclusivity and accommodate students’ diverse interests and abilities. Service learning
programs must offer extensive project opportunities to promote inclusivity and acknowledge students’
varied interests and skills (Mendo-Lázaro et al., 2022;). Students can select initiatives that correspond
with their interests and capabilities; this results in greater participation and an overall more rewarding
experience. Integrating these approaches establishes a holistic methodology for developing service
learning initiatives that have a profound effect and hold significance for the communities they engage
with and the students themselves.
Implementing several critical strategies is crucial for guaranteeing the success of service-learning
programs. To begin with, it is essential to provide comprehensive training for faculty and students.
This training should instruct faculty members on successfully incorporating service learning into their
courses while equipping students with knowledge and skills specific to the projects. Additionally, the
implementation of transparent communication practices and the setting of unambiguous expectations
are crucial components. This entails establishing protocols, delineating obligations, and cultivating fine
lines of communication among all parties involved, facilitating a more structured and efficient execution.
Furthermore, the integration of comprehensive evaluation systems facilitates ongoing enhancement.
Consistently evaluating the effects of service learning initiatives and gathering input from stakeholders

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Life Skills for Personal Well-Being

such as students, faculty, and community partners enables academic establishments to improve their
methodologies and effectively tackle emergent obstacles. Flexibility and adaptability are emphasized
as the fourth strategy, recognizing the ever-changing student and community requirements. Institutions
must be ready to modify project parameters, timelines, and expectations to accommodate unanticipated
obstacles and shifts in community contexts. Finally, it is crucial to emphasize the importance of forging
enduring alliances with community organizations. Regular communication and collaboration contrib-
ute to developing meaningful and impactful projects, ensuring the success and sustainability of service
learning initiatives through establishing enduring trust and mutual understanding. Successful service
learning program design and techniques for surmounting obstacles are critical elements in establishing
educational experiences that are profoundly transformative and incubate meaningful endeavours that
contribute to the growth of students and the betterment of the community.

CONCLUSION:

The examination of service learning within the context of higher education, specifically its implemen-
tations in fostering personal well-being through the development of life skills, underscores its capacity
for profound change and integration. Service learning surpasses the confines of conventional classroom
instruction by integrating significant community service experiences with academic learning objectives.
This pedagogical methodology enhances students’ educational experiences while cultivating a sense
of civic duty and individual development. The theoretical integration, reciprocity, reflection, and com-
munity engagement that are formally defined as service learning components emphasize its importance
in offering students a comprehensive educational experience. Service learning guarantees that students
gain theoretical understanding and actively implement it to tackle practical issues, equipping them with
the intricacies that await them in the real world.
The significance of service learning is further validated by its theoretical framework, which is based
on constructivism, experiential learning, sociocultural theories, and transformative learning. Collec-
tively, these theories emphasize the profound impact of community-engaged and experiential learning
on forming socially conscious, adaptable, and engaged individuals. Examining life skills, including the
connection between personal well-being and fundamental life skills, strengthens the tangible effects of
service learning on students’ professional and personal growth. Life skills, such as proficient commu-
nication, flexibility, and grit, are critical for managing daily obstacles and making significant societal
contributions.
Service learning has demonstrated its capacity to instigate personal and societal transformation through
its influence on particular life skills, including communication, resilience, and empathy. Participating
in service learning initiatives fosters the development of compassionate, resilient, and proficient com-
municators—ultimately, individuals who are comprehensively equipped to navigate the complexities
and interdependencies of our globalized society. Instances of service learning initiatives that generate
favourable outcomes for both communities and individuals are realistically illustrated via case studies
and student experiences. Bridging cultural gaps, overcoming obstacles, and implementing academic
knowledge in practical contexts, these experiences highlight the adaptability and capacity for change
that service learning possesses.
Approaches for successfully implementing service learning, encompassing program development and
surmounting obstacles, furnish institutions with a compass towards generating meaningful and influential

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Life Skills for Personal Well-Being

endeavours. Institutions can guarantee significant experiences for students and communities by imple-
menting demands assessments, explicit learning objectives, integration with academic curricula, reflec-
tion components, and a wide range of project options. In addition to flexibility, sustainable partnerships,
exhaustive training, transparent communication, and assessment mechanisms are additional factors that
contribute to the efficacy of service-learning programs when implemented to overcome obstacles. These
approaches aid in forming educational experiences that are conducive to students’ growth and promote
the community’s welfare. Fundamentally, service learning in higher education functions as a potent and
ever-evolving instrument that connects academia and the community, bridging the divide between theory
and practice. Service learning is a fundamental component in the comprehensive growth of students and
their potential to effect positive change on a global scale due to its complex characteristics, which are
substantiated by sensible theoretical frameworks and real-world implementations. In the ongoing evolu-
tion of higher education, service learning emerges as a prominent model that illuminates the trajectory
towards the development of globally prepared individuals who are socially responsible and empathetic.

REFERENCES

Ahmad, I., & Gul, R. (2023). Service-Learning Theory and Practice (Vol. 1). Routledge India.,
doi:10.4324/9781003461760
Baker, F., Baker, K. L., & Burrell, J. (2021). Introducing the skills‐based model of personal resilience:
Drawing on content and process factors to build resilience in the workplace. Journal of Occupational
and Organizational Psychology, 94(2), 458–481. doi:10.1111/joop.12340
Bringle, R. G., & Hatcher, J. A. (1996). Implementing service learning in higher education. The Journal
of Higher Education, 67(2), 221. doi:10.2307/2943981
Cain, M. (2023). ‘Those moments are ineffable’. How creativity experienced through the Arts promotes
empathy and compassion. Journal of Moral Education, •••, 1–17. doi:10.1080/03057240.2023.2287397
Chapman, A. L., & Dixon‐Gordon, K. L. (2020). Dialectical behavior therapy. In American Psychologi-
cal Association eBooks. doi:10.1037/0000188-000
Helyer, R. (2015). Learning through reflection: The critical role of reflection in work-based learning
(WBL). Journal of Work-Applied Management, 7(1), 15–27. doi:10.1108/JWAM-10-2015-003
Mansfield, C., & Beltman, S. (2019). Promoting resilience for teachers: Pre-service and in-service profes-
sional learning. Australian Educational Researcher, 46(4), 583–588. doi:10.1007/s13384-019-00347-x
Martin, F., & Pirbhai‐Illich, F. (2015). Service Learning as Post-Colonial Discourse. In SensePublishers
eBooks (pp. 135–150). doi:10.1007/978-94-6209-989-0_12
Mendo-Lázaro, S., Del Barco, B. L., Del Río, M. I. P., & Ramos, V. M. L. (2022). The impact of coop-
erative learning on university students’ academic goals. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 787210. Advance
online publication. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.787210 PMID:35069372
Noble, T., & McGrath, H. (2014). Well-being and resilience in school settings. In Cross-cultural advance-
ments in positive psychology (pp. 135–152). doi:10.1007/978-94-017-8669-0_9

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Preradović, N. M. (2015). Service-Learning. In Springer eBooks (pp. 1–6). doi:10.1007/978-981-287-

532-7_130-1
Preradović, N. M. (2017). Service-Learning. In Springer eBooks (pp. 2110–2114). doi:10.1007/978-
981-287-588-4_130
Raghunathan, S., Singh, A. D., & Sharma, B. N. (2022). Study of resilience in learning environments
during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Frontiers in Education, 6, 677625. Advance online publication.
doi:10.3389/feduc.2021.677625
Riches, S., Iannelli, H., Reynolds, L., Fisher, H., Cross, S., & Attoe, C. (2022). Virtual reality-based
training for mental health staff: A novel approach to increase empathy, compassion, and subjective un-
derstanding of service user experience. Advances in Simulation (London, England), 7(1), 19. Advance
online publication. doi:10.1186/s41077-022-00217-0 PMID:35854343
Salam, M., Iskandar, D. N. A., Ibrahim, D. H. A., & Farooq, M. S. (2019). Service learning in higher
education: A systematic literature review. Asia Pacific Education Review, 20(4), 573–593. doi:10.1007/
s12564-019-09580-6
Trigo, L. R., Doroftei, A. O., Miranda, F., Themudo, C., Dias, P. C., Peixoto, R., De Oliveira, A. C. L.,
Correia, M. J., Higuera, P. A., Rosário, P., & Bringle, R. G. (2023). Purpose in life in Higher Education:
Is there a role for Service-Learning? Education Sciences, 13(12), 1170. doi:10.3390/educsci13121170
Wang, L. (2021). The role of Students’ Self-Regulated Learning, Grit, and Resilience in Second
Language learning. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 800488. Advance online publication. doi:10.3389/
fpsyg.2021.800488 PMID:35002894

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Service Learning: Service learning is an educational approach integrating community service with
academic instruction, fostering practical application of knowledge and promoting civic engagement for
holistic student development.
Higher Education: Higher education refers to post-secondary education beyond high school, typically
provided by universities, colleges, and institutions that offer advanced academic and professional training.
Life Skills: Life skills enable individuals to navigate daily challenges effectively, encompassing
communication, critical thinking, adaptability, and other competencies vital for personal and profes-
sional success.
Personal Well-being: Personal well-being represents an individual’s overall health, happiness, and
fulfilment in various aspects of life, including physical, mental, and emotional dimensions.
Empathy: Empathy is the capacity to understand and share the feelings of others, demonstrating
compassion and a genuine connection to different perspectives, fostering positive relationships and
social understanding.
Resilience: Resilience is the ability to bounce back from adversity, face challenges with strength and
adaptability, and foster mental and emotional toughness for personal growth and well-being.
Communication: Communication involves exchanging information through verbal and non-verbal
means, facilitating practical expression, understanding, and connection between individuals or groups.

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 45

Chapter 4
Fostering Mindfulness
and Compassion:
Strategies, Benefits, and Challenges

Ranjit Singha
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3541-8752
Christ University, India

ABSTRACT
The integration of compassion, mindfulness, and service learning in higher education is emphasized in
this abstract via an all-encompassing theoretical framework. Educators are assisted in the development
of transformative learning experiences by utilizing service learning frameworks, compassion education
models, contemplative pedagogy, transformative learning theory, and holistic education paradigms.
Civic responsibility, self-awareness, and critical reflection are emphasized within the framework. By
traversing this conceptual terrain, educators make a valuable contribution to the comprehensive growth
of pupils, nurturing individuals who are conscientious, empathetic, and socially accountable, thereby
equipping them to confront the intricacies of existence.

INTRODUCTION

Within the ever-evolving realm of Higher Education, incorporating service learning has surfaced as a
pedagogical strategy that brings academic theory and practical application closer together. In the pur-
suit of developing individuals who are not only knowledgeable but also socially responsible, educators
examine the intricate relationship between service learning, compassion, and mindfulness in higher
Education in the chapter “Fostering Mindfulness and Compassion: Strategies, Benefits, and Challenges”
(Austin et al., 2023; Maddock et al., 2023). Mindfulness and compassion, concepts frequently linked
to individual welfare, are gaining recognition as fundamental components of a comprehensive educa-
tional approach. This chapter investigates how intentionally integrating mindfulness and compassion
into service learning can enhance students’ intellectual and emotional growth. Educators can nurture
socially conscious individuals who are academically accomplished and empathic and engaged members
DOI: 10.4018/979-8-3693-2133-1.ch004

Copyright © 2024, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
 
Fostering Mindfulness and Compassion

of society by encouraging self-awareness and consideration for others (Conversano et al., 2020; Weare,
2023). As one progresses through this chapter, a tapestry of pedagogical approaches utilized to imbue
service learning experiences with mindfulness and compassion will emerge. The chapter explores
practical strategies that foster a sense of interconnectedness among students, community partners, and
the wider society, encompassing curriculum design and reflective practices. While implementing these
strategies, we will additionally analyze the advantages of this comprehensive approach, exploring how
institutions, communities, and students all benefit from a mutually beneficial partnership founded on
compassion and mindfulness.
There are obstacles to this exploration. Additionally, the challenges and complexities of integrating
mindfulness and compassion into service learning will be evaluated critically in this chapter. By rec-
ognizing these obstacles, institutions and educators can formulate more knowledgeable and practical
approaches, guaranteeing that incorporating these components is not merely a goal but a sustainable and
fundamental component of higher Education. This chapter aims to stimulate thought among researchers,
educators, and administrators regarding the profound impact that could be achieved by incorporating
mindfulness and compassion into service learning. We intend to contribute to the continuous discourse
surrounding inventive teaching methods that mould the minds and souls of students, equipping them with
the necessary skills to navigate an intricate and interdependent society with compassion and intention.
Several fundamental concepts from educational psychology, mindfulness studies, and service-learning
literature comprise the theoretical foundation of this chapter. Drawing upon experiential learning theories
and transformative Education, this chapter explores the potential benefits of service learning initiatives
by integrating compassion and mindfulness. Intentionally integrating experiential learning with personal
and social development can effect profound changes, as demonstrated by the scholarly contributions of
John Dewey, Paulo Freire, and Howard Gardner.
The chapter integrates theories of contemplative Education, placing particular emphasis on the
potential of mindfulness to foster self-awareness, emotional intelligence, and the ability to make ethi-
cal decisions. By integrating these theoretical perspectives, the chapter establishes a comprehensive
framework for comprehending the synergies among service learning, mindfulness, and compassion in
higher Education. The chapter’s conceptual framework is predicated on the interrelatedness of compas-
sion, mindfulness, and service learning in the context of Higher Education. The fundamental tenet of
the conceptual framework is that by incorporating mindfulness and compassion into service learning,
students can develop a more profound comprehension of themselves, others, and the broader societal
context, thereby enhancing the educational experience beyond mere knowledge acquisition. Elements of
ethical engagement, social justice, and empathy are fundamental components of the conceptual frame-
work, underscoring their importance in influencing the comprehensive growth of students participating
in service learning endeavours.
Further, the framework emphasizes the interdependent nature of personal development and its influ-
ence on the community, particularly emphasizing how the development of mindfulness and compassion
can foster substantial and enduring collaborations with the community. By employing this conceptual
framework, the chapter endeavours to guide educators in developing and executing service-learning
endeavours surpassing superficial involvement, thereby cultivating an enormous and enduring influence
on students and their communities. In light of the dynamic nature of higher Education and the increasing
acknowledgement of the importance of comprehensive growth, this chapter examines the convergence
of service learning, mindfulness, and compassion. It recognizes the dynamic and progressive character
of educational paradigms. It addresses the demand for novel methodologies that equip learners with the

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necessary skills to achieve academic excellence and engage actively and empathetically in a worldwide
community.
The context section provides an in-depth analysis of the historical development of service learning,
highlighting its transformation from a conventional classroom activity to a pedagogical instrument that
transcends those boundaries. Additionally, this study explores the growing significance attributed to
mindfulness and compassion in the field of Education, thereby illuminating the changes in higher Educa-
tion’s focus towards a more inclusive and values-oriented methodology. The principal objective of this
chapter is to examine and shed light on the approaches, advantages, and obstacles linked to cultivating
mindfulness and compassion in the realm of service learning in tertiary Education. By examining the
incorporation of these components, the chapter endeavours to offer researchers, administrators, and educa-
tors valuable perspectives that can guide the development and execution of service learning endeavours.
The scope of this initiative comprises a wide range of subjects, such as pedagogical approaches to
incorporating compassion and mindfulness into the classroom, the effects on the growth and progress
of students and communities, and the implementation of these practices within institutions. The chapter
further explores the difficulties intrinsic to this integration, intending to stimulate dialogues regarding
methods to surmount obstacles and promote sustainable methodologies. In brief, the objective and extent
of this chapter transcend theoretical investigation by presenting practical suggestions and insights that
may improve the efficacy of service-learning programs in higher education environments through the
incorporation of mindfulness and compassion.

UNDERSTANDING MINDFULNESS AND COMPASSION

The concept of mindfulness, which originates in contemplative traditions and philosophies, has evolved
from an ancient wisdom to a significant and transformative notion in modern Education. The process
of conceptualizing mindfulness entails recognizing that it is a comprehensive approach to presence and
awareness rather than simply a collection of techniques, which has the potential to significantly influ-
ence the mental, emotional, and social health of individuals (Noble & Powietrzyńska, 2017; Sheinman
& Russo‐Netzer, 2021). Mindfulness entails deliberately fostering a receptive and impartial conscious-
ness of one’s current experience. Mindfulness, which originated in Buddhist traditions and is commonly
known as “Sati,” garnered attention in the Western world due to the contributions of trailblazers such as
Jon Kabat-Zinn. Mindfulness is gaining recognition in the field of Education for its potential to augment
a range of learning and personal development dimensions. The disciplined effort to be wholly absorbed
in the current moment is at the core of mindfulness. This practice entails shifting focus towards sensory
perceptions, thoughts, and emotions while avoiding fixation or becoming inundated with them. By
engaging in mindful practices like meditation and mindful observation, people can focus on the present
moment, cultivating a more profound sense of connection with their immediate environment (Bamini-
watta & Solangaarachchi, 2021).
A non-judgmental attitude toward one’s thoughts and emotions is emphasized in mindfulness. Rather
than assigning binary valuations to experiences (positive or negative), people develop the ability to
observe them impartially and without emotional investment. Mindfulness diminishes self-criticism by
cultivating a sense of inner tranquillity and promoting a more balanced and compassionate relationship
with oneself (Conversano et al., 2020; Sedighimornani et al., 2019;). The practice of mindfulness entails
the development of a mindful state of being, which enables people to engage entirely in their present

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experiences devoid of preoccupation with future concerns or past remorse. Individuals can enhance
their lucidity, concentration, and responsiveness to the demands of the present moment by directing
their attention to the present moment (Wheeler et al., 2017). The notion of mindfulness transcends the
boundaries of structured meditation techniques. It involves incorporating mindful awareness into one’s
daily routines, transforming them into occasions for being present and engaging in introspection. By
incorporating mindfulness practices into their daily lives, such as academic endeavours, interpersonal
connections, and decision-making procedures, individuals can experience the positive effects of mind-
fulness (Baminiwatta & Solangaarachchi, 2021; Kuroda et al., 2022;Siegel, 2007).
Mindfulness acknowledges mental and physical interdependence. Frequently, practices encompass
the development of mindfulness regarding corporeal sensations and respiration patterns, recognizing the
profound impact physical encounters can have on mental conditions. Promoting holistic well-being is
intrinsic to the mind-body connection, a fundamental aspect of mindfulness (Gibson, 2019; Khoury et
al., 2017). Within the realm of Education, mindfulness entails acknowledging its multifunctionality as
a means to augment students’ cognitive capacities, emotional control, and interpersonal proficiencies.
By integrating mindfulness practices into the educational sphere, instructors can establish a milieu that
fosters academic distinction and the growth of self-aware, resilient, and empathetic individuals, all of
whom are equipped to confront the intricacies of existence. Compassion, an intrinsic human character-
istic frequently correlated with benevolence, empathy, and an authentic regard for others, significantly
influences the guiding principles of Education. In addition to imparting knowledge and honing abilities,
cultivating compassion within educational environments promotes students’ comprehensive growth by
instilling a sense of ethical engagement and social responsibility.
A positive and inclusive learning environment is fostered by compassion, in which students feel sup-
ported and valued. Students are more inclined to safely express themselves, undertake intellectual risks,
and participate in substantive exchanges with their classmates when educators exemplify compassion.
Education encompasses more than mere information transmission; it necessitates an appreciation for
the varied experiences and perspectives of others. Compassion in Education entails fostering empathy
and motivating pupils to acknowledge and value their classmates’ distinctive backgrounds, obstacles,
and ambitions. The cultivation of empathetic comprehension aids in the formation of versatile individu-
als who possess the ability to navigate an increasingly interconnected global landscape (Aldrup et al.,
2022; Patel et al., 2019). Social and emotional learning (SEL) emphasizes developing vital life skills
and places compassion at its core. Educators can teach conflict resolution, cater to students’ dynamic
requirements, and provide them with practical communication tools by integrating compassion into the
curriculum. By adopting a comprehensive approach, learners grow in emotional intelligence and acquire
indispensable abilities that contribute to their individual and social achievements.
In addition to imparting knowledge, Education entails forming moral principles and values. Compassion
profoundly influences cultivating a sense of social responsibility and ethical decision-making. Students
are more inclined to make ethical decisions in academic and practical settings when they comprehend
the consequences of their actions in the broader community and on others (Kirby et al., 2017; LeBlanc
et al., 2020). Compassion motivates students to actively participate in service learning initiatives within
their communities actively, thereby transcending the boundaries of the classroom. By incorporating
compassion into service-oriented initiatives, pupils commit to social justice and community improve-
ment by applying their acquired skills and knowledge to tackle practical challenges (Mascaro et al., 2020;
Sinclair et al., 2016). Teaching with compassion is fundamental to its effectiveness. Academics foster a
nurturing learning environment by cultivating positive relationships with their pupils through applying

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compassion in their professional conduct. This correlation enables an environment in which learning is
preoccupied with academic accomplishments, individual development, and welfare, thereby bolstering
students’ confidence in their instructors (Aldrup et al., 2022; Sinclair et al., 2016).
Compassion plays a significant role in fostering a climate of benevolence within academic establish-
ments. The abovementioned culture influences the exchanges between personnel, instructors, and learners,
fostering a sense of inclusion and reciprocal regard. Consequently, educational settings transform into
supportive environments wherein students flourish intellectually, emotionally, and interpersonally (Jazaieri,
2018). Compassionate Education serves a multifaceted purpose. In addition to imparting knowledge, it
fosters ethical growth, establishes positive and inclusive learning environments, and nurtures empathy
(Mascaro et al., 2020; Roldán et al., 2021). By deliberately incorporating compassion into educational
methodologies, establishments can foster the development of socially aware, compassionate individuals
equipped to effectuate constructive change within their localities and globally.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK: CONNECTING MINDFULNESS,

COMPASSION, AND SERVICE LEARNING

By incorporating mindfulness, compassion, and service learning into a solid theoretical framework,
higher education instructors can create a comprehensive guide for promoting the holistic development
of students (Kawai, 2021; Sheinman & Russo‐Netzer, 2021). By leveraging various models and theories,
this framework elucidates the interdependence of these components and functions as a navigational tool
for developing immersive educational encounters. This framework is built upon the tenets of contem-
plative pedagogy, which promotes reflective learning and mindfulness practices. Through its emphasis
on self-awareness and empathy, this pedagogy establishes a solid basis for individuals to partake in
profound introspection and establish connections with the experiences of others. By intentionally inte-
grating mindfulness into educational practices, one can create an atmosphere that fosters self-reflection
and awareness of the present moment (Miller, 2017; Smith & Pitts, 2021;). In perfect harmony with
contemplative pedagogy, the framework features transformative learning theory, which Jack Mezirow
initially introduced. This theory proposes that learning entails a profound alteration in an individual’s
viewpoint, resulting in both personal and societal change, emphasizing critical reflection. The cultivation
of compassion is a crucial component of this metamorphosis, underscoring its importance in promoting
empathy and comprehension (Jaakkola et al., 2022; Stansberry, 2023;).
As demonstrated by endeavours like “Learn and Serve America,” service learning frameworks pro-
vide additional depth to the theoretical underpinnings. Intentionally incorporating mindfulness into the
learning experience serves to ground students in the present moment while they participate in meaningful
service activities. Under its formidable influence, compassion galvanizes students to assume civic duty
by fostering an authentic aspiration to tackle societal issues via acts of service. The compassion educa-
tion model, which draws inspiration from esteemed individuals such as Thupten Jinpa and Kristin Neff,
emphasizes the systematic incorporation of compassion training within academic environments. This
model enhances the transformative capacity of service learning initiatives by integrating mindfulness
into compassion education strengthening attention, emotional regulation, and self-awareness. Holistic
learning theories, consistent with holistic education models, enrich the theoretical framework further.
These models emphasize the interdependence of social, emotional, and cognitive development. In the

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Fostering Mindfulness and Compassion

framework of this comprehensive approach, service-learning, mindfulness, and compassion harmoni-

ously converge, fostering an education that nurtures the entirety of the individual.
This all-encompassing theoretical framework functions as an educational guiding philosophy. This
enables individuals to create academic encounters that are not only effusive in incorporating mindfulness,
compassion, and service-learning but also emphasize the comprehensive growth of collegiate students.
By navigating the complexities of this framework, educators foster the development of students who
possess not only academic prowess but also conscientiousness, empathy, and societal accountability.

STRATEGIES FOR INTEGRATING MINDFULNESS AND COMPASSION

There are a multitude of pragmatic strategies that educators can employ to foster a compassionate and
mindful learning environment. Commencing each class with a concise mindfulness exercise, such as
silent reflection, conscious breathing, or meditation, creates an environment conducive to learning by
promoting concentration and presence. Incorporating exercises that encourage mindful listening and ef-
fective communication creates an atmosphere of compassion and respect within the classroom, cultivating
student empathy (Correia & Strehlow, 2018; Huang, 2022). Incorporating mindfulness practices into
assignment design fosters a more profound comprehension of course material by establishing connections
between concepts and personal experiences or societal implications. Integrating brief mindful pauses
interspersed throughout extended lectures revitalizes students, improves their ability to concentrate, and
alleviates tension. Academic teams are more likely to foster an environment of support and understand-
ing when compassion is prioritized in collaborative endeavours (Garro et al., 2023). Promoting and
demonstrating mindful study techniques—for instance, practising concentrated breathing during study
breaks or adopting a cautious approach before exams—endows pupils with invaluable resources that
enhance their prospects for achieving academic excellence. By incorporating mindfulness practices into
assessment methodologies, including reflective elements, pupils can establish a correlation between their
educational encounters and individual development. Cultivating an attitude of appreciation via activi-
ties such as maintaining an appreciation journal enhances the climate within the classroom, fostering
positivity and empathy (McBride & Greeson, 2021). In professional interactions, extending mindfulness
to field experiences and apprenticeships emphasizes remaining present, empathetic, and compassionate.
By providing elective mindfulness seminars and resources on campus, educational institutions enable
students to cultivate and sustain a mindfulness practice, empowering them to confront the intricacies of
their scholarly endeavours with fortitude and increased consciousness. By implementing these strate-
gies in concert, an educational setting fosters scholastic achievement and emphasizes students’ holistic
welfare (Bunjak et al., 2022; Galante et al., 2023).
Case Study 1 examines the trajectory of a youthful individual who is simultaneously in a professional
course at a university in Bangalore and aspires to pursue a career in technology. In light of an arduous
academic timetable, stringent project due dates, and the imperative to thrive in a highly competitive sector,
the client articulated sentiments of being inundated and apprehensive, encountering difficulties sustaining
concentration throughout study sessions. The consequences of this disparity between academic work,
internships, and personal life started negatively impacting the client’s overall well-being and academic
achievements. To tackle these obstacles, a customized intervention was executed, incorporating mindful
study techniques to assist the client in navigating their challenges. The participants received guidance
on integrating brief mindfulness exercises, including concentrated breathing and short meditation, into

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their study intervals to improve concentration, stress reduction, and cognitive function. The client was
motivated to enhance their dedication to mindfulness by attending seminars on campus that were explic-
itly devoted to this practice. The client reported substantial outcomes from the intervention, including a
discernible reduction in stress levels and an enhancement in concentration after incorporating mindful
study sessions into their regular schedule. Furthermore, the client exhibited favourable academic ad-
vancements and conveyed an elevated level of composure and fortitude in navigating the arduous course
load of their professional studies. The results of the assessment instruments indicated a decrease in stress
levels as measured by the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) after the intervention.
Conversely, an increase in the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale score suggested an improvement
in mindfulness compared to the pre-intervention period. This case highlights the potential advantages
of integrating focused mindfulness practices to tackle the distinct obstacles encountered by young
adults enrolled in professional courses within competitive academic settings. Students engaged in
service-learning initiatives benefit significantly from integrating brief mindfulness exercises, such as
concentrated breathing and short meditation, into their study intervals, akin to the client in the case study.
These practices enhance concentration, reduce stress levels, improve cognitive function and promote
well-being and resilience in the face of academic challenges. By incorporating mindfulness into their
regular schedule, students navigate academic pressures with more excellent composure and fortitude,
ultimately improving their overall well-being. Moreover, the increase in mindfulness and self-awareness
among the client post-intervention suggests that students involved in service-learning initiatives can also
develop greater mindfulness and present-moment awareness through focused mindfulness practices,
contributing to their personal and academic development and drawing on the insights and lessons learned
from the case study, providing valuable guidance on effectively integrating mindfulness practices into
professional courses and educational programs in higher Education. This integration aligns with foster-
ing mindfulness and compassion, creating a more supportive and conducive learning environment for
students facing academic pressures.
Case Study 2 examines the trajectory of a young adult who, as part of a professional program, is
pursuing a major in business management at a university in Bangalore. During a collaborative endeav-
our, the client faced obstacles to efficient communication, divergent work methodologies, and intermit-
tent discord among team members, all of which hindered the project’s advancement. Furthermore, the
client’s empathetic nature exacerbated an inclination to assume excessive responsibilities, negatively
impacting their overall health. A compassion-oriented intervention was incorporated into the collabora-
tive endeavour to surmount these obstacles. The client was motivated to cultivate an awareness of each
team member’s unique strengths and vulnerabilities. This was achieved through regular follow-ups and
mindfulness exercises that sought to promote candid communication and empathy.
Furthermore, the client engaged in seminars that addressed compassionate leadership to augment their
proficiency in overseeing team dynamics. The positive results generated by the intervention resulted in
a significant overhaul of the collaborative undertaking. Enhanced productivity ensued from implement-
ing compassion-oriented practices, which fostered improved communication and mutual comprehension
among team constituents. The client documented a decrease in tension levels and an improvement in
the allocation of duties, both of which fostered a constructive and compassionate atmosphere within
the team. Post-intervention stress levels decreased, as measured by the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS),
according to assessment instruments.
On the contrary, a rise in the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale score signified enhanced mindful-
ness compared to the period preceding the intervention. This case study demonstrates how integrating

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compassion-oriented strategies to tackle interpersonal obstacles in collaborative academic endeavours

can nurture a more harmonious and fruitful team environment. In collaborative academic endeavours,
students engaged in service-learning initiatives benefit significantly from cultivating empathy and un-
derstanding, similar to the client in the case study. By fostering awareness of team member’s unique
strengths and vulnerabilities through mindfulness exercises and seminars on compassionate leadership,
students develop empathy and facilitate candid communication, fostering mutual comprehension and
support within the team. This approach enhances productivity and collaboration, as evidenced by the
positive outcomes observed in the collaborative endeavour, and mirrors the collaborative and support-
ive environments fostered within service-learning settings. Compassion-oriented practices encourage
students to work together more effectively, promoting constructive and compassionate team dynamics.
Furthermore, by reducing post-intervention stress levels and promoting well-being, compassion-
oriented strategies contribute to alleviating tension within academic teams, ultimately fostering personal
and intellectual development. Drawing on the insights and lessons from the case study offers valuable
guidance on effectively integrating mindfulness and compassion practices into collaborative academic
endeavours in higher Education. This integration aligns with the principles of fostering mindfulness
and compassion, ultimately creating a more harmonious, supportive, and fruitful learning environment
for students.
Case Study 3 explores the trajectory of a heterogeneous cohort of young adults from a multicultural
classroom, all enrolled in a scholarly program at an institute with aspirations of establishing prosperous
professional lives. In light of an arduous academic timetable, stringent project due dates, and the expecta-
tion to thrive in a fiercely competitive domain, the respondents articulated sentiments of being inundated
and apprehensive, encountering difficulties sustaining concentration throughout study sessions. Their
personal life, academic pursuits, and internships became increasingly unbalanced, negatively impacting
their health and academic performance. To confront these difficulties, a customized intervention was
executed, which integrated mindfulness techniques to aid the participants in surmounting their barriers.
During their study breaks, the individuals were instructed to incorporate brief mindfulness practices,
including focused breathing and short meditation, to enhance cognitive function, reduce tension, and
improve concentration. The participants were inspired to strengthen their dedication to mindfulness by
attending seminars on campus that were explicitly devoted to this practice. The intervention produced
noteworthy outcomes, as participants attested to a discernible decline in stress levels and an enhancement
in concentration after integrating meditative study sessions into their habitual timetable.
Moreover, they exhibited favourable scholastic advancements and communicated heightened poise
and perseverance in navigating the demanding vocational Education curriculum. Post-intervention stress
levels decreased, as measured by the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), according to assessment instruments.
On the contrary, a rise in the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale score indicated an enhancement in
mindfulness compared to the period preceding the intervention. This particular instance highlights the
potential advantages of incorporating targeted mindfulness techniques to tackle the obstacles faced by
young adults from various cultural backgrounds enrolled in specialized academic programs in highly
competitive environments. Drawing on the experiences of participants in the educational program
and students engaged in service-learning initiatives, integrating mindfulness techniques like focused
breathing and brief meditation into academic routines significantly enhances well-being and academic
performance. By reducing stress levels, improving concentration, and enhancing cognitive function,
students navigate academic responsibilities while prioritizing personal well-being, ultimately leading
to improved educational outcomes.

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Additionally, cultivating resilience and perseverance through mindfulness practices enables students
to cope effectively with challenges and setbacks, fostering a sense of poise and determination in navi-
gating demanding academic environments. The increase in mindfulness post-intervention underscores
the potential for enhancing self-awareness and present-moment awareness, contributing to personal and
educational development with greater clarity and focus. Leveraging insights from the case study, the
chapter offers valuable guidance on effectively integrating mindfulness practices into higher education
programs, aligning with fostering mindfulness and compassion. This integration supports student well-
being and academic success and creates a more supportive and enriching learning environment conducive
to personal growth for students from diverse cultural backgrounds.
Case Study 4 explores the experiences of a group of young adults from diverse cultural backgrounds,
all part of a professional undergraduate program at an institute in Bangalore. Engaged in a collaborative
project, they encountered challenges related to effective communication, differing work approaches,
and occasional discord among team members, which impeded the project’s progress. Additionally, the
participants’ empathetic nature led to them taking on excessive responsibilities, negatively affecting their
overall well-being. A compassion-oriented intervention was integrated into the collaborative project to
address these challenges. The participants were encouraged to understand each team member’s strengths
and vulnerabilities through regular follow-ups and mindfulness exercises to promote open communica-
tion and empathy.
Moreover, they actively participated in seminars focused on compassionate leadership to enhance
their skills in managing team dynamics. The intervention yielded positive outcomes, leading to a sig-
nificant transformation in the collaborative project. Enhanced productivity resulted from implementing
compassion-oriented practices, fostering improved communication and mutual understanding among
team members. The participants reported decreased tension levels and a more equitable distribution of
responsibilities, contributing to a constructive and compassionate team atmosphere. Assessment tools
revealed reduced stress levels as measured by the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) post-intervention.
Conversely, an increase in the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale score indicated enhanced mindful-
ness compared to the period preceding the intervention. This case study highlights the effectiveness of
integrating compassion-oriented strategies to address interpersonal challenges in collaborative academic
endeavours, fostering a more harmonious and productive team environment among individuals from
diverse cultural backgrounds. The case study underscores how integrating compassion-oriented strate-
gies into collaborative projects among students yields transformative outcomes in higher Education.
Through mindfulness exercises and seminars focused on compassionate leadership, students deepen
their understanding of peers’ strengths, vulnerabilities, and cultural backgrounds, fostering empathy and
mutual respect. This approach decreases stress levels, enhances participants’ resilience, and promotes
open communication and equitable distribution of responsibilities, fostering a supportive and collabora-
tive environment akin to service-learning settings.
Moreover, the increase in mindfulness post-intervention highlights the potential for compassion-
oriented practices to enhance students’ self-awareness and personal development, preparing them to
navigate future challenges with clarity and compassion. Drawing on these insights, this case study offers
valuable guidance on effective compassion practices in collaborative academic endeavours. It ultimately
empowers students to become compassionate leaders and catalysts for positive change in their fields.
Case Study 5 explores the experiences of a group of individuals grappling with tobacco addiction,
all seeking recovery through a mental health program provided by their institute. Despite diverse back-
grounds, they share a common goal but face various challenges associated with addiction, including

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cravings, withdrawal symptoms, and occasional conflicts among peers, hindering their progress towards
recovery. In response to these challenges, a Mindfulness-based intervention is incorporated into their
recovery program. Through regular support meetings and mindfulness exercises, participants cultivate an
understanding of each other’s struggles, fostering empathy and open communication. The other ground
received workshops focused on nurturing compassion and mutual support to enhance their journey
towards sobriety further. The intervention yields positive outcomes, significantly improving the par-
ticipants’ recovery process. Strengthened support networks and increased empathy among peers result
in diminished cravings, improved coping mechanisms, and a more optimistic outlook on their path to
wellness. In both groups, participants report reduced feelings of guilt and shame and a more equitable
distribution of responsibilities in supporting each other’s recovery efforts. Both groups’ Assessment
tools reveal a decrease in stress levels post-intervention, evidenced by the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS).
Moreover, while both mindfulness and compassion practices are effective in aiding recovery from
tobacco addiction, a notable increase in the effectiveness of compassion practice is observed compared to
mindfulness practice alone. This underscores the importance of integrating compassion-oriented strategies
alongside mindfulness practices in addressing the complex challenges of addiction recovery, fostering a
supportive and successful rehabilitation environment for individuals struggling with tobacco addiction.
The case studies presented herein illustrate the potential positive effects of integrating mindfulness and
compassion interventions into the university’s academic curriculum in Bangalore, where young adults
are enrolled in professional courses. These interventions foster a nurturing and developmentally focused
educational milieu by customizing these methodologies to address students’ distinct obstacles in a rigorous
academic setting. The case study illustrates how incorporating mindfulness and compassion practices into
a tobacco addiction recovery program can result in significant advantages, mirroring the potential effects
of service-learning programs in higher Education. By participating in support meetings and mindfulness
exercises, individuals in the recovery program foster empathy and comprehension, similar to how students
who partake in service learning gain a more profound understanding of marginalized communities and
societal issues. Incorporating this integration promotes resilience and well-being, as demonstrated by
the participants’ reports of decreased stress levels and enhanced coping strategies during the recovery
program. This parallels the possibility that students confronted with intricate societal challenges may
experience increased resilience and well-being. In addition, the recovery program’s enhanced support
networks and fair allocation of responsibilities mirror the cooperative and encouraging atmospheres
cultivated in service-learning environments, wherein students engage in collective efforts guided by
mindfulness and compassion. By adopting comprehensive methodologies that integrate mindfulness and
compassion in the context of addiction recovery and service-learning endeavours, individuals can more
effectively confront complex challenges, thereby promoting personal development, societal influence,
and transformative educational experiences within Higher Education.

BENEFITS OF MINDFULNESS AND COMPASSION IN SERVICE LEARNING

Incorporating mindfulness and compassion practices into service learning provides numerous advantages
for students. Combining these components surpasses conventional scholarly methodologies, promoting
comprehensive growth and a more significant educational encounter. Service learning is substantially
more engaging when mindfulness and compassion are incorporated. By encouraging students to be fully
present in their service experiences, mindfulness practices foster a more profound connection between the

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students, the community, and the issues at hand. This increased involvement motivates students to fully
immerse themselves in the service projects with an authentic sense of purpose and empathy, surpassing
superficial involvement. Subsequently, students are encouraged to actively engage in the educational
process, cultivating a more profound comprehension of communal necessities and social concerns.
Incorporating compassion and mindfulness into service-learning significantly fosters students’ per-
sonal development. By engaging in reflective practices and designingate instances of mindfulness, pupils
develop an enhanced consciousness regarding their personal values, convictions, and the consequences of
their behaviours on others. A guiding principle that imbues their interactions with empathy and a more
expansive outlook is compassion. The impact of this personal development goes beyond academic pur-
suits, benefiting students’ emotional intelligence, self-awareness, and general welfare. By incorporating
these components into service learning, pupils develop into more socially aware and resilient individuals
equipped to confront the intricacies of the world.
Academic performance is not the only benefit that mindfulness and compassion in service learning
can provide. By engaging in mindful reflection, students can establish connections between their service
experiences and theoretical concepts, augmenting their comprehension of the course material. Cultivat-
ing empathy and compassion has a constructive impact on coordination and collaboration, both critical
competencies for achieving academic excellence. Additionally, mindfulness practices have positively
impacted cognitive abilities, tension reduction, and concentration, fostering an environment conducive
to academic success. Students’ academic performance improves by developing a more profound correla-
tion between their service experiences and intellectual endeavours (McBride & Greeson, 2021; Tzelepi
et al., 2023).
Incorporating mindfulness and compassion into service learning provides numerous advantages, such
as increased student engagement, enhanced personal development, and improved academic achievement.
Through the cultivation of a conscientious and empathetic methodology, service learning evolves into
a profound expedition that attends to the community’s requirements while nurturing the comprehensive
growth of students—thereby equipping them for an enduring legacy of significant contributions and
ongoing Education.

CHALLENGES AND ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Incorporating mindfulness and compassion into service learning demonstrates a complex process that
necessitates ongoing vigilance towards ethical dilemmas and skilful manoeuvring through possible ob-
stacles. A prevalent challenge is a delicate equilibrium that must be upheld to preserve cultural sensitivity
and prevent inadvertent appropriation. To tackle this issue, educators must cultivate cultural humility
by offering context and consulting with experts to ensure that mindfulness practices consider various
cultural heritages (García-Campayo et al., 2017; Levin, 2019). It is critical to maintain a commitment to
inclusivity, acknowledging that students may possess diverse cultural backgrounds or personal convictions
that may impact their level of ease when engaging in mindfulness practices. By presenting alternative
methodologies and conceptualizing mindfulness in a secular and inclusive fashion, an educational set-
ting can be more inclusive and universally applicable (Koenig, 2023; Nagy et al., 2022). To maintain
the delicate balance between academic rigour and reflective practices, effectively conveying the educa-
tional advantages associated with mindfulness and compassion is essential. By clearly defining learning

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objectives and illustrating how these practices contribute to academic achievements, apprehensions can
be mitigated, and the positive effects of the learning process can be emphasized (George et al., 2021).
To surmount opposition or doubt expressed by individuals who are not acquainted with the concepts
of mindfulness and compassion, it is imperative to adopt a proactive approach. To effectively address
scepticism, it is recommended to disseminate evidence-based information regarding tangible benefits,
conduct introductory sessions, and encourage open dialogues regarding these practices’ purpose and
prospective impact (Conversano et al., 2020; Lim et al., 2015). The influence of ethical frameworks on
the integration process is crucial. Emphasizing informed consent guarantees that students can indepen-
dently determine the extent of their involvement, thereby upholding their autonomy when engaging in
mindfulness practices. Ensuring the preservation of confidentiality creates an environment conducive to
personal introspection and cultural sensitivity; it also prevents the perpetuation of preconceived notions
and encourages a climate of esteem (Marshall, 2008; Woodland et al., 2021). Pursuing equity and inclu-
sivity remains fundamental, guaranteeing that mindfulness practices are readily obtainable and consider-
ate of a wide range of needs and beliefs. The deliberate incorporation of mindfulness and compassion
into the more comprehensive educational journey is emphasized by aligning activities with educational
objectives, strengthening their relevance within the academic sphere (Eaton, 2022; Nagy et al., 2022).
Effectively incorporating mindfulness and compassion into the context of service learning necessitates
a sophisticated and deliberate strategy. Educators who are equipped with strategies to overcome obstacles
and a steadfast adherence to ethical principles are pivotal in establishing an inclusive and constructive
learning environment that accommodates the varied perspectives and needs of students (Schonert‐Reichl,
2023; Van Der Meulen et al., 2020). By continuously adapting and reflecting, the integration can develop
into a transformative educational experience that fosters mindfulness, compassion, and a more profound
self-awareness and comprehension of others.

ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION

The evaluation and assessment of incorporating compassion and mindfulness into service learning high-
lights the complex and multifaceted nature of comprehending its effects on students. Educators’ holistic
approach integrates quantitative and qualitative metrics to offer a sophisticated assessment. Quantitative
measures, such as surveys conducted before and after an intervention, provide empirical evidence criti-
cal for comprehending the immediate effects of mindfulness and compassion practices. The evaluations
above centre on quantifiable alterations in stress levels, empathy, and general welfare, thereby furnishing
empirical substantiation of the impact that these methodologies have on the psychological and emotional
conditions of students (González-García et al., 2021; López-Ramón et al., 2023). Qualitative reflections,
including focus group discussions and reflective essays, explore students’ subjective experiences. These
observations provide a more comprehensive comprehension of individual development and the incor-
poration of mindfulness into one’s everyday routine, encompassing the subtler facets of the potentially
life-altering effects of these practices (DeMauro et al., 2019; Frank & Marken, 2021).
Evaluating the broader implications of service learning initiatives by assessing their impact on the
community is essential. By conducting comprehensive evaluations of intervention efficacy and soliciting
input from community partners, one can understand how students positively influence and contribute
to their affiliated communities (Alomoto et al., 2021). Behavioural observations during service activi-
ties and in the classroom contribute an additional dimension to the assessment procedure. Indicators

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of tangible progress in student conduct, including heightened collaboration, empathy, and engagement,
directly result from implementing mindfulness and compassion practices in authentic environments. To
address the enduring consequences, a comprehensive strategy is required, which may consist of post-
graduation evaluations, success tales from alums, and continuous monitoring of well-being indicators.
Post-graduation surveys provide valuable insights regarding the ongoing implementation of mindfulness
practices by students in both their personal and professional spheres. Success stories of alums serve as
qualitative indicators of long-lasting effects, demonstrating how these practices influence career decisions,
individual development, and community engagement beyond the confines of the academic environment.
Implementing continuous well-being metric monitoring enables the ongoing evaluation of student’s
mental and emotional states during their academic tenure and beyond. The observance of professional
development participation offers valuable insights into the enduring impact that mindfulness and compas-
sion practices have on students’ values and career decisions. The present holistic assessment methodol-
ogy encompasses the immediate implications of practising mindfulness and compassion. This enables a
longitudinal examination of these entities’ enduring influence on students’ personal growth, community
involvement, and career paths. Equipped with this all-encompassing comprehension, instructors may
progressively enhance their methodologies, guaranteeing these strategies’ ongoing beneficial impact on
pupils’ comprehensive growth.

BEST PRACTICES AND GUIDELINES

The complex procedure of integrating mindfulness and compassion into service learning unveils an
educational expedition that is both dynamic and transformative. The fundamental basis of this procedure
is established upon the strict observance of a collection of optimal methods and principles detailed in
the recommendations (Conversano et al., 2020; Phan et al., 2022). Significant importance is attributed
to establishing unambiguous learning objectives that align with overarching academic aspirations,
emphasizing mindfulness and compassion throughout the educational journey. Tailored approaches
for diverse learners recognize and accommodate the multitude of backgrounds and preferences among
students, thereby promoting inclusivity and offering choices that align with varying degrees of comfort
or convictions (Schonert‐Reichl, 2023; Sheinman & Russo‐Netzer, 2021). By seamlessly incorporating
mindfulness and compassion practices into the curriculum, as opposed to regarding them as separate
activities, the effects of these practices are enhanced. By establishing a connection between them and
course material, homework, and discussions, this integration emphasizes their significance in the context
of academic study and promotes a comprehensive learning experience (Potvin et al., 2022; Sheinman
& Russo‐Netzer, 2021).
The optimal approach to gradually incorporating mindfulness and compassion techniques into stu-
dents’ routines acknowledges the significance of permitting a gradual acclimation period. By employing
this method in stages, students can develop a sense of ease with these procedures, facilitating a more
profound and enduring incorporation into their educational trajectory (Michalak et al., 2019; Reich et
al., 2021). Promoting interdisciplinary approaches and faculty collaboration stimulates a more com-
prehensive integration process. The interconnection between compassion and mindfulness transcends
academic domains and fosters a more holistic learning environment by exchanging insights and expe-
riences among faculty members from diverse disciplines (Conversano et al., 2020; Schonert‐Reichl,
2023). Concerning faculty development, a comprehensive strategy guarantees that instructors possess

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the necessary skills and knowledge to mentor students effectively. Faculty members acquire the requisite
skills and strategies through participation in training sessions and seminars, whereas the development
of personal practice nurtures a more profound comprehension of mindfulness and compassion. Peer
learning communities serve as a platform for the exchange of knowledge and the resolution of problems
collectively, thereby augmenting the expertise of the faculty. By integrating mindfulness training into
comprehensive development programs, instructors can guarantee a smooth integration of these practices
into their pedagogical approaches. Ongoing assistance and provisions for faculty enhance their level of
involvement, thereby establishing a favourable setting that promotes long-term achievement (Hariharan
et al., 2023; Sheinman & Russo‐Netzer, 2021). This all-encompassing strategy facilitates the effective
incorporation of mindfulness and compassion into service learning, enhancing the academic experience
for faculty and students. It fosters an all-encompassing and influential educational experience in which
mindfulness and compassion are incorporated as fundamental elements, benefiting all participants’
personal and academic growth.

DISCUSSION

The incorporation of mindfulness, compassion, and service learning into higher Education signifies a
fundamental change in perspective, recognizing that the field of Education transcends conventional aca-
demic confines. Through integrating mindfulness practices, contemplative pedagogy augments students’
theoretical comprehension and furnishes them with indispensable life skills. Emotional intelligence is
developed through self-awareness and empathy, which fosters a more profound understanding of oneself
and others. Simultaneously, the transformative learning theory promotes the inquiry of assumptions by
students, thereby cultivating an aptitude for analytical reasoning and empathetic behaviour. Incorporat-
ing compassion into this theoretical framework guarantees that individual development is not divorced
from social responsibility but is intrinsically linked to it. Service learning frameworks promote students’
practical application of knowledge, thereby bridging the divide between theory and practice. Engaging
in practical activities strengthens theoretical knowledge and fosters a sense of civic responsibility.
In compassion training, the model’s emphasis on mindfulness provides an additional dimension of
complexity. This integration guarantees pupils attain a cognitive comprehension of compassion and a
practical embodiment of it. By actively participating in service learning initiatives, individuals increase
the transformative capacity of these experiences, resulting in a more significant and enduring effect.
Holistic education models contribute to this integrated framework by recognizing the intrinsic inter-
dependence between academic and personal growth. Teachers can foster well-rounded individuals by
customizing their methods based on cognitive, emotional, and social dimensions. This comprehensive
viewpoint equips learners with academic achievement and a gratifying and purposeful existence.
The observance of ethical principles is crucial when confronting the difficulties accompanying this
integrated methodology. Promoting cultural sensitivity and fostering inclusivity necessitates a deliberate
and compassionate method. Ethical frameworks encourage a harmonious integration that values diverse
perspectives by providing educators with a framework for harmonizing the reflective and contemplative
elements of the curriculum with its academic rigour. Quantitative and qualitative assessment strategies are
instrumental in providing a holistic comprehension of the effects of this integrated approach. Supportive
data from alum success tales and post-graduation surveys indicate that service-learning, compassion,
and mindfulness continue to impact students’ lives. The ongoing monitoring of well-being indicators

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enables educators to modify and enhance their methodologies following tangible results. Continual
faculty development is vital to the achievement of successful integration. Institutions would allow edu-
cators to proficiently traverse this intricate terrain through training, cultivation of individual meditative
practices, and guarantee continuous support. Best practices and guidelines serve as foundational ele-
ments, furnishing an organized structure for execution and ensuring that the educational experience is
intentional and significant.
The discourse magnifies the profound impact of incorporating service learning, compassion, and mind-
fulness into Higher Education. By combining various dimensions, this approach not only acknowledges
the changing demands of learners but also equips them with the fortitude, compassion, and dedication
necessary to navigate an intricate global landscape. By incorporating these components, an educational
approach is transformed into a philosophy that moulds individuals into benevolent, socially conscious
members who actively contribute to the improvement of the collective.

CONCLUSION

Incorporating service learning, compassion, and mindfulness into a comprehensive theoretical frame-
work signifies a paradigm shift in higher Education. This all-encompassing framework offers educators
a multifaceted manual by integrating principles from transformative learning theory, service learning
frameworks, compassion education models, holistic education paradigms, and contemplative pedagogy.
As educators traverse this conceptual terrain, they are endowed with the authority to conceive and
execute educational encounters that surpass conventional limitations. By establishing a foundation for
self-awareness and empathy, contemplative pedagogy cultivates an atmosphere where incorporating
mindfulness practices is an intrinsic part of the educational process. The transformative learning theory
underscores the significance of compassionate and critical reflection in effecting personal and societal
change, reinforcing the holistic aspect of development. Service learning frameworks facilitate the practi-
cal implementation of theoretical foundations, with civic responsibility being propelled by compassion
and the learning experience being enhanced through mindfulness practice.
Motivated by the works of renowned academics, the compassion education model astutely incorporates
mindfulness into the curriculum of compassion training, thereby enabling service learning initiatives to
experience profound transformation. Holistic education models enhance understanding by recognizing
the interrelated aspects of cognitive, emotional, and social growth harmoniously integrated with ser-
vice learning, compassion, and mindfulness. By providing educators with a compass, this theoretical
framework facilitates the development of transformative and significant learning experiences. It fosters
the development of well-rounded individuals by attending to the emotional and social dimensions of
Education and its cognitive aspects. By applying these principles, educators encourage students who are
both academically proficient and conscientious, empathetic, and socially accountable members of their
communities and the global community. By cultivating a comprehensive development that this framework
promotes, students are equipped to confront the intricacies of existence with fortitude, compassion, and
a dedication to constructive transformation.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Service Learning: Service learning is an instructional methodology that amalgamates academic

study with constructive community service, cultivating a sense of civic duty and individual develop-
ment in students.
Mindfulness: Mindfulness is developing awareness and focusing on the present moment. Engaging
in this practice facilitates improved concentration and diminished tension levels and fosters an uncritical
perception of one’s thoughts and emotions.
Compassion: Compassion is the response of empathy toward the distress of another individual. It
entails acknowledging and proactively mitigating the suffering or challenges encountered by communi-
ties or individuals.
Higher Education: Higher Education, which surpasses the secondary level, is commonly offered
by colleges and universities. It allows students to acquire advanced knowledge and expertise in a wide
range of disciplines.
Contemplative Pedagogy: By incorporating mindfulness and reflective practices into the teaching
process, contemplative pedagogy fosters a more profound relationship between the interior experiences
of students, their academic progress, and their personal growth.
Transformative Learning Theory: learning entails a significant transformation in one’s beliefs,
values, or perspective; this entails questioning preconceived notions and, through critical introspection,
promotes personal and societal transformation.
Holistic education paradigms: emphasize the comprehensive development of the whole person,
which includes cognitive, affective, communal, and physical dimensions. These methods emphasize
interdependence, individual development, and welfare.

64
 65

Chapter 5
Incorporating Service-Learning
in People-Centered Sciences:
Three Instructional Approaches

Kathryn A. Carroll
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9746-5597
University of Central Arkansas, USA

Rebekah R. Luong
University of Central Arkansas, USA

Monica Lieblong
Johns Hopkins University, USA

Lesley Graybeal
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9823-2787
University of Central Arkansas, USA

ABSTRACT
For an instructor in higher education, implementing service-learning (S-L) into a new or existing course
can simultaneously be an exciting but potentially challenging experience. While S-L has the potential to
make positive impacts on both the community of interest and subsequent students, instructors implement-
ing S-L may face challenges such as project and partner identification. Another potential challenge for
the instructor is determining which type of instructional approach they should select to implement S-L.
To help guide higher education instructors in this selection process, this chapter features a collective
case study of S-L projects conducted within three different undergraduate courses, using three different
instructional approaches, at the University of Central Arkansas. Each of these courses has successfully
utilized a different instructional approach: 1) collaborative consultation, 2) guided discovery, and 3)
learner-centered. Using a collective case study of S-L courses, this chapter discusses in detail the imple-
mentation of each S-L project from start to finish.

DOI: 10.4018/979-8-3693-2133-1.ch005

Copyright © 2024, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
 
Incorporating Service-Learning in People-Centered Sciences

Service-learning (S-L) was popularized in many American educational contexts in the 1990s, with
scholars at that time calling for rigorous study of the pedagogy’s outcomes, impacts, and mechanisms
(Driscoll et al., 1996; Eyler et al., 1997). S-L scholarship in more recent decades has included multiple
large-scale and meta-analytic studies (Celio et al., 2011; Keen & Hall, 2009; Kilgo et al., 2015) and
has revealed that students who participate in service-learning in higher education experience a multi-
tude of positive outcomes ranging from academic learning to professional and personal development.
The study of community-engaged learning has further experienced a global critical turn, with scholars
questioning a “pedagogy of whiteness” (Mitchell et al., 2012) and the dangers of paternalism (Mtawa
& Wilson-Strydom, 2018). Both the application and the study of service-learning today thus require
nuanced attention to how S-L is implemented.
Numerous studies have demonstrated the benefits of S-L for students’ academic and career outcomes.
Examples include improved academic achievement (Celio et al., 2011; Mungo, 2017; Strange, 2000; Yue
& Hart, 2017), critical thinking and writing skills (Vogelgesang & Astin, 2000), and attitudes toward
school and learning (Celio et al., 2011). Large-scale research using the National Survey of Student En-
gagement (NSSE) found that employment and community service during the undergraduate years help
students bridge the gap between college and career. S-L students, for example, were 30% more likely to
secure new employment after graduation than those without community engagement experience (Miller
et al., 2018). Additional studies have documented S-L students’ greater employability (Barton et al.,
2019; Haski-Leventhal et al., 2019), a greater understanding of career decision-making (Coulter-Kern
et al., 2013), increased confidence in entering their chosen career (Strange, 2000), and improved leader-
ship skills (Groh et al., 2011).
Furthermore, S-L has been found to have lasting personal and cultural benefits for students. S-L
students have reported improved self-concept and self-efficacy (Celio et al., 2011; Haski-Leventhal et
al., 2019; Knapp, et al., 2010), self-awareness (Furze et al., 2011), interpersonal skills (Hebert & Hauf,
2015), cultural awareness (Desmond et al., 2011; Haski-Leventhal et al., 2019), adaptability (Desmond
et al., 2011; Furze et al., 2011), and ability to communicate and collaborate effectively across differences
(Kilgo et al., 2015; Vogelgesang & Astin, 2000; Wozencraft et al., 2014). Undergraduate students who get
involved in service develop a sense of civic belonging and commitment to community problem-solving
and leadership that they carry with them after graduation (Myers et al., 2019; Wagner & Mathison,
2015). Extended community engagement experiences further offer students skills in reflective practice
that persist into adulthood (Mitchell et al., 2015), with community-based experiences becoming forma-
tive experiences that students draw upon years later in their values and decisions (Fullerton et al., 2015).
While the demonstrated benefits of S-L are many, for an instructor, implementing S-L into a new or
existing course for the first time can be an exciting but potentially challenging experience. While S-L
has the potential to make positive impacts on both the community of interest and subsequent students,
instructors with limited experience implementing S-L may face challenges such as project and partner
identification. Another of these potential challenges for the instructor is determining which type of
instructional approach they should select to implement S-L in their classroom. To help guide higher
education instructors in making this selection process, this chapter features a collective case study of
S-L projects conducted within three different undergraduate courses, using three different instructional
approaches, at the University of Central Arkansas (UCA). All three of these courses are part of an un-
dergraduate degree program in family and consumer sciences (FCS), that prepares students for careers
in the nonprofit sector, community outreach, and cooperative extension. This degree program typically
has between 130-150 undergraduate majors, and anywhere from 180-200 minors. Students in this degree

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Incorporating Service-Learning in People-Centered Sciences

program are also predominately female-identifying (64%) and white (61%), which is consistent with
overall campus demographics.
The field of FCS is often referred to as a “people-centered” science due to its focus on the “science
and art of living and working well in our complex world” (AAFCS, 2023, Definition section). FCS in
particular stresses the importance of both critical thinking skills (Swafford & Rafferty, 2016) and the
development of career-focused professional behaviors (Towery et al., 2019) among future FCS profes-
sionals. S-L then is a particularly useful pedagogy for the people-centered sciences, including FCS
courses. S-L has been shown to improve critical thinking and writing skills among students (Vogelgesang
& Astin, 2000) and to develop skills, behaviors, and decision-making related to their future professional
careers (Coulter-Kern et al., 2013; Groh et al., 2011; Strange, 2000), all of which align well with the field
of FCS. S-L has also been successfully employed as a pedagogical approach in the FCS curriculum, in
the areas of housing and interior design (Ju & Yang, 2021), consumer affairs (Blackmon et al., 2001),
adolescent development (Lee, 2012), dietetics (Roofe, 2012), and in community nutrition and personal
finance (Schichtl et al., 2022).
Incorporating S-L within major courses in people-centered sciences can also be especially useful,
as it provides students with a chance to interact with community-based organizations in situations and
settings that help prepare them for their future professional careers. At the same time, incorporating S-L
into the curriculum of an existing undergraduate program provides an opportunity to explore differing
instructional approaches that can be used by faculty to successfully implement S-L. This book chapter
presents three different case studies of S-L projects conducted at UCA and discusses how each uses a
different instructional approach to successfully incorporate S-L into their existing course.
These three different people-centered science courses at UCA have included 1) an upper-division
elective personal and family finance course that employs a collaborative consultation approach with the
community partner serving as co-instructor, 2) a required upper-division resource management course
that uses a guided discovery instructional approach to introduce students to civic engagement through
exposure to a variety of community partners, and lastly 3) a required senior capstone course that uses
a learner-centered approach, designed to shift much of the responsibility of identifying the community
need and subsequent development of the S-L project to the student.
For each course case study, this chapter discusses in detail the implementation of each S-L project
from start to finish, including the instructor’s approach to 1) pre-course planning, including S-L course
objectives, 2) identifying a need in the local community and identifying community nonprofit partner
organization(s), 3) project implementation, including the instructional approach, S-L goals, student re-
flection activities, and project assessment, 4) challenges and lessons learned, and 5) student reflections,
feedback, and evaluation.

INSTRUCTIONAL APPROACHES AND THE PEOPLE-CENTERED SCIENCES

This chapter focuses on three educational instructional approaches that the authors have successfully
used to implement S-L including collaborative consultation, guided discovery, and the learner-centered
approach. Collaborative consultation is frequently employed in education in the areas of counseling,
psychology, and special education, all of which are people-centered sciences. This instructional ap-
proach allows the instructor, students, and other stakeholders to all learn from each other (von Ahlefeld
Nisser, 2017). Lusky and Hayes (2001) note that collaborative consultation between school personnel

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and counselors can be especially useful in developing effective school counseling programs. Crothers et
al. (2020) and Thomson (2013) mention the benefits of collaborative consultation for special education
teachers. Collaborative consultation has also been found to promote an inclusive school culture (von
Ahlefeld Nisser, 2017), and has been a useful approach in the FCS field of early childhood (Boavida et
al., 2022; McGregor & Longo, 2023).
The guided discovery approach has the instructor serving as a facilitator for the entirety of the learn-
ing process (Yuliani & Saragih, 2015). The use of guided discovery as an instructional approach has
been found to significantly improve student test scores in chemistry (Bamiro, 2015) and mathematics
(Albintani et al., 2023). This approach has also been found to be useful for developing critical inquiry
skills among students (Fahmi et al., 2019; Fauzi & Respati, 2021). Chusni et al. (2020) likewise concluded
that guided discovery can also be useful in developing both problem-solving and decision-making skills.
As the development of critical thinking skills is of primary concern in FCS education (Swafford & Raf-
ferty, 2016), the guided discovery approach may be particularly useful when employed in FCS courses.
The learner-centered approach is often noted as requiring students to assume the role of decision-maker
when it comes to their overall educational experience in the classroom (Doyle, 2023). Baugher (2013)
suggests this approach is often the one most frequently used in the FCS curriculum. This instructional
approach also encourages students to take ownership of their learning goals and processes (Lee & Han-
nafin, 2016). Although the role of the instructor is still an integral part of the learner-centered approach,
students are encouraged to be actively engaged in the progression of their own learning. Problem-based
learning activities are also often utilized with this approach (Serin, 2018). For instructors who are used
to primarily utilizing direct instruction methods, adopting a learner-centered approach may require an
adjustment period on behalf of the instructor (Keiler, 2018).
To the knowledge of the authors, there is little discussion in the literature on how these three in-
structional approaches may be particularly useful in the implementation of S-L in the people-centered
sciences. Each has the potential to be a useful instructional approach that those in higher education may
want to consider when implementing S-L into their course(s). The three case studies discussed through-
out this book chapter provide examples of how each of these approaches has been used to successfully
implement S-L.

PREPARING FACULTY TO IMPLEMENT SERVICE-LEARNING

Prior to implementing S-L projects into their courses, each instructor featured in this book chapter
completed the same on-campus S-L Faculty Fellowship at UCA, the goal of which was to help faculty
successfully design and implement a new S-L project. The fellowship program included a diverse cohort
of faculty from across disciplines and engaged each faculty member in in-depth professional development
on the topic of S-L theory and pedagogical practice, with dedicated time for community partnership
development and course redesign.
Faculty from all of the university’s academic colleges were invited to apply for the Faculty Fellows
program through a competitive process to recruit a diverse cohort of faculty representing a variety of
disciplinary perspectives. All participants in the multi-week seminar-style faculty development program
received a stipend for participation and were expected to teach their redesigned S-L course within the
following year. For a course to be designated as a S-L course at UCA, it must 1) involve collaboration
between a faculty member and a community organization that meets a community need, 2) have a

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Incorporating Service-Learning in People-Centered Sciences

Table 1. Service-learning assessment rubric

Goal Basic (1) Intermediate (2) Advanced (3)

Student Understanding:
Students demonstrate Students analyze and evaluate
Understand how this academic Students understand service-learning
awareness of how discipline- how disciplinary expertise
discipline can serve the needs but are unable to articulate discipline
based knowledge can impact can impact the social needs/
or address the issues of the specific connections
social needs/ issues issues
community/ nation/world
Students recognize their own cultural Students reflect on how own Students acknowledge the
and/or community values and cultural and/or community positive impact of multiple
Diversity: Appreciate cultural assumptions and see them as distinct values are different from cultural and/or community
and community diversity from others; exhibit little curiosity others; exhibit curiosity perspectives on themselves
about what can be learned from about what can be learned and our society/world; have
diversity from diversity learned from diversity
Students recognize their
Civic Responsibility: Value Students identify community / Students take responsible and
responsibility and research
their role as engaged and national/ informed action to address an
their role in addressing
informed citizens international issues or needs issue or need
issues or needs
Communication, Students understand the need to work Students work collaboratively
Students work
Collaboration and collaboratively with peers and/or with peers and/or various
collaboratively with peers
Community: Demonstrate the community/national/ partners to produce positive
and/or various partners to
ability to work with others International partners to address outcomes to address issues/
address issues/needs
toward shared goals. issues/needs needs

service-activity that serves the course objectives by helping students to grasp the knowledge and skills
essential to the course, and 3) have students participate in structured reflection on the service activity
that strengthens their understanding of course content.
During the Faculty Fellows program, each faculty member designed their S-L project to directly
align with the learning outcomes of a particular course. Each S-L project was designed with a reflection
assignment to be completed before and after the service activity. At the end of each course, faculty mem-
bers also evaluated their students’ achievement of university-wide S-L outcomes by applying a shared
S-L rubric to one student learning artifact from the course. This rubric used a 3-point scale to evaluate
students on four S-L goals (see Table 1 for assessment rubric): 1) student understanding, 2) diversity,
3) civic responsibility, and 4) communication, collaboration, and community.

APPLICATIONS OF SERVICE-LEARNING IN PEOPLE-CENTERED SCIENCES

Case Study 1: A Collaborative Consultation Approach

We first discuss an upper-division elective advanced personal and family finance course that employs
a collaborative consultation approach, with the community partner serving as co-instructor. Using col-
laborative consultation allows the instructor, community partner, and students to learn from and with
each other during the S-L project (von Ahlefeld Nisser, 2017). This particular approach then enables
the instructor to incorporate S-L in a way that allows students to work closely with both a partnering
nonprofit organization and the instructor.
The collaborative consultation approach allows students to receive continuous feedback from both
the instructor and the nonprofit throughout the S-L project. This environment of active collaboration

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allows students, the instructor, and the community partner to all contribute their diverse expertise and
perspective to the S-L project. This case study will also discuss how the collaborative consultation ap-
proach has been used to successfully implement both direct and research-based S-L projects.
Course Overview and Objective: Case Study 1. This upper-division advanced personal and family
finance course is often taken as an elective by students in their junior or senior year at UCA. The course is
a designated S-L course and was designed to examine the financial needs of the household at each stage
of the family life cycle. This course builds off of foundational personal and family finance concepts that
students learned in a prerequisite course that is required for majors in the department. This prerequisite
is helpful concerning S-L, as students start the course with a basic understanding of personal finance
already in place. This understanding also allows them to begin the advanced course ready to learn at a
more in-depth level topics related to financial challenges that individuals and families in the local com-
munity may face. These topics include student loan repayment, avoiding financial scams and fraud, and
the basics of household income tax filing, with a focus on low- to moderate-income households.
The S-L course objective for this course involves collaborating with a nonprofit organization within
the local community to organize and conduct financial outreach to community participants. This col-
laboration allows students to provide community-based financial services to adults, which is an FCS
practice setting.
Community Partner and Project Identification: Case Study 1. Before the start of the semester,
the instructor in this case study makes sure they have already developed a strong working relationship
with a local nonprofit organization. This often happens at least one semester before teaching the S-L
course. In some instances, they were introduced to this community partner through the UCA Office of
Service-Learning, which maintains a list of current community partner organizations. Some of these
organizations are listed because they had previously contacted UCA directly and expressed an interest
in having students work with their organization as volunteers. Other organizations are listed because
they have been identified by individual faculty members or recruited by the Office of Service-Learning.
Regardless of how the community partner was identified, all partners are asked to sign an annual letter
of agreement with UCA covering any S-L projects.
The instructor in this case study has implemented S-L using the collaborative consultation approach
for five semesters and has worked with three nonprofit organizations during that time. All three were
local nonprofits, with less than five full-time employees, and all relied on volunteer help to function.
One of these nonprofit community partners was identified with the help of the UCA Office of Service-
Learning. The other two community partners were identified by the instructor reaching out directly and
establishing a relationship. Although it is possible to work simultaneously with multiple community
partners in a collaborative consultation style, the instructor in this case study found it helpful to identify
a single community partner per semester to collaborate with. This worked well for this instructor as their
class size was often small (less than 25 students), which enabled them to focus on a single S-L project
per semester that each student contributed to.
Once the community partner is identified, the instructor works closely with them to identify a need
within the local community that is helpful to both the community partner and the households they serve,
but that also aligns with the scope of the course, i.e. a financial-related need that students could help
address. Once this need is identified, the S-L project is developed by the instructor in collaboration with
the community partner. The instructor and community partner also outline expectations for each other
and the students involved in the S-L project.

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The instructor also discusses with the community partner which roles they are comfortable taking
on in the project. In the collaborative consultation approach, the community partner takes on an active
role by serving as an unofficial co-instructor throughout the S-L project. For in-person courses, this may
include occasional class visits and/or presentations. For online asynchronous courses, this may include
recording a virtual lecture or presentation, with the help of the instructor as needed. Outlining these
expectations early on in the partnership process helps both the instructor and the community partner feel
comfortable with the S-L project and know what to expect as the course progresses.
Implementing the S-L Project in the Classroom: Case Study 1. Using a collaborative consultation
approach, the S-L project is designed by the instructor and community partner before the start of the
semester. The details of the project are predetermined by the instructor and agreed upon by the commu-
nity partner, before sharing any information about the project with students. The instructor in this case
study will provide the community partner with a copy of all S-L course materials before introducing
the S-L project to students. The community partner is encouraged to provide feedback on the project
instructions and other S-L course materials.
In this case study, the instructor introduces students to S-L by first discussing what S-L is and how
it is different from volunteer work, internships, and paid employment. Students are also exposed to the
various types of S-L projects, including direct, indirect, and research-based S-L. Next, the details of
the S-L project are shared with students. The instructor shares that they will be collaborating with a
nonprofit in the local community to conduct a project focused on financial education and outreach and
will be conducting at least five hours of S-L. Often this discussion will involve the participation of the
community partner as well. For in-person courses, the community partner may attend class the day that
the S-L project is introduced and help answer any questions about the project or partner organization.
They may also share with students details about the individuals and households that their organization
serves, and how the S-L project will benefit the local community. For online asynchronous courses, the
instructor in this case study works closely with the community partner to create a video highlighting the
partner organization and the communities they serve. When appropriate, this video may also include a
virtual tour of the partner organization’s facility (for example, a community food pantry).
Prior to beginning the S-L project, students are asked to complete a pre-flection assignment in which
they are presented with a series of 8-10 discussion prompts related to the S-L project. The pre-flection
assignment allows students to share their responses either through video or audio recording, or they can
choose to submit a written response. Once students have completed the pre-flection activity, they begin
the S-L project. Depending on the needs of the community partner and the type of class (in-person or
asynchronous online), this might be a direct S-L project or a research-based project, and students may
work in small groups or individually depending on the project. Examples of past projects have included
1) planning, organizing, and hosting an in-person financial outreach workshop for members of the local
community, 2) researching and creating a food supply budget with limited resources for a local com-
munity food pantry, 3) researching and creating informational handouts on a variety of financial topics
that the partner can use with clients, and 4) hosting an informational booth at a local community event
on avoiding financial scams and identity theft. The community partner is invited to work collaboratively
with the instructor as the project progresses. For example, for the in-person financial outreach workshop
project, the partner was invited to provide feedback on and attend a draft presentation of each group’s
selected financial topic before the event. For the informational handouts project, draft versions of each
handout were shared with the community partner for feedback before the due date of the final version.

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Regardless of the type of S-L project, it is helpful to build in milestone assignments at key stages of
the project so that students can receive feedback on their progress from both the instructor and the com-
munity partner and adjust their efforts accordingly. Depending on the type of project, they may receive
feedback on a draft version of their S-L deliverable or other milestone as appropriate. The final student
learning artifact resulting from the S-L project is then assessed using the shared S-L rubric (see Table
1). Lastly, once the S-L project has concluded, students are asked to complete a post-project reflection
assignment. This reflection assignment follows the same style and format as the pre-flection assignment.
Challenges and Lessons Learned: Case Study 1. One of the biggest challenges with the collaborative
consultation approach is building a mutually beneficial relationship with one’s community partner. This
particular instructional approach involves a significant amount of collaboration between the instructor
and community partner. It is especially important then that the S-L project simultaneously addresses
a need within the local community, while also being helpful to the partnering organization. In this in-
structor’s experience, the best collaborative consultation S-L projects have stemmed from a community
need that the partner organization recognized but does not have the resources to address themselves. For
example, a prior partnering organization recognized the need for an educational financial workshop for
the local community but did not have the staff or facility space to host such as workshop. It was very
beneficial then for them to work collaboratively with the instructor in this case study, as the students in
this S-L course could host and conduct this workshop on behalf of the community partner. Partnering
organizations are also more likely to work with you in this collaborative consultation style if they feel
the households they serve will benefit from their efforts with your course.
This instructor has also found that working collaboratively with a community partner often requires
more time to be allocated to the S-L project throughout the semester, compared to other instructional
approaches. When building your schedule for the semester, you will want to allocate additional time to
allow your partnering organization to review and provide feedback during the project, and to suggest
any changes along the way.
Student Reflections, Feedback, and Evaluation: Case Study 1. Below are a few quotes from stu-
dent post-reflection assignments, that refer to the collaborative consultation approach of the S-L course
discussed in this case study. Students frequently mentioned the value of having to collaborate not just
with their peers or the instructor, but with the partnering organization as well. As this case study focuses
on a personal and family finance course that uses a people-centered sciences viewpoint, many students
also commented on how they felt collaborating with the partnering organization was helpful for their
development as future FCS professionals:

“I enjoyed the project because creating talking points and engaging with local community members
at the information booth, as well as being able to create a flyer, gave me hands-on skills and real-life
experience…... It was my first time having to operate an informational booth, and it was helpful for me
to be able to collaborate with the organizers of the event, as well as with my instructor and my group
members.”

“Yes, you can have a lecture, yes you can read a book. But having the experience of service learning
and applying that experience to your life is something that you will never forget. I really enjoyed getting
to work with (nonprofit organization) and their feedback on our financial workshop presentation was
really helpful. I like that we got feedback from them, our instructor, our classmates, and from the com-

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munity members who attended the workshop at the end. That’s one of the things that really made this
whole project feel like a community, you know what I mean?”

“So in a traditional classroom, you would be doing book work or you’d be practicing what you’re going
to say in front of a class. But in service learning you are offering people in the community actual infor-
mation that is going to benefit them. So I mean it’s a lot different than a regular class. You’re actually
dealing with actual people and working some directly with the nonprofit organization, which has really
helped me with how to communicate with the public and my professionalism. So there’s a lot of skills
that can go into that, and that’s just a few of them……that were beneficial from this.”

At the end of the S-L project, both the instructor in the case study and the partnering organization
assess the final student learning artifact using the shared S-L rubric which is displayed in Table 1. This
shared S-L rubric is provided by the UCA Office of Service-Learning and is used to assess the final
student artifact resulting from the S-L project, for all designated S-L courses across campus. This rubric
assesses the student artifact on four S-L goals, using a three-point scale (1=basic proficiency, 3=advanced
proficiency) to assess each goal. The assessment results for this case study, by student proficiency level,
can be viewed in Table 2. For each of the four assessment goals, more than 54% of students exhibited
an advanced proficiency level. As both the instructor and the partnering organization each assessed the
final student learning artifact, any discrepancies in rubric scores are discussed and final score(s) de-

Table 2. Student proficiency levels for case study 1, by Service-Learning (S-L) assessment goal

Proficiency Level
Basic Intermediate Advanced
S-L Assessment Goal
(%) (%) (%)
Student Understanding 8.45 25.35 66.20
Diversity 18.31 26.76 54.93
Civic Responsibility 9.86 19.72 70.42
Communication, Collaboration, and Community 7.04 15.49 77.47
Note: n=71; aggregated student data from across 5 semesters (5 classes)

Table 3. Average student proficiency score for case study 1, by semester

Proficiency Score
Communication, Collaboration, and
Student Understanding Diversity Civic Responsibility
Semester Community
(Avg.) (Avg.) (Avg.)
(Avg.)
Fall 2019 2.58 2.17 2.50 2.58
Spring 2020 2.50 2.25 2.63 2.50
Spring 2021 2.63 2.50 2.88 2.75
Spring 2022 2.69 2.69 2.69 2.69
Spring 2023 2.50 2.23 2.40 2.82
Note: n=71; Basic = 1, Intermediate = 2, Advanced = 3

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termined collaboratively. Average student proficiency scores can be viewed in Table 3. Across all five
semesters that this S-L course was taught, average proficiency scores for each S-L goal were between
the ‘intermediate’ and ‘advanced’ proficiency levels.

Case Study 2: A Guided Discovery Approach

We next discuss a required upper-division resource management course that uses a guided discovery
instructional approach to introduce students to civic engagement through exposure to a variety of com-
munity partners. By using a guided discovery approach, the instructor can incorporate a series of inves-
tigative activities that are tied to both formative and summative assessments (Balim, 2009). Students
are presented with a variety of community partners with whom to collaborate and are encouraged to
self-discover which S-L project best aligns with their given interests. After this period of guided self-
discovery, students participate in a community partner “signing day” and then formally begin their S-L
project. In addition to completing pre-post reflection assignments, using a guided discovery approach
also results in students completing multiple reflection assignments throughout the S-L project.
The reflection assignments utilized in this approach include independent journaling, in-class activi-
ties, and collaborative exercises. Throughout their direct S-L projects, students in this case study work
often end up working with community partners from their future professional fields. As the course in
this case study is part of the FCS curriculum at UCA, students also often end up directly working with
underserved populations within the local community. This typically results in students being exposed to
a diverse set of experiences throughout their S-L project. This case study will discuss in further detail
how the guided discovery approach has been used to successfully implement S-L projects that provide
a direct service to the local community.
Course Overview and Objectives: Case Study 2. The upper-division resource management course
discussed in this case study serves as a communication course with the FCS program at UCA. Integrating
S-L into a course that has strong communication requirements allows students an opportunity to develop
strong oral and written communication skills while simultaneously completing their S-L project. The
resource management course in this case study was designed to expose students to the decision-making
process, as well as cover management principles applied to consumer activities and personnel management.
The course objectives in this case study that align with the S-L project include: (1) describing the
effects of attitudes, values, and standards in achieving individual and family goals; (2) applying the
decision-making process to management problems; (3) explaining how change can be directed positively
within management plans; (4) applying the principles of human resource management to different situ-
ations; (5) applying the tools of time management to personal and business goals; (6) demonstrating
skills in presenting a positive business image; (7) demonstrating professional quality oral communication
skills; (8) demonstrating practice management and use of resources, including strategic application of
principles of management and systems in the provision of services to individuals and organizations; and
(9) applying management theories to the development of programs or services. This resource manage-
ment typically has 50-75 students per semester, which ultimately impacts the final number of partner
organizations each semester.
Community Partner and Project Identification: Case Study 2. Partnering organizations in this
case study have ranged from small local nonprofits with limited employees, to local affiliates of larger
national organizations, including United Way. Before implementing S-L into their course, the instructor
reaches out to several potential community partners to explore and discuss their need for S-L. This usu-

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ally occurs three to four months before the start of the semester. As part of this discussion, the instruc-
tor considers not only the needs of each community partner but also the needs of the course, including
student learning objectives. The guided self-discovery approach requires community partners to serve
as co-educators and stakeholders throughout the semester. This initial discussion between the instructor
and the community partner also addresses course objectives, student expectations, key dates, project
scopes, and a timeline for communication for the duration of the project.
The instructor discusses with each community partner the types of potential projects and service
activities that align with the resource management course featured in this case study. Having a variety
of community partners allows for both direct and indirect S-L experiences, and a variety of S-L project
options to help meet the logistical needs of students. As UCA is located in a more rural area with limited
public transportation, having at least one on-campus S-L partner can be helpful from an accessibility
standpoint for students with disability accommodations. The instructor in this case study has also found
it helpful to have at least one community partner from a large non-profit organization. Larger nonprofit
organizations often have multiple in-person locations, which can be helpful for online students who
have a desire to carry out direct S-L but are unable to physically be in the same proximity as campus.
Implementing the S-L Project in the Classroom: Case Study 2. Students are first exposed to the
guided self-discovery approach of S-L by completing a series of formative self-assessments before begin-
ning the S-L project. These include defining their personal and professional values, mission statement,
and goals. The instructor next introduces the concept of S-L, and how S-L aligns with the overall goals
of the course. Before beginning their S-L project, each student is next required to complete an extensive
review of all potential community partners, which is referred to as the ‘community partner discovery
assignment’. Once this discovery assignment is completed, each student is asked to rank their prefer-
ence for being partnered with each community organization. This preference ranking is reviewed by the
instructor, who ultimately pairs each student with a respective community partner.
Once paired with a community partner, each student completes a reflection exercise focused on the
service expectations that they anticipate the S-L project will require, and a welcome video from each
organization becomes available to the student through the University’s online learning management
system. This is a 5-minute introduction video from the organization that highlights (1) the organization’s
mission, funding, programs, and community they serve; (2) the opportunities and methods of services
for students to participate; (3) the impact of the S-L experience; and (4) what the student should expect
at their first meeting.
In this course, the instructor hosts a ‘S-L signing day’ for students and community partners to of-
ficially meet and ask questions. This signing day occurs about three weeks into the semester after their
community partner discovery assignment is completed. Each community partner is invited to campus
and sets up an informational table in the classroom during the regularly scheduled class time. Students
are informed that they are expected to attend this signing day as an opportunity to connect with their
community partners and to come prepared for a working meeting. This signing day also allows for the
community partner to directly communicate with students any organizational policies, forms, background
checks, or liability waivers that may be required before the student’s service activity can begin. This is
also an opportunity for students to begin to work out the logistics of their S-L project and brainstorm
potential project ideas with their partner, based on their prior research of the organization.
After the S-L signing day is concluded, students are expected to be in direct contact with their com-
munity partner until the completion of their service project. Each student is responsible for communicat-
ing and coordinating directly with their community partner to carry out a minimum of ten service hours.

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Within one week of the S-L signing day, students are responsible for sending the community partner a
proposed plan of work with dates for service and tracking their service hours using an online platform.
Utilizing a universal software platform that tracks student hours, such as GivePulse, provides the stu-
dent, instructor, and community partner access to a dashboard and portal to keep track of submission
and verification of the student’s S-L participation. This allows for smooth project coordination from all
stakeholders. Once students document and submit their service hours on GivePulse, the instructor or
community partner can approve these hours to officially document the service completed.
Mid-semester, the instructor reaches out to all community partners to check in on student progress. If
there are any issues or students are not serving in the capacity expected, or are in danger of not completing
their requirements, the instructor will meet with students and the partner to help address any challenges.
This open communication is an important part of the guided discovery approach, as the instructor needs
to be in communication with both the community partner and the students throughout the entirety of the
project. At the end of the semester, when all of the students have completed their S-L project, students
next participate in a guided group discussion. Grouped by respective community partners, students are
then provided with a group assignment that includes a needs assessment. The information generated from
the needs assessment is later provided to the community partner so that they can utilize this information
for future service efforts.
Once the students complete this group needs assessment assignment, they complete a reflective post-
S-L assignment. Students are given prompts to respond to in their reflection about the overall project and
the tasks they completed. These assignments provide an opportunity for students to also connect their
S-L experience to the overall goals of the course. Lastly, similar to Case Study 1, the instructor assesses
each student’s final S-L project using the shared S-L rubric in Table 1.
Challenges and Lessons Learned: Case Study 2. For the guided discovery approach to be effective,
the instructor needs to first introduce S-L and the various course components tied to the S-L project at
the very beginning of the semester, to ensure ample time to complete all aspects of the S-L project. The
instructor also must be very clear from the start in setting clear expectations and being transparent about
course objectives. Undergraduate students are often busy and may need time to coordinate their S-L
hours into their schedule. Once the S-L project is underway, the instructor may also discover that too
many students have elected to work with a single partnering organization and that fewer students than
anticipated are needed to complete the project. If this happens, the instructor may need to onboard an
additional community partner and/or S-L project with an existing partner. This instructional approach
also requires the instructor to simultaneously coordinate multiple S-L projects across multiple partner-
ing organizations. This can be overwhelming if a strong communication plan is not in place between the
instructor, partnering organization, and students at the very start of the project.
Student Reflections, Feedback, and Evaluation: Case Study 2. Overall, the instructor in this case
study found that utilizing a guided discovery approach in S-L allows for greater self-discovery, critical
thinking, and resource management among students. From an instructor’s perspective, the ability to see
authentic advocacy for the S-L project’s target population evolve from students can be inspirational.
The benefits of this instructional approach for both the instructor and for students are reflected in direct
student quotes from the post-reflection assignment:

“I feel that my service experience just drilled all of the course material into my head deeper. I am such
a hands-on learner. Therefore, by taking what we learned and actually using it helped me a lot with
this course.”

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“I learned more professional communication skills through my service-learning experience. The ex-
perience reinforced the course material in many ways. One way was the interview process. Dressing
professional is essential for interviews, and working with the WOW closet reinforced how important
appearance is for professional and academic success.”

“It encourages you to use your resources in an efficient manner. I really got to see how people that have
a different lifestyle than me manage their lives and the different aspects of it. I basically got to see the
information that was presented in class first hand through my service-learning experience and that was
so cool to me.”

“I believe that this service experience relates to the course material because it shows us students real
issues going on in the world. We can sit and read about problems involving our community all day, but
it truly makes a difference when a student can actually see the problem first hand.”

At the end of the S-L project, the instructor assesses the final student learning artifact resulting from
the project using the shared S-L rubric which is displayed in Table 1. The assessment results for this case
study, by student proficiency level, can be viewed in Table 4. At least 97% of students were observed
exhibiting an advanced proficiency level for each of the four assessment goals. Average student profi-
ciency scores can be viewed in Table 5. Across all six semesters that this S-L course was taught, average
proficiency scores for each assessment goal were either at or just below the ‘advanced’ proficiency level.

Table 4. Student proficiency levels for case study 2, by Service-Learning (S-L) assessment goal

Proficiency Level
Basic Intermediate Advanced
S-L Assessment Goal
(%) (%) (%)
Student Understanding 1.39 1.04 97.57
Diversity 1.04 0.00 98.96
Civic Responsibility 1.39 0.70 97.91
Communication, Collaboration, and Community 0.70 1.39 97.91
Note: n=287; aggregated student data from across 6 semesters (13 classes)

Table 5. Average student proficiency score for case study 2, by semester

Proficiency Score
Communication, Collaboration, and
Student Understanding Diversity Civic Responsibility
Semester Community
(Avg.) (Avg.) (Avg.)
(Avg.)
Fall 2019 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00
Spring 2020 2.98 3.00 3.00 2.94
Fall 2020 2.79 2.79 2.79 2.79
Spring 2021 2.77 2.77 2.77 2.77
Fall 2021 2.89 2.89 2.89 3.00
Spring 2022 2.93 3.00 2.93 2.91
Note: n=287; Basic = 1, Intermediate = 2, Advanced = 3

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Case Study 3: A Learner-Centered Approach

Lastly, we discuss a required senior capstone course, which uses a learner-centered approach designed
to shift much of the responsibility of identifying community need and subsequent design of the S-L
project to the student. Using this approach allows students to be involved in the majority of the decision-
making related to their project (Abdelmalak & Trespalacios, 2013). This approach allows students to
work closely with their partnering organization on a S-L project that they design themselves, for the
majority of the semester. The instructor provides guidance and direction; however, the majority of the
responsibility is attached to the students, and students have some level of decision-making power for
their S-L projects (Liu et al., 2006).
This approach allows the students to develop professional characteristics, establish goals, work in
a collaborative setting, and create and follow a self-managed plan for their S-L project. Students work
closely with a professional in the field and often feel the importance of performing as such during their
S-L experience. This case study will also discuss how the learner-centered approach has been used to
implement both direct and indirect S-L projects successfully.
Course Overview and Objectives: Case Study 3. Towards the end of their degree requirements
at UCA, all undergraduates are required to take what is referred to as a ‘capstone course’ in their field
of study that integrates both communication and critical inquiry requirements. The course in this case
study was intentionally developed as the senior-level capstone for students in the FCS program. The
course focuses on transitioning students from emerging to practicing FCS professionals. Incorporating
S-L into this capstone course is useful as students ultimately self-manage their projects, including taking
ownership of their project outcomes, and acting as professionals in the field. This course is offered on
a rotational basis for in-person delivery in the fall semester and online, asynchronous delivery for the
spring semesters. The way the course is offered influences the type of S-L offered in a given term such
as indirect or direct options.
The course objectives that align with S-L in this case study include: (1) demonstrating effective
and professional oral and written communication in multiple formats; (2) implementing a S-L project
based on a needs assessment to assist community partners and further develop professional skills; and
(3) proving content mastery in program FCS competencies. Students are also able to examine the FCS
Body of Knowledge (FCS-BOK) through their S-L projects, which is a conceptual framework for the
FCS field. This framework allows students to see the connection between their community S-L project
and the people-centered sciences (Nickols et al., 2009).
Community Partner and Project Identification: Case Study 3. To successfully implement S-L in
this course, the instructor sets time aside before the start of the semester to create overall project guide-
lines. The learner-centered approach requires a significant time investment from both the instructor and
students. The instructor will need to preselect community partners based on specific course needs and
community engagement. For this approach to be successful, the community partner needs to be willing
to have substantial communication with the instructor and students in the course.
As the instructor of the course, it is imperative to select community projects and partners that are
going to work well with this approach. When selecting partners for this instruction type, they become
consultants to the students and instructor consistently throughout the semester. In considering projects
and partners, it is important to highlight the needs assessment that students will be conducting. Some
questions an instructor may want to ask themselves include: Is there a tangible item that is needed for the
partner? Will they be able to host students in their facility? Are there any privacy concerns for students

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participating in their work with them? Do we need to explore transportation or can items be carried
out virtually? This course has primarily partnered with local nonprofit organizations that have less than
ten employees. When evaluating partners, it is also important to note the capacity of the partner and
potential student numbers that can be anticipated in the course. For this specific course, the enrollment
is typically capped between 20-25 students each semester. In partner selections, hosting informational
meetings with the instructor and partner to discuss expectations and requirements early is key to build-
ing relationships and projects. The instructor will need to create clear expectations, preferably written
agreements to ensure a collective and comprehensive understanding among all participants.
This course incorporates both direct and indirect S-L approaches. Through the direct option, students
have had the opportunity to work directly at community events after preparing the majority of the semester
to deliver the established need. Other community projects for the direct option have included collection
drives for the local children’s advocacy center (CAC) and campus food pantry. When working on indirect
projects, students have the opportunity to create or produce a product for the community partner based
on a given or decided-upon need. Prior projects that have been completed include creating content for
after-school care at a local shelter, workshop designs for a particularly vulnerable student population on
campus, and programming for other community partners. When working on direct or indirect projects,
students work in groups of 3-5 so that there is ample opportunity for all to participate.
Implementing the S-L Project in the Classroom: Case Study 3. The introduction to this approach
needs to be methodical since it will be a much different learning experience than what many students
are accustomed to. Students in this program will have taken a previous S-L course. The S-L process is
initiated in class through the introduction with a presentation. Following the presentation, students are
expected to complete a survey that includes basic identifying information and the choices for the projects
available. The survey also includes preferences for when and how they best work as well as what their
skills are. The instructor then sorts the students based on their preferences and skills to develop groups.
After students are put into S-L project groups, they complete a pre-flection much like students in the
previously shared case study 1. Following project completion, students complete a post-reflection in the
same format. They reflect on their experiences such as their successes and challenges, the emotional
impact of their projects, the new skills they developed, and how these apply to their future professional
careers. To facilitate the students’ self-managing, it is helpful for the instructor to determine how the
project will be submitted and managed. In this course, the instructor utilizes cloud-based virtual tools and
creates individual “Team” folders for the student groups and shares them with students. In each folder,
there are specific detailed assignment directions titled Mini Milestones that have links to the needed
documents for the project. By using these platforms, the instructor, community partner, and students
can collaborate in real-time, learning new skills, and building sites. All of these can be seen as valu-
able professional skills to develop for their careers. These milestones assist the students in developing
their initial goals, project purpose, and provide structure throughout the entirety of the project. Without
having the milestones, it would be easier for the groups to delay progress or not feel accountable for
completing project tasks on time.
At the start of the S-L project, student groups are provided background information on their commu-
nity partner and project. Students then meet as a group and fill out the Team Planning Document. In this
document, things such as defining the team’s tasks happen first with the identification of their deadlines,
audience, purpose, and target outcomes that are desired. This document also includes identifying liaisons
to serve as the communicator between the facilitators of the project and the student group; defining each
member’s tasks based on strengths and weaknesses; and establishing their group’s working procedures

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such as meeting times, locations, and how they will communicate. During this planning phase, the stu-
dents need to establish their group expectations as well. Students self-manage and determine what their
“rules” will be, which is crucial in this format of S-L.
Each group is provided with in-class instructional time to work on their S-L project. The instructor
manages how much class time is provided and documents the hours spent in class. Throughout the project,
students are asked to manage an agenda and roles/responsibilities to share how they progress throughout
several milestones. As each student group progresses through their projects, they are required to commu-
nicate and consistently update the community partner on their progress. The instructor in this case study
has noticed that students who are conducting indirect projects are more likely to manage those projects
more independently than those completing direct projects. In the learner-centered approach, students
are given the freedom to present the project outcomes but do have a few simple guidelines provided by
the instructor. They are also required to virtually record their project presentation to submit for the core
assessment and build this additional skill set that they may not have utilized before. Overall, students
are managing the entirety of the project, communicating with professionals in the field, and instructors,
as well as building their toolkit of skills.
Students take control of their learning by developing the project and using critical thinking to determine
what approaches and needs they may have. They also develop their professional skills in the form of oral
and written communication of emails, needs assessments, inquiries, phone calls, and formal presenta-
tions. In addition to professional skills, students using this approach can engage in career development
by learning how to work with others and exposure to diverse experiences and challenges. They are also
able to engage in learning more efficient time management and enhancing their technology skills by
using various virtual technology platforms. By managing their projects, students ultimately take owner-
ship of their work and outcomes. This approach removes the standard list of directions and products that
need to be produced, students are limited only by themselves in how they manage and solve problems.
The instructor works closely with both the students and partners to ensure that the process is being fol-
lowed through. Ideas are provided, guidance and feedback are also given to students throughout but the
opportunity to be challenged is also offered.
Challenges and Lessons Learned: Case Study 3. With a learner-centered approach, it can be
helpful to create and develop specific sets of instructions and rubrics tailored to the S-L project, as this
may help limit the number of questions that either the community partner or students may have. These
instructions ultimately serve as a guide to assist students with the expectations for their S-L projects, as
well as their project timeline. The instructor in this case study has found that providing a general project
timeline encourages students to both manage their time effectively and think through which project tasks
need to be completed along the way.
Other items to consider before fully implementing S-L using a learner-centered approach include any
potential financial constraints. Many student groups discover they would like to provide specific items,
purchase materials, or provide incentives to the participants of their S-L projects. Unfortunately, there
is not always university funding available for this. The instructor may have access to limited resources
and/or may have to seek out other sources of funding to provide this opportunity to students.
Student Reflections, Feedback, and Evaluation: Case Study 3. Through this approach, there
have been obvious benefits and challenges during the process, however, overwhelmingly in the course
responses the benefits have outweighed the challenges. Several students had this to share about their
experiences with the learner-centered approach to S-L.

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“I enjoyed learning and developing a skill that is actually helping people in my current community rather
than hypothetical situations that only build my foundational knowledge of something. This service learn-
ing experience helped me see the inner workings of not just completing a project, but of recognizing a
need and taking the steps to provide for that need. My advice and insights for someone completing this
project down the line is to take it seriously, put some heart into what you do, and do not panic about the
little things. One of the first things you complete for this project is a timeline, so stick to it and you’ll
be golden!”

“This experience was much different, and in my opinion, a great asset in understanding the content.
When in a classroom we learn and are tested on curriculum; however, with this service-learning project
we were able to put our knowledge to actual work and see it play out.”

“The service-learning experience was different that a traditional classroom in a few ways. The first
is that it provides hands on learning experience that is valuable in learning life skills. The second is
that it helps me problem solve on what to do when things do not go as planned. The service-learning
experience helps students learn how to work together on projects and goals. There may be times in my
career where I will have to work with others, and service learning can help prepare you for these career
projects. Service-learning projects help you learn to be accountable, and hold your peers accountable
for the completion and success of your service project.”

Overall, the learner-centered approach can be a useful approach to teaching S-L if you want to offer
students the opportunity to learn and grow independently in their skills, be challenged by thinking outside
of the box, and create a meaningful learning outcome for the partners and students.
At the end of the S-L project, similar to the prior two case studies, the instructor assesses the final
student learning artifact using the shared S-L rubric which is displayed in Table 1. The assessment results
for this case study, by student proficiency level, can be viewed in Table 6. At least 50% of students in
this case study were observed exhibiting an advanced proficiency level for each of the four assessment
goals. Average student proficiency scores can be viewed in Table 7. Across all five semesters that this
S-L course was taught, average proficiency scores for each assessment goal were either slightly above
the ‘intermediate’ proficiency level, or between the ‘intermediate’ and ‘advanced’ proficiency levels.

Table 6. Student proficiency levels for case study 3, by Service-Learning (S-L) assessment goal

Proficiency Level
Basic Intermediate Advanced
S-L Assessment Goal
(%) (%) (%)
Student Understanding 7.95 42.05 50.00
Diversity 0.00 42.05 57.95
Civic Responsibility 2.27 47.73 50.00
Communication, Collaboration, and Community 12.50 34.09 53.41
Note: n=88; aggregated student data from across 5 semesters (5 classes)

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Table 7. Average student proficiency score for case study 3, by semester

Proficiency Score
Communication, Collaboration, and
Student Understanding Diversity Civic Responsibility
Semester Community
(Avg.) (Avg.) (Avg.)
(Avg.)
Fall 2020 2.33 2.58 2.33 2.67
Spring 2021 2.57 2.57 2.71 2.64
Spring 2022 2.76 2.90 2.67 2.76
Fall 2022 2.50 2.44 2.56 2.11
Spring 2023 2.00 2.39 2.17 2.04
Note: n=88; Basic = 1, Intermediate = 2, Advanced = 3

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

All three of the instructional approaches discussed in this book chapter can provide students with the
option of completing a research-based, indirect, or direct S-L project. This flexibility concerning the
type of S-L project utilized can be particularly helpful for students who may be nontraditional, working
full- or part-time, have family obligations, are student-athletes, or are completing their degree through
distance-based learning. All three of these instructional approaches also allow students an opportunity
to better plan and prepare for their S-L project, by providing ample opportunities during class time for
students to make sufficient progress on their S-L. If students are completing the course online through
distance-based learning, it is important to be mindful as the instructor of other obligations that students
may have outside of their S-L project. Regardless of the instructional approach utilized, instructors in
higher education need to remain aware of potential logistical issues including student and community
partner schedules and transportation needs that may arise during the S-L project.
Findings from all three of these case studies also align with earlier examinations of S-L as a useful peda-
gogical approach in the FCS curriculum by Blackmon et al. (2001), Ju and Yang (2021), Lee (2012), Roofe
(2012), and Schichtl (2022). To the knowledge of the authors, this is the first examination of S-L course
implementation in the people-centered sciences using these three instructional approaches. Similar to Vo-
gelgesang and Astin (2000), instructor perceptions in these three case studies likewise suggest that S-L may
positively impact student critical thinking. Our examination in Case Study 3 also aligns with earlier sugges-
tions by Baugher (2013) that the learner-centered approach is especially useful within the FCS curriculum.
When it comes to lessons learned, all three of these approaches require flexibility from both the
instructor and their students. As the collaborative consultation approach described in Case Study 1
requires a close working relationship with a single community partner, instructors must remain mindful
that community partners may commit and agree to a specific role, but due to staffing changes, funding,
or other reasons, are unable to maintain the commitment. A benefit of the collaborative consultation
approach is that the details of the S-L project were determined and agreed upon before the start of the
semester. If the community partner finds themselves unable to continue serving as a co-instructor, the
instructor is already familiar with the S-L project and can likely continue with the service activity. In
contrast, the guided discovery approach does not have the details of the S-L project predetermined at
the start of the semester, rather, students must work with their community partner to determine their
project and an associated plan of work.

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The guided discovery approach discussed in Case Study 2 utilizes numerous community partners
simultaneously within the same course. This approach requires a significant investment and commitment
in both time and organization from the instructor, and as such the instructor will need to be mindful
of possibly over-committing themselves during the semester. Those looking to implement the guided
discovery approach would also be wise to consider their capacity to manage relationships with multiple
community partner organizations simultaneously. This instructional approach may also be best suited
for instructors with particularly strong communication skills who are adept at managing multiple com-
munity partner relationships at once. As these community partners may have differing expectations,
instructors may also need to have strong conflict-resolution skills. However, this approach also exposes
students to a variety of S-L opportunities and allows them to discover which service opportunity best
fits their interests. This is particularly important as Puente et al. (2021) note the positive impact that
S-L has on the development of problem-solving and communication skills. Relationships with multiple
community partners though may be particularly useful for the instructor, as Wu et al. (2023) stress the
role of university-community partnerships in developing solutions to complex societal issues. Similar
to Myers et al. (2019) and Wagner and Mathison (2015), the instructor in this case study also observed
a greater sense of community problem-solving and leadership among students at the end of the course.
The learner-centered approach presented in Case Study 3 provides students with an opportunity to have
a significant amount of ownership over their S-L projects. This approach may be best suited for students
who are near graduation and will soon be emerging professionals in their respective fields. Therefore it
can be an excellent approach for students who are academically prepared to approach their S-L experi-
ence as if they were already a working professional. Utilizing a learner-centered approach to implement
S-L may not be the best fit for underclassmen who are still developing skills in their degree programs.
However, in some circumstances, this approach may be appropriate for advanced underclassmen who
are ready academically to strengthen their communication skills and may even help them become more
attuned to societal issues. Such skills may be helpful as these students advance in their degree programs
and take more advanced courses in their respective disciplines.
For all three approaches, the instructor would be wise to have a contingency plan or be prepared to
intervene if communication issues between students and the community partner arise. It is also important
to highlight that sometimes goals and objectives are initially agreed upon, but there may be a disagree-
ment of expectations after the S-L project begins. Such situations may require the instructor to step in
and assist with realigning project goals with the community partner. It is also possible that students may
have taken prior S-L courses before taking the courses discussed in these case studies. Future efforts may
wish to examine the impact that taking a prior S-L course, that uses a different instructional approach,
has on student proficiency levels with regard to the S-L assessment goals examined in the case studies
presented here.
Future efforts should also consider undertaking a more detailed analysis of student perceptions of
the competencies they acquired during the course, across instructional methodologies. The case studies
presented here discuss the acquisition of competencies during the course, including self-discovery, critical
thinking, and resource management, from primarily the instructor’s point of view. Further examinations
focusing on the student perception of competencies acquired pre- and post-course could yield valuable
insights. The case studies examined here also primarily focus on student proficiencies across four S-L
assessment goals. However, each case study course also assessed students on course content knowledge
concerning their S-L project experience using their post-reflection responses. Each course also included
formal quizzes and exams covering course content. Additional efforts should utilize these post-reflection

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responses to examine differences in levels of student learning across instructional approaches. Although
the perceptions and observations of each instructor suggest that all three instructional approaches have
positive impacts on student content learning, additional research is warranted.
Regardless of which of these three instructional approaches you may choose to utilize, successful
implementation of S-L requires a strong commitment from both the instructor and community partner(s).
Each approach also requires significant preparatory work on behalf of the instructor before the start of the
semester. The instructors in the case studies presented here observed that across approaches, S-L led to
students developing communication, critical thinking, and reflection skills that are directly transferable
to their future professional careers. In particular, each instructor observed a common theme of improved
communication skills among students. Depending on the level of responsibility you would like students
to take for their S-L project, the three case studies presented here provide insights and suggestions to
help one determine the best instructional approach for their particular S-L course.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Instructional Approach: A method or strategy employed by educators to promote skill development,

foster learner understanding, and convey information to students.
Collaborative Consultation S-L: An instructional approach that requires the instructor, students,
and community partner to work together throughout the duration of the S-L project, with the community
partner serving as a co-instructor. See Case Study 1.
Guided Discovery S-L: An instructional approach that allows the instructor an opportunity to expose
students to a variety of community partners. This approach also provides activities and community learn-
ing experiences that help guide the student toward the S-L project that best aligns with their interests.
See Case Study 2.
Learner-Centered S-L: An instructional approach where the instructor serves as a facilitator for the
S-L project, but ultimately students are responsible for their decisions and learning outcomes throughout
the project. In this approach, students work closely with peers, the instructor, and community partners
as they assume the role of professional in their respective fields. See Case Study 3.
People-Centered Sciences: The field of family and consumer Sciences, formerly known as home
economics, is often referred to as a people-centered science. The field focuses on the improvement of
the lives of individuals, families, and communities through education and advocacy.
UCA Faculty Fellows Program: The faculty fellowship program at the University of Central Arkan-
sas, focused on engaging diverse faculty in educational theory related to service-learning. Faculty are
introduced to community partners throughout the program and redesign a course to teach the following
year as a designated S-L course.
Indirect Service-Learning: A service-learning approach where students combine traditional classroom
instruction with activities that are designed to benefit the community or an individual. Students are not
hands-on in this approach and do not directly interact with the community or individuals they are serving.
Direct Service-Learning: A service-learning approach in which students are actively involved in
hands-on service that directly impacts the community or an individual. In this format, students are ac-
tively engaged in working with a specific need through service learning.
Research-Based Service-Learning: A service-learning approach in which students collect, analyze,
develop, and present information on a particular topic or area related to the topic of the S-L project.
Students are involved in applying research-based practices to practical applications for communities
and individuals.

88
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Chapter 6
Bucs Abroad:
International Service-Learning
at a State College

Katharine O’Connor
Florida SouthWestern State College, USA

Jordan Donini
Florida SouthWestern State College, USA

Michael Messina
Florida SouthWestern State College, USA

Angus Cameron
Florida SouthWestern State College, USA

ABSTRACT
This chapter focuses on showcasing two case studies of multidisciplinary, international service-learning
courses offered on the state college level. The authors will focus on best practices of multidisciplinary,
international service-learning such as understanding student demographics in order to recruit and pre-
pare students for study abroad experiences. Preparation of student expectation, cultural mentors, and
identifying service-learning partners will be covered. The chapter will also offer insights into creative
research projects also known as “UnEssays” as a pedagogical tool.

INTRODUCTION OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY,
INTERNATIONAL SERVICE-LEARNING

As a state college, part of FSW’s mission is to “serve as a leader for intellectual, economic, and cultural
awareness in the community,” as well as expand access to a world-class education in our community.
Service learning, also called community-engaged learning, is a high-impact experiential learning practice
that reflects engagement with real-world issues and promotes humanistic values of inclusion and ethical
DOI: 10.4018/979-8-3693-2133-1.ch006

Copyright © 2024, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
 
Bucs Abroad

community participation. Community-engaged learning, is a high-impact, integrative practice that leads

to positive outcomes such as higher grade point averages, increased retention rates, and increased criti-
cal thinking abilities (Kuh, 2008). Community-engaged learning has been found to have a particularly
meaningful impact on students of color (Mungo, 2017). Considering FSW’s designation as a Hispanic
Serving Institute (HSI) and a “First Gen Forward” institution, integrating community-engaged learning
into the curriculum is a natural fit.
This chapter will discuss FSW’s integration of international service-learning within two study abroad
trips. The first trip took place in Italy and the second took place in Costa Rica. This case study is unique
because not only will it feature international service-learning, it will also feature multidisciplinary ap-
proaches.

FSW Specific Information

Florida SouthWestern State College (FSW) is an open-enrollment institution of higher education, with
a mission to inspire learning; prepare a diverse population for creative and responsible participation in a
global society.This is accomplished, whilst also expanding access to a higher education, with a majority
of students not suffering financial hardship. With student loans accounting for the second largest source
of debt in the United States today, FSW is proud that 70% of our graduates are able to graduate debt-free
and prepared to enter a globally competitive workforce.
The College was formally established in 1961 by the Florida Legislature as Edison Junior College.
In 1965 the main campus was established on 80 acres of land located in Fort Myers, Florida, a tropi-
cal haven shaped by the keen minds of such winter residents as Henry Ford, Charles Lindberg, Harvey
Firestone, and Thomas Edison, for whom the college was originally named. Edison Junior College was
renamed Edison Community College in 1972 as a reflection of its expanded mission, and opened cen-
ters in Charlotte and Collier counties that same year. The College’s service area represents tremendous
diversity in both geography and economy, and serves the largest geographic area of any Florida state
college. The Gulf Coast counties of Lee, Charlotte and Collier have experienced explosive population
growth. In contrast, the rural counties of Hendry and Glades to the East remain rural, predominantly
agrarian communities dependent on citrus fruit and sugar cane production. Aligned with area growth,
the College opened two permanent campuses, the Collier Campus in Naples and the Charlotte Campus
in Punta Gorda. In 2009, the College moved into a 19-acre facility in LaBelle known as the Hendry/
Glades Curtis Center. Today FSW’s five-county service district comprises three counties along Florida’s
southwestern Gulf Coast, and two inland counties, representing a total area of 5,448 square miles.
The five counties in FSW’s service district are diverse in population size, income, and ethnicities.
The rural Hendry and Glades counties’ populations are the smallest served by the college, despite a
combined area of 2,177 square miles. The three campuses in Lee, Charlotte, and Collier counties serve
significantly larger populations, with the largest population being served in Lee County, which has grown
by 152,000 over the last decade.
In 2019-2020, 52% of students represented minority groups, 63% were female and the average age
was 23. The total headcount of students at FSW was 16,672 with 38% of students studying full-time.
FSW remains an open enrollment institution, offering five bachelor programs, 22 associate programs,
and 30 professional certificates. Three-year graduation rates for FTIC full-time students have steadily
increased by 10% during a monitoring period between 2013 - 2017. Data from Fall 2020 shows that 71.1%

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of students at FSW are enrolled in a transfer degree program, 24.7% were enrolled in workforce degree
programs, and only 4.2% of students were categorized as unknown due to their non-degree seeking status.
Faculty, staff and administrators work with a shared vision to be the catalyst for creating an inno-
vative education system which provides accessible educational pathways that prepare students to be
enlightened and productive citizens. Opportunities for international education and service-learning of-
fered by the college illustrate FSW’s dedication to High Impact Practices (HIPs) that provide students
the opportunities to grow into productive and well informed citizens who are ready to participate in the
growing workforce needs of the area.

Study Abroad at FSW

FSW has a robust study abroad program that began in AY 2016-2017. At that time, there were 22 stu-
dents enrolled in study abroad programs, 21 of which were in a faculty-led program. According to the
Institute of International Education, associate degree seeking students only made up for 1.7% of study
abroad program participants in AY 2016-2017 (Open Doors, n.d.). While these types of programs are
gaining popularity, there is limited research as most research in the field is focused on students in the
4-year sector (Whatley, 2021). Whatley also points out that research within the study abroad area that
focuses on the 4-year sector might not be applicable to students at 2-year colleges (community colleges
and/or state colleges) due to many systematic differences (Whatley, 2021). Some of the barriers of the
study abroad programs gaining popularity in the state college sector are economic and administrative.
Students need more financial resources and more administrative direction in completing their applica-
tions (Whatley, 2021). Amani and Kim’s study (2018) offers the perspective that financial education
can help students prepare for study abroad opportunities by encouraging them to plan ahead financially
and seek scholarships. Amani and Kim also point to the importance of administrative support for 2-year
students as they navigate the study abroad process (2018).
Since AY 2016-2017, the Center for International Education at FSW has worked to expand its of-
ferings through partnerships with outside organizations and institutions. One example is an intensive
Spanish language study abroad course through the International College of Seville where students spend
the summer staying with a host family and courses at a partner institution. The most notable reoccurring
partnership is with Istituto Lorenzo de Medici (LdM) in Florence. This partnership began in AY 2017-
2018 with 10 students studying abroad in Florence. Within this partnership, students take one course
from FSW taught by a faculty member from FSW and also take a course offered by LdM taught by a
faculty member from LdM. The course offerings from LdM vary by semester but some popular courses
include creative options such as photography, jewelry making, and art appreciation. Given the fact that
Florence is and always has been a beacon for the arts, it comes as no surprise that the creative courses
offered are the most popular.
FSW also offers a variety of faculty-led study abroad programs and has sent students and faculty to
destinations such as England, France, and recently Costa Rica. The faculty-led study abroad programs
are unique in that they allow autonomy in course design and location selection.

Service-Learning at FSW

As stated, service-learning is a high-impact practice used to create meaningful connections to course

content and learning outcomes as well as enhance problem-solving skills (Bringle et. al, 1996).At FSW,

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many faculty members integrate service-learning into their courses. For example, the College of Educa-
tion has a course-based service-learning graduation requirement for their students. These service-learning
components are sprinkled throughout the college and are supported by administrators and faculty within
specific disciplines. As a leader in the community, FSW understands that there is a responsibility to
share their resources to address community needs. According to Bringle et al., 1996, “Universities have
valuable resources (for example, students, faculty, staff, classrooms, libraries, technology, research ex-
pertise) that become accessible to the community when partnerships address community needs (p. 221).”
By integrating service-learning into the curriculum, the college is not only enhancing student learning
outcomes but also meeting community needs.

Service-Learning and Study Abroad

The idea of meeting community needs is stretched even further when considering the role of service-
learning and study abroad. While both are forms of experiential learning with similar philosophical under-
pinnings (Dewey,1963; Kayes,2002; Kolb,1981; 1984; Parker et al., 2007; Paulo,1970) service-learning
and study abroad are not often paired together, they are treated as if they are on “parallel tracks” (Parker
et al., 2007, p 40). Parker et al (2007) highlight the notion that both service learning and study abroad
add to content learning. In addition to learning content, students who experience service-learning along
with study abroad experiences are said to have had connective learning experiences that are considered
transformative. When done right, these two high-impact practices when paired together not only enhance
student academic learning outcomes, but also personal growth.

Case Study in Italy

Identifying community partners to form mutually beneficial experiences will be an important part of this
project as they serve as co-facilitators of knowledge throughout the students’ experiences. FSW began
a partnership in Florence, Italy with Istituto Lorenzo de’ Medici (LdM) in 2018. Each year, FSW sends
at least 2 courses abroad each summer. In the summer of 2022, FSW selected an Intercultural Com-
munication course with a community-engaged component to participate in the study abroad session at
LdM. This class had 13 students and 1 instructor. The demographics of the students in the course were
consistent with the demographics of FSW, which is common for 2-year college study abroad programs
(Whatley, 2021).
According to IEEE’s Open Door Report, only 5% of study abroad students in the 21-22 academic
year were studying communication abroad (Selected Fields, n.d.). Communication skills are the highest
request from employers, especially as we move into a more global society (Perna, 2023). The goal was
that by teaching this course abroad, students will benefit from the experiential learning opportunities
afforded to them in Florence and throughout Italy as a whole. Many students, especially those at 2-year
institutions often struggle with making intercultural connections due to their lack of cultural awareness.
According to Nguyen (2017) short term study abroad opportunities can have a positive impact on stu-
dents’ self-perceived intercultural competence, specifically when a faculty member intentionally provides
learning opportunities for students to engage in rather than allowing students to engage independently
in the study abroad experience (Hunter, 2008).
Prior to departing on the trip, the students attended two weeks of intensive instruction where they
learned course concepts and were introduced to the research process. Students were also given sup-

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port to prepare them socially for the study abroad experience such as packing lists, tips on navigating
international cell phone plans, and a mini Italian language crash course. This type of preparation and
intercultural training is shown to have a positive impact on college students’ study abroad experiences
(Behrnd & Porzelt, 2012 & Nguyen, 2017).
Once the group arrived in Florence, the students moved into student housing with other LdM students
from across the world. This study abroad experience was highly structured with 4 days per week of class
time, on average 1 day within the actual classroom and the other 3 days of field trips, cultural site visits,
and service-learning experiences. To prepare for the community-engaged component of the course, the
instructor worked with LdM to identify community needs in Florence. The agencies and impact areas that
were identified were environmentalism, poverty, historic preservation, youth development and education,
gender equality, and working with neurodivergent populations. The community partner agencies served
as co-instructors for the course as students gained real world experiences. A study by Vande Berg et al.
(2009) discussed the impact of “cultural mentors” in terms of increasing intercultural competence in
study abroad students. Within the partnership between LdM and FSW, LdM provided cultural mentors
from their institution as well as cultural mentors through the community partner agencies.
The first agency that we volunteered with was Angeli Del Bello. This agency focused on the areas of
environmentalism, sustainability, and community beautification projects. This was a great first service
experience as it gave students the opportunity to engage in the beauty of Florence and learn about the
city’s history in the process. The volunteer coordinators from this agency were very passionate about
beautifying the city and shared a story with the group about the flood of the Arno that took place in
1966. The volunteer coordinators were alive and living in Florence at the time, so hearing their first
hand stories was very impactful to the group. The coordinators shared their experiences about becoming
angeli del fango or “mud angels” who helped clean up the city and keep it in the beautiful state that it
is today. The agency, Angeli Del Bello, named themselves after the angeli del fango and took pride in
their rich history within the city (Angeli Del Bello, n.d.).
The second agency that the group worked with was Misericordia di Firenze. This agency dates back
to 1244 when it was founded by Dominican friar Pietro da Verona whose sermons inspired community
involvement, specifically in terms of caring for those who were socioeconomically disadvantaged.
At the time, it was a “brotherhood” whose work can be seen throughout Florentine history. When the
group volunteered with this organization, we learned all about their work in the various plagues and
how the organization focused on humility by having a history of wearing robes to disguise themselves
during their service. There was a record book at the agency that dates back almost eight centuries where
notable names of Florence can be seen as they signed in to anonymously serve their community. The
group worked with this organization twice during the trip, once to volunteer and once as a cultural
immersion experience. During the volunteer experience, students sorted deliveries in the food pantry,
delivered meals to vulnerable populations, and helped package orders for people coming to pick them
up. While Misericordia di Firenze works in many different impact areas including healthcare, eldercare,
funeral services, food insecurity, and poverty, the students volunteered in the areas of food insecurity
and poverty. While the impact area of the experience was limited, the mentors from the agency shared
valuable information about how Misericordia di Firenze works in the other impact areas as well to serve
the Florentine population (Venerabile Arciconfraternita, n.d.).
The next agency that the students worked with was Il Sicomoro Centro Diurno Il Pelicano.Il Sicomoro
Centro Diurno Il Pelicano is a youth development agency focused on educational and social growth.This
agency offers educational support, therapy services, athletic opportunities, and creative experiences (“Il

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Pellicano”, n.d.). The agency is intentional about considering the psychological, educational, and artistic
elements needed to shape a child. This was one of the most hands-on service projects for the students
as they got to work with children by leading activities and lessons surrounding social and emotional de-
velopment. The FSW students especially enjoyed working with the youth at this agency and one student
used information from this experience to shape her research project for the class.
Rifò was the next service experience of the trip. Rifò is a circular fashion company focused on gen-
der equality, human rights, economic development, and sustainability. Founded in 2017, Rifò launched
thanks to a crowdfunding campaign. Today, Rifò has moved into a larger facility in Florence and has
been featured across the world in arenas as large as Vogue magazine (Rifo, n.d.). One thing that makes
Rifò especially unique is that they hire women who are leaving domestic violence or are struggling with
economic hardships. They do not just hire people based on their skill as artisanal garment makers, instead
they hire people who are passionate about their mission and teach them the skills to become garment
makers. This served as a fantastic example of socially conscious business practices. The students were
able to tour the new facility and learn about the rich history of the company.
The final service experience of the trip was Centro Equestre Fiorentino. Centro Equestre Fiorentino
was a special needs equine therapy organization (Il Centro, n.d.). Founded by a mother looking for oc-
cupational therapy support through equines, this agency has gone through many trials including having
to fight the threat of closure in 2019 (“Florentine Equestrian,” 2019). At that time, parents of the children
receiving therapy there joined forces to gain support to keep the center open. Those parents are still just
as passionate as the students worked alongside them during the service-learning experience. During this
experience, a student receiving equine therapy services shared his story with the group. He is autistic and
credits the equine therapy for helping him overcome social and emotional communication barriers. Today
that student speaks multiple languages and is excelling educationally and athletically. This agency and
the families involved in it were such an inspiration to the group as they demonstrated just how amazing
it is when parents and communities can come together to support children with disabilities.
While the student projects varied across the nonprofit agencies, the students involved shared stories
of how this positively impacted their learning and persona development. One student cited the experi-
ence as a catalyst for her educational journey and has since changed her major to Social Work so that
she could continue her passion for helping others. This type of transformation is common as presented
in Crabtree, 2013 who stated that these experiences can shake or even change a student’s belief system.
The community partners also felt that these projects were beneficial. That said, the service-learning proj-
ects could have been much more robust. The global pandemic was finally at a place where the agencies
were allowing new volunteers so that was part of the reason for the short service-learning experiences.
Allowing for longer experiences would have provided more opportunities for the community to benefit.
The one partner that we worked with multiple times had the most positive experience and asked for an
article to be written about the partnership. This is an example of why it would have been more impactful
to devote more time to these partnerships.
In addition to the service-learning experiences, the students also visited museums and cultural sites.
The field trips for the class included the Duomo, Baptistery, Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, the Uffizi
museum, the Ferrari museum, Acetaia Giusti balsamic vinegar manufacturer, the Lamborghini Museum,
Boboli Gardens, Pitti Palace, Medici Chapels, Ponte Vecchio, various Piazzas (Indipendenza, della Re-
publica, della Michaelangelo), restaurants, gelato shops, and other cultural sites around Florence. These
field trips allowed the students to identify intercultural communication concepts and theories. These
concepts later became research projects that the students presented using an “UnEssay”. UnEssays were

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first seen in the disciplines of English and Humanities as a way to showcase student learning outside
of the traditional essay format (Sullivan, 2015). This modality of assessment was meant to provide
autonomy for the students by allowing them to decide on the way they could best showcase their work
(Goodman, 2022).
For the study abroad students, they were allowed to complete an UnEssay using research from their
month-long trip. The subjects of the research varied as well as the modalities in which they were show-
cased. Most students identified a subject of interest before departing on the trip and conducted some
background research before arriving in Italy. The students were aware of the itinerary and many planned
their research experiences alongside the site visits and field trips. The pre-planning was imperative
because students wanted to be able to get started immediately on conducting their research and wanted
enough time to create the UnEssay based on that research.
Student project examples:
American portrayal in Italian Cinema- One student created an infographic about how Americans
were portrayed in Italian Cinema. This student was studying film and noticed “American stereotypes”
emerging within the pieces she was viewing. The student conducted a content analysis and identified
common stereotypes that were portrayed in the films. The information was then translated into an easy-
to-view infographic that the student shared with her classmates.
How Service-Learning Elicits Empathy- this student used Instagram to blog about her experience
with service-learning abroad. She interviewed her classmates and highlighted their experiences via social
media. She shared images and captioned them using information from the cultural mentors along the way.
Regional Foods of Italy- These two students were interested in the food of Italy and were interested
in identifying how the local, available ingredients translated into becoming customary dishes within the
regions of Italy. For this project, the students visited various regions and tried the traditional cuisine of
those regions.
Graffiti Versus Vandalism- this student created a visual essay using photographs that they took around
Florence. The visual essay was presented in the form of a blog where the student aimed to discuss graffiti
versus vandalism using specific examples found throughout the city of Florence.

Partnerships vs. Faculty-Led Service-Learning Abroad

While the first example discussed a study abroad service-learning experience that went along with a
long-standing partnership with LdM, the authors wanted to highlight another study abroad service-
learning example that was faculty-led. These two experiences are similar in that they both worked to
identify community needs, and allow space for student personal growth. That said, the approaches were
different due to the design of the programs. As a faculty-led program, the case study in Costa Rica will
offer insight into just how much work goes into creating meaningful, reciprocal learning experiences.

Case Study in Costa Rica

Introduction

Study abroad experiences have been used as a tool in pedagogical learning for years across disciplines.
In the 2021-2022 academic year the United States saw over 188,000 students depart for various study

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Figure 1. Student project on American stereotypes in Italian Cinema (Hoffman, 2022)

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Figure 2. Social media page created by a student used to discuss the impact of service-learning (Gouin,
2022)

abroad programs, with the years prior to the COVID-19 pandemic reaching greater than 300,000 students
each year from 2014-2019 (Institute of International Education (IIE) 2023).
Specifically, study abroad programs in the biological and general life sciences are used throughout
educational facilities in the United States (Malloy and Davis 2012; Ruscio and Korey 2012; Howard 2016).
In some cases these programs are tailored to specific themes or may be predeveloped by partner organi-
zations and repeated for each new group of students and instructors (Study Abroad Association). While
study abroad experiences like this are certainly beneficial for exposing students to new experiences, they
may limit their ability to connect with the culture and even subject matter that they are studying abroad.
Programs allowing for more student involvement in activity/research development may be a valuable
method for extracting additional benefits from study abroad courses, allowing for the insertion of more
creativity and independence, thus allowing for potential greater connections to the course material and
long-lasting connections (Howard 2016; McLaughlin et al. 2018). Time and funding are often limiting
factors for these study abroad programs pending course type. Thus the deployment of Short-term study

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Figure 3. Student-created infographic featuring the Liguria region and its traditional cuisine (Hernandez
& Miller, 2022)

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Figure 4. Student Blog about Graffiti in Florence (Glarum, 2022)

abroad experiences are a direction that can be taken to accommodate and encourage student involvement
(Lewis and Neisenbaum 2009). Though these short term experiences may not provide the same types
of benefits as long term studies, short term studies that are tied into coursework, based on community
based research and service. While emphasizing various transdisciplinary skills may be an attractive and
beneficial alternative for many students (Lewis & Neisenbaum 2009).
Costa Rica (CR) serves as a popular country for study abroad courses with over 3% of reported
study abroad destinations in 2021-2022 (IIE 2023). The regions’ popularity in the biological sciences
is no doubt related to relative accessibility and status of the most biodiverse regions on the planet with
greater than 94,000 species described (Rojas & Acuna 2021). Additionally, CR as a whole is one of the
most conservation driven nations on the planet with greater than 26% of its land preserved in protected
areas and national parks (The World Bank 2022). In fact much of the Costa Rican economy is driven
by tourism (an estimated 1.7 billion USD per year; Costa Rican Embassy 2023) In large part due to the
attraction of these natural areas. This monetary gain helps to continue to bolster the need to preserve and
protect much of the country. However, like many nations there are numerous ecological issues that the
country faces from both local and global perspectives. Habitat fragmentation, deforestation, and illegal
resource harvesting all have, and are predicted to continue to impact the status of wildlife throughout
the region (Broadbent et al., 2012).

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Given the transdisciplinary aspects of conservation, and the model CR implements both scientifically
and economically, along with the aforementioned issues, this makes CR an excellent region for research
experience along with providing a canvas for in-service learning opportunities. For instance, CR has
an extensive list of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) or registered charities (Global Giving
Atlas), many of which rely heavily on volunteerism to accomplish tasks. These NGOs may provide on
ground locations, site, and local expertise that can aid in directing students toward both community ser-
vice impacts and guided research opportunities that may aid in accomplishing service based outcomes.
Here we present a case study of a short-term transdisciplinary study abroad research experience
focused on conservation implications on the Caribbean coast of CR.

Case Study

FSW began its relationship with the nonprofit community partner “Turtle Love” in 2021 through the
work of herpetologist and Biology Professor, Jordan Donini. FSW sent students to CR to participate in a
study abroad program in summer 2023. There were 12 students and 2 instructors for this transdisciplinary
capstone course. Students supported the mission of Turtle Love, by gathering data nightly on nesting
sea turtles, while establishing long term monitoring projects to help facilitate Turtle Love’s work, and
provide opportunities for future research abroad. Additionally, students visited Tortuguero National Park,
where they saw the impacts on people and wildlife on government-protected land. This partnership will
continue with students and faculty traveling to Costa Rica in summer 2024 and 2025.
The Study abroad Capstone course in CR lasted for 14 days abroad, with bi-weekly meetings oc-
curring the month prior to departure. Students selected topics of research related to the location and
overall theme of the course (“Tropical Conservation Biology”) and then performed literature and source
reviews while planning the execution of their subjects abroad. The pre-planning was imperative due to
the isolation of the study area, and overall disconnection from internet resources. Once on ground many
students started data collection immediately, while others quickly found out the feasibility of their proj-
ects were unlikely in the circumstances presented. Scenarios such as the latter are an effective example
of how study abroad courses can challenge students in ways that the standard classroom course simply
cannot. Three pairs of students pooled resources and put together joint projects, while several others
altered projects substantially to take advantage of the environment and available resources. Overall
at the end of the course we saw nine distinct research projects presented by 12 students. While many
projects were direct classical research, others had more artistic styling to them as we allowed students
room for creative interpretation. In addition to individual projects, students were tasked with aiding in
the establishment of long-term biodiversity monitoring protocols for both megafauna using game camera
arrays, and freshwater turtle population demography using baited traps in adjacent rivers and wetlands.
As mentioned, the remote location of the field site and Turtle Love base of operations does place
limitations on the ability for students to actively perform additional research from external sources (such
as the internet). This limitation itself may be particularly problematic to modern day students who have
experienced extensive integration of the internet and connected technologies into nearly every aspect of
the classroom; especially post COVID-19 pandemic lockdowns (Ansi et al., 2023). Thus it is imperative
to have a well planned method of execution prior to excursions abroad in the event that technology fails
or doesn’t function as intended.

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Select Project Examples:

Plastic Waste Sea Turtle Exhibit- One student wanted to make a political and visually striking state-
ment to display the problems and harm of discarded plastic waste. This student collected plastic from
the beach near the field site daily until she accumulated over <30lbs of materials and assembled them
into the shape of a near life sized sea turtle (Figure 5). This life-sized model was then shipped back in
luggage and is now on display in a local museum. This project captured the essence of creativity and
research when studying abroad as the student simply developed a project based on the available mate-
rials and creatively put an emphasis on the amount of plastic waste that washes up on these formerly
pristine beaches.
Reptile and Amphibian Biodiversity Surveys- Two students combined and modified their original
ideas to lay the groundwork for long-term biodiversity monitoring of Reptile and Amphibians within
the field site. The students capitalized on the rich biodiversity of the region and consulted with profes-
sors and scientific literature to develop and apply a novel survey technique for herpetofauna that now
provides the groundwork for a long-term study worthy of publication. In total students identified 12
species of amphibians and <30 species of reptiles using the Mackinnon List Survey method, a tactic
normally used to survey bird diversity (MacLeod et al., 2011). This research was presented at the South
Florida Herpetology Conference as a poster (Figure 6) where it received positive reviews and interest
for the novel technique.
Butterfly Photo-Journal & Guide- Two students abandoned their original ideas of Mangrove and
Ecotourism research upon discovering and becoming enamored with the magnificent diversity of but-
terflies in the region. Both students used their love and enjoyment of photography to develop an artistic
photo-journal of all encountered butterflies at the field site. This journal (Figure 7) provides information
on location/vegetation found, simplified characteristics, and beautiful full color photographs. A physical
print copy of the journal is in production to be used at the collaborating site for their own tourism practices.

Figure 5. Student and Plastic Sea Turtle Waste Project Status at the Courses End (Boeck, 2023)

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Figure 6. Final Poster “Mackinnon List Methodology For Rapid Biodiversity Surveys of Herpetofauna
in Caribbean Costa Rica” as presented at the “South Florida Herpetology Conference” (Weber, Hoff-
man, Cameron, Donini, 2023)

Figure 7. Excerpts from the Butterfly Guide “Butterflies of the Caribbean Coast- Costa Rica-” as pro-
duced by students (Fortner-Rodriguez & Souppa, 2023)

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Figure 8. Sample Image from Brochure “A Guide to Conservation of Sea Turtles in Playa Tres Costa
Rica” produced as a student project (Isherwood and Giles, 2023)

Online Interactive Brochure on Sea Turtle Conservation History in Costa Rica- Two students
who originally intended on doing local interviews and presenting data on thoughts and opinions decided
to alter and combine their projects into an interactive digital brochure. This brochure provided back-
ground information on Sea Turtle Conservation, information on our partner organization Turtle Love,
and helped to emphasize the importance of human action in conservation tactics. In addition to photos
and written information, QR codes with links to testimony from locals on the importance and history of
conservation in the region (Figure 8).

Student Quotes

“Overall, this trip had a profound impact on me, both personally and professionally.

Firstly, the country’s people were friendly and welcoming, which allowed me to connect with the locals
and learn more about their culture. It also made me think about the stressed and fast-paced society back
in the States, and how having more doesn’t necessarily make you happier. Secondly, the incredible bio-
diversity that I encountered in Costa Rica opened my eyes to the importance of preserving our natural
resources. Thirdly, the country’s commitment to conservation and its unique approach to conservation
made me realize the significance of community involvement and respect for local knowledge in preserv-
ing our natural resources.

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Lastly, I felt a deep connection to the environment, which inspired me to become more of a responsible
guardian of the planet, valuing nature beyond its tangible value. In addition to the knowledge I gained,
I also experienced a sense of joy and appreciation for the beauty of the land. All of this has made me
consider the possibility of finishing my degree in Costa Rica in the future. As a result of my time in
Costa Rica, I feel more connected to the natural world and more passionate about protecting it.”

CONCLUSION

These two international, transdisciplinary service-learning experiences can serve as case studies for other
higher education institutions. The Italy example shows how a long-standing partnership can be enhanced
through a new approach. The Costa Rica example shows how faculty-led partnerships can forge new op-
portunities for students, community partners, and faculty. These programs were not without speed bumps,
many of which we tried to account for before our departures abroad. For example, we worked directly
with the Office of International Education to ensure we had proper support for the students in terms of
academic and administrative requirements. This included things like travel insurance, accommodations,
scholarships, and course registration procedures. We also worked across disciplines to ensure the courses
offered opportunities to all students. This meant creating learning outcomes with a larger scope so that
a variety of classical and non-classical research could be completed in the courses. Lastly, we did a lot
of preparation. For example, having students conduct background research ahead of time due to the pos-
sibility of lack of internet at the service sites. We also provided cultural mentoring so that there wasn’t
the disruption in community relations that can happen in these type of opportunities (Crabtree, 2013).
Overall these experiences conducting research abroad with students allowed direct exposure to classical
research experiences, while also enabling them to experience individual freedom and real world problem
solving scenarios. Their final projects not only directly contributed to their own academic futures, but
also benefited our collaborators abroad via the establishment of research protocols, baseline data col-
lection, and the development of educational tools. The initial projects in Costa Rica have established a
ground floor for future study abroad partnerships to continue in Costa Rica for the foreseeable future. The
service-learning projects in Italy did not continue outside of that semester, however, they did strengthen
the relationship with our partner institution. These case studies have inspired other faculty to integrate
experiential learning into their courses both domestically and internationally. Our hope is that we can
continue improving these experiences for years to come.

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Chapter 7
Crossing the Red Tape:
Service-Learning Relationships
With Government Agencies

Bailey R. Fairbanks
University of Central Arkansas, USA

Sherry L. Skaggs
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9784-7499
University of Central Arkansas, USA

Kisha A. Hardwick
University of Central Arkansas, USA

Lesley Graybeal
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9823-2787
University of Central Arkansas, USA

ABSTRACT
This chapter explores the processes used by faculty and administrators at a regional comprehensive
university in the South to develop partnerships with bureaucratic agencies including a criminology
course partnership with local law enforcement agencies, a multidisciplinary partnership with the local
juvenile court, and a public administration local government course partnership with a public housing
agency and homelessness task force. The intention of the chapter is to provide a roadmap for the develop-
ment of service or experiential learning processes with government agencies. The nature of developing
service-learning partnerships with bureaucratic agencies can often create unique challenges during
the development including establishing contact with appropriate agency contacts, developing plans to
effectively managing the time and capacity of government agencies, as well as managing the additional
legal and risk management requirements that are inherent to collaborating with bureaucratic partners.

DOI: 10.4018/979-8-3693-2133-1.ch007

Copyright © 2024, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Crossing the Red Tape

INTRODUCTION

According to the National Service-Learning Clearinghouse, “service learning is a teaching and learn-
ing strategy that integrates meaningful community service with instruction and reflection to enrich the
learning experience, teach civic responsibility, and strengthen communities” (National Service-Learning
Clearinghouse, 2023). The purpose of these community engaged projects is to create partnerships be-
tween learning institutes, in our case higher education, that pairs university knowledge and resources with
members and organizations in the community to enrich the value of classroom curriculum, the create
engaged citizens, to strengthen civic engagement and responsibility, to instill democratic values, and
overall contribute to the public good and well being of the community. It creates relationships between
students, faculty, and community partners and agencies. These partnerships can take many forms and
can vary significantly in the commitment of time and energy needed to create positive and beneficial
outcomes for all the parties involved.
In this chapter, we describe the process to creating a less traditional, but no less rewarding, opportu-
nity for engagement in service-learning with local government agencies. Our discussion includes three
cases studies of partnerships with local agencies: (1) a criminology course with local law enforcement
agencies for courses about police-community relations, (2) a multidisciplinary partnership with a local
juvenile court system that helped to create community-based programming for court-involved youth and
their families, and (3) a local government public administration course paired with a city homelessness
task force and a public housing agency. Each of these case studies provides a unique roadmap for faculty
thinking of building service-learning partnerships with government agencies including considerations
regarding student outcomes, alignment, and development of course objectives, value to the service-
learning partnerships, as well as some of the limitations or concerns that could arise when establishing
these partnerships. All the cases included here in the chapter also include details of course planning,
including discussions of how building trust with government agencies may differ from nonprofit part-
nership development, the importance of identifying appropriate agency contacts for service-learning
partnerships, recommendations for communicating expectations within the partnership, and tools for
managing the time and capacity of government partners.
In the implementation of our cases, government partnerships helped achieve course learning objectives
for students across disciplines including public administration, political science, criminology, sociology,
occupational therapy, creative writing, and more. The cases discussed here all took place at a regional
comprehensive university in the South with a student population of 10,400 undergraduate students and
roughly 1000 graduate students. The student population is 62% female and 38% male. Given that the
university is in the rural south, the student population is 67% White/Caucasian with the largest racial or
ethnic minority group, African American/Black, making up 16%.While partnerships with government
agencies may come with additional legal and risk management requirements, clear communication be-
tween faculty and government partners in advance of the service-learning partnership can contribute to
a smooth implementation process. Additionally, government agencies have unique goals and intended
outcomes for service-learning projects, which may differ from those of nonprofit agencies or nongov-
ernmental organizations.
To effectively analyze the effectiveness of the service-learning project design, all the cases explored
in the chapter include reflection assignments as a required component of the course, and the faculty
participated in institution-wide assessment of service-learning outcomes for students and community
partners. Student outcomes are assessed using a rubric applied to learning artifacts, such as student re-

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sponses to a reflection assignment, as well as questions about self-reported outcomes that are included
as part of the end-of-semester course experience survey. Community partner outcomes are assessed
using an end-of-semester evaluation survey, as well as focus group interviews of community partners
conducted every three years. Additional data related to student, faculty, and community partner outcomes
have been collected on the cases included in this chapter through research studies conducted by course
faculty and service-learning program staff.

BACKGROUND OF SERVICE LEARNING

Service-learning is a type of experiential learning grounded in the educational philosophy advanced by

progressive American educator John Dewey. He argued that teaching and learning grounded in critical
reflection on students’ experiences was necessary to equip members of a democratic society for lifelong
civic participation (1938). Recent scholarship on service-learning course and partnership outcomes has
confirmed numerous positive outcomes for students, including improved academic achievement (Celio et
al., 2011; Skaggs & Graybeal, 2018; Mungo, 2017; Strange, 2000; Yue & Hart, 2017), critical thinking
and writing skills (Vogelgesang & Astin, 2000), attitudes toward school and learning (Celio et al., 2011),
greater employability (Barton et al., 2019; Haski-Leventhal et al., 2019; Skaggs & Graybeal, 2018), a
greater understanding of career decision-making (Coulter-Kern et al., 2013), and increased confidence in
entering their chosen career (Strange, 2000). Beyond the individual benefits, however, service-learning
has been found to positively affect students’ pro-social skills and behavior, including improved leader-
ship skills (Groh et al., 2011), self-concept and self-efficacy (Celio et al., 2011; Haski-Leventhal et al.,
2019.; Knapp et al., 2010), self-awareness (Furze et al., 2011), interpersonal skills (Hebert & Hauf,
2015), cultural awareness (Desmond et al., 2011; Haski-Leventhal et al., 2019), adaptability (Desmond
et al., 2011; Furze et al., 2011), and ability to communicate and collaborate effectively across differences
(Kilgo et al., 2015; Vogelgesang & Astin, 2000; Wozencraft et al., 2014), all crucial skills for engaged
citizens. Furthermore, research has demonstrated that university students who get involved in service
develop a sense of civic belonging and commitment to community problem-solving and leadership that
they carry with them after graduation (Myers et al., 2019; Wagner & Mathison, 2015).
Research on service-learning has prioritized demonstrating and understanding the effectiveness of
service-learning as a pedagogy, with comparatively less focus on community impacts and partner per-
spectives. Several studies have taken a comparative analytical approach to understanding the impacts of
service-learning on students, faculty, and community partners (Chupp & Joseph, 2010; George-Paschal
et al., 2019; McMenamin et al., 2010), while others have recognized that partnerships come with both
benefits and costs for community agencies (Srinivas et al., 2015). Schmidt and Robby (2002) noted that
research involving community partners typically focuses on the partners’ satisfaction with the experi-
ence and evaluation of student work, rather than on the impacts of service on the community. Sandy
and Holland (2006) offered a foundational investigation of community partner perspectives and experi-
ences, sharing key findings related to agency representatives’ motivations and priorities for engaging
in service-learning partnerships. Their work revealed that community partners valued the opportunity
to function as co-educators of college students, challenging the assumption that higher education and
community representatives enter partnerships with different goals and priorities.
Service-learning is clearly connected to civic life, both in its theoretical foundations and its applica-
tions over the past several decades, yet scholarship on service-learning partnerships rarely differenti-

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ates between engagement with nonprofit or nongovernmental organizations, government agencies, and
community members (Darby et al., 2021; Johnson & Hoovler, 2015; Long et al., 2022), leaving the
unique characteristics and opportunities of partnerships with government agencies underexplored. While
service-learning community partnerships are typically crafted around principles of reciprocity, community-
identified topics or issues, and community partners as co-educators, government agencies experience
greater constraints on the purpose partnerships can fulfill, use of staff time toward partnership goals,
and tolerance for risk within partnership activities. While government partnerships operate differently
from partnerships with community members or nongovernmental organizations, such partnerships also
provide unique opportunities for students to gain access to professional contexts and make meaningful
contributions in the public sector.

Developing Government Partnerships

In any campus-community partnership, setting appropriate expectations of the partner is crucial for a
successful project and sustained partnership. For partnerships with government agencies, the first ex-
pectation is that education institutions will establish contact with the appropriate agency representative.
Just as nonprofit agencies may struggle to identify the appropriate point of entry when seeking a partner-
ship with an education institution, faculty may not have an existing relationship within a government
agency and the appropriate contact may not be clear. Working through established networks– whether
a centralized community engagement office on campus, a government affairs staff member, or other
contacts who work with the government agency– can help identify the appropriate contact for establish-
ing a new partnership.
While identifying an appropriate contact within an agency provides a starting point, partnerships with
government agencies are unlikely to flourish without a strong champion within the agency, whether that
person is an agency leader pursuing a particular strategy or a staff member directly managing a particular
project or program. Because government agencies are typically limited to activities within the specific
parameters or their mission and charge, faculty partners must be able to readily identify how a service-
learning partnership will help the agency achieve its goals to establish trust with the government agency.
Reciprocity is a principal component of any service-learning partnership, requiring that the project benefit
both the students and the community, but the specific benefits a government agency hopes to receive will
be less flexible than the outcomes a faculty member has planned for students. Faculty members can use
the government agency’s parameters as a starting point for setting partnership goals and expectations.
Early in the partnership planning process, the faculty member and government agency representative
must work together to negotiate a shared vision and goals for the project, which includes communicat-
ing candidly about their capacity to facilitate student learning, the amount of time they have available
to dedicate to the project, and the best type of service-learning project for achieving shared goals within
the agency’s parameters. If a course has a learning objective related to direct interaction with community
members, but an agency has limited capacity to supervise service-learning students, for example, the
faculty member and agency representative might work together to identify an opportunity for students
to participate in service delivery under the faculty member’s supervision (for example, a nursing faculty
member supervising students providing health screenings at a community event). A successful service-
learning partnership builds in regularly scheduled, ongoing, and open communication between the faculty
member and the agency representative to identify and troubleshoot emerging issues and to adjust future
iterations of the project as partner’s needs change.

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Implementation Considerations for Government Partnerships

“Higher Education administrators and faculty working with risk management staff, legal counsel and
insurance administrators can develop a safe, successful and lawful service-learning program” (Reams,
2003, p. 147). While previous researchers have assessed general liability concerns for service-learning
such as volunteer protection laws (Jacoby, 1996), which have been enacted in many states to release
volunteers from liability for harm they may cause while volunteering, governmental partnerships face
additional challenges not considered within these laws. There is a lack of coverage addressing service-
learning partnerships with governmental agencies outside of the healthcare field. Among these studies,
Reams (2003), examined risks of service-learning in health care partnerships and argued for the impor-
tance of a high-quality risk management approach including affiliation agreements between colleges and
service-partners outlining mutual rights and responsibilities, legal waivers, and administration awareness
of service-learning partnerships and activities.
Goldstein (1990) developed a guide for service-learning educators, administrators, and practitioners.
One recommendation from this guide is the development of a contract of enrollment, which is a learning
contract between faculty and student, usually displayed on the syllabus, which describes the service-
learning program, requirements, and expectations of all parties. Fundamental elements of a complete
learning contract typically include specific responsibilities of the student and institution, the nature of
the relationship between the student and the institution, the nature of the students’ status in a partnership
site, the duration of the placement in a site, the anticipated learning outcomes, the academic benefit of
participation, the method and frequency of evaluations and how these effect grading, a description of
rights and responsibilities of the student, the institution, and the site, and a description of how disputes
should be handled (Goldstein, 1990). While such comprehensive contracts often protect student, faculty,
and institution liability, they offer little protection to governmental agencies.
Service-learning partnerships with governmental agencies present additional legal challenges and
requirements which are frequently not required in other partnerships. As governmental agencies of-
ten have concerns regarding legal liability, background investigations, and confidentiality, additional
time concerns, student paperwork, and liability waivers exist which are not frequently concerns in
non-governmental partnerships. In the current cases studies, one of the most frequently used liability
management techniques, in addition to complete learning contracts, is the usage of comprehensive legal
liability waivers and confidentiality agreements. With all policing partners, two separate liability waivers
must be completed for participation in course activities. This includes a ride-along liability waiver and
a physical assessment liability waiver. In addition, departments engaging in specific training activities
with students such as traffic stop training using simulation rounds and/or air soft weapons, defensive
tactics trainings, taser trainings, and/or OC Spray trainings require a third specific legal liability waiver
for that training or event. As the policing course maintains partnerships with ten different agencies, the
number of forms becomes particularly cumbersome. Further, as the different agencies represent different
layers of government (city, county, state), they are represented by different legal experts with their own
requirements. To date, there has been no general agreement reached to combine and condense the legal
waivers. In addition to departmental waivers, students must sign volunteer waivers for the university,
complete background investigation paperwork, and sign confidentiality agreements. In a similar fashion,
students working with the juvenile court system must complete confidentiality agreements as well. Given
that students working in the Homelessness Task Force and Housing Authority partnerships served as
volunteers during a public event only, this paperwork was not required. Had the students participated

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in non-public activities, liability waivers and confidentiality agreements would have been required. As
a result, it is important to consider the nature of the partnership, what risks the specific partnership
activities pose, and how required legal forms will be managed between faculty and students. Our rec-
ommendation is that, upon having an introduction day in which representatives from the governmental
agencies introduce themselves and the partnership, the faculty have a full day dedicated to liability in
which all forms are introduced, risks discussed, and signatures completed. If forms require a notary,
which some do, faculty should arrange for a notary to be present during this day for ease of access and
time management. It is further recommended that, if allowed by all agencies and institutions, forms be
scanned and uploaded into course LMS systems to ensure the faculty member, student, and institution
maintains access once the completed forms have been provided to the partnering agencies.

Assessment of Projects and Partnerships

“Assessment brings us full circle in our starting point of using objectives to drive the community en-
gagement experience” (Welch & Plaxton-Moore, 2019, p. 136). While assessment is often confused
with evaluation, it is important for educators to understand that, while evaluation may be a component
of assessment, assessment itself is an ongoing process. Taking place both before and after an activity,
assessment is a “process of establishing goals coupled with obtaining, reviewing, and using information
to monitor performance or operations to make necessary modifications and improvements that facilitate
goal attainment (Welch & Plaxton-Moore, 2019, p. 137). When we engage in assessment practices, our
goal as educators should be to ensure objectives have been met for key stakeholders. These may include,
but are not limited to, community partners, students, and faculty.

Community Partners

Service-learning partnerships should undeniably focus on the needs and impacts of opportunities on
community partner organizations and community members. “Community” is a broad term, representing
many structures, settings, experiences, and people, and assessment must involve a critical evaluation of
whether the needs of our community partner are being met in addition to needs of the people they serve
(Welch & Plaxton-Moore, 2019). As community partners are just that– partners– we must constantly
take their resources and needs into account in developing learning objectives for our students.
A growing body of research has examined the perspectives of community partners in the service-
learning experience (Ferrari & Worrall, 2000; Sandy & Holland, 2006; Skaggs & Graybeal, 2018; Srini-
vas et al., 2015). Overall, community partners have rated service-learning experiences positively, have
valued their faculty partners, and have valued their role in the education of students (Ferrari & Worrall,
2000; Sandy & Holland, 2006; Skaggs & Graybeal, 2018). Specific to governmental partnerships in
service-learning, Skaggs & Graybeal (2018) found that governmental partners were initially concerned
with the unknown and with safety concerns for students collaborating with police, but they were put at
ease by their faculty partner’s diligence regarding liability waivers and communication. Once vested in
the partnership, these partners found service-learning to be a rewarding experience, allowing them to
better develop existing officers while they worked with the course, providing an opportunity for early
screening of future applicants, and fostering better relationships with students and other community
members regardless of whether they planned to pursue law enforcement as a profession.

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Students

A fundamental goal of service-learning, experiential learning, and other similar opportunities is to trans-
form the learning environment by providing a more holistic learning experience for students (Welch &
Plaxton-Moore, 2019). Such a transformation involves faculty allowing students to facilitate their own
learning experiences and reflecting on their own preferences towards being a “sage on stage” or a “guide
on the side” (Welch & Plaxton-Moore, 2019, p. 232).
In assessing the impact that service-learning and similar pedagogical approaches have had on stu-
dents, numerous studies have supported that such learning opportunities improve academic, social, and
emotional outcomes in addition to improving leadership skills, civic consciousness, and commitment to
civic engagement (Celio et al., 2011; Desmond et al., 2011; Groh et al., 2011; Keen & Hall, 2009; Kilgo
et al., 2015; Knapp et al., 2010; Lovat & Clement, 2016; Skaggs & Graybeal, 2018; Strange, 2000).
Specifically examining the impact of service-learning partnerships with governmental organizations
on student learning outcomes, Skaggs & Graybeal (2018) found that students had improved long-term
academic partnerships and achievements in addition to a renewed understanding of governmental actors.
Specifically, this study examined student-police partnerships. Findings indicated that such learning op-
portunities fostered an understanding of police as humans, a need to break-down stereotypes of officers,
and a deeper understanding of challenges faced by governmental actors because of their profession. Stu-
dents also expressed important academic and social outcomes, such as a bonding with fellow classmates
as well as study groups for current and future classes and improved grades.

Faculty

While faculty may set course objectives and facilitate service-learning and experiential learning oppor-
tunities, faculty are also co-learners. Collaborative engagement represents a notable shift in education
to a learner-centered approach compared to a traditional teaching model (Barr & Tagg, 1995; Eatman,
2018). According to Eatman (2018), collaborative engagement “arouses a knowledge ecology where the
boundaries among and between formal learning spaces, typical learning hierarchies, and informal and
even extracurricular learning spaces are blurred and challenged” (p. 64).
Faculty members engaging in service-learning have cited shifting their approaches to a more learner-
centered paradigm, allowing them to forge deeper connections with students, faculty, and the institution
(Driscoll, 2000; Pribbenow, 2005). Faculty have discussed the importance of collaborative engagement,
arguing that service-learning requires learning by all parties involved in the partnership (Miller-Young et
al., 2015). However, some faculty have noted drawbacks such as time commitments (Stichman & Farkas,
2005) and institutional support (Skaggs & Graybeal, 2019). Despite these challenges, faculty argue that
service-learning and experiential learning opportunities enrich course content, provide professional
networking opportunities, and allows students to understand the perspectives of diverse populations
(Skaggs & Graybeal, 2019).

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Case #1: Local and State Law Enforcement Agencies

Overview of the Course

The first case study explores a multidisciplinary service-learning, experiential learning, and interpro-
fessional education partnership between a criminal justice course, an exercise science course, and ten
different local, state, and rural police agencies. During initial development in 2014, and continuing to
date, police departments struggle with negative perceptions and strains on police-community relations,
attributed to national concerns over police use of excessive force. As agencies additionally grapple with
recruitment and retention concerns (Skaggs et al., 2022), labor at events became a more pressing concern.
To address these concerns, while providing service to both the police departments and the communi-
ties they serve, the Police & Society course, a three-credit hour upper-division social science elective,
participated in service-learning, experiential learning, and interprofessional education. As part of the
interprofessional education component students do physical agility entrance examinations with each
community partner. For the experiential learning component, students complete several four-hour ride-
alongs with an officer from each community partner. Finally, and most importantly for this discussion,
students engage in service learning for the course including a teddy bear drive, supplemental police-
community relations events like blood drives and holiday themed events and providing safe rides through
a campus safety escort program. These events have alleviated workforce concerns of the agencies, as
well as encouraged high attendance through community members recognizing a trusted organization, the
university, as host. It has also provided local low-income families a chance to receive holiday presents,
visit with Santa, have a holiday meal, and receive winter coats and school supplies, all while having
positive interactions with law enforcement officers at the event. The impact on community partners
and students (Skaggs & Graybeal, 2018) as well as the impact on faculty (Skaggs & Graybeal, 2019)
has been evaluated. Overall evaluations suggest that the partnership fosters an understanding of police,
assists students in professionalism and leadership skills, improves academic and social outcomes, and
strengthens local police-community relations.

Legal Liability Concerns & Risk Management

One of the most pressing initial concerns in working with policing partners has been the issue of legal
liability and confidentiality. All ten partnering agencies represent various levels of government (city,
county, state). As such, there has been no general agreement reached to date between all partners to
combine or condense liability forms. Each department has separate requirements and forms which must
be completed for specific events, including ride-along liability waivers, physical agility assessment li-
ability waivers, confidentiality agreements, background investigation forms, and training waivers for
traffic stop training using simulation rounds and/or air soft weapons, defensive tactics trainings, taser
trainings, and/or OC Spray trainings. In addition, students’ complete university waivers for volunteer
activities and permission to use photography. As such, the course begins each semester with three
distinctive dates. To begin, students are introduced to the full course expectations of the class on the
first day of the semester. During this first meeting, the faculty member explains experiential learning,
service-learning, and interprofessional education requirements and activities as well as assessment and
grading criteria. Students are provided a Master Event Calendar detailing required course activities
during the semester, attire for each activity, and policies regarding penalties for tardiness or absentee-

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ism of these events. During the second day of the course, students meet representatives from each of
the partnering agencies. These representatives remain the course liaisons throughout the year, and they
typically remain with the course for multiple years. They can speak to the students about the activities
students participate in with their individual departments, get students excited about the partnerships, and
answer any questions/concerns. The third day of the course is a legal day in which the faculty member
explains the risks associated with participation in course activities, reviews all waivers with students, and
provides time for student completion with a notary available for specific forms requiring it. Forms are
then scanned and uploaded into the university LMS system for storage and access by students, faculty,
and administrators. Original signed forms are provided to their respective departments. This has placed
the burden of responsibility and time on the faculty members as opposed to the police departments, and
it has been a source of appreciation and willingness to continue engagement among the departments
as a result. It has also alleviated many student concerns and questions in the process. Sample copies
of liability waivers for ride-alongs, physical events, and community relations activities are provided as
Appendix A, B, and C, respectively.

Service-Learning Components & Assessment

In addition to the experiential learning and interprofessional education requirements of the course, students
complete three required service-learning projects during the semester. First, students provide safe rides
through a campus safety escort program throughout the semester as a partnership with the university
police department. While students can select their own working hours, they compete a single two-hour
shift per week. They are provided a golf cart, radio access to the police department dispatch center, and
a safety escort phone in which students, faculty, and staff needing escorts contact them. This program
has eliminated concerns with officers having to provide escort rides during their shift, which removes
them from availability of calls for service and other safety issues.
Secondly, students collaborate with the police departments to host a joint National Police-Community
Relations Event. This event is part of Faith & Blue National Weekend, which is a national initiative
aimed at improving police-community relations by partnering law enforcement agencies, faith-based
communities, and other organizations (Faith & Blue, 2023). Students work with campus ministries in
addition to the local police departments to host a blood drive and cookout, an event in which members
of the public can interact with law enforcement personnel, contribute to public welfare, and enjoy a
healthy meal in one afternoon.
Finally, students host a teddy bear drive and police-community relations event entitled “Share-a-Bear.”
During the six weeks leading up to the event, students collect donations of teddy bears, other stuffed
animals and toys, food, and supplies. Teddy bears are provided to the ten law enforcement agencies
to distribute to children during traffic stops and calls for service. For many years, so many bears have
been collected that the departments have also been able to host a “Warning Bear Week,” a period in
which individuals stopped for minor traffic violations who would have otherwise received a verbal or
written warning, receive a “warning bear” instead. Other toys, supplies, and food donations are brought
to the end of semester holiday event. Having the students host the event with the partnering agencies
alleviates the workforce concerns that many police departments currently struggle with, a problem that
impacts their ability to host and attend community events in impactful ways. Having the students as
hosts encourage more attendance at the event as community members recognize a trusted organization,
the university, as host. If the only host were police departments, community members who had concerns

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with the police would not attend. This allows the event to reach a target population of people who are
more in need of establishing better relationships with law enforcement. During the event, children play
games and complete crafts with officers, have an opportunity to win prizes, can visit Santa and choose
toys, are able to select winter coats, school supplies, and other essential items, and are able to eat a full
meal. This has allowed local low-income families, among others, a much-needed opportunity to receive
holiday presents, visit with Santa, have a holiday meal, and receive winter coats and school supplies, all
while having positive interactions with law enforcement officers at the event.
Throughout the semester, students complete a portfolio project based on their experiences in the
course activities. During the course, they submit multiple drafts of various sections of this project,
which becomes a component of their final grade. The various portfolio components require students to
reflect on their experiences with experiential learning, service-learning, and interprofessional education
activities, and tie those experiences back to their research and course content. This ensures students both
understand the course content and readings and that they can apply it in real world applications. A copy
of the project directions for this assignment is provided as Appendix D.
The impact on community partners and students completing the policing course has been evaluated in
previous research (Skaggs & Graybeal, 2018). Using transcripts from focus group interviews of students
and officers representing community partner agencies engaging in the policing course, Skaggs & Graybeal
(2018) found that service-learning and experiential learning activities build capacity for police-community
relations. Course activities orient students toward officer procedures, requirements, and culture, which
creates a learning opportunity for both students and departments as officers can learn a great deal from
working with and instructing these students during events. Officers also felt like serving in this capacity
increased officer professionalism. In addition to these benefits, police-community relations activities
humanize officers and build public understanding and trust among the student population. Additional
benefits were noted among students academically and socially as they built a strong rapport with their
peers from engaging in challenging course activities.

Considerations & Future Recommendations

While full emersion of a course in service-learning, experiential learning, and interprofessional activities,
faculty must consider the time commitments and other constraints involved in such an emersion. Dur-
ing the policing course, students complete 120 hours of commitment to outside activities. To alleviate
concerns with contact hours, the course changed from a fully residential course to a hybrid course to
allow some flexibility. Nevertheless, faculty should remain aware of the time commitment the students
are making in addition to their own time commitment when considering full emersion such as this. It is
recommended, particularly with partnerships such as these, that faculty complete events with the stu-
dents. Faculty should be in attendance during physical agility assessments and training. Faculty should
also provide oversight on ride-alongs to complete student scheduling of time slots and ensure they are
available in case of an emergency. It is also important to ensure that faculty and community partners
maintain regular contact and establish relationships built on communication and trust. Finally, as stu-
dents have such a considerable time commitment with partnering agencies and activities, grading criteria
must reflect that substantial commitment. Full emersion of a course into experiential learning, service-
learning, and interprofessional activities should not be a low point percentage in a student’s final course
grade. Rather, the percentage should reflect that commitment level of the course. As such, the portfolio
in this class, including all drafts and the final submission, constitutes 70% of the final course grade for

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each student. We also recommend that faculty interested in pursuing government agency partnerships
build-up to these partnerships slowly. Start with one or two partners and smaller stakes commitments.
As time progresses, add new partners or activities to the course. This helps to ensure faculty members
and community partners do not suffer from burnout, helps both parties to be prepared for the commit-
ment, and helps both parties be prepared for issues or problems that may arise. As such, it eliminates the
overwhelming nature of such a large commitment, helps establish trust between the faculty member and
community partners, and establishes stronger products in the long term by allowing for more preparation,
assessment, and revision of activities over time.

Case 2: Juvenile Court Initiatives

Overview of the Partnership

The second case example in this chapter is a multidisciplinary partnership with a juvenile court, initi-
ated by the chief of staff as part of a shift in practices that took place in the early 2010s. The judicial
staff implemented risk assessment tools for all youth referred to the court. The goal was to divert youth
with a minimal risk of reoffending and address identified needs through community-based program-
ming. To divert youth to appropriate programs for their specific needs, the court needed to identify or
create such programs, leading to new partnerships with two local universities. The universities and their
faculty were able to develop a variety of programs that included four types of service-learning projects
(direct, indirect, advocacy, and research) across the development of this partnership, forming a matrix
of partnership-based programming designed to address specific needs (Graybeal et al., 2021).
Initiatives included an after-school tutoring program led by AmeriCorps members, a mentoring
program led by graduate students in occupational therapy and counseling, a Girl Scout troop and girls’
book club led by philosophy students, a writing workshop led by creative writing students, and a social
justice theater program led by students in an honors elective course. Not only did the service-learning
partnership led to the creation of multiple ongoing programs for court-involved youth, but it also included
several one-time projects, including policy analyses, curriculum development, and a public relations
campaign for the court. This partnership between the juvenile court and the university has persisted
over a decade, with programming offered through service-learning courses becoming an integral part
of the court’s juvenile justice strategy and practice. Along with organizational capacity building for the
court, positive outcomes for youth, and pedagogical benefits for university students, the partnership has
brought opportunities for faculty leading course-based and co-curricular service-learning programming
to publish research on the development of these projects (Graybeal et al., 2021; Howard & Nitta, 2012).

Confidentiality and the Court

One of the greatest concerns for juvenile justice systems working with community volunteers is how to
engage volunteers while prioritizing the security and privacy of court-involved youth and their families.
In this case example, the court chief of staff provides orientation and onboarding for all community
volunteers, including the university students involved in direct service-learning projects. Any volun-
teer who will interact directly with court-involved youth must complete a volunteer application, which
includes a background check, and swear an oath of confidentiality. Additionally, the volunteer orienta-
tion covers information about court-involved youth, the court system, the risk assessment process, and

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the court’s approach to juvenile justice. Volunteers and service-learning students are instructed in how
to manage any personal or sensitive information shared by youth during programs and how to set ap-
propriate boundaries with youth. Many of the programs take place in the court building in a dedicated
programming space, where additional risk management procedures include restricting the items that
can be brought into the building, the need for a probation officers’ presence, and prohibiting volunteers
from taking photographs of programs in which individual youth could be identified.

Service-Learning Components and Assessment

The matrix of partnership-based programs offered by the juvenile justice system in this case includes
several course-based service-learning projects, and the case description will highlight one example of
direct service, one indirect service, and one research-based service-learning project. Students enrolled in
the upper-division honors course in social justice theatre provide direct service as trainers and facilita-
tors of a series of theatre workshops for court-involved youth. These university students indirect directly
with court-involved youth, facilitating exercises and engaging in activities and scenarios alongside
youth participants. The program draws from and operates in the model of the Theatre of the Oppressed
developed by Brazilian artist and activist Augusto Boal (1985).
One example of an indirect service-learning project conducted within the university-court partnership
is the work done by a graduate-level occupational therapy students to design a life skills curriculum for
the court. As part of a community-based programming course, teams of graduate students partnered
with the court to create a set of lessons addressing specific skills gaps within the scope of practice for
occupational therapists. The students then assembled the lessons into a curriculum that future community
volunteers could implement with court-involved youth in a one-on-one or small group setting, covering
only the specific lessons needed.
Finally, a research-based service-learning partnership in the department of Government, Public
Service, and International Studies provides upper-level undergraduate students with the opportunity to
complete a policy analysis for the court as one of several partnership options available. As an ongoing
partnership, the project may address a different policy concern each year, with the court chief of staff
providing guidance and insight into the evolving needs of youth and concerns of the juvenile justice
system. In this course, students complete primary and secondary research related to the policy issue for
the benefit of the juvenile court while also fulfilling the requirements of a major research assignment.
All three of the course-based projects participate in the university-wide service-learning assessment
plan, which includes questions added to students’ course experience survey at the end of the semester,
faculty assessment of student learning outcomes using a standard rubric applied to a reflection assignment,
and evaluation surveys sent by the program director to community partners and service-learning faculty.

Considerations & Future Recommendations

In conducting this case study, both the court and the university partners identified the need for greater
communication and collaboration across the many university faculty, staff, students, and community
volunteers involved in the court’s array of programs. While the court had been successful in rapidly
increasing the number of programs available to meet court-involved youth needs, the leaders of these
programs were not collaborating with one another, leading to missed opportunities for greater impact.
Additionally, although the court was highly invested in the needs assessment process that probation

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officers conduct with each court-involved youth, less attention had been given to measuring program
outcomes, specifically the effectiveness of each program in addressing the identified need it was intended
to address. While completion of probation and deterrence from reoffending are successful outcomes for
youth and for the court system, partners could use more targeted assessment of the intended outcomes of
individual programs to amend service-learning projects to increase their effectiveness in accomplishing
shared goals.

Case 3: Local Government Service Providers

Overview of the Course

Our final case study illustrates and details the work of a Public Administration junior faculty member to
develop a new direct service-learning course prior to the COVID-19 pandemic. Local Government and
Politics is a 3000-level course offered by the Department of Government, Public Service, and International
Studies. It is an upper-division elective for students majoring in political science, public administration,
or social studies education with a traditional enrollment of 20-25 students. Public Administration and
Political Science courses often create an inherent structure for development as a service-learning op-
portunity simply by the nature of their content. Local Government courses like this one often rely on
course objectives in which students will be able to, at the end of the course, understand the context of
local government and politics in American communities. There is only so much that can be learned from
reading about or discussing governance at the local level. The course is designed to offer students a pro-
found understanding of the intricacies of local governance, fostering an appreciation for the complexities
and challenges faced by those involved in shaping policies and driving change at the grassroots level.
In the fall of 2019, this course had an instructor who, while not new to service-learning, was new to
both the community and the state where the University is located. In preparing the course, the instruc-
tor outlined in the syllabus several components to increase student engagement with local government:
attendance at a city council meeting, participation in a service-learning activity with a local government
entity or activity, and involvement in a city council and election simulation. Like several of our other
cases in this study thus course not only embodied elements of service-learning, but it also included
experiential and interprofessional learning outcomes. Identifying a partner for the service-learning
component of the course initially proved to be exceedingly difficult. While traditional nonprofits work
within local communities and have impacts on service provision and community governance, they do
not always provide experience with actual governmental entities, which the instructor felt was vital to the
service-learning component relating to the course and not simply being a superfluous volunteer activity.
With no connections in the local government, the instructor had sent off multiple emails to individuals
listed on the city government website.
With classes beginning and no responses to the initial email inquiries, the instructor connected with
the University’s Director of Service-Learning. This proved to be the best possible piece of the puzzle
for implementing service-learning for the course. With connections across the community, the Director
was able to identify two different events that semester in conjunction with local governmental entities
and other university partners that needed volunteers - a public forum on homelessness and a fall festival
for a Housing Authority community. Representatives for each event came to class to discuss what the
event would be and how volunteers would be used. The instructor had students sign up for one of the

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activities and then gave a list of contact information to each group. From there, those organizing the
events communicated with students and oversaw the actual participation in each event.

Housing Authority Fall Festival

The Conway Housing Authority provides equal opportunity housing for in-need residents throughout
the city. To help establish positive relationships between the agency, the community, and outreach pro-
grams available to the residents, the agency decided to hold a Fall Festival as a free community-building
social event in one, often under-served, neighborhood. Outreach groups from the University and the
community hosted tables advertising their services - providing an easy access point for families to sign
up for tutoring, after-school programs, or health services while other activities were geared at fun and
connection - games, food, prizes, and such. Students from the course helped with registration, informa-
tion, and tickets or activities like face-painting, crafts, or sports. While on the surface, this programming
promoted ideals of volunteerism, the students were attached to many of the other programs to provide
further impact and immersion.

Homelessness Task Force Community Forum

The second opportunity for community-based service learning in the course was the student involvement
in the Homelessness Task Force Community Forum. The City of Conway Homelessness Task Force
wanted to assess the outlook and give the input back to the city on avenues to address the situation of
homelessness in the community. In conjunction with the university’s Poverty Studies Working Group,
the class and community partners held a public homelessness forum for citizens in the city. The event
was born out of community leaders’ recognition that the issue of homelessness cannot be solved with
just service, strategic planning, or singular governmental or nonprofit action. The goal of the forum was
to get citizens engaged in thoughtful and empathetic discussion about homelessness in the area through
understanding personal impressions and stigmas surrounding the homeless community, barriers to
fighting the issues, and what the community can do to combat homelessness. The role for students was
to help facilitate small-group discussions at the event. Prior to the event, they went through a training
session that discussed how to help community members have productive conversations. On the night
of the event, students were placed into groups with community members and individuals involved in
homeless resources in the local community. They facilitated their groups according to a format set by
the task force.

Student Outcomes and Assessment

The goal of any service-learning activity is to enlighten students about a content area in a way that is
deeper, richer, and more impactful than traditional classroom strategies. With low-stakes, direct-service
opportunities like those presented here, there can be the concern that students see the assignment as little
more than volunteering without seeing the bigger picture of how the singular event connects to broader
themes or real-world application of classroom content. To assess the students’ learning in relation to
the course outcomes, they had to document the experience and reflect on what they did, why they did
it, and the connection between their involvement and course content. After the service-learning activity,
students submit a written assignment (that is used across multiple courses) where they respond to ques-

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tions about their specific activity, its impact on themselves, the agency, and others, and its connection
to the course (see Appendix E). The student reflections highlight how much impact a low-involvement
service-learning experience can truly have.
Regarding the specific service-learning experiences in this course, students talked about how they
learned firsthand about the direct need of local government to help combat issues like homelessness
and poverty within a community. One student reflected that “You got a little taste of exactly what types
of things local governments deal with on a day-to-day basis, and I thought that was extremely cool to
be a part of.” Another explained how “My understanding of my community drastically changed; I now
understand more of the systemic problems affecting Conway residents as well as organizations created
to solve them.”
Another key takeaway that could not be learned in a classroom setting was the importance of com-
munity to local government and politics. When reflecting on their service, one student said that “It brings
home the reality that community involvement is absolutely vital to the success of local government.”
Others commented that “Citizens of a community in need can still band together and provide services to
one another in the name of community betterment,” and “This experience showed me how stakeholders
can come together for a common goal.” Students also gained perspective on real-world problem-solving
and collaboration at the local level. Student assessments frequently talked about being “...part of bottom-
up policy creation.” Another said that they “... did feel like I was helping the community move towards
solving an enduring problem.” One student summed it up well by reflecting that “I learned that my input
about what the city can do is important.”
Beyond the course connections students benefited from with the service-learning activities in this
course, they overwhelmingly expressed personal growth and an increased belief in their own feelings of
self-efficacy. Many that participated in the Public Homelessness Forum expressed apprehension about
taking on facilitator roles, wondering about their ability to be effective at leading other individuals in
productive conversations. Their assessments discussed increased confidence in their abilities. One stu-
dent explained “I really showed myself that I have the capability and determination to have influence at
such an early age. I gained so much experience through conversations with others in the community.”
Another said, “I felt like a catalyst for allowing exchanges and development to occur - even though I am
not directly benefiting from the event, I was able to help the community benefit as a whole.” Students
also expressed personal growth regarding their own biases. As one reflected, “I fell into the trap of sev-
eral stereotypes around homeless people. Those stereotypes were quickly broken after conversing with
a Conway police officer and a former homeless person. The negative stereotypes about homelessness
can be broken just by having a conversation with someone that has seen it firsthand.”

Continuity, Viability, and Recommendations

The service-learning projects utilized in this Local Government and Politics course highlight how a
high-impact activity can be incorporated into a class with a low burden of instructor facilitation. This is
especially useful for instructors who are new to service-learning, new to an institution, or lack significant
amounts of time to incorporate service-learning aspects to their courses. The benefits to this type of direct
service-learning activity are that it is less intensive for the instructor, is less of a time commitment for
the students, and multiple options allow for students to choose activities that interest them. In the case
of the instructor, she was able to begin building community connections in and outside the university
system in hopes of later continuing to develop partnerships.

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When considering the type of governmental agency service-learning experience to incorporate into
a course, there are several things to keep in mind about the model presented specifically in the case of
this course. First, the instructor is reliant upon the availability of events or activities being sponsored
by governmental agencies in the community. Identifying annual events to partner with would help al-
leviate this. The semester detailed here was the one immediately prior to the COVID-19 pandemic so
further partnerships were put on pause. Second, the specific benefits to students vary depending upon
the specific activities and public participation. Because these event-based, direct-volunteer projects are
dependent on agency goals, the impact is not uniform between activities, students, or iterations. This
does not mean that they are not valuable; it is simply a point for an instructor to keep in mind when
determining the goal of service-learning incorporated into a course.
Finally, the value of liaison who is already a point of contact with local agencies, cannot be over-
stated. Initiating a service-learning project with a government agency is not the same as traditional
non-profits. In this case, the instructor, who was also relatively new to the area, had sent several emails
to local governmental units expressing interest in opportunities for students to get involved. None of
the emails received replies. Institutional resources to help facilitate service-learning are integral to any
type of project but are especially beneficial when looking to do something less intensive or where new
partnerships are needed. Blending practical experience into course content empowers students to become
informed and active participants in their communities, equipped with the knowledge and skills necessary
to navigate the intricacies of local government and politics.

CONCLUSION

While service-leaning partnerships with bureaucratic agencies undoubtedly involve more communica-
tion and planning on behalf of the faculty member, partnerships such as these must be encouraged and
maintained. Upon graduation, many students pursue career paths within these agencies, and it is important
that these recent graduates understand the importance of service to their community, the types of services
that bureaucratic agencies perform within society, the clientele these services reach, and the importance
of bureaucratic service in strengthening relationships between governmental officials and community
members. This education helps students in understanding their role within governmental organizations
and encourages them to participate in events and activities that offer services to community members
and organizations. Involvement with student organizations also helps governmental agencies expand their
reach across diverse populations, thereby further strengthening relationships with communities who may
have inherent distrust in police, courts, or other governmental organizations. As a result, faculty should
be encouraged to both pursue and nourish these vital partnerships for the benefit of themselves, their
students, the partnering agencies, and the communities they serve.

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APPENDIX A: SAMPLE RIDE-ALONG WAIVER

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APPENDIX B: SAMPLE PHYSICAL AGILITY WAIVER

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APPENDIX C: SAMPLE COMMUNITY EVENT WAIVER

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APPENDIX D: SAMPLE POLICE PORTFOLIO INSTRUCTIONS

Police and Society Portfolio

General Directions:

You are to complete a portfolio project that is divided into eight sections and a complete APA reference
page. All portfolio content should be typed, double- spaced, and free from spelling and grammatical
errors. Students should also provide accurate in-text citation of all their sources in APA style citation
format. Finally, students should submit a reference page attached to the end of their portfolio in which
they have provided the full and complete citation of each of their sources in APA format. You should
ensure you are appropriately citing your textbook, all articles provided to you on Blackboard in the
“Portfolio” folder, all police department websites, and a minimum of three additional scholarly articles
from the library database of your choosing. Due dates, point values, and additional assistance can be
found on Blackboard. Please note you must complete this throughout the semester. The nature of the
contents themselves prohibits you from completing this all at once. The portfolio draft and final projects
are due on the date designated on the syllabus. No late papers will be accepted!

Component Directions:

Part 1: Police Selection Process

Part 1 is subdivided into seven content Sections. Be sure to cover each component of the selection pro-
cess for each agency. For example, include how to find jobs for that agency as well as selection criteria
and major disqualifiers. While I am not giving you a page minimum or maximum on this assignment,
Section 1 and Section 7 should comprise the majority of the paper. Sections 2-6 are meant to briefly
discuss the criteria for each agency and report your scores.
Section 1: General Police Selection Process: Explain the police selection process. Explain the
selection process in general from how to find jobs to training of the new officer. You should reference
your textbook for this portion of the paper. How does this selection process help find the best possible
candidates?
Section 2: FBI Selection: Briefly explain the selection criteria for the FBI. Have a friend or your
exercise science partner test you on the physical criteria. How did you do? How could you improve? What
skills have you learned from your exercise science partner that would assist you in preparation for this?
Section 3: Arkansas State Police Selection: Briefly explain the selection criteria for the Arkansas
State Police. How did you do on the physical? How could you improve? What skills have you learned
from your exercise science partner that would assist you in preparation for this?
Section 4: Conway Police Department Selection: Briefly explain the selection criteria for Conway
PD. How did you do on the physical? How could you improve? What skills have you learned from your
exercise science partner that would assist you in preparation for this?
Section 5: UCAPD Selection: Briefly explain the selection criteria for UCAPD. Then, discuss the
two testing rounds as follows:

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Based on the first testing round: How did you do on the written? How could you improve? How did
you do on the physical? How could you improve? How did you measure up (overall rank)? How could
you improve this rank. What skills have you learned from your exercise science partner that would assist
you in preparation for this?
Based on the second testing round: How did you perform on the physical this time? How does this
compare to your previous performance? How will you continue improving? What skills have you learned
from your exercise science partner to help you continue to improve?
Section 6: Faulkner County Sheriff’s Office: Briefly explain the selection criteria for FCSO. How
did you prepare for the interview? What questions were asked of you? How did you respond? Do you
think you did well? Why/why not? What could you do to better prepare yourself in the future? What do
these interviews assess of candidates?
Section 7: Police Recruitment & Culture: What is police culture? How do the stages of officer
recruitment (from finding jobs and applying through training the new officer) shape police culture? What
are the primary characteristics of police culture? What are the similarities observed amongst studies of
officers, and how might these begin to be formed during the training process?
Section 8: Reflection: What have you learned from participating in and researching these selection
activities? How do these activities help us to identify the best possible candidates? How can public
participation in these activities (such as your participation) help improve police-community relations?
Part 2: Police Ride-Along: During the semester, you have completed ride-alongs with UCAPD,
Conway PD, & FCSO. This section of your portfolio should be divided into the following subdivisions:
UCA Police Ride-Along, Conway Police Ride-Along, Faulkner County Sheriff’s Office Ride-Along, &
Overall Ride-Along Experience.
Section 1: UCAPD Ride-Along: In this subdivision, provide the date of your ride-along, time in &
out, and name of the officer you were with. Then, discuss the things you had the opportunity to observe
on the ride-along. What did you learn? What did you gain from this experience? Lastly, include your
completed student evaluation of officer and your officer evaluation of student.
Section 2: Conway PD Ride-Along: In this subdivision, provide the date of your ride-along, time
in & out, and name of the officer you were with. Then, discuss the things you had the opportunity to
observe on the ride-along. What did you learn? What did you gain from this experience? Lastly, include
your completed student evaluation of officer and your officer evaluation of student.
Section 3: FCSO Ride-Along: In this subdivision, provide the date of your ride-along, time in &
out, and name of the officer you were with. Then, discuss the things you had the opportunity to observe
on the ride-along. What did you learn? What did you gain from this experience? Lastly, include your
completed student evaluation of officer and your officer evaluation of student.
Section 4: Overall Ride-Along Experience: In this last subdivision, compare your ride-along ex-
periences. How were they similar? How were they different? What do you feel you have learned from
this overall experience of spending time with three different agencies? How can experiences like this
help improve police-community relations? I am not assigning you a minimum page limit on this section
as everyone’s experiences will differ.
However, you should thoroughly address all the questions above.
Part 3: Police Discretion & Procedural Justice: What is police discretion & why is it such an
important topic in criminal justice? What are the types of police behavior that officers engage in? What
domains of factors influence police discretion, and what variables fall within these domains? What is

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police legitimacy and procedural justice? What is the relationship between these concepts? What is the
relationship between discretion and these concepts? How can discretion impact- positively and nega-
tively- these concepts? How can police procedures improve public perception of police, police legiti-
macy, cooperation with law enforcement, and police-community relations? How can public exposure to
police entrance requirements, training, and job functions such as the exposure you have gained through
your experiential learning events this semester improve public perception of police, police legitimacy,
cooperation with law enforcement, and police- community relations?
Part 4: Share-A-Bear: Throughout the month of November, you collected bears and other items for
officers to provide to children. This culminated in the end-of-year police-community relations event at
the Boys & Girls Club. Based on these experiences, what did you learn about the role of an officer? How
do all these activities help improve police-community relations? How can the police learn and benefit
from these activities? How can civilians learn and benefit from these activities? What did you feel was
the most beneficial of these activities? Why
Part 5: Final Reflections: In one single page, provide your final reflections of the course. What
have you learned? What was most beneficial? What would you change?
Part 6: References: Include a full reference page citation for all references used in this portfolio in
APA format.

APPENDIX E: LOCAL GOVERNMENT SERVICE-

LEARNING REFLECTION AND ASSESSMENT

• What did you do during the service-learning experience? What is the impact of your service?
• How do you feel about the experience? Why? What underlies your personal response to the
activity?
• What needs did the project address? What are the causes of those needs?
• How do people contribute to the problem? How can you or others work to solve it?
• What did you do that was effective or ineffective in service to the agency or others?
• What did you learn about your own value to the agency?
• How has your understanding of the community changed because of your experience?
• How does this service-learning activity connect with what you have learned in class?
• How can you continue your involvement with this agency or with these issues? How can you raise
others’ awareness?

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Chapter 8
Global Service-Learning
on a Continuum:
Shallow and Deep Service-
Learning in Rwanda

Leah Horton
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3739-5926
University of Central Arkansas, USA

Riva Brown
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5926-1956
University of Central Arkansas, USA

ABSTRACT
This book chapter explores student learning and growth after participating in the Science, Society, and
Service-Learning in Rwanda study abroad program. The students participated in what the authors define
as deep service-learning, one experience that took place over a few days, allowing for more meaning-
ful engagement, and shallow service-learning, two separate experiences that each occurred over a few
hours, allowing for less interaction. The authors used Likert-scale and open-ended post-trip questions
to assess the students in three categories: 1) global competency and cultural awareness, 2) personal
growth and development, and 3) communication and teamwork. The students rated the first category
the highest. The authors also assess the effectiveness of the service-learning experiences by including
the perspectives of the Rwandan community partners.

Over a decade ago, in 2012, the University of Central Arkansas (UCA) in the United States launched
a service-learning study abroad program to Rwanda, focusing on the intersections of science, society,
and service-learning. Science, Society, and Service-Learning in Rwanda was originally developed in
collaboration with Rwandan Presidential Scholars attending UCA to promote science education outreach
into primary schools in an attempt to introduce hands-on science activities based on the Rwanda primary

DOI: 10.4018/979-8-3693-2133-1.ch008

Copyright © 2024, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
 
Global Service-Learning on a Continuum

school science curriculum guidelines. Prior to departing the United States, faculty and students spent
considerable time studying common Western misconceptions about the African continent, the history
and geography of Rwanda, the 1994 Genocide Against the Tutsi, the governmental policy of Unity and
Reconciliation, basic Kinyarwanda (the native language of Rwanda), and Rwandan cultural norms. Fac-
ulty leaders worked with in-country partners to develop an itinerary that blended important cultural and
historical sites, ecotourism experiences, and multiple opportunities for various forms of service-learning.
The emphasis of the program has shifted over the years and now focuses primarily on service-
learning in a rural village in northwest Rwanda. The UCA contingent visited the village briefly during
the inaugural program year and has since developed a long-term partnership with village leadership to
collaboratively plan and implement an ongoing improved cookstove project in the form of site built rocket
stoves. The history and community-based participatory research nature of the project have been previ-
ously described (Horton, 2022). In brief, the village partner is situated in a remote region in northwest
Rwanda and is home to approximately 900 families, many of whom are in the first and second Ubudehe
categories (most highly subsidized) of the national community-based health insurance scheme. Poverty
is endemic in the village, very few families can afford to connect their homes to electricity, and almost
everyone depends on firewood as their primary source of fuel. The traditional cooking method in the
village is the three-stone fire. Horton (2022) compared the firewood efficiency of the traditional three-
stone fires to site built rocket stoves and found the rocket stoves reduced firewood consumption by an
average of 32.74%, leading to significant savings of wood, time, and money. Due to the design of the
rocket stoves, there is also less wood smoke exposure thereby improving health outcomes of stove users.
The primary limitation of Horton’s study was the small sample size as only ten families in the village had
rocket stoves and an ongoing goal of the partnership has been to build more rocket stoves in the village.
Since the inception of the Science, Society, and Service-Learning in Rwanda program, students and
faculty have worked with various partners and programs to conduct what we refer to as deep and shal-
low service-learning. Deep service-learning is characterized by student engagement with community
partners over multiple days during which students and community members have the opportunity to
form connections, share experiences, and build relationships. In contrast, shallow service-learning is
characterized by service performed during a short period of time, typically no more than more than
2-3 hours, which does not provide opportunities for genuine connection and relationship building. The
faculty leaders feel that both deep and shallow service-learning are valuable experiences for students.
This chapter will explore project development, relationship and trust building with global partners, as
well as student perspectives and reflections on both types of global service-learning experiences. The
article will close with suggestions for faculty and administrators seeking to develop collaborative, global
service-learning programs on their campuses.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Service-learning is considered in higher education as a high impact practice that blends classroom
learning with community engagement in an attempt to bolster student learning of course content as well
as various skills and dispositions such as citizenship, perspective taking, and intercultural awareness
(Kuh, 2008; Meyers, 2009; Welch & Plaxton-Moore, 2019). Faculty and students can participate in a
variety of service-learning activities including direct service, indirect service, advocacy, and research
(Welch & Plaxton-Moore, 2019). Morton (1995) asserts that service-learning includes three paradigms

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on a continuum from charity to project to social change or advocacy. These paradigms can be “thin” or
“thick” depending on the lens through which faculty and students engage with the community and the
type of service conducted. Charity work risks being thin service-learning that has the potential to rein-
force established structures of power and privilege, exactly opposite the intended outcomes of service-
learning (Bowen, 2014, Mitchell, 2008; Morton, 1995). Another way of describing the range of student
experiences within Morton’s paradigms is that the service-learning falls on a continuum from shallow to
deep, characterized primarily by whether and to what extent students and faculty invest in relationships
with community partners and the level of concern shown to the root causes of a problem (Corso, 2008).
Within current service-learning scholarship, many authors are advocating for a shift from traditional
service-learning to critical service-learning (Bowen, 2014; Latta et al., 2018; Mitchell, 2008). Critical
service-learning intentionally approaches community engagement through a social justice lens focused
on systemic injustice and inequality. Critical service-learning, when crafted carefully, has the potential
to interrupt age-old hierarchies and power structures, providing for truly transformative student experi-
ences. McEachen (2017) advocates for deep learning based on a foundation of character, citizenship,
collaboration, communication, creativity, and critical thinking. The deep learning paradigm can be
utilized in the design and implementation of critical service-learning.
However, whether students engage in traditional or critical service-learning, the experience remains
thin or shallow without a reflective component built in to the service (Harrell, 2022; Welch, 2019). Kolb’s
(1984) experiential learning cycle is commonly used as a model for understanding the power and impor-
tance of student reflection following any form of experiential learning, including service-learning (Cone
& Harris, 1996; Latta et al., 2018; Salam et al., 2019). Reflection provides the opportunity for students
to make meaning from their experiences, to investigate important questions, and to conceptualize future
interactions. Student reflection is necessary to move service-learning experiences from shallow to deep.

Global Service-Learning

Many college campuses are embracing high-impact practices that combine global learning and service-
learning as ways to help increase students’ intercultural knowledge and competency (American Associa-
tion of Colleges and Universities, 2021).
Global learning was defined as “the process of diverse people collaboratively analyzing and address-
ing complex problems that transcend borders” (Landorf & Doscher, 2023). The authors updated their
2015 definition in 2023 to add “and engaging in actions that promote collective well-being” (Landorf
& Doscher, 2023). The addition to the definition helps to establish a firmer connection between global
learning and service-learning.
In addition to becoming more globally self-aware, understanding global systems, and applying
knowledge in contemporary global contexts, students who participate in global learning are expected to
learn about perspective taking, cultural diversity, and personal and social responsibility, (American As-
sociation of Colleges and Universities, 2021a). These learning outcomes are similar to service-learning,
where the goals include, but are not limited to, students understanding how their majors can serve or
address needs domestically or internationally, appreciating diversity, and practicing civic responsibility
(UCA service-learning, n.d.).
Service-learning has been included in study abroad as one way students can engage in global learning.
Studying abroad is an experiential learning, high-impact practice that allows students to study in another
country, thereby increasing their intercultural knowledge and competency so they can understand how

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to behave effectively and appropriately when interacting with individuals from various cultures (Ameri-
can Association of Colleges and Universities, 2021b). Students can also gain knowledge about cultural
self-awareness and worldview frameworks, empathy, and verbal and nonverbal communication skills,
while becoming more curious and open (American Association of Colleges and Universities, 2021b).
Glickman et al. (2015) linked service-learning and cultural competence in their research about U.S.
graduate professional students in health and human services fields who spent six weeks immersed in
Malawi, Africa. The authors found that the immersion experience from studying abroad enhanced their
cultural competency skills more than education alone (Glickman et al, 2015). Gates (2014) echoes this
sentiment by asserting that in colleges and universities across America, studying abroad “has become
a powerful force in student cultural competence” (p. 33). The author concludes that these short-term
experiences “can provide cultural and linguistic immersion within the context of hands-on experience
that may connect both to academic and potential career interests” (p. 39).
Lee et al. (2019) noted that students can learn other skills connected to cultural competence when
they engage in service-learning in another country. The authors conducted ethnographic research on
American students from diverse backgrounds who participated in Engineers Without Borders programs
operating in Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean. The authors concluded that students increased
their cultural competency about other countries and their classmates from different socioeconomic back-
grounds. “Having diverse service-learning teams will benefit all involved as it provides another way for
students to learn respect for cultural diversity, how to work across differences, and how to effectively
incorporate different views into their work” (Lee et al., 2019, p. 11).
Whereas some scholars looked at how students benefited from service-learning and global learning
through study abroad, Gendle et al. (2023) researched how the international partner benefited. The authors
assessed outcomes when undergraduate student groups from the United States partnered with a rural
area in Sri Lanka. Gendle et al. (2023) used the term Community-Based Global Learning instead of the
commonly used term service-learning to describe their work. The students participated in a collabora-
tive project that Sri Lankans chose, which included rehabilitating and cleaning an elementary school.
The results of their Community Benefit Survey showed that within this context, community members
who completed the survey agreed that “the students collaborated with their community in a useful way,
and that it would be valuable to host additional student groups in the future” (Gendle et al., 2023, p. 6).

Global Service-Learning in Rwanda

The projects described in this chapter seek to implement best practices from the literature regarding
global service-learning. We have been working in Rwanda since 2012 and have invested significant
time into building long-term partnerships based on mutual respect and trust. While studying abroad in
Rwanda, our students engage in a variety of service-learning on the continuum from shallow to deep.
While students are asked to reflect on all of their service, the shallow experiences provide limited op-
portunities for relationship building and align more closely with Morton’s (1995) paradigm of charity
work (e.g. donating school supplies and donating time to help with a community clean-up event). Deep
service-learning carried out collaboratively with our long-term community partner fulfills not only
Morton’s (1995) definition of investment in relationships, but also the level of concern shown relating
to the root causes of the issues facing the community.
Our students participating in deep service-learning benefit from what McEachen (2017) calls learn-
ing partnerships – relationships cultivated between and among students, teachers, families and the wider

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environment – and learning environments – interaction in trusting environments where students take
responsibility for their learning. Our deep service-learning also provides opportunities for students to
interrogate power structures (Mitchell, 2008), work to disrupt the white savior complex (Harrell, 2022),
and practice active and responsible citizenship (Segú Odriozola, 2023). The remainder of the chapter
discusses our course design and student learning outcomes, partnership development and program evalu-
ation, and offer suggestions for faculty and administrators seeking to implement global service-learning.

COURSE DESIGN AND STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES

The deep and shallow service-learning discussed in this chapter are embedded into two courses taken
by students participating in the Science, Society, and Service-Learning in Rwanda 3-week faculty-led
summer study abroad program. Students enroll in three or six credit hours, with options including a
biology special topics course and a world cultures course. The study abroad program in Rwanda is the
only faculty-led study abroad program at UCA for which biology majors can earn course credit for their
major, so it is typical for biology majors to be in the majority. In addition to outcomes related to content
for each course, learning outcomes for the program were informed by the AAC&U VALUE Rubrics, in
particular the Global Learning rubric (American Association of Colleges and Universities, 2021a) and
the Intercultural Knowledge and Competence rubric (American Association of Colleges and Universities,
2021b). Specifically, as a result of participating in Science, Society, and Service-Learning students would

• improve their ability to articulate their identity in a global context.

• evaluate and apply diverse perspectives to complex global issues.
• increase their knowledge of global power structures.
• increase awareness of their own cultural biases and understanding of the foundation of those
biases.
• demonstrate and articulate an awareness of the complexity of culture and make meaning from that
complexity by drawing on multiple perspectives and worldviews.

Student learning was assessed through daily journal entries, participation in group discussions, and
a final project. Each student was required to keep a travel journal and make at least one entry each day.
Some days we gave students specific reflection prompts and other days students were free to reflect on
the experiences of their choosing. For example, after spending time at a school for deaf children, the
reflection prompt was:

Throughout your time in Rwanda, you have been communicating with many people who speak a dif-
ferent language. How was today’s experience at the school for the deaf different? What did you learn
about yourself today? Did today’s experience affect how you feel about interacting/serving disabled
communities at home?

For content specific outcomes, each student was required to lead one discussion over the course of
the program. Biology students chose from a selection of peer-reviewed academic journal articles related
to Rwanda, such as forensic anthropological analysis of mass graves, rediscovery of a bat species in
Nyungwe National Park, ecological and genetic diversity of mountain gorillas, impact of home gardening

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on food security, etc. The cultural studies students chose a relevant cultural topic to research and present
including the history and current model of umuganda, impact of the Chinese Belt and Road Initiative
on Rwanda, the use of restorative justice to promote peace and reconciliation after the 1994 genocide,
etc. The group discussions were incredibly rich and one student commented,

There were several instances where our nightly discussions challenged positions that I had been taught
my whole life, and it was interesting to see how being in a different country could completely change
those positions.

Group Interdisciplinarity

Eleven students and three faculty members participated in the 2023 Science, Society, and Service-Learning
in Rwanda study abroad program, consisting of seven biology majors, one journalism major, one political
science/Africana studies double major, one social studies education major, and one international studies/
linguistics double major. The interdisciplinary makeup of the student group is beneficial to the outcome
of the service-learning projects, because students from different disciplines bring with them different
perspectives, knowledge, and skills (Hawes, et al., 2021). One student commented, “Through my daily
interactions, I found that I had so much in common with everyone I met despite our radically different
lifestyles and backgrounds.” Another student stated,

During my time in Rwanda, the professors who led me and the peers who surrounded me all helped
to make it one of the greatest experiences of my life. I am so grateful for the little community we made
amongst ourselves as we braved very new and unfamiliar adventures, including our service-learning
projects. It has changed me indefinitely, and for that, I am forever grateful.

Not only were the students participating in the program an interdisciplinary group, so were the faculty
who represented the disciplines of biology, leadership studies, and public relations (PR). The faculty
diversity contributed to rich discussions of course content and spontaneous teachable moments that arose
often in the context of daily activities. For example, the PR faculty member was able to engage students
in thoughtful discussion regarding the propaganda utilized throughout the 1994 Genocide Against the
Tutsi, the biology professor guided students through processing how forensic anthropologists were critical
in examining human remains post-genocide to provide evidence to the International Criminal Tribunal,
and the leadership studies faculty member helped students process the enormous leadership challenge
of rebuilding the country post-genocide.
One important notation is that all of the students and faculty, with the exception of the PR faculty
member, are White. UCA is a regional, predominantly White, masters comprehensive university in the
southern United States. The most recent data show a combined undergraduate/graduate student population
of 9,780, of whom 67% are White (“Bear facts,” 2024). The PR faculty member is Black and the value
she added to the experience for the other participants cannot be overstated. The leadership studies faculty
member has been a faculty leader on the service-learning study abroad in Rwanda since the program
began in 2012. While she was able to guide students through conversations about cultural competence
and the pitfalls of the white savior complex, the presence of a Black faculty leader greatly enhanced the
authenticity of those conversations. She spoke to the students from the standpoint of a Black American
woman and gently, yet firmly, encouraged the students to interrogate their biases, motivations, and

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worldviews. One important conversation she led dealt with posting photos on social media. We wanted
our students to be able to share their experiences with their friends and families in a culturally competent,
respectful, and appropriate way. The PR faculty member was able to help students work through what
kinds of pictures were and were not appropriate to post and in what contexts. These were necessary
conversations to have as we attempted to guide our students’ understanding of global power structures
and ongoing structural colonialism and to help them understand how the photos they posted could either
reinforce those systems or could attempt to interrupt those systems by providing appropriate context.

PROGRAM OVERVIEW AND PARTNER DEVELOPMENT

Since the second student cohort in 2013, we have been fortunate enough to work with a local educational
tourism company owned and operated by Rwandans. Developing close relationships with in-country
providers is critical to the success of long term partnerships and we highly recommend working with
locally owned businesses whenever possible. In order to facilitate partners for deep service-learning,
faculty and administrators must commit to relationship building. Global service-learning, especially
those centered in developing countries with students from predominantly White institutions, can run
the risk of reinforcing colonialist stereotypes and promoting the white savior complex. Those risks are
particularly prevalent when university faculty or staff have chosen partners without doing the important
relationship building and needs assessment work prior to conducting the project with students. Design-
ing projects based on faculty, staff, and student assumptions of partner needs places the partners in the
unfortunate position of being served or having service conducted on them rather than serving with them.
In order to ethically conduct global service-learning in developing countries and/or with marginalized
communities, intellectual and cultural humility is essential. Putting in the time to build relationships and
establish trust is key to involving students in an ethical, reciprocal service-learning project. Marginal-
ized communities are often targeted for research and service-learning partnerships. However, work with
marginalized communities must be done carefully and ethically, and every attempt must be made to bring
the community into the decision making process (DeJonckheere et al., 2019). Israel et al. (2013), outline
nine best practices for practitioners of community-based participatory research and many of those best
practices also apply when conducting service-learning with marginalized communities. The principles
most applicable for service-learning are

• Recognize community as a unit of identity.

• Build on strengths and resources within the community.
• Facilitate collaborative and equitable partnership in all phases.
• Promote co-learning and capacity building among all partners.
• Systems development through a cyclical and iterative process.
• Requires a long-term process and commitment to sustainability.

Faculty leaders for the Science, Society, and Service-Learning in Rwanda program have been building
relationships with the same service-learning partners since the program began in 2012. The long-term
relationships have fostered mutual trust and respect and have provided opportunities for community
members to provide authentic feedback and help to shape future projects.

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Pre-service training and education is an essential part of preparing students to conduct ethical global
service-learning. Students participating in the global service-learning study abroad in Rwanda were
selected by February 2023 for the May 2023 program. Over the next three months, the faculty and stu-
dents were in regular contact in order to promote team-building with the student group. Students were
also given some reading assignments to complete during this period. Prior to departure, we spent three
days having class on campus during which we discussed the history of Rwanda, watched and debriefed
important films, led cultural competency training around cultural norms and customs, had basic Kin-
yarwanda lessons, and prepared for the service-learning projects. Students reported that these campus
class days were important in helping to reduce culture shock, prevent cultural and social missteps, and
develop an appropriate mindset to ensure ethical participation in the service-learning projects.
The timing of the service-learning projects within the itinerary is also important to consider. Service-
learning was a focus throughout the program, but was not the focus of each day. Excluding the four
travel days, service-learning comprised five days of the program, spread across three different sites. Our
group spent seven days in Rwanda prior to participating in the first service-learning project. These days
allowed the students some time to adjust to the differences in time zone, food, transportation, landscape,
and social norms. They also had time to learn more about the history of Rwanda, the colonization that
ultimately led to the genocide, the post-genocide recovery, the modern social and political context, the
unique flora and fauna of the country, and various public health concerns throughout the country (e.g.
poverty, malnutrition, parasites, water-born illnesses, etc). We also visited multiple genocide memori-
als, museums, and parks in various regions of the country. Acquiring this knowledge of the history and
physical landscape of Rwanda enabled the students to be better prepared to empathize with the service-
learning partners and community members they would be working alongside. Each daily activity and
class discussion deepened the students’ understanding of the people and places they were interacting
with, gave them confidence in using their limited language skills, and built anticipation for the upcoming
service-learning projects. In isolation, the service activities might have been interesting and fun, but the
students would not have been able to place their service in the broader social and cultural context and
make appropriate meaning from their experiences that critical service-learning requires.

SHALLOW AND DEEP SERVICE-LEARNING IN RWANDA

Students participated in three service-learning projects in Rwanda, each characterized by a differing

amount of time and level of interaction with the community. Each project was direct service in which
students personally engaged with community members on activities that required teamwork, commu-
nication, and interpersonal skills. All three service-learning projects will now be discussed from most
shallow to most deep.

Umuganda Participation

Rwanda has a history of public and community service known as umuganda (Uwimbabazi, 2012). After
the 1994 Genocide, the government implemented compulsory monthly public service that takes place
across the country on the last Saturday of each month as part of the National Unity and Reconcilia-
tion policy. Local leaders plan projects specific to their community and local residents are expected to

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participate. Businesses are to remain closed and motor vehicles are prohibited during time of service,
unless special permission has been granted.
Since we were in Rwanda on umuganda Saturday, our in-country provider arranged for us to partici-
pate in the community in which we were staying. The service took place at a local genocide memorial
that contained a mass grave. UCA students and faculty members assisted in sweeping the parking lot,
pulling weeds in flower beds, and cleaning the covering of the mass grave. This activity only took a
couple of hours and did not provide much opportunity to interact with community members as most of
them did not speak English. In the beginning, the women sweeping the parking lot with hand brooms
were reluctant to let us help; but after showing us their techniques and what they expected, we were able
to complete the job to their satisfaction.
Our participation in umuganda was the shallowest of our service-learning projects due to the short
period of time we participated and the very limited opportunity for meaningful interaction with community
members. However, because the students had learned about the genocide and the cultural significance
of umuganda, they recognized the importance of the activity. In journal reflections, one student talked
about realizing that they could have been working alongside someone whose family member was buried
in the mass grave. Several students reflected on the experience, wishing there was a similar program
in the United States because many towns and neighborhoods lack a genuine feeling of community. So
despite the shallow nature of the experience, it was still valuable to the students’ learning and intercul-
tural awareness.

The Nyabihu School for the Deaf

UCA faculty and students were first introduced to the Nyabihu School for the Deaf in 2012 and have
visited the school as part of every study abroad program. In 2023, prior to arriving in Rwanda, the fac-
ulty leaders had been in communication with the director regarding supply donations the UCA students
could collect and bring. We received a detailed list of items from the director that guided our collections.
Students and faculty shared the donation list with family, friends, and on social media. Our local com-
munity was very generous with both supply and cash donations. One afternoon of our on campus class
days, students inventoried the donated supplies, made lists of items still needed, and divided into teams
to go shopping with the donated money. We then spent a few hours packing and weighing suitcases full
of supplies for the school. Ultimately, we packed seven suitcases full of school supplies.
Unfortunately, due to an itinerary change, we were only able to spend one day at the Nyabihu School
for the Deaf, rather than two. The school director had planned for the first day to be spent touring the
school, eating with the children, playing games, and learning from their handicrafts teacher. The second
day was to be spent repainting exterior walls. Upon hearing of the itinerary change, the director chose for
us to spend our day at the school following the Day One itinerary. Upon arrival, the director welcomed
us and took us on a school tour. The UCA students had the opportunity to introduce themselves in sign
language. Some students had practiced learning to sign their names prior to arrival and the children
enjoyed figuring out our names and writing them on the chalkboard. After the tour, the school children
engaged the UCA students in their physical education class, teaching their games and playing volleyball.
We also ate lunch in the dining hall with the children and spent some time joining a handicrafts class.
We spent about four hours at the school, interacting with the children.
We were all disappointed that we were not able to spend more time at the School for the Deaf or do
the work we had planned to do, but the time we spent engaged with the children was important in its own

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right. Globally, people with disabilities have been historically marginalized and discriminated against.
In Rwanda, there is often shame associated with having a child with disabilities and there is often a
prevailing assumption that people with disabilities have no options for earning income and therefore
depend on begging for their livelihood (Dushimiyimana, 2018). The Nyabihu School for the Deaf is
the only school of its kind in the northern half of Rwanda and the school’s goal is not only the educa-
tion of deaf children, but also of their families and communities to reduce stigma against deaf children
and people with disabilities (Nyabihu school for deaf, 2024). Allowing groups such as ours to visit the
school and engage with the children demonstrates to the children and local community the inherent value
and dignity of people with disabilities. The interaction was equally important for our students, many of
whom shared their nervousness regarding the communication barriers and interacting with people with
disabilities in general.
We also characterize the time we spent at the Nyabihu School for the Deaf as shallow service-learning,
due to the limited time and limited opportunities for relationship building. Despite the shallow nature of
this project, our students’ learning was deep and rich. One student wrote in their journal,

I was shocked at how fast I caught on to useful signs as I spent the day with the students. The fast learn-
ing pace allowed me to communicate with those at the deaf school better than I had with any other
Rwandans on the trip thus far. The students were bursting with so much joy and kindness. It easily spread
throughout our whole group, making us very reluctant to end our visit at this happy place. I hope I can
take this joy with me wherever I go, and continue to interact with disabled communities.

Building Rocket Stoves with our Village Partner

Horton (2022) describes the origin and history of the rocket stove project with our village partner. As of
2023, there were still only ten rocket stoves in the village and the village leadership was eager to build
more stoves, but needed the funds to purchase the necessary supplies. Our students hosted a “Rocket Run
Bring the Heat” 5K with a $25 entry fee, which would purchase the materials to build one stove. While
many people signed up for the 5K with the sole intention of sponsoring the construction of a stove, we
had approximately 20 participants at the 5K events and raised enough money to purchase supplies to
build 50 stoves.
Several individuals in the village had been previously trained to build the rocket stoves, so the pri-
mary role of the UCA students and faculty during the service project was carrying supplies from the
central location in the village to each individual home. The village itself is built in a volcanic region
and the paths through the village are rife with rocks. Carrying heavy loads of bricks, sand, and cement
in the equatorial sun, at an elevation of approximately 5,300 feet above sea level, while navigating hilly,
rocky, and uneven terrain was a difficult task. In fact, during a follow-up phone call that took place
through a translator, one of the village leaders commented that the people of the village had never seen
White people do such hard work and that they were all still talking about it. When asked why that was
so surprising, he said, “We did not think White people would do such hard work. We thought that was
only for Black people.”
Regarding the difficulty of the service, several students commented that was what made it so mean-
ingful. Student 4 said, “[the project] was also hard hard work which also made me feel good because we
were able to speed up a process that would’ve taken them so much longer.”

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The stove project was the deepest service-learning project of the study abroad, as we spent most of
three days in the village. Every student said this project was the most meaningful to them and multiple
students said it was because of the amount of time they spent in the village and how close they got to
the residents. Student 2 said,

Rocket stoves definitely meant the most to me. It was the longest project we had and the only one we had
to really struggle through. The heat was a contributing factor…I also felt like we got the most bonding
time while we were in the village since we got to stay there the longest.

Student 5 commented,

The rocket stoves service opportunity was definitely the most meaningful to me because we worked so
closely with the families living in [the village] for multiple days. The poverty I witnessed in the village
was difficult for me to come to terms with, and the children I met and bonded with will be in my heart
and mind for the rest of my life. It was so eye-opening to see people deeply struggling, without access
to so many resources, but at the same time cheerfully living, making memories and building families in
these space that were home to them, yet so foreign to me…Also, going in and out of peoples houses and
backyards lended itself to a level of intimacy with total strangers that I had never experienced before.

Student Learning and Growth Self-Assessment

In order to assess student perceptions of their own learning, students were asked to complete an Insti-
tutional Review Board approved post-trip assessment via an open-ended Google Form. The assessment
questions (see Table 1), can be divided into categories of Global Competency and Intercultural Aware-
ness (questions 1, 2, 3, 4, 11, 12, and 13), Personal Growth and Development (questions 5, 8, 9, 10, 14,
and 15), and Communication and Teamwork (questions 6 and 7). To complete and submit the Google
Form, students were required to answer questions 1 through 15, with question 16 being optional.
The post-trip assessment questions are based on Chan et al. (2021), whose research examined the
impact of global citizenship and intercultural competence among students who participated in interna-
tional service-learning. The authors used a Global Citizenship Scale that measured social responsibil-
ity, global competence, and global civic engagement (Chan et al., 2021, p. 6). The authors also used an
Intercultural Competence Scale that measured intercultural effectiveness (Chan et al., 2021, p. 6). The
researchers noted that the benefits of international service-learning “include improved global competence;
increased sense of global citizenship; development of leadership, communication, and teamwork skills;
and personal development in the areas of adaptability, maturity, examination of values and beliefs, civic
responsibilities and civic engagement” (Chan et al., 2021, p. 2).
Eight of eleven students completed the assessment, for a response rate of 72.7%. Overall, students
rated their learning and growth very positively, with only five of eighty-eight (5.7%) data points being
a neutral rating and no questions receiving a rating of disagree or strongly disagree.

Global Competency and Intercultural Awareness

Students rated their personal learning and growth highest for the category Global Competency and Inter-
cultural Awareness (see Figure 1). They universally agreed or strongly agreed that the service-learning

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Table 1. Post-trip student assessment questions.

The global service-learning study abroad in Rwanda increased my global competence. Global competence is defined as
Question 1 “having an open mind while actively seeking to understand others’ cultural norms and expectations and leveraging this
knowledge to interact, communicate, and work effectively outside one’s environment” (Chan et al., 2021, p. 3).
The global service-learning in Rwanda increased my intercultural awareness. Intercultural awareness “involves
Question 2 the ability of standing back from our own point and becoming aware of not only our own cultural values, beliefs and
perceptions, but also those of other culture” (Zhu, 2011).
The global service-learning study abroad in Rwanda increased my global citizenship development. Global citizenship
Question 3 is “a mindset to care for humanity and the planet to undertake responsible actions when and where necessary” (Global
Citizenship Foundation, 2024).
Question 4 The service-learning study abroad in Rwanda increased my awareness of global issues.
Question 5 The global service-learning study abroad in Rwanda increased my leadership development.
Question 6 The global service-learning study abroad in Rwanda increased my communication skills.
Question 7 The global service-learning study abroad in Rwanda increased my teamwork skills.
Question 8 The global service-learning study abroad in Rwanda increased my adaptability.
Question 9 The global service-learning study abroad in Rwanda increased my maturity.
Question
The global service-learning study abroad in Rwanda increased my examination of my values and beliefs.
10
Question
The global service-learning in Rwanda increased my civic engagement.
11
Question
Which service opportunity (rocket stoves, deaf school, umuganda) was most meaningful to you and why?
12
Question What is your assessment of the ethics of the service work you completed during the service-learning study abroad in
13 Rwanda?
Question
How did the service-learning study abroad in Rwanda help you find yourself and the person you want to be?
14
Question
How did the service-learning study abroad in Rwanda impact your personal and intellectual growth?
15
Question
What else would you like us to know about your experience with service-learning in Rwanda?
16
Note. Questions 1 - 11 were Likert-scale questions with options ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Questions 12 - 16 were
open-ended questions.

study abroad in Rwanda increased their global competence, intercultural awareness, global citizenship,
awareness of global issues, and civic engagement. In particular, students rated their global competence,
intercultural awareness, and global citizenship as increasing the most as a result of participating in the
program. Regarding global competence, defined by Chan et al. (2021, p. 3) as “having an open mind
while actively seeking to understand others’ cultural norms and expectations and leveraging this knowl-
edge to interact, communicate, and work effectively outside one’s environment.” Student 2 commented,

I’ve always been pretty open-minded, realizing that not everyone has the same moral values. Coming to
a place where almost everyone around me holds differing values was a little intimidating but it got me
out of my comfort zone…it was nice being around so many people that respects [sic] everyone’s beliefs
and not pushing one another to change.

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Figure 1. Responses to global competence and cultural awareness questions

Note. The assessment was completed by 8 of 11 students. Student self-assessment indicates the program was successful in im-
proving students’ confidence and awareness of global issues. All respondents strongly agreed that participation in the program
increased their intercultural awareness (Question 2).

Student 5 spoke specifically about how their improved global competence facilitated their ability to
make connections with community members in the village. They said,

I left Rwanda with a renewed value for kindness, thoughtfulness, connections and community. I came
face to face with and eventually found some peace in how existence on this planet can be so loving and
so cruel at the same time, which was kind of a spiritual revelation for me. Through my daily interac-
tions, I found that I had so much in common with everyone I met despite our radically different lifestyles
and backgrounds. I found a shared humanness in [the village] that has stayed with me every day since.
Rwanda helped me see there is real community to be found with all different kinds of people around me
and it has inspired me to live my life differently at home.

Question 2, assessing intercultural awareness, is the only question for which each student answered
“strongly agree.” A common theme among student reflections dealt with becoming aware of the material
privileges they were used to and took for granted when confronted with the different amenities throughout
the country and the poverty of the village in particular. Student 7 commented,

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...the interactions within the village is what impacted me the most and made the service opportunity the
most meaningful. Being able to overcome a language barrier and have complete strangers show grace
and love to us was absolutely incredible and something I will never forget. Even though these people
aren’t financially well [off] or have the best access to various resources, they are living their lives in the
present and fully embracing their daily routine and interactions with passion. It’s impactful to see how
us, as Americans, are so spoiled and fortunate to have adequate access to various resources, yet we still
complain and act bitter at times. Because of this experience, I feel like I have matured and grown as a
human being, and I ultimately think my perspective on life has changed for the better.

Similarly, Student 8 said,

Through our time working on the stoves, I experienced a plethora of emotion, including a sense of guilt
for taking my health, lifestyle, and opportunities for granted when seeing the fruitful lives of those with
far less, but also a greater understanding of pity, and how individuals with greater privileges might make
assumptions of pity that do not accurately reflect the group on which they are projecting such emotions.
Yes, the people of [the village] live without most of the amenities we deem necessary in our day -to-day
lives, but there was a rich sense of community and spirit that was beyond commendable, inspiring me
to apply more scrappiness and zeal into my personal life and my role in the great communities of which
I find myself a part.

Other students commented how their experiences in Rwanda made them aware of how much more
there is to learn in the world, how little they knew about Africa (and how much of what they thought
they knew was incorrect), and how they want to spread what they learned to other people. Student 2 said,

I felt accomplished that I got out of my little bubble…I’ve heard and read about places like Rwanda but
it didn’t even compare to the actual experience. I do feel more culturally experienced. But, the glimpse
I got of what life outside of Arkansas is like made me realize there’s so much more about the world I
know (and should discover for myself).

Similarly, Student 7 stated,

Rwanda showed me that there is so much more to life than what we can ever dream of and that sometimes,
being uncomfortable is necessary for growth. Rwanda also taught me that I want to use my experience
and knowledge gained while abroad to educate others on the beauty of Africa and to correct others on
the common stereotypes and misconceptions of Africa.

Three students spoke specifically about increasing their intercultural awareness in connection with
the ethics of the service-learning projects. Student 3 reflected,

I learned a lot about how to approach service in a way that does not use any form of superiority or white
savior complex. I learned that the best way to help people is often to listen to them and work alongside
them instead of making decisions for them about what help they should receive.

Student 5 added,

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By learning Rwanda’s history and have in-depth conversations about dos and don’ts before we left for
the trip, we arrived better informed and prepared to act appropriately. We consciously utilized cultural
relativism, which helped us act from a place of respect and non-judgement.

Student 8 noted,

Our service work at [the village] carried a much different tone from most of the service work I had heard
of in foreign countries. The rocket stove project has been rooted in a collaborative effort since its start.
The village leaders have played an integral role in deciding on the needs of the village and orchestrating
how external service would be best utilized. Most of our efforts were guided entirely by the villagers,
even down to the method by which we carried the bricks and cement. While we helped raise the funds
for the raw materials of the rocket stoves, the villagers did not necessarily need our help in moving
supplies and stove construction. We merely helped speed up the process which, in turn, allowed us the
great opportunity of seeing the final destination of the raised funds. Yes, we provided funds, time, and
labor as a service to [the village], but we did not do so with the assumption that they were incapable of
improving their conditions or that they required help from Western civilization. This new light showed
me how we can break down barriers and accomplish much greater services to one another as a society
if we change the mindset through which we offer our efforts.

Regarding global citizenship, seven of eight students strongly agreed that the service-learning study
abroad in Rwanda increased their global citizenship development. Student 1 expressed that the experi-
ence solidified their career interest in global conflict resolution, “Learning more about the genocide, the
events that led up to it, and the failings of the international community that allowed it to happen strongly
affirmed my choice in a career path.”

Personal Growth and Development

Questions 5, 8, 9, 10, 14, and 15 assessed students’ perceptions of their own personal growth and devel-
opment as a result of participating in the service-learning study abroad in Rwanda. Questions 8 and 10,
asking about increases in adaptability and examination of personal beliefs and values, had only “agree”
and “strongly agree” responses (see Figure 2). The most common theme expressed in the open response
portion of the assessment was some form of students challenging themselves, getting out of their comfort
zones, and being capable of more than they thought. Student 5 summarized the ideas of personal growth
and development beautifully by saying,

My time in Rwanda impacted me in ways I am still realizing. I feel like my personal and intellectual
growth were closely intertwined throughout the trip. I feel like I can inch toward a more real, educated,
mature version of myself in my daily life at home, but it felt like I grew in leaps and bounds each second
I spent in Rwanda. Everywhere I turned, I faced a learning experience, with something to contribute
to my inner understanding of myself and something to contribute to my intellectual understanding of
the world around me, particularly with global politics justice systems, power/governmental structures,
colonial history, propaganda, social movements, conflict and resolution, civic engagement, language,
and so many other things…

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Figure 2. Personal Growth and Development Questions

Note. Overall, each respondent indicated participating in the program increased their personal growth and development. The
areas of increasing adaptability (Question 8) and increasing examination of personal values and beliefs (Question 10) showed
the most positive responses.

Communication and Teamwork

With the exception of one “neutral” data point, all students agreed or strongly agreed that the service-
learning study abroad program in Rwanda increased their communication and teamwork skills. Four
of eight student respondents specifically mentioned learning to navigate communication barriers in
the open response questions. Student 2 said, “...the hardest part for me was the communication barrier.
It made me realize how important body language was and being patient when working in a team who
doesn’t speak the same language.”
Of working in the village, Student 3 said simply, “We did not speak the same language, but we learned
to appreciate and care for each other regardless.” Student 5 reflected,

The mutual commitment to communication and teamwork between ourselves and the people of [the vil-
lage], despite a language barrier so significant it had all of us laughing (and getting laughed at), was
something that made me feel fundamentally connected and inspired.

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Figure 3. Communication and teamwork questions

Note. Seventy-five percent of students strongly agreed that the service-learning study abroad in Rwanda increased their com-
munication skills. The most common reflection was related to overcoming communication barriers.

DISCUSSION

The shallow and deep service-learning described in this chapter work together to further student learn-
ing and development with respect to global competency, intercultural awareness, personal growth and
development, and communication and teamwork. Global competency and intercultural awareness tie
back to the outcomes that the AAC&U note students should attain based on the Global Learning and
the Intercultural Knowledge and Competence VALUE Rubrics. As previously noted, global compe-
tence is defined as “having an open mind while actively seeking to understand others’ cultural norms
and expectations and leveraging this knowledge to interact, communicate, and work effectively outside
one’s environment” (Chan et al., 2021, p. 3). The Global Learning rubric underscores this importance
by evaluating students on “understanding global systems” and “applying knowledge to contemporary
global contexts” (American Association of Colleges and Universities, 2021a). Because the students spent
several days learning about the history, geography, and current context of Rwanda before traveling there,
they were able to connect what they read to what they experienced meeting Rwandans and visiting the
cultural and historical sites throughout the country.
Personal growth and development tie back to “personal and social responsibility” on the Global Learn-
ing rubric, which mentions “individual and collective interventions” (American Association of Colleges
and Universities, 2021a). It also relates to the empathy skill outlined in the Intercultural Knowledge

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and Competence rubric, which “demonstrates ability to act in a supportive manner that recognizes the
feelings of another cultural group” (American Association of Colleges and Universities, 2021b). An
example of this occurred when one student noticed that one child in the village had watery eyes and was
constantly shielding her eyes from the sun. The group intervened by asking the village leader to locate
the child’s mother, who was a beggar in another town. By the third day, the child’s mother returned to the
village, and the guide/interpreter took them to a medical clinic for treatment. Leftover funds collected to
buy rocket stove supplies were available to pay for the child’s treatment, but due to the Ubudehe status
of the family, there was no charge for the services. The medical clinic staff urged the village leader to
share this with other families in the village. This example illustrates critical service-learning because the
students felt empowered to intervene and ask questions regarding the health and well-being of the child,
rather than assuming there was nothing they could do or that assisting her was outside the scope of the
project. The students also demonstrated global competency and intercultural awareness by respectfully
asking questions of the village leaders and the child’s mother rather than falling victim to the white savior
complex and taking action without considering the appropriate sequence of events.
Communication and teamwork were key factors in the students completing the one deep and two
shallow service-learning projects. Regarding communication, students used both verbal and non-verbal
communication skills because of the language barrier, but in some instances, they had to rely more heavily
on their non-verbal skills. The Intercultural Knowledge and Competence rubric refers to these skills as
demonstrating “understanding of the degree to which people use physical contact while communicating in
different cultures or use direct/indirect and explicit/implicit meanings” (American Association of Colleges
and Universities, 2021b). During the deep service-learning project, many UCA students carried Rwanda
children on their backs or shoulders, or held their hands, while also carrying rocket stove supplies, to
show their care and concern. In some instances, the students allowed the Rwandan children to carry a
brick or two as a way to demonstrate the value of working together. During the shallow service-learning
project at the deaf school, some UCA students communicated with the Rwandan children by allowing
them to use their smartphones. Some of the Rwandan children pulled up images on their phones and
taught the UCA students how to say them in American Sign Language. These experiences also relate to
the attitudes of curiosity and openness, the latter of which involves initiating, developing, and valuing
“interactions with culturally different others,” (American Association of Colleges and Universities, 2021b).
As Gendle et al. (2023) notes, higher education service-learning in global settings often fail to take
into consideration partner perspectives when assessing programmatic effectiveness. To address this is-
sue, we conducted a follow-up interview approximately six months after conclusion of the project with
one of the partner village leaders to ascertain his perspectives regarding working with our students. He
expressed that he and the village residents enjoy working with the students and only wish they could
have had more interaction and have ways to communicate other than using gestures. When asked how
he thought that issue could be addressed, he said that he and others in the village would like to learn
English. He went on to say that learning English would help them not only communicate with UCA
students, but also help them further develop the village and would give them access to information they
currently do not have access to.
We also asked him to tell us about ideas for future projects. We had assumed the first priority would
be building additional stoves, but our partner discussed the challenge of having the stoves outside
(governmental regulations prohibit building the stoves inside due to the public health risk from regular
wood smoke inhalation), saying that when it rains the stoves cannot be used. He recommended building
“houses” to cover the stoves – essentially three brick walls with metal sheeting for a roof. Mud brick

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construction is common in Rwanda and the village residents could make the bricks themselves if they
had access to proper soil. As previously mentioned, the village is built in a volcanic area that makes
digging to acquire the necessary amount of rock-free soil essentially impossible. We discussed the pos-
sibility of raising funds to have the soil delivered to the village so the residents could make the bricks
themselves. We believe this type of collaborative planning and problem-solving is a characteristic of the
ethical partnership we have developed with the community.

Suggestions for other Service-Learning Practitioners

We highly encourage other faculty and administrators to support projects such as the one described in
this chapter. We have learned that students are eager for opportunities to interact with people from other
cultures, want to do work in an ethical and culturally appropriate manner that makes a difference in people’s
lives, and are willing to challenge themselves in order to broaden their perspectives and worldviews.

Faculty Identification

To begin the process of building a faculty-led study abroad program with an emphasis on global service-
learning, we recommend identifying faculty with ties to the country of interest. The Science, Society, and
Service-Learning in Rwanda originated due to relationships a faculty member developed with Rwandan
students. The professor had no prior experience in Rwanda, but was passionate about developing an ethi-
cal, culturally appropriate experience for students. To do so, she drew on the expertise of the Rwandan
students she was teaching, reached out to local non-governmental organizations in the area with ties to
Rwanda, and worked closely with the university study abroad office to develop the program goals and
itinerary. Faculty committing to a global service-learning program should also be prepared to commit
multiple years to the project in order to build relationships, cultivate trust, and have sufficient time for
collaborative project evaluation and modification.
When choosing faculty to lead a program such as this, we also recommend assessing the other study
abroad options currently taking place at the university to see what coverage gaps exist. As mentioned
previously, the Science, Society, and Service-Learning in Rwanda program is the only faculty-led study
abroad program at our university for which science students can receive any course credit in their major
field of study. Many of the trips to Europe offer liberal arts and humanities general education credit,
but by the time students are prepared to participate in study abroad, many of them have completed their
general education requirements. Therefore, having course offerings in departments with robust student
populations can increase the likelihood of attracting enough students to sustain the program.

Course Design and Assessment

In preparing this book chapter, we recognized that one of our biggest oversights was the failure to utilize
pre- and post-assessments regarding our defined student learning outcomes. While we presented ample
qualitative evidence demonstrating the growth and learning of our students, we do not have comparative
data. Ideally, faculty would administer a pre-assessment to gather student perspectives on their global
competency, intercultural awareness, etc, prior to any pre-departure training and class time. Upon comple-
tion of the experience, a post-assessment should be conducted to gain insight into students’ perceptions
of their growth and learning. We recommend conducting the post-assessment a few days after program

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completion to allow the students time to rest and reflect on their experiences in order to get a richer and
more complete assessment. If concerns exist regarding students completing the post-assessment after
returning home, it could be built into the syllabus and course expectations as the final requirement prior
to faculty reporting grades.
Another suggestion, and one that we plan to implement in the future, is to ask students to complete
the assessment instrument following each service-learning activity. This would give us the opportunity
to gauge student perceptions in real time and provide richer context for the impact each experience has
on students’ learning and growth.

In-Country Providers

Common practice across institutions of higher education is to utilize educational tourism companies
as service providers for faculty-led study abroad programs and our institution is no different. However,
whenever possible, we recommend working with companies that are locally owned by residents of the
country of interest. Our first program in Rwanda in 2012 was coordinated by an educational tourism
company owned by European ex-patriates who employed local Rwandans as guides. The program was
much more expensive than subsequent years and we also did not like the fact that much of program fee
paid by our students and university was not directly benefitting the local community. The guides relied
on tips to supplement their meager income and we felt this hierarchy reinforced colonial structures of
power and privilege. After the first year, we have worked with the same locally owned educational tour-
ism company. The prices are more affordable and we have developed a relationship with the owner of the
company and the employees that enhances the overall experience for the faculty leaders and the students.
Because of the relationships we have developed with the providers, we have been able to reach out to
them for assistance with student and faculty research, remote assistance projects during the pandemic,
and ongoing communication and collaboration with our in-country partners.

Community Partner Identification and Development

When developing a program in a country in which faculty do not already have established ties, we rec-
ommend working through your local community to identify in-country contacts. Having an in-country
service provider is also beneficial in this regard, because they are members of the communities in which
they work and often know of ongoing projects that faculty members can join or know of specific com-
munities in need of assistance and can facilitate making connections.
Prior to planning a project with a new community partner, it is important to meet the community
liaisons, discuss the needs of the community, projects already underway, and potential opportunities
for faculty and students to be involved. This step is critical in cultivating trust and it is important for
faculty and administrators to listen deeply to what the community liaisons are sharing and not force an
agenda on the community partner. Ethical service-learning requires collaboration, cultural humility, and
patience. The program described in this chapter took several years to develop to its current state and
faculty/administrators must be willing to put in the time and effort before partnerships are fully mature.

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CONCLUSION

In closing, our student assessment data show deep service-learning opportunities to be the most meaning-
ful to the students in terms of the development related to global competency and intercultural awareness,
personal growth and development, and communication and teamwork. However, as evidenced from
student journal reflections and open-ended questions, shallow service-learning was also meaningful and
provided rich opportunities for learning and growth. For other faculty planning global service-learning
programs, we recommend prioritizing deep service-learning projects to achieve the largest gains in
student development. However, we also recommend incorporating additional projects as possible along
the continuum from deep to shallow for the most robust and meaningful student experience.

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Chapter 9
Exploratory Approaches
to Service Learning Within
a University’s Student-
Run Free Clinic Program
Belinda Hernandez
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8692-5260
Stanford University School of Medicine, USA

ABSTRACT
University-administered student run free clinics provide health care and enabling services to community
members experiencing limited access to care, simultaneously offering direct educational experiences
to students interested in careers in medicine. Programs vary in size and scope and are dependent on
university and community commitment that considers the needs of the targeted patient population. This
descriptive chapter illustrates Stanford University’s Cardinal Free Clinic’s inclusion of critical service-
learning pedagogy within student didactics and experiential learning. The chapter is shared from an
administrator’s perspective to benefit higher education institutions considering establishing or expanding
their SRFC program. While the environment and social context are essential to understand, the inclusion
of community cultural wealth awareness, social identity exploration, and active self-reflection within the
program will be highlighted. This chapter may benefit administrators interested in including elements
of critical service-learning pedagogy in their programs.

INTRODUCTION

Student-run free clinics (SRFC) create opportunities for student clinical and service-learning experi-
ences and are considered a pipeline to careers in primary care and/or community medicine. While SRFC
clinic locations are considered medical student service-learning sites, they are led by a social justice
perspective that seeks to decrease social health inequity. Moskowitz et al. (2006) described the increase
in underserved urban communities and the rise in the unhoused population that had necessitated more

DOI: 10.4018/979-8-3693-2133-1.ch009

Copyright © 2024, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Exploratory Approaches to Service Learning

health professionals in underserved areas that, unfortunately, have created a disparity between the level
of healthcare need and a sufficient healthcare professional workforce. The authors asserted “One such
exposure to underserved populations can be accomplished through service learning in student-run health
clinics; these clinics serve as an opportunity for health sciences students to use their developing clinical
skills for the benefit of underserved populations” (Moskowitz et al., 2006, p.255). Since 1990, Stanford
University’s School of Medicine’s Cardinal Free Clinics (CFC) program (Cardinal Free Clinics, n.d.)
has operated student-run free clinics located in the San Francisco Bay Area within communities similarly
described by Moskowitz.
The history of the CFC program includes steady growth while responding to the needs of the local
community and targeted patient population. This chapter will describe how critical service-learning
pedagogy is embedded in the CFCs with the intention of how student volunteers self-reflect about their
social identities’ influence in their didactic and experiential clinic experiences. Mitchell’s (2008) review
of the literature differentiates between traditional and critical service learning whereby, critical service
learning includes the presence of a social change orientation, working to redistribute power, and develop-
ing authentic relationships. While the ability and form of service-learning approaches is dependent on the
institution, community partners, and social context the CFC program’s orientation will be described as
actively remaining cognizant of heroic discourse and savior complex leadership (Kim & Mauldin, 2022)
in which service learning program participants interpret their voluntarism as heroic that will save the
community they are serving. Community cultural wealth typology (Yosso, 2005) negates this discourse
indicating that marginalized and underrepresented communities possess several forms of capital that
should be included in frames of thought. Student exploration of community cultural wealth typologies
(Yosso, 2005) and social identity (Tajfel, 1974) within an SRFC program produces opportunities for
active student reflection as they participate in the CFC program.

History of the Cardinal Free Clinics

Stanford University is a private, nonprofit university located in the San Francisco Bay Area, California
(Stanford University, n.d.). The university attracts international and domestic students from the United
States and is one of the most competitive universities in the nation to be offered acceptance. The university
is located in an affluent suburban area, but minutes away from some of the lowest socioeconomic and
underserved communities in the state. The CFC program was founded at Stanford University.
Since 1990, the mission of the Cardinal Free Clinics is to provide culturally appropriate, high-
quality, transitional medical care for an underserved patient population and to educate and empower
a new generation of healthcare leaders to proactively address health disparities and improve access to
care. The CFC was established by a medical student as part of their medical student scholar’s project.
The student rallied their peers to deliver basic general medical care to underserved residents in the local
area who otherwise might not have access. They envisioned student and physician faculty volunteers
providing no-cost general medical care services while obtaining experiential learning to supplement
their medical school didactic curriculum. The scholarly project was accepted and funded for a year-long
planning process. Simultaneously, a fellow student received funding from the same scholars’ program to
conduct a needs assessment of services at a potential clinic service location. The student wrote policies
and procedures, developed a coordinators’ handbook, and created job descriptions for student volunteer
positions. They received equipment donations from a recently retired physician who had closed their
practice. This became the start of the original clinic site and what is now one of two student-run free

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clinics. Medical student initiation of the project has been key to supporting a student-run free clinic
program for over thirty years.
Although the university is located in one of the most affluent suburban areas in the state, low-income
and underserved communities reside in densely populated areas within ten to twenty minutes of the
university. At the time of its founding, a highly recognized humanitarian service agency had a location
near a local train station. Students were offered the use of a small office in that location. With a mod-
est inventory of donated supplies, they began caring for patients. Initial services included pediatric and
adult healthcare. In 1997, a new policy under the Children’s Health Insurance Program (CHIP) extended
coverage to uninsured, non-Medicare-eligible adults and children (American Academy of Family Physi-
cians, n.d.). Soon after the new policy was implemented the project’s pediatric services were discontinued
while families were encouraged to establish pediatric care with permanent providers. University physi-
cian faculty volunteers were available, and with commitment from the university it funded a part-time
medical director to oversee onsite clinic services. The project attracted a tremendous number of student
volunteers and within a few years, the goal expanded to structuring a student-run free clinic program with
increased infrastructure and physical space in geographic areas that experienced greater health disparities.
Students proceeded to explore the possibility of organizing student-run free clinics in geographic
areas with a higher prevalence of health disparities and conditions. These conditions, referred to as social
determinants of health (SDOH) are the environmental conditions that individuals are born, live, learn,
work, play, worship, and age in that may affect an individual’s health, functioning, and quality of life
(Healthy People 2030, n.d.). SDOH categories may include education, economic stability, healthcare
access, housing, transportation, racism, discrimination, pollution, and literacy to name a few (Healthy
People 2030, n.d.). Clinic locations were chosen based on SDOH and community needs, proximity to
the university for student and physician volunteer travel, and the willingness of community members to
collaborate in this endeavor. Institutional challenges faced early on included students lacking expertise
in operations, administration, and compliance. The program has grown and is considered one of the
only didactic and experiential service-learning programs within a community clinic setting for Stan-
ford University students interested in careers in medicine. The high demand by students to volunteer in
the program requires a framework to align student and community interests, didactic, and experiential
service-learning objectives.

Service Learning Perspective

Service learning is a combination of didactic (in the classroom) and experiential (in the community)
education whereby students engage in activities that address individual and community needs. These
activities are intended to promote ongoing student learning and development. Welch and Plaxton-Moore
(2019) clearly address the problematic lexicon utilized by individuals surrounding engaged scholars
and state that “the generic and narrow understanding has resulted in a somewhat careless exchange and
use of words as synonyms when, in reality, they represent distinct approaches and purposes” (p.19).
Reflection and learning reciprocity from community partners have become key components of engaged
service-learning activities (Jacoby, 1996). In fact, Mitchell (2008) distinguishes traditional versus critical
service-learning pedagogy whereby traditional service learning is described as, “producing students who
are more tolerant, altruistic, and culturally aware; who have stronger leadership skills and communica-
tion skills; and who (albeit marginally) earn higher grade point averages” (p.50). Mitchell emphasizes
that critical service learning combines student learning objectives with a broader sense of social change,

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redistribution of power, and building authentic relationships. Stanford University’s Cardinal Free Clinics
(CFC) may be the first opportunity that a student participates in a service-learning program and may be
uncertain how to navigate this new setting. Service-learning students desire to make an impact with their
work in healthcare settings that are not always immediate or visible. For most students, it may be the
first real-life exposure to the community they are working with, requiring a framework or methodology
of reciprocal learning (Jacoby, 1996). The CFC program discourages heroic discourse that cultivates a
savior complex mentality (Kim & Mauldin, 2022) by encouraging community collaboration and receiv-
ing guidance from the community about what they may need and how the program may support that,
while upholding a lens of self-exploration, self-reflection, and collaboration.
Service learning may be viewed as an opportunity to place students in the community to give of their
time and efforts which follows the traditional service-learning pathway (Mitchell, 2008). However, the
existence of the savior complex leadership mentality (Kim & Mauldin, 2022) that views service learning
as a unidirectional relationship whereby volunteers have more knowledge about the community context
than community members themselves is not supported within the CFCs. Exhibiting this mindset may
negatively impact collaborative relationships that service learners may seek to develop. Service learning
requires a bi-directional or multi-directional approach with mutual learning and ongoing mentorship.
Program administrators are deliberate about engaging in dialogue with students about community culture
and ascertain the information they have learned during their experience to gauge how students integrate
the community’s needs in their service-learning experience. Without clear and consistent communica-
tion service-learning opportunities may fail to live up to their full learning objective for all stakeholders
(Jacoby, 1996). If thoughtfully designed service-learning programs will encourage the recognition of
diverse experiences via self-reflection (Hernandez & Hernandez, 2023). Students may develop greater
awareness of themselves during the service-learning process as they engage and learn. The goal is to
maintain an ongoing collaborative spirit among all stakeholders.

Service Learning and Active Self Reflection

Students, faculty, and administrators take time to learn about community culture and the dynamics of
community collaboration when forming and building relationships. Being that the CFC program integrates
students to volunteer at clinics within underserved communities, the majority of student volunteers are
unfamiliar with CFC specific clinic locations or the communities they are located in. The majority of
university students have moved from homes far away to attend the university. For most students, they
may have limited relatable experience with living or working in similar communities as well. In fall
2023, approximately 63% of total undergraduate students moved from other states or countries to attend
the university. Therefore, it is important that students understand and continuously learn about the com-
munities the CFC program serves.
Community Cultural Wealth. An area that administrators and faculty focus upon is the recognition
of community cultural wealth - existing assets and capital found in the community (Yosso, 2005). The
typology includes several types of capital: familial, social, navigational, resistant, linguistic, and aspi-
rational. Increasing students’ awareness about community cultural wealth in and with the communities
that they will serve is tantamount to the CFC service-learning program. Taking Yosso’s typology as a
foundational element during didactic instruction, students begin to discuss the importance of having com-
munity awareness. Service learning that is engaged in underserved communities builds a solid foundation
that students become part of. Underserved communities possess capital that should be recognized by

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service-learning administrators and faculty to provide continuous reciprocal learning. The CFC program
remains in continuous communication with community partners and leaders who provide insights into
how and when to serve in the community. Without carving an active learning opportunity for students
to learn about these communities, their efforts may not be sustainable for long-standing allyship.
An assessment phase of the various forms of capital is completed before the implementation and
administration of new service learning and community engagement activities. The CFC collaborates with
partners to provide context to the strengths and needs of the community and collaborates on designing
services. The assessment phase becomes a foundation for designing curriculum and clinical services.
Additional importance to service-learning experiences is the cultivation of opportunities for the student
and faculty to acknowledge their personal existing capital, how they may leverage it, and what they may
need while participating in community engaged teaching and learning.
Relationships thrive when they are considered both a source and product of social capital (Coleman,
1988) and community cultural wealth (Yosso, 2005). The Cardinal Free Clinic program requires students
to complete two didactic seminar courses that teach students about community and characteristics of
special patient populations that the CFC typically serves. A deeper description of these didactic courses
are reviewed later in this chapter. However, course objectives include:

• developing an understanding and appreciation of the importance of culturally appropriate, high

quality transitional medical care for underserved patient populations;
• appreciation of the role that free clinics have in the larger context of American healthcare;
• gaining foundational knowledge of community health, cultural humility, and implicit bias in
healthcare, including motivational interviewing techniques and patient advocacy skill building;
and
• understanding local community needs and engaging students on topics related to serving the pro-
gram’s targeted patient populations.

Mitchell’s (2008) comparison of traditional versus critical service learning indicates:

Through their community service, students become active learners, bringing skills and information from
community work and integrating them with theory and curriculum of the classroom to produce new
knowledge. At the same time, students’ classroom learning informs their service in the community. (p. 50)

Didactic courses are the starting point for students to move forward in clinic voluntarism. Supporting
students to explore their identities may assist program administrators and faculty to design a refined or
better service-learning experience for all students and stakeholders.
Social Identity Reflection. Volunteers discuss the importance of being cognizant of potential im-
plicit bias and to practice cultural humility while they volunteer in the free clinic environment. In their
description of cultural humility, Welch and Plaxton-Moore (2019) emphasize that if students and faculty
do not identify with certain aspects of a community’s identity it may influence the level of trust and
power dynamics that are forged, as well as the tasks that are desired to be attained. Regardless, students
are reminded that every individual has their unique experiences and values. Community members are not
monolithic, nor are clinic patients. In the preliminary stages of volunteer education and training, faculty
and administrators are encouraged to facilitate social identity exploration with students by dedicating
sessions focused on the topic. Understanding and articulating one’s social identity and/or personal inter-

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sectionality (Crenshaw, 1989; Crenshaw, 1991) may reduce potential bias that may be made by students
and faculty as they engage within the community. Exploration may highlight an individual’s blind spots
and knowledge gaps.
Social identity theory derives partially from an initial foundation that describes intergroup relation-
ships and conflict (Tajfel, 1974). Tajfel explored the theory’s four concepts pertaining to attitudes and
behavior. These concepts include social categorization, social identity, social comparison, and psycho-
logical distinctiveness. Tajfel indicated the manner in which individuals function in societal contexts
and environments is predicated by how they define their group and intergroup belongingness and net-
works. In later years, social identity advanced into a broader social psychological theory of the role of
self and identity in general (Turner et al., 1987). Creating opportunities for service-learning students to
explore their identities assists the CFC program in developing more impactful student service learning
experiences. As students engage in this exploration it may reveal implicit bias they may have of others
and communities they will be engaged with, especially those in which clinical sites are located. In ad-
dition, social identity exploration offers a tremendous opportunity for self-reflection. Self-reflection is
an integral part of the university’s community engaged teaching and learning methodology within its
center for public service.
Program administrators have aligned concepts of social identity theory with critical service-learning
pedagogy by which the service learner gains an increased understanding of themselves prior to, during,
and in conclusion of their service learning experience. As stated by Tajfel (1974), “one of the most im-
portant and durable problems that is posed to an individual by his insertion into society is to find, create
and define his place in these networks. It is reasonable to assume that both his ingroup and outgroup
attitudes and behaviour must be determined, to some extent at least, by this continuing process of self-
definition” (p. 67). Administrators and preceptors benefit from including a reflective practice as part of
the program orientation process. At Stanford University’s CFC program, it begins by assessing potential
student volunteers and their sense of purpose for participating in the program. Existing student volun-
teers and program administrators assess whether the student is a suitable match for the student run free
clinic setting, and whether the student is willing to engage collaboratively with peers, administrators, and
community partners. These early assessments create opportunities for the student to begin considering
how best to engage in service-learning relationships and potentially seek mentorship as needed. Social
identity exploration exposes student service learners to better understanding themselves, their values,
and the level of engagement they are willing to have. The program will accommodate students that are
interested in a more traditional service-learning experience as well. It allows students to be more aware
of themselves and how they interact with others. This reflective practice facilitates faculty and program
administrators with mentor mapping (Hernandez & Hernandez, 2023) and authentic mentorship (Her-
nandez, 2020).
Various types of social identity and personality identity activities may be found on the internet. The
author encourages conducting an internet search to identify activities that may be suitable based on a
program’s time constraints while conducting such activities. For example, the University of Michigan
includes useful activities and guides that may be useful to implement social identity exploration via an
activity wheel (University of Michigan, n.d.). The activities encourage student reflection and sharing
of how they identify and reflect upon how those identities are perceived by themselves and others. The
activity requires students to categorize their social identities by race, ethnicity, gender, sex, sexual orienta-
tion, religion, socio-economic status, ability status, national origin, first language, and age. The activity
cultivates an opportunity for discussion. The CFC has recently implemented the use of this activity to

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broach conversations with students about how their identities may influence or impact their volunteer
experiences with the CFC program. Preliminary analysis shows that the identities most important to
students are not similar to how others first identify them. Analysis of the ongoing use of this activity in
the program will be presented in the future.
The expectations of service learning and self-exploration are complementary. Both frameworks
include a collaborative spirit in which reciprocal learning is desired while attaining mutually developed
goals for the student service learner and community relationship. These relationships require continuous
communication and shifting of the relationship, or development of a new one, that meets the needs of
all stakeholders. Therefore, the alignment of critical service learning, community cultural wealth, and
social identity exploration has become more intentional within the program. Specific student reflections
will be shared later in this chapter. The program’s theoretical framework is foundational and necessary
to articulate to understand how it is evidenced in the daily didactic and experiential practices of the
program. The remainder of this chapter describes current program structure, with tangible examples in
which the program has implemented the framework presented above.

Current Program Structure

Under the administration of the medical school, the program has grown to operate every weekend at two
pop up locations on Saturday and Sunday on a year-round basis. Students may choose when and where
to volunteer. Services are offered in a high school and at an already established full time free clinic that
opens only during the weekday. Clinics are open solely during morning hours closing by mid-afternoon
to accommodate volunteers’ academic and personal commitments. No cost general medical care services
are provided. As a transitional care clinic the goal is to transfer patients to permanent primary care pro-
viders with expertise serving this patient population with well supported systems already in place. As a
service-learning program that advocates for social health equity and access, volunteers assist patients in
establishing further connections in their communities. Student volunteers provide navigational support
to area community resources and assist patients with making connections. Medical students receive
experiential training while conducting medical intake and assessments, and volunteer as lab managers
or specialty clinic coordinators. The program has integrated selected specialty care services that are
scheduled based on specialist availability in dermatology, sexual and reproductive health, cardiology,
musculoskeletal, neurology, ophthalmology, and hepatology.
The staffing composition includes medical directors, attendings in charge of general care or specialty
care clinics, internal medicine residents, specialty clinic fellows, physician assistant and medical stu-
dents, undergraduate students, and two full time program administrators. In-clinic student roles include
lab assistants, lab managers, patient health navigators, vaccine coordinators, medical assessment and
referral coordinators, and front desk representatives. Out-of-clinic roles include community outreach
navigators, and a communication team that manages the program’s website [https://med.stanford.edu/
cfc.html]. Three tiers of student volunteers exist: entry-level volunteers, a student steering committee,
and a set of student managers that coordinate workflows on the day of the clinic. Program administra-
tors and medical directors closely supervise student managers and steering committee members. Student
managers work a maximum number of hours per week not to interfere with their academic and scholarly
pursuits. Managers must commit and serve a one-year term and are dedicated to their respective clinic
site. They are expected to manage a four-hour clinic once per month and perform some administrative
tasks for patient continuity of care.

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Demand to volunteer in the program has created staffing challenges. The short-term and temporary
staffing structure poses continuous training of students up to a level they are comfortable. They may
decide to transition into another role or discontinue their voluntarism altogether due to other academic
endeavors. The program supports approximately 150 to 200 student volunteers on a quarterly basis.
Moskowitz et al. (2006) share how the implementation of a formal institutional leadership structure as-
sisted with this stumbling block in their program whereby their medical school holds elections to include
students in leadership positions. Although the staffing structure has assisted in managing the Cardinal
Free Clinics in creating more of a coordinated system, improving staffing structures is ongoing. Balanc-
ing a service-learning framework and approach while administrating the Cardinal Free Clinic program
is challenging, requiring mindful planning and decision making by all stakeholders. Prior to engaging as
a clinic volunteer students complete course didactics to understand the mission and the service-learning
pedagogy of the program.

Service Learning Training

University medical students have indicated they chose to attend Stanford University’s medical school
in part for the opportunity to volunteer in the CFC program. Similar to the CFCs, Smith et al. (2012)
concluded that medical students felt their SRFC provided a beneficial educational experience that aligned
with their sense of purpose, well-being, attitudes towards the underserved, and was important to deciding
which medical school to matriculate into. The CFC’s university-led SRFC program includes didactics
rooted in critical service-learning approaches with an emphasis on reciprocity and student self-reflection
as described earlier in this chapter.

Didactic Service-Learning Courses

Smith et al. (2014) surveyed medical students enrolled in their first didactic session from the years
2001-2010. Their findings suggested that SRFC educational opportunities improved attitudes toward the
underserved, increased knowledge, skills, self-efficacy, and had an interest in serving the underserved
post-graduation. The highest of all scores revealed that students believed they could make an impact
in the lives of the underserved. Evaluations received from CFC students indicate similar perspectives.
CFC didactic courses are offered on a quarterly basis and are required to be completed by students who
choose to volunteer in the clinics. Courses are intended to expose students to topics that include social
determinants of health, social equity, healthcare policy, special populations, and clinic workflows.
They are trained and participate in role playing scenarios, practice completing medical assessments,
blood pressure screening, and motivational interviewing. Two of the four courses emphasize the role of
community free clinics, health equity and social justice in medicine, motivational interviewing, public
and global health, traditional and herbal medicine, and technology via the use of the patient electronic
medical record system. Special patient population discussions center on marginalized communities,
such as LGBTQ+, immigrants and refugees, and non-English speakers. Health care, social policy, and
familiarity of local community resources is presented. Faculty guest lecturers conduct presentations on
these topics at their level of expertise.
Course enrollment is in high demand as the program is the only program at the university that offers
didactic and experiential learning opportunities for careers in medicine in a community free clinic set-
ting. Undergraduate students interested in volunteering must apply for a course spot and satisfactorily

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complete course requirements prior to serving as a clinic volunteer. Medical students volunteer to fulfill
a service requirement of their medical school curriculum. The program turns away numerous applicants
every year due to limited availability of clinic roles and shifts. Didactic training has assisted in estab-
lishing a steady cadre of undergraduate students who have been essential in maintaining non-clinical
operations during times of limited medical and physician assistant student availability. With quarterly
funding from the center of public service, the program recruits and hires students as community engaged
learning coordinators that assist instructors and administrators with course logistics, update and adapt
course content, engage with students, and possibly work on short-term quality improvement projects.
These are funded positions for undergraduate students and determined on a quarterly basis.
Service-learning opportunities embedded within the student run free clinic program are varied and
plentiful. However, social, regulatory, and institutional landscapes largely dictate what and how the
program responds to immediate health care needs. Although the program focuses on providing general
medical care to the area’s underserved populations, feedback from student course surveys indicate that
students are interested in learning about health policy, how to establish community collaboration, and
other health care administration topics. Reflections are also collected on the surveys and further detailed
in the student reflection section below. For medical and physician assistant students, being exposed to
and participating in service learning across the continuum of care from clinical care to administration
gives them early access to and experience with multi-faceted models of health care delivery.
Didactic courses are reviewed on a quarterly and annual basis. Course sessions are updated accord-
ing to changes in the environment and when clinic workflows require them. Guest speakers are invited
based on the current landscape and what students need and want to learn in the upcoming year. Some
students who complete didactic courses and volunteer in the program, whether volunteering in the clinic
or externally within the community, may choose to propose to work on a quarter-long or year-long qual-
ity improvement project that benefits both the students’ learning and community-at-large. Projects have
become established activities such as a blood pressure screening project that is now a clinical component
for patients diagnosed with hypertension/high blood pressure. This project is further discussed in the
section below, Response to COVID-19.

Experiential Service-Learning Training

The program anticipates volunteers will serve more than once to establish a volunteer pool of well-trained
students. Medical students are also required to complete at least two shifts during year one of their gradu-
ate program. Many medical and physician assistant students are not specifically interested in careers in
community medicine, thus, at least half of first year medical students will not complete more than their
required volunteer shifts. Medical school curriculum and clerkship requirements take precedence begin-
ning during their second academic year; thus, they have less flexibility to volunteer for additional shifts.
The CFCs offer opportunities for students to gain experiential service training for careers in medicine,
especially community medicine. After completing their phlebotomy course requirement, physician as-
sistant and medical students may volunteer in our lab collecting blood specimens that are processed at
a local hospital. These students also opt to volunteer as lab managers preparing lab result lists for medi-
cal physicians to review. Physicians and lab managers discuss the purpose of the test, patients’ results,
patient education, and whether further testing may be necessary. Medical students are also allowed to
contact the patient to inform them of their lab results and provide physician’s follow-up instructions. In
addition to working in the lab they may volunteer as preclinical volunteers working side-by-side with a

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resident or specialty clinic fellow by collecting patient intake and medical assessments, as well as present
the patient case to the resident. The program also offers specialty clinic opportunities in which medical
students conduct the patient intake and medical assessment and shadow a specialty clinic fellow and/or
attending. These students are typically interested in specialized careers in medicine.
Undergraduate students gain similar, but limited, experiential training in medicine. Due to their lack
of medical school education and limited scope they can not participate in direct clinical service provision.
Undergraduate students will take on administrative and community outreach roles (front desk recep-
tion, coordinate community events with partners, helping patients navigate community resources and
referrals such as to food banks, housing assistance, and accessing medication and pharmacy discounts).
In recent years, undergraduate students have been trained and will conduct the patient intake interview.
The program experiences limited availability of volunteers during the summer quarter due to medical
school research projects and/or move back home for the summer.
The program offers an immersion in community medicine program for local area high school students
residing in the underserved communities where the CFC operate. The program is led by student com-
munity outreach managers and coordinators. High school students participate in a five-week, weekend
only, cohort also rooted in critical service-learning education in which they learn about community
health, social determinants of health, social equity, and engage with guest speakers such faculty, medi-
cal directors, and program administrators. Guest speakers facilitate discussions about the importance
of identifying the strengths of the communities the clinics serve and developing authentic relationships
with community partners. Students discuss these topics as well as receive exposure to developing their
mentor maps. An amended version of the mentor map (Hernandez & Hernandez, 2023) is being used
with the original version created by the National Center for Faculty Development & Diversity (National
Center for Faculty Development & Diversity, n.d.). The mentor map is a tool for students to take inven-
tory of their mentoring networks and visually gain awareness of potential gaps in areas they may need
or want mentoring support. The map is an additional opportunity to include student reflection and dis-
cussion pertaining to social identity exploration and the gaps in mentorship students may need as they
participate in service learning.

Opportunities to Collect Student Reflections

At least three opportunities exist each quarter for collecting student self-reflections. These opportunities
occur at the beginning and end of all courses. First, the center for public service provides program fund-
ing and requires student reflection as part of the center’s methodology and approach. The center sends
a survey to all students at the end of the course with open ended questions to reflect on their service-
learning experience. The survey collects the following information:

• summary of their service learning experience;

• evaluation of their engagement with community partners;
• input on their course impressions, its value, and how it can be improved; and
• degree to which the course embodied the university’s principles of ethical and effective service.

Based on open-ended responses, students have indicated:

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• socioeconomic status has an impact on health outcomes and exposure to patients made this much
more vivid;
• culturally competent care was a key concept explored and is always a consideration in the clinic.
Each patient is different, and we had to learn how to counsel different patients who come to visit
the clinic;
• gaining real life experiences of cultural sensitivity by speaking with patients of different back-
grounds has enabled new perspectives and understanding of medicine and providing culturally
sensitive, holistic care;
• encountering the challenge of communicating across language barriers and finding a balance be-
tween being confident and vulnerable to making mistakes while effectively communicating; and
• learning how to consider each patient’s unique cultural background and how it impacts their health
and perception of healthcare.

Second, as customary of all university courses, the university sends course surveys for students to
provide feedback and comment on courses they have completed. These surveys are standardized with
no inclusion of program specific open-ended reflection questions. The CFC program was allowed to
include customized questions to these surveys to further gauge student reflection. Upon student reflec-
tion, students requested expanded course topics related to:

• healthcare policy directives impacting the program;

• insurance law;
• interacting with communities about health issues while outside of the clinic;
• diversity of healthcare treatment;
• predominant health care concerns; and
• project development.

When offered specific choices, students’ top three topics of interest included health policy (80%),
implementing community health partnerships and collaborations (75%), and clinic operations for private
and public practice (65%).
Third, the CFC program requires student reflections for those beginning or actively volunteering in the
clinics. Reflections are assigned and initiated by prompts from the course instructor to reflect upon pre
and post clinic voluntarism experiences. The reflections provide feedback about how courses, services,
and service-learning experiences have assisted community engaged learning and how the program may
be improved. Students have shared the following reflections (paraphrased):

• Patients visit the clinics at vulnerable moments in their lives and need help and it is a privilege
and rewarding experience for students to make an intimate impact in the lives of people who have
been “cast aside by an unjust system.”
• It was heartbreaking to listen to a patient’s story about living in their camping van and it motivated
them to work harder to support them.
• Volunteering has taught the importance of compassion, individuality, and patience. Each patient
has varying needs and we try to put ourselves in their shoes to understand their concerns.
• Medical providers should work on ensuring that uninsured people have access to healthcare in the
United States.

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As can be imagined, with the program’s 30+ year service learning history the program has evolved.
Key program transitions and milestones shared in this chapter are examples of how the framework is
demonstrated operationally.

Key Program Transitions and Milestones

The Cardinal Free Clinics program has experienced transitions that have influenced the program’s
service-learning pedagogy and strengthened the service learning experience. Examples below provide
insight how the program integrates pedagogy into practice and how students have demonstrated an
orientation towards critical service learning as described by Mitchell (2008). These descriptions do not
describe all key program transitions and milestones but offer glimpses into how administrators leverage
opportunities to conduct this work.

Service-Learning Terminology and Approaches

In the past 15 years, the center for public service’s dedication to approaches in service learning has
grown the notion of traditional service learning with the inclusion of community engagement. The center
encourages service-learning administrators to consider traditional versus critical service learning that
includes an element of self-reflection (Mitchell, 2008). It does not advocate for any one methodology
but is purposeful in articulating reciprocity between student and service-learning partners. The CFC
program recognizes the terminology and service-learning continuum emphasized by the center which
has created a diversity of student interests. The center’s values are embedded into the program while
encouraging positive community stewardship. The terminology and approaches make it almost seamless
for the CFCs to integrate students’ exploration and understanding of the program’s perspective while
they participate in community engagement.
There are several service-learning opportunities for undergraduate students on campus. However,
the CFC program is one of the only experiential service-learning programs within a community-based
free clinic healthcare setting. Many university community service learning programs collaborate with
the center on campus that engages with undergraduate students interested in service learning, working
on public service projects, and with community organizations. The center also offers seminars, faculty
and student fellowship programs to better immerse students and faculty in service-learning methodol-
ogy. Adjacent communities near the university are considered low income, underrepresented, and under
resourced which may possess opportunities for collaboration. In fact, community partners are invited to
events and training that have students engaged in their organizations.

Changes in Clinic Location

As previously mentioned, the program began as a student project at one location geographically located
near the university. A few years later, that clinic location moved into a government building a few miles
away. Student volunteer interest substantially grew and in 2003 a second clinic site was opened. The
second clinic site is located 25 miles south of the university in a different, yet adjacent, county. Students
chose the second location based on their understanding that the clinic was to be located in an under-
served area with a medical need. They understood a larger cadre of student translators had to be trained
and developed volunteer translator roles. In 2005, students decided to combine both of these clinic

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sites under the Cardinal Free Clinic brand. In 2022, while pandemic restrictions were being laxed, the
original location was moved once again into a space where a full-time free clinic operates only during
the weekday. Stakeholders decided to move to the new location because it allows a direct connection
for patients to transition to a permanent primary care home with ease that offers full scope enabling
and social services. Students contributed to deciding on that location and felt that access to bus routes
near the clinic, the food pantry offered at that location, sharing a small parking lot with a church, and
next to a day laborer convening location would provide further access for the community that is largely
immigrant, and non-English speaking. Students met with community partners and leaders that assisted
in determining the type and level of support that would be most beneficial for community members.
Overall, both clinics continue to operate under the brand with each clinic maintaining its original site
name and both operating solely on weekends throughout the entire year.
Program administrators will consider how to expose service-learning students to various aspects
of clinic operations and community building. Adel et al. (2021) evaluated a class of medical school
students and reported:

…the majority of volunteers agreed/strongly agreed that participating in the SRFC improved clinical
skills that were not highly emphasized during standard medical school clinical skills curriculum. Not only
did volunteers agree/strongly agree that SRFC volunteering helped them improve their clinical skills, but
they also agreed/strongly agreed that SRFC volunteering improved their skills in circumventing social
barriers to healthcare…and learning about healthcare access and healthcare policy. (p.6)

Including CFC students in the decision-making process of relocating the clinic provided invaluable
service-learning experience requiring consideration of community cultural wealth. Not only did they
assist in planning and relocating the clinic, but they also assessed for the feasibility of bus routes and
other community resources, redesigned patient workflows, and advocated for improvements to the in-
frastructure such as stronger and dependable internet network connections. These connections would
reduce patient wait times as patients may be taking time off of work to be seen at the clinic. They also
conducted community outreach to inform community members of the move and learn when and how
to approach additional community partners to share information. Students relied on the community’s
assets and leaders to guide the promotional activities conducted by students and accepted outreach
opportunities offered by the community. Students participated in management meetings to contribute
and offer recommendations about the new location and were part of the stakeholder team. Exposure to
administrative and operational strategy provides perspective for future medical scholars and practitioners
as they embark in future careers in medicine.

Response to COVID-19

The onset of COVID-19 proved to be an unprecedented year in modern health care and the social
landscape. Health care services and infrastructure abruptly impacted the manner in which the CFC’s
services typically were provided. The program was forced to immediately and indefinitely close. Pro-
gram administrators and students strategically planned and adapted services for the patient population
that was being severely impacted by the pandemic. The pandemic served as a learning opportunity for
all stakeholders involved. Students learned how unanticipated challenges impact every part of a SRFC.
They were resourceful and immediately discussed how they could continue to support patients even dur-

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ing the clinic shutdown. Within four months, the CFC developed a telehealth model of care, established
a social needs screening process to better connect patients with available community resources, and
created a telehealth training module for volunteers (Ruiz-Colon et al., 2021). Program administrators,
faculty, and students committed to designing a telehealth model of care that evolved into a new hybrid
model that currently exists.
The pandemic created opportunities for students to become involved in program planning and were
exposed to how health care policy impacts community services. COVID-19 proved to challenge clinic
operations forcing a response to immediate needs within an ever-changing public and community health
landscape. Students were included in many aspects of the redesign which they would not have been exposed
to if it were not for the pandemic. They considered the technological challenges of the targeted patient
population who did not have reliable internet access nor could download the virtual, HIPAA compliant
platform that would be used for this new model of care. Decisions were made to create a student team
that would help prepare patients for their virtual or telephonic visits with step-by-step phone instructions
for setup. Telephone visits were also added into the patient workflow that were not conducted prior to
the pandemic. Additionally, community resource lists were updated as some agencies also shut down or
had limited capacity, translation of additional patient information was completed, and the initiation of an
at-home blood pressure screening project was implemented and led by students. Conducting telehealth
visits were not conducive for some health screenings that are normally performed in person. If a patient
was diagnosed with or had a history of hypertension they were invited to participate in the project.
Hypertension is the second most diagnosed disease in the program. Students wrote and were awarded
a small grant to provide hypertension education and blood pressure monitors at no cost to patients.
The project began during a students’ service-learning experience compiling patient race/ethnicity and
diagnoses data. Data showed that hypertension was a top diagnosis. Upon the patient’s consent, they
are included in the project and partner with members of the project team. These patients receive health
education and are mailed a blood pressure monitor. Team members show them how to use the machine
and collect readings. They follow up with patients to examine if patients are improving. Patients with
language barriers, nutritional access issues, and medication needs are provided support by team members
qualified to assist. Details of this project are currently in manuscript form. For under-resourced com-
munities and community members without insurance coverage a blood pressure monitor helps monitor
their blood pressure and may assist them in determining if they must seek immediate emergency care.

Electronic Medical Record System

Service-learning projects take many forms. Within a student-run free clinic program, opportunities include
direct patient care, quality improvement, or infrastructure projects. Regardless of the service-learning
project, students are encouraged to assess and develop projects that take into account the strength of the
community and how patients can contribute to potentially new program services.
CFC service-learning engagement includes exposing and teaching future medical practitioners how to
utilize electronic medical record systems. In late 2023, the CFC program transitioned to Epic - the patient
electronic medical record system hosted and supported by its hospital partner. The transition has created
an earlier exposure for training that future practitioners will utilize when in their practice. Undergraduate
students will learn this new system many years prior to attending medical school. The system is actively
used in hospital systems throughout the United States which further aligns service-learning experiences
into a more efficient teaching and learning opportunity. Although the collaboration has been underway

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for several years, the hospital-supported transition allows continuity of care and improved communica-
tion with the hospital system that provides lab and imaging services to the program’s patients at no cost.
The project required increased collaboration with the hospital and implementation of additional policies
and workflows that students were involved in.
All student managers and selected volunteers were involved on the electronic medical record system
design team. The program encouraged student participation who had hands-on experience that could
advocate for specific system workflows most needed. Students identified that consent and notice of pri-
vacy practice forms required translation into languages the hospital did not have, ensured opportunities
to inform patients of the discount medication program would be included in the electronic workflow,
designed after visit summary templates that included pharmacy of choice, community resources in vari-
ous languages, and assisted in the development of smart phrases that are abbreviated and defaulted text
to prepare for future program reporting. These are examples of how service-learning opportunities are
created and offered to students in numerous ways. Not only were clinic workflows impacted, students
advocated for additional training and developed their own electronic medical record system handbook
to train volunteers. Students’ reflections indicated:

• exposure to logistical and technical operations of the clinics allowed them to obtain both in-clinic
and data driven perspectives to anticipate barriers to care those patients often face;
• feelings of nervousness to properly navigate the new system to not disrupt the needs of the patient
or slow down the clinic;
• appreciation for resources and guides developed by other student volunteers to assist in becoming
familiar with supporting the patient experience;
• initiated efforts to translate patient questions into other languages; and
• advocated for the social needs screening that was created by former students to be correctly set up
to capture the patient experience.

The electronic medical record system transition is the first of its kind for the hospital partner (Anbun-
mozhi & Polu, 2023). Multiple new workflows were required to be developed and programmed to support
a student run free clinic. Program administrators and students provided content and scenarios as to why
workflows could not necessarily mimic that of the hospital whose patients are typically privately insured.

Key Recommendations for Aligning Student Run Free Clinics

with Exploratory Service-Learning Approaches

Below are key recommendations and lessons learned for establishing, or growing, a university student
run free clinic service-learning program.

Early institutional commitment and support

Stanford University’s medical school has a longstanding tradition of academic excellence and is consid-
ered one of the premier leaders in biomedical and foundational research, designing of creative teaching
protocols, and effective clinical therapies. As a world class leader in scholarship and education the uni-
versity encourages a culture of innovation and future leadership. In 1980, the medical school established
a medical student research fellowship to support student research and scholarly concentration projects in

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multiple areas of study. With fellowship funding, students engage in research projects under the mentor-
ship of faculty members dedicated to project design, data collection, data analysis, and showcase their
work at academic conferences. Research may be conducted in the laboratory, field, clinic, or community.
Merely ten years after the fellowship was established, the SRFC project was initiated. At inception, sup-
port was limited being that it was the first of its kind at the university. However, within five years of the
project’s inception it began to receive allocated funding enabling it to hire its first paid staff position.
The CFC program encourages the identification of faculty and administrator champions to garner
institutional support early on. Support in the form of leadership guidance, potential funding opportuni-
ties, curriculum development, clinical workflow design, and volunteer operations are critical to leverage
because students and faculty volunteers do not necessarily have this expertise within a SRFC setting.
Seeking expertise in areas such as compliance, risk management, legal, operations management, student
services, and fiscal management are invaluable to have on a project design team. As student service
learning within clinics grows, the need for additional leadership and infrastructure support will be crucial
from those who are well versed in healthcare trends and education.

Traditional Versus Critical Service-Learning Continuum

Based on the earlier definition of traditional versus critical service-learning pedagogy, service learning
pedagogy may be viewed on a continuum to accommodate a students’ willingness and interest to learn.
Although the CFC program has the capacity to engage in critical service learning, the program is aware
that students may be oriented to a more traditional experience. The program accommodates all students
but will introduce and cultivate opportunities for students to engage in active self-reflection and social
identity exploration. Over time that interest may grow as students become oriented to community engaged
work or feel more confident in the program. Student run free clinic programs may consider where on
the continuum is most practical or realistic while developing SRFC programs.

Inclusion of students in program planning

The CFC’s success is rooted in its history of student initiation for a SRFC. Students participating and
contributing to the implementation of clinic activities demonstrate dedication and feel a sense of owner-
ship towards social health equity. They are included in most program aspects from direct patient care to
reporting to strategic planning. They contribute ideas based on their direct experience with the program,
patients, and other service-learning efforts they may have had engagement. Kim and Mauldin (2022) and
Torres et al. (2020) indicate that co-constructed leadership with a diverse set of stakeholders involved in
programming are key in social justice leadership and tantamount to program success. In fact, MacDonald
(2019) affirms a “thinking with” metaphoric approach to social justice leadership. In the CFC program,
students are integral to the success of the SRFC program and their contribution to co-construct and share
leadership responsibilities, along with institutional leaders, have contributed to building a long-standing
vision. Evaluations and direct feedback are collected and reviewed for continuous quality improvement
of didactic and experiential programming. Service-learning students with meaningful experiences will
promote and recruit students to get involved. They will assist program administrators with student
transitions with the intention to sustain the program’s institutional knowledge that otherwise may be
misplaced or forgotten over time.

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SUMMARY

The Cardinal Free Clinic program continuously responds to a changing educational and healthcare en-
vironment. It has historically been intended to serve as a source of support and linkage to more compre-
hensive health care services. Continued support for SRFC programs, in collaboration with a community
of stakeholders is key for sustainability. Not only do SRFCs integrate clinical service and educational
objectives, but they inherently cultivate opportunities for active reflection. Understanding community
cultural wealth typology while building authentic relationships with community members is integral to
the work of the CFC program.
Students volunteering in the CFC program are goal driven, results oriented, and are often seeking
to make an impact in the world. Stanford University’s Cardinal Free Clinics service-learning students
often pursue careers in medicine as practicing or research scholars, innovation technology executives,
entrepreneurs, and economists. For students who do not take a direct career pathway into medicine they
may be interested in the business or legal aspect of healthcare, public health, or epidemiology to name
a few. Dedicating time and opportunities that includes critical service-learning components has the
potential of impacting the future careers of their choosing.
Stanford University and the Cardinal Free Clinics are dedicated to improving and reducing health
disparities in the United States and beyond. Although student run free clinics and service-learning
programs are not often acknowledged for the impact of their work, the learning that takes place on the
personal and professional levels are influential. In an era of an ever-changing health and social environ-
ment student run free clinics provide a space for those in need to access services that they normally
would not be aware of nor know where to seek the care they need. However, SRFC programs are not
solely places for community members to seek medical care, they have become havens for students to
explore themselves and the social impact they wish to make.

REFERENCES

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Cardinal Free Clinics. (n.d.). About Cardinal Free Clinics. https://med.stanford.edu/cfc/about.html
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Healthy People 2030, (2023, December 23). Social Determinants of Health. https://health.gov/healthy-
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Hernandez, B. (2020). Rising above the adobe ceiling: A hermeneutic phenomenological study of men-
toring and social capital influences among California Latina nonprofit leaders (Doctoral dissertation,
University of the Pacific).
Hernandez, B., & Hernandez, M. (2023). Strengthening student mentoring relationships with mentor
maps. The Chronicle of Mentoring & Coaching, 7(16), 168–171.
Hoover, J. D., & Whitehead, C. J. (1975). An experiential-cognitive methodology in the first course in
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and Experiential Learning: Proceedings of the Annual ABSEL Conference, (Vol.2).
Jacoby, B. (1996). Service-learning in higher education: Concepts and practices. The Jossey-Bass Higher
and Adult Education Series. Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Kim, T., & Mauldin, C. (2022). Troubling unintended harm of heroic discourses in social justice leader-
ship. Paper presented at the Frontiers in Education, 7 796200. 10.3389/feduc.2022.796200
MacDonald, K. (2019). Robinson Crusoe and the Island of Despair: Heroic metaphors and contradiction
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10.1080/00220620.2019.1583174
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two models. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 14(2), 50–65.
Moskowitz, D., Glasco, J., Johnson, B., & Wang, G. (2006). Students in the community: An
interprofessional student-run free clinic. Journal of Interprofessional Care, 20(3), 254–259.
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Smith, S. D., Johnson, M. L., Rodriguez, N., Moutier, C., & Beck, E. (2012). Medical student percep-
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PMID:23027157
Smith, S. D., Yoon, R., Johnson, M. L., Natarajan, L., & Beck, E. (2014). The effect of involvement in a
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Tajfel, H. (1974). Social identity and intergroup behaviour. Social Sciences Information. Information
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teaching/social-identity-wheel/
Welch, M., & Plaxton-Moore, S. (2019). The craft of community-engaged teaching and learning: A
guide for faculty development. Campus Compact.
Yosso, T. J. (2005). Whose culture has capital? A critical race theory discussion of community cultural
wealth. Race, Ethnicity and Education, 8(1), 69–91. doi:10.1080/1361332052000341006

ADDITIONAL READING

Marriott, L. K., Lipus, A. C., Choate, L., Smith, J., Coppola, L., Cameron, W. E., & Shannon, J.
(2015). Experiential learning through participatory action research in public health supports com-
munity-based training of future health professionals. Pedagogy in Health Promotion, 1(4), 220–232.
doi:10.1177/2373379915601119 PMID:27536722
Min, E., Ekeocha, C., Howarth, M., Keller, T., Shah, Z., Shah, S., & Cooper, R. (2023). The costs of
operating a student-run free clinic. Journal of Community Health, 48(6), 926–931. doi:10.1007/s10900-
023-01252-2 PMID:37486462
Smith, S., Thomas, R. III, Cruz, M., Griggs, R., Moscato, B., & Ferrara, A. (2014). Presence and char-
acteristics of student-run free clinics in medical schools. Journal of the American Medical Association,
312(22), 2407–2410. doi:10.1001/jama.2014.16066 PMID:25490333
Stuhlmiller, C. M., & Tolchard, B. (2015). Developing a student-led health and wellbeing clinic in an
underserved community: Collaborative learning, health outcomes and cost savings. BMC Nursing, 14(1),
1–8. doi:10.1186/s12912-015-0083-9 PMID:26085815

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Stanford University: Founded in 1885, the R1 research university is located in the San Francisco
Bay Area, California. The university is composed of seven schools: School of Business; School of Sus-
tainability; School of Education; School of Engineering; School of Humanities and Sciences; School of
Law; and the School of Medicine (Stanford University, n.d.).
Cardinal Free Clinics: The name of Stanford University’s School of Medicine’s student run free
clinics program (Cardinal Free Clinics, n.d.).
Critical service-learning pedagogy: The method and practice of service-learning that includes a social
change orientation, working to redistribute power, and developing authentic relationships (Mitchell, 2008).
Heroic discourse: demonstration of an individual’s reliance on themself as the savior that contradicts
social justice principles (Kim & Mauldin, 2022).
Didactic: Direct teaching of facts and information to students as receptors of knowledge usually in
classrooms (Smerdon et al., 1999).
Experiential learning: Learning that occurs when an individual is responsible to process knowl-
edge, skills, and/or attitudes in a learning environment in which they have active participation (Hoover
& Whitehead, 1975).
Community cultural wealth typology: The typology includes six capitals: aspirational, familial,
linguistic, resistant, navigational, and social. The typology asserts these capitals exist within marginal-
ized groups and should be viewed as assets and resources (Yosso, 2005)
Social identity: A component of an individual’s self-concept that derives from their knowledge of
their membership within a social group(s) in combination with the emotional importance disposed to
that membership (Tajfel, 1974).

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Chapter 10
Attitudes Towards Service
Learning in Turkish
Higher Education:
Perspectives and Practical Approaches

Ayse Yilmaz Virlan

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6839-5745
Marmara University, Turkey

ABSTRACT
This chapter provides a comprehensive examination of service learning in Turkish higher education.
Exploring the historical evolution of service learning, it aims to offer valuable insights to international
readers regarding specific practices in the Turkish educational context. Objectives include investigating
diverse methodologies, discussing challenges, and identifying case studies. Through an in-depth analysis,
the chapter aims to derive meaningful insights contributing to a comprehensive service learning frame-
work. Additionally, it explores service learning from the perspectives of educators, administrators, and
students, highlighting benefits, challenges, and impacts on the educational experience. This chapter is
significant for the global academic community and Turkish higher education administrators, serving as
inspiration for developing and integrating service learning components within institutions.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SERVICE LEARNING IN TURKEY

Turkish culture traditionally encompasses the understanding of mutual aid, solidarity, and collaboration.
The philosophical foundations of the concept are, thus, rooted in the culture of endowment and solidarity
of both the Seljuk and Ottoman Empires. Alongside endowments, craftsmen and small artisans formed
associations and unions, while, simultaneously, the idea of social solidarity began to sprout in cities
and neighborhoods (Kartal, 2020). Contemporary examples of these can be found in community chests
encountered in some areas (Kut, 1991, as cited in Şeker, 2009). Primarily, the idea of “Community
Service Practices” was brought there by the Village Institutes and is now seen as a leader in the field. It
DOI: 10.4018/979-8-3693-2133-1.ch010

Copyright © 2024, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Attitudes Towards Service Learning in Turkish Higher Education

is part of a plan to get students involved in solving problems in their communities through projects and
hands-on learning, which will also improve programs that train teachers (Coşkun, 2012).
When discussing the function of community service, there exists a vast educational literature behind
it, referred to by various names such as community education, community-based education, community
development, adult education, agricultural education, and development education. Widely acknowledged,
the relationship of this concept with education is traced back to the American philosopher John Dewey
and has been associated with the experiential learning approach of the 1960s (Lin et al., 2014). The
recent history of Turkish education underscores the implementation of educational activities designed
to prepare students for societal contributions and enhance their roles as beneficial individuals in their
communities. The term “service learning” is expressed as “community service practices” (CSP, hence-
forth) in Turkey. This nomenclatural difference implies focusing on solving societal problems rather
than students’ self-improvement through the course (Beldag et al., 2015). Additionally, upon analyzing
the education system in Turkey, it becomes apparent that primary, secondary, and tertiary education
programs incorporate activities of volunteerism or community service, rather than using Service Learning
(SL) approaches. An analysis of the existing literature reveals a limited adoption of the Service Learn-
ing (SL) methodology, with researchers frequently using the terms “service learning” and “community
service” interchangeably, leading to a lack of clarity in their conceptual understanding (Colak, 2015).
Additionally, an examination of the definitions related to the CSP course reveals that the implementa-
tion in education faculties primarily takes place within the context of “community service.” However, as
emphasized by Furco (1996), service learning can occur healthily when a balance is established between
service, outcomes, and learning.
Education faculties worldwide aim not only to train professionals but also to provide services in vari-
ous institutions covering a wide range of topics starting from basic education. Through these services,
they set an example for different organizations providing services to the community (Miser, 2006).
However, it is observed that in our country, education faculties and community collaborations fall below
the expected level (Uğurlu & Kıral, 2013). Undoubtedly, the Turkish education system encompasses
various age groups and adult education services alongside higher education institutions. For the educa-
tion system to effectively fulfil its pivotal role in the development of individuals and society, education
faculties need to assume roles and responsibilities beyond providing pre-service training for the edu-
cational personnel required by other educational institutions (Yesilyaprak, 2006). The social functions
and prestige of education faculties will increase in proportion to their ability to guide and contribute to
educational institutions and society with an educational sciences perspective (Report of the Workshop
on Education Faculties’ Community Service, 2006; Uğurlu & Kıral, 2013). Therefore, a prospective
teacher who aims for success in their professional life desires to recognize society and its issues during
pre-service education and acquire skills to be sensitive to these problems and generate solutions (Ayvacı
& Akyıldız, 2009). In this context, in 2006, the Community Service Applications course was added to
undergraduate programs in education faculties (Aykırı, 2022). It is stated in the principles of the Turk-
ish Higher Education Council (YÖK), that future teachers need to develop not only general knowledge,
subject expertise, and professional competence but also the qualifications that will contribute to society
(Küçükoğlu & Coşkun, 2012). Considering the crucial impact of the teaching profession on creating
society’s future, the education supplied to aspiring teachers must be of exceptional quality, going beyond
being a mere requirement and becoming an absolute necessity. The Higher Education Council (YÖK)
occasionally revises and changes the programs of education faculties due to the importance placed on
teacher training. Since the 2006-2007 academic year, a revision has been made to the education faculties’

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curriculum. This alteration includes the addition of a compulsory subject called “Community Service
Practices” (CSP) (Colak, 2015).
In this context, the CSP course was incorporated into teacher education programs during the 2006–2007
academic year because of development and revision initiatives, with the primary goal of fulfilling the
educational mission (Kartal, 2018). The course aims to actively engage students in projects addressing
societal issues and promoting experiential learning (YÖK, 2011). The introduction of CSP into the cur-
riculum in 2006 marked a pivotal moment for Turkish education, with related research emerging in 2009.
The core ideas and stages of the course were later described during the National Workshop on Community
Service Practices that took place at Mersin University in 2010. Finally, the Guidelines for CSP were
approved by the Higher Education Council (YÖK) during the meeting that took place on February 17,
2011. These guidelines were submitted by the Turkish National Committee for Teacher Training earlier
in the year. During its meeting on February 17, 2011, the Higher Education Council decided to enforce
the guidelines approved by the Turkish National Committee for Teacher Training in Education Facul-
ties. These guidelines encompass the definition, objectives, scope, basis, general principles, application
procedures, and methods for student assessment, and delineate the responsibilities of units overseeing
the coordination of the CSP course in education faculties. While these guidelines set a certain standard
for the execution of the course within education faculties, their lack of comprehensive explanations and
practical examples renders them mostly theoretical, rather than providing exhaustive practical guidance
(Colak, 2015). These recommendations, which were deemed suitable during the YÖK meeting, were
subsequently distributed to all educational faculties, thereby establishing a standard for the fundamental
principles that govern the implementation of the course.
The Higher Education Council (YÖK, 2011) establishes the principles and guidelines governing
the implementation of CSP, detailing how the course is conducted and its activities organized. Bring-
ing in the CSP idea strategically fits with a larger educational plan to help students develop a sense of
social responsibility, work together, and improve their communication and self-evaluation skills as they
become teachers. This initiative not only enriches the academic experience but also contributes to the
broader goal of cultivating socially conscious and actively engaged educators within the Turkish educa-
tion system (YÖK, 2011).
Observations indicate that CSP has heightened the interest of university students in socio-cultural
issues after its integration into teacher education curricula. The projects and initiatives carried out
within the scope of this course have proven to be of significant importance for both university students
and specific segments of society, as well as the institution administrators and other related stakeholders
(Kesten et al., 2011).

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COURSE AND THE STUDENTS

The aim of this course is defined as “designing projects aimed at identifying current societal issues and
producing solutions; participating in scientific events such as conferences, congresses, open forums, and
information festivals as attendees, speakers, or organizers; volunteering in social responsibility projects;
acquiring fundamental knowledge and behaviors for implementing CSP activities in schools” (YÖK,
2006). Based on this definition, it can be said that the main goal of CSL is to ensure that students are
sensitive to events occurring in society and to develop projects on various topics to provide solutions to
current societal problems (Noyan & Kesten, 2020).

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Moreover, the course curriculum focuses on identifying societal issues, creating and implementing
projects aimed at resolving these issues, engaging in voluntary work in social responsibility projects, and
participating in scientific and social events as attendees, speakers, or organizers (Sönmez et al., 2009).
Throughout the service learning practices, prospective teachers have the opportunity to apply their learned
knowledge in real-life situations, enhancing their skills to become participative and democratic citizens.
The CSP course is taught for one semester in each major discipline. It consists of one theoretical hour
and two practical hours, amounting to a total of three hours per week. The course carries two credits.
Universities have developed criteria to ensure a systematic approach to the CSP course. These standards
are typically similar and predominantly theoretical. However, there is a lack of sufficient materials in
Turkish academic literature to guide instructors who are implementing the CSP course. This deficiency
contributes to possible discrepancies in the implementation of the course, presenting difficulties in at-
taining its intended goals (Colak, 2015).
The activities conducted in the CSP course may not be considered service learning (SL) but fall
within the scope of service learning in the Turkish context. The distinction here arises from the service
learning approach, which provides students the opportunity to apply what they learn in the classroom to
benefit society while concurrently developing citizenship responsibilities and awareness. The distinctive
aspect of this approach lies in the achievement of course outcomes through service learning projects or
voluntary activities carried out in various institutions or organizations.
For instance, a project initiated by students aimed at preventing environmental pollution would be
considered within the realm of community service. However, by considering the outcome of the related
course, such as “conducting research using scientific research steps,” the same project could be viewed
within the framework of Service Learning. Another example would be a student working in any non-
governmental organization, which is a form of service learning. When a course program includes an
outcome like “recognizing the importance of collaboration with civil society organizations” (YÖK,
2011), the student’s involvement in examining the activities of such organizations and working with
them voluntarily would be considered a Service Learning activity.
In summary, when studies conducted in Turkey regarding the CSP program are examined, an attempt
is made to clarify the difference between “learning by serving” and “serving the community.” Although
these two concepts entail different practices, they have been interchangeably used in the Turkish literature,
presumably based on the same theoretical foundation (Kartal, 2020). Therefore, despite the awareness of
the distinction between these two concepts, Turkish scholars have ultimately implemented service learn-
ing as “community service practice” and attempted to encompass all kinds of service-learning programs
or activities under this title to alleviate confusion. It becomes evident that the adoption of “community
service practice” as a term in Turkey, despite the distinction could offer some advantages and contribute
to the international discourse. Firstly, standardizing the terminology facilitates clearer communication
and understanding both domestically and internationally, particularly in academic exchanges and col-
laborative research efforts among researchers from different countries. Additionally, using a term like
“community service practice” may broaden the scope of service learning practices potentially attracting
more attention and participation from diverse stakeholders worldwide. Moreover, by framing service
learning within the broader concept of community service practice, researchers might address societal
needs comprehensively, highlighting their efforts not only in education but also in community develop-
ment and social welfare. This broader perspective could inspire similar initiatives in other countries and
contribute to the evolution of service learning practices on a global scale.

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The description of the student characteristics within the Turkish context of CSP courses is also of
paramount importance to better understand the issue from this specific dimension. The characteristics
of the students who take this course as part of their degree requirement are as follows, as stated in the
Higher Education Council’s (2011) guidelines:
Students enrolled in this course:

• Demonstrate sensitivity to local issues and contribute to their resolution

• Display awareness of and engage in resolving global issues
• Actively participate in addressing both local and global problems
• Generate new projects addressing local and global issues
• Take an active role or collaborate in new projects addressing local and global issues
• Exhibit effective communication skills within and outside the project framework
• Engage as attendees, speakers, or organizers in scientific events such as panels, conferences, con-
gresses, or symposiums
• Enhance self-assessment skills
• Employ creative thinking abilities in all these activities (Colak, 2015)

As inferred from the guidelines, prospective teachers are expected to be individuals who are aware
of local and global issues, making concerted efforts to address them, while possessing developed skills
in communication, self-assessment, and creative thinking. The primary goal of the CSP course is to
enhance the social responsibility consciousness of prospective teachers, elevate their social awareness,
and foster their involvement in addressing current societal issues by empowering them to generate solu-
tions. This course aims to bolster their self-confidence and develop skills in collaboration, solidarity,
effective communication, and self-assessment (Alabaş et al., 2009).

General Application Principles

In the Course Guidelines for Community Service Applications in Faculties of Education in Turkey, the
general principles and the related application principles of community service practices are listed below.

1. In CSP projects and activities within these projects, the intended outcomes exhibited attitudes and
conveyed messages that should be protective of the principles and revolutions of Atatürk, guided
by science and reason, supportive of national unity and integrity.
2. CSP should aim to develop and support teacher candidates’ social awareness and consciousness;
collaboration, solidarity, effective communication, self-assessment skills; social responsibility
awareness, and self-confidence.
3. Activities defined in CSP projects should, regardless of the adverse or inadequate conditions
within the target audience, encourage reading; support scientific, critical, and creative thinking
and self-confidence; and motivate learning, research, investigation, and development within the
target audience.
4. In CSP, academic content related to any discipline, such as sociology, social anthropology, psy-
chology, etc., should not be conveyed or taught to teacher candidates. In these practices, it is not
expected for teacher candidates to listen, read, or keep in mind information related to any academic
field.

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5. The activities defined in CSP projects should include original activities beyond those previously
defined and planned in the teacher candidates’ training programs (teaching practices) and in the
institutions where the activities will take place for the target audience.
6. Written or oral exams should not be conducted in the evaluation of CSPs.
7. CSP consists of multiple activities. Each activity is designed with a project-based approach. Teacher
candidates should take part in one of the defined activities in the projects they proposed or an-
nounced by the faculties.
8. The “Board” of the faculty to which the teacher candidate is affiliated decides in which province
or provinces the activities to be carried out within the scope of Community Service Applications
will take place.
9. Collaboration protocols made by the Council of Higher Education with relevant ministries are
followed for practices planned at the national level (outside the province), while collaboration
protocols between the Rectorate and the Governorship are followed for practices planned at the
local level (within the province).
10. Activities of teacher candidates are planned at the faculty, department, and program levels by the
coordinator and advisor appointed by the dean or department chair. Planned activities and the
implementation process are monitored and reported. In these practices, assignments of academic
staff (coordinator/advisor) and the registration of teacher candidates are carried out like the super-
vision of postgraduate education thesis advising.
11. Care is taken to ensure that the ordinary operation of the organization where the activity will be
held is not disrupted during the planning and implementation of the activities.
12. Donations obtained from events organized at the university can be used to cover expenses in
Community Service Application activities and to provide some assistance to the institution where
the target audience is located. Alongside other communities, a “Society and Science Society” can
be established at the university to assist in organizing these events and to ensure the participation
of students from other departments in the events. All students in the education faculties are natural
members of this society.
13. Workshops are established within the faculty to enable teacher candidates to make preliminary
preparations for the projects they will undertake, and develop and store activity materials.
14. Community Service Application Project Pools’ are established within the faculties; proposed
projects are published online and made available for sharing.
15. Collaboration should be established between education faculties in areas such as project-based
sharing, solidarity, student exchange, joint project development, etc.
16. At the end of each academic year, ‘Project Festivals’ are organized, and the best project is selected
and rewarded.
17. Activities to be carried out within the scope of Community Service Applications are conducted in
the institutions specified in Groups A, B, and C.

In the context of community service applications, educational institutions can be categorized into
three groups. Group A includes Boarding Primary Education Regional Schools (YİBO) and boarding
schools at all levels, as well as consolidated village schools. Group B consists of schools located in
shanty areas, those catering to people with disabilities, and independent village schools. Finally, Group
C encompasses day schools situated in city, town, and township centers, along with care homes and
retirement homes affiliated with the Social Services and Child Protection Institution.

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Detailed Course Outline

When we examine the principles of the course The Service Learning course aims to enhance students’
analytical skills in understanding the dynamics of their society. Through engaging in volunteer work,
students not only gain valuable hands-on experience but also cultivate a sense of responsibility towards
their community. The course goes beyond traditional classroom settings by providing students with the
opportunity to create and implement projects, fostering their project management skills and ability to
translate ideas into action. Emphasizing teamwork, students collaborate on various initiatives, promoting
a cooperative and inclusive approach to problem-solving. Moreover, the course aims to instill a height-
ened social awareness in students, encouraging them to recognize and address societal needs. Lastly,
students develop effective communication skills as they learn to articulate and present their newly formed
projects, contributing to their overall personal and professional growth.
The service-learning course offers a comprehensive and structured approach to community engagement
and project development. According to the Higher Education Council’s (2011) curriculum, discussions
about the course’s significance and overarching goals serve as the initial introduction for students, laying
the groundwork for a deeper understanding of the theoretical material. The curriculum delves into the
fundamentals of basic community service activities and project writing, employing lectures, Q&A ses-
sions, and research to provide students with theoretical insights and practical knowledge. The formation
of project groups is a pivotal aspect, of fostering collaboration and teamwork among students. Detailed
guidelines on writing projects are provided, preparing students for the subsequent phase of field practice.
The practical implementation of projects is emphasized through multiple sessions, allowing students to
apply theoretical concepts in real-world scenarios. The iterative nature of these field practices ensures
that students have ample opportunities to refine their projects. The final phase involves a comprehensive
evaluation of the projects, providing valuable feedback to students, and assessing the overall success
of their community engagement initiatives. Through this detailed course outline, students are equipped
with the necessary knowledge and practical skills to actively contribute to and positively impact their
communities.

Practices and Applications

To reintegrate CSP studies into the literature, collaboration with various institutions and organizations
is deemed necessary. Additionally, there is a belief that projects carried out within the scope of this
course should be further encouraged. CSP aims to impart theoretical and practical knowledge, instill a
sense of social responsibility in teacher candidates, and enhance skills such as collaboration, effective
communication, and self-assessment during implementation (Kesten et al., 2014). Consequently, the
increasing significance of CSP and the expansion of the number of studies are perceived as imperative.
According to Salman (2019), examples of case studies related to service learning applications in the
Turkish context within the field of education can be outlined as follows:

• Fostering literacy skills

• Assisting students in primary and secondary education with their coursework (various according
to student needs)
• Aiding those preparing for university entrance exams
• Organizing book collection campaigns

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• Teaching Turkish to foreign students and Erasmus participants

• Conducting seminars and conferences on various subjects in schools
• Assisting with painting and cleaning tasks in schools
• Organizing knowledge competitions
• Providing traffic sign education
• Conducting chess courses
• Offering education in arts such as painting, dancing, folk dances, and music
• Taking on roles in libraries

In Turkish community service projects, the goals of the activities should be in line with Atatürk’s
ideas about protection, science, and intelligence, which should support national unity and integrity, no
matter what problems the people being helped are facing. Community service practices aim to cultivate
social awareness, collaboration, solidarity, effective communication, and self-assessment skills among
teacher candidates (YÖK, 2011). Activities outlined in community service projects should inspire a love
for reading, foster scientific, critical, and creative thinking, and promote learning, research, examina-
tion, and development, regardless of challenges present in the target audience, according to the Higher
Education Council (YÖK, 2011).

Case Studies

It is also important to identify and analyze specific case studies conducted at diverse institutions in Tur-
key. In this regard, examining the studies conducted in Turkey can help researchers derive meaningful
insights that contribute to developing a general framework for service learning in the Turkish educational
context. The existence of 64 studies that could be reached in this field underscores a considerable body
of research in this area. Qualitative research methods and the survey model have been predominantly
favored in these studies. Notably, teacher candidates are the primary focus of study group selection.
Examining these studies by their fields, it is observed that social studies education and class teaching
hold a substantial share (Noyan & Kesten, 2020).
Between 2009 and 2023, a total of 64 studies on the topic of CSL were found in the literature, with
four of these studies having a meta-synthesis feature. The emergence of CSL studies in the literature
began with two articles written in 2009. There has been a continuous decline in the number of studies
since 2017. During the preparation of this study, it was observed that in 2018, there were four studies
related to CSL. In 2019, only one study was found in the literature. Subsequently, in 2020, three studies
were identified, followed by one study in 2021, and two studies in 2022. Until 2023, no relevant study
had been encountered during the preparation of this study. When examining the distribution of studies
among different groups, the majority of studies—46 in total—were conducted with pre-service teachers.
Considering that CSL is a compulsory course in teacher training programs, it is expected that there will
be a higher number of studies within this group. Following the pre-service teachers’ group, university
students who are not within the education faculty, but attending university, were labeled as university
students, and 9 studies were focusing on this group. Academic staff, part of the university education,
also comprised the group of 6 articles in this study.
CSP studies, categorized according to their fields, primarily focus on institutions providing teacher
education. The majority of the studies (n=15), are established within the domains of social studies edu-
cation and primary education. Considering that departments of social studies education and primary

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education are fields closely related to social and societal events, the concentration in these areas is an
expected outcome. The primary reason for the abundance of studies in the field of social studies education
is believed to stem from the compatibility of values, skills, and concepts inherent in social studies educa-
tion with the logic of CSP, as well as the similarity in instructional approaches (Noyan & Kesten, 2020).

Educational Perspectives of the Stakeholders

In the literature, various studies and findings regarding the benefits and drawbacks of the THU course
have been discussed (Ayvacı & Akyıldız, 2009; Elma et al., 2010; Gökçe, 2011; Kesten, 2012; Kesten et
al., 2011; Sevim, 2011; Sönmez, 2010; Uğurlu & Kıral, 2012). In the context of the relevant literature,
it is observed that some stakeholders (advisors, teacher candidates, partner institutions, target audience)
perceive the CSP course merely as a service-oriented class. It is of utmost importance to recognize that
this particular mentality can lead to a variety of unfavorable outcomes, primarily stemming from a pes-
simistic perspective of the concept of service (Aykırı, 2022), in addition to the benefits that it offers to
the stakeholders.

Perspectives of Administrators

The perspectives of administrators play a crucial role in shaping the discourse surrounding service learning
initiatives. In this regard, we will examine two types of administrators: those representing the institutions
sending students and those overseeing the activities conducted by students within the framework of the
CSP course at the host institutions. At the sending institution, school administrators have expressed both
positive and negative views regarding the implementation of service-learning programs. While some
administrators acknowledge the potential benefits of such initiatives in fostering student engagement and
community involvement, others have raised concerns about logistical challenges and resource constraints.
These varying perspectives highlight the complex nature of integrating service learning into educational
curricula and underscore the importance of addressing institutional concerns to ensure successful imple-
mentation (Kesten et al., 2011). In addition to the school administrators, there is also another group of
administrators who are in charge of managing the organizations that the students are helping within the
framework of their CSP course. We need to delve deeper into the perspectives of administrators at the
receiving institutions, examining not only their views on the efficacy of service-learning programs but
also the broader societal impact of these initiatives. Through a comprehensive analysis of administrator
perspectives, it was aimed to provide valuable insights into the multifaceted nature of service learning
and its role in promoting community engagement and social change.
Considering the administrators of the sending institutions, are content with the application of the CSP
program in the curricula. They report a significant increase in student involvement, which is especially
noticeable among students who are studying fields such as Mathematics, English, and Primary Educa-
tion (Kesten et al., 2011). As to them, the significant rise in student engagement highlights the profound
impact of CSP, inspiring students to actively contribute to their communities through a range of initia-
tives and projects. Moreover, they believe that the implementation of CSP has accelerated the growth of
institutional initiatives. Students are engaging in both ongoing activities and proactively initiating new
initiatives designed to meet specific community requirements. These initiatives, driven by students, have
not only expanded the range of educational offerings at institutions but have also enhanced the entire
educational experience for both students and the wider community. In addition, school leaders have

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closely watched the concrete advantages of CSP on the community. The provision of tutoring sessions
and academic help for children has had a noticeable beneficial effect on both academic performance and
the overall welfare of the community being served. This highlights the significant impact that student-led
community service programs may have, emphasizing the crucial role of CSP in promoting comprehensive
growth inside educational institutions and their neighboring communities. Nevertheless, some school
administrators maintain a less positive perspective toward the institutions and organizations involved,
expressing dissatisfaction with their perceived lack of initiative and adherence to traditional methods
(Arcagök, 2011). They emphasize that these organizations are not actively involved and instead depend
on conventional methods in their operations, consequently disregarding the demands of the students.
In Turkey, where only one study has been conducted on administrators of the host institutions, and
no other source provides data on them, the findings from the available studies become particularly
crucial. All participating institution managers unanimously agree on the necessity of CSP, considering
that teacher candidates would contribute to various areas such as establishing social relationships, per-
sonality development, self-confidence, leadership, social responsibility, awareness of social phenomena,
and professional development. This singular study on administrators in the Turkish context serves as a
fundamental reference, highlighting the importance of the discussed principles and providing a unique
insight into the perceptions of institution managers. Interviews with institutional administrators in
Turkish schools show that all of the people who took part agreed that CSP was essential (Kesten et al.,
2011). The results underscored the positive impact of CSP implementation in the participating institu-
tions, with each new application presenting potential challenges. Notably, CSP was found to enhance
voluntary participation, enrich the institutional project portfolio, and facilitate the creation of beneficial
initiatives for the served community (Kesten et al., 2011).
The interviews carried out by Kesten and his colleagues (2011) with institution administrators also
revealed the perceptions of these organizations helped by the students in the following key outcomes,
in brief:

• CSP implementation yielded positive outcomes for the institutions, while also acknowledging that
potential challenges accompanied each new application. Particularly, the voluntary and systematic
participation of students from the Mathematics, English, and Classroom Teaching departments
[visiting a Children’s Protection Institution] positively impacts the children’s study habits, aca-
demic achievements, and the institution as a whole. The presence of the participants is said to
bring smiles to the faces of the children. Children expect attention and care, valuing interactions
where they can sit down one-on-one with someone who acts as not just an instructor but also as a
friend or elder sibling, inquiring about their well-being and engaging in personal conversations.
These personal connections, prioritizing genuine human interaction over formal instruction, are
deemed more significant in terms of the societal benefits of CSP initiatives.
• The positive societal impact was underscored as one of the key benefits of CSP, with an increase in
volunteer numbers, expansion of the host institution’s project portfolio, and initiation of beneficial
activities for the served community. Previously, proactive search and outreach activities were con-
ducted, but after the launch of CSP, there has been a shift, and students are spontaneously com-
ing to the institutions, driven by the awareness of contributing positively to the community. This
transformation aligns with the overall essence of CSP, where individuals voluntarily contribute to
their projects, enriching the offerings of the host institution.

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• Challenges encountered during the course implementation process were particularly concentrated
in areas such as planning, coordination, students’ unfamiliarity with the institution, and insuffi-
cient preparation. Yet,

As is demonstrated in the preceding section, administrators place a strong emphasis on the crucial and
essential role that THU plays in enabling prospective teachers to internalize and reflect on the values and
traits that are distinctive to the teaching profession in their day-to-day lives. Administrators’ good ideas
may stem from the fact that they view teaching not only as a career that involves delivering lessons in
the classroom but also as a vocation that contributes to different aspects of the society in which they live.
This could be one of the reasons why administrators have such positive opinions (Kesten et al., 2011).
The managers of the host institutions have identified both positive and negative results for the running
of the institution, even though they are consistent in their belief that the path is necessary. Even though
all administrators of institutions have acknowledged the positive results that this technique has brought
about for their organizations, they have also brought attention to the potential difficulties that may be
encountered with any new implementation.
Several different aspects have been highlighted by managers in their evaluations of the positive effects
that CSP has had on the operation of the institution (Kesten et al., 2011). However, the managers of these
organizations also expressed some negative effects that CSP has had on the functioning of the institution
and specifically highlighted concerns that are associated with planning, coordination, students’ lack of
familiarity with the institution, and inadequate preliminary preparation. These evaluations underscore
the potential obstacles that CSP deployments may face at the local level, taking into consideration situ-
ations that are comparable to those that have occurred in Turkey.

Perspectives of Educators

In the context of relevant literature, it is observed that the Community Service Applications (CSP) course
could sometimes be perceived as an unimportant subject by instructors depending on the faculty and the
applications implemented. This perception negatively impacts both the students taking the course and
the target audience they serve as prospective teachers. The fundamental reason for this situation could
be the lack of understanding regarding the importance of this course. However, this course is crucial,
and in a relevant study (Aykırı, 2020), its importance is emphasized in the following areas: being able to
become a teacher, pedagogical, historical, philosophical, sociological, religious, legal, political, economic,
socio-psychological, anthropological, medical, academic, contemporary realities, being able to go to a
new country or become a citizen of that country, and for receiving awards. In this context, it is recom-
mended that the significance of the CSP course should primarily be highlighted to academicians by the
coordinators of the CSP department in education faculties, and subsequently, to the teacher candidates
taking the course by their course advisors (Aykırı, 2022).
Yet, the consolidation of teacher opinions also indicates that the expectations from the course extend
beyond identifying and resolving societal problems. It demonstrates an emphasis on cultivating sensitiv-
ity towards societal issues. Also, the CSP course is perceived to have the highest level of individual and
institutional contribution, and stakeholders, particularly teachers, are seen to fulfil their responsibilities
to a considerable extent. However, when it comes to generating solutions to societal problems, the course
is viewed quite negatively. Despite teachers believing that they possess the necessary sensitivity and
largely fulfil their duty responsibilities within the scope of CSP, it is noteworthy that CSP is perceived

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as unsuccessful in providing solutions to societal problems. This contradiction raises questions about
the effectiveness of the course in addressing and resolving real-world social issues (Beldag et al., 2015).

Perspectives of Students

It is observed that the Community Service Practices course is perceived as acts of charity, volunteering, or
obligation. In the study by Uğurlu and Kıral (2012), it was emphasized to advisors that the understanding
of the CSP course should not be confused with altruism and volunteerism. They highlighted that courses
conducted with this understanding, although providing social benefits, fundamentally should not be
considered CSP. Another study (Küçükoğlu et al., 2010) indicated that the CSP course is being executed
within the framework of altruism and volunteerism, which does not align with the course’s objectives
and criteria (Arcagök, 2011; Berberoğlu, 2017), emphasizing the necessity to organize the course within
the context of its objectives and criteria. Currently, there exists a difference between community service
and these activities. What distinguishes community service from these types of activities is its emphasis
on service rather than learning—though not solely on service, such as in the case of volunteering—and,
even incidentally, focusing on learning.
Additionally, these nine studies, which identified their participants as preservice teachers, emphasize
the positive impact of service-learning, particularly in the context of pre-service teachers, students, and
broader society. This study reveals that pre-service teachers benefitted from valuable professional experi-
ences, enhanced their familiarity with course materials, and gained practical insights into the implementa-
tion of methods and techniques. These results align with prior research in the Turkish education context.
Moreover, within the Turkish context, where significant challenges and societal issues have emerged
and evolved over the past decade, addressing and resolving these issues is crucial. One such pressing
challenge is the refugee crisis, prompting extensive research and efforts across various fields. In the
realm of CSP, there has been notable exploration of the refugee issue in our country, leading to the
acquisition of compelling data.
The broader impact of service learning is evident as students not only receive cognitive and emotional
support but also contribute to societal benefits. In the case of refugee students, the study by Bicer and
Alan (2022) highlights that service learning not only facilitated their social inclusion but also positively
influenced their academic performance.
This work adds to the growing body of knowledge surrounding the multifaceted contributions of
service-learning, emphasizing its role in addressing real-world challenges, especially those related to
the refugee crisis in Turkey. The collaboration between pre-service teachers, students, and society in
this context demonstrates the potential of CSP to serve as a valuable tool in fostering positive change
and addressing pressing social issues (Bicer & Alan, 2022).
Contrary to the overall consensus found in research, certain studies have suggested that incorporating
the CSP course into the third or fourth year of teacher education programs does not influence students’
“social awareness and benefit” skills. These studies have observed that when the CSP course is offered
independently, without integration with other courses, students struggle to establish connections with any
other course or content in their teacher education programs, resulting in minimal contribution to their
teaching skills. In this regard, commencing the CSP course from the first year of university is believed
to be more effective in enhancing social awareness and benefit, as proposed by Kartal (2020).

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Evaluation of the CSP Course

The evaluation component of the Community Service Practices (CSP) course uncovers several significant
discoveries. The assessment procedure consists primarily of evaluating project proposal forms and project
outcome reports. Nevertheless, the emphasis placed on the outcome reports suggests a methodology that
is goal-oriented and disregards the significance of evaluating the process. The lack of process evalua-
tion indicates an oversight in executing essential changes throughout the course. Another noteworthy
observation pertains to the advisors’ inexperience in assessing these types of courses, which manifests in
irregular methods of measurement and evaluation. Insufficient utilization of standardized and objective
instruments exacerbates perceptions of inequity among prospective educators. Significantly, the service-
oriented structure of the course results in an environment where equivalent grades are obtained with
minimal and maximum effort. This situation cultivates the perception among prospective educators that
task completion takes precedence over the assurance of work quality. The evaluation is solely conducted
at the group level, leading to unfairness within the groups. The inefficiency of project evaluations within
the course undermines the overall effectiveness of the projects. There is a notable emphasis on the notion
that these activities should not be solely perceived and evaluated as voluntary actions, nor should they
rely solely on a pass-fail system (Aykırı, 2022).

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, this chapter outlines the structure and objectives of an in-depth exploration of service
learning in Turkish higher education. The study aims to give international readers a full picture of service
learning in the unique setting of Turkish academia as an example of community service by combining
historical insights, real-life examples, case studies, and educational points of view.
This chapter seeks to comprehensively examine the concept of service learning within the realm
of Turkish higher education. By delving into the historical evolution of service learning, the chapter
aims to provide international readers with valuable insights into the specific practices and applications
employed in the Turkish educational context. The primary objectives encompass exploring the diverse
methodologies and frameworks utilized, discussing associated challenges, and identifying case stud-
ies conducted at various institutions. Through an in-depth analysis of these cases, the chapter aims to
derive meaningful insights that contribute to the formulation of a comprehensive framework for service
learning in Turkish higher education. Additionally, the study tries to explore service learning from the
perspectives of educators, administrators, and students, shedding light on perceived benefits, challenges,
and overall impacts on the educational experience.
In Turkey, there is a noticeable decline in the importance placed on a subject that has become a
significant benchmark for universities and educational institutions globally. It is anticipated that this
circumstance may have a long-term effect on the global ranking of Turkish universities. As a result, it is
deemed critical to revive the importance of community service initiatives and improve the quality of these
efforts by addressing the obstacles encountered within the scope of community service activities while
taking into account changing demands. This viewpoint should serve as an example for other countries
and organizations, underlining that a fall in such initiatives, which are considered quality indicators, can
have serious implications, and lessons should be learned accordingly. Furthermore, the obstacles and

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positive experiences encountered in Turkey can be used to demonstrate what should and should not be
done, providing useful insights for future activities of international organizations.
Given Turkey’s significant position among countries with high migration rates, service initiatives
can serve as valuable tools to facilitate the integration process of both foreign and Turkish students who
are new to the educational system. Orientation programs, aimed at fostering interaction among students
and ensuring the smooth functioning of the system, can be particularly beneficial. Therefore, community
service initiatives must extend beyond teacher training programs to encompass a wider spectrum and be
approached from a broader perspective. These ideas can offer valuable insights to international readers
seeking to adapt their service learning curricula to meet the evolving needs of the world. Considering
that many countries are grappling with refugee issues similar to Turkey’s, the experiences and practices
implemented here can serve as exemplary models for service learning practices elsewhere. By examining
Turkey’s efforts and outcomes, educators and policymakers in other countries can gain valuable insights
to inform and refine their curricula. In this regard, this chapter holds significance for the international
academic community and higher education administrators in Turkey presenting a comprehensive overview
and analysis of service-learning practices. It also aims to inspire stakeholders interested in developing
and implementing service-learning components within their institutions showing what should be and
should not be done, as well, in terms of applications of CSP in diverse cultures. The chapter will hope-
fully contribute to the growing body of knowledge on service learning in diverse global contexts.

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Chapter 11
The Past and Present of Service
Learning in Biology Education
Dilek Sultan Acarlı
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1090-8912
Hacettepe University, Turkey

ABSTRACT
In this study, firstly, the meaning, benefits and difficulties of service learning are explained and the de-
velopment of the perspective and deficiencies on this subject are tried to be revealed with selections from
the research published on service learning in biology education since the year 2000, marking the onset
of the 21st century. In addition, it was discussed and suggestions were made about how biology issues,
which are particularly prominent with their socio-scientific aspects and are important for society, can
be addressed in service learning projects and how studies on this subject can be made more effective.
As a result, the past and present of service learning in biology education were discussed and a study
was presented as a guide for researchers who want to work in this field in the future.

WHAT IS SERVICE LEARNING?

Although the foundations of the concept of service learning (SL) date back much further, Robert Sig-
mon (1979) described the main principles of service learning as follows: (1) those being served control
the services provided, (2) those being served learn to serve and be served by their own actions, and (3)
those who serve are learners and have significant control over what is expected to be learned. Actually,
this concept, which needs to be evaluated as a pedagogical approach, is sometimes used interchangeably
with terms such as community service practices, field education, and internships. However, SL is dif-
ferent. In the concepts of volunteering, community service practices, internships, and field education,
the emphasis is seen on the benefit of the service recipient or the service provider, or on the service or
learning. Of course, students can also learn from volunteer service and community service applications.
These are valuable experiences for students and contribute to their personal development and active
participation in society. However, the primary focus of these activities is not learning but service, and
the intended beneficiaries are not the students but the service recipients. All field education and intern-

DOI: 10.4018/979-8-3693-2133-1.ch011

Copyright © 2024, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
 
The Past and Present of Service Learning in Biology Education

ships provide valuable services to communities, but their primary purpose is the learning of the student.
For example, pre-service teachers spend time in the classroom to improve their teaching skills. In this
process, pre-service teachers also provide a service, but the primary beneficiaries are the pre-service
teachers who develop their professional skills. On the other hand, in SL, both the service provider and
the service recipient benefit equally, and equal emphasis is placed on both service and planned learn-
ing (Furco, 1996). For these to happen, some academic connections need to be established, and the
service needs to support and enhance learning, and learning needs to support and enhance service. SL
is a teaching and learning methodology that links classroom learning with community service. Through
SL, students go beyond traditional classroom education and gain learning experience while performing
volunteer services to benefit society. At this point, it is an important gain for society that the students
provide services in the areas that the society really needs while they are learning. Hence, in SL, there is
a strong mutual relationship between the service provider and the service recipient, where they benefit
equally. The essence of this relationship is based on the principle of ” I serve in order that I may learn
from you.” (Kennell, 2000). Different definitions have been made over time to emphasize this distinc-
tion regarding the concept of SL. Pitcahard and Whitehead (2004) defined SL in its simplest form as “a
teaching-learning approach that integrates community service and academic studies to enrich learning,
teach civic responsibility, and strengthen society.” The National Youth Leadership Council (NLYC, 2023)
defines SL as “an approach to teaching and learning in which students use their academic knowledge
and skills to meet real community needs.” In this process, students explore the real needs in society, the
root causes of these needs, and where and from whom they can learn more and how they can contribute
to the solution. NYLC (2023) gives the following example to provide a better understanding of what
SL is: “Collecting garbage on the riverbank is service. Examining a water sample under a microscope
is learning. When science students collect and analyze water samples, report their results, and present
their findings to a local pollution control agency, this is SL.” While there are numerous definitions of
SL in the literature, it is commonly regarded as an approach (Furco, 1996; Sigmon, 1979), a strategy
(Wade & Anderson, 1996), a pedagogy (Bringle & Hatcher, 1995; Butin, 2005), or a method/technique
(Anderson, 1998). The common point of the definitions is that they emphasize 4 components of SL:
Student, society, academic achievement, learning/teaching approach. However, when the definitions are
analyzed, it is seen that it includes components such as a focus on the needs of society, serving the stu-
dent, being course-based, containing reflection, providing academic achievement, and being a teaching/
learning approach. Therefore, the desired goal is achieved when SL is integrated into an academic course
in a manner that provides equal benefit to both the service provider and the recipient, and emphasizes
both the quality of the service and the learning process.

Positive and Negative Outcomes of Service Learning in Higher Education

Interest in SL in higher education increased especially in the 90s and began to be seen as “a vital force
in educational change” (Liu, 1999). The main reason for this might be that this pedagogical approach
has responded to some criticisms directed towards higher education, such as the disconnect between the
academic teaching process in universities and daily life and society. Furthermore, it is important that the
distinct benefits of SL have been identified, setting it apart from similar practices. SL has been recognized
as a strong pedagogy to enhance student learning, promote student engagement in the classroom, and
develop students’ sense of civic responsibility in general (Ehrlich, 2000). This approach, which integrates
university learning with community life, reveals different benefits for the stakeholders involved in the

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process. Burke (2007) lists the benefits of SL for students as increasing involvement with the learning
experience, reinforcing critical thinking skills, augmenting their resume, and providing scholarship op-
portunities, and lists the benefits to the community partner as supplying needed assistance, presenting
opportunity to partner in educational process and generating networking opportunities. Burke (2007)
also stated that SL provides a positive impact on the university in terms of improving its visibility and
image, renewing its civic mission, and recruiting and retaining. He stated that it benefits the faculty
in terms of producing positive teaching and learning outcomes and providing additional research and
publication opportunities. The multifaceted applications of SL have shown positive results on students
in various areas. Students who experience SL develop a sense of responsibility towards their commu-
nities and contribute to meeting social needs (Bringle et al., 2006). SL helps students to see scientific
knowledge as a part of their lives and gain experience in how they can benefit their communities or
environments with this knowledge. Thus, students acquire responsibility, positive attitudes, awareness,
and skills related to active citizenship and become more sensitive to their communities (Buch & Harden,
2011; Butin, 2010; Conway et al., 2009; Furco, 2001; Lee et al., 2007). During the SL process, students
see that they can contribute to society, and their self-confidence increases as they see that their contri-
butions are useful. When students learn through service, they better understand what the information
they learn means to society in daily life outside the classroom/laboratory. When students see that they
can affect change within the society they live in, it encourages them to become more involved in com-
munity services and ​cooperation (Brown & McReynold, 2000). Additionally, SL helps students develop
leadership skills (Furco & Root, 2010; Strage, 2000), increase student’s engagement in and commit-
ment to school (Furco & Root, 2010; O’Bannon, 1999; Scales, et al., 2006), work towards improving
school performance (Farber, 2011; Furco, 2001; Wilczenski & Coomey, 2007), and enhance academic
achievement (Furco, 2001; Furco & Root, 2010; Strage, 2004; Wilczenski & Coomey, 2007). SL also
cognitively helps students develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills (Butin, 2010; Strage,
2000; Wilczenski & Coomey, 2007). From an affective perspective, it has a positive impact on social
and moral reasoning, empathy, awareness of social issues, personal and social responsibility, willing-
ness to help others, altruism, and concern for the well-being of others (Butin, 2010; Cress et al., 2005;
Wilczenski & Coomey, 2007). Furthermore, it supports self-expression and relationship development in
terms of social skills, contributes to personal development, and enhances self-concept, self-esteem, and
self-efficacy (Fisher et al, 2017; Furco, 2001; Wilczenski & Coomey, 2007). Students who participate
in SL also report that their experiences increase the likelihood of incorporating service into their career
development. In this context, SL also has an impact on students’ confidence in career choice, awareness
of career exploration, and knowledge accumulation (Berkas, 1997; Gutstein, et al., 2006). Additionally,
SL helps students develop a positive perception of lifelong learning (Ferrari & Worrall, 2000). SL pro-
vides opportunities for students to develop skills from the experience of applying knowledge in practical
situations and integrating theory with practice, while also allowing students to connect knowledge from
different disciplinary areas (Hamerlinck, 2013).
One of the most commonly used SL activities is projects in which university students teach younger
students while also learning. One of the areas where these projects are most easily carried out is education
faculties with established connections to schools for internship programs. When looking at the effects of
SL experiences on pre-service teachers, it has been determined that they have a noticeable contribution to
both personal and professional development. Theriot (2006) stated that SL increases pre-service teachers’
awareness of their own differences, increases their commitment to teaching, affects their future career
choices, and enjoys the process. Additionally, in the literature, it is found that SL increases pre-service

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etachers’ self-efficacy and self-confidence, raises awareness of social issues, enhances self-esteem, and
increases commitment to social justice (Batchelder & Root 1994; Vadeboncoeur et al., 1996; Wade,
1995; Wade, 1997). Based on this information, it can be said that there are advantageous situations in
the process of pre-service teachers’ SL, such as collaboration with relatively large samples and easy
communication with them.
As summarized so far, SL has many positive outcomes that can vary according to its components. The
most important key to this success is maintaining a well-organized and coordinated partnership between
the university and the community. For this, educators should be able to shape the service experience
according to the educational content, and community partners should be consistent with the student’s
SL experience goals (Zlotkowski, 1999). Eby (1998) warned that poorly planned SL can individual-
ize social problems and reinforce stereotypes, increasing perceived distances from the community. In
addition, Sherman and MacDonald (2009) categorized the difficulties encountered in participation in
SL activities into four categories: the required time commitment, the nature of students’ focus in the
community context, the perception of scientific rigor, and potential impact on career opportunities.
When considered alongside extracurricular activities, SL requires a significant amount of time. This can
sometimes be a challenging obstacle in students’ academic schedules. Without proper and purposeful
time management, the process of SL may become nothing more than a waste of time. The contribution
of the SL process to both the recipient of the service and the student providing the service should be
of value above all else. Otherwise, it may be seen as a process that does not serve its purpose and is a
waste of time and effort for both parties. Another significant obstacle is when students perceive that the
service they provide will not contribute to their future careers, which can diminish their motivation and
negatively affect the process. In such a situation, community service given reluctantly can also negatively
impact students’ connections with the community. Ultimately, if the process is not well-organized, SL
can lead to negative outcomes.

Service Learning in Biology and Exemplary Practices

Biology is a discipline where students can experience learning by serving society in many different fields.
Biology is a branch of science that examines the basic principles of life, and by its nature, it contains
intense content on basic issues that concern society, such as health, environment and energy. In this
respect, biology plays a vital role in many areas of society. Biology is a discipline that the whole society
needs to know about many issues such as combating diseases, protecting the environment, and improving
the quality of life. Students have the opportunity to learn through service in various fields aligned with
the course content, including examination and research laboratories, farms, veterinary practices, natural
history museums, nature observation projects, as well as institutions and organizations dedicated to health
and environmental studies. In his study, Kennel (2000) emphasized the similarity between laboratory
courses and SL projects. Laboratories are an integral component of the biology curriculum and help
reinforce the knowledge taught in lectures. Similarly, SL projects allow students to experience biology
in real-world settings, thereby enabling students to gain insight into concepts underlying biological phe-
nomena facing society that cannot be adequately conveyed in the classroom. In this respect, SL in biol-
ogy education is a learning approach that provides students with the opportunity to put their theoretical
knowledge into practice and apply biology subjects while serving their communities or environments.
This approach gives students the chance to understand biology more deeply, apply scientific methods,

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and benefit their communities. Such projects can also help students better understand the connection
between biology and their careers.
When SL practices in the literature are examined, it is seen that most of the studies design processes
in which students teach groups younger than themselves. For example, Prentiss (2000) encouraged
college students to solidify their knowledge base of native flora by teaching the basics of wild-flower
identification to teachers and students in local public schools. University students gave presentations
to primary school students and teachers on how to identify some common wildflowers and ferns in the
woods on the school property, how to preserve and catalog plants for the school herbarium, and which
flowers not to pick. At the end of the process, school students and teachers who received the service
expressed their satisfaction and the benefits of the application to them. University students who served
stated that they learned not only for themselves but also for others during this process, that they took
great pleasure in using what they learned and sharing the knowledge, and that being useful to others
while learning themselves made them happy.
Robertson (2000) designed a SL process in the university’s Animal Behavior course in which each
student served as a science mentor to three sixth-grade students and assisted them in conducting research
projects in the field of animal behavior. At the end of the process, she reported that incorporating SL
into her course improved self-confidence, critical thinking, teamwork, and appreciation for science in
college students.
Gutstein et al. (2006) discuss the Science Education Outreach Program (SEOP), which involves
undergraduate students from various academic disciplines in SL experiences. The program includes
weekly seminars during which contemporary educational theories and methods are introduced to un-
dergraduate students. Projects are prepared on various topics such as life science and ecology activities,
water quality and riverbank health, environmental effects on human health, water basin explorations, and
interdisciplinary activities in community gardens, and these projects are implemented at the elementary
and high school levels. These SL experiences have helped undergraduate students extend their learning
beyond the university. University and community educators have introduced participants to contemporary
educational theories and effective methods for use in social outreach through weekly seminars. Students
have reported finding the seminar content useful and have directly applied it to their SL experiences.
They have expressed increased interest in learning, the development of research-based learning skills,
the ability to transfer their knowledge to others, the influence on their career choices, and a greater sense
of integration with the community.
Hark (2008) encouraged undergraduate non-major science students to prepare educational materials on
DNA fingerprinting, genetic testing, gene therapy, stem cells, cancer, and chemotherapy, and to integrate
them into high school curricula and present these materials to high school students. At every stage of the
projects, such as determining topics and preparing presentations, teachers, educators, and undergraduate
students communicated and expressed mutual opinions. The presented projects were evaluated by the
course instructor and at least two high school teachers, as well as at least five student peers, based on
predetermined criteria. At the end of the process, it was reported that undergraduate students increased
their understanding of biology, and the experience increased high school students’ interest in science.
However, the desired effectiveness was not achieved in every project, highlighting the challenging aspects
of SL. One of these challenges was the ability of undergraduate students to explain the relevant topics
to high school students at an appropriate level and in a scientifically accurate and complete manner. As
seen in this example, all partners involved in the process have significant responsibilities, and effective
collaboration is essential.

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Begley (2013) designed a SL process for university students in a first-year major biology course
and had each student perform 25 hours of applied biology activities, including introduction to cell and
molecular biology, to smaller groups of students around the university. SL students stated that by the
end of the process, they understood basic biological concepts and learned how to apply these concepts
to a range of biological problems.
Webb (2016) conducted a research project involving a group of volunteer undergraduate students
studying in the fields of nursing, biology, education, and accounting, and who were part of the “Mi-
crobiology Interest Group.” As part of the project, university students prepared and delivered lesson
content and various activities on basic information about microbes, disease transmission, antibiotics,
vaccines, and disease prevention methods to local elementary school children. The project provided
benefits for elementary school students in learning about microbes, infections, and handwashing, while
also allowing university students to reinforce their microbiology knowledge and reach out to children in
their communities. At the end of the process, more than half of the students stated that the project had
prompted them to consider a career in microbiology or teaching, helped them understand the importance
of volunteering, improved their communication and collaboration skills, and that they enjoyed the process.
Ellerton et al. (2016) developed SL programs in which college students mentored at-risk and disad-
vantaged K-12 students during an Anatomy and Physiology course. Students collaborated with various
community partners to create engaging activities, learning modules, laboratory experiments, games,
videos, and interactive lessons to convey anatomy and physiology concepts to young students. At the
end of the process, it was reported that K-12 students consistently improved their grades and increased
their scientific knowledge. College students also demonstrated improved communication skills, learning
abilities, self-discipline, critical thinking, and leadership skills. Additionally, they expressed that they
gained a deeper understanding of anatomy and physiology concepts.
Xu and Chan (2022) integrated service learning into two undergraduate courses, Fermentation and
Enzyme Technology, and Environmental Health and Toxicology. They adopted the concept of fermen-
tation as a metaphor for life planning and designed various service activities based on this metaphor.
University students prepared games and activities to introduce fermentation and its practical applications
in daily life to secondary school students. As a result, university students not only learned while teaching
but also had the opportunity to apply their acquired knowledge. Secondary school students also gained
significant knowledge and awareness about fermentation.
Although there are many projects in the literature that involve university students serving the learn-
ing of younger students, different service projects have also been carried out. For example, Kennel
(2000) suggested 5 projects to non-major university students as an alternative to a library research as-
signment within the scope of a general biology course in which they can learn about the course content
by providing various services: (1) at a residential facility for HIV+ individuals, (2) in a local nursing/
retirement home, (3) in a local environmental center, (4) in a health institution, and (5) in a social as-
sistance program for primary and secondary school students visiting the campus. He asked the students
who participated in the projects to share their experiences in the course and transfer what they learned
to each other, thus enabling them to relate what they learned to the topics covered in class and develop
different perspectives. It was observed that most of the students who served were willing to explain their
service experiences to their classmates, that the method was very effective in discussing the subject in
more depth, and that they included more quotations in their research reports and were more successful
than students who did not served. At the end of the process, the students who served stated that they

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learned the relevant subjects better than their other friends in the class and expressed their satisfaction
in participating in the projects.
Simmons (2000) stated that every person deals with some environmental problems and has a certain
level of concern, therefore the courses most suitable for SL projects are environmental science courses.
Simmons (2000) pointed out that subjects related to the environment, such as economics, health, food,
water, individual rights, poverty, land, and pollution, are more associated with society than biology
lessons. Based on this point, Simmons (2000) assigned SL projects such as Well Water Testing, Visits
to Elementary Schools, and Home Energy Audits to biology department students taking the environ-
mental science course. He stated that students who have the opportunity to learn by serving the society
through these practices increase their learning motivation, what they learn gains meaning, and when the
university directs some of its resources and energy to the society, the university-society relationship is
strengthened and developed.
McDonald and Dominguez (2005) used SL as a method in their study aimed at improving students’
science literacy. University students, most of whom were non-major science students, were asked to work
in small teams on current environmental/science issues in their basic science methods course. The teams
identifying the problem found local connections, conducted research, created a timeline, and decided how
to focus on solving the problem with the information they acquired. One team participated in activities
such as protest marches, letter-writing campaigns, and public hearings to prevent a local water bottling
plant from extracting groundwater. Another team set up collection bins for plastic water bottles in four
dormitories on campus. They educated university students about changes in the Bottle Law and worked
at a local recycling facility. One team researched the water quality and environmental impacts of Jet
Ski use and conducted a survey on campus about restricting Jet Ski use in national parks and coastal
areas. They organized a letter campaign and a petition in support of restrictions. Another team worked
with local elementary school students to build duck houses. They taught elementary students about the
housing and food needs of ducks, and placed duck houses in marshes and wetlands. Another team helped
raise awareness of deforestation by assisting local elementary students in planting trees provided by a
conservation area. One team donated web space to a rural school through an internet service provider
and taught school teachers how to create their own web pages. Another team conducted a survey in local
apartment complexes to determine recycling awareness, and then helped create a website for the local
Material Recycling Facility and volunteered at the facility. One team analyzed the nutritional value of
school lunches for children to create awareness about nutrition and designed a brochure for parents, stu-
dents, and managers. At the end of the projects, teams have reported their successes/actions in a detailed
article and presented their projects in the Student Research and Creative Works Exhibition held at the
university in the form of a poster. Students have expressed that their diminishing sense of hope in the
face of environmental problems and their passion for what they can do as individuals has been revived
through SL. Students, who have expressed that their learning process has been multidimensional and has
delved much deeper, have reported an increase in skills such as computer usage, communication, and
organization. They have also expressed their belief in the individual impact they can have when faced
with an environmental problem, their awareness of the types of actions that can make a difference, and
their willingness to take action.
Sherman and MacDonald (2009) defined a compulsory assignment related to SL within the scope
of biology courses for students in the science undergraduate program. Students formed action groups
aimed at introducing organic farming on local farms. They collected scientific information about the
advantages of organic farming and organic food production and created informational brochures for

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the promotion of organic farming. The SL assignment ended with a public information session where
students reported the results of their work on the farms to the community. Students expressed that this
experience provided them with the opportunity to apply the knowledge they learned in biology classes
to real-life situations in a more natural environment than the laboratory, positively impacting the quality
of learning in biology classes, and recommending it to other students. Students, whose interest in the
course increased during the SL process, were happy to be able to understand the difficulties farmers
face and contribute. They mentioned that they struggled to allocate time due to their course loads and
also believed that it would not provide an advantage in their professional lives while talking about their
positive contributions and a great experience.
Packer (2009) identified that non-major biology students at the university are insensitive to agricul-
tural issues such as where their food comes from or how it is produced, and designed a SL process to
create awareness about this issue. The introductory biology course “Plants and Society: Economic and
Cultural Botany” includes the interaction of humans with plants, the role of this interaction in shaping
our world, the origins, and the process of plant domestication. Instructor divided the course into two parts
and provided a SL experience in one of them, different from the other. In the section with SL, students
worked with a community-supported agriculture initiative near the university. Projects were organized
to meet the needs of the farm and support students’ learning within the course. While developing the
projects, the farm manager and the instructor thought of ways to connect the projects with students’
own disciplines. For example, a project designed to appeal to the areas of graphic design and market-
ing included redesigning the community-supported agriculture farm’s website and creating a brochure
aimed at both educating and attracting new members. During the project processes, students worked on
tasks such as weeding, fertilizing, mulching, and pruning needed on the farm. Students gained first-hand
experience in harvesting stems, roots, leaves, and fruits, and experienced the connections between botany
and other disciplines (history, economics, sustainability, etc.). They also found opportunities to discuss
social issues related to agriculture. At the end of the process, they presented their projects to the farm
manager and completed a reflective writing assignment. The results of this study indicate that the SL
experience in a non-major biology course positively affected student learning, created awareness of the
relationship between human activities and the environment, and led to changes in attitudes and values
related to agriculture and the environment.
Larios-Sanz et al. (2011) prepared a SL experience within the scope of Medical Microbiology and
Cell Biology Course, for undergraduate students who had completed basic biology courses. In this
context, students volunteered to work at under-served clinics. Students were asked to identify the most
common disease in the clinic (infectious for Medical Microbiology, cell-based for Cell Biology) and
develop educational materials in the form of an exhibition or brochure about the disease by working in
groups. The purpose of the material was to inform patients about the disease in general terms as well as
how to recognize it, prevent it, and treat it. Students were asked to keep a reflective journal throughout
the semester and present their final materials orally to the class. The majority of the students expressed
that the project was a positive experience and helped them develop additional skills beyond what they
learned in class and understand how the course topics related to daily life.
Mac Fall (2012) developed various projects to provide students with a SL experience within the
scope of a senior course in Environmental Studies. The course was taught by two faculty members,
one an ecologist and the other a social sciences expert, with an interdisciplinary perspective. The long-
term effects of the Environmental Studies course were evaluated through a survey conducted among
program graduates who had participated in the course for 8 years. Each year, a different environmental

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SL project was carried out, ranging from developing web resources to environmental assessments (such
as environmental impact statements for drinking water supply reservoirs, environmental impact assess-
ment of municipal sanitary sewer line expansion, land assessment for a riverfront park, and developing
a water resources web page containing regional water quality data for local community use). At the end
of the project processes, students submitted their final report. Students were asked to complete a course
evaluation and a peer assessment form. Additionally, they participated in a project evaluation discussion.
The research indicated that the course had long-term effects on civic engagement and commitment to
environmental management, developing skills to work with professionals and the community, com-
municating with professionals in the field, and relating ecological principles to real-world problems.
Cain (2013) implemented a SL project in conjunction with a community health and safety fair held on
campus for students in a microbiology class in the health field. The students conducted research on a health
topic related to the control and/or prevention of an infectious disease covered in the course curriculum.
Each group was responsible for designing a handout such as a brochure, flyer, or bulletin to inform the
general public about the topic and also created a small poster exhibition. The groups distributed their
prepared materials to participants at the health fair and answered questions. After the health fair, each
student was required to write a reflective article about their service-learning experience. The students
indicated that the practice increased their self-confidence, influenced their career goals, enhanced their
critical thinking skills, and improved their teamwork and community interaction skills.
Bernot et al. (2017) incorporated the practice of scientific inquiry into SL to help students apply
scientific approaches and concepts to real-world issues. To achieve this, they implemented a SL project
model in an introductory biology course at the undergraduate level. They utilized the scientific inquiry
approach they learned in the classroom at community garden projects, local science museums, K-12
schools, and local health donation drives. They learned through inquiry and shared their acquired knowl-
edge with peers, faculty, and the community.
In Lowrey’s study (2020), students in a health professions microbiology course engaged in a service-
learning experience. They worked on various projects related to the intersection of microbiology and public
health and completed a reflective article at the end of the process. Projects included using web-based
methods to educate the public about specific infectious diseases such as the flu and sexually transmitted
diseases, delivering oral presentations, campaigns, posters, and brochures to educate the public about
various infections, diseases, and vaccines, and teaching hand, oral, and general hygiene to communities
such as daycares, schools, restaurants, and food processing facilities. Throughout the process, students
had the opportunity to help others and make a positive impact on public health while learning.
Mendoza et al. (2020) integrated SL projects into an elective course, Topics in Contemporary Biology,
designed for non-major students. Students were assigned various responsibilities as part of the course,
such as assisting in a recycling-focused arts and crafts festival, cleaning up litter in the park and pond,
flower and bicycle maintenance, and participating in community garden tasks. The study emphasized
that SL was an effective method for teaching concepts related to global climate change and environmental
pollution and developing social awareness.
Burrow et al. (2022) developed a virtual learning project in collaboration with the Natural Science
Museum to provide a virtual service for pre-service classroom teachers during the COVID-19 process.
Pre-service teachers were divided into four groups, wetlands, butterflies, fossils, and natural play areas,
and worked entirely in virtual spaces to design activities related to their topics. Working in small groups,
pre-service teachers used the knowledge and skills they learned in writing and science methods courses
to design activities to engage and guide museum visitors in game-based exploration and inquiry related

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to natural science exhibits in the museum. Pre-service teachers who created interdisciplinary science
lessons during the project expressed that it allowed them to explore their creativity, use comprehen-
sion strategies acquired from reading and writing methods courses while teaching science content, and
integrate mathematics and social studies. Students were able to interact meaningfully with the local
community and use skills and knowledge in practical experience, resulting in increased and deepened
academic skills and knowledge.
Jones and Mellieon-Williams (2022) designed a SL project focused on social justice within the genetics
course at the university’s biology department. The fundamental topics of gene expression and regulation
in the genetics course were used to link with sustainable agriculture and food justice issues. In-class
activities focused on introducing students to genetically modified foods and using bioinformatics tools
to explore genes and proteins. In addition to in-class instruction, film screenings and various activities
were organized. Outside of class, students were introduced to the benefits and impacts of sustainable
agriculture through the support of an international non-profit organization. Off-campus activities included
film nights and a trip to a rural community approximately 120 miles from campus. In the community’s
high school, a group of students cleaned and set up a greenhouse so high school students could use it
for farming, while other students filled plant beds, planted seeds, and beautified the campus by doing
landscaping. In a local community garden, a community member spoke to students about the benefits of
community gardens and helped them clean and plant seeds. At the end of the process, students expressed
enjoyment of the SL project and belief that it benefited the community, indicating that they would pursue
opportunities for community engagement in the future.
Vance-Chalcraft and Goodwillie (2022) conducted a study in which undergraduate students partici-
pated in a service activity as part of a plant biology course, involving the removal of an invasive species
along a local green corridor. The research revealed that SL had a positive impact on students’ learning
and sense of community belonging.

The Importance of Service Learning in Biology and Suggestions

As can be seen from the examples given above, it is emphasized in the literature that SL practices in
biology have positive results on both biology major students and non-major students. In all cases, SL
appears to be quite effective in learning biology. Biology encompasses knowledge from many areas of
daily life that significantly affect societal living and contribute to a more livable world, particularly in
terms of healthy living behaviors. The collective judgment of individuals who make up society is impor-
tant for solving various environmental issues such as the management of common natural resources like
air, water, and forests, as well as issues like air and water pollution, global warming, overfishing, and
urban sprawl. Additionally, knowledge of biology is essential for various topics such as healthy eating,
disease prevention and control, understanding the natural environment, and making accurate assess-
ments of genetic engineering and biotechnology. Therefore, the importance of all individuals in society
being biologically literate becomes evident. At this point, it is very important to provide SL experiences
related to this field not only to students majoring in biology, but also to students who are not majoring
in biology. In this way, students understand that biological knowledge is not just a bunch of information
to be learned within the scope of the course, but also a way of perceiving the real world. SL is a very
effective way to explain that biology is truly related to other subjects and life outside the classroom. By
providing students with the opportunity to experience first-hand experiences and learn through their
own experiences, SL also offers the opportunity to play a role in solving social problems involving bio-

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logical knowledge. As it is known, simply having knowledge about a subject does not always result in
behavioral change. In order to change behavior, it is necessary to feel the problem and believe that one
can be effective in solving it. As an ongoing problem, students often do not see themselves as having the
skills to do anything, even if they recognize and diagnose problems. Students who feel hopeless do not
develop a sense of ownership. The partnership between science and society in SL projects strengthens
students’ sense of social belonging. Students who believe in their impact can make conscious decisions
and take action with a sense of ownership. In particular, learning biology with a socio-scientific content
through service provides students with a more sensitive, knowledgeable, and responsible approach to
these issues. In this respect, learning biology through service not only benefits students in a university
course context, but also provides many benefits to faculty members and communities. It supports the
development of responsible and conscious citizens and for individuals to become literate in science,
biology, and ecology, depending on the content of the subject.
Learning biology through service is a possible situation for every field in universities. With a well-
organized process, it is possible to develop projects in almost every department at universities where
students can learn biology through service. As biology is a science that tells about life itself, it is a field
that all individuals need knowledge about. It is possible to collaborate with various community partners
specific to the subject, such as hospitals, nursing homes, museums, non-governmental organizations,
and various public institutions, where students can also serve while learning about biology-related
topics. In addition, biology is a very open field for interdisciplinary collaborations. Through interdisci-
plinary collaborations with different community partners in the SL process, it is possible to learn more
comprehensive and meaningful information belonging to multiple disciplines at once. In this way, it is
easier to establish a relationship with daily life. At this point, it is important to help university students
connect biology topics related to daily life to their academic journeys. This way, they can prepare to
be conscientious citizens who are biologically literate, regardless of their career choices. However, to
prevent disappointment, a clear distinction should be made between service-learning and other practices
such as volunteering or community service, and the learning objectives of the course should be properly
aligned with the service provided.
Meuers (2023) has proposed 5 steps for creating an effective SL experience: Set goals and expecta-
tions, identify the appropriate activities that meet desired outcomes, develop an evaluation plan, activate
youth voice, reflect. Let’s adapt these proposed steps to the process of learning biology through service.
Firstly, the learning outcomes related to biology should be determined. What knowledge and skills re-
lated to biology that students, as members of the community, can use in their daily lives are aimed to
be acquired? Is there a connection between this biology knowledge and the student’s career field? If so,
what are they? After answering these questions, collaboration should be developed with a few potential
community partners who can benefit from the results of the process. In SL, it is relatively easier for
students to see benefits in the form of real-life experiences and for the faculty member to see benefits in
the form of achieving course goals, while the benefits to the community partner can be more difficult
to determine. As mentioned earlier, the most important aspect that distinguishes SL from similar other
practices is the necessity for the community partner to also provide significant benefits in the process.
Therefore, in order to sustain successful SL projects, the perspective of community partners should be well
understood; a purposeful, strategic partnership framework should be developed between the instructor,
student, and community partner. Comprehensive information about the needs of the community partner,
the situation of the service recipients, and the capacity of students to learn through service should be
obtained, and appropriate activities that meet the desired outcomes should be determined accordingly.

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These activities should also include experiences related to how students can use the biology knowledge
they have learned in their daily lives and future careers. Additionally, they are encouraged to realize the
role they play in meeting a societal need using the biology knowledge they have learned and to believe
in the impact they create. Finally, the responsibilities and benefits of the partners should be defined,
and there should be regular communication in a well-organized process, with the partners evaluating
the results of the project together. When the common points of these studies, which state that SL is
beneficial, are examined, being systematic of the evaluation processes draws attention. SL is an exten-
sion of experiential learning that includes activities that meet the needs of the community while also
involving the evaluation of service in an academic setting. In SL, the student can manage the learning
and service process correctly if he/she has detailed information about the performance expected from
him/her before the process. Hence, in SL, it is crucial to have a well-organized process where the duties
and responsibilities of both the service provider and the recipient are meticulously determined. Meuers
(2023) touches on another important point, which is the “voice of youth.” Students take ownership of their
learning experiences and play an effective role in shaping them by engaging in service, thus developing
a sense of ownership over their learning. Therefore, it is necessary for students to actively participate
in decision-making, goal-setting, and planning processes. Students can choose biology topics that they
need as members of society, or they can develop suggestions related to areas in which they want to
take part or make a difference. In this way, they can put forward fresh and innovative ideas that lead to
creative solutions to societal problems. Additionally, by identifying their own learning styles, they can
collaborate by leveraging their strengths. Finally, through various reflection activities conducted at the
end of SL activities (such as journaling, writing poetry, creating videos, etc.), it is possible for students
to gain a deeper understanding of the chosen topic (Meuers, 2023). These reflections, which can also
be considered as the output of the process, can be taken outside the courses and shared with the entire
campus. Thus, the university, by fulfilling its responsibility to society through SL, can also create a
dynamic structure by sharing its different experiences internally. Students not only benefit from their
own experiences but also from the experiences of other students.
Poorly organized practices that students are not sufficiently convinced of their benefits can lead
students to perceive SL as a waste of time. Of course, proper and sufficient organization also requires a
great deal of effort and workload for the instructor. However, making SL a compulsory and continuous
part of the course in universities will be beneficial for both instructors and students. Instructors who
incorporate these projects into their courses on a regular basis will have developed an effective process
where students are actively involved in achieving the course objectives. Setting up a graduation requirement
or an incentive system for courses that include these types of projects can increase students’ interest and
motivation in the course. Moreover, students need to be convinced of the impact of these projects on their
careers and personal development. This way, students will perceive SL courses as positive experiences.
Today, there are many different supportive programs around the world that focus on SL in different
geographical areas. Certainly, these programs have significant individual and societal benefits. However,
practical applications within obligatory courses will be more advantageous and beneficial in terms of
sustainability and student participation in providing students with a biology knowledge that they can
relate to their own career fields. As a result, while there is a considerable amount of literature on the
SL of biology topics, more research and experience is needed for a systematic approach to be taken.

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ADDITIONAL READING

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learning. Communication Disorders Quarterly, 27(3), 131–145. doi:10.1177/15257401060270030201
Hollander, E., Saltmarsh, J., & Zlotkowski, E. (2002). Indicators of Engagement. In L. A. Simon, M.
Kenny, K. Brabeck, & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Learning to Serve: Promoting Civil Society Through Service-
Learning. Kluwer Academic Publishers. doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-0885-4_3
Jacoby, B. (2014). Service-learning essentials: Questions, answers, and lessons learned. John Wiley
& Sons.
Stanton, T. K., Giles, D. E. Jr, & Cruz, N. I. (1999). Service-Learning: A Movement’s Pioneers Reflect
on Its Origins, Practice, and Future. Jossey-Bass Higher and Adult Education Series. Jossey-Bass Inc.,
Publishers.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Altruism: A moral attitude that adopts self-sacrifice for the benefit of others as a principle, regard-
less of self-interest.
Curriculum: Curriculum is an interactive system of instruction and learning with specific goals,
contents, strategies, measurement, and resources for a course.
Experiential learning: Experiential learning is an approach to learning where students learn through
direct experiences related to real-world issues, emphasizing that the role of the teacher is to facilitate
rather than direct the student’s progress.
Field education: Field education is a practical learning experience in the social work field that takes
place outside of the classroom.

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Internship: A practical learning period for individuals to develop skills in their chosen profession.
Reflection: Expressing thoughts about the service experience in various ways.
Socio-scientific issues: Scientific issues that concern society, and are often controversial.
Volunteering: Volunteering is the individual’s participation in activities that only benefit the service
recipient, in order to achieve a goal that is thought to be for the benefit of society, without expecting
any benefit for himself.

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Chapter 12
Service Learning and Social
Innovation Initiatives
for Higher Education in
Singapore and Hong Kong
Intan Azura Mokhtar
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9131-8254
Singapore Institute of Technology, Singapore

Charlene Tan
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5711-3749
Life University, Cambodia

ABSTRACT
This chapter examines service learning and social innovation initiatives for higher education institu-
tions (HEIs) in Singapore and Hong Kong. It is reported that the service learning and social innovation
initiatives for HEIs in both cities are varied, substantial, and robust. Underpinning and influencing the
design, planning and enactment of these initiatives is the value of collectivism that prevails in Confucian
Heritage Cultures. This chapter also highlights some common challenges for service learning and social
innovation initiatives for HEIs in Singapore and Hong Kong.

INTRODUCTION

Education has long been believed to be the foundation for the economic development of any society or
nation. At the same time, beyond the economic and market opportunities for our communities and soci-
eties, education plays a pivotal role in building an “educated workforce ready to take on the challenges
our communities face now and into the future” (Fitzpatrick, 2021). With the ongoing race for excellence,
recognition, and rankings, reports and measures of universities seem to focus on economic outputs, impact,
and benchmarks attained by these higher education institutions (hereinafter HEIs). However, education

DOI: 10.4018/979-8-3693-2133-1.ch012

Copyright © 2024, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
 
Service Learning and Social Innovation Initiatives for Higher Education in Singapore and Hong Kong

is a public and social good, as described under Goal 4 of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development,
which aims to engender inclusive and equitable quality education and foster lifelong learning opportuni-
ties for everyone (Locatelli, 2018). Hence, the part HEIs play in delivering this public or social good,
which in turn, creates opportunities and improves lives for the masses, cannot be undermined.
The university’s delivery of social good falls under the ‘third sector’ or ‘third mission’ of HEIs.
Focussing on contributing to communities and societies, this mission is an addition to the first two mis-
sions of HEIs, namely, teaching and conducting research (Compagnuccia & Spigarelli, 2020). This third
mission contributes to society through initiatives that are values-driven and socially embedded (Punte
et al., 2021). The third mission of HEIs, which includes interactions between HEIs and society as well
as the industry (Monteiro et al., 2021), has brought about projects and activities by HEIs that focused
on civic engagement, community-based research, service learning, and social innovation (Resch et al.,
2021). The involvement with society and with communities allows HEI students and staff to apply what
they have learned in their lecture theatres, laboratories, or classrooms within a real-world context; it also
allows HEI students and staff to develop transferable or life skills such as empathy, compassion, social
and emotional learning (SEL), teamwork, leadership, and effective communication, among others. The
development of such transferable or life skills are effectively facilitated beyond the classroom walls,
as well into communities and society at large (Elias et al., 2008). These transferable or life skills, also
known as pro-social behaviour, can foster a sense of social connectedness and belonging, psychologi-
cal well-being, improved social adjustment, and reduced risk behaviours among adolescents and young
adults (Su & Wang, 2022). While active citizenry, civic engagement, community-based research, service
learning, and social innovation are relatively new ventures in the higher education sector, HEIs are mak-
ing headway in such initiatives and have registered significant progress and impact, generating win-win
situations for their students and staff, and for the communities they engage and work with. Hence, it is
interesting to learn how HEIs plan and implement their third mission initiatives – what we will broadly
term as social innovation in this chapter.
Despite the pivotal contribution of social innovation to the mission of higher education institutions,
the involvement of HEIs in social innovation initiatives remains low (Cinar & Benneworth, 2021). An-
derson and colleagues (2020) observe that “while in the EU social innovation has become an increasingly
important research topic in recent years, in many parts of the world it is still quite seldom” (p. 52). Relat-
edly, there is limited attention on social innovation initiatives in HEIs in Confucian Heritage Cultures
(hereinafter CHCs). The term ‘CHCs’ refers to Chinese-majority societies such as Singapore and Hong
Kong that are shaped by the ideologies and practices of Confucianism. Park (2011) notes that the popu-
lace in these societies “share Confucian values, which consistently reflect in their social behaviour and
practices, including academic outcomes and learning approaches” (p. 381). Researchers have observed
that Confucian beliefs, values and assumptions continue to assert their influences on the lifestyles and
educational development in these societies (Cheng, 2004; Tan, 2019). Leung (2014) identifies the fol-
lowing fundamental features of CHCs: the importance of education; the high expectation for students to
achieve; an exam culture; an emphasis on personal effort; the use of repeated practice and memorisation;
and the virtue of modesty. Stankov (2010) adds that CHCs “underscores relationships, family closeness,
and social harmony”, which motivates individuals to “strive to achieve not only for their personal success
but also for honour of their family and society” (p. 559). Researchers have also noted that CHCs place
an emphasis on civic and citizenship education (Dreamson, 2023; Kennedy, 2021; Kennedy et al., 2013;
Kuang & Kennedy, 2014; Liu, 2020; Tan, 2017; Zhu et al., 2018). Dreamson (2023) identifies critical

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Service Learning and Social Innovation Initiatives for Higher Education in Singapore and Hong Kong

participation, communal engagement, relational development, and ethical accountability as East Asian
cultural characteristics for citizenship education.
To date, there is a body of literature on the academic performance of students in CHCs, including
Singapore and Hong Kong (see collections of essays in Lee et al., 2014; and Marsh & Lee, 2014), and
how the CHCs influence or shape students’ academic performance. But what has remained under-explored
is an examination and comparison of the non-academic aspects of education in these two societies. In
particular, there is limited research on service learning and social innovation initiatives by HEIs and how
CHCs mould and motivate students’ involvement in such initiatives in these jurisdictions. Hence this
study seeks to address the research gap through this research question: What are the salient features of
service learning and social innovation initiatives for HEIs in Singapore and Hong Kong in terms of the
structure of the initiatives, contents, pedagogical approaches and assessment of student learning? The
essay begins with an introduction to the concept of social innovation with a special focus on its relevance
to higher education. The next segment explains the research method and reports the research findings
on service learning and social innovation initiatives in Singapore and Hong Kong. The last section of
this chapter discusses the key implications arising from the examples of Singapore and Hong Kong.

The Concept of Social Innovation

The term ‘social innovation’ was first used to describe the novel approaches formulated by the psychol-
ogy community (Benneworth & Cunha, 2015). There is no single definition of social innovation in the
extant literature (Benneworth et al., 2015; Edwards-Schachter et al., 2012). According to Phillips and
colleagues (2015), the most often cited definition of social innovation is proposed by Phills et al. (2008)
as “a novel solution to a social problem that is more effective, efficient, or just than existing solutions
and for which the value created accrues primarily to society as a whole rather than private individuals”
(p. 39). We see in the before-mentioned definition two fundamental characteristics of social innovation:
the innovative element through the formulation of novel solution and other new ideas, and the social
element through value creation for the community. Mumford (2002) expresses these two dimensions
by suggesting that social innovation is about “the generation and implementation of new ideas about
how people should organise interpersonal activities, or social interactions, to meet one or more com-
mon goals” (p. 253). Clarifying the notion of innovation, Cinar and Benneworth (2021) maintain that it
involves “identifying both an unmet need and a change pathway to satisfy that need” (p. 753). Mulgan
(2006) concurs that the “starting point for innovation is an idea of a need that isn’t being met, coupled
with an idea of how it could be met” (p. 149). The ‘innovation’ in social innovation encompasses a wide
range of possibilities such as social systems, institutions, forms, models, products, movements, processes,
platforms, approaches, techniques, procedures, services, competencies and practices (Caulier-Grice et
al., 2012; Centre for Social Innovation, n.d.; Mumford, 2002).
The production of new ideas, in itself, is not social innovation if these ideas do not serve humanity.
Elliott (2013) stresses that social innovation needs to “create wider public benefit or value” such as
“social inclusion, community building and higher level skills development” (pp. 1-2). Whichever form
the innovative element takes, what is critical for social innovation to be effective is “an intervention
initiated by social actors to respond to an aspiration, to meet specific needs, to offer a solution, or to
take advantage of an opportunity for action in order to modify social relations, transform a framework
for action, or propose new cultural orientations” (Bouchard, 2012, p. 50).

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Contrasting social innovation with business innovation, Mulgan (2006) points out that the latter is
driven by profit maximisation whereas the former aspires to fulfil a social need. The Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2018) elaborates that social innovation is geared
towards solving social problems through novel services that enhance the quality of life of individuals and
communities, as well as “new labour market integration processes, new competencies, new jobs, and new
forms of participation, as diverse elements that each contribute to improving the position of individuals
in the workforce” (para 2). Benneworth and Cunha (2015) add that a social innovation should bring
about socially just outcomes by “developing novel solutions in border spanning learning communities
thereby creating social value by promoting community development, hence; forming wider collabora-
tive networks; and challenging existing social institutions through this collaborative action” (p. 512).
With respect to the two essential features of social innovation, researchers and practitioners may
emphasise either the innovative or social dimensions. Those who privilege the innovative angle adopt a
more economic view by focussing on the value generated by the new solutions to advance the quality and/
or the quantity of life (Kaputa et al., 2022). Those who favour the social element of social innovation, on
the other hand, espouse “a sociological oriented approach, which considers SI [social innovation] as new
social practices created from collective, intentional, and goal-oriented actions aimed at prompting social
change” (Kaputa et al., 2022, p. 67). Mulgan (2006) identifies two dominant lenses for understanding
social change: centering on a few heroic and talented individuals, or on broader movements of change,
such as feminism or environmentalism.

Service Learning and Social innovation Initiatives in Higher Education

A pedagogical approach that facilitates social innovation in HEIs is service learning. As explained by
Baturina (2022):

Service-learning connects academic expertise with social needs to deepen the learning process, develop
long-term solutions to specific problems in the community, and to create new knowledge and build a
knowledge society. Service-learning is very close to the third mission of the university concerning the
integration of the university into the local community, the mutual partnership and interaction of the
university and the wider non-academic community, the useful exchange of knowledge and resources and
the integration of basic academic activities and needs of the (local) community. (p. 46)

In the context of higher education, service learning and social innovation initiatives are integral to the
third mission of universities which focuses on their interactions with community and industry and contri-
bution to social progress (Kaputa et al., 2022; Klincewicz et al., 2022; Monteiro et al., 2021). The Vienna
Declaration was the first document to foreground the significant role of higher education in promoting
service learning and social innovations (Zlotnick & McDonnell-Naughton, 2022). Service learning and
social innovation initiatives are the means through which HEIs contribute to social advancement such as
increased youth employment opportunities, lowering societal disparities and improving social inclusion
of disadvantaged groups (Păunescu & McDonnell-Naughton, 2022; Tan, 2023).
Service learning and social innovation initiatives in higher education are not only about the institu-
tions’ social contributions, but also about the innovation processes and collaborative activities with
stakeholders (Benneworth & Cunha, 2015, p. 522). Mulgan (2006) notes that service learning and social
innovation initiatives can occur through the following major ways: governance, teaching and learning,

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research, knowledge transfer, social and community engagement, cooperation and collaboration, fund-
ing, impact, diffusion and transfer. A good example is the Responsible University Social Innovation
(RUSI) model which was conceived by 16 universities (14 Latin American and 2 European). Monteiro
and colleagues (2021) give details on the six dimensions of the RUSI model (p. 2): (1) Curriculum and
pedagogy which integrates a service-learning approach committed to improving quality of life for di-
verse social groups; (2) Organisation which refers to the institution’s management in terms of mission,
vision, policy, strategic planning, organisational structure, processes and impact on social innovation
actions; (3) Research, development and innovation which includes the contribution made by research and
development to social innovation; (4) Relationship to the context which includes the links established
by the university with societal institutions and communities; (5) Environment in terms of sustainable
development through education and management policies; and (6) Internationalisation which includes
integration of an international and intercultural dimension in the university’s missions, practices, devel-
opment plans, curricula and policies.
Anderson et al. (2020) maintain that HEIs can contribute to service learning and social innovation
initiatives through the employment of formalised, expert and tacit knowledge; promotion of capacity
development, coaching and upskilling; utilisation of advanced equipment; establishment of real and virtual
platforms for networking and collaborative generation of ideas; and initiatives to influence stakeholders
to participate in service learning and social innovation. An example of a social innovation initiative is the
LASIN Project (Latin American Social Innovation Network) that provides social innovation support in
eight HEIs in Latin America (Chile, Colombia, Brazil and Panama) (Anderson et al., 2020). Monteiro et
al. (2021) identify three ways for these institutions to contribute to social innovation: knowledge through
co-creation between the institutions and the target community; material resources through funding or
institutional provisions, and human resources through giving counsel, coaching and networks. Having
introduced the concept of social innovation and provided background information on service learning
and social innovation initiatives in higher education, the next segment focuses on the research method
and findings for this study.

Research Method

As stated at the start of this chapter, the study is guided by this research question: What are the salient
features of service learning and social innovation initiatives for HEIs in Singapore and Hong Kong in
terms of the structure of the initiatives, contents, pedagogical approaches and assessment of student
learning? The methodology of this study is a review of the existing literature and documents that pertain
to service learning and social innovation initiatives for HEIs in Singapore and Hong Kong. The sources
of data are journal articles, policy papers and additional information from the websites of HEIs in both
societies. The data obtained are analysed according to the research question mentioned earlier. We wish
to add that the authors of this chapter are two academics working in or have worked in universities in
Singapore and Hong Kong. Both authors have decades of experiences participating in or spearheading
service learning and other social innovation projects at the tertiary level.
The research question examines the salient features of service learning and social innovation initia-
tives for HEIs in Singapore and Hong Kong in terms of four major considerations: structure of the initia-
tives, contents, pedagogical approaches and assessment of student learning. The reason for us to select
these four considerations is that they were highlighted in the Responsible University Social Innovation
(RUSI) Model which was developed by 16 universities and launched in 2014 (Monteiro, Isusi-Fagoaga,

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Almeida, & García-Aracil, 2021). Hence they serve as a useful framework for us to explore the nature
of social innovation initiatives for HEIs in Singapore and Hong Kong. Below is a brief explanation of
each consideration.
Chief among these considerations is the structure of the initiatives to be implemented. How would
service learning and social innovation related initiatives be employed in the HEI curriculum? Will it be
an elective course or module, and will it be a graduation requirement? Regardless of it being an elec-
tive or mandatory curriculum requirement, what will be the credit or academic units allocated to it? Is
it to be done as an extra-curricular activity, as a stand-alone course or module, or does it form part of
a package of offerings that students need to fulfil before they can graduate? Each of these questions
will shape the weight accorded to the initiative and how HEI students and faculty would perceive the
significance of such initiatives.
The second consideration is that of contents. What should be included in the service learning and
social innovation initiative? How prescriptive or content-heavy should it be, or should it take on the form
of a student-led initiative where the content, texture, approach, process, and solution are decided by the
students themselves? The style of communication and how the contents are conveyed or delivered are
instrumental in shaping how the contents are perceived. This means ascertaining whether the contents
are perceived as mere propaganda or whether they can generate constructive critique by the students
involved. In addition, too much prescribed content may make it seem as being dogmatic while too little
content may make it seem like lacking direction.
In terms of pedagogy, should the service learning and social innovation initiative be entirely practice-
based where students go through it as a student-led experiential learning exercise, or should it take on
an applied learning approach where factual or information content is also provided to bolster the applied
and experiential learning approach? How much faculty-provided guidance or information would be
necessary to make the experience meaningful and impactful for students involved? In addition, should
the initiative be an individual endeavour, or should it attempt to garner teamwork and interdisciplinary
collaboration among students? The pedagogical approach to how the contents and intents of such initia-
tives are delivered would also shape its acceptance and the way it is perceived by HEI students.
The final consideration is that of assessment. Any curricular initiative that is not assessed will tend to
not be taken seriously by students, and likely to be side-lined by other credit-bearing or assessment-based
curricular initiatives (Shek et al., 2020). On the other hand, allocating substantial credit or academic units
to such curricular initiatives may create an unintended consequence of having it being treated as another
academic exercise where students may end up wanting to compete against and outperform other students
in fulfilling this curricular requirement. There is thus, a delicate balance in curating this curricular initia-
tive as one can be assessed in a meaningful manner beyond just an academic exercise. The incorporation
of critical reflection by students has been seen to espouse meaningful and deep learning by students.

Research Findings

This segment describes the research findings from a review of literature and documents on service
learning and social innovation initiatives for HEIs in Singapore and Hong Kong. The key finding is that
the service learning and social innovation initiatives for HEIs in Singapore and Hong Kong are varied,
substantial, and robust. Guided by four considerations (the structure of the initiatives, contents, peda-
gogical approaches and assessment of student learning), the next section shall elaborate on the research
findings with respect to the research question.

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Singapore

In Singapore, various curriculum initiatives are introduced in the higher education curricula which are
related to social issues, community development, or public programmes. Some of these are part of the
formal curriculum (i.e. part of HEIs’ graduation requirements) while others form part of the informal
curriculum or what is commonly termed as co-curricular activities (Mokhtar & Ibrahim, 2023).
In the National Institute of Education (NIE) in Nanyang Technological University (NTU), student
teachers (or teachers-in-training) who undergo the 2-year Diploma in Education or 4-year undergraduate
degree programme in Education, would spend six to nine months on a service-learning project under
the Group Endeavours in Service Learning (GESL) initiative. GESL provides opportunities for student
teachers to better understand how classroom teaching affects the community, and how community issues
and the better understanding of the social context can shape classroom teaching (National Institute of
Education, 2022). In addition, student teachers’ involvement in GESL also helps develop their commu-
nity networks and potential to design and lead service-learning projects for their own students thereafter
once they start their teaching careers.
In the Singapore Management University (SMU), each matriculated undergraduate student would
need to complete a minimum of 80 hours of community service, since the university’s inception in the
year 2000 (Singapore Management University, 2023). From the academic year 2020, each student who
completes the 80 hours of community service would be awarded one course unit that counts towards
their total course units required for graduation. As part of the community service requirements, students
would partake in local or overseas service-learning projects that provide opportunities for them to carry
out community engagement, better understand the social context and community needs, and exercise
greater social responsibility. The 80 hours of community service is done outside of students’ formal
curriculum hours.
In the Singapore Institute of Technology (SIT), undergraduate students enrolled from AY2022 are
required to complete a 3-credit module titled Social Innovation Project as part of their graduation re-
quirements (Singapore Institute of Technology, 2021). The module is done within the formal curriculum,
where every Wednesday afternoon is blocked out as a whitespace, or dedicated block of time in the
university timetable, so that students from the different degree programs can come together in inter-
disciplinary teams during that common available time slot each week to work on their Social Innovation
Project module. Within their respective inter-disciplinary teams, students work on problem statements
with community partners in order to co-create solutions and engender positive social impact in the com-
munity. This opportunity to reach out to, engage with, and co-create solutions to address the needs of
specific communities in the wider society is critical in helping students develop empathy towards specific
end users and community groups, better understand their various needs, as well as the constraints and
potential trade-offs some of the proposed solutions could bring about. These varied experiences help
students be more grounded in the community and be more socially attuned, which would later inform
their industry and professional practice.
Other than the various initiatives by specific universities or HEIs, the Singapore Ministry of Educa-
tion (MOE) has also introduced the Singapore Perspectives Framework for Autonomous Universities
(AUs) in 2021. A taskforce was convened by the Singapore MOE in early 2021, with representatives from
each of the six autonomous universities appointed to this taskforce. The taskforce met regularly over a
period of ten months, and at the end of 2021, the Framework for AUs was introduced. The Framework
for AUs recommends content to be covered in the HEI curriculum which would traverse five overarching

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themes of: (i) diversity and community building; (ii) sovereignty and security; (iii) public policies and
institutions; (iv) Singapore in the world; and (v) facts, opinions, and disinformation. Other than the five
themes for the content, the framework also proposes that the approach in delivering the content should
be (i) student-centric, authentic, and relevant; (ii) constructive and focused on confidence-building;
(iii) dialogic rather than a didactic approach; (iv) undergirded by institutional norms and values; and (v)
founded on knowledge and evidence.
From the academic year 2022, each of the six AUs in Singapore is expected to implement the use of
the Singapore Perspectives Framework for AUs in their respective university curriculum, through the
former members of the taskforce which then reconvened as a community of practice (CoP), to share
implementation ideas and plans, and best practices. At the point of writing, the CoP has met only twice
but the sharing of ideas, plans, and best practices have been robust and generated more good ideas
among the CoP members and other faculty members from the academic units (Aus). In summary, ser-
vice learning and social innovation initiatives in the HEIs are integrated into the formal curriculum, and
are both mandatory and voluntary. The pivot is on community service and engagement, with each HEI
given the autonomy to design the specific contents. The pedagogical approach is student-led, applied
and interdisciplinary, and student learning is assessed based on the completion of specific projects and
learner reflections.

Hong Kong

In Hong Kong, social innovation initiatives in HEIs are enacted through a host of activities and avenues
such as community engagement programmes, internships and service learning. For example, in the
University of Hong Kong, social innovation falls under the broad vision of the university to advance
community engagement. The university seeks to achieve the following (The University of Hong Kong,
2024, para 2): (1) providing services to the public relating to those professional disciplines offered by the
University; (2) organising awareness-raising programmes and forums on various complex issues facing
our society; (3) transferring knowledge and skills to help rebuild disaster-stricken areas in the region;
(4) promoting arts appreciation; (5) enriching the knowledge base of our society through public lectures
and media channels; and (6) working with schools to enrich students’ learning experience.
The Faculty of Social Sciences of the University of Hong Kong has fostered service learning and social
innovation through credit-bearing, non-paid internship learning in the community. Putting a premium
on nurturing social innovators in their students, the Faculty states that its ‘Social Innovator’ programme
“offers both local and non-local opportunities for students to learn the entrepreneurial process and to
create out-of-the-box solutions with first-hand experience working in innovative social enterprises,
interacting with change-makers and understand how the system works for social enterprises” (Faculty
of Social Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, n.d., para 7). Students can opt for either local or non-
local internships. The former is organised or approved by the faculty and may be taken during term-time
or the summer semester.
On the other hand, non-local internships are undertaken over a period of eight weeks in summer.
An example of non-local internships is the GloCal Projects that give students interdisciplinary learning
opportunities to work with international non-profit organisations and/or local community partners to
tackle global issues such as human trafficking in Nepal and fair trade matters in Indonesia (Faculty of
Social Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, n.d.). To further support students to partake in service
learning and social innovation initiatives, the University of Hong Kong also encourages them to apply

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for the Trans-disciplinary Experiential Learning Fund. This fund “enables innovative and immersive
experiential learning projects/activities” that “foster collaboration, creativity, and critical thinking, and
should have local and/or global impact” (The University of Hong Kong, 2022, para 1).
Besides community engagement, experiential learning, and internships, universities in Hong Kong
also utilise service learning to promote service learning and social innovation. Highlighting the innova-
tive dimension in service learning for higher education in Hong Kong, Ka and Ming (2013) describe
service learning as “an innovative pedagogy that connects theory and practice” and “an organised service
activity that meets identified community needs” (p. 178). In the same vein, Fung and Fong (2020) note
that “service-learning is creative and much more interesting in learning because the student can test and
prove their ability in the activity design and leading the show” (p. 4).
The importance placed on service learning and social innovation via service learning is seen in some
universities in Hong Kong making service learning modules compulsory (Fung & Fong, 2020; Ka &
Ming, 2013). Lingnan University was the first university in Asia to set up the Office of Service-Learning
in 2006 and requiring all students to participate in one service learning activity or pass at least one course
with a service learning element before their graduation (Ka & Ming, 2013). Also integrating service
learning into the curriculum is the Hong Kong Polytechnic University which introduced a compulsory
subject, Practices in Health Promotion since 2019 (https://www.polyu.edu.hk/en/sllo/). An instance
was a project where students were required to generate novel solutions to help the elderly living in an
elderly home improve their physical and mental health. To meet the social needs of the elderly who
struggle with sleeping disorder and negative thought, the students came up with novel solutions that
included informative sessions, interacting activities and role-playing games (Fung & Fong, 2020). The
service learning projects are not limited to Hong Kong; students are also involved in overseas service
learning and social innovation initiatives. An example is the ‘Habitat Green in East Africa’ offered by
the Hong Kong Polytechnic University. The service objectives of this programme are as follows (Hong
Kong Polytechnic University, 2023, para 4): (1) Work in groups with the local university students to
design solar energy panels for poor families and wire up their homes with basic electrical appliances;
(2) Improve the electricity supply and energy usage for low-income families in Rwanda by constructing
or renovating the solar energy system.
The above service learning project involves social innovation as it requires students to serve poor
families in East Africa by creating or improving the solar energy system. Likewise, Lingnan University
has established the Joint Humanitarian Entrepreneurship Academy that offers students the opportuni-
ties for overseas service learning engagement. The aim is for students to contribute to communities in
countries such as Uganda and Cambodia through social entrepreneurship, human-centric design thinking
and technology (Lingnan University, 2023). Another example is Project Mingde launched by the Faculty
of Engineering of The University of Hong Kong. This project involved the engineering undergraduates
designing and building a primary school in Xiali Village and a student dormitory for the Rong Shui
Vocational Training School in mainland China (Faculty of Engineering, The University of Hong Kong,
2012). Social innovation is cultivated in the students as they need to take the initiative to interview the
local villagers to understand their needs, conduct site surveys, produce building plans and construction
details, obtain approval from mainland authorities, be in charge of the budget and keep track of all aspects
of the construction (Chan, 2015).
Reflecting the innovative and social dimensions of service learning and social innovation, the service
learning projects in Hong Kong universities develop the students’ problem-solving skills where they
locate, make sense of and resolve problems faced by members in the community, as well as their civic

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orientation where they experience empathy, take responsibility for social issues and engage in civic ac-
tions (Ka & Ming, 2013). Clearly, the service learning and social innovation initiatives in Hong Kong
seek to “respond to an aspiration, to meet specific needs, to offer a solution, or to take advantage of an
opportunity for action in order to modify social relations, transform a framework for action, or propose
new cultural orientations” (Bouchard, 2012, p. 50). Overall, service learning and social innovation initia-
tives in the HEIs are enacted in a variety of ways in Hong Kong, such as internship and service learning
locally and overseas. The contents emphasise problem-solving and application of knowledge, and student
learning is assessed based on the completion of the service learning and social innovation projects.
To sum up this segment, service learning and social innovation initiatives have gained importance
in the HEIs in Singapore, with an accent on community engagement initiatives in Singapore. Although
these initiatives are not mandatory in all the HEIs, there is increasingly a nudge to have all students go
through the experience of service learning and social innovation as part of their undergraduate learning
experience. In Hong Kong, service learning and social innovation initiatives in higher education insti-
tutions are primarily enacted through a host of activities and avenues such as community engagement
programmes, training in companies, and service learning projects.
It is evident that service learning and social innovation initiatives in HEIs in Singapore and Hong Kong
support the constructivist learning approach and civic-minded nature of CHCs (Phuong-Mai, Terlouw,
& Pilot, 2005). Both Singapore and Hong Kong have official documents defining national education
in the education system and curricula (Research Office, Legislative Council Secretariat, Hong Kong,
2022; Tan, 2019), which have largely focused on the teaching and learning of social norms and values,
citizenship, and shared history and culture. It is apparent serving the national identity and concepts
of patriotism are still perceived as the main function of teaching the history and culture of any nation
or society (Kello & Wagner, 2017). In both Singapore and Hong Kong, a student-centric pedagogy is
employed which engenders ample opportunities for students to experience real-world learning. At the
same time, applied learning is fostered which creates meaningful learning experiences for the students.
In other words, students’ learning is active, applied, and authentic.

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS

The preceding has identified and detailed the salient features of service learning and social innovation
initiatives for HEIs in Singapore and Hong Kong in terms of the structure of the initiatives, contents,
pedagogical approaches and assessment of student learning. This section highlights two major implica-
tions: (1) a key similarity for service learning and social innovation initiatives in the HEIs in Singapore
and Hong is the value of collectivism that prevails in CHCs; and (2) there are some common challenges
confronting service learning and social innovation initiatives for HEIs in Singapore and Hong Kong.
These two implications shall be elaborated in turn.

The value of collectivism that prevails in CHCs

A major similarity between the service learning and social innovation initiatives in the HEIs in Singapore
and Hong is a collective orientation that foregrounds social cohesion and civic responsibility. The next
two paragraphs shall give details on how collectivism and other associated values of CHCs undergird
and shape service learning and social innovation initiatives for HEIs in Singapore and Hong Kong.

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In Singapore, service learning and social innovation initiatives in HEIs have largely focused on social
harmony, social responsibility, and civic duty, while building empathy and character in the individual.
Although service learning and social innovation initiatives in the HEIs are becoming a core component
of the undergraduate learning experience, concerted efforts and provisions are made to facilitate meaning
from these initiatives and engender active, applied and authentic learning experiences for students. Such
experiences can nurture “compassionate and confident youths of tomorrow” who are not just industry
leaders or professionals, but also socially attuned (Singapore Institute of Technology, 2021). In addi-
tion, service learning and social innovation initiatives in HEIs “drive social consciousness and enable
partnership-driven innovation”, and “when socially conscious people work together, a vibrant, just and
inclusive society becomes possible” (Singapore Management University, 2022, para 1).
Turning to Hong Kong, Ka and Ming (2013) conclude that “students, faculty and community mem-
bers are all involved as co-learners, co-educators and co-generators of knowledge” (p. 196). In addition,
the students cultivate their social duty through serving the community, thereby reflecting a fundamen-
tal characteristic of service learning as enabling participants to develop “an enhanced sense of civic
responsibility” (Bringle & Hatcher 1995, p. 112). Lau and Snell (2021) posit that “as compared with
Western counterparts, service-learning programmes in Hong Kong appear to have adopted a relatively
depoliticised approach to civic engagement in emphasising civic duty rather than commitment to the
furtherance of social justice in a democratic society” (p. 79). Service learning in Hong Kong puts an ac-
cent on nurturing the students’ sense of civic-mindedness and social responsibility, as well as developing
future community leaders (Ming et al., 2009; Shek et al., 2020).
It can be concluded from the foregoing that service learning and social innovation initiatives in the
HEIs in Singapore and Hong Kong point to a collective orientation in CHCs that emphasises coopera-
tion with societal stakeholders and performing one’s civic responsibility. The service learning and social
innovation initiatives in the higher education institutions in Singapore and Hong Kong converge on col-
laboration with societal stakeholders for the larger good. The orientation is anchored upon furthering
social harmony through co-creating solutions to serve the community. Lau and Snell (2021) relate the
focus on the development of self-understanding and self-efficacy in Singapore and Hong Kong to the
influence of Confucian ideals and values. A fundamental feature of CHCs such as Singapore and Hong
Kong is the establishment of a strong governing system that underlines self-cultivation, social cohesion
and civic duty.
Further illustrating the accent on social order on service learning and social innovation, a predomi-
nantly top-down approach is adopted in the HEIs in Singapore and Hong Kong. The processes for service
learning and social innovations can be top-down or bottom-up in the education organisation (Păunescu &
McDonnell-Naughton, 2022). Some researchers have argued that social initiatives tend to be bottom-up
phenomena where original ideas arise from and are propagated by the people (Benneworth & Cunha,
2015; Dryjanska et al.,2022; Monteiro et al., 2021). The top-down approach works in both cities as it
is compatible with the collective value associated with CHCs that ensures that all activities should be
geared towards social good rather than individual benefit. This does not mean that students and commu-
nity partners have no say in the planning and implementation of service learning and social innovation
projects. Rather, the overall framework and course requirements for service learning and social innovation
initiatives originate from the university’s administrators and lecturers. Within the overarching structure,
students are at liberty to select their topics, resources, target audience and community partners, through
the guidance of their mentors. Lau and Snell (2021) contend that:

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the educational aims of service-learning in both jurisdictions [Singapore and Hong Kong] emphasise
how the individual can learn to fit into groups and organisations and contribute to society rather than
learning about how to challenge institutions and bring about change. The aims of service-learning in
both jurisdictions focus more on moral and personal development, empathy and caring, respecting
people from different backgrounds, and community service. Correspondingly, less attention is paid to
the advocacy and furtherance of democratic values and social justice. (p. 82)

The examples of service learning and social innovation initiatives in higher education in Singapore
and Hong Kong show up the cultural underpinnings of and influence on the development of service
learning and social innovation in CHCs. The nature of service learning and social innovation initiatives
in Singapore and Hong Kong exemplifies “the cultural basis for service learning and social innovation –
the combination of exclusion, resentment, passion, and commitment that make social change possible”
(Mulgan, 2006, p. 149). The essence of service learning and social innovation initiatives in both cities
illustrate critical participation, communal engagement, relational development, and ethical accountability
which are salient East Asian cultural characteristics (Dreamson, 2023). Also underscoring the context of
service learning and social innovation, Monteiro and colleagues (2021) write that service learning and
social innovation initiatives in universities “respond to bottom-up, collaborative and creative changes
and societal challenges linked to specific contexts and moments in time” (p. 5). Phillips and colleagues
(2015) concur that service learning and social innovations are situated within a social context and are
the product of interplay between different actors in the community.

Common challenges for HEIs in Singapore and Hong Kong

The integration of social context elements and service learning/social innovation initiatives in the HEI
curriculum in Singapore and Hong Kong has been dynamic and progressive, with an eye on on-going
developments in the industry, economic, social and people sectors. Nevertheless, there are on-going
challenges faced in implementing curricular initiatives related to service learning and social innovation
in HEIs, as well as areas in which further development can be made in this space. A review of extant
literature shows that there is limited research on the difficulties surrounding the design, planning and
implementation of service learning and social innovation for HEIs in Singapore and Hong Kong. Draw-
ing on the experiences of the first author who has decades of experiences in leading service learning
and other social innovation projects at the tertiary level, this section highlights five common challenges
for HEIs in Singapore and Hong Kong.
For Singapore and Hong Kong, as the race for fulfilment of sustainable development goals intensi-
fies, will there be competing needs among industry and community partners, as well as HEI actors? Will
there be enough problem statements, problems, and beneficiaries to work with for all HEI students to be
meaningfully involved in service learning and social innovation initiatives in the HEI curriculum? How
can we ensure the sustainability of these curricular initiatives, for instance, those related to sustainable
development, sustainability or climate change challenges? How can these initiatives continue beyond
students’ tenure or enrolment in their respective HEIs? To elaborate, students’ involvement in such cur-
ricular initiatives cannot just be a touch-and-go participation for them to fulfil academic or credit units
for graduation or certification. In other words, students need to practice mindfulness when participating
in and carrying out such initiatives (Tan, 2021). Processes and provisions must be in place to ensure that
projects done with end-users, community or industry partners, or beneficiaries can be done mindfully,

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continue meaningfully and with minimal disruption until an effective solution can be implemented and
which can generate positive social impact.
The second challenge for both Singapore and Hong Kong is in measuring the impact of such service
learning and social innovation initiatives. This impact measurement is crucial as it can provide an insight
into and a purview of the need for and continuity of such initiatives, and the actual impact it creates,
rather than being just an academic exercise (Resch, et al., 2020). However, such impact measurement
would require longitudinal data collection and analyses to be carried out, which may imply additional
work, monitoring and data management by HEIs.
Yet another challenge to address is if and how the various HEIs can collaborate on such service learn-
ing and social innovation curricular initiatives, optimising their limited resources, as there are only six
government funded autonomous HEIs in Singapore and eight public universities in Hong Kong. However,
are HEIs ready to do this? Will this diminish their competitive edge over one another, especially when
HEIs are constantly chasing global rankings?
A fourth challenge confronting HEIs in Singapore and Hong Kong is in terms of available funding.
Incorporating service learning and social innovation initiatives in the HEI curriculum requires substantial
funding to maintain the sustainability of such initiatives, its outreach and engagement activities, and the
co-creation of solutions, among others. Could collaboration with corporations or industry partners on
curated service learning/social innovation or community initiatives be one way to get funding support
from corporations yet allowing the corporations ample opportunities to fulfil their Environment, Social
and Government (ESG) or Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) requirements? For the HEIs, it is also
an opportunity for the exchange of viable ideas, approaches, and best practices, done with the industry.
It is also a way for HEI academics and students to stay abreast with industry priorities and practices
(Monteiro et al., 2021).
A final challenge is the need to identify opportunities for service learning and social innovation initia-
tives in the HEI curriculum beyond Singapore, Hong Kong and in the Southeast Asian region – where
the context is richer and much more diverse, and where the opportunities are more varied. Collaboration
with both community and industry partners in the Southeast Asian region can also foster broader and
deeper cross-border and regional cooperation, while addressing one or more of the 17 United Nations
Sustainable Development Goals (UN SDGs) in an active, applied, and authentic learning manner for
students involved. To conclude this section, the five major challenges confronting HEIs in Singapore
and Hong Kong are meeting the competing needs among HEI actors, industry and community partners;
measuring the impact of such service learning and social innovation initiatives; enabling meaningful
collaboration on relevant curricular initiatives among the various HEIs, obtaining available funding, and
identifying opportunities for service learning and social innovation initiatives in the HEI curriculum
beyond the Southeast Asian region.

CONCLUSION

This chapter has analysed the service learning and social innovation initiatives for HEIs in East Asia using
the examples of Singapore and Hong Kong. The investigation is centred on the basic characteristics of
service learning and social innovation initiatives for HEIs in Singapore and Hong Kong, and the com-
mon challenges confronting these HEIs in the implementation of service learning and social innovation
initiatives. The study is guided by four planning considerations: structure of the curriculum and initia-

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tives; content; pedagogical approach; and assessment of student learning. Two conclusions are drawn:
the service learning and social innovation initiatives for HEIs in Singapore and Hong Kong are diverse,
concrete and rigorous; and the service learning and social innovation initiatives for HEIs in Singapore
and Hong Kong are confronted with five common challenges. This chapter has explained that the five
challenges are addressing the competing needs among HEI actors, industry and community partners;
evaluating the outcomes of such initiatives; fostering sustainable cooperation on service learning and
social innovation curricular initiatives among the various HEIs, obtaining funding for the service learn-
ing and social innovation projects, and creating opportunities for service learning and social innovation
initiatives in the HEI curriculum beyond the Southeast Asian region. A notable parallel between the
service learning and social innovation initiatives in the HEIs in Singapore and Hong Kong is a commu-
nitarian outlook that underlines social cohesion and civic responsibility. A major implication from the
examples of Singapore and Hong Kong is the impact of culture and social context on the development
of service learning and social innovation for students in HEIs.
Service learning and social innovation initiatives should be “a space for dialogue, where different
societal stakeholders (e.g. policy makers, academics and experts, representatives of a local organisation
or community, and the private sector) are invited to engage with each other, to discuss their ideas and
create innovative solutions in order to tackle commonly recognised problems or discuss issues where
there may be conflicting perspectives” (Anderson et al., 2020, p. 51). Mulgan (2006) explains that service
learning and social innovation through cooperation and collaboration can take place “through build-
ing co-creation platforms where multi-actors from various sectors embrace technology, join resources,
rethink practices, and create environments to support the intense work circumstances for faculty and
staff and their external partners” (p. 26). In closing, complex global societal problems, or “wicked prob-
lems”, such as climate change, globalisation and migration, conflicts and wars, and public health crises
such as the COVID-19 pandemic, have compelled HEIs to mobilise their resources, knowledge, and
expertise for the common good (Monteiro, Isusi-Fagoaga, Almeida, & García-Aracil, 2021). However,
these “wicked problems” cannot be addressed or solved in a unilateral manner (Morawska-Jancelewicz,
2021). The solutions to these “wicked problems” should also aspire for social well-being, engendering
a positive impact on the quality of life of communities, the co-creation of knowledge and sustainable
solutions together with the end-users or beneficiaries, and impact on the environment as a whole. While
many published reports and studies on this “third mission’” of HEIs have espoused the instrumental role
HEIs undertake in delivering education as a public good that creates opportunities and improves lives
for the masses, HEIs and their students as well as staff, have as much to gain from this “third mission”
or their involvement with society.
As this chapter relies on a critical review of literature, a limitation of this study is the absence of em-
pirical data on the effectiveness of social learning and social innovation projects. Relatedly, this chapter
does not examine student outcomes as a result of participating in these endeavours. It is also beyond
the scope of this chapter to investigate how HEIs in East Asia should go about establishing partnerships
with the community stakeholders so that students may benefit from such collaborations. These topics are
important areas of inquiry and should be explored in further studies. In all, the case study of Singapore
and Hong Kong foregrounds the significance of partnership with societal stakeholders and dialogue. This
study adds to the existing literature on the growing emphasis on service learning and social innovation
projects as part of the curriculum in HEIs around the world.

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 233

Chapter 13
An International E-Community
Engagement Initiative Exploring
College and Career Pathways:
A Literature Review

Audrey Faye Falk Madasu Bhaskara Rao

Merrimack College, USA https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9268-2250
ICFAI Foundation for Higher Education, India
Sameerah Tawfeeq Saeed
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7021-5195 Nour El Houda Chaoui
English Language Teaching Department, Tishk Ibn Tofail University, Morocco
International University, Erbil, Iraq

Martina Jordaan
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0110-6600
University of Pretoria, South Africa

ABSTRACT
This chapter provides a literature review and conceptual framework for a current international e-
community-engagement project which is taking place from January through March 2024. Through the
initiative, students from five higher education institutions are placed on international teams and are
tasked with developing interactive presentations on careers which are delivered remotely to youth in
South Africa. The chapter explores the literature on e-community-engagement; first-generation college
students; students learning about college majors and careers; near-peer mentoring; international, e-
community-engagement; internationalization; global teamwork; and global citizenship. The chapter
contributes to the discussion surrounding the impact of e-service-learning in higher education, par-
ticularly in remote and international settings. In addition, it aims to stimulate innovative research and
programs that prepare youth for the workforce of the future.

DOI: 10.4018/979-8-3693-2133-1.ch013

Copyright © 2024, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
 
An International E-Community Engagement Initiative Exploring College and Career Pathways

INTRODUCTION

Despite having the most educated population in the history of the world, young people continue to face
employment challenges and societies continue to struggle with misalignment between the job market
and the labor market (Mann et al., 2020). With discrepancies between the career aspirations of young
people and the labor market (Hoff et al., 2022), it is critical that young people are prepared for jobs of
the future (Mann et al., 2020). Career preparation and career guidance programs can help young people
understand the labor market and have realistic expectations for what their future careers might look like
(Mann et al., 2020). Service-learning and e-service-learning initiatives can serve the community and
become an integral part of this process.
This project is the second initiative of a group of international scholars who are exploring the op-
portunities and limits of international e-community-engagement. The five scholars are affiliated with
higher education institutions in South Africa, Iraq, India, Morocco, and the United States of America.
We are an interdisciplinary group who became connected with one another through our involvement in
the International Higher Education Teaching and Learning Association. We represent the disciplines of
linguistics, business, computer science, education, and community engagement.
The first initiative involved small teams of higher education students from our five institutions in
preparing and delivering interactive Zoom-based presentations on topics pertinent to culture (i.e. food,
culture, holidays, etc.) to youth in South Africa (Falk et al., 2023). This second initiative draws on the
same overall framework of international e-community-engagement, with some modifications to the ap-
proach and with a new focus on college degrees and careers rather than culture.
Thus, in early 2024, five students from each of our five colleges and universities participated in an
orientation session and were divided into diverse international teams. Presently, February 2024, they are
planning and delivering career orientation presentations and will participate in a final reflection session
in March 2024. Presentations are delivered to youth in middle school and high school who are part of the
University of Pretoria’s Pre-University Academy and to a small group of students from the University of
Pretoria’s Extended Curriculum Program who are not yet fully matriculated into their degree programs.
We will be examining the potential value of this initiative in regard to career exploration, professional
networking, and bridging cultural divides. Moreover, this project pushes the boundaries of service learn-
ing and community engagement work. We seek to understand how service learning and community
engagement can be applied remotely and internationally for career exploration for pre-university students.
The purpose of this chapter is to provide a literature review and conceptual framework to ground the
proposed initiative. This review includes literature on international, e-community-engagement; first-
generation college students; students learning about college majors and careers; near-peer mentoring;
internationalization; global teamwork; and global citizenship.
The theme of this edited volume is the application of service learning in higher education. This chapter
will expand the reader’s thinking on the application of service learning in a remote, international con-
text. It will also expand the reader’s imagination in regard to the application of higher education service
learning to career guidance. This chapter will be of interest to higher education faculty and staff and
middle and high school teachers and administrators. It will be of particular interest to those involved in
career advising, service learning, and community engagement as well as those interested in exploring
alternatives to traditional study abroad and foreign exchange programs.

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BACKGROUND

Higher education has increasingly embraced service-learning in recent decades, with institutions of
higher education elevating their civic missions. Rooted in the philosophical work of individuals such
as John Dewey and the practical fieldwork of individuals like Jane Addams, service-learning provides
opportunities for students to apply their classroom learning in real-world contexts. Best practices include
student preparation and reflection, reciprocity and mutual benefit among students and communities, and
sustainability through ongoing communication, relationships, and trust. A diversity and social justice
lens highlights the importance of community members as partners and collaborators, as well as the op-
portunity for unpacking biases and dismantling oppressive systems.
The term service-learning is often used to apply specifically to course-based experiences, although
the term is used differently in different countries and contexts. Since our project was not tied to specific
courses, we have opted to primarily use the terms community engagement or e-community-engagement.
Community engagement is a more expansive term which is intended to include the varied ways that
higher education institutions engage and interact with their communities. This includes, for example,
research partnerships and technical assistance.
In this project, higher education students are tasked with working in international teams to conduct
research and develop interactive presentations to be delivered to youth in South Africa. This is based
upon the identification of the need for career guidance for young people in the Pretoria region. There
is a service element and a learning element, as well as benefits for both higher education students and
youth participants. Although we have not framed this experience in the context of academic courses, it
could be possible to do so.
Our pilot project has demonstrated the potential value of international e-community-engagement for
expanding cultural exposure (Falk et al., 2023). We found that students valued the opportunity to connect
across geographic divides. They enjoyed learning about one another’s cultures and meeting peers and
near-peers from different parts of the world. It was a deeply humanizing experience.
We now seek to explore the use of international e-community-engagement for career exploration.
Five diverse teams of college students are currently delivering interactive, Zoom-based sessions on ca-
reer pathways to middle school students, high school students, and non-matriculated, beginning college
students connected with programs at the University of Pretoria in South Africa. As with the culturally-
based initiative we offered in the past (see Falk et al., 2023), we believe that the opportunity for college
students from a wide range of disciplines to be exposed to information about different career pathways
can be meaningful and productive, as can professional networking across disciplines. Furthermore, we
believe that it can be particularly helpful for young people who are not yet in college or just entering
college to hear about careers from the perspective of near-peers.
The global nature of this approach may also be beneficial for participants. With the capacity for
international travel dramatically reduced in the context of COVID-19, international work relied more
heavily on remote technologies (Lazarova et al., 2023). Thus, remote international work is commonplace
now. Our project is consistent with the nature of remote international work.
Career pathways are changing in the context of rapidly advancing technologies (Li, 2022). There is
a need for constant upskilling in order to have the skill sets relevant to industry. Young people today
need to be thinking about their careers with an eye toward the future. According to Li (2022), career
preparation may become a lifelong endeavor if trends continue to require increased education to keep
pace with technological advances.

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Career guidance is particularly imperative for the young people of South Africa, who are the focus
of this e-community-engagement initiative. Pillay (2020) stated that career guidance must be prioritized
in South Africa, given its history of apartheid, where persons of color were viewed as commodities for
manual labor. In South Africa today, there is a high overall unemployment rate of about 32.9%, with
higher unemployment rates among young people (Department: Statistics South Africa, 2023). While
career advising is available in South Africa, it is limited to the elite (Pillay, 2020). Persons of color have
neither had access to formal career counseling nor informal advising through family members, who have
lacked the same resources and opportunities. Career guidance is a necessary tool for providing options
for young people in South Africa that are realistic, achievable, and empowering.

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

The review of the literature that is the focus of this chapter is important for grounding our initiative and
others who might wish to launch a similar project. We examine the literature on first-generation college
students because the population of young people who are receiving the career guidance presentations in
our project are first-generation college students. We seek to identify literature that expresses how students
acquire knowledge of college majors and careers and we are particularly interested in the literature on
career-focused community engagement and near-peer mentoring. For those considering similar projects,
a foundational understanding of international e-service-learning and e-community-engagement is es-
sential. It is also important to consider the research on internationalization, global teamwork, and global
citizenship since these are important to understanding the context and rational for a global approach to
career advising.

International, E-Community-Engagement

International e-community-engagement uses electronic platforms to facilitate communication, collabora-

tion and engagement among individuals and groups across international borders. The modes of engage-
ment can vary, including online forums, social media groups, video conferencing, and virtual exchange
programs (Waldner et al., 2012; Chen et al., 2011). Since the COVID-19 outbreak, different types of
e-community-engaged projects have gained in popularity (Wong & Lau, 2022). In recent years, this has
led several higher education institutions to roll out initiatives to promote international e-community-
engagement (Ngai et al., 2023; Falk et al., 2023).
International e-community-engagement aims to promote cross-cultural understanding, build partner-
ships, and facilitate knowledge sharing and learning among individuals and communities worldwide.
By leveraging the power of technology, international e-community-engagement can help bridge gaps in
language, geography, and cultural differences, thus promoting greater understanding and appreciation
of diverse perspectives and ways of life (Falk et al., 2023).
Research provides evidence of positive experiences and outcomes for learning and service performance
in e-community-engagement projects similar to face-to-face experiences. Students have achieved similar
learning outcomes from an e-community-engagement or service-learning project as from a traditional
community engagement or service-learning project (Figuccio, 2020; Gasper-Hulvat, 2018; Lin & Shek,
2021; Marcus et al., 2019; Schwehm et al., 2017; Soria & Weiner, 2013; Waldner et al., 2012). Particu-

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larly in the context of the COVID pandemic, remote alternatives may reduce the stress and anxiety of
face-to-face interaction (Dapena et al., 2022; Figuccio, 2020; Schmidt, 2021).
By eliminating geographical barriers, e-service-learning or e-community-engagement projects enable
students to extend their projects to diverse communities and countries, thus enriching their global citi-
zenship (Bharath, 2020; Chan et al., 2020, 2021; Faulconer, 2021; Marcus et al., 2019; Soria & Weiner,
2013). E-service-learning allows students to connect with others with similar interests and ideas globally
(Chan et al., 2020, 2021; Ngai et al., 2021; Schwehm et al., 2017).
International e-community-engagement includes inherent practical challenges such as time zones and
Internet bandwidth (Falk et al., 2023). However, international e-community-engagement projects are valu-
able due to their ability to connect people worldwide, promoting collaboration and understanding. These
projects leverage technology and the internet to provide a platform for individuals to exchange ideas, learn
from one another, and work towards shared goals. They can facilitate cross-cultural communication and
help break down barriers between individuals or communities. In addition, these projects can generate
concrete benefits such as enhancing access to education and healthcare, promoting economic develop-
ment, and addressing social and environmental issues. While remote service learning and community
engagement have their limitations, the capacity to extend access to individuals who might otherwise
not have the opportunity to travel or connect internationally is unparalleled. As a whole, international
e-community-engagement projects can potentially create a positive global impact (Falk et al., 2023).
In today’s interconnected world, international e-community-engagement effectively fosters global
understanding and cooperation. Technology enables individuals and communities to collaborate, share
knowledge, build partnerships and appreciate diverse perspectives. The resulting exchange of ideas can
lead to greater understanding and appreciation of different cultures, ultimately promoting global harmony.

First-Generation College Students

First-generation college students are students whose parents have not acquired a four-year undergraduate
degree anywhere in the world. If a student is being raised by a single parent who does not have a bachelor’s
credential, and this student is the first in their family to attend an institution of higher education, they are
considered a first-generation college student (Carrera et al., 2023, Covarrubias et al., 2020; DiGuiseppi
et al., 2020; Ortega, 2018). First-generation college students may have siblings who are also in college
or who have already obtained a college degree. On the other hand, the term “continuing-generations
college students” describes higher education students who have at least one parent who has obtained a
college degree (Jones & Schreier, 2022).
Approximately a third of full-time four-year undergraduate students are first-generation students
globally, although the percentage may vary from country to country. First-generation college students
encompass a wide range of individuals, and by enhancing their presence in higher education, there is
the possibility of expanding access and opportunity in higher education and society at large (Carrera et
al., 2023).
First-generation students include racial/ethnic minorities and individuals from low-income families
or experiencing financial barriers to higher education (Fei et al., 2023). First-generation college students
encompass a heterogeneous cohort with overlapping identities related to gender, race, ethnicity, sexual
orientation, and socioeconomic status (Mason et al., 2022). In recent years, higher education institutions
have placed greater emphasis on the recruitment and retention of first-generation college students and

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research on the experiences of these students (King, 2021). Conversations centered around first-generation
college students and their challenges and accomplishments have become widespread on college campuses.
The number of first-generation students attending college will undoubtedly continue to rise. Research
on the experiences of first-generation college students helps colleges and universities to better serve these
students. Factors that impact the recruitment and retention of first-generation college graduates include
academic support; addressing systemic barriers; career development resources; cultural sensitivity and
inclusivity; data tracking and analysis; family involvement; financial support; mentoring and support
services; outreach programs; peer support networks; policy changes; and retention programs.
Soria and Stebleton (2012) found that first-generation students reported a lower frequency of teacher
interactions in the classroom and a reduced level of participation in class discussions. In addition, first-
generation students demonstrated a lower frequency of making connections across courses, reporting
fewer instances of weaving content from various courses into class discussions. First-generation stu-
dents indicated that they were less inclined to ask questions during class. Therefore, providing tutor-
ing, academic counseling, and tools for skill enhancement can assist in closing gaps in preparation and
facilitating success in college.
Peer support is another area of need. It has been shown that a lack of peer support and motivation
for both one’s career and personal goals are significant determinants of college GPA, adjustment, and
potentially college commitment (Dennis et al., 2005) for first-generation college students. Retention of
first-generation and underrepresented students can be enhanced by building communities or peer networks
where they can interact, exchange experiences, and lend support to one another.
First-generation students bear pressure from themselves and their families to be successful in college
(Robledo de la Torre, 2020). By tailoring career guidance, internships, and networking opportunities
to the unique requirements of these students, it is possible to enhance their prospects after graduation.
Cultural incongruity contributes to social class gaps in academic and social benefits, such as grade
point average and social status score, among first-generation college students. This effect extends beyond
the period of transitioning to college and persists until graduation. The presence of a cultural mismatch
has an impact on students’ sense of belonging in their collegiate setting (Phillips et al., 2020). Establish-
ing an inclusive atmosphere by colleges that honors and acknowledges many cultural backgrounds helps
cultivate a sense of acceptance, thereby mitigating sentiments of exclusion.
For many first-generation students, the cost is a significant barrier to persistence. Capacity to cover
academic expenses moderates the effects of other variables on recruitment and retention (Cabrera et al.,
1992). Recruitment and retention of first-generation college students depends largely on scholarships,
grants, and customized financial aid packages.
First-generation students emphasized the significance of their families as a crucial support system
in their decision to enroll and continue attending college. Research has shown that receiving emotional
support from their families has positive effects on their academic performance, psychological well-being,
and level of involvement in student activities (LeBouef & Dworkin, 2021). Family emotional support
pushes first-generation students through college (Nichols & Islas, 2016). The families of first-generation
college students impact their enrollment, completion, success, and well-being in college, regardless of
whether they cause stress or provide support (LeBouef & Dworkin, 2021). Engaging families in these
students’ college experience can provide crucial support, as they might lack prior knowledge of higher
education systems.
According to Engstrom and Tinto (2008), higher education access demands corresponding support
for first-generation learners. It is essential for students and those educators who work with them to be

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aware of their real or perceived barriers to academic success (Stebleton & Soria, 2012). Sustainable
change requires recognizing and actively addressing systemic issues such as admissions biases, inadequate
support systems, and cultural insensitivity.
Enrolling first-generation students is merely the initial phase in facilitating their success. Institutions
should prioritize the implementation of comprehensive support programs for first-generation students
throughout their college experience. This entails fostering a feeling of belonging and camaraderie,
offering mentorship opportunities, and equipping them with the necessary skills to accomplish their
elevated academic goals. By valuing the experiences of first-generation college students, universities
may enhance college retention and facilitate comprehensive personal and professional growth (Schelbe,
2019). It is crucial to implement retention programs that explicitly target the difficulties experienced by
these students, such as feelings of belonging, imposter syndrome, or financial hardship.
The experiences of first-generation students were first hindered by the lack of access to family mem-
bers who have the implicit knowledge of navigating a college experience that they could acquire from.
These students believed that they struggled more in handling their academic obligations, socializing
with other students, participating in extracurricular activities, and navigating the administrative tasks
and offices of the university. The first-generation students perceived themselves as less competent than
their colleagues from continuing generations, which contributed to their diminished self-efficacy (Kim,
2018). Colleges providing access to mentors, advisors, and support groups can help students navigate
the academic landscape, providing guidance and emotional support.
Outreach initiatives foster a sense of inclusion for first-generation students inside a college setting.
These students cultivate practical expectations of college, disrupt the cycle of fear, and bolster their
strong feelings of self-efficacy through outreach initiatives (Ghazzawi & Jagannathan, 2011). Outreach
programs aimed at reaching college students by giving them a taste of college life and stay, providing
information about financial aid, and mentorship opportunities can increase awareness and interest and
thus contribute to retention.
Higher education policies must be tailored to the unique needs of first-generation college students.
Nevertheless, there has been limited investigation of these issues both in terms of academic efforts and
policy evaluations (Annadurai & Sahoo, 2023). It is crucial to advocate for legislative reforms support-
ing first-generation college graduates that eliminate systemic obstacles and foster diversity in higher
education to achieve lasting improvement.
Institutions can bolster their ability to attract and, importantly, retain first-generation and minority
students by addressing these complex variables, thereby fostering a more varied and inclusive educa-
tional setting.

Students Learning about College Majors and Careers

The process of exploring college majors and careers is a crucial part of students’ academic and profes-
sional development. It is also an important part of the college experience and a critical part of the tran-
sition from high school to college (Lomperis, 2014; Shatkin, 2011). The purpose of this exploration is
not limited to making academic choices. It is an opportunity to gain a better understanding of oneself,
to identify interests, and to prepare for the dynamic challenges of the professional world.
Exploring career options and college majors is an important part of high school education in that it
lays the foundation for making informed decisions and establishing a successful academic plan. When
students begin exploring their educational options early on, they are able to align their skills, interests,

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and values with potential fields of study, allowing them to make educated decisions about their futures
(Minor, 2017). Furthermore, it is crucial to understand the relationship between academic interests and
future careers in order to set clear goals and ensure success in college and beyond. Early preparation
and planning also help navigate the competitive landscape of certain majors, which may require specific
entry requirements or limited capacities (Shatkin, 2011).
Also, early exploration can facilitate better college selection, as a student will be able to identify
institutions that specialize in their intended major, offer a diverse set of resources, feature experienced
instructors, and maintain strong connections with potential employers. This exploration allows students
to gain insights into their strengths and weaknesses, fostering self-awareness and adaptability (Shatkin,
2011). By exploring college majors and careers early, high school students become equipped with the
knowledge and foresight necessary to embark on a purposeful and fulfilling educational and professional
journey.
Minor (2017) states that career planning is crucial in today’s fast-changing world of evolving careers
and technological advancements. Due to technology and global business trends, occupational skills and
educational requirements are constantly changing. Having a well-thought-out plan can help individuals
avoid being mere victims of economic and job market changes, embracing change to grow professionally
and accurately meet their career goals (Phifer, 2009).
There are many factors students may consider when selecting a college major and career. Accord-
ing to Shatkin (2011), students must consider their personality type, favorite high school courses, and
skills. Holland’s (1997) persoanlity types include realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising,
and conventional. Holland’s classification system helps to identify areas of strength for individuals and
helps them find the right career path by choosing the most suitable major.
Study requirements, intellectual interests, career outcomes, study expenses, market demand, leisure
activities associated with each major, and salary considerations are additional considerations (Mullen,
2010; Phifer, 2009). Students’ social class, gender, race, and ethnicity can also influence academic and
occupational outcomes (Mullen, 2014). As an example, low-income students typically select majors that
match their future professional careers, while middle-class students typically choose majors that match
their interests. Major selection differs between men and women, with women selecting more flexible
majors and men choosing more rigorous majors (Chambliss & Takacs, 2014; Mullen, 2014).
Finally, a variety of resources and methods are available to assist students in making informed choices
regarding their career and educational pursuits. Among these resources are career counselors, career
centers, libraries, workshops, books and publications, and online platforms (Gashi, Bërxulli, Konjufca
& Cakolli, 2023; Phifer, 2009). For advice on their decision-making process, students should also con-
sult family, friends, and mentors (Hall et al., 2011; Whiston & Keller, 2004). It is also recommended
that they take advantage of resources such as career fairs and networking events to contact potential
employers (Gashi et al., 2023).
Although little research was identified specifically on career-focused community engagement initia-
tives connecting college students and high school student, the limited literature identified was promis-
ing. Renée (2023) found that a high school career guidance program, led by college students, yielded
significant individual advantages on average. The result was a rise in the enrollment and completion
rates of economically disadvantaged students at four-year universities, a decline in the attrition rate of
affluent students, and an expansion in the earnings of individuals during their adulthood.
Structured discussions can facilitate students in taking part in productive engagement and ensuring
that group members are both attentive and capable of attaining common objectives (Lam, 2019). Estab-

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lishing robust, cooperative alliances between K-12 and postsecondary institutions can be arduous, but
they seem to provide benefits in developing initiatives to address deficiencies in students’ preparedness
for college (Barnett et al., 2012).

Near-Peer Mentoring

Mentoring can be classified into three categories: career-related, psychosocial functions, and role modeling
(Akinla et al., 2018). Mentoring has been demonstrated to produce numerous benefits, such as improved
academic performance, positive attitudes toward a subject, and increased self-confidence and a sense
of belonging. Strong mentoring relationships require social and cognitive compatibilities or similarities
(Cate & Durnig, 2007; Garcia-Melgar & Meyers, 2020; Naughton, 2019; Rhodes et al., 2005; Zaniewski
& Reinholz, 2016). Relatedly, based on their study of a youth mentoring initiative, Goldner and Mayse-
less (2009) highlighted the importance of the quality of the relationship between the mentor and mentee.
A near-peer mentoring relationship is one where a mentor is slightly more advanced in training or
experience than the mentee (Akinla et al., 2018). Young people tend to emulate those they perceive as
similar to them, and middle school students tend to have a stronger connection with near-peer mentors
who are only a few years older than them (Lee, 2019).
Near-peer mentoring initiatives aim to promote students’ personal development. Near-peer mentor-
ing emphasizes the advancement of personal growth and interpersonal skills by encouraging mentees to
pursue their interests (Tenenbaum et al., 2014). Research has shown that near-peer mentoring is highly
effective in the context of college student mentoring (Wilson & Grigorian, 2019). Near-peer mentors
bring their knowledge, skills, abilities, and similar or recent life experiences into their relationships with
their mentees (Taylor et al., 2023).
This approach has been linked with numerous educational benefits and outcomes for mentees.
Near-peer mentors’ proximity of skills and experiences fosters a deep understanding and connection
with mentee needs, enabling mentors to offer practical learning strategies (Rayford et al., 2022). This
peer-to-peer approach provides mentees with individualized support that faculty could not replicate in
a classroom setting or large group context.
Research demonstrates that peer mentoring contributes to mentees feeling more supported and
confident in their academic learning (Flott et al., 2022). Near-peer mentoring has also significantly im-
pacted students’ educational and career goals (Taylor et al., 2023). Another study found that near-peer
mentoring positively affected retention rates, with mentored students more likely to remain in school
and graduate on time (Crisp et al., 2017). Near-peer mentorship has been shown to benefit students
from underrepresented backgrounds (Trujillo et al., 2015). It allows for a more personal and authentic
relationship between the mentor and mentee, leading to greater trust and engagement. Additionally,
near-peer mentors can serve as role models and provide valuable insights into the academic and career
paths that their mentees are considering.
Near-peer learning strategies enable students to develop technical, cognitive, and affective compe-
tencies, as well as improve skills in public speaking, communication, and basic teaching, with mentees
reporting the experience to be more rewarding than expected (Flott et al., 2022; Rayford et al., 2022).
It is effectively used for exposing students to computer science (e.g., Khoja et al., 2012; Lee, 2019;
Pollock et al., 2004; Sabin et al., 2017; Sun & Clarke-Midura, 2022) as well as other areas in STEM
(Garcia-Melgar & Meyers, 2020; Zaniewski & Reinholz, 2016) and STEM careers (Anderson et al.,
2019). Near-peer mentoring prepares high school learners for university (Qua et al., 2020). High school

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students can benefit from technology-mediated mentoring, which overcomes geographic barriers to
support underrepresented students (Garcia-Melgar & Meters, 2020).
Mentoring modality includes face-to-face, online (Al-Thani et al., 2023), or a combination of both,
and can involve one-on-one, one-to-many, or many-to-many interactions (Topping & Ehly, 2001). The
frequency of contact and emotional connection influence the mentoring relationship’s success. Near-peer
mentoring is believed to be a valuable tool for helping college students navigate the challenges of college
life. Near-peer mentors can help their mentees achieve their academic and career goals by providing
guidance, support, and resources.

Internationalization of Careers

The interconnectedness of today’s world is evident in terms of trade, migration, higher education, prod-
uct development, and many other aspects of our lives. Thus, internationalization has become a critical
aspect on a global scale (see, e.g. Auer et al., 2006; Mayrhofer et al., 2020; Ravasi, 2015; Teichler &
Cummings, 2015).
Internationalization has been defined in a variety of ways owing to its connections to different as-
pects, including education, economic development, business, and culture (see, e.g., De Wit et al., 2017;
Flander et al., 2023; Huzdik, 2011; Knight, 2007; Melin, 2003; Miozzo & Miles, 2003; Reischauer,
2011). Internationalization mainly focuses on operations in international and global settings (Arabkher-
admand et al., 2015) and connecting institutions in one country to those in another (Kertz-Welzel, 2018).
Increasingly, communities and societies are becoming more interdependent, and they strive to improve
their economic, educational, and social status through policies that connect them with other societies
(Arabkheradmand et al., 2015).
Increasing internationalization has provided professionals and students with a wide range of op-
portunities, allowing them to study, work, and live in different countries (Griffin, 2020; Teichler, 2017)
and enhancing university reform (Arunachalam et al., 2016). Internationalization has also enabled com-
panies and industries to access new global markets and resources, attract diverse talents, and increase
profitability, competitiveness and cultural awareness (SMU Academy, 2023). Consequently, companies,
industries and organizations apply different strategies to expand their business and action plans beyond
their domestic context (Luo & Tung, 2007).
Competitiveness for global careers depends upon cultural expertise, practical skills, and hands-on
experience (Henthorne et al., 2001). Karpova et al. (2011) point to the need for general and industry-
specific knowledge, professional skills, and personal attributes. Self- and cultural-awareness, career
counseling, career-exploration modules and programs are also useful in this regard, especially when it
comes to exploring the merits and challenges associated with specific careers abroad (Dunlap & Mapp,
2017; Fontaine, 1997).
Internationalization is increasingly gaining more significance in today’s career landscape. Industries
and business sectors seek to hire employers across the nation’s borders to meet their global needs and
secure a talented workforce. However, there are challenges and drawbacks associated with such interna-
tional hiring strategies and processes. Moreover, preparation for an international career requires acquiring
specific skills and developing knowledge for success.

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Global Teamwork

Global teamwork emerges from the growing need for international collaboration, facilitated by the
globalization of markets, technological advancements, and cultural diversification (Audra et al., 2018;
GL et al., 2009). Globalization and advanced communication technologies are altering the context of
teams, prompting the need to assemble diverse teams faced with complex challenges to enhance their
effectiveness (Webber et al., 2019). Over the past few decades, there has been a substantial increase in
the utilization of teams, driven by heightened global competition, consolidation, and innovation (Davaei
& Gunkel, 2023; Kozlowski & Bell, 2013).
In the evolving landscape of organizational dynamics, a significant paradigm shift has occurred as
organizations worldwide move away from traditional, individual-centric tasks towards a more collabora-
tive approach through teamwork initiatives (Lawler et al., 1995). Teams have demonstrated their pivotal
role in organizational success within a global, competitive, and dynamic economy (Mathieu et al., 2006).
Teamwork with collaborative effort is crucial for an organization to achieve its objectives, and creating
platforms for sharing ideas enhances a sense of belonging among individuals. This reinforces the notion
that any organization’s foundation lies in its members’ collective behaviour, guided by the organizational
culture (Irfan et al., 2022; Pandey et al., 2022).
Developing competitive strategies, multinational corporations are increasingly utilizing global teams
to organize their work (Gluesing & Gibson, 2004; Groves & Feyerherm, 2011), marked by diversity in
terms of national, cultural, and linguistic aspects (Zander et al., 2012). Studies suggest that incorporating
individuals who excel in cross-cultural communication into the workforce adds tangible business value
and should also be a deliberate consideration in human resources development strategies (Caligiuri &
Tarique, 2012).
In addition, the COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated the shift towards virtual collaboration, mak-
ing it imperative for students to navigate professional environments where cultural diversity and global
cooperation are not only commonplace but also shaped by the challenges posed by the ongoing global
health crisis (Hikamah et al., 2021; Mok et al., 2021). This new paradigm not only equips students with
essential skills for the post-pandemic world but also reflects the evolving nature of the global workforce
(Armstrong, Nixon & Hojilla, 2021; Mate & Weidenhofer, 2021; Singh et al., 2021; Swart & Meda, 2021).
With an increasing number of companies expanding their activities beyond national boundaries, there
is an escalating demand for individuals capable of excelling in dynamic multicultural organizational
environments (Alvarez, 2019). This underscores the importance of cultivating a skill set that not only
embraces diverse perspectives but also fosters effective collaboration and success on a global scale
(Schworm et al., 2017; Taras et al., 2013). Collaborating across borders and cultures is a crucial skill
for success in college and careers. Global teamwork enhances the educational experience and prepares
students for the challenges of a rapidly evolving global job market (Davaei, & Gunkel, 2023; Morrison-
Smith & Ruiz, 2020). Research suggests that providing ongoing training to all team members positively
impacts the overall performance, cohesion, and trust within the team. It also enhances teamwork and
strengthens team members’ dedication to achieving common goals (Kaiser et al., 2000; Powell et al.,
2004; Tan et al., 2000).
Therefore, promoting global teamwork has become necessary for university students to prepare for
their future careers (Davaei & Gunkel, 2023). Developing international skills and the ability to collaborate
effectively within global virtual teams have emerged as fundamental competencies in the contemporary
professional landscape (Scott, 2015). To prepare students for these challenges and foster their global

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engagement, it is crucial to seamlessly incorporate experiences of collaborating within virtual project

teams alongside their university program (Dincă et al., 2023).
Students must be ready to navigate professional environments where cultural diversity and global col-
laboration are commonplace. Students acquire essential skills such as problem-solving, critical thinking,
and interdisciplinary collaboration, reinforcing their employability in a competitive professional world
(Børte, Nesje & Lillejord, 2020; González, 2022; Paul, 2019). Collaborations within virtual project
teams allow students to build an international network, expand their professional horizons, and create
opportunities for future collaborations (Sari et al., 2017).
The emphasis lies in cultivating mutual responsibility and commitment, especially in examining ten-
sions arising from conflicting perspectives on teamwork and collaboration within diverse institutions.
Instead of outright endorsing or rejecting these concepts, the objective is to redefine them, providing
the rationale for individual students to decide whether and how to incorporate these notions into their
career planning. This has also sparked a renewed interest in fast and Fordist economic model alternatives.
Understanding and confronting this point of convergence requires a reexamination of the meaning of
what we and our students need to learn to evaluate critically and pragmatically, as well as the direction
in which we collectively need to steer our course (Beck, 2018).
In higher education, composition pedagogy addresses diverse student needs, emphasizing individual-
ized instruction and technology integration. Critiques categorize composition pedagogies into pragmatic
approaches focused on career considerations and critical pedagogies aiming for global equity. Composing
in a global-local context involves recognizing global interconnectedness and local nuances, emphasiz-
ing cultural sensitivity and advanced virtual tools in teamwork. College education integrates global
perspectives and exchange programs to prepare students for a global job market. Career development
prioritizes global networking, cross-cultural leadership, and mobility programs for cultural readiness.
Skill acquisition focuses on adaptability and technology proficiency for success in a global work envi-
ronment. Proficiency in international skills is a fundamental necessity in the contemporary globalized
landscape and is applicable across various industries, professions, and geographical contexts (Rauer,
2021). The key is a holistic approach integrating global perspectives into local practices, fostering cultural
awareness, and leveraging technology. An integrated pedagogical approach is recommended in teaching
composition, addressing both immediate and global concerns while navigating economic challenges (Lu
& Horner, 2009; Sennett, 1998).
In summary, global teamwork in college and careers is about fostering collaboration across borders,
embracing diversity, and developing the skills necessary to thrive in an increasingly interconnected and
globalized professional environment. It offers valuable learning experiences that contribute to personal
and professional growth.

Global Citizenship

Global citizenship emerges in response to globalization, encouraging individuals to adopt a perspective

that transcends national borders. It involves active engagement with global issues such as climate change,
poverty, human rights, and social justice (Torres et al., 2020). Moving from a national to a global citi-
zenship framework often involves developing a deeper understanding of diverse cultures, appreciating
the interdependence of economies, and actively participating in efforts to promote global cooperation,
sustainability, and social justice. This transition underscores the importance of cultivating a mindset and

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set of values that transcend national boundaries, emphasizing a sense of interconnectedness and shared
responsibility for addressing global issues (Bowden, 2003; Goren et al., 2017; Lilley et al., 2015a).
Citizens of the world see humanity as a unified community that values linguistic diversity, adopts
an external perspective and treats all its members with dignity and respect (Nussbaum, 1997). Global
citizens exhibit social responsibility, possess global competence, and actively engage in global civic
responsibilities (Massaro, 2022; Morais et Ogden, 2011).
Many countries actively promote the cultivation of global citizenship among students, incorporating
specific program elements to foster the adoption of a global perspective (Dill, 2013; Massaro, 2022).
They advocate for higher education to promote attitudes of global citizenship while developing specific
dispositions, including pro-social values like diversity, intercultural skills and social engagement. These
principles aim to shape individuals who are aware, responsible and globally engaged (Chang, 2016; Cho
& Chi, 2015; Eisenhardt & Sittason, 2009; Lilley et al., 2015a; Lilley et al., 2017; Shiel & Mann, 2006).
Global Citizenship Education (GCE) is the integration of globally oriented content into educational
curricula with the aim of fostering a global perspective among students (Davies, 2005). It goes beyond the
acquisition of factual knowledge to develop skills such as critical thinking, intercultural communication,
and social awareness. This approach equips students with the necessary knowledge, skills, and attitudes
to understand and address global challenges, including topics such as intercultural understanding, hu-
man rights, sustainability, and social justice. By incorporating these elements, GCE seeks to prepare
students for active and positive engagement in an interconnected and diverse world (Andreotti, 2006).
In June 2018, a systematic literature review was conducted within higher education institutions
to deepen understanding of how global citizenship is studied, measured, and implemented (Massaro,
2022). Several empirical studies have been conducted to understand how institutions seek to foster
global citizenship among students, (Horey, 2018). While many positive benefits for the development
of global citizenship among students have been highlighted, gaps in studies from the Global South and
the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic underscore the need for further research and more work in the
future, including in languages other than English (Santamaría et al. 2021).
In summary, globalization creates a context where global citizenship becomes a necessity, and GCE
is the vehicle that enables individuals to develop the skills, knowledge, and values necessary to thrive
and contribute positively in this globalized context.

PROPOSED INITIATIVE AND RATIONALE

The literature review provides conceptual grounding for an international, e-community-engagement

initiative. Through this initiative, international teams of students from five higher education institutions
in different parts of the world are presently developing and delivering interactive presentations focused
on a variety of careers. These presentations are being presented via Zoom to high school students and
emerging college students connected with programming at the University of Pretoria in South Africa.
The youth who are the focus of this e-community-engagement initiative are primarily, if not exclusively,
first-generation college students. As discussed, first-generation college students are a growing student
population. First-generation college students frequently come from underrepresented backgrounds and
this is certainly the case in our initiative, which includes youth from a South African Township.
While we are still in the middle of implementation, we are already seeing great appreciation and
seriousness on the part of all participants. Youth are asking many thoughtful questions about careers and

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the higher education students are coming well-prepared with a great deal of information about careers,
educational pathways, and salaries. Globally, it is necessary to educate young people about career path-
ways and opportunities and this is especially important in the context of marginalized populations which
may be limited in their knowledge of career pathways to which they have had minimal or no exposure.
E-community-engagement initiatives are the focus of this team of scholars. We seek to explore and
understand the opportunities and challenges of e-community-engagement from the perspective of par-
ticipants. This project also affords the opportunity to consider how all participants, including the youth
and higher education students, might develop a greater appreciation of global career opportunities and
pathways and the importance of both global teamwork and global citizenship.

INSIGHTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Preparation of this manuscript has highlighted for us the potential value and opportunity of the proposed
initiative. We have already seen the possibilities of a similar e-community-engagement initiative focused
on culture to extend participants’ cultural exposure, which is a building block toward global understand-
ing. This new project empowers participants with knowledge about jobs, careers, training, education,
income, and related information that can help inform young people’s decision-making. Furthermore,
it prepares student participants for global teamwork by practicing these skills in a real-world context.
It is clear from the review of the literature that there is a need for more targeted initiatives to expand
youth awareness of college majors, jobs and career pathways, especially first-generation students and
students from underrepresented groups.
This initiative involves career-focused community engagement, which the literature does not explore
deeply. However, near-peer mentoring is extensively explored, but mostly with respect to college and
graduate students and less so in the context of youth. Mentoring is widely valued for individuals of all
ages and greater attention needs to be given to best practices in mentoring youth for college and career.
It is critical that this work align with known best practices, including strengths-based approaches
that affirm the dignity and capacity of all individuals and communities. All participants are learners and
have the capacity to gain from these kinds of experiences.
While we have framed our project outside of academic courses, it is possible to do a similar project
that is more clearly tied to academic coursework. With a careers emphasis, this could be done with
career-related coursework in any discipline and it could also involve students in courses pertinent to
social work or career counseling, for example. One consideration is how many students are involved in
the project. It would be difficult to involve large groups of students from multiple countries without a
more significant resource and support infrastructure in place.
We see this as an exciting area for research, collaboration, and innovation, and we hope that readers
will be inspired to develop initiatives that connect students across the globe and by doing so, expose
young people to information and resources. We hope that funders will see the value of these types of
initiatives and that institutions will also provide time and resources to support partnerships of this nature.

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CONCLUSION

This review of the literature pertinent to an international, e-community-engagement initiative focused on

career guidance demonstrates great need and opportunity. It is apparent that the global economy requires
global workers who are prepared to work internationally and remotely. Global citizens are needed to
address social needs across the world. Career guidance is required to strengthen young people’s under-
standing of their options and to inform decisions about education and training. Mentoring and support
will help first-generation students and other marginalized students acquire the resources and information
that they need to succeed in school and career. E-community-engagement can be an important piece of
the puzzle, allowing students and youth across the globe to connect with one another virtually, whether
or not they have the means to travel globally. Today’s technological advances offer new opportunities
for creativity and innovation to address community needs.

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Chapter 14
Service-Learning in Higher
Education Marketing Courses:
The Use of a Marketing Plan

Rosario Vazquez-Carrasco
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0661-1964
Pablo de Olavide University, Spain

Ana Olavarria-Jaraba
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7120-7063
Pablo de Olavide University, Spain

Emily Mary Grott

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9880-8299
Pablo de Olavide University, Spain

Maria Angeles Ramon-Jeronimo

https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6729-5921
Pablo de Olavide University, Spain

ABSTRACT
This work focuses on presenting a service-learning experience, resulting from the concern of the teaching
staff as to the extent to which students of the business faculty, in particular marketing students, acquire
a service orientation during their degree studies, as this can help guide them in their future careers. As
such, service-learning methodology is proposed as an appropriate means to foster a service orientation.
The results show that service-learning can stimulate a service orientation in students, help develop a
social dimension and gain knowledge of marketing. This specific service-learning experience involved
developing a marketing plan in profit and non-profit organizations.

DOI: 10.4018/979-8-3693-2133-1.ch014

Copyright © 2024, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
 
Service-Learning in Higher Education Marketing Courses

INTRODUCTION

The understanding of how marketing and society should collaborate to create value is the essence of
marketing definition. With this idea in mind, we propose a way to establish a learning process based on
the development of individual service orientation, social understanding, and the necessary fundamental
concepts of marketing to train future managers and employees. Therefore, in this proposal, we show how
service-learning (SL) is useful in developing key marketing skills and concepts.
The objective is twofold. First, we test if the implementation of SL helps to develop marketing skills
and knowledge, and second, we present a “road map” for university teachers, with a particular emphasis
on marketing instructors, to help them implement SL in their marketing courses through the use of a
marketing plan, which in this instance, was the basis of a project to help various charities.
The data and results we present are based on the experience implemented in Marketing Management
II, a third-year degree course for Business Administration and Business Administration and Law students
in Pablo de Olavide University, Seville.
This document outlines how to plan and execute a teaching experience based on SL methodology.
Specifically, this chapter examines:

• The importance of including SL methodology in a university marketing course.

• The marketing plan as a focal learning point using SL methodology.
• The preliminary planning of the experience.
• Implementation during the course, schedule of activities (to be carried out by students in groups)
and grading system.
• Conclusions from the experience

Moreover, we present the scales used to test the success of the experience in terms of service orien-
tation, social dimension, and marketing knowledge. The results show that students participating in the
service-learning experience learnt the key concepts of marketing and were able to successfully apply
them to real-life cases, whilst simultaneously developing social understanding and increasing their levels
of service orientation.
The chapter is structured as follows; we first explain the connection between marketing and service
learning, and how service orientation is key for the success of marketing management. Subsequently, we
present the marketing plan as the main tool to guide the service-learning experience and learning process
of marketing courses. An explanation of the planning and implementation in a marketing management
course is provided, as well as the method used to test the success of the implementation. Activities and
rubrics used to develop the service-learning experience by using a marketing plan have been added in
the annexe.

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MARKETING AND SERVICE-LEARNING

Why Should Service-Learning Methodology be Included

in Higher Education Marketing Courses?

The answer to this question is based on an understanding that, as institutions, companies strive for more
than mere economic profits and seek to benefit society (Vargo & Lusch, 2016) and inherently form part
of other structural institutions that work together to create value through cooperation (Hartmann et al.,
2018). Thus, value creation transcends the concept of a producer and company concept, toward a more
collaborative, co-creation concept, that involves all parties (Vargo, 2007). This notion is an integral part
of the Service-Dominant Logic (SDL) theoretical framework which understands service as a process in
which the involved parties do something for others and goods are simply a physical representation of
the service exchanged. Such has been the impact of co-creation in the last few years that although it is
still being developed (Vargo, 2019), it could become a paradigm (Brodie et al., 2019).
In SDL, service is defined as the application of competencies (knowledge and skills) for the benefit
of another party (Vargo & Lusch, 2006). In order to develop these competencies, with a clear orienta-
tion toward social well-being, higher education studies play a crucial role in preparing students for their
future careers. Universities are institutions that not only generate and disseminate knowledge, but also
have the capacity to shape the culture and structure of society (Coelho and Menezes, 2021) and should
attempt to build innovative higher education that is capable of reducing social inequalities (García-Álvarez
et al., 2022). Thus, it is important that higher education, which is centred on fostering competencies,
should not disregard the qualities and features that shape an individual’s character (Morales-Sánchez &
Cabello-Medina, 2015). As such, fostering an SDL orientation is important so that tomorrow’s business
executives and employees will have a heightened social conscience.
In this sense, social marketing provides a very appropriate connection for the application of service
learning in this subject. Social marketing is defined as “the adaptation of commercial marketing tech-
nologies to programs designed to influence the voluntary behavior of target audiences to improve their
personal welfare and that of the society of which they are a part” (Andreasen, 1994). In many cases
the subject of marketing is part of the general curriculum of business degrees and some authors (e.g.
Godos-Diez et al., 2015; Godfrey et al., 2005) criticize the traditional approach of these studies as they
are eminently oriented to shareholders, leaving aside aspects related to the welfare of other stakehold-
ers. Therefore, a change is required in the way marketing concepts and their applications are taught
(Kumar, 2018) and in this sense, the SL methodology stands out as a very effective way to learn while
performing a useful service to the community (Juaneda-Ayensa et al., 2019). This way, tomorrow’s
business executives will be aware that as well as pursuing economic success in business management
and establishing firm-client relationships, company results should be understood within the context in
which they operate (Hartmann et al., 2018).
It is fundamental to instil ethical values in business students for them to develop an SDL orientation.
To this end, the service-learning teaching methodology is appropriate as it is an educational activity
that connects academic learning and carrying out a meaningful service for society (Martín et al., 2018).
It is an educational initiative that combines learning processes with a service to the community in a
single, clearly defined project in which the participants learn whilst they work on the real needs of a
given context to improve them (Puig et al., 2007). Numerous studies provide evidence of the benefits
provided by the application of this methodology and can be summarized in three main areas: academic

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curriculum, values education and community links (Juaneda-Ayensa et al., 2019). Thus, the interest in
this methodology has shown to be effective in a number of both empirical and theoretical studies, such
as Driscoll et al. (2017), Cress et al. (2010) or Seider et al. (2010), amongst others. In particular, it shown
to be effective in university education (e.g., Rodríguez-Izquierdo, 2020; Molderez & Fonseca, 2018;
Rego & Moledo, 2018, amongst others) and particularly in business education (Hoveskog et al., 2018;
Karakas & Kavas, 2009; amongst others). It has also been successfully applied to university marketing
courses (e.g. Juaneda-Ayensa et al., 2019; Sangpikul, 2017), although there a few studies to date.
Service-learning creates a relationship between educational institutions and social organizations, the
latter of which should open their doors to students and become partners in developing a social service
(Martín et al., 2018). It is a teaching methodology that enables analysis, planning, assessment, teamwork,
negotiations and distribution of tasks, commitment, and decision-making, as well as the ability to overcome
difficulties (Mendía, 2012); furthermore, values clarification, enhancing multicultural awareness and
developing management skills (research, project management, etc.) (Driscoll et al., 2017); additionally,
social competencies and attitudes (Chiva-Bartoll et al., 2018). All this leads the students to be immersed
in a social reality, which in our case was aimed at designing a marketing plan for a social product/service.
Whilst other methodologies focus on studying skill sets, we focused on fostering service orientation
as a skill for marketing students. Previous marketing studies have solely centered on examining service
orientation as a skill for dealing with customers in the correct manner (Rosse et al., 1991) but we aim to
extend this vision beyond the customer to include all the company’s stakeholders. Given that the defini-
tion of service refers to the use of competencies and skills for the benefit of others (Vargo and Lusch,
2006), this refers to an institution comprised of benevolent people. This aligns with the theory of Servant
Leadership (Parris & Peachey, 2013; Salas-Vallina & Fernández-Guerrero, 2018) where, service qualities
influence civic behaviors of staff (Newman et al., 2017; Salas-Vallina et al., 2020) but considering that
value can be created by all levels of the organization, and as such, this orientation should be nurtured in
all employees, not solely limited to its leaders (Heyden et al., 2017). In this sense, we propose to study
how service-learning contributes to fostering service orientation by means of developing a marketing plan.
The following section outlines the material required to implement the experience, the questionnaire
used to measure the learning outcomes and levels of service orientation of students pre and post the
experience. Also, we feature examples of marketing plans developed by the students which can serve
as a work guide. The activities presented correspond to setting objectives, strategies, action plans and
control, and not to market analysis, as the internal and external analysis itself is more closely aligned
with traditional marketing and has been dealt with in other publications.

THE MARKETING PLAN AS A FOCAL LEARNING

POINT USING SERVICE-LEARNING

The service-learning methodology described in this chapter was applied to the degree course Marketing
Management II, which is core to Business Administration undergraduates as it covers the commercial
techniques used by companies to achieve their objectives (focused on the marketing-mix variables:
Product, Price, Place and Promotion). Marketing Management II is a compulsory, 6 credit course in the
Pablo de Olavide University whose teaching model comprises 60% basic teachings and 40% theory-into-
practice activities. It is taught in the first semester for third year students of Business Administration and
Business Administration and Law1.

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The marketing plan is a broadly used tool in marketing teaching. Traditionally, it has been considered
as one useful tool to implement class marketing projects (Hass and Wotruba, 1990), it allows students to
learn by doing because it is based on the use of experimental courses where students can work in groups
with a sense of realism (Razzouk et al., 2003).
The objective of the marketing plan is to make students understand how to integrate the principles of
marketing to create value for a particular market segment by implementing marketing strategies to achieve
one objective of growth in terms of volume of sales, performance and profit (Lincoln & Frontczak, 2008).
Previous studies have shown the importance of mix service learning to help local and international
non-profit organizations by analysing the self-reported perceptions of service-learning outcomes, such
as: practical skills, interpersonal skills, citizenship and personal responsibility (Metcalf, 2010).
Consistently with previous literature, as part of the course students are taught the fundamentals of a
marketing plan as it is a key strategic tool for guiding commercial decisions and social decisions. As a
written document it is structured in successive, coordinated phases and stages to help guide commercial
management decisions. All activities were adapted for both, the classical marketing plan, and the market-
ing plan designed for non-profit organizations that is called the social marketing plan. This adaptation
was based on the proposal of Lee and Kotler (2019).
The structure of a marketing plan is as follows:

PHASE 1: Current marketing situation

Stage 1: External and internal analysis
Stage 2: Threats and opportunities analysis (SWOT)
PHASE 2: Objectives and issues
Stage 3: Objectives
Stage 4: Marketing strategy design (segmentation, positioning and marketing-mix)
PHASE 3: Operational marketing decisions
Stage 5: Action plans (Product, Price, Place and Promotion)
Stage 6: Marketing budget
Stage 7: Timing Schedule

From the instructors’ point of view, the experience gained from this project has led us to conclude that
the best way to achieve significant learning achievements in students is by applying knowledge to practical
situations. Thus, by developing a marketing plan for a non-profit organization students have learned while
working on the real needs of the organization’s broader environment, with a view to improving it. This
allows students to learn by doing, which increases their interest in the subject, have a higher retention
of the course content, as well as a better understanding of key concepts (Juaneda-Ayensa et al., 2019).
Therefore, to date, the course has involved group work, whereby each group proposes a business
idea and designs a marketing plan for their idea during the semester. Each week students work on a new
activity so that by the end of the semester the marketing plan is completed.
By applying SL methodology to this course some of the groups worked on marketing plan for a
non-profit organization, thereby immersed in a real social context, rather than a fictitious business idea.

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Planning The Service-Learning Experience

Prior to implementing the experience in the classroom, instructors need to plan before the start of the
semester.
Firstly, non-profit organizations and social enterprises need to be contacted and invited to take part
in the experience. This requires non-profit organizations to effectively open their doors to the students
and propose a project to form the basis of the marketing plan, as well as providing relevant information
to the students during the semester. In this instance we chose to contact charities that had a physical
office within the metropolitan area of Seville (thus allowing for future in-person meetings as and when
necessary). Over and above geographical proximity no additional filters were applied, hereby allowing
for a broad spectrum of charities that catered to different societal needs.
For this particular experience we contacted about twenty social institutions, of which 16 agreed to
participate. An initial email was sent to the manager of the charity explaining the initiative, which was
then followed up by a telephone call from the designated instructor. Efforts were coordinated by the
project leader, who agreed a list of non-profit organizations with the instructors.
Secondly, to implement the experience the following materials needs to be prepared:

• A brief presentation for the students, which should be given that the start of the semester, and
include: a description of service-learning and the benefits of the methodology for students’ aca-
demic and personal growth, as well the dynamics of the course and assessment guidelines.
• Detailed instruction guides for each week’s activity.
• A grading system
• For this experience we created pre and post questionnaires to assess the student’s level of service
orientation prior to and after completion of the course.

Thirdly, based on the number of students enrolled, work groups need to be formed and assigned to
work on either social marketing plans or a marketing plan for a fictitious product/service for a for-profit
company. Those students that work on a fictitious product/service serve as a control group which will
allow instructors to compare the possible differences that exist with the social marketing plan groups.

Implementation of the Experience

In total seven practice-into-theory classes, with six activities, were dedicated to the SL experience2. It
is important to note that students worked on their marketing plans outside of class time and presented
their work in class. A description of each week is described below:

WEEK 1: Students were divided into work groups (with a maximum of five students per group). The work
groups were divided equally into social product/service marketing plans and for-profit fictitious
product/service marketing plans. Those groups assigned the social marketing plans were given the
contact details of the non-profit organizations. Furthermore, prior to introducing the service-learning
experience students completed the first questionnaire to measure their level of service orientation.
WEEK 2: Each group presented their work on the strategic marketing part of their project (SWOT, po-
sitioning, segmentation and positioning). Given that strategic marketing is covered in Marketing

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Management I (a course that precedes Marketing Management II), this first activity served as a
refresher of previous content.
WEEK 3: Each group presented their work on the product strategy.
WEEK 4: Each group presented their work on the pricing strategy.
WEEK 5: Each group presented their work on the distribution strategy.
WEEK 6: Each group presented their work on the communications strategy.
WEEK 7: Each group presented their work on the budget, planning schedule and control which concluded
all the marketing plan activities. During class time students completed the second questionnaire
in order to determine whether the social immersion had affected the level of service orientation.

As students worked on their marketing plans, they shared their progress in class via presentations
(in PowerPoint / Prezi), meaning that the concepts learnt in the theoretical classes were put in practice.
Instructors provided feedback to each group every week enabling students to reflect on their work and
make amendments where necessary.
Those students working on the social marketing plans had weekly contact with the corresponding
non-profit organizations and were sent information as and when needed. Once the marketing plans were
completed, they were sent to the non-profit organizations.

METHOD

Data Collection

Data were collected in two different waves3. The first wave took place at the beginning of the semester.
Students were surveyed to assess their initial levels of service orientation to compare whether these
levelsincreased due to the service-learning experience. In the second wave, the result of the learning
experience was also included in the survey. The second wave took place at the end of the semester when
the service-learning experience was concluded.
In the first wave, a total of 114 students answered the questionnaire. In the second wave, 108. Finally,
a third group of students with similar characteristics but who had not participated in the course was
surveyed to create a control group. The sample size of the control group was 81.
To measure the possible increase in service orientation we used the scale proposed by Bettecoourt et
al. (2001), Likert 1-7, (see table 1) that was introduced in the questionnaire with the following sentence:
“As regards the marketing plan and innovative teaching project based on the service-learning experience
of the course, irrespective of the type of marketing plan…”.
To measure learning results, we used the two dimensions proposed by Klink and Athaide (2004) (see
table 2). Furthermore, a question was included referring to the type of project. These questions were
only included for those students that answered the questionnaire in the wave 2.

Analysis and Results

To understand the results of the service-learning experience we analysed data collected. We were inter-
ested in two concepts, the development of service orientation by students and the results of the learning
experience.

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Table 1. Service orientation, measurement model and differences

Wave1 Wave2 Control

I enjoy helping others 0.679 (0.060) 0.773 (0.050) 0.679 (0.069)
The best job I can image would
involve assisting others in 0.702 (0.059) 0.689 (0.056) 0.744 (0.063)
solving their problems
I can get along with most
0.301 (0.063) 0.318 (0.068) 0.315 (0.069)
anyone
I pride myself in providing
0.572 (0.062) 0.642 (0.063) 0.523 (0.064)
courteous service
It is natural for me to be
0.502 (0.058) 0.583 (0.066) 0.585 (0.068)
considerate of others’ needs
NOTES: Standardized loading factors appear in columns. s. e. (standard errors)
Model fit: Chi-Square=44.018 d.f.=31 p-value= 0.0608.
Mean differences for service orientation:
Wave2-wave1= 0.191 p-value= 0.054
Control-Wave1= -0.120 p-value= 0.316

Table 2. Learning results, measurement model and differences

Group 1: non-profit Group 2: profit

Loading factors (s.e.) Loading factors (s.e.)
Dimension1: The marketing learning results (MLR)
The service-learning experience has helped me learn
0.920 (0.037) 0.815 (0.074)
the course material.
During this course I have learnt how to apply
marketing techniques to real life situations of an 0.777 (0.081) 0.434 (0.086)
organization.
This project has reinforced the knowledge learnt in
0.897 (0.061) 0.613 (0.098)
the theory classes.
This project has helped me apply the course concepts
0.811 (0.083) 0.543 (0.095)
to a real-life situation.
I have learnt how marketing concepts can help solve
__ __
problems/real life situations.
Dimension2: The social learning results (SLR)
The service-learning experience has heightened my
0.590 (0.142) 0.676 (0.122)
interest in taking part in a community service.
My attitudes toward people from different economic/
racial situations to mine has changed due to the 0.648 (0.122) 0.640 (0.138)
service-learning experience.
Having completed the course I think that being
0.741 (0.154) 0.642 (0.102)
socially responsible is more important.
Correlation (MLR, SLR) 0.385 (0.213) (no significant) 0.474 (0.184)
NOTES: Standardized loading factors appear in columns; s. e. (standard errors)
Model fit: Chi-Square=59.078 d.f.=36 p-value= 0.0090.
Mean differences for service orientation:
Dimension1= 0.736; p-value= 0.034
Dimension2= -0.494; p-value= 0.044

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We first analyse if students level of service orientation increased due to the service-learning experi-
ence. To do so, we analysed data using Structural Equation Modelling and the software Mplus ®. Table
1 includes the results of the confirmatory factor analysis conducted by using multigroup. This tool al-
lows us to test metric invariance across groups to be able to conclude differences in the mean value of
the service orientation are not due to the differences in the metric. All loading factors were significant
(with a p-value lower than 0.001) supporting the appropriateness of the scale used.
All students participated in class discussions about service-learning projects, in which they learnt
social and marketing aspects necessary to effectively develop both projects based on the service-learning
experience and a common marketing plan for profit-focused products. The difference between wave2
and wave1 was significant at 10% (p-value = 0.054), and no significant difference was observed between
wave1 and control groups. This points to the existence of a slight increase in the level of service orienta-
tion, possible to observe with one single course taught in one semester.
Analysis then focused on evaluating the learning results. To this end, we checked if students enrolled
in the service-learning experience presented differences in the learning dimensions compared with those
who were working on a for-profit project.
The scales proposed to measure the learning process presented metric invariance, all loading factors
were significant at 0.001 and the model fit was acceptable (see table 2). Results about differences (see
table 2) show that students who participated in the social experience perceived that they had developed
a heightened sense of the social dimension more than those students who had participated in for-profit
projects. In contrast, marketing knowledge was perceived as higher by those participating in the for-
profit experience.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS FROM THE EXPERIENCE

As we have mentioned earlier, once data from the questionnaires was analysed, we were able to conclude
that students who participated in the social experience perceived that they had developed a heightened
sense of the social dimension more than those students who had participated in for-profit organizations.
This was a similar case with the dimension of acquiring marketing knowledge, meaning that students
who worked on a for-profit product perceived they acquired more knowledge of marketing than students
who worked on a non-profit marketing plan. An explanation of these results can be found in the fact
that this is the first course in the degree where students are in contact with non-profit organizations or
service-learning experiences. For those who were developing a social marketing plan, their previous ideas
about the importance of sales, growth and economic-based goals could have driven them to conclude
that they had not learned what it is expected to learn in marketing courses.
Moreover, all students developed service orientation during the course. Differences in average levels
before and after the experience were significant. Therefore, the use of the combination of service-learning
and marketing plan develops one of the most important competencies of marketing workers, service
orientation.
Additionally, as the following comments show, students felt positively about taking part in the ex-
perience:

‘It has helped me become more involved in social work. I have become a volunteer for the Red Cross’, ‘As
my marketing plan was for a social project, I have learnt to appreciate more the needs of many people

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and it has helped me feel more responsible for others’ and ‘It has been a dynamic way to learn, and a
practical, different and fun process’.

Charity organizations participating in the service-learning experience were helpful and prompt to
collaborate. For them, the project was an opportunity to establish a relationship with the University
as a source of knowledge and a forum in which to disseminate information about their social aims.
The projects created a chance for growth for both students and organizations that interplayed through
the development of the marketing plan. Over and above the success of implementating the marketing
plans proposed by the students, which could vary depending on the marketing skill levels present inthe
non-profit organization itself, the service-learning experience and the marketing plan were a positive
experience for them because it helped to reconsider their strategic planning and their marketing skills.
Thus, we can conclude that this has proven to be a positive and enriching experience, not only for
students but also for all parties involved: the associations who took part in the experience, and the
instructors. It has allowed students (1) to be in touch with social realities that perhaps they might not
have otherwise known, (2) the service-learning methodology has fostered service orientation amongst
students and (3) generated a high level of student satisfaction with the course and methodology used.
Additionally, the social enterprises had an opportunity to receive marketing knowledge from the students
which could be useful to them, particularly those lacking a sales/marketing department, and finally, an
enriching experience for the instructors involved.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This work has been financed by the 5th Research plan of Pablo de University Olavide. Call A2: Grants
for the concurrency to the National Research Plan, Reference: PID2020-117676GB-I00.

ENDNOTES

1 The experience was implemented during the academic year 2021-2022.

2 In the Appendix, we present the six activities with the instructions given to the students, including the
rubrics to evaluate each one of them, as well as guides for work for the instructor.
3 Data are available under request. Please contact corresponding author.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Marketing: Marketing is the activity, set of institutions, and processes for creating, communi-
cating, delivering, and exchanging offerings that have value for customers, clients, partners, and
society at large (AMA, 2017) (https://www.ama.org/the-definition-of-marketing-what-is-mark
eting/)
Social marketing: the application of marketing concepts to solve social problems (Lee & Kotler,
2019). In other words, the part of the marketing that focuses on the “society at large” is included in the
marketing definition.
Service: Different from services (in plural), is defined as the application of competencies (knowledge
and skills) for the benefit of another party (Vargo & Lusch, 2006).

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Service orientation: The ability to put the own knowledge and skills to the service of the society.
(Bettencourt et al., 2001)
Service-learning: To make students apply concepts in real projects based on non-profit organisations.
Service-Dominant Logic: A paradigm in marketing that focuses on the importance of service to
create value. (Vargo, 2020)
Marketing plan: A written document that helps firms to set objectives, strategies, and actions and
to spread them in the firm. (Kotler et al., 2014).

ENDNOTES
1
The experience was implemented during the academic year 2021-2022.
2
In the Appendix, we present the six activities with the instructions given to the students, including
the rubrics to evaluate each one of them, as well as guides for work for the instructor.
3
Data are available under request. Please contact corresponding author.

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APPENDIX

In this appendix, we present the six activities we carried out, with the instructions given to the students,
including the rubrics to evaluate each one of them, as well as guides for work for the instructor. We
recommend the book by Lee and Kotler (2019); Social Marketing Behaviour Change for Social Good,
6th edition, to present the strategic social plan model in the lessons to develop theory. Praxis is developed
by using the service-learning with the activities we present below.

Activity 1: Strategic Section of the Marketing Plan

Instructions for Students

The first part of the plan relates to concepts and strategies studied in Marketing Management I. An an-
nex was provided to guide this activity (with general guidelines to consider when developing a social
marketing plan).

1. Brief overview of the company/NGO.

2. SWOT analysis of the company/NGO (considering the launch of a new product/service/project).
Additional supporting information should be provided that details and explains the Strengths,
Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats.
3. Commercial objectives of the marketing plan:
a. Sales.
b. Market share.
c. Profit.
d. Other quantitative/qualitative objectives you consider important.
4. Segmentation strategy:
a. Define and quantify the target population. For the social marketing plan define the direct /
indirect audience.
b. Segmentation criteria.
c. Target market(s) selected.
5. Positioning strategy:
a. Positioning attributes.
b. Positioning map.
c. Positioning statement.

ANNEX: WORK GUIDE

SWOT Analysis

Prior knowledge is assumed for students to perform a SWOT analysis, which reflects the strengths,
weaknesses, opportunities and threats of an organization in order to launch a product/service.

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Marketing Objectives

Understood as short-term projects, objectives allow organizations to achieve their goals. The purpose
of a marketing plan is to help fulfill those goals.
Objectives must align with the overall general strategy of an organization, and are conditioned by the
competitive environment, position of the strategic business units, resources and capabilities, the exist-
ing target markets, etc. In summary, objectives reflect the information detailed in the SWOT analysis.
In order to be effective, objectives must be:

• Specific, both in terms of timeframe and quantifiable.

• Realistic but challenging.
• Coherent with the overall mission and objectives of the organization.
• Reflect the threats and opportunities identified.

Furthermore, objectives should be related to the aim of the marketing variables. For example:

• Customer acquisition.
• Customer retention.
• Customer satisfaction.
• Relationships with distribution partners.

The objectives set should be broken down into specific marketing activities, for example, increase in
unit sales, market share, new product development, order management etc. It is important to remember
that the ultimate aim of marketing is foster exchanges within ignoring financial results. Thus, financial
objectives should be set, which are commonly aligned with volume of sales and product sales, although
other measures such as markup, profit, return on investment are viable parameters. In the case of a social
marketing plan, societal marketing has two main goals:

1. The wellbeing of the target population or target market, and wherever possible, for society at large.
2. The wellbeing of the agent of change or NGO in the financial sense, administrative, human re-
sources, and success of the social and economic objectives set.

As such, two customer groups should be taken into consideration:

• Those that provide financial help, i.e. donars.

• Those that receive assistance, i.e. the product/service.

Therefore, market share makes sense in both cases. Bear in mind that the idea is to maximize the
number of users of the product/service (taking into account the resources of the organization) coupled
with a customer acquisition plan and/or a sales objective that focuses on obtaining donations/financing
or optimizing the volume of sales. When calculating profitability take into account that users of the
service/product represent service costs whilst benefactors generate income.

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• Examples of social marketing objectives.

◦◦ Sales: Target of 200 users in 2 years / Achieve X number of donations (which should be cal-
culated according to the expenditure associated with the sales volume) to cover the service
cost.
◦◦ Market share (in line with the sales): Serve the needs of 10% of the total market
◦◦ Profitability: Cover all expenses (profit 0) / 80% of revenue covered by mass donors / members
◦◦ Remember: When establishing marketing objectives ask yourself the following questions:
▪▪ Are the objectives specific?
▪▪ Is there a clear timeframe for the objectives to be met?
▪▪ Can you objectively measure the objectives?
▪▪ Are they realistic?
▪▪ Are they consistent with the overall mission/strategy of the organization?
▪▪ Are they consistent with the resources of the organization?
▪▪ Are the achievable given the threats and opportunities in the environment?

SEGMENTATION

Students should have prior knowledge on how to design a segmentation strategy as this was covered in
Marketing Management I.
In a social marketing plan, segmentation refers to the person / family unit and population segment, or
a combination of the three, that suffers from a social problem. The target audience comprises direct and
indirect audience. The indirect audience comprises those people who decide to use the service and the
direct audience actually makes use of the service. For example, in the case of an individual who suffers
from alcoholism (direct audience) generally speaking it is a family member, friend or legal guardian
(indirect audience) who contacts the relevant non-profit organization. This example demonstrates that
often the person who decides from which non-profit organization they want to seek help is not necessarily
the individual who suffers from the problem, or who will actually use the service themselves, therefore,
it is important to include both the direct and indirect audience.
The target market(s) should be quantified. In the example of alcoholism, look for data on alcoholism
to calculate the direct audience, and decide the geographical scope of your plan: local area, regional,
national, etc.
You will need to think which segmentation variables to apply when calculating the target market(s)
(e.g., age, gender, marital status, etc.). Once you have applied the segmentation variables decide which
segment/s will form the basis of your marketing plan, taking into consideration the mission/vision/
strategy etc. of the organization.

POSITIONING

Students should have prior knowledge of this area in order to define the positioning strategy (the image
the organization wants to portray to consumers/target market in relation to its competitors), as well as
a positioning map.

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Table 3. Grading system for activity 1

Level of achievement Low Medium High Score

Some grammar mistakes, ok design but

Poor grammar, poor
doesn’t grab reader’s attention. Some No grammar mistakes, innovative design,
document design and lack of
Adequacy of the document images. grabs reader’s attention. Relevant images.
coherency. Lack of images. 1.5
presented Index page present but lacking page Includes index and complete bibliography.
No index. No bibliography.
numbers.

0-0.6 0.61-1.1 1.11-1.5

Slides don’t add any value.

Slides ok. Presentation could be better
Lack of structure, contents Attractive and relevant slides. Presentation
Presentation of the delivered, selected contents somewhat
not well chosen, consistent well-structured, doesn’t use slides for
assignment incomplete, often reads from the slides 1.5
reading from the slides and prompts and correct use of vocabulary
(Ppt + oral presentation) and doesn’t use appropriate vocabulary
lack of use of own vocabulary

0-0.6 0.61-1.1 1.11-1.5

No reference to the mission,

size, resources, market in Lacking detailed description of Mission, strategy, environment of the
which the organization organization’s activity. Mission and organization clearly defined, as well the
operates. Impossible/difficult target market covered in general terms resources, size of the organization and
Presentation of the to understand what the but lacking detail. Resources and size of industry characteristics. Marketing plan 1
organization organization does. Marketing the orgaization mentioned. Marketing compatible with producto/service launched
Plan lacking coherency with plan not well defined. and overall scope of the organization.
the organization.

0-0.3 0.4-0.6 0.7-1

SWOT incomplete or SWOT is adequate but not thorough,

SWOT is thorough and complete. Analysis
superficial. Elements are Threats and opportunities correctly
is coherent with the social product/service
incorrectly assigned as referred to as external elements and
SWOT análisis offered and correctly applied to give a 1.5
strengths, weaknesses, threats strengths and weaknesses correctly refer
detailed view of the organization.
and opportunities. to internal aspects.

0-0.6 0.61-1.1 1.11-1.5

Objectives fulfil the minimum

Objectives fulfil the requirements and are
Objectives are only described requirements but do not correspond
effective. They are coherent with the SWOT
on a superficial level and do to the overall objectives of the
Objectives analysis and mission of the organization. The 1.5
not adhere to the guidelines. organization, or at least are not justified
objectives are also innovative.
as such.

0-0.6 0.61-1.1 1.11-1.5

Segmentation only completed

Segmentation and all corresponding elements
on a superficial level. Target All corresponding parts are included but
are included and well-founded based on
market not clearly defined content is based on personal opinion,
Segmentation various sources of cited evidence. Detailed 1.5
and segmentation variables not reliable external data sources.
information provided.
have not been used.

0-0.6 0.61-1.1 1.11-1.5

Positioning is coherent with the mission and

vision of the organization. All the necessary
Positioning statement is included but elements are included and completed with a
Not all the elements are
is not coherent nor justified. All points clear description of the competitors, as well
included. The ideas are not
covered but work is based on student’s as points of difference and parity (through
coherent with the product and
opinion and has not been validated web analysis or interviews). Positioning map
Positioning overall vision of the company. 1.5
by the organization. Positioning map is complete and well-founded. Good use
Lack of positioning map and
provided but it is superficial and/or of various data sources to support chosen
positioning statement.
incomplete. positioning.
Positioning statement is included but is not
coherent and justified.

0-0.6 0.61-1.1 1.11-1.5

In the case of a social marketing plan, you need to think about the ideas that contribute to the well-
being of the population. To contrast a for-profit and non-profit organization: Mercedes Benz positions
itself based on status and security, whilst UNICEF is associated with the welfare of children.

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Compile a list of attributes that you want your target audience to associate in their mind with the
product/service. These attributes should be associated with ideas, attitudes, values, strengths and fun-
damental purpose of your organization.
Once defined, these should be analyzed in relation to your competitors and plotted on a positioning map.
Lastly, write a positioning statement, which should determine the positioning strategy (image) you
want to convey to your target audience. You can use the following outline:
“To (target segment and need) our (brand) is (a concept) that (point of difference).”
This activity will be assessed based on the following criteria (table 3).

Work Guidelines for the Instructor

Before the first activity, the instructor must have contacted the non-profit organizations with whom
the teams will be collaborating for their social project. Additionally, the work teams should have been
formed, and each group assigned their corresponding non-profit organization.
For this initial activity, prior preparation and a training task should have been carried out for the
strategic part of a marketing plan (SWOT analysis, plan objectives, segmentation, and positioning),
understanding its application in a social context.
One week in advance, the document with the instructions and evaluation criteria for the activity will
be prepared and provided to the students.
Upon receiving the teams’ work and their presentation in class, they will be graded (applying the
rubric made available to the students). Subsequently, each team will receive constructive feedback on
their work during office hours, individually and tailored to the team, highlighting their strengths and
areas for improvement.

Activity 2: The Product

Instructions for Students

Students should work with their groups to formulate the product strategy for their social project. The
following points should be covered:

Introduction: Brief Presentation of the Social Project (Product/Service)

1. Product elements (features, functions, benefits, and uses)

a. Intangible attributes:
i. Ideas.
ii. Beliefs.
iii. Attitudes.
iv. Values.
v. Services.
b. Tangible attributes:
i. Core function.
ii. Technical features.

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iii. Functional features (detail the packaging/labelling).

iv. Aesthetic features.
c. Classification of products/services.
2. Tangible product levels:
a. Basic product.
b. Expected product.
c. Augmented product.

Table 4. Grading system for activity 2

Level of achievement Low Medium High Score

Some grammar mistakes, No grammar mistakes,
Poor grammar, poor
ok design but doesn’t grab innovative design,
document design and
reader’s attention. Some grabs reader’s attention.
Adequacy of the document lack of coherency. Lack
images. Relevant images. 1
presented of images. No index. No
Index page present but Includes index and
bibliography
lacking page numbers. complete bibliography.
0-0,39 0,4-0,74 0,75-1
Slides ok. Presentation
Slides don’t add any value.
could be better delivered, Attractive and relevant
Lack of structure, contents
selected contents slides. Presentation well-
Presentation of the not well chosen, consistent
somewhat incomplete, structured, doesn’t use
assignment reading from the slides 2
often reads from the slides for prompts and
(Ppt + oral presentation) and lack of use of own
slides and doesn’t use correct use of vocabulary
vocabulary
appropriate vocabulary
0-0.74 0.75-1.14 1.15-2
Not all the intangible Some of intangible The intangible elements
elements of the social elements of the social of the social product
Intangible elements of the product have been product have been have been indentified 1.5
social product identified or lacks identified but are lacking and include an in-depth
explanation an in-depth explanation explanation
0-0.49 0.5-0.99 1-1.5
All the elements have
Not all the elements have Some of the elements
been analyzed and
Tangible attributes of the been identified and/or lack have been analyzed and/or
accompanied by an in- 1
product* explanation only on a superficial level
depth explanation
0-0.39 0.4-0.74 0.75-1
Not all the levels have Some of the levels have
All the levels have been
been identified and/or lack been analyzed and/or only
Tangible product levels* explained in-depth 1
explanation on a superficial level
0-0.39 0.4-0.74 0.75-1
Product/service Product/service
Product/service
classification is incomplete classification is complete
Product/service classification is complete
or identified without any but lacks a comprehensive 1.5
classification and explained in-depth
explanation explanation
0-0.49 0.5-0.99 1-1.5
Brand strategy is Brand strategy is complete Brand strategy is
incomplete and/or no but lacks a comprehensive complete and an in-depth
Brand strategy explanation is provided explanation explanation is provided 2

0-0.74 0.75-1.14 1.15-2

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3. Brand strategy:
a. Brand name.
b. Logo.
c. Brand sponsorship.

All the points need to be covered in as much detail as possible, including images to provide an overview
of the social project, brand, logo, tangible products…
This activity will be graded as follows (table 4):

Work guidelines for the instructor

For the second activity, prior preparation and a task on the concept of the Marketing-mix variable “Prod-
uct” should have been conducted, with emphasis on its application in a social context.
One week in advance, the document with the instructions and evaluation criteria for the activity will
be prepared and provided to the students.
Upon receiving the teams’ work and their presentation in class, they will be graded (applying the
rubric made available to the students). Subsequently, each team will receive constructive feedback on
their work during office hours, individually and tailored to the team, highlighting their strengths and
areas for improvement.

Activity 3: Pricing

Instructions for Students

For this activity students work on the pricing strategy for their social product, covering the following
points:

1. Objective/s of the pricing strategy of the organization.

2. Social function of the price (within the context of the value analysis). Reflection on the social
benefit that the product/service provides.
3. Detailed cost analysis (within the context of the value analysis). Include the costs incurred during
the social product/service provision.
4. Sales price (expressed in €)
a. Social product/service price for those who receive the product/service (if applicable).
b. Establish the number of regular contributions/donations.
c. Establish a figure for subsidies/external aid.

Each of the aforementioned points need be covered in as much detail as possible.

This activity will be graded as follows (table 5):

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Table 5. Grading system for activity 3

Level of achievement Low Medium High Score

Some grammar mistakes, No grammar mistakes,
Poor grammar, poor ok design but doesn’t grab innovative design,
document design and lack of reader’s attention. Some grabs reader’s attention.
Adequacy of the document coherency. Lack of images. images. Relevant images. Includes 2
presented No index. No bibliography Index page present but index and complete
lacking page numbers. bibliography.
0-0.6 0.61-1.2 1.21-2
Slides don’t add any value. Slides ok. Presentation
Attractive and relevant
Lack of structure, contents could be better delivered,
slides. Presentation well-
Presentation of the not well chosen, consistent selected contents somewhat
structured, doesn’t use
assignment reading from the slides incomplete, often reads 2
slides for prompts and
(Ppt + oral presentation) and lack of use of own from the slides and doesn’t
correct use of vocabulary
vocabulary use appropriate vocabulary
0-0.74 0.75-1.5 1.51-2
Not included or not well Included and moderately Included and correctly
Pricing strategy of the defined defined defined 1.5
organization
0-0.6 0.61-1.1 1.11-1.5

Social function of the price. Not included or not well Included and moderately Included and correctly
Reflection on the social defined defined defined 1.5
benefit 0-0.6 0.61-1.1 1.11-1.5
Not included or only done Included and done Included with detailed
Value of the social price: on a superficial level, lack of correctly, although only information on cost
cost data some cost figures included figures 1.5
costs
0-0.6 0.61-1.1 1.11-1.5
Establishing social price, No financial figures or
Financial figures and Extensive financial
regular contributions/ numbers for donations or
explanations provided but figures and explanations 1.5
donations and external subsidies or explanation
information is scant provided
subsidies/aid provided, or inadequate data
0-0.6 0.61-1.1 1.11-1.5

Work guidelines for the instructor

For the third activity, prior preparation and a training task on the concept of the Marketing-mix variable
“Price” should have been conducted, emphasizing its application in a social context.
One week in advance, the document with the instructions and evaluation criteria for the activity will
be prepared and provided to the students.
Upon receiving the teams’ work and their presentation in class, they will be graded (applying the
rubric made available to the students). Subsequently, each team will receive constructive feedback on
their work during office hours, individually and tailored to the team, highlighting their strengths and
areas for improvement.

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Service-Learning in Higher Education Marketing Courses

Activity 4: Distribution

Instructions for Students

For this activity students work on the distribution strategy for their social product and should cover the
following points:

1. Objective(s) of the distribution strategy.

2. Determining factors in the distribution channel (indicating, in each instance, the corresponding
distribution channel).
3. Design of the distribution channel(s) and explanation of the horizontal and vertical dimensions for each one.
4. Intermediaries (if the distribution channel includes any intermediaries identify which these would be).

Each of the aforementioned points should include as much detail as possible.

Table 6. Grading system for activity 4

Level of achievement Low Medium High Score

Some grammar mistakes,
Poor grammar, poor No grammar mistakes,
ok design but doesn’t grab
document design and innovative design, grabs
reader’s attention. Some
Adequacy of the lack of coherency. Lack reader’s attention. Relevant
images. 1
document presented of images. No index. No images. Includes index and
Index page present but
bibliography complete bibliography.
lacking page numbers.
0-0.39 0.4-0.74 0.75-1
Slides don’t add any value. Slides ok. Presentation
Lack of structure, contents could be better delivered, Attractive and relevant slides.
Presentation of the not well chosen, consistent selected contents somewhat Presentation well-structured,
assignment reading from the slides incomplete, often reads from doesn’t use slides for prompts 2
(Ppt + oral presentation) and lack of use of own the slides and doesn’t use and correct use of vocabulary
vocabulary appropriate vocabulary
0-0.74 0.75-1.14 1.15-2
Objectives are not included Objectives are included but Objectives are included with
Objetive(s) of the or lack sufficient detail lack sufficient detail detailed information 1.5
distribution strategy
0-0.49 0.5-0.99 1-1.5
All the factors have been
Analysis of the Not all the factors have Some factors have been
analyzed and are coherent
determining factors in the been analyzed or lack analyzed and/or lack
with the distribution channel 2.5
choice of the distribution sufficient detail sufficient detail
choice
channel
0-0.69 0.7-1.49 1.5-2.5
Distribution channel
correctly designed complete
Section is not included with in-depth information
Distribution channel correctly
Design of the distribution or included without any regarding vertical/
designed but lacks detail 3
channel corresponding explanation horizontal dimensions and
intermediaries in the event of
indirect distribution channels
0-0.69 0.7-1.49 1.5-3

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This activity will be graded as follows (table 6):

Work guidelines for the instructor

For the fourth activity, prior preparation and a training task on the concept of the Marketing-mix variable
“Placement” should have been conducted, emphasizing its application in a social context.
One week in advance, the document with the instructions and evaluation criteria for the activity will
be prepared and provided to the students.
Upon receiving the teams’ work and their presentation in class, they will be graded (applying the
rubric made available to the students). Subsequently, each team will receive constructive feedback on
their work during office hours, individually and tailored to the team, highlighting their strengths and
areas for improvement.

Activity 5: Communication

Instructions for Students

For this activity students work on the communication strategy for their social product and should cover
the following points:

1. Objective(s) of the communication strategy.

2. Marketing content analysis: provide a table with the different communication strategies to be used
by the company/organization, classifying into Paid media, Owned Media, Earned Media and Shared
Media.
3. Detailed description of each communication strategy identified in the table and provide an illustra-
tive example of each communication type proposed (videos, radio ad, flyers, social media, etc.)

Each of the aforementioned points should include as much detail as possible.

This activity will be graded as follows (table 7):

Work Guidelines for the Instructor

For the fifth activity, prior preparation and a training task on the concept of the Marketing-mix variable
“Promotion” should have been conducted, emphasizing its application in a social context.
One week in advance, the document with the instructions and evaluation criteria for the activity will
be prepared and provided to the students.
Upon receiving the teams’ work and their presentation in class, they will be graded (applying the
rubric made available to the students). Subsequently, each team will receive constructive feedback on
their work during office hours, individually and tailored to the team, highlighting their strengths and
areas for improvement.

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Service-Learning in Higher Education Marketing Courses

Table 7. Grading system for activity 5

Level of achievement Low Medium High Score

Poor grammar, poor Some grammar mistakes, ok No grammar mistakes,
document design and design but doesn’t grab reader’s innovative design, grabs reader’s
Adequacy of the lack of coherency. Lack attention. Some images. attention. Relevant images.
of images. No index. No Index page present but lacking Includes index and complete 1
document presented
bibliography page numbers. bibliography.
0-0.39 0.4-0.74 0.75-1
Slides don’t add any Slides ok. Presentation could
value. Lack of structure, be better delivered, selected Attractive and relevant slides.
Presentation of the contents not well chosen, contents somewhat incomplete, Presentation well-structured,
assignment consistent reading from often reads from the slides doesn’t use slides for prompts 2
(Ppt + oral presentation) the slides and lack of use and doesn’t use appropriate and correct use of vocabulary
of own vocabulary vocabulary
0-0.74 0.75-1.14 1.15-2
Incomplete or lacks Some objectives but only Objectives set and in-depth
Communication strategy sufficient detail partially explained information provided 1.5
objective(s)*
0-0.49 0.5-0.99 1-1.5
The four areas of content
The four areas of content The four areas of content
marketing are included but are
marketing are not marketing are included and
Content marketing either incorrect/or not enough 2
covered detailed information is provided
detail is provided
0-0.74 0.75-1.14 1.15-2
Communication Some Communication
All communication strategies
Communication strategies lack detail strategies are provided but
are developed in detail 3.5
strategies (images, content…) some lack detail
0-0.99 1-2.4 2.5-3.5
*The social marketing plans should include the following concepts: inform, persuade, raise awareness, educate, etc.

Activity 6: Budget, Timing, Control Mechanisms

and Alternative Courses of Action

Instructions for Students

For this activity, which concludes the marketing plan, students work on the budget, timing, control
mechanisms, and alternative courses of action for their social product, and cover the following points:

1. Budget: The following table should be completed:

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 Service-Learning in Higher Education Marketing Courses

In the “Actions” column include all the activities/actions that involve costs for the company/non-profit
organization that correspond to the marketing mix strategies (product, distribution and communication).
In the “Budget” column include the cost of each the actions detailed in the previous column. Calcu-
late the subtotals (for each marketing mix variable) in the shaded cells and the total cost of the budget.
In the “Resources” column detail the financial resources of the company/non-profit organization for
the budget, indicating the amount (for each resource) and calculate the total in the shaded cell.

2. Timing: Use the following table as a reference:

The first column should include the activities outlined in the previous table and schedule the program-
ing of those activities for the first six months of the product (fictitious or social) launch. The example
table above includes a fifteen-day timeframe although this can be modified to be weekly or monthly,
depending on the number of activities planned for the first six months.
The person responsible for each activity should be included.
The blue cells indicate the timeframe in which the activity will take place. As such, make sure the
activities scheduled are highlighted in blue.

Control Mechanisms and Other Courses of Actions

A control plan needs to be included for each of the objectives stated in the marketing plan.

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Table 8. Grading system for activity 6

Level of achievement Low Medium High Score

Some grammar mistakes, No grammar mistakes,
Poor grammar, poor
ok design but doesn’t grab innovative design,
document design and
reader’s attention. Some grabs reader’s attention.
Adequacy of the document lack of coherency. Lack
images. Relevant images. 1
presented of images. No index. No
Index page present but Includes index and
bibliography
lacking page numbers. complete bibliography.
0-0.39 0.4-0.74 0.75-1
Slides don’t add any value. Slides ok. Presentation
Attractive and relevant
Lack of structure, contents could be better delivered,
slides. Presentation well-
Presentation of the not well chosen, consistent selected contents somewhat
structured, doesn’t use
assignment reading from the slides incomplete, often reads 2
slides for prompts and
(Ppt + oral presentation) and lack of use of own from the slides and doesn’t
correct use of vocabulary
vocabulary use appropriate vocabulary
0-0.74 0.75-1.14 1.15-2
A budget is not presented A complete and detailed
The budget for the
for all the marketing mix budget is provided in
marketing mix variables is
Budget variables and/or insufficient terms of activities and 3
incomplete
detail costs
0-0.99 1-1.99 2-3
Timing schedule not Timing schedule is
provided for all the Timing schedule is complete in terms of
Timing activities/people in charge incomplete or lacks detail activities, people in 2
and/or timeframe charge and timeframe
0-0.74 0.75-1.14 1.15-2
Control mechanisms Some control mechanisms Control mechanisms and
lacking detail and/or and alternative action plans alternative action plans
Control alternative action plans provided are provided in detail 2

0-0.74 0.75-1.14 1.15-2

The person responsible for each of the activities should be indicated and what alternative actions will
be taken in the event of the objectives are not achieved.
The grading for this activity is as follows (table 8):

Work guidelines for the instructor

Before the final activity, prior preparation and a training task on budget, timing, control mechanisms,
and alternative courses of action in a marketing plan should have been conducted, emphasizing their
application in a social context.
One week in advance, the document with the instructions and evaluation criteria for the activity will
be prepared and provided to the students. Upon receiving the teams’ work and their presentation in class,
they will be graded (applying the rubric made available to the students). Subsequently, each team will
receive constructive feedback on their work during office hours, individually and tailored to the team,
highlighting their strengths and areas for improvement.

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Students will be instructed to compile the different parts of the marketing plan they have been work-
ing on throughout the course into a single document. This will provide the final document that, with the
approval of the instructor, the student team will deliver to the association they have been working with.
Finally, the instructor must contact each collaborating association to ensure they have received the
marketing plan applied to their social project. It would be interesting to follow up later to see if it has
been useful to them.

288
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332

About the Contributors

Sandy Watson is a Professor of Curriculum & Instruction at the University of Louisiana Monroe
where she teaches undergraduate and graduate courses in qualitative research and curriculum and holds
the Chase Endowed Professorship in Teacher Education. Her research interests include science educa-
tion, curriculum studies, multiculturalism and diversity, teacher education, and qualitative research.
She obtainer her B.S. degree in Biology at Western Kentucky University, her master’s degree in Sci-
ence Education and her doctoral degree in Curriculum and Instruction (Math, Science, Technology) at
Georgia Southern University. An educator for 26+ years, Dr. Watson has published many articles and
has presented at multiple conferences across her research areas.

***

Riva Brown, Ph.D., is an Associate Professor of Public Relations in the School of Communication at
the University of Central Arkansas (UCA). She is also the Global Learning Specialist for UCA’s Center
for Global Learning and Engagement, where she is dedicated to raising awareness on campus about
the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (#GlobalGoals). Dr. Brown has been committed to
exposing students to international perspectives since she arrived in Arkansas from Mississippi in 2013.
Her PR classes have completed service-learning projects with over 15 nonprofits, including those serv-
ing citizens in Kenya, Ghana, Zambia, and Syria. She also has been engaged in service-learning through
her participation in study abroad in Rwanda. Since 2021, she has been actively engaged in Collabora-
tive Online International Learning (COIL) projects with partners in Ukraine, Kenya, Colombia, and
Mexico. Additionally, Dr. Brown leads the Syrian American Task Force’s UCA chapter. Dr. Brown has
served her community through disaster relief deployments to Florida, Louisiana, Guam, and throughout
Arkansas. She also serves on the board of directors and as a volunteer with the American Red Cross
Serving Greater Arkansas.

Angus Cameron obtained his PhD in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology from the University of
Glasgow, Scotland, in 2012. His skill set as a mathematical ecologist has allowed him to work on diverse
projects, including developing rabies vaccination programs for populations of endangered African wild
dogs and mitigating the impacts of climate change and over-fishing on marine communities in the North
Sea. Dr. Cameron is the Associate Dean of the School of Pure and Applied Sciences at Florida South-
Western State College and is actively involved in innovative projects to expand access to and success
within high-impact undergraduate research programs. This has included introducing a research capstone
course at a two-year open enrollment institution and leading international research trips with students.



About the Contributors

Kathryn A. Carroll is an Associate Professor in the Department of Nutrition and Family Sciences
at the University of Central Arkansas (UCA). She is also a Faculty Affiliate of the Arkansas Center for
Research in Economics, and a former UCA Service-Learning Faculty Fellow. At UCA, Kathryn teaches
undergraduate and graduate courses in family and consumer sciences, including a service-learning per-
sonal finance course. In 2023, she received the Outstanding FCS Educator of the Year Award from the
Arkansas Association of Family and Consumer Sciences. Kathryn received her PhD from the University
of Wisconsin-Madison in consumer behavior and family economics. She is also a Certified Personal and
Family Finance Educator (CPFFE) through the American Association of Family and Consumer Sciences.

Bailey R. Fairbanks is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Government, Public Service,

and International Studies at the University of Central Arkansas, in Conway Arkansas. She received her
PhD in Political Science from Georgia State University with a focus on Public Law and American Poli-
tics. She currently serves as the Pre-Law Advisor for the University of Central Arkansas, as well as a
non-resident Fellow for the Pulaski Institute housed in Little Rock, Arkansas. Her research is primarily
centered on the impact that diversity and identity, broadly defined, affect judicial decision-making in
state appellate courts and state courts of last resort. Her work has appeared in PS: Politics & Political
Science, Social Science Quarterly, and New Political Science.

Audrey Falk, Ed.D., is Director of the Community Engagement Program and Associate Professor in
the Department of Education and Community Studies in the School of Education and Social Policy. Dr.
Falk teaches core courses in the Community Engagement Master’s Program such as Research Methods,
Capstone, and Community Engagement: Theory and Practice. Dr. Falk also oversees the Community
Engagement Fellowship Program, through which graduate students in Community Engagement complete
year-long service experiences in conjunction with their studies and benefit from a full-tuition scholar-
ship. Dr. Falk’s research focuses on service-learning and community-engaged research. She completed
her doctoral studies in Community Agency Educational Administration at Boston University and she
undertook post-doctoral fellowships at the University of Maryland, College Park and at the American
Institutes for Research. Prior to coming to Merrimack College in 2011, Dr. Falk spent four years in the
Department of Family Studies and Community Development at Towson University. Earlier in her career,
Dr. Falk served as a Peace Corps Volunteer in Romania and held nonprofit leadership positions in the
Arc of South Norfolk County and the Columbia Point Community Partnership.

Lesley Graybeal is the Director of Experiential and Community-Engaged Learning at the University
of Central Arkansas (UCA). Lesley earned her Ph.D. from the University of Georgia in social founda-
tions of education. Her work at UCA includes advising service- and civic engagement-related student
organizations, supporting faculty in developing service-learning courses, coordinating professional
development and networking opportunities for nonprofits, and championing constructive dialogue initia-
tives. In 2023, she received the John Saltmarsh Award for Emerging Leaders in Civic Engagement from
the American Democracy Project. Lesley also received the Gulf-South Summit Award for Outstanding
Practitioner Contributions to Service-Learning in Higher Education in 2023.

Emily Grott is a marketing and management lecturer in the Pablo de Olavide University. Phd in
Business Administration and Management.

333
 About the Contributors

Kisha A. Hardwick is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Government. Public Service, and
International Studies at the University of Central Arkansas in Conway, Arkansas. She received her PhD
in Public Administration and Public Policy from Auburn University. She primarily conducts research
on the behavior of state and local bureaucrats within varying institutional arrangements.

Belinda Hernandez, EdD., M.S.W. describes herself as a passionate, values-driven, and authentic
leader. With a background in social work, sociology, community health, service-learning leadership, and
higher education administration her career has expanded over multiple industries including nonprofits,
healthcare, community health, and higher education. She is currently an administrator at the Stanford
University School of Medicine and a visiting faculty at the University of the Pacific. For over 15 years,
Dr. Hernandez has operated the Hernandez Consulting Group, Inc. collaborating with client organizations
throughout the United States and Puerto Rico. Dr. Hernandez earned degrees in Sociology and Chicana/o
Studies from UCLA, a master’s degree from UC Berkeley, and her doctorate from the University of
the Pacific. Her research perspective is rooted in asset-based thinking that explores the mentoring and
leadership development experiences of underrepresented women and people of color within executive
leadership. Her research and practice include the exploration of intersectionality, as well as the identifi-
cation of social capital and community cultural wealth. She aims to improve educational and workforce
development strategies that eliminate the racial and gender leadership gap of underrepresented groups in
executive leadership. She has been invited to present her research at mentoring and educational confer-
ences, and as a guest lecturer at colleges and universities. Her niche includes mentoring constellations,
service learning methodology, leadership development, qualitative research methodology, and manual
data analysis methodology. Dr. Hernandez’s development of a researcher self-reflexivity process model
educates researchers on the process of self-reflection and action-oriented researcher reconciliation.

Md Tariqul Islam is a JSPS postdoctoral research fellow at Hiroshima University, Japan. He worked
as an assistant professor at BRAC University in Bangladesh at the BRAC Institute of Educational De-
velopment (BRAC IED). Tariq earned his PhD in Education from Deakin University, Australia. He
received his Bachelor’s (Hons) and Master’s in Education from the University of Dhaka, Bangladesh.
As a researcher, he worked with several national and international organizations, e.g., BRAC, NAEM,
FREPD, UNESCO, UNICEF, ActionAid. He has written a number of peer-reviewed journal articles and
book chapters that have been published in leading journals and by leading publishers. He has also given
papers at national and international conferences. His research interest largely focuses on the sociology
of education, with particular attention to education for sustainable development. Tariq’s current research
focuses on education for global citizenship, higher education, youth (un)employability, teaching-learning
in higher education, teachers’ professional development, ICT in education, lifelong learning, educational
inclusion and exclusion, and play for learning and socio-emotional development.

Martina Jordaan is Head: Community engagement and postgraduate students at the University
of Pretoria, Mamelodi campus. Previously she was a senior lecturer responsible for the compulsory
undergraduate module, Community-based Project Module (JCP) of the Faculty Engineering, the Built
Environment and Information Technology.

334
About the Contributors

Sheeja Ramani Karalam holds the position of Professor of Sociology in the Department of Sociology
& Social Work at Christ University. Her academic contributions are reflected in numerous publications
spanning national and international journals. Dr Karalam’s expertise in Social work has been widely ac-
knowledged, and her research endeavours have significantly enriched the academic discourse in her field.

Monica Lieblong is the Assistant Director of University Experiential Learning at Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity. She has over 20 years of teaching experience in family and consumer sciences, and is a certified
7-12 family and consumer sciences educator. Monica received her M.S. from the University of Central
Arkansas (UCA) in family and consumer sciences. She is a former UCA Service-Learning Faculty Fel-
low, and in 2021, received the UCA Peter J. Mehl Faculty Practitioner of the Year for her contributions
to service-learning. She is also a Certified Family and Consumer Sciences Educator (CFCS) through
the American Association of Family and Consumer Sciences.

Rebekah R. Luong is a Clinical Instructor and Family and Consumer Sciences (FCS) Program Di-
rector in the Department of Nutrition and Family Sciences at the University of Central Arkansas (UCA).
She also serves as Internship Coordinator for the Family and Consumer Sciences Program. Rebekah is a
certified 7-12 FCS educator with an endorsement in career and technical education, and a former UCA
Service-Learning Faculty Fellow. She teaches undergraduate courses in family and consumer sciences,
including a service-learning senior capstone course. Rebekah received her M.S. from the University of
Central Arkansas in family and consumer sciences. She is also a Certified Family and Consumer Sciences
Educator (CFCS) through the American Association of Family and Consumer Sciences.

Intan Azura Mokhtar is currently Associate Professor and Director of the Community Leadership
and Social Innovation Centre (CLASIC), in the Singapore Institute of Technology (SIT). In SIT, Intan
leads social innovation initiatives for the university, and develops and teaches Social Innovation Project, a
graduation requirement, across various SIT undergraduate degree programmes. Her research and project
interests are in the areas of social innovation and service learning, community outreach and engagement,
community and school leadership, change leadership and management, digital inclusion and information
literacy, and public policies related to education, training, and social development. Intan has published
more than 80 journal and conference papers, as well as op-eds and news articles, on these subject matters.

Ana Olavarria-Jaraba (PhD) is Assistant Professor at the University Pablo de Olavide of Sevilla.
Her research topics are related with strategic marketing and services marketing. The results of her re-
search have been published in journals such as Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, European
Research on Management And Business Economics, Service Business, Journal of Strategic Marketing,
as well as presented in international conferences.

María Á. Ramón-Jerónimo (Ph.D. in Marketing and Business, University of Seville) is Associate

Professor at Pablo de Olavide University (Sevilla, Spain). She has developed her research in the fields
of marketing and management by publishing in leading journals such as Journal of the Academy of
Marketing Science, Journal of Business Research, International Journal of Physical Distribution &
Logistics Management.

335
 About the Contributors

Madasu Bhaskara Rao teaches at ICFAI Business School, ICFAI Foundation for Higher Education.
He heads ICFAI Staff College and Accreditations and Rankings Team. Previously, he was a Professor
in KLEF, Vijayawada, where he held positions such as Founder Director, Business School, Practice
School, and IAS Academy. He was also Dean, Planning and Development, and Administration. Dr. Rao
was Chairman of the Indian Society for Training and Development (ISTD), Hyderabad Chapter, during
2020-2022. Currently, he is a member of the National Council, ISTD, New Delhi. Dr. Rao has a Ph.D
from the University of Hyderabad; Post Graduate Diploma in T&D from ISTD; PG Diploma in Rural
Management from IRMA and PG Diploma in SQC&OR from ISI, Kolkata. He holds B.E. in Mechani-
cal Engineering from Andhra University. He has over 40 years of industry-cum-academic experience
and has several academic and research achievements. He co-authored a book on ‘Principles of Human
Resource Management.’ He guest edited a special issue each for the Human Resource Management
Review, Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education and Employee Relations. He is a senior edi-
tor for Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education. He is also an editorial board member of the
Indian Journal for Training & Development.

Sameerah T. Saeed is a Ph.D. holder from Newcastle University, UK in Theoretical Linguistics.

She acted as the Director of Quality Assurance at Tishk International University, Kurdistan Region,
Iraq during 2017-2021. She has also served as the Director of Quality Assurance and Accreditation at
Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research, Kurdistan Region-Iraq during 2016-2017. From
2007 to 2009, she was the Program Assistant for the Women Political Parties department at the National
Democratic Institute for International Affairs (NDI), Erbil/Iraq. Dr Saeed is the Country Delegate of
Kurdistan-Iraq at the International Higher Education Teaching and Learning Association (HETL). Her
research interests include: Issues of Higher Education, Quality Assurance, Universities Ranking, service-
learning, Theoretical Linguistics, Syntactic-Semantic Analysis of Various Grammatical Categories, and
Linguistic Typology.

Ranjit Singha is a Doctorate Research Fellow at Christ (Deemed to be University) and holds the
prestigious American Psychological Association (APA) membership. With a strong background in Re-
search and Development, he has significantly contributed to various fields such as Mindfulness, Addic-
tion Psychology, Women Empowerment, UN Sustainable Development Goals, and Data Science. With
over 15 years of experience in Administration, Teaching, and Research, both in Industry and Higher
Education Institutions (HEI), Mr Ranjit has established himself as a seasoned professional. Mr Ranjit
is dedicatedly involved in research and teaching endeavours, primarily focusing on mindfulness and
compassion-based interventions. His work in these areas aims to promote well-being and foster positive
change in individuals and communities.

Surjit Singha is an academician with a broad spectrum of interests, including UN Sustainable

Development Goals, Organizational Climate, Workforce Diversity, Organizational Culture, HRM, Mar-
keting, Finance, IB, Global Business, Business, AI, Women Studies, and Cultural Studies. Currently a
faculty member at Kristu Jayanti College, Dr. Surjit also serves as an Editor, reviewer, and author for
prominent global publications and journals, including being on the Editorial review board of Informa-
tion Resources Management Journal and a contributor to IGI Global. With over 13 years of experience
in Administration, Teaching, and Research, Dr. Surjit is dedicated to imparting knowledge and guiding
students in their research pursuits. As a research mentor, Dr. Surjit has nurtured young minds and fostered

336
About the Contributors

academic growth. Dr. Surjit has an impressive track record of over 75 publications, including articles,
book chapters, and textbooks, holds two US Copyrights, and has successfully completed and published
two fully funded minor research projects from Kristu Jayanti College.

Sherry L. Skaggs is an Associate Professor in the Department of Sociology, Criminology, and

Anthropology at the University of Central Arkansas in Conway, Arkansas. She currently serves as the
Service-Learning Faculty Liaison for the University of Central Arkansas. She is also a certified law
enforcement officer and Public Information Officer for multiple local police departments. She received
her PhD from the University of Delaware, and her research interests include police behavior, recruit-
ment, and retention in rural communities. Her recent publications have appeared in Policing: A Journal
of Policy & Practice, Policing & Society, the Journal of Criminal Justice Education, and Policing: An
International Journal.

Charlene Tan, an honorary professor at Life University, was formerly a tenured professor of educa-
tion at the University of Hong Kong. Prior to joining the University of Hong Kong, she was an associate
professor at the National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. She has
over two decades of teaching experience in a variety of education settings.

Muhammad Usman Tariq has more than 16+ year’s experience in industry and academia. He
has been working as a consultant and trainer for industries representing six sigma, quality, health and
safety, environmental systems, project management, and information security standards. His work has
encompassed sectors in aviation, manufacturing, food, hospitality, education, finance, research, software
and transportation. He has diverse and significant experience working with accreditation agencies of
ABET, ACBSP, AACSB, WASC, CAA, EFQM and NCEAC. Additionally, Dr. Tariq has operational
experience in incubators, research labs, government research projects, private sector startups, program
creation and management at various industrial and academic levels. He is Certified Higher Education
Teacher from Harvard University, USA, Certified Online Educator from HMBSU, Certified Six Sigma
Master Black Belt, Lead Auditor ISO 9001 Certified, ISO 14001, IOSH MS, OSHA 30, and OSHA 48.
He is member of Harvard Business Review Advisory Council.

Jishamol Thomas is a PhD Research Scholar at Department of Social Work, Christ University,
Bengaluru. Prior to joining the University of Hong Kong, she was an associate professor at the National
Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. She has over two decades of
teaching experience in a variety of education settings.

Rosario Vázquez-Carrasco is a Professor of Marketing at Pablo de Olavide University in Seville

(Spain), where she has been in charge of the Marketing Department. She is a distinguished teacher, having
received public recognition for teaching excellence on two occasions. Her research interests are related
with services and relationship marketing. The results of her research have been published in journals
such as Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, Journal of Consumer Behaviour, Journal of Stra-
tegic Marketing, Marketing Intelligence and Planning, as well as presented in international conferences.

Ayse Yilmaz Virlan is a Ph.D. holder and lecturer at the School of Foreign Languages and the Faculty
of Education at Marmara University. With a teaching career spanning over 20 years, she has dedicated

337
 About the Contributors

the last 15 years to tertiary education. Since 2012, she’s been a full-time instructor at Marmara Uni-
versity, overseeing curriculum development and teaching language proficiency courses. Dr. Virlan also
holds leadership roles, including Head of Curriculum, Level Coordinator, and Testing Specialist. As a
visiting instructor, she covers various subjects at different public and private universities in Turkey. Dr.
Virlan has significantly contributed to her field, having authored articles in international journals and
contributed chapters to recognized international books. Additionally, she is the author of the book “A
Guidebook for Language Teachers: Beyond the Basics of Curriculum Design” (2023), further highlight-
ing her expertise. Her research primarily focuses on curriculum evaluation, instructional design, and
language teaching and learning.

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 339

Index

A 233-237, 240, 246, 249

Community partner 67, 69-72, 74-76, 78-80, 82-84,
Altruism 187, 192, 197, 211 88, 93, 100, 110, 113, 115, 117, 136, 152, 195,
Assessment 1, 7, 9-11, 13-14, 16-18, 20, 25-27, 29, 197, 205
32, 34, 37, 41, 43, 50-54, 56-58, 60, 67, 69, 73, Community Partnerships 20, 26-27, 29, 33, 111
76-78, 80-81, 83, 85, 95, 109, 112-113, 115-116, Compassion 36, 39, 43-47, 49-64, 166, 214
118-121, 132, 139, 143-145, 147, 151-155, 157, Confucian Heritage Cultures 213-214
160, 162, 165, 178, 188, 203, 215, 217-218, 222, Contemplative Pedagogy 45, 49, 58-59, 63-64
226, 229, 252, 255, 264, 266 Costa Rica 89-91, 95, 99-100, 102-107
Critical service-learning pedagogy 156-158, 161,
B 171, 175
Curriculum 1-3, 5-6, 14, 16-18, 20, 22, 24-26, 28-
Biology 17, 63, 89, 100, 106-107, 137-138, 195, 29, 36-37, 41, 46, 48, 52, 54, 57-59, 67-68, 74,
198-211 81-82, 87, 90, 92, 109, 118-119, 125, 134, 153,
Biology literacy 195 157, 160, 164, 168, 171, 178-179, 182, 198, 203,
bureaucratic agencies 108, 123 207, 209-211, 217-221, 224-227, 229, 234, 255,
264, 270, 272
C
D
Cardinal Free Clinics 156-157, 159, 163, 167, 172, 175
Career Advising 233-234, 236 Didactic 18, 157-160, 162-164, 171, 173, 175, 220
Collaborative Consultation 65, 67-72, 82, 84, 86-88 Direct Service-Learning 88, 118, 120, 122
Collaborative Consultation S-L 72, 88 Diversity 20-23, 25-26, 28-30, 32-34, 38, 60, 69, 85,
collectivism 213, 222, 230 90, 101, 124, 135-138, 154, 165-167, 173, 220,
College Advising 233 235, 239, 243-245, 251
Communication 1-2, 4, 6-7, 10-11, 13, 15-16, 26, 28,
31, 34-36, 38-44, 48, 50-54, 69, 74-78, 80, 83-84, E
89, 92, 94, 107, 109, 111, 113, 117, 119, 123, 133,
135-136, 140-143, 148-150, 152-153, 158-160, East Asia 213, 225-226
162, 170, 178-180, 182-183, 191, 198, 200-201, Education 1-5, 11-12, 14-22, 24-25, 27-33, 35-38, 40,
206, 211, 214, 218, 228, 235-237, 241, 243, 245, 42-55, 58-68, 71, 82, 84-93, 97, 104-107, 109-117,
249, 252, 258-259, 284, 286 120, 123-126, 133-134, 136, 138, 140-142, 150-
Community building 108, 168, 215, 220 156, 158, 160, 164-165, 169-182, 184, 186-200,
Community cultural wealth 156-157, 159-160, 162, 207-211, 213-217, 219, 221-224, 226-239, 242,
168, 172, 174-175 244-261, 263-264, 271-273
Community cultural wealth typology 157, 172, 175 Emerging Trends 27-28, 33, 154
Community Engagement 16, 19, 21, 25-26, 37, 42, 57, Empathy 12, 21-22, 24, 28-29, 34-36, 39-40, 42-44,
66, 78, 85, 111, 113, 124-125, 134-135, 153-154, 46, 48-60, 63-64, 87, 105, 136, 149, 155, 197,
160, 167, 182, 184, 204, 207, 209, 217, 219-222, 214, 219, 222-224



 Index

E-Service-Learning 233-234, 236-237, 250, 256, 260 I

Experience 4, 6, 15, 17, 19, 21, 23-24, 26, 31-38, 41-
42, 44, 46-49, 54, 56-59, 65-66, 68, 72, 75-79, Inclusivity 20-23, 25-26, 29-30, 33, 41, 55-58, 238
81, 83, 85, 92-95, 100, 104-106, 109-111, 113- Indirect Service-Learning 88, 119
114, 119-124, 131-133, 135-138, 141, 146-147, Instructional Approaches 65-68, 72, 82, 84, 184
151-154, 159-161, 163-171, 176, 178, 182, 184, Intercultural Awareness 133-134, 141, 143-146, 149-
188, 195-199, 202-206, 209, 211-212, 218, 220, 151, 153, 155
222-223, 228-230, 232, 235, 238-239, 241-243, international education 32, 89, 91, 97, 104, 106-107,
247, 253, 257-258, 261-262, 264-267, 269-270, 252, 254, 256
273-274 Internship 197, 212, 220, 222
Experiential learning 3-4, 11, 16, 21, 33, 36-37, 42, Italy 89-90, 92, 95, 104, 107, 229
46, 87, 89, 92, 104, 106, 108, 110, 114-117, 126,
132, 135, 154, 156-157, 163, 173-175, 177-178, L
192, 206, 211, 218, 221, 232, 252
Learner-Centered S-L 88
F Life 24, 30-33, 35-40, 42, 44, 48, 50, 52, 58, 70, 72,
81, 97, 101, 110, 119, 138, 143, 145-147, 154,
Family and Consumer Sciences 65-66, 84, 86-88 158, 166, 177, 195-200, 202, 204-205, 207, 209-
Field education 17, 195, 211 211, 213-214, 216-217, 226, 228, 231, 236, 239,
First-Generation College Students 233-234, 236-239, 241-242, 257
245, 247-250, 252-253 Life Skills 35-40, 42, 44, 48, 58, 81, 119, 214

G M
Global Citizenship 31, 133, 143-144, 147, 153-154, Marketing 19, 202, 262-267, 269-279, 284-288
233-234, 236-237, 244-252, 255-256, 258-259 Marketing plan 261-262, 264-267, 269-270, 272, 274-
Global Competence 133, 143-145, 149, 245 279, 285, 287-288
Global Perspectives 20, 28, 32-33, 99, 244, 250 Mentoring 104, 118, 165, 173, 233-234, 236, 238,
Global Service-Learning 125, 133-137, 139-140, 151, 241-242, 246-247, 249-251, 256-260
153-154 Mindfulness 8, 45-64, 224
Government 108-109, 111-112, 115, 118-120, 122-123, Multidisciplinary 1, 3-19, 89-90, 108-109, 115, 118,
125, 132, 140, 167, 225 258
Guided Discovery 65, 67-68, 74, 76, 82-85, 88
Guided Discovery S-L 88 P
H People-Centered Sciences 65, 67-69, 72, 78, 82, 88
Personal Well-being 35, 38, 42, 44, 52
Heroic discourse 156-157, 159, 175 Projects 1-3, 5-7, 9-12, 14, 16, 23, 27, 32, 36, 39, 41-42,
Higher Education 1-5, 12, 14-22, 24-25, 27, 29-33, 53, 55, 65-68, 70-72, 74-76, 78-81, 83, 89, 93-94,
35-37, 42-47, 49, 51-54, 58-60, 64-66, 68, 82, 100, 103-104, 109, 113, 116, 118-120, 122-123,
84-88, 90, 104-105, 109-110, 112, 124-126, 130, 136, 138-141, 146, 150-153, 164-165, 167,
134, 150, 152, 154-156, 173, 176-178, 180-183, 169-171, 177-185, 188, 191, 193, 195, 197-203,
188-189, 193, 196, 207-211, 213-217, 219, 221- 205-209, 214, 217, 219-224, 226-227, 236-237,
224, 227-239, 242, 244-246, 248-256, 258-261, 252, 258, 265, 269-270, 272, 274, 276
263, 271-273
Holistic education paradigms 45, 59, 64 R
Hong Kong 30-31, 33, 211, 213-215, 217-218, 220-
229, 231-232, 256 Reflection 4, 10, 16, 21-25, 31, 37, 39, 41-43, 45, 49-
50, 55, 59, 61, 67, 69, 72, 74-76, 84, 90, 109-110,
119, 131-132, 135, 137, 149, 154, 157-161, 164-
166, 172, 195-196, 206, 212, 218, 234-235, 281

340
Index

Reflective assignments 1-2, 9-10 174-175

Research-Based Service-Learning 88, 119 Strategies 1-2, 6, 9, 13, 25-27, 31, 34, 39, 41, 45-46,
Resilience 10, 12, 27, 35, 38-40, 42-44, 51, 53-54, 60 50, 52-54, 56-58, 84, 121, 204, 211, 229, 241-243,
Rwanda 133-134, 136-142, 144-155, 221 255, 264-265, 274-275, 284, 286
study abroad 89-93, 95, 97, 99-100, 104-107, 133,
S 135-138, 140-141, 144, 147-149, 151-152, 234
Surveys 1, 8, 10, 32, 34, 56-58, 62, 102, 107, 119,
Service 1-18, 20-33, 35-39, 41-49, 54-59, 61, 64, 66, 164, 166, 221
69, 72-77, 81-83, 85-90, 92-94, 99-100, 104-
111, 115-116, 119-126, 132, 134-136, 139-143, T
146-147, 152-153, 155, 157-165, 167, 171-173,
176-201, 203-227, 229-231, 234-237, 249-250, Teaching 11, 13, 16, 18, 23, 25, 30-31, 46, 48, 60-61,
256, 259-277, 279, 281 64, 70, 81, 84, 86, 92, 105, 108-110, 114, 123,
Service Dominant Logic 261 126, 141, 151, 153, 155, 160-161, 169-170, 173-
Service Learning 1-18, 20-33, 35-39, 41-49, 54-59, 175, 177, 181, 183, 185-187, 190-191, 193-194,
61, 64, 72-73, 81, 85-89, 92, 105-107, 109-110, 196-197, 199-200, 203-204, 207-209, 211, 214,
115, 121, 124-126, 153, 155-165, 167, 171, 173, 216, 219, 222, 228, 231, 233-234, 241, 244, 248-
176-177, 179, 182-184, 187-190, 195-196, 198, 249, 251, 255-256, 258-265, 267, 271
200, 204, 207-211, 213-227, 229-231, 234, 237, Transformative Learning Theory 21, 23, 25, 36-37,
249-250, 259-260, 262-263, 265, 271-273 45, 49, 58-59, 63-64
Service Learning in Turkish Higher Education 176, 188 Transformative Potential 20, 33
Service orientation 261-262, 264, 266-270, 274 Turkish Educational Context 176, 183, 188
Service-Dominant Logic 263, 271, 273-274
Service-learning 3, 6-7, 12, 14, 16-19, 23-25, 27-33, U
39, 41, 43-44, 46-47, 50-55, 58, 65-66, 68-70, 73,
77, 81, 84-95, 97, 104-126, 132-143, 146-158, UCA Faculty Fellows Program 88
160-173, 175, 179, 182, 184, 187, 189-190, 203, University of Central Arkansas 65-66, 88, 108, 133, 155
205, 207-211, 216-217, 219, 221, 223-224, 227-
229, 231, 234-236, 249, 251, 254, 258, 260-267, V
269-271, 273-275
Service-Learning Implementation 65 Virtual Partnerships 15
Singapore 211, 213-215, 217-220, 222-226, 229-231, Volunteering 84-85, 112, 121, 124-125, 163-164, 166,
260 168, 172, 178, 187, 195, 200, 205, 212
Social identity 156-157, 160-162, 165, 171, 174-175
social innovation initiatives 213-218, 220-226 Y
Social marketing 261, 263, 265-267, 269, 272-273,
275-278, 285 Youth voice 195, 205
Socio-scientific issues 212
Stanford University 156-159, 161, 163, 170, 172,

341