Co DISK

INCLUDED

ENVIRONMENTAL
5

ENGINEERING
Meevesign Approach

ARCADIO P. SINCERO
GREGORIA A. SINCERO
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1996

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a
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
A Design Approach

ATCaAdioO ee inceronot DOC Le

Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering
Morgan State University

Gregoria A. Sincero, M. Eng., P.E.

Water Resources Engineer IV
Maryland Department of the Environment

Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Sincero, Arcadio Pacquiao.
Environmental engineering: a design approach / Arcadio Pacquiao
Sincero, Gregoria Alivio Sincero.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-02-410564-3
1. Environmental engineering. I. Sincero, Gregoria Alivio.
Me iaitle:
TD146.S54 1996
628- -dc20 95-19010
CW
Acquisitions editor: Bill Stenquist
Editorial/production supervision: Barbara Marttine Cappuccio
Editorial assistant: Meg Weist
Copyeditor: Barbara Zeiders
Cover design: Jayne Conte
Manufacturing buyer: Donna Sullivan

© 1996 by Arcadio P. Sincero and Gregoria A. Sincero

Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Simon & Schuster/A Viacom Company
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458

The author and publisher of this book have used their best efforts in preparing this book. These
efforts include the development, research, and testing of the theories and programs to determine their
effectiveness. The author and publisher make no warranty of any kind, expressed or implied, with
regard to these programs or the documentation contained in this book. The author and publisher shall
not be liable in any event for incidental or consequential damages in connection with, or arising out of,
the furnishing performance, or use of these programs.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be

reproduced, in any form or by any means,
without permission in writing from the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America

LOG OS 57 26 Seale

ISBN N-2-4a05Gu-3V

Prentice-Hall International (UK) Limited, London

Prentice-Hall of Australia Pty. Limited, Sydney
Prentice-Hall Canada Inc., Toronto
Prentice-Hall Hispanoamericana, S.A., Mexico
Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi
Prentice-Hall of Japan, Inc., Tokyo
Simon & Schuster Asia Pte. Ltd., Singapore
Editora Prentice-Hall do Brasil, Ltda., Rio de Janeiro
 Contents

PREFACE

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

1 INTRODUCTION
Environmental Engineering |

Coverage 2
Environmental Chemistry and Biology, 2
Environmental Hydrology, 2
Environmental Hydraulics, and Pneumatics, 3
Environmental Quality Modeling, 3
Water Treatment, 3
Wastewater Treatment, 3
Pollution from Combustion and Atmospheric Pollution, 3
Solid Waste Management, 3
Air Pollution Control, 4
Hazardous Waste Management and Risk Management, 4
6/97
Noise Pollution and Control, 4

Environmental Tragedies and Legislations 4

Glossary 6

Bibliography 6
iv Contents

2 ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY AND BIOLOGY ie

Pathogens and Indicator Organisms 7

Test for the Coliform Group 8

Qualitative Tests, 9
Quantitative Tests, 10

Drinking Water Standards 14

Turbidity, 15
Color, 16
Taste and Odor, 16
Temperature, 16
Chlorides, 17
Fluorides, 17
Tron and Manganese, 17
Lead and Copper, 18
Nitrate, 18
Sodium, 18
Sulfate, 18
Zinc, 18

Some SWDA Regulatory Requirements 19

Equivalents and Equivalent Weights 19

Microbial Thermodynamics 22

Biological Combustion 29
Chemistry of the Anaerobic Process 33

Wastewater Characteristics 37
Calculation of BOD, 40

Solubility Product Constant 42

Eutrophication 43
The Kinetics of Eutrophication, 46

Glossary 53

Symbols 55

Problems 55
Bibliography 59

3 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY 60

Surface Water Hydrology 60

Precipitation, 62
Surface Runoff: Rational Method, 69
Contents

Reservoirs 74
Sizing of Impounding Reservoirs and Low-Flow Analysis, 75

Groundwater Hydrology 77
Underground Waters, 77
Well Hydraulics, 79

Contamination of Groundwater 84
Injection-Well Disposal Contamination, 86

Control of Groundwater Pollution 86

Coefficient of Retardation, 91

Glossary 93
Symbols 94
Problems 95
Bibliography 98

4 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING HYDRAULICS

AND PNEUMATICS

Water Supply and Distribution of Water 99

Collection of Water, 99
Transmission of Water, 100
Distribution System, 101
Water Quantity Requirements, 102
Water Pressure Requirements, 106
Distribution Reservoirs, 108
Fire-Flow Requirements, 110
Synthesis of the Maximum Day, 112
Hydraulics of the Distribution System, 113
Design Period, 120

Collection of Wastewater 120

Quantity of Sewage, 122
Self-Cleaning Hydraulics of Sewers, 124
Design Period, 129

Pneumatic Systems 129

Hood, 130
Enclosures, 137
Duct System, 138

Pumping Stations 144

Pump Scaling Laws, 146
Pump Specific Speed, 150
Pumping Station Heads, 150
Net Positive Suction Head, 154
Pumping Station Head Analysis, 156
vi Contents

Glossary 158

Symbols 161

Problems 162

Bibliography 166

5 INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY MODELING 167

General Pollutant Material Balance 168

Surface Water Quality Modeling 168

Material Derivative, D(ncg)Dt 171
Complete Material Balance Equations, 174
Transport Terms and Determination of Dispersion,
Coefficients, 175
Ey from a Natural Tracer, 178
General Values of Dispersion Coefficients, 179
Kinetic Transformation Term, kcg, 180
DO Sag, 187

Subsurface Water Quality Modeling 198

Groundwater Quality Modeling, 198
Vadose Zone Water Quality Modeling, 204

Air Quality Modeling 209

Lapse Rates and Dispersion, 210
Plume Model, 213

Glossary 217

Symbols 219

Problems 221

Bibliography 224

6 CONVENTIONAL WATER TREATMENT 225

Raw Water 227

Settling or Sedimentation 227

Type 1 Settling, 228
Type 2 Settling, 234
Type 3 and Type 4 Settling, 237

Settling Operations 237

Filtration 242
Filter Medium Specification, 243
Contents vii

Filter Head Loss, 246

Filter Head Loss Due to Deposited Materials, 250
Filter Backwashing, 256

Coagulation 260
Coagulant Aids, 262
Jar Test, 262

Rapid-Mix and Flocculation 265

Water Softening 273

Types of Hardness, 274
Softening of Carbonate Hardness of Calcium, 274
Softening of Noncarbonate Hardness of Calcium, 275
Softening of Carbonate Hardness of Magnesium, 275
Softening of Noncarbonate Hardness of Magnesium, 275
Order of Removal, 276
Role of Natural CO2 in Removal, 276
Excess Treatment and Stabilization, 276
Notes on Equivalent Weights, 277
Split Treatment, 281

Disinfection 286
Disinfectants, 256
Available Chlorine, 290

Glossary 291

Symbols 292

Problems 294

Bibliography 298

7 CONVENTIONAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT 299

Effluent Standards 300

Primary Treatment 301

Grit Chamber Cross-Sections, 305
Primary Sedimentation, 308

Secondary Treatment 312

Kinetics of Growth and Food Utilization, 312
Culture Systems in Practical Applications, 313
The Activated Sludge System, 315
Trickling Filters, Biotowers, and RBCs, 324

Principles of Aeration 331

Equipment Specification, 333
Determination of Aeration Parameters, 334
viii Contents

Effluent Disposal 342

Diffuser Calculations, 342
Hydraulic Profile Calculations, 346

Glossary 349

Symbols 351

Problems 353

Bibliography 357

8 SLUDGE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 358

Overview of Sludge Treatment 358

Mass—Volume Relationships 364

Secondary Clarification and Gravity Thickening 368
Flotation, 371

Aerobic Digestion 375

Anaerobic Digestion 378

Cake Filtration 380

Determination of a, 381
Design Cake Filtration Equation, 382
Determination of Cake Filtration Parameters, 383

Composting 386

Sludge Disposal 386

Fertilizing Value of Sludge, 388
Objections to the Use of Sludge, 390

Glossary 393
Symbols 394

Problems 395

Bibliography 398

9 ADVANCED WASTEWATER AND WATER TREATMENT

AND LAND TREATMENT SYSTEMS 400

Carbon Adsorption 400

Adsorption Capacity, 401
Bed Adsorption, 405

Ion Exchange 410

Sodium and Hydrogen Cycle, 410
Contents

Production of Pure Water, 412

Design of Bed Exchangers, 412

Membrane Processes 413

Electrodialysis Membrane Process, 413
Power Requirement of Electrodialysis Units, 414
Pressure Membrane Processes, 416
Membrane Performance Characterization, 421

Nutrient Removal 428

Nitrogen Removal, 428
Phosphorus Removal, 446

Land Treatment Systems 449

Irrigation, Rapid Infiltration, and Overland Flow,
Systems, 449
Wetland Treatment System, 452
Septic Tank—Leaching Field System, 453
Design and Operating Parameters, 454

Glossary 458

Symbols 459

Problems 461

Bibliography 466

10 POLLUTION FROM COMBUSTION AND ATMOSPHERIC

POLLUTION 467

Rapid Combustion 467

Basic Elements Affecting Rapid Combustion, 473
Kinetics ofNO Formation and Ideal Combustion,
Temperature, 473
NO, Equilibrium Away from Combustion Zone, 477
Generalized Fate of Fuel Components in Rapid,
Combustion, 479

Automotive Emission Control 485

Control of Hydrocarbon Emissions, 458
Control of CO, 491
Control of NO, Emissions, 492

Atmospheric Pollution 492

Photochemical Smog, 492

Acid Rain 501

Destruction of the Ozone Layer 503

Greenhouse Effect 508

x Contents

Glossary 512

Symbols 513

Problems 513
Bibliography 516

11 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT MVE

Solid Waste Terminology 517

Solid Waste Characteristics 518

Generation Rates, 518
Solid Waste Components, 519
Moisture Content of Solid Waste, 521
Density of Solid Wastes, 522
Proximate and Ultimate Analyses and Energy Content of
Solid Wastes, 524

Solid Waste Collection and Transportation 528

Hauled-Container System, 528
Stationary-Container System, 530
Layout of Collection Routes, 534
Solid Waste Transfer Stations and Transportation, 536

Solid Waste Processing and Recovery 538

Recycling, 538
Processing for Recovery of Materials for Recycling, 539
Processing for Recovery of Materials for Direct Manufacture
of Solid Waste Products, 543
Electrical Energy Recovery, 545
Incineration, 548

Disposal of Solid Wastes 548

Landfilling Methods, 548
Basic Aspects in Landfill Implementation, 551

Glossary 573

Symbols 576

Problems 578

Bibliography 581

12 AIR POLLUTION CONTROL 582

Types of Pollutants 582

Sources of Pollutants 585

Contents xi

Types of Control 586

Particulate Control, 586
Control of Gaseous Pollutants, 625

Indoor Air Pollution Control 639

Glossary 646

Symbols 647

Problems 650

Bibliography 654

13 HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT AND RISK

ASSESSMENT 656

Types of Hazardous Wastes 657

Ignitability, 657
Corrosivity, 657
Reactivity, 657
Toxicity, 658
Radioactivity, 658

Health Effects 663

Radioactive Wastes, 663

Nuclear Fission 664

Cradle-to-Grave Management 665

Treatment Methods 666

Neutralization, 667
Oxidation-Reduction, 668
Precipitation, 665
Solidification and Stabilization, 668
Incineration, 668

Final Disposal 672

Final Disposal of Radioactive Wastes, 672

Risk Assessment 673

Carcinogenesis, 674
Dose-Response Assessment, 674
Risk Exposure Assessment, 678

Glossary 681

Problems 683

Bibliography 685
xii Contents

14 NOISE POLLUTION AND CONTROL 686

Sound Pressure, Power, and Intensity 686

Sound Pressure, 686
Sound Power, 688
Sound Intensity, 689

Measures of Noise 690

Relationships Among Intensity, Pressure, and Power,
Levels, 692

How Do We Hear 692

Loudness 694

Measurement of Noise 697

Frequency Band Analysis, 697
Decibel Addition, 700
Miscellaneous Measures of Noise, 702

Outdoor Noise Propagation 715

Attenuating Factors, 717

Indoor Noise Propagation 722

Noise Transmission Through Ducts, 723
Noise Transmission Through Partitions, 727

Noise Control Criteria 728

Noise Control 731

Vibration Control, 739

Glossary 743
Symbols 746
Problems 748
Bibliography 752

APPENDIX 1: ATOMIC WEIGHTS OF THE ELEMENTS BASED

ON C-12 753

APPENDIX 2: SATURATION VALUES OF DISSOLVED OXYGEN

EXPOSED TO SATURATED ATMOSPHERE AT 1 ATMOSPHERE
PRESSURE 755

APPENDIX 3: SDWA ACRONYMS 756

APPENDIX 4: SAMPLE DRINKING WATER VOC VALUES 157

APPENDIX 5: SAMPLE DRINKING WATER SOC AND IOC

VALUES 758
Contents xiii

APPENDIX 6: DISINFECTANT CHEMICALS AND

BY-PRODUCTS 759

APPENDIX 7: MICROBIOLOGICAL AND RADIONUCLIDE

CONTAMINANTS AND SECONDARY MCL VALUES FOR A
NUMBER OF SUBSTANCES 760

APPENDIX 8: SOME PRIMARY DRINKING-WATER CRITERIA 761

APPENDIX 9: SOME SECONDARY DRINKING-WATER

CRITERIA 762

APPENDIX 10: PHYSICAL CONSTANTS 762

APPENDIX 11: CONVERSION FACTORS 763

APPENDIX 12: ENVIRONMENTAL TRAGEDIES 765

APPENDIX 13: ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATIONS IN THE

UNITED STATES 767

APPENDIX 14: USEPA OFFICES 769

APPENDIX 15: ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS 769

APPENDIX 16: RELATIVE ROUGHNESS OF VARIOUS KINDS

OF NEW PIPES ite

APPENDIX 17: MOODY DIAGRAM 773

APPENDIX 18: DENSITY AND DYNAMIC VISCOSITY OF

WATER 774

APPENDIX 19: DENSITY AND DYNAMIC VISCOSITY OF AIR 775

APPENDIX 20: GAUSS-GREEN DIVERGENCE THEOREM 775

APPENDIX 21: REYNOLDS TRANSPORT THEOREM 776

APPENDIX 22: LITERATURE ON WAT25 AND ITS

INSTRUCTIONS 1/9
Running WAT vy. 2.5 780

WAT v. 2.5 Source Code and Compiling 782

INDEX 783
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 Preface

This book is intended for junior and senior students in undergraduate engineering who
are required to take the environmental engineering course. Practicing engineers as well as
students and professors in graduate schools may also find this book useful as a reference
or as a textbook. The book could be covered in three semesters at three credits per
semester. For schools offering only one or two courses in environmental engineering
this book gives the instructor the liberty of picking the particular topics required in a
given curriculum design. At Morgan State University, for example, this book is used in
two environmental engineering courses. One is in the junior year when the student has
already passed fluid mechanics and general chemistry, and the other in the senior year.
Only relevant topics in appropriate chapters as required by the curriculum in the civil
engineering department of this institution are picked for classroom discussions. It is a
requirement that students have passed a fluid mechanics course before using this book.
Essentially all aspects of environmental engineering—water and wastewater, envi-
ronmental hydrology, environmental hydraulics and pneumatics, air, solid waste, noise,
environmental modeling, hazardous waste—are covered. It is therefore ideal for courses
in environmental engineering, where a grounding in the principles of the overall disci-
pline of environmental engineering as they relate to design is desired. Both principles
and design are taught in this book. Principles are enunciated in the simplest way pos-
sible. Equations presented are first derived, except those that are obtained empirically.
Statements such as “It can be shown ...” are not used. The intent is to impart the
principles and concept of the subject matter, which may not be done by using it-can-be-
shown statements. In addition, nobody can guarantee remembering how “it can be be

XV
Xvi Preface

shown ...,” and when a book includes so many “it can be showns,” reading it becomes
very frustrating, especially when the reader is in doubt and has no way to know whether
or not the equations presented are correct. After principles are presented, example prob-
lems follow that illustrate the techniques of design using the concept presented. Each
chapter includes numerous problems that can be worked out by students and assigned
as homework by the instructor. Some of these problems may be assigned as computer
homework.
In the environmental profession, environmental modeling is a fragmented discipline.
People in the water quality area have their own water quality models; people in the
groundwater quality area have their own groundwater models; and people in the air
quality area have their own air quality models. Modelers in one area are normally not
comfortable to do modeling in another area simply because they have not been exposed
in these other areas. In Chapter 5 we show that these areas are all related and that
modeling is based simply on the conservation principle. The unifying concept behind the
conservation principle is the Reynolds transport theorem.
The unifying concept approach is also applied to settling and cake filtration. The
theory of settling is derived in Chapter 6, the result also being applied in Chapter 7.
However, since settling is simply the falling down of particles in response to a force
field, the theory is also applied to the “settling” of particles in cyclones and electrostatic
precipitators, as well as of particulates in airflow settling chambers. The theory of cake
filtration, derived in Chapter 8, is also applied to determine the pressure drop across
reverse Osmosis membranes and pressure drops across dust cakes in baghouse filters.
Equivalents and equivalent weights are two troublesome and confusing subjects.
If the chemistry or environmental engineering literature were reviewed, these subjects
will be found not to be well explained. Equivalents and equivalent weights in a unified
fashion are explained herein using the concept of reference species.
There are two prerequisites for this book: a course in general chemistry and a
course in fluid mechanics. The fluid mechanics requirement is heavily stressed, since this
book may not be used by students who have not had the course. To study Chapter 14, the
reader must have completed the sound component of physics. In general, no chapter of
the book is a prerequisite for subsequent chapters.
Portions of Chapters 5, 6, 7, and 12 require background knowledge of the Reynolds
transport theorem. It is strongly suggested that students be thoroughly grounded in this
theorem before attempting to discuss the material covered in these chapters. Under-
standing would be very difficult without this background knowledge. This theorem is
discussed in any good book on fluid mechanics and is also discussed in Appendix 21.
As with any other textbook, some errors may have slipped through. Readers are
encouraged to bring any errors or omissions to the attention of the author or the publisher.
 Acknowledgments

No author can take entire credit for publishing a book. In one way or another, many
people have helped me in seeing this book to completion.
I acknowledge Bill Stenquist, executive editor at Prentice Hall, who put his trust in
my abilities and whose criticisms helped shape this book. I also acknowledge the panel of
reviewers; their criticisms helped to make the book better. Meg Weist, editorial assistant
at Prentice Hall, was always very helpful in every way during the course of this project. I
also acknowledge the extraordinary effort made by the executive editor and the production
editors, Barbara M. Cappuccio and Jennifer Wenzel, in pushing to meet the publishing
deadline. My thanks also go to members of the editorial, production, marketing, and
manufacturing departments who helped to meet the publishing schedule. The copy editor,
Barbara Zeiders, has made an extraordinary effort in editing the manuscript.
The book was written during my tenure at Morgan State University. I acknowledge
the administrators of this institution, in particular, Dr. Earl S. Richardson, president;
Dr. Clara I. Adams, vice president for academic affairs; Dr. Eugene M. DeLoatch, dean
of the School of Engineering; and Dr. Lewis P. Clopton, chairman of the Department of
Civil Engineering. I make special mention of a colleague, Dr. Robert Johnson, who was
Acting Chairman of the Department of Civil Engineering when I came on board.
I would like to thank the following people who reviewed this book: Rodney
A. James, Montana College of Mineral Science and Technology; Howard M. Liljestrand,
University of Texas, Austin; Tim Keener, University of Cincinatti; Stephan J. Nix, Syra-
cuse University; Neil J. Hutzler, Michigan Technological University; C. David Cooper,

xvii
XViii Acknowledgments

University of Central Florida; Donald E. Modesitt, University of Missouri-Rolla; and

Gene F. Parkin, University of Iowa.
This acknowledgment would not be complete if I did not mention three of my
former professors who helped me in a large number of ways: Dr. Roscoe F. Ward, Dr.
Rolf T. Skrinde, and Prof. Mainwaring B. Pescod. Dr. Ward was formerly dean and is
now professor in the School of Applied Science at Miami University. Dr. Skrinde is
a professor of civil/environmental engineering at Seattle University. Prof. Pescod was
(and probably still is) a professor at the University of New Castle upon Tyne, U.K. They
were my professors at the Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, where I earned my
master’s degree in environmental engineering.
I acknowledge my wife, Gregoria, for writing Chapter 11 on solid waste manage-
ment, and my students, especially two former students, Al-Nisa Montague and Della
Morrison, for their helpful suggestions and proofreading of parts of the chapters on water
and wastewater treatment.
Appendix 22 is a guide to the literature on and instructions for the use of the water
quality model computer program WAT25. WAT25 is an improved version of FREE1P5,
a water quality model for discharge into free-flowing streams written by this author. (The
original of FREE1P5 was TI-59, the model used to set discharge limits for all sewage
treatment plants in the state of Maryland.) My sons, Roscoe and Arcadio, wrote WAT25,
which can now model discharge into both free-flowing streams and one-dimensional
tidal waters (such as one-dimensional estuaries). Whereas inputting and revision of input
into FREEIP5 were difficult, these tasks are now very simple and easy using WAT25.
Designed to be interactive, the model is very easy to run and can handle any number of
discharges and stations, depending only on the amount of disk space on the diskette or
hard drive. The diskette provided with this book contains the source code in QuickBASIC
v. 4.5 and the executable version (WAT25.EXE) of the model.
I dedicate this book to members of my family: Gregoria, my wife; Roscoe and
Arcadio Jr., my sons; the late Gaudiosa Pacquiao Sincero, my mother; Santiago, my
father; the late Aguido Alivio and the late Teodora Managase Alivio, my father-in-law
and mother-in-law, respectively; Meliton, my brother; Anelda and Feliza, my sisters; and
Col. Miguel M. Alivio, M.D., of the armed forces of the Philippines, my brother-in-law.

Arcadio P. Sincero
Morgan State University
 About the Authors

Gregoria A. Sincero is a senior level Water Resources Engineer in the Maryland De-
partment of the Environment. She was also a former professor at the Cebu Institute of
Technology, Philippines. She holds a Bachelor’s degree in Chemical Engineering from
the Cebu Institute of Technology and a Master’s degree in Environmental Engineering
from the Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand. She is a registered Profes-
sional Engineer in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. She is a member of the American
Water Works Association.
Mrs. Sincero has practical experience both in engineering and governmental regu-
lations. She was a Senior Chemist/Microbiologist in the Ashburton Filters of Baltimore
City. In the state of Maryland, she was a Water Resource Engineer in the Water Resources
Administration, Department of Natural Resources and a Water Resources Engineer in the
Office of Environmental Programs, Department of Health and Medical Hygiene, before
joining in her present position.

Arcadio P. Sincero is Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering at Morgan State

University, Baltimore, Maryland, where he is coordinator for courses in environmental
and hydraulic engineering. He was also a former professor at the Cebu Institute of
Technology, Philippines. He has a Bachelor’s degree in Chemical Engineering from the
Cebu Institute of Technology, a Master’s degree in Environmental Engineering from the
Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, and a Doctor of Science degree in Environmental
Engineering from the George Washington University. He is a registered professional
engineer in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and in the state of Maryland. He is a

xix
XX About the Authors

Member of the American Society of Civil Engineers, a Member of the American Institute
of Chemical Engineers, a member of the Water Environment Federation, a member of the
Asian Society of Environmental Protection, and a member of the American Association
of University Professors.
Dr. Sincero has a wide variety of practical experiences. He was a shift supervisor
in a copper processing plant and a production foreman in a corn starch processing plant
in the Philippines. He was a CPM (Critical Path Method) Planner in a construction
management firm and a Public Works Engineer in the City of Baltimore. In the State
of Maryland, he was a Public Health Engineer in the Bureau of Air Quality and Noise
Control, Department of Health and Mental Hygiene; a Water Resources Engineer in the
Water Resources Administration, Department of Natural Resources; a Water Resources
Engineer in the Office of Environmental Programs, Department of Health and Mental
Hygiene; and a Water Resources Engineer in the Water Management Admininstration,
Maryland Department of the Environment (MDE). His last position for the State of Mary-
land was as a Chief of Permits Division of the Construction Grants and Permits Program
of the Water Management Administration at MDE. These practical experiences have al-
lowed Dr. Sincero to gain a wide range of environmental engineering and regulatory
experiences: air, water, solid waste, and environmental quality modeling.
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

This chapter is a brief introduction to the book. Environmental engineering is defined and
the important topics of environmental engineering covered in the book are discussed. En-
vironmental legislation that has been passed in the United States and some environmental
tragedies are also mentioned briefly.

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

What is environmental engineering? The answer to this question must be tied to the
definition of engineering itself. Engineering may be defined as the application, under
constraints of scientific principles to the planning, design, construction, and operation
of structures, equipment, and systems for the benefit of society. If the tasks performed
by environmental engineers were examined, it would be found that the engineers deal
with structures, equipment, and systems that are designed to protect and enhance the
quality of the environment and to protect and enhance public health and welfare. For
example, the environmental engineer plans, designs, constructs, and operates sewage
treatment plants to prevent the pollution of receiving streams. In other words, these
structures are built to protect and enhance water quality. The environmental engineer
also builds and operates water treatment plants. Clean, bacteriologically safe drinking
water protects and enhances public health. Environmental engineers plan, design, con-
struct, and operate air pollution control equipment. The resulting cleaner air is conducive
 2 Introduction Chap. 1

to people’s good health and prevents the deterioration of materials through the harm-
ful effects of air pollution. Such equipment thus protects and enhances public health
and welfare.
All these activities are performed by environmental engineers under constraints,
which may involve shortage of funds, political pressure, inadequate space in which to
build the structures, social and racial considerations, and similar considerations that limit
the freedom of design. Environmental engineering will now be defined as the applica-
tion of engineering principles, under constraint, to the protection and enhancement of
the quality of the environment and to the enhancement and protection of public health
and welfare.
Traditionally, environmental engineering has been the province of the civil engi-
neering profession. Before 1968, this branch of engineering was called the sanitary
engineering option of civil engineering in the United States and in countries with colo-
nial ties to the United States such as the Philippines, where it was a specialized study
after graduation as a civil engineer. In Great Britain and in countries with colonial ties
to Great Britain, such as India, this profession was called public health engineering.
Around 1968, the name sanitary engineering or public health engineering was changed
to environmental engineering.

COVERAGE

In this book we address the following important topics of environmental engineering: en-
vironmental chemistry and biology, environmental hydrology, environmental hydraulics
and pneumatics, water treatment, wastewater treatment, solid waste management, air pol-
lution control, hazardous waste management and risk assessment, noise pollution and
control, and environmental quality modeling.

Environmental Chemistry and Biology

Chemistry and biology are huge disciplines in themselves. Topics discussed in this
book include those that are of direct relevance to environmental engineering. These
include discussions on pathogens and indicator organisms, tests for the coliform group
of organisms, drinking water standards, equivalents and equivalent weights, microbial
thermodynamics, solubility product constants, biological combustion, chemistry of the
anaerobic process, and eutrophication chemistry.

Environmental Hydrology

Environmental engineers need to design reservoirs and they need to control groundwater
contamination. They may also be needed to design the drainage system of a parking lot,
shopping centers, developments, and the like. In this section we therefore discuss surface
water hydrology, reservoirs, groundwater hydrology, and groundwater contamination.
Coverage 3

Environmental Hydraulics and Pneumatics

Treated water must be distributed to consumers and the resulting spent water must be
collected for conveyance to a sewage treatment plant. Also, pumping stations are needed
for the collection of sewage and the distribution of treated water. In addition, polluted
air from various processes in industry needs to be captured and conveyed to air pollution
control devices. We discuss water supply and distribution, collection and transmission of
water, collection of wastewater, pumping stations, and pneumatic systems.

Environmental Quality Modeling

Mathematical models are developed to determine the effect of discharge on the quality
of the environment. These models include models for surface water quality, air quality,
and groundwater quality.

Water Treatment

Topics include the normal unit processes and operations essential for treating a raw water
source to produce drinkable water. Topics included are settling, filtration, coagulation
and flocculation, water softening, and disinfection. Advanced water treatment is also
discussed.

Wastewater Treatment

Treatment topics discussed include primary, secondary, and advanced treatments. Princi-
ples of aeration and sludge treatment and disposal are also discussed. Advanced treatment
includes nitrification and denitrification and such physical processes as reverse osmosis
and carbon adsorption. Wetland treatment systems are also discussed. Sludge treatment
includes such topics as anaerobic and aerobic sludge treatment as well as cake filtration
and composting.

Pollution from Combustion and Atmospheric Pollution

Topics include discussion of pollutants that result from combustion, such NO,, SO,,
and CO. Automotive emission control, photochemical smog, the NO» photolytic cycle,
acid rain, tropospheric ozone destruction due to CFCs, and greenhouse effects are all
discussed.

Solid Waste Management

The three basic functional elements of solid waste management—collection, processing,

and disposal—are discussed. Five basic aspects in the implementation of sanitary land-
filling are also discussed: site selection, leachate control, gas control, operation plan, and
permit application.
 4 Introduction Chap. 1

Air Pollution Control

In general, the types of control discussed correspond to the type of air pollutants emitted:
gas and particulate. Particulate controls discussed include cyclones, gravitational settling,
electrostatic precipitators, scrubbers, and bagfilters. Gaseous controls include absorption
in towers, adsorption to activated carbon, and incineration. Indoor air pollution is also
discussed.

Hazardous Waste Management and Risk Management

Topics include RCRA (Resource Conservation and Recovery Act) wastes, radioactive
wastes, the hazardous waste transportation and manifest, methods of final disposal of
nuclear wastes, and risk assessment.

Noise Pollution and Control

Methods of noise measurement, noise criteria, and control are discussed. Noise is also
discussed in three types of settings: industrial, community, and airport. Indoor and
outdoor noise propagation is discussed.

ENVIRONMENTAL TRAGEDIES AND LEGISLATIONS

In 1948, Donora, a small town at the bend of the Monongahela River in Pennsylvania
(population 14,000), had three main industrial plants: a steel mill, a wire mill, and a zinc
plating plant. During the last week in October 1948, a weather condition that prevented
mixing of air prevailed in the area, resulting in an air pollution condition called smog. The
smog contained primarily very fine particles admixed with sulfur dioxide. By Wednesday,
the pollution became so intense that a streak of carbon appeared to hang motionless in the
air, and the visibility was so poor that even the natives were lost.' By Friday, doctors’
offices and hospitals were inundated with calls for medical attention. By the end of the
episode, 21 people had died and about 6000 people became ill.
A second notable episode occurred in London, England, in 1952. On Thursday,
December 4 of that year, a high-temperature air mass that hovered over southern England
created adverse, nonmixing air conditions. A fog settled over London and as particulate
and sulfur dioxide rose to higher levels, the atmosphere started to blacken. Visibility was
reduced to zero and ‘a white collar became almost black within 20 minutes.”? Smog
is especially irritating to the respiratory system, and many people developed red eyes,
burning throats, and nagging coughs. The elderly and people with chronic respiratory
problems began to die, as well as otherwise healthy people whose jobs kept them near

'H. H. Schrenk and others (1949). “Air Pollution in Donora, Pa.” U.S. Public Health Service Bulle-
tin 300.
2C. Woolf (1969). Letter to the editor. Archives of Environmental Health, 18(715).
Environmental Tragedies and Legislations 5

the smog. On December 9 when the smog lifted, 4000 Londoners had died. The episode
was enough to move the British to pass the Clean Air Act of 1956. The United States
had passed its Clean Air Act of 1955 a year earlier. From this brief account, control of
air pollution could no longer be ignored. Even so, however, more deaths followed in
London in 1956, 1957, 1959, 1962, and 1963. Even in New York, 200 to 400 people
died of air pollution in 1963.
A third episode worthy of note reflects the effect of hazardous wastes. In 1892,
William T. Love built a canal in Niagara Falls, New York. He intended to use the power
generated from this canal to transform the area into an industrial complex. The proposed
power to be generated by the canal could not compete with the new technology of the
alternating-current electricity; Love’s vision did not materialize. Nevertheless, the canal
was built, although it was never finished. In the 1930s, the Hooker Chemical and Plastic
Corporation, whose products included pesticides, plasticizers, and caustic, began filling
the north end of the canal. Subsequently, other chemical companies began using the
canal as a chemical waste dump. In 1952, Hooker Chemical closed and capped the site.
Residences then began to be built around and on the site, and a school was built on top of
the canal. Part of the site was converted into a park where children amused themselves
with the sparks and explosions from chunks of phosphorus they picked from the ground.
Not long afterward, residents discovered black liquid seeping into their basements. Later,
puddles of chemicals surfaced in backyards. In 1974, one resident found his pool raised
2 feet above ground, pushed by a yellow-, blue-, and orchid-colored groundwater. Soon
thereafter, a woman gave birth to a child with a damaged heart, bone blockages of the
nose, deformed ears, and a cleft palate. Later, the child developed a double row of teeth
on the bottom gumline. Health surveys in the neighborhood revealed that spontaneous
abortions were 250 times above normal, blood tests showed increases in liver damage,
and birth defects were high, including clubfeet, deafness, and mental retardation. High
levels of chemical wastes were found in the groundwater, including benzene, chloroform,
trichloroethylene, trichlorophenol, and seven additional carcinogens. All in all, 22,000
U.S. tons of chemical wastes were deposited in the Love canal over the years. Love
could not have envisioned this tragedy that befell Niagara Falls almost a century after his
time. Clearly, an activity considered beneficial or even heroic today could easily lead to
a disaster tomorrow.
A fourth episode, which focuses on the importance of microbiology, relates to water.
In 1854, Dr. John Snow, a public health worker, discovered that a cholera epidemic was
rampant around the vicinity of a pump on Broad Street in London, England. Even cases
some distance from the pump could be traced back to Broad Street. Because people
of his time did not have any knowledge of the application of microbiology to drinking
water, Snow’s contemporaries did not accept his evidence. It is alleged that he actually
removed the handle of the pump to bring the epidemic to a halt.
Additional environmental tragedies are described in the appendixes, and as this
book is being written many more are occurring in various parts of the world. In an
attempt to prevent the recurrence of such tragedies, laws and regulations have been
passed worldwide. Environmental legislation passed by the U.S. Congress is listed in
Appendix 13, and various offices and branches of the U.S. Environmental Protection
 6 Introduction Chap. 1

Agency are listed in Appendix 14. Passage of such laws and regulations has produced
three types of persons in our society: the environmentalist, who often does not care
about the economy; the industrialist, who often does not care about the environment; and
the Jawyers who are hired by environmentalists and industrialists to help settle disputes.
Better understanding among these groups is another aim of this book.

GLOSSARY

Engineering. The application, under constraints, of scientific principles to the planning,

design, construction, and operation of structures, equipment, and systems for the
benefit of society.
Environmental engineering. The application of engineering principles, under con-
straints, to the protection and enhancement of the quality of the environment and
to the protection and enhancement of public health and welfare.
Public health engineering. An older term for environmental engineering in the United
Kingdom and countries with historical ties to the United Kingdom.
Sanitary engineering. An older term for environmental engineering in the United States
and countries with historical ties to the United States.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

SCHRENK, H. H., and others (1949). “Air Pollution in Donora, Pa.” U.S. Public Health Service
Bulletin 306.
Woo LF, C. (1969). Letter to the editor. Archives of Environmental Health, 18(715).
 CHAPTER 2

Environmental Chemistry
and Biology

In this chapter we discuss the basic chemistry and biology required in the practice of
environmental engineering. The topics include pathogens and indicator organisms, tests
for the coliform group, drinking water standards, biological combustion, chemistry of
the anaerobic process, equivalents and equivalent weights, wastewater characteristics,
kinetics, and others.

PATHOGENS AND INDICATOR ORGANISMS

It is the job of environmental engineers to provide consumers with clear, pathogen-free

water. Treated water must be analyzed to ensure that this is so. Throughout human
history, water has been a source of life as well as a source of death. The body is mostly
H,O, and a large amount of water must be taken in daily, but if the water contains
pathogens, a person could get ill. In the case of the Broad Street pump, when John Snow
removed the handle, the 1854 epidemic of Asiatic cholera in London subsided. Table 2-1
shows some common waterborne pathogens and the diseases they produce.
It is impractical to analyze all the organisms in Table 2-1. In addition, determining
the concentration of pathogenic organisms on a routine basis is a hazard to the analyst.
Moreover, the job would be most time consuming and costly. For these reasons, a
surrogate organism is used to indicate the presence of pathogens. Organisms used for
this purpose are called indicator organisms. An ideal indicator organism must satisfy at
least four requirements: The organism must be present when the pathogen is present, the

7
 8 Environmental Chemistry and Biology Chap. 2

TABLE 2-1 COMMON WATER-BORNE PATHOGENS

Organisms Disease

Viruses
Enteric cytopathogenic human orphan (ECHO) Aseptic meningitis, infantile diarrhea
Poliomyelitis Acute anterior poliomyelitis, infantile paralysis
Unknown viruses Infectious hepatitis
Bacteria
Francisella tularensis Tularemia
Leptospirae Leptospirosis
Salmonella paratyphi Paratyphoid fever
Salmonella typhi Typhoid fever
Shigella Shigellosis (bacillary dysentery)
Vibrio comma (Vibrio cholerae) Cholera
Protozoa
Entamoeba histolytica Amebiasis
Giardia lamblia Giardiasis
Helminths (parasitic worms)
Dracunculus medinensis Dracontiasis
Echinococcus Echinococcosis
Schistosoma Schistosomiasis

organism must be absent when the pathogen is absent, the organism must be cheap to
analyze, and the organism must not itself be a pathogen.
For a person to get diseased, the pathogen must live inside the human body so the
indicator organism itself must come from inside the body. Most of the coliform group
of organisms reside in the alimentary tract. Members of this group have therefore been
used as indicator organisms. The coliform group, which is present in the intestinal tract,
is composed of the genera Escherichia, Aerobacter, Klebsiella, and Paracolobacterium.
When the pathogen is present in a sample of drinking water, the coliform group is thus
also present. This satisfies the first requirement. However, the coliform group may be
present even when the pathogen is absent. At first this may not seem to satisfy the second
requirement; however, close scrutiny would reveal that the presence of the indicator even
when the pathogen is absent is an added factor of safety. In practice, a criterion is set that
if a certain amount of the indicator organisms 1s present, it will be assumed that pathogens
are also present. If the amount of indicator organisms present is less than the criterion,
pathogens are presumed absent. For the third requirement, it is relatively cheaper to ana-
lyze coliforms than to analyze the pathogens themselves. For one thing, only one type of
organism is analyzed rather than the entire range of pathogens. For the fourth requirement,
although some coliforms are infectious, they are generally regarded as nonpathogenic.

TEST FOR THE COLIFORM GROUP

The test for the coliform group may be qualitative or quantitative. As the name implies,
the qualitative test simply attempts to identify the presence or absence of the coliform
group. The quantitative test, on the other hand, quantifies the presence of organisms. In
Test for the Coliform Group 9

all tests, whether qualitative or quantitative, all media, utensils, and the like must be ster-
ilized. This is to preclude unwanted organisms that can affect the results of the analysis.

Qualitative Tests

There are three types of qualitative test: presumptive, confirmed, and completed. These
tests rely on the property of the coliform group to produce a gas during fermentation of
lactose. An inverted small vial is put at the bottom of a fermentation tube. The vial traps
the gas, forming bubbles that indicate positive gas production.
In a presumptive test, a portion of the sample is inoculated into a number of test
tubes containing lactose broths and other ingredients necessary for growth. The tubes are
then incubated at 35 + 0.5°C. Liberation of gases within 24 to 48 + 3 hours indicates a
positive presumptive test. Since organisms other than coliforms can also liberate gases
at this fermentation temperature, a positive presumptive test simply signifies the possible
presence of the coliform group.
An additional test, called a confirmed test, is carried out to confirm the presumptive
test result. The theory behind this test uses the property of the coliforms to ferment lactose
even in the presence of a green dye. Noncoliform organisms cannot ferment lactose in
the presence of this dye. The growth medium is called brilliant green lactose bile broth.
A wire loop from the positive presumptive test is inoculated into fermentation tubes
containing the broth. As in the presumptive test, the tubes are incubated at 35 + 0.5°C.
Liberation of gases within 24 to 48 + 3 hours indicates a positive confirmed test.
The coliform group of organisms comes not only from the intestinal tracts of human
beings but also from the outside surroundings. There are times when the fecal variety
needs to be differentiated from nonfecal forms, as in pollution surveys of a water supply
raw water source. For this and similar situations, the procedure is modified by raising
the incubation temperature to 44.5 + 0.2°C. The broth used is the EC medium, which
still contains lactose. The high incubation temperature precludes the nonfecal forms
from metabolizing the EC medium. Positive test results are heralded by the evolution of
fermentation gases within 24 + 2 hours.
Normally, qualitative tests are conducted up to the confirmed test only. There
may be situations, however, when organisms must actually be seen to be identified.
Both presumptive and confirmed tests are based on circumstantial evidence only, not on
actually seeing the organisms. If desired, a completed test is performed.
In this test, a wire loop from the positive confirmed test fermentation tube is streaked
across either an EMB (eosine methylene blue) or Endo’s agar in prepared petri dishes.
The dishes are then incubated at 35 + 0.5°C for 24 + 2 hours. At the end of this period
the dishes are examined for growth. Typical colonies are growths that exhibit a green
sheen; atypical colonies are light colored and without the sheen. The typical colonies
confirm the presence of the coliform group, while the atypical colonies neither confirm nor
deny their presence. (The EMB or Endo agar method can also be used as an alternative
to the brilliant green lactose bile broth method.)
The typical or atypical colony from the EMB or Endo plate is inoculated into an
agar slant in a test tube and to a fermentation tube containing lactose. If no gas evolves
10 Environmental Chemistry and Biology Chap. 2

within 24 to 48 +3 hours of incubation at 35 + 0.5°C, the completed test is negative. If

gases evolve from the tubes, the growth from the agar slant is smeared into a microscopic
slide and the Gram-stain technique performed. If spores or gram-positive rods are present,
the completed test is negative. If gram-negative rods are present, the completed test is
positive.

Quantitative Tests

In some situations, actual enumerations of the number of organisms present may be

necessary. This is the case, for example, for limitations imposed on a discharge permit.
In general, there are two ways to enumerate coliforms: by either the membrane-filter
or multiple-tube technique. The membrane-filter technique consists of filtering under
vacuum a volume of water through a membrane filter having pore openings of 0.45-jzm,
placing the filter in a petri dish and incubating, and counting the colonies that develop
after incubation. The 0.45-j.4m opening retains the bacteria on the filter. The volume
of sample to be filtered depends on the anticipated bacterial density. Sample volumes
that yield plate counts of 20 to 80 colonies on the petri dish are considered most valid.
The standard volume filtered in potable water analysis is 100 mL. If the anticipated
concentration is high, requiring a smaller volume of sample (such as 20 mL), the sample
must be diluted to disperse the bacteria uniformly. The dispersion will ensure a good
spread of the colonies on the plate for easier counting.
M-Endo medium is used for the coliform group and M-FC medium for fecal coli-
forms. The culture medium is prepared by putting an absorbent pad on a petri dish and
pipetting enough M-Endo or M-FC medium into the pad. After filtration, the membrane
is removed with forceps and placed directly on the pad. The culture is then incubated
at 35 + 0.5°C in the case of the coliform group and at 44.5 + 0.2°C in the case of fecal
coliforms. At the end of the incubation period of 24 + 2 hours, the number of colonies
that developed is counted and reported as number of organisms per 100 mL.
The other method of enumerating coliforms is through use of the multiple-tube tech-
nique. This method is statistical in nature and the result is reported as the most probable
number of organisms, MPN. Hence the other name of this method is the MPN technique.
This technique is an extension of the qualitative techniques of presumptive, confirmed,
and completed tests. In other words, MPN results can be presumptive, confirmed, and
completed MPNs.
The procedure is similar to that of the qualitative method in that the liberation of
gases from the consumption of lactose is used as a criterion. The difference is that the
number of tubes liberating gases is used to calculate the MPN. A serial dilution such as
10-, 1-, 0.1-, and 0.01-mL portions of the sample is prepared. Each of these portions
is inoculated into a set of five tubes. For example, for the 10-mL portion, each of
five fermentation tubes is inoculated with 10-mL portions of the sample. For the 1-mL
portion, each of five fermentation tubes is also inoculated with 1-mL portions of the
sample, and so on with the rest of the serial dilutions. In this example, since there are
four serial dilutions (10, 1, 0.1, and 0.01) there are four sets of five tubes each, making
a total of 20 fermentation tubes.
Test for the Coliform Group 11

The number of tubes liberating gases is counted from each of the set of five tubes.
This information is then used to compute statistically the most probable number of or-
ganisms in the sample per 100 mL. A statistical table prepared by the American Public
Health Association is reproduced as Table 2-2. The first three columns are “the combi-
nation of positives” in only three dilutions. Hence if the analysis had been done on more
than three dilutions, only three can be adopted for use of this table. The 0.01 is said to
be the highest dilution in the serial dilution of 1, 0.1, and 0.01. To use Table 2-2 for a
number of dilutions greater than three, pick the highest three dilutions showing evolution
of gases and correct the result obtained, as exemplified in Example 2-2.

TABLE 2-2. MPN INDEX AND 95% CONFIDENCE LIMITS FOR COLIFORM COUNTS BY
THE MULTIPLE-TUBE FERMENTATION TECHNIQUE

Number of tubes giving positive reaction 95% Confidence level

5 of 10-mL 5 of 1-mL 5 of 0.1-mL MPN per 100 mL Lower Upper

0 0 0 <i) — —
0 0 1 2 1 10
0 | 0 2 i 10
0 2 0 4 13
1 0 0 2 1 11
] 0 4 15
] ] 0 4 | 15
] | ] 6 2 18
1 D, 0 6 2 18
2 0 0 4 7)
2 0 1 7 2) 20
2 | 0 7 2 21
2 | ] 9 3 24
2 D 0 9 3 25
2 3 0 12 5 29
5} 0 0 8 3 24
¥ 0 | 11 4 29
3 ] 0 11 4 29)
3 | 1 14 6 35
3 2 0 14 6 35
3 2 1 17 7 40
- 0 0 13 5 38
~ 0 17 7 45
4 0 17 q 46
4 | l 21 !) a5)
4 | 2 26 12 63
4 ZL 0 22 9 56
4 2 | 26 12 65
4 3 0 27 12. 67
4 3 | 33 IS) Wi
4 4+ 0 34 16 80
5 0 0 23 y 86
5 0 | 30 10 110
12 Environmental Chemistry and Biology Chap. 2

TABLE 2-2 MPN INDEX AND 95% CONFIDENCE LIMITS FOR COLIFORM COUNTS BY
THE MULTIPLE-TUBE FERMENTATION TECHNIQUE (CONTINUED)

Number of tubes giving positive reaction 95% Confidence level

5 of 10-mL 5 of 1-mL 5 of 0.1-mL MPN per 100 mL Lower Upper

5 0 2 40 20 140
») | 0 30 10 120
5 | l 50 20 150
5 ] 2 60 30 180
5 2) 0 50 20 170
5 2 l 70 30 210
) 2 2 90 AO 250
) 3 0 80 30 250
5 3 | 110 AQ 300
5 3 2 140 60 360
5 3 S) 170 80 410
5 4 0 130 50 390
5) 4 | 170 70 480
2) 4 2 220 100 580
5 4 3 280 120 690
5 4 4 350, 160 820
5 5 0 240 100 940
5 5 1 300 100 1300
5 5 2 500 200 2000
5 5 3) 900 300 1900
5 5 4 1600 600 5300
5) 5 5 > 1600 — —

ALPHA, AWWA, and WEF (1992). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste-
water. Reprinted by permission of the American Public Health Association.

Example 2-1
A sample of water is analyzed for the coliform group using three sample portions: 10 mL,
60 mL, and 600 mL. Each of these portions is filtered through five filter membranes using the
membrane-filter technique. The results of the colony counts are as follows: 10-mL portions:
6, 7, 5, 8, 6; 60-mL portions: 30, 32, 33, 31, 25; and 600-mL portions: 350, 340, 360, 370,
340. What is the number of coliforms per 100 mL of the sample?

Solution Using the criterion of 20 to 80 as the most valid count in a membrane-filter

technique, the results of the 10- and 600-mL portions can be excluded in the calculation.

HO oe 32 SE Bae Bil sb YS
Average count for the 60-mL portions =
5
= 30.2 coliforms per 60 mL

Therefore,

Ae 30.2
coliforms per 100 mL = Fy = 50.3 average Answer
Test for the Coliform Group 13

Example 2-2
A river water is analyzed for total and fecal coliforms using the MPN technique. The results
are as follows:

Number of positive tubes out of five

Serial
dilution Lactose BGB EC

10 =) 5 )
1.0 8) 3 2
0.1 2 2 2
0.01 1 0 0
0.001 0 0 0

What are the presumptive and confirmed MPNs and the fecal coliform MPN? Also
give the ranges of these values at the 95% confidence level. BGB stands for “brilliant green
bile broth” and EC stands for the medium for fecal coliforms. Use Table 2-2.

Solution For the presumptive total coliform MPN, the three highest dilutions are 1.0, 0.1,
and 0.01, corresponding to the positive readings of 3, 2, and 1. From Table 2-2, for a serial
dilution of 10, 1.0, and 0.1 and positive readings of 3, 2, and 1, the MPN = 17. Therefore,
for a serial dilution of 1.0, 0.1, and 0.01,

MPN = 17(10) = 170 organisms/100 mL Answer

At 95% confidence, range: 70 < MPN < 400 Answer

For the confirmed test, the three highest dilutions are 10, 1.0, and 0.1, corresponding to
positive readings of 5, 3, and 2. From Table 2-2,

MPN = 140 organisms/100 mL Answer

At 95% confidence, range: 60 < MPN < 360 Answer

For the fecal test, the three highest dilutions are 10, 1.0, and 0.1, corresponding to the
positive readings of 5, 2, and 2. From the table,

MPN = 90 fecal coliforms/100 mL Answer

At 95% confidence, range: 40 < MPN < 250 Answer

It is clear from Example 2-1 that MPN is not a very accurate technique. For one
thing, the numbers are simply based on circumstantial evidence—the organisms are not
actually “seen” and counted but simply estimated based on the evolution of gases. As the
membrane-filter technique is perfected, it may replace this cumbersome MPN technique
entirely as a method of enumerating the number of organisms contained in a sample.
 14 Environmental Chemistry and Biology Chap. 2

DRINKING WATER STANDARDS

In the past, since waters were pristine and naturally clean, water standards were not
necessary. In modern times, however, a host of toxic and hazardous chemicals have
already been discharged into the environment such that some raw water supplies are not
immune from contamination. The setting of standards is therefore necessary. In addition,
only a few of these chemicals can be removed by standard processes. This means that
if present in the raw water, these chemicals will probably also be present in the drinking
water tap. This situation calls for a very careful selection of the raw water supply source
and its vigilant protection in daily operation of the system.
The first environmental act in the United States relating to the protection of drink-
ing water was the Public Health Service Act of 1912 (see Appendix 13). Not many
activities by Congress relating to drinking water transpired until several decades later,
when the President of the United States signed the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)
of 1974 on December 16, 1974. Thereafter, standard setting has become the norm. For
example, on May 7, 1991, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) set final
regulations, which require a treatment technique for lead and copper. This requirement
is triggered by a lead action level of 0.015 mg/L or a copper action level of 1.3 mg/L,
determined as the 90th percentile values of the concentrations measured at the taps of
customers.
The major provisions of the SDWA of 1974 are the establishment of primary
regulations for the protection of public health and the establishment of secondary reg-
ulations for aesthetic considerations such as taste, appearance, and odor. The primary
regulations result in the establishment of primary standards, and the secondary regula-
tions result in the establishment of secondary standards. The SWDA was amended in
1986.
One of the regulatory functions of the USEPA (or simply, EPA) is the setting of
standards [maximum contaminant levels (MCLs)] or goals [maximum containment level
goals (MCLGs)] for classes of substances that can be present in water supplies in harmful
concentrations. These substances include volatile organic chemicals (VOCs), synthetic
organic chemicals (SOCs), inorganic chemicals (IOCs), microbiological contaminants,
disinfection by-products (DBPs), and radionuclides. The appendixes provide tables of
drinking water parameters.
The quality characteristics of water fall under three categories: chemical, biological,
and physical. VOCs, SOCs, IOCs, and DBPs are chemical characteristics. Microbiolog-
ical contaminants are biological characteristics. Radionuclide contaminants can be either
physical or chemical. Gross alpha-particle, beta-particle, and photon radioactivities are
physical characteristics, while concentrations of uranium, radium 226 and radium 228,
and radon are chemical characteristics. The other physical characteristics of concern
in drinking water include turbidity, color, taste and odor, and temperature. Chlorides,
fluorides, iron, manganese, lead, copper, nitrate, sodium, sulfate, and zinc are the other
chemical characteristics that are also of concern in drinking water. Figure 2-1 is a photo-
graph of atomic absorption apparatus that may be used to analyze very low concentrations
of metals in drinking water.
Drinking Water Standards 15

Figure 2-1 Atomic absorption apparatus. (Used by permission of the Perkin-

Elmer Corporation)

Turbidity

Done photometrically, turbidity is a measure of the extent to which suspended matter in

water either absorbs or scatters radiant light energy impinging on the suspension. The
original measuring apparatus, the Jackson turbidimeter, was based on the absorption prin-
ciple. A standardized candle was placed under a graduated glass tube housed in a black
metal sheet so that the light from the candle can only be seen from above the tube. The
water sample was then poured slowly into the tube until the candle flame was no longer
visible. The turbidity was then read on the graduation etched on the tube. The unit
of turbidity is the turbidity unit (TU), which is equivalent to the turbidity produced by
1 mg/L of silica (S102). SiOz was used as the reference standard. Turbidities in excess
of 5 TU are easily detected in a glass of water and are objectionable not necessarily for
health but for aesthetic reasons.
At present, turbidity measurements are done conveniently through the use of pho-
tometers. A beam of light from a source produced by a standardized electric bulb is
passed through a sample vial. The light that emerges from the sample is then directed
to a photometer that measures the light absorbed. The readout is calibrated in terms
of turbidity. A chemical, formazin, that provides a more reproducible result has now
replaced silica as the standard. Accordingly, the unit of turbidity is now also expressed
as formazin turbidity units (FTUs).
16 Environmental Chemistry and Biology Chap. 2

A second method of measurement is by light scattering. The sample “scatters” the

light that impinges on it. The scattered light is then measured by putting the photometer
at right angles to the original direction of the light generated by the light source. This
measurement of light scattered at a 90° angle is called nephelometry. The unit of turbidity
in nephelometry is the nephelometric turbidity unit (NTU).

Color

Color is the perception registered as radiation of various wavelengths strikes the retina of
the eye. Materials decayed from vegetation and inorganic matter impart color to water,
which is objectionable, again, not for health reasons but for aesthetics. Natural colors
give a yellow-brownish appearance to water; the natural tendency to associate this color
with urine. The unit of measurement of color is the platinum in potassium chloroplatinate
(K2PtCl¢). One milligram per liter of Pt in KjPtCle is 1 unit of color. The secondary
MCL for color is 15 color units.

Taste and Odor

Taste is the perception registered by the taste buds, while odor is the perception registered
by the olfactory nerves. There should be no noticeable taste and odor at the point of
use of the water. The numerical value of odor or taste is determined quantitatively by
measuring a volume of sample A (in milliliters) and diluting it with a volume of sample
B (in milliliters) of an odor-free distilled water so that the odor of the resulting mixture
is just barely detectable at a total mixture volume of 200 mL. The unit of odor or taste
is then expressed in terms of a threshold number as follows:
A= B
TON or CEN = =e (2-1)

where TON is the threshold odor number and TTN is the threshold taste number. The
secondary standard for odor is 3.
Example 2-3
A sample of water requires 113 mL of distilled water to render the odor barely detectable.
What is the volume of the sample, and what is the TON?

Solution

A+ 113 = 200 A=87 mL Answer

A+B 87 + 113
TON = a =2.3 Answer
A 87

Temperature

Most people find water at temperatures of 10 to 15°C most palatable. Groundwaters and
waters from mountainous areas are normally within this range.
Drinking Water Standards 17

Chlorides

Chlorides in concentrations of 250 mg/L or greater are objectionable to most people.

Hence the secondary standard for chlorides is 250 mg/L. Whether concentrations of
250 mg/L are objectionable or not, however, depends on the degree of acclimation of the
user to the water. In Antipolo, a barrio of Cebu in the Philippines, the normal source of
water of the residents is a spring that emerges along the shoreline between a cliff and
the sea. As such, the fresh water is contaminated by salt water before being retrieved
by the people. The salt imparts to the water a high concentration of chlorides. Chloride
contaminants could go as high as 2000 mg/L; however, even with concentrations this
high, the people continue to use the source and are accustomed to the taste.

Fluorides

The absence of fluorides in drinking water encourages dental caries or tooth decay; ex-
cessive concentrations of the chemical produce mottling of the teeth or dental fluorosis.
Hence managers and operators of water treatment plants must be careful that the ex-
act concentrations of the fluorides are administered to the drinking water. Optimum
concentrations of 0.7 to 1.2 mg/L are recommended, although the actual amount in spe-
cific circumstances depends on the air temperature, since air temperature influences the
amount of water that people drink. For example, the USEPA published the fluoride
primary standards shown in Table 2-3, indicating that the MCL values depend on the
ambient air temperature.

TABLE 2-3 EPA PRIMARY DRINKING WATER MCL FOR

FLUORIDE

Annual average of maximum

daily air temperatures of
community in which water system Maximum contaminant
is situated (°C) levels (mg/L)

12.0 and below 2.4

12.1-14.6 Dp
14.7-17.6 2.0
17.7-21.4 1.8
21.5-26.2 1.6
26.3-32.5 1.4

Environmental Protection Agency (1975). “National Interim

Primary Drinking Water Regulations,” Federal Register, Part lV.

Iron and Manganese

Iron and manganese are objectionable in water supplies because they impart brownish
colors to laundered goods. Fe also affects the taste of beverages such as tea and coffee.
18 Environmental Chemistry and Biology Chap. 2

Mn flavors tea and coffee with medicinal taste. The SMCLs (secondary MCLs) for Fe
and Mn are, respectively, 0.3 and 0.05 mg/L.

Lead and Copper

Clinical, epidemiological, and toxicological studies have demonstrated that lead exposure
can adversely affect human health. The three systems in the human body most sensitive to
lead are the blood-forming system, the nervous system, and the renal system. In children,
blood levels from 0.8 to 1.0 wg/L can inhibit enzymatic actions. Also, in children, lead
can alter physical and mental development, interfere with growing, decrease attention
span and hearing, and interfere with heme synthesis. In older men and women, lead can
increase blood pressure.! Lead is emitted into the atmosphere as Pb, PbO, PbO2, PbSO,,
PbS, Pb(CH3)4, Pb(C2H5)4, and lead halides. In drinking water, it can be emitted from
pipe solders.
The source of copper in drinking water is the plumbing used to convey water
in the house distribution system. In small amounts it is not detrimental to health, but
it will impart an undesirable taste to the water. In appropriate concentrations, copper
can cause stomach and intestinal distress. It also causes Wilson’s disease. A type of
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe called CPVC can be used to replace copper for household
plumbing.

Nitrate

Nitrate is objectionable because it causes methemoglobinemia (infant cyanosis or blue

babies) in infants. The MCL is 10 mg/L.

Sodium

The presence of sodium in drinking water can affect persons suffering from heart, kidney,
or circulatory ailments. Sodium may elevate blood pressures of susceptible persons.

Sulfate

The sulfate ion is one of the major anions occurring naturally in water. It produces
a cathartic or laxative effect on people when present in excessive amounts in drinking
water. Its SMCL is 250 mg/L.

Zinc

Zinc is not considered detrimental to health, but it will impart undesirable taste to drinking
water. Its SMCL is 5 mg/L.

'P, W. Pontius (1991). “How to Comply with the Lead and Copper Rule,” Opflow, pp. 1-5.
 Equivalents and Equivalent Weights 19

SOME SWDA REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS

The SWTR promulgated by the EPA on June 29, 1989 sets forth primary drinking water
regulations for treatment of surface waters and groundwaters that may be under the
influence of surface waters. The regulations require filtration and/or disinfection in lieu
of establishing MCLs for turbidity, Giardia lamblia, Legionella, viruses, heterotrophic
bacteria, and many other pathogenic organisms that may be removed by these treatment
techniques. The regulations also call for an MCLG of zero for Giardia liamlia, Legionella,
and the viruses. No MCLG was set for heterotrophic plate count or turbidity. The
turbidity goal of the American Water Works Association (AWWA) is less than 0.1 TU
(turbidity unit).
The coliform rule promulgated by the EPA on June 19, 1989 requires primary drink-
ing water MCL values for total coliforms, including fecal coliforms and Escherichia coli.
Larger systems are required to collect each month at least 40 samples and must not show
positive results for 5% of the samples. Smaller systems are allowed to collect samples
fewer than 40 per month but must not show positive results in more than one sample. The
accepted methods include the multiple-tube fermentation technique (MTF), membrane-
filter technique (MF), minimal media ONPG-MUG test (Colilert system, MMO-MUG),
or presence—absence coliform test (P-A). Regardless of the method used, the standard
sample volume for total coliform testing is 100 mL.

EQUIVALENTS AND EQUIVALENT WEIGHTS

In the literature, the definition of equivalents and equivalent weights is confused, and no
universal definition is attempted. In this section we unify the definition of these terms by
utilizing the concept of reference species. The mass of any substance participating in a
reaction per unit of this reference species is the equivalent weight of the substance, and
the mass of the substance divided by this it equivalent weight is the number of equivalents
of the substance.
The reference species is one of only two possibilities: the electrons involved in an
oxidation-reduction reaction or the positive (or, alternatively, the negative) charges in all
the other reactions. The concept of the reference species is explained in the following
example. Take the following two reactions of phosphoric acid with sodium hydroxide:
H3PO, + 2NaOH — 2Nat + HPO,” + 2H,O
H3PO, + 3NaOH — 3Na*t + PO, + 3H,O
In these reactions the reference species is the positive electric charge or the negative
electric charge of the reactants on the left. (Jake note that the reference species is taken
from the reactant, not from the product.) The positive charge comes from the Nat of
NaOH or the H* of H3PO4. The negative charge comes from the OH” of NaOH or the
HPO,2~ of H3PQOx, in the first reaction or the PO,>~ of H3PO, in the second reaction.
Let us consider the positive electric charge and the first reaction. Since Na* has
a charge of +1 and the coefficient of the term of NaOH is 2, two positive charges
20 Environmental Chemistry and Biology Chap. 2

(2 x | = 2) are involved. In the case of H3POq, the equation shows that the acid breaks
up into HPO,?~ and other substances, with one H still “clinging” to the PO, on the
right-hand side of the equation. This indicates that two H*’s are involved in the breakup.
Since the charge of H* is +1, two positive charges are involved. In the cases of both
Na* and H™, reference species are the two positive charges and the number of reference
species is two. Therefore, in the first reaction, the equivalent weight of a substance
participating is obtained by dividing the term (including the coefficient) by 2. Hence
for the acid, the equivalent weight is H3PO,/2; for the base, the equivalent weight is
2NaOH/2; and so on.
In the second reaction, based on the positive electric charges, the number of ref-
erence species is three. Hence in this reaction, for the acid, the equivalent weight is
H3PO,/3; for the base, the equivalent weight is 3NaOH/3 and so on. These observa-
tions show that the equivalent weight of a substance depends on the chemical reaction it
participates in.
Following are the third and fourth reactions:

Fe(HCO;)2 + 2Ca(OH), > Fe(OH), + 2CaCO; + 2H,O

4Fe(OH), + O2 + 2H,O > 4Fe(OH);
In the third reaction, since the ferrous iron has a charge of +2, ferrous bicarbonate has
two positive charges of references species. In the case of the calcium hydroxide, however,
since calcium has a charge of +2 and the coefficient of the term is 2, the number of
reference species is four. In this situation there are two alternatives: two or four positive
charges as the number of reference species. Either can be used provided that when one is
chosen, all subsequent calculations must be based on the one particular choice. However,
adopt the convention that the number of reference species is the one that is the lowest.
Hence the number of reference species in the third reaction is two—not four—and all
the equivalent weights of the participating substances are obtained by dividing each term
of the reaction by 2.
In the fourth reaction, ferrous iron has been oxidized to the ferric form from an
oxidation state of +2 to +3. Hence in this reaction, electrons are involved. Therefore,
adopt the second convention that whenever oxidation-reduction is involved in a given
chemical reaction, electron transfer is used as the reference species rather than the positive
or negative charges. For ferrous hydroxide, the number of electrons involved is four.
For oxygen, the atom has been reduced from zero to —2 per atom. Since there are two
oxygen atoms, the total number of electrons involved is also equal to four (2 x 2 = 4).
Hence to obtain the equivalent weights of all the participating substances, each term of
the equation must be divided by 4.
In the discussion above, the unit of the reference species was not established. A
convenient unit would be the mole (i.e., mole of electrons or mole of positive or negative
charges). The mole can be a milligram-mole, gram-mole, and so on. The mass unit of
measurement of the equivalent weight would then correspond to the type of mole used
for the reference species. For example, if the mole used is the gram-mole, the mass of
the equivalent weight would be expressed in grams of the substance per gram-mole of
Equivalents and Equivalent Weights 21

the reference species; and if the mole used is the milligram-mole, the equivalent weight
would be expressed in milligrams of the substance per milligram-mole of the reference
species; and so on.
Since the reference species is used as the the standard of reference, its unit, the
mole, can be said to have a unit of | equivalent. From this, the equivalent weight of a
participating substance may be expressed as the mass of the substance per equivalent of
the reference species. But since the substance is equivalent to the reference species itself,
the equivalent weight may also be expressed as the mass of the substance per equivalent
of the substance.
The general formula for finding the equivalent weight of a substance is
term in balanced
erm 1n Dalanc qu equation
1 (2-2)
equivalent weight = ; : :
number of moles of reference species
The formula for obtaining the mass of a substance given its number of equivalents is

mass of a substance = number of equivalents x equivalent weight (2-3)

Example 2-4
Water containing 2.5 mol of calcium bicarbonate and 1.5 mol of calcium sulfate is softened
using lime and soda ash. How many grams of calcium carbonate solids are produced using
(a) the method of equivalent weights, and (b) the balanced chemical reaction?

Solution (a) The chemical reactions are

Ca(HCO3)2 + CaO — 2CaCO3 + H20

CaSO4 + Na2CO3 — CaCO3 + Naz2SO4

Molecular weights:

Ca(HCO3)2 = 40 + 2(1 + 12 + 48) = 162

CaSO4 = 40 + 32 + 4(16) = 136

CaCOz5— 40E 12-3 iG) 100

For the first reaction, the number of reference species is 2 mol of positive charges. Hence
equivalent weights are
162

2(100)
CalCOz = = 100

Thus
: : 2.5(162) f ,
equivalents of Ca(HCO3)2 = ec Giiaal 5 = equivalents of CaCO,

Therefore,

carbonate solids from the bicarbonate = 5(100) = 500 g

 22 Environmental Chemistry and Biology Chap. 2

For the second reaction, the number of reference species is 2 mol of positive charges. Hence
equivalent weights are

CaSO4 = = = (G8

CacOz— as a)

Thus

equivalents of CaSO4 = =“ = 3 = equivalents of CaCO;

and

carbonate solids from the sulfate = 3(50) = 150 g

total grams of carbonate solids produced = 500 + 150 = 650 g Answer

(b) From the first reaction,

2(100)
carbonate solids produced = (2) (62) i= 00Rs:

From the second reaction,

P 100
carbonate solids produced = ieee BO) 0Fe

Therefore,

total carbonate solids produced = 500 + 150 = 650 g Answer

MICROBIAL THERMODYNAMICS

The study of the relationships between heat and other forms of energy is called ther-
modynamics. Since all living things utilize heat, the science of thermodynamics may be
used to evaluate life processes. An example of a life process is the growth of bacteria
when wastewater is fed to them to treat the waste. Knowledge of microbial thermody-
namics is therefore very important to environmental engineers involved in cleaning up
wastewaters. Variables involved in the interchange of heat and energy are called thermo-
dynamic variables. Examples of these variables are temperature, pressure, volume and
free energy.
In the discussion of microbial thermodynamics, one form of Gibbs free energy
is used. Its use is based on the concept that free energy is the net or maximum energy
available for work. This form of Gibbs free energy is AG = —nF AE, where n represents
the number of faradays involved in a reacion, F the number of coulombs per faraday,
and AE the voltage difference. This is discussed further below.
Life processes involve electron transport. Specifically, the mitochondrion and the
chloroplast are the sites of this electron movement in the eucaryotes. In the procaryotes,
this function is embedded in the sites of the cytoplasmic membrane. As far as electron
Microbial Thermodynamics 23

movement is concerned, life processes are similar to a battery cell, where electrons move
because of electrical pressure, the voltage difference. By the same token, electrons move
in the organism because of the same electrical pressure, the voltage difference.
Microbial thermodynamics deals with processes involving oxidation-reduction reac-
tions. In an oxidation-reduction reaction, 1 mol of electrons involved is called the faraday,
which is equal to 96,494 coulombs (c). A mole of electrons is equal to | equivalent of
any substance. Therefore, a faraday is equal to 1 equivalent.
Let n be the number of faradays of charge per mole of a substance participating
in a reaction. Let the general reaction be represented by the following half-cell reaction
of Zn:

Zn > Tn Je (2-4)
In the couple Zn/Zn7* ,as represented by reaction (2-4), there is electric pressure between
two cells. Now take another couple, such as Mg/Mg?", whose half-cell reaction would
be similar to that of reaction (2-4). The couples Mg/Mg?+ and Zn/Zn**+ do not possess
the same voltage potential. If the two couples are connected, they form a cell. Since their
voltage potentials are not the same, a voltage difference would be developed between
their electrodes.
Let the voltage between the electrodes of the cell above be measured by a po-
tentiometer. Designate this voltage difference by AZ. In potentiometric measurements,
no electrons are allowed to flow and thus only the voltage tendency of the electrons
to flow is measured. Since no electrons are allowed to flow, no energy is dissipated
due to friction of electrons “rubbing along the wire.” Hence any energy associated with
this no-electron-flow process represents the maximum energy available. Since voltage is
energy in joules per coulomb of charge, the energy associated can be calculated from the
voltage difference. This associated energy corresponds to a no-friction-loss process; it is
therefore a maximum energy.
Let n, the number of faradays involved in a reaction, be multiplied by F, the
number of coulombs per faraday. The result, nF’, is the number of coulombs involved in
the reaction. If nF is multiplied by AE, the total associated energy in the potentiometric
experiment above is obtained. Since the voltage measurement was done with no energy
loss, by definition, this associated energy represents the free-energy change of the cell
(i.e., the maximum energy change in the cell). In symbols,

Gate TLE! (2-5)

where a negative sign is prefixed to show that the reaction represented by the equation
is spontaneous.
As mentioned, the battery cell process is analogous to the living cell process of
the mitochondrion, the chloroplast, and the electron transport system in the cytoplasmic
membrane of the procaryotes. Hence equation (2-5) can represent the basic thermody-
namics of a microbial system. In the living cell, organic materials are utilized for both
energy (oxidation) and synthesis (reduction). Microorganisms that utilize organic ma-
terials for energy are called heterotrophs. Those that utilize inorganics for energy are
called autotrophs. Autotrophs utilize CO and HCO3~ for the carbon needed for cell
24 Environmental Chemistry and Biology Chap. 2

synthesis; heterotrophs utilize organic materials for their carbon source. Autotrophs that
use inorganic chemicals for energy are called chemotrophs; those that use sunlight are
phototrophs.
Somehow, in life processes, the production of energy from release of electrons
does not occur automatically but through a series of steps that produce a high-energy-
containing compound. This high-energy-containing compound is adenosine triphosphate
(ATP). Although ATP is not the only high-energy-containing compound, it is by far the
major one that fuels synthesis in the cell. ATP is the energy currency that the cell relies
on for energy supply.
The energy function of ATP is explained as follows: ATP contains two high-
energy bonds. To form these bonds, energy must be released from an energy source
through electron transfer. As soon as the energy is released, it is captured and stored
in the two high-energy bonds of ATP. On demand, hydrolysis of the bond releases the
stored energy, which the cell can then use for synthesis and cell maintenance. ATP
is produced from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) by coupling the release of electrons to
the reaction of organic phosphates and ADP to produce ATP. There are two modes
of production of ATP: substrate-level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation.
In the former, the electrons released by the energy source are simply absorbed by an
intermediate in the immediate surroundings within the system. This electron absorp-
tion is accompanied by an energy release. The transference of the electrons is sim-
ple and does not require an elaborate electron transport system. Fermentation is a
substrate-level phosphorylation process that uses intermediate absorbers such as formalde-
hyde. Substrate-level phosphorylation is inefficient and produces only a few molecules
of ATP.
In the oxidative phosphorylation mode, the electron moves from one electron carrier
to another in a series of reduction and oxidation steps. For a hydrogen-containing energy
source, the series starts with the initial removal of a hydrogen atom from the molecule of
the source. Since the hydrogen is carrying the electron in its valence shell, the electron is
removed from the molecule. This hydrogen reduces a series of intermediate carriers such
as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD). The reduction of NAD produces NADH3.
The series continues on with further reduction and oxidation steps. The entire line of
reduction and oxidation constitutes the electron transport system. At strategic points of
the transport system, ATP is produced from ADP and inorganic phosphates.
The other version of oxidative phosphorylation used by autotrophs involves the
release of electrons directly from an inorganic energy source. An example of this is the
release of electrons from NO”, oxidizing NO.” to NO3~.
The electrons, both from the hydrogen and the one directly from the energy source,
emerge from the system to reduce a final external electron acceptor. The acceptors may be
one of the following: for aerobic processes, the acceptor is O2; for anaerobic processes,
the acceptors are NO3~, SO4?~, and CO). When the acceptor is NO3~, the system is
said to be anoxic.
As mentioned before, free-energy changes are normally reported for values at stand-
ard conditions. In biochemistry, in addition to the requirement of unit activity for con-
centrations of reactants and products, the hydrogen ion concentration is set arbitrarily at
 Microbial Thermodynamics 25

pH 7.0. Following this convention, equation (2-5) may be written as

AGo = —nF AE, (2-6)

The primes emphasize the fact that the standard condition now requires the {H*} to be
10-7 mol/L.
In environmental engineering it is customary to call the substance oxidized the
electron donor and the substance reduced the electron acceptor. The electron donor
is normally considered as “food.” Equation (2-4) is an example of an electron donor
reaction, Zn being the donor. The reverse of equation (2-4) is an example of an electron
acceptor reaction, Zn** being the electron acceptor. McCarty* derived values for free
energy of half-reactions for various electron donors and acceptors utilized in a bacterial
system. These are shown in Table 2-4.

2P. L. McCarty (1975). “Stoichiometry of Biological Reactions.” Progress in Water Technology. Perg-
amon Press, London.

TABLE 2-4 HALF-REACTIONS FOR BACTERIAL SYSTEMS?

AG!
(keal/electron-mol)

Reactions for bacterial cell synthesis

Ammonia as nitrogen source:
£CO2 + 3,HCO3~ + 35NH4~H*t +e —> 34CsH7O2N + 34H20 —_
Nitrate as nitrogen source:
3,NO3~ + CO? + Ht +e —> 3gCsH7O2N + 3¢H2O =
Reactions for electron acceptors
Oxygen:
402 +Ht+e—> 5H20 =18.675
Nitrate:
INO3~
+ $H*+ +e —> qgN2
+ 2H20 —17.128
Sulfate:
£SO47- + 72Ht +e —> 7S + HS” + 5H2O 5.085
Carbon dioxide:
gCO + Ht +e —> }CHy + 4H20 5.763
Heterotrophic reactions for organic electron donors
Domestic wastewater:
agC10H1903N + 3H2.0 —> CO) + sgNHyt + s;HCO3” + Ht +e ~7.6
Protein (amino acids, proteins, nitrogenous organics)
A Ci6H24CsNq + 22H2O —> £CO) + ANHyt + HH* +e -1.7
Carbohydrates (cellulose, starch, sugars):
ICH)0
+ 7H20 —> ¢CO2 +Ht +e —10.0
Grease (fats and oils)
igCsH160 + H20 — CO) +H* +e —6.6
Acetate:
1CH3COO~ + $H20 —> CO, + gHCO3~ + H* +e —6.609
Propionate:
7;CH3CH2COO- + 7;H2.O —> 7CO) + HCO; + H* +e —6.664
26 Environmental Chemistry and Biology Chap. 2

TABLE 2-4 HALF-REACTIONS FOR BACTERIAL SYSTEMS? (CONTINUED)

NG?
(kcal/electron-mol)

Benzoate:
IyCoHsCOO™ + 4H20 — 4CO) + 4HCO3" +H* +e —6.892
Ethanol:
7;CH3CH2OH + {H20 —> CO) +H* +e ~7.592
Lactate:
7;CH3CHOHCOO- + $H20 —> CO? + HCO3” + Ht +e —7.873
Pyruvate:
{pCH3sCOCCO™ + 2H2O —> £CO? + 7FHCO3” + H* +e —8.545
Methanol:
4CH30H + 4H20 —> 4COz + Ht +e —8.965
Autotrophic reactions for inorganic electron donors
Fe?+ —> Fe?+ +e 17.780
5NO2~ + 3H2O —> $NO3~ +Ht +e 9.43
gNH4*+ 3H2.0 —> $NO3~ + 3H*+ +e 8.245
4NH4* + 7H2O —> 4NO2~ + $H* +e 7,852
4S + $H20 —> 4804? + $H* +e —4.657
iHoS + HS” + 4H2O —> 3804?" + Ht +e —5.085
1$002/3~ + 3H20 —> 180,?- + 3H*+ +e —5.091
gH —> Ht +e ~9.670
5802/3~ + 5H20—> $8047>
+H* +e —10.595
4¢H*} = 10-7 mol/L, e = number of electron-moles.

Example 2-5
At standard conditions, (a) what is the oxidation potential for the oxidation of sewage and
(b) how many moles of electrons are involved per mole of sewage? (c) Calculate the
equivalent weight.

Solution (a) The oxidation reaction is

35C10H1903N + 33H2O > 3CO2 + 35NHyt + HCO3- + Ht +e

keal kJ kJ
AG) = -7.6 = —7.6(4.18 ) = = 377
electron-mol electron-mol electron-mol
Therefore,

AG) _ —31.77(1000)
AE = = 0.343 V Answer
nF 1(92,494)
(b) From the half-reaction, the coefficient of CjgH;903N (sewage) is a: Hence
multiplying both sides of the equation by 50 produces the moles of electrons per mole of
sewage:

moles of electrons per mole of sewage = 50 Answer

(c) CjgH;9O3N = 12(10) + 1.0(19) + 16(3) + 14 = 201

Microbial Thermodynamics 27

Therefore,

201
equivalent weight = wri 4.02 g/Eq Answer

As shown in Example 2-5, the oxidation of sewage is favorable thermodynamically.

Also, the voltage potential for a favorable reaction is positive.

Example 2-6
In the utilization of NH3 by Nitrosomonas under aerobic conditions: (a) show the donor and
acceptor reactions, (b) calculate the free-energy change of the reaction without synthesis, and
(c) repeat part (b) considering cell synthesis. Assume 0.15 mg of Nitrosomonas synthesized
per milligram of NH3-N utilized.

Solution (a) From Table 2-4 the donor reaction is

+NH4* + $H20 > 4NO)~ + $H*+ +e Answer

Since the process is aerobic, the electron acceptor is O2. Hence from Table 2-4, the acceptor
reaction 1s

40> +Ht+e-> 5H20 Answer

(b) The donor and acceptor reactions will be manipulated algebraically.

4NH4* + $H20 > ZNO.” + Ht +e = AG) = 7.852 (a)

402 +H* +e > 540 | AG) = 18.675 (b)
Adding reactions (a) and (b) yields

tNH4+ + 402 > ¢NO2~ + 4H* + 4H2O

keal
AG, O(reaction) = —10.823 ———————__ Answer
electron-mole

(c) Basis: | mg of initial NH3-N. From Table 2-4 the synthesis reaction is

£CO> + sgHCO3” + 3,NHyt + Ht +e > 35CsH7O2N + H2O (c)

Therefore, by reaction (c),

equivalent weight of NH3-N = o = (0.7 mg/mEq

| mg NH;-N (the basis of calculations) = = 1.43 mEq NH3-N

a
C5H7O2N = 12(5) + 1(7) + 16( IS)
SSsie Mab U1A3}
28 Environmental Chemistry and Biology Chap. 2

Therefore, using the reaction above, we obtain

iil}
equivalent weight of C;H7O2N = ant 5.65 mg/mEq

0.15 eee
0.15 mg C;H7O2N > 565 > 0.0265 mEq C;H702N = 0.0265 mEq of N in C;H7O2N

Ons
> ioe 0.00133 mol
3

Therefore,

NH3-N remaining after production of Nitrosomonas = 1.43 — 0.0265 = 1.40 mEq

0.98
= 1407) = 098inge — Th = (0.07 mmol

Therefore, on the basis of 1 mg of NH3-N, the actual reactions are

ER onorcet vs Re ca Povempca
i : MeNaie
4 od, 1/6) ? —
taoacsl
92
arat
i Wi ye
eee ie
BNI:

0:07NH4* + 0.14H>O > 0.07NO>~ + 0.56H* + 0.42e (d)

Synthesis: 0.0053CO> + 0.00133HCO3~ + 0.00133NH4* + 0.027H* + 0.027e >
0.00133C5H7O2N + 0.012H5O (e)
From reaction (d), 0.42 electron mole has been supplied by | mg of NH3-N. In reaction (e),
0.027 electron mole has been used for synthesis. Therefore,

electron-moles supplied for energy production = 0.42 — 0.027 = 0.393

and

actual energy reaction: 0.09802 + 0.393H~ + 0.393e + 0.197H2O (f)

From reaction (d) and Table 2-4,

AG O(donor)
= 0.42(7.852) = 3.30 kcal/mg NH3-N

From reaction (f) and Table 2-4,

AGo (energy) = 0.393(—18.675) = —7.34 kcal/NH3-N

Adding reactions (d), (e), and (f), gives

; 4.04
AG. = 7.34 -- 3.30) —4.04 kcal = ———
: 0.42
kcal
= SG 7p) tet slot a Answer
~ electron-mole donated
Note: Comparing this answer with the answer in part (b), energy used for synthesis =
10.823 — 9.62 = 1.20 kcal per electron-mole donated.
 Biological Combustion 29

BIOLOGICAL COMBUSTION

Biological combustion is a form of combustion in which an organism utilizes molecular

O> to oxidize a substrate producing energy. As discussed in the section on the thermody-
namics of a microbial process, electrons are moved through an elaborate electron-transport
system before Op is utilized. Using C,H,O-N,S, to represent any biological matter and
using the half-reaction for sewage in Table 2-4 as the model, the electron donor reaction
may be written as

CHV @.NaSeee athe SE)

eee
a pe
ythyUzINadb
IN er deg Ob OS ea

x —a a
—_—___________CQ, + —__—_________NH,,* (2-7)
y+4x-—3a—-—2z-2b ~ y+4x—3a—2z—-—2b

- ————
Part
=
asa 22— 2)
stele}3 ea
e = 22D
Bing
:
4Be oeé
For a complete biological combustion, reaction (2-7) may be combined with the
oxygen acceptor reaction of Table 2-4, producing

| ] = @
——_____—__——C,H,0.N,S, + -O> CO
i) a ae cue eee Aaa = EOF
a a
a ey rs HCO;- 2.8
y + 4x — 3a — 2z — 2by a y+4x —3a —2z—2b : Ce
b y —Sa—2b
5 SS SS br H20
Vi 4X 30 2 2(y + 4x — 3a — 2z — 2b)
As shown, C has been converted to CO2. Living things always produce carbon
dioxide during metabolism. Also, nitrogen is bonded to hydrogen in the organic substance
as is S. Hence the fate of nitrogen and sulfur is the production of ammonia and hydrogen
sulfide, respectively. Conversion to NO or oxides of sulfur needs an extra step and more
energy; it is therefore not favored.
Reaction (2-8) represents a complete biological combustion of organic matter. In
more realistic situations, however, some form of residue from synthesis always remains
after the process. From Table 2-4, using the synthesis reaction involving ammonia as the
model for synthesis and letting CyH.-O;N,S, represent the residue, the synthesis reaction
may be written as

Y.(d — g)CO) + gY-HCO3 + gY.NH4* + Y.-AH2S

eV (ee 4d ey OH Vile 4d 39 —2 f — the = (2-9)
Y-CaH.O; NeSh ae Y,(2d a & f)H20

where Y, is the cell yield in moles of Cj H-O/N,S,, per mole of C,H,O-,N,Sp, the electron
donor.
30 Environmental Chemistry and Biology Chap. 2

From reaction (2-7), the number of electron moles available per mole of donor is
y+4x—3a—2z—2b. Hence, after synthesis [reaction (2-9)], the number of electron moles
available for the acceptor reaction is (y +4x —3a —2z—2b) —Y.(e+4d —3g —2f —2h).
The acceptor reaction of Table 2-4 may now be written as

(y + 4x = 3a — 22 = 2b) = ¥ole + 4d = 3g = 2f ~ 2h) |

i 2

+ [(y + 4x -— 3a — 2z7= 2b) — Y,(e + 4d — 3g —2f —2h)]H™

(2-10)
+ [(y + 4x — 3a — 2z — 2b) — Y,(e + 4d — 3g —2f — 2h)]e —
(y + 4x — 3a — 2z ~ 2b) ~ ¥ele + 4d — 3g — 2f — 2h),
20
2

Multiplying reaction (2-7) throughout by y + 4x — 3a — 2z— 2b and combining the result

with reactions (2-9) and (2-10), the overall biological oxidation that contains residues of
organic matter is obtained:

peat 3 2z — 2b — Y.(e + 4d— 32 —2f —2h

GeilONS
ee es — sel ee
Y. CaH.Of¢N,S;, + L(x — a) — Y¥-(d — g)|CO> + (a — g¥.)NH4*
(2-11)
+ (a — gY,)HCO3 + (b—Y,h)HoS
a y+2Y,h — 5a == — Y,(e — 32) HO

To use reaction (2-11), Y. and CgH.-O¢N,S; must first be determined by a bench- or

pilot-plant study. Once this is done, all the terms of the equation can be calculated.
As shown in reaction (2-11), NH4* is produced. In solid waste composting, this
ammonium may stay with the compost; however, in a wastewater treatment plant, the
aeration may be extended long enough. If this is done, Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter
may develop, which can convert nitrogen to nitrite and then to nitrate, respectively. This
important topic is discussed in Chapter 11.

Example 2-7
Ultimate analysis of a mixture of sewage sludge and solid waste subjected to composting
shows the following results: x = 50, y = 100, z = 40, and a = 1. The plant com-
posts 100 metric tons (tonnes)/day of the mixture. Assuming that 20% excess air is used,
(a) calculate the cubic meters per minute of air a blower must force into the pile mea-
Biological Combustion 31

sured at a standard temperature and pressure (STP) of 0°C and | atm pressure for complete
biological combustion, and (b) calculate the air requirement (20% excess air) if 30% of
the original C is converted to carbon dioxide, and the average empirical formula of the
residue is C79Ho9gO2gN. Assume an incoming air humidity of 0.016 mol of H2O per mole
of dry air.

Solution
olution (:
(a) Si aoreapl: C,HyO-,NaSp + qe = Lo
BE tet a
CO> NH4*
PMA Rg Sie oh oN ies = ae
a
HCO; —
ra Serre rien
b EDS 4 y — 5a — 2b bo
Se ey pate eee ee raya
CyHyOzNaSp = Cs50Hi00040N
Therefore,

] | ]
= = — = (0.0046
y + 4x — 3a — 2z — 2b 100 + 4(50) — 3(1) — 2(40) — 2(0) DAT
yae —5a =— 2b be 100 =— 5(1) i)
— 2(0) ~ 0.218
2(y + 4x — 3a — 2z — 2b) 2A)

Therefore,

0.0046C59H
i99O40N + 0.2502 + 0.226CO2 + 0.0046NH4* + 0.0046HCO3~ + 0.218H2O

number of reference species = 0.25(4) = 1 mol of electron

100
no. equiv. Cs,yHjg9gO4oN = no. equiv. O, =
0.0046Cs5 9Hj 99 O049N/1

# 100 100
= 16.04 tonne-Eq/day
~ 0,0046(1354.8)/1 6.23
o 100 16 ay 02505 |
moles wet air used
med bod | Oo

(0.016) |0° (16.04) (2:2802 :

a eae, | O>

100 0.25 100 “0:25

= 12{ SPc.04 ( i )+0016 |Sao (°2))|

= 1.2(19.09 + 0.306) = 23.28 tonne-mol/day

32 Environmental Chemistry and Biology Chap. 2

Therefore,

1
cubic meters eee
of air at STP = 73981002
8(10")( )( 4)00.) ) |
|———
saan |

= 362.13 per minute Answer

+ 4x — 3a —2z — 2b — ¥-(e + 4d — 3g —2f — 2h) es

g—2f
(b) CoH, O;N, Spe» e

— Y.-CgHeO¢NeSp

+ [(x —a) — ¥-(d — g)]CO> + (a — g¥-)NHy

+ (a — gY-)HCO, + (b— Y-h)H2S

PE DY
fae NelI — 20) : ?)b Yeae 5 Ving

CaHeOf¢NegSp = C70H9g02gN

b
Ccaroon sas ified
ee. SS SSCs9 (100) is(0.30) — ol) (100) (0.30)
i
a C50H 100 O40N 1354.8

= 13.39 tonnes/day

12(50
carbon converted to C77H9gQ2gN = as >(100) — 13.39 = 30.90 tonnes/day

Therefore,

ee30.90/[12(70Ese
100/1354.8

and

y+4x —3a —2z-—2b—Y,.(e + 4d — 3g —2f — 2h)

4

_- 100.4460) = 31) =240) —2(0)'= 050/98 sh 4(70) 31) 2(28) — 2(0)

a 4

= 14.375

no. reference species = 14.375(4) = 57.5 mol of electron

100(0.3)
no. equiv. Cs gHiq9O040N gasified = no. equiv. O5 =
C50H1090O040N/57.5

ya /5785)carers
ai 1554.8 ie eee adime
 Chemistry of the Anaerobic Process 33

; 100 14. ©
4]&
to
moles wet air used = 1.2 (1.27) |—————
oi n|n
ee
gei
a es,
|
9 i) Se

100 14.3750 \ (|
+ (0.016) |(1.27) (————= } (—

100 100
= 1.2 ea
}—(1.27)(8)0 (Se)
(— } +
+ 0.016) |
|—1.27)8)
re (3) (— ]}

1.2(1.51 + 0.024) = 1.84 tonne-mol/day

Therefore,

cubic meters of air at STP = 1.84(10°)(22.4)(1073) |———

24(60)

= 28.62 per minute Answer

CHEMISTRY OF THE ANAEROBIC PROCESS

A biological decomposition of organic waste done in the absence of air is called an

anaerobic process. When the electron acceptor is the nitrate ion, the process is called
anoxic; otherwise, the process is simply a normal anaerobic process. As in the case of
the biological combustion process, the reaction may or may not go to completion. In
fact, incomplete process is the rule rather than the exception. The decomposition of solid
wastes in a sanitary landfill and the digestion of sludge in a sewage treatment plant are
two processes that use the chemistry of the anaerobic process.
When C,H,O-.N,S, is decomposed or digested by life processes, CO is pro-
duced. This is true whether the process is aerobic or anaerobic. In the anaerobic
process, there is the question of what the electron acceptor is. When nitrates and sul-
fates are added intentionally, the electron acceptors are these ions. However, when
nothing is added intentionally, what would be the acceptor? As mentioned, when
C,H,O-N,S, is digested, CO2 is produced. Under anaerobic condition during the diges-
tion of C,H,O-N,S»,, no nitrates and sulfates will be formed, since anaerobic processes
are done in the absence of oxygen. Therefore, when there is no intentional addition of
acceptors, the logical acceptor would be carbon dioxide. Hence, from Table 2-4, use
the CO, acceptor reaction in the following derivation of the anaerobic chemical reac-
tion.
As in biological combustion, anaerobic reactions can be complete or incomplete.
First, the complete anaerobic reaction will be derived. The donor reaction will still be
34 Environmental Chemistry and Biology Chap. 2

{reaction (2-7)]

| 2x+a-—z
Ve Oe — Syel = eg 21D
C,H,O,N255 +
yay
4
oa oe pes
H,O —

o& 6) a
CO, + NH,*
eto en) eae
¥ (2-12)
HCO; ~
MinwErrss 8 Oey: ;

+ z HS +H* +e
y+4x — 3a —2z—2b ;

The acceptor reaction is

+CO. + H* +e7 > 4CHy

+ 7H20 (2-13)
Adding reactions (2-12) and (2-13) produces the overall reaction for the complete-reaction
anaerobic process:

i CON ee es Loy
ee ear ey
A 20 2D Say i a
COs cH. et NH,
SG a. 43a 127 2b) wpe tne ae Caley
" Wap aes — 30) =
si 7
HCO.gee
: Ve
z Oe
HDS;
Now, derive the reaction that produces a residue. The half-cell reactions for the
donor and synthesis reactions are the same as those of biological oxidation, reactions
(2-7) and (2-9), respectively. The difference is the acceptor reaction; for aerobic, the
acceptor is oxygen, while for anaerobic, the acceptor is carbon dioxide. From reactions
(2-7) and (2-9), the number of electron moles left for the electron acceptor per mole of
CAV O UN 755 1S ya 4g OOD (Cae ae OS ee), ep ier.) eis tae
Y. for anaerobic conditions. This modifies the CO) electron acceptor reaction, reaction
(2-13), as follows:

(6)y+ 4xx — 3 a 2z — 2b ) Veeiclé + 4d —3¢ g —2f fe —2) Xo,

8
+ [(y + 4x — 3a — 2z — 2b) — Ya-(e + 4d — 3g —2f — 2h)]H*

+ [(y + 4x — 3a — 2z — 2b) — Yy-(e +4d — 3g —2f —2h)le > (2-15)

(Gy ae = 3a — 27 — 2b) Va (eredd, oe = 7 On) .

CHa
8
i QOy+ 4xX — 3aa — 2z — 21b) Yac(e g —2f y; — 2) ae
icle + 4d— 39
A 2O
Chemistry of the Anaerobic Process 35

Next, we reproduce the synthesis reaction, (2-9), but change Y, to Yq¢.

Yuc(d — g)COz + g¥ueHCO3~ + g¥ycNHy* + YachHS

+ Yacle + 4d —3g —2f —2h)H* + Yale +4d — 3g —2f —2h)e > (2-16)
YacCaHeOsNeSp + Yac(2d + g — f)H2O
Multiplying reaction (2-7) throughout by y +4x — 3a — 2z — 2b and combining the result
with reactions (2-15) and (2-16), the overall anaerobic reaction that contains residues of
organic matter, CyH-O¢N,Sp, is

4x + 7a + 2b —2z— y — Ya-(4d
+ 7g + 2h aia
C, H,O-N.Sp at mn 2») O

YacCaHeO¢NeSp
i 4x + 2z+ 2b + Ya-(Sg te —4d —2f —2h)-—Sa-—y
8 CO? (2217)
(eV ae)NEa™ a’ g¥2)HCO; (> —hY je) HS
glans
p+ 4xx — —33a TAN ) = ee
NG Ad —3¢ga — 27
2y = 2h oH
4

From the stoichiometry of the reactions, it is possible to calculate the various masses
involved. For example, the masses of H2O and CHy per unit mass of C,H,O,N,S», from
reaction (2-17) are, respectively,
4x+7a+2b—22—y—Yae(4d+7e¢+2h—2
f —e)
mass H,O as m= ee ee
mass C,H,O,N,S, _ GC,H,O,N,S;
mass ;CH, S Drm
(y+ SMS 2B Bate teen ves} VOH
d—3g—2f—2 (218)

Mass (1,0; N.S» 4 C,H,O, N.S»

Similar equations can be derived for the rest.

Example 2-8
Ultimate analysis of a mixture of sewage sludge and solid waste deposited in a sanitary
landfill produces the following results: x = 50, y = 100, z = 40, and a = 1. The landfill
processes 100 tonnes/day of combined sludge and solid waste (C59H 99O040N). What is the
water requirement for a complete decomposition to take place?

Solution
| 4x + 7a +2b —2z—y
—____#!—_—_—C,H,O-,N,S», + —H,0 >
ei ep EPA Agee 34 rep)
4xpO im+2z+2b—Sa-—y
AP i NE) Ga ely |tah
8(y + 4x — 3a — 2z — 2b) 8
a
+ : NH4* HCO3~
y + 4x — 3a — 2z — 2b Wap aed = sy = 2 = Yo)
b
pS
ae ar), =o) ;
36 Environmental Chemistry and Biology Chap. 2

C,HyO-NqSp = CsoHi00040N = 12(50) + 100 + 16(40) + 14 = 1354

4x+7a+2b—2z—y H O
mass HzO a A(y+4x—3a—22—2b) 2
a 1
mass C,HyO-NaSp yaaa 3anteaap x HyOzNaSp

[4(50) + 7(1) + 2(0) — 2(40) — 100]18

4(1354)

10209)

Therefore,

water requirement = 0.09(100) = ara Answer

Example 2-9
In Example 2-8, if 30% of the original C is converted to carbon dioxide and the average
empirical formula of the residue is C79H9g02gN, calculate the water requirement.

Solution
mass H)O 4x+7a+2b—2z—y ee t7g+2h—2 f HO

mass/CeH,OoNzs,) C,yHyOzNaSp

CaHeO¢NeSh = C70 H9g02gN

e 12(50
Carbon gasified = oe OT 100)(080) c= ( ) (100)(0.30) = 13.3 tonnes/day
Cs0H100040N 1354
12(50)
Carbon converted to C77H9gO02gN = 1354 (100) — 13.30 = 31.0 tonnes/day

Therefore,

31.0/[12(70)]
YacC79 = ———————. = 0.50
ie! Sean O0a54
C,HyO;NaSp = C5oH100040N
Thus,

mass H2O
mass C,H,O-,NaSp
4(50)+7(1)+2(0)—2(40)—100—0.50[4(70)+7(1)+2(0)
—2(28) —98] (18)
4
= = —0.12
1354 us
Therefore,

t
water requirement = —0.12(100) = —12 “ =Q(0 Answer
 Wastewater Characteristics 37

WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS

Important parameters used to characterize an organic waste are given in the constituents
of municipal waste shown in Table 2-5.

TABLE 2-5 TYPICAL COMPOSITION OF UNTREATED DOMESTIC

WASTEWATER?

Concentration

Constituent Strong Medium Weak

Biochemical oxygen demand (BODs at 20°C) 420 200 100

Total organic carbon (TOC) 280 150 80
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) 1000 500 250
Total solids 1250 700 300
Dissolved 800 500 230
Fixed 500 300 140
Volatile 300 200 90
Suspended 450 200 70
Fixed 5 =e) 20
Volatile BS 145 50
Settleable solids (mL/L) 20 10 5)
Total nitrogen 90 50 20
Organic 85 15 10
Free ammonia 35) 35 10
Nitrites 0 0 0
Nitrates 0 0 0
Total phosphorus as P 18 10 5
Organic 5 3
Inorganic 3 7 4
Chlorides 110 45 30
Alkalinity as CaCO3 220 110 50
Grease 160 100 50

“All values except settleable solids are expressed in mg/L.

The total solids content of a wastewater are the materials left after water has been
evaporated from the sample. The evaporation is normally done at 103 to 105°C. Total
solids, the residue after evaporation, may be classified as dissolved or suspended. The
dissolved solids fraction includes, by definition, the colloidal particles. If the solids
are not dissolved, they are, by definition, suspended. The Standard Methods also calls
suspended solids nonfilterable residues and the dissolved solids filterable residues. The
settleable fraction is included in the suspended solids and is the volume of the solids after
settling for 30 minutes in a cone-shaped container called an Imhoff cone |sludge volume
index (SVI)]. Settleable solids are an approximate measure of the volume of sludge that
will settle by sedimentation. The fixed portions of the solids (dissolved and suspended)
are those that remain as a residue when the sample is decomposed at 600°C. Those that
disappear are called volatile solids. Figure 2-2 shows Imhoff cones.
38 Environmental Chemistry and Biology Chap. 2

Figure 2-2 Imhoff cones.

The biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) of wastewater is a measure of the oxygen-

consuming property of the waste expressed in terms of oxygen that is consumed biolog-
ically; it is a measure of waste strength. BODs is a waste strength that represents the
amount of oxygen that will be consumed in 5 days at a given temperature. The normal
temperature used for BOD analysis is 20°C. This temperature standardizes all BODs re-
sults from one laboratory to another, other parameters considered constant. Intrinsic in
the biochemical oxygen demand is the reaction of the wastewater carbon with oxygen
in the biochemical process. Hence the strength of the waste to consume oxygen can
also be expressed in terms of the carbon it contains. Total organic carbon is the carbon
content of an organic waste. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a measure of the total
ability of a wastewater to consume oxygen. The method of analysis normally uses potas-
sium dichromate as the oxidant. Because of its nonbiological portion, COD is greater
than BOD.
An organic matter may contain protein. The protein, in turn, contains nitrogen,
which is about 16% of the protein mass. The nitrogen in protein is an organic nitrogen.
Organic nitrogen, therefore, is a measure of the protein content of an organic waste. When
organic matter is attacked by microorganisms, its protein hydrolyzes into ammonia. Free
ammonia is the hydrolysis product of organic nitrogen. The nitrites and nitrates are the
results of the oxidation of ammonia to nitrites by Nitrosomonas and the oxidation of
nitrites to nitrates by Nitrobacter, respectively. The sum of the organic, free ammonia,
Wastewater Characteristics 39

nitrite, and nitrate nitrogens is called total nitrogen. The sum of ammonia and organic
nitrogens is called Kjeldahl nitrogen.
As shown in Table 2-5, the other constituent of an organic waste is phosphorus,
which is classified into organic and inorganic. The species of nitrogen and phosphorus can
cause eutrophication of receiving bodies of water if they are discharged in large amounts.
Only one of the elements nitrogen and phosphorus needs to be controlled. Phosphorus
control is recommended. The last three constituents shown in Table 2-5 are chlorides,
alkalinity, and grease. Grease is very troublesome in sewers, as it can accumulate in
bends, causing sewage to back up into basements of homes. Other contaminants found
in sewage are pathogens, refractory organics, and heavy metals.
Since BODs is very important in the design of wastewater treatment plants, this
parameter will discussed at length. In general, there are two types of BOD laboratory
methods of analysis: one where dilution is necessary and one where dilution is not
necessary. When the BOD of a sample is small, such as in river waters, dilution is not
necessary. Otherwise, the sample would have to be diluted. Table 2-6 sets the criteria for
determining the dilution required. This table shows that there are two ways that dilution
can be made: as a percent mixture or by direct pipetting into 300-mL BOD bottles.
Normally, BOD analysis is done using 300-mL incubation bottles.

TABLE 2-6 RANGES OF BOD MEASURABLE WITH

VARIOUS DILUTIONS OF SAMPLES

By direct pipetting into

Using percent mixtures 300-mL bottles

% mixture Range of BODs mL Range of BODs

0.01 35,000-70,000 0.01 —40,000—100,000

0.03 10,000-35,000 0.05 20,000—40,000
0.05 7,000—10,000 0.10 —10,000—20,000
0.1 3,500—7,000 0.30 4,000—10,000
0.3 1,400-3,500 0.50 2,000—4,000
0.5 700—1,400 1.0 1 ,000—2,000
1.0 350-700 3.0 400—1,000
3.0 150-350 5.0 200-400
5.0 70-150 10.0 100-200
10.0 35-70 30.0 40-100
30.0 10-35 50.0 20-40
50.0 5-10 100 10-20
100 0-5 300 0-10

Since BOD analysis attempts to measure the oxygen equivalent of a given waste, the
environment inside the BOD bottle must be conducive to uninhibited bacterial growth.
The parameters of importance for maintaining this type of environment are freedom
from toxic materials, favorable pH and osmotic pressure conditions, optimal amount of
nutrients, and the presence of significant amount of population of mixed organisms of
soil origin. Through long years of experience, it has been found that synthetic dilution
40 Environmental Chemistry and Biology Chap. 2

water prepared from distilled water or demineralized water is best for BOD work, since
the presence of such toxic substances as chloramine, chlorine, and copper can easily be
controlled. The maintenance of favorable pH can be assured by buffering the dilution
water at about pH 7.0 using potassium and sodium phosphates. The potassium and sodium
ions, along with the addition of calcium and magnesium ions, can also maintain the proper
osmotic pressure, as well as provide the necessary nutrients in terms of these elements.
The phosphates, of course, provide the necessary phosphorus nutrient requirement. Ferric
chloride, magnesium sulfate, and ammonium chloride supply the requirements for iron,
sulfur, and nitrogen.
Since the sample submitted for analysis may contain different types of “BOD con-
stituents,” a population of mixed organisms is accordingly required. The sample, how-
ever, may not contain any organisms at all. Such is the case, for example, of an industrial
waste, which can be completely sterile. For this situation, the dilution water must be
seeded with organisms from an appropriate source. In domestic wastewaters, all the or-
ganisms needed are already there; hence these wastewaters can serve as good sources of
seed organisms. Experience has shown that a seed volume of 2.0 mL per liter of dilution
water is all that is needed.

Calculation of BOD

In the subsequent development, the formulation will be based on the assumption that
the dilution method is used. If, in fact, the method used is direct, that is, no dilution,
the dilution factor that appears in the formulation will simply be equated to zero. The
technique of determining the BOD of a sample is to find the difference in dissolved
oxygen (DO) concentration between the final and initial time after a period of incubation
at some controlled temperature. This difference, converted to mass of oxygen per unit
volume of sample (such as mg/L), is the BOD. Let / be the initial DO of the sample,
which has been diluted with seeded dilution water, and F be the final DO of the same
sample after the incubation period. The difference would then represent a BOD, but
since the sample is seeded, a correction must be made for the BOD of the seed. This
necessitates running a blank.
Let /’ represent the initial DO of a volume Y of the blank composed of only the
seeded dilution water; also, let F’ be the final DO after incubating this blank at the same
time and temperature as the sample. If X is the volume of the seeded dilution water
mixed with the sample, the DO correction would be (/’ — F’)(X/Y). Letting D be the
fractional dilution, the BOD of the sample is

CDS FP) (i yey)

BOD = D (2-19)
Oz

In this equation, if the incubation period is 5 days, the BOD is called the 5-day
biochemical oxygen demand, BODs. It is understood that unless it is specified, BODs
is a BOD measured at the standard temperature of incubation of 20°C. If incubation is
done for a long period of time, such as 20 to 30 days, it is assumed that all the BOD has
Wastewater Characteristics 41

been consumed. The BOD under this situation is the ultimate; hence it is called ultimate
BODson BOD
BOD,,, in turn, can have two fractions: one due to carbon and the other due to
nitrogen. As mentioned before, in the biochemical reaction, carbon reacts with oxygen;
also, nitrogen, in the form of ammonia, reacts with oxygen. If the BOD reaction is allowed
to go to completion with the ammonia reaction inhibited, the resulting ultimate BOD
is called ultimate carbonaceous BOD, or CBOD. Since Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter,
the organisms for the ammonia reaction, cannot compete very well with carbonaceous
bacteria (the organisms for the carbon reaction) the reaction during the first few days
of incubation up to approximately 5 or 6 days is mainly carbonaceous. Hence BODs is
mainly carbonaceous. If the reaction is uninhibited, after 5 or 6 days of incubation the
BOD also contains the nitrogenous BOD. BOD is normally reported in units of mg/L.
Experience has demonstrated that a dissolved oxygen concentration of 0.5 mg/L
does not affect BOD. Also, it has been learned that a depletion of less than 2.0 mg/L
produces erroneous BOD results. Hence it is important that in BOD work, the concentra-
tion of DO in the incubation bottle should not fall below 0.5 mg/L and that the depletion
after the incubation period should not be less than 2.0 mg/L.

Example 2-10
Ten milliliters of sample is pipeted directly into a 300-mL incubation bottle. The initial DO
of the diluted sample is 9.0 mg/L and its final DO is 2.0 mg/L. The initial DO of the dilution
water is also 9.0 mg/L, but the final DO is 8.0 mg/L. The temperature of incubation is 20°C.
If the sample is incubated for 5 days, what is the BODs of the sample?

Solution

(i — F)—(I' — F’)\(X/Y)
BOD; =
D

I = 9.0 mg/L; F = 2.0 mg/L; I’ = 9.0 mg/L; and F’ = 8.0 mg/L. X = 300-10 = 290 mL
and Y = 300 mL, since the dilution water would have to be incubated in a 300-mL bottle.

10
D = — = 0.033
300
Therefore,

9.0 — 2.0) — (9.0 — 8.0)(290/300

BOD; = iss Neda = 183 mg/L Answer
0.033

Example 2-11
A suspended solids analysis is run on a sample. The tare mass of the crucible and filter is
55.3520 g. A sample of 260 mL is then filtered and the residue dried to constant mass at
103°C. If the constant mass of the crucible, filter, and the residue is 55.3890 g, what is the
suspended solids content (SS) of the sample?

Solution
55.3890 — 55.3520
(1000) = 142 mg/L Answer
260(10~3)
 42 Environmental Chemistry and Biology Chap. 2

SOLUBILITY PRODUCT CONSTANT

Let the reactant be represented by a solid molecule A,B,. As this reactant is mixed
with water, it dissolves into its constituent solute ions. From general chemistry, the
equilibrium dissolution reaction is

A,B, = GA + bB (2-20)

The equilibrium constant is

Re =
(A}{B}
Yen b
eo
{AqBp}

Since A,B, is a solid, the concentrations of A and B are small compared to that of
A, By. For this reason, by convention, the product K{A,B,} is considered a constant
and is designated as K,,. Ks, is called the solubility product constant of the equilibrium
dissolution reaction. Equation (2-21) now transforms to

Ksp BE {A}*{B}? (2-22)

Table 2-7 is a table of solubility product constants of representative compounds.

TABLE 2-7 SOLUBILITY PRODUCT CONSTANTS OF REPRESENTATIVE COMPOUNDS

Equilibrium reaction Ksp at 25°C Significance

AgCl = Agt +Cl- 1.8(10-!) Chloride analysis

Al(OH)3 = Al3+ + 3 OH7 1.9(10-*3) — Coagulation
BaSO4 = Ba2+ + SO42— 10- Sulfate analysis
Ca€O3"— Catt + COs 4.8(107?) Hardness removal, scales
Ca(OH)2 = Ca*+ + 2 OH- 7.9(10-®) Hardness removal
CaSO, = Ca’ 4SOj-e 2400s) Flue gas desulfurization
Ca3(PO4)2' = 3 Ca** +42 POA 107° Phosphate removal
CaHPO, = Ca*+ + HPO,?- 5(0-°) Phosphate removal
CaF = Ca** +2 F- 3.9(110-!!) Fluoridation
Cr(OH)3 = Cr>+ + 3 OH- 6.70105-") Heavy metal removal
Cu(OH)2 = Cu2+ + 2 OH- 5.6(10- 2°) Heavy metal removal
Fe(OH)3 = Fe*+ + 3 OH- 1.1(1073°) Coagulation, iron removal, corrosion
Fe(OH) = Fe2+ + 2 OH- 7.91107») Coagulation, iron removal, corrosion
MgCO3 = Mg?+ + CO32- ca(10->) Hardness removal, scales
Mg(OH)2 = Mg?+ +2 OH 1500) Hardness removal, scales
Mn(OH); = Mn?2+ + 2 OH- ASO) Manganese removal
Ni(OH), = Ni*+ + 2 OH- 1.6(10-!4) — Heavy metal removal
Zi(OH)y = Zn-* 4-2, OH AS(105*) Heavy metal removal
 Eutrophication 43

Example 2-12
The practical limit of technology in the removal of calcium carbonate hardness at normal
plant operating conditions is 40 mg/L of CaCO3. What are the concentrations of the calcium
and carbonate ions at 25°C?

Solution From Table 2-7, Ksp)(CaCO3) = 5 x 10~? and

CaCO3 = Cat +. CO3~
Let x be the concentration of Ca2+. From the reaction the concentration of the carbonate
ion is also x. Hence substituting into the equilibrium equation yields
5
x!x!) = 5(10-”) =i

x =7.1(10->) mol/L = {Ca?*+} = {CO3°-} Answer

EUTROPHICATION

Eutrophication is a natural process of aging of a body of water. It is a result of a very

slow process of natural sedimentation of microscopic organisms which takes geologic
times to complete. The completion of the process results in the extinction of the water
body.
The process of eutrophication is propelled by increasing concentrations of nutrients
necessary for biological activity. First, envision a clean, clear water. In this condition,
since the nutrients available are minimal, there is no significant biological activity in the
water column that can support sedimentation. The water body is healthy and the condition
is called oligotrophic. As time progresses, however, nutrients can build up. A water
body with nutrient concentration supporting biological activity that is not objectionable
but above that of oligotrophic conditions is considered mesotrophic. In the next stage
of the life cycle the water becomes eutrophic. This is characterized by murky water
with an accelerated rate of sedimentation of microorganisms. The final life stage before
extinction is a pond, marsh, or swamp.
The life cycle depicted above takes geologic times to complete. Human activity,
however, encourages the production of nutrients and shortens the eutrophication cycle.
People who have a green lawn are prolific producers of nutrients. Farmlands are an
excellent source of nutrients. The Chesapeake Bay in Maryland, for example, is loaded
with nutrients coming from farmlands as far away as New York.
Microorganisms are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus,
and trace elements. For microorganisms to survive, they must be provided with these
elements in the form of nutrients. It is therefore possible to limit the growth of these
microorganisms by controlling the input of these elements into a body of water. Theoret-
ically, introduction of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen may be limited were it not for the
fact that these elements are already in abundance in the environment. Carbon is already
introduced in the form of CO», from the air, and hydrogen and oxygen are components
of HO.
44 Environmental Chemistry and Biology Chap. 2

As far as eutrophication control is concerned, the nutrients of utmost importance

are nitrogen and phosphorus. Nitrogen is utilized by organisms in the form of NH4*,
NO,~, and NO3~; phosphorus is utilized in the form of orthophosphorus. Algae, the
prime cause of eutrophication, are produced by photosynthesis. In the chloroplast, us-
ing the energy from sunlight, the water molecule breaks down, releasing electrons for
synthesis:

276H,0 — 1380; + 552H* + 552e (2-23)

CO, from the air dissolved in water, together with other nutrients and trace elements,
then takes the electrons released from water to form algae as follows:

106CO> + 16NO3° + HPO,7> + 570H* + 552e + trace elements >

2-24
(CH20) 106(NH3)16H3PO,4 - trace elements (the algae) + 154H2O ( )

Adding reactions (2-23) and (2-24) produces the total reaction,

106CO> + 16NO3° + HPO,” + 122H,O + 18H* + trace elements >

(2-25)
(CH30)
196(NH3)16H3PO, -trace elements* + 13805
In water quality modeling, the concentration of algae is normally expressed in terms of
chlorophyll a, CssH72MgNqOs.
As evidenced from reaction (2-25), control of only one element is all that is needed
to limit the growth of algae. Of the elements nitrogen and phosphorus, which should be
controlled? It has been found that the blue greens can fix nitrogen from the air. Blue
greens can survive almost anywhere and can easily outgrow other algae under adverse
conditions. For this and other reasons, it is not prudent to control nitrogen. Phosphorus
control is recommended.*

Example 2-13
The Back River sewage treatment plant in the city of Baltimore discharges to the Back
River estuary. The state of Maryland imposes on its permit a total phosphorus limitation
of 2.0 mg/L. Assuming that all the total phosphorus converts to orthophosphorus, what are
the expected (a) algae concentration, and (b) chlorophyll a concentration, assuming that
chlorophyll a is 1.5% of algae? Assume the dilution effect of the estuary to be negligible
(of course, this is not true).

Solution (a) 106CO2 + 16NO3” + HPOa2— + 122H2O + 18H* + trace elements >

(CH20)106(NH3)16H3POy4 - trace elements + 13805

(CH20)106(NH3)16H3PO4 = (12 + 18)(106) + 17(16) + 3 + 31 + 64 = 3550

3W. Stumm and J. J. Morgan (1981). Aquatic Chemistry, 2nd ed., Wiley-Interscience, New York.
4A. P. Sincero (1984). “Eutrophication and the Fallacy of Nitrogen Removal.” Pollution Engineering.
Pudvan Publishing Co., Northbrook, III.
Eutrophication 45

Therefore,

; F 3550
theoretically expected algae concentration = ay = 229.0 mg/L Answer

(b) Theoretically expected chlorophyll a concentration = 0.015(229)(1000)

= 3435 we/L Answer

The computed concentrations in Example 2-13 are unrealistic; the dilution effect of
the receiving stream should be considered. This will result in a smaller orthophosphorus
concentration. Also, settling of total phosphorus not considered in the solution to the
problem. In a real estuary, a high concentration of 300 j.g/L of chlorophyll a is not
uncommon.
Example 2-14
(a) From reactions (2-23) to (2-25), find the equivalent weight of algae. (b) A sample of
estuarine water containing 300 ;.g/L of chlorophyll a is saturated with oxygen and incubated
under dark conditions. Assuming that sufficient oxygen is present in the incubation bottle to
satisfy the reaction, how many mg/L of oxygen is consumed? Assume that algae contains
1.5% chlorophyll a.

Solution

(a) 276H20 — 13802 + 552H* + 552e

106CO> + 16NO3~ + HPO4? + 570H* + 552e + trace elements >
(CH20)106(NH3)16H3POz4 - trace elements + 154H20O
algae |

106CO2 + 16NO3° + HPO4? + 122H2O + 18H* + trace elements >

(CH20)
196 (NH3)16H3POzq - trace elements + 13802

From the reactions, 552 mol of electrons is consumed per mole of algae. Therefore,

3550
equivalent weight of algae = 359 = 6.43 mg/mEq Answer

(b) (CH2O0)1096(NH3)16H3POx4 - trace elements + 13802 —

106CO> + 16NO3~ + HPO4*~ + 122H»O + 18H* + trace elements

Po |2 = (isu)
GN ON2 ee
ee20 lit
CL AMeL a
6.43
SD. 3.11 m mEq/L

: 138(32)
equivalent weight O, = 55) = 8.0 mg/mEq

Therefore,

mg/L O, consumed = 3.11(8) = 24.88 mg/L Answer

46 Environmental Chemistry and Biology Chap. 2

The Kinetics of Eutrophication

The condition of excessive growth of plants, both attached and planktonic, in a water body
is called eutrophication. The major cause of eutrophication is the excessive discharge of
the nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus. In the context of chemical or biological reactions,
kinetics means the rate of change of concentration with respect to time (i.e., a derivative
with respect to time). Designate this derivative by R. (Knowledge of eutrophication
kinetics gained in this chapter will be used in the discussion on environmental quality
modeling in a subsequent chapter.)
Five kinetic processes are involved in eutrophication: phytoplankton (floating al-
gae), phosphorus, nitrogen, CBOD, and DO kinetics. The schematic is depicted in
Figure 2-3, where the five processes can be identified. State variable means the variable
whose R derivative is to be formulated. There are a total of eight state variables indicated
in the schematic: PHYT, ON, NO3, NH3, OP, OPO,, CBOD, and DO.

OPO, <——

i||

Atmosphere
Figure 2-3 Schematic diagram of
O> eutrophication kinetics.

Phytoplankton (PHYT) require nutrients for growth. This is indicated by the in-
put arrows of nitrates (NO3), ammonia (NH3), and orthophosphorus (OPO,). During
photosynthesis, oxygen is released, and during respiration, oxygen is needed by the
phytoplankton. [Algae (i.e., phytoplankton) also respire.| During respiration, CO, is
released. The phytoplankton body contains nitrogen, carbon, and phosphorus. As the
Eutrophication 47

phytoplankton die, these elements go to the elements pool, designated as C:N:P. In the
two-arrow pathway for CO», the arrow going downward simply indicates that the carbon
in CO» goes to the elements pool.
Upon death of the phytoplankton, the phosphorus goes to the elements pool as
organic phosphorus, OP. There are, subsequently, two kinetic processes that OP under-
goes: settling, as indicated by the arrow going downward, and hydrolysis to OPO4. The
orthophosphorus, OPO, may be sorbed onto particles; hence it is indicated as being
settled. The other portion of OPO, is then consumed by the phytoplankton.
Also, upon death of the phytoplankton, nitrogen goes to the pool as organic ni-
trogen and ammonia. Some of the organic nitrogen settles and some is hydrolyzed to
NH3. By the action of Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter, ammonia is oxidized to NO3.
The nitrate may then be used by the phytoplankton, or be denitrified to gaseous nitro-
gen, No, if the surrounding becomes anoxic. The carbon portion of the elements pool
is designated as the carbonaceous oxygen demand (CBOD). The solid portion of the
CBOD settles and the other portion is utilized by carbonaceous microorganisms, utiliz-
ing oxygen in the process. The CBOD that settles becomes sediment oxygen demand
(SOD).
The last kinetic process is the dissolved oxygen (DO). The sources of oxygen are
the atmosphere and phytoplankton photosynthesis. The dissolved oxygen is used by
Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter in oxidizing the NH; to nitrate. It is also used by the
CBOD kinetics and to oxidize the SOD.

Phytoplankton kinetics. As shown in the figure, phytoplankton is the fourth state

variable; call its concentration cy.
The kinetic coefficients involved are growth (jp),
death (k,), and settling (k,4). Therefore, the R derivative, Rq, 1s

R4 = (Lp a ka a Ks4)c4 (2-26)

The concentration of phytoplankton is normally measured in terms of active chloro-

phyll a, CssH72MgN4Os. Active chlorophyll a is to be differentiated from inactive or
dead chlorophyll a, which is also called pheophytin.
The growth coefficient 4, may be deduced as a fraction of the maximum growth
rate coefficient /1,,,,, modified by the effect of light intensity (f7), temperature (f7), and
limiting nutrient (fy). There appear to be two extremes in the effect of light intensity
on growth kinetics: at very low light intensity, growth is inhibited, and at very intense
light intensity, growth is photoinhibited. Between these two extremes is the intensity
where growth rate is a maximum. The intensity corresponding to this point is called the
saturating growth rate light intensity, I;.
Call fipm at 20°C f4pm20. Considering the modifying factors f7, fr, and fr, Up
may be written as

Mp = am20s1 Hive fn (2-27)

The bottom three plots in Figure 2-4 show the effect of changing the light intensity
I from the optimum on the concentration of phytoplankton. P/P, is the ratio of the
48 Environmental Chemistry and Biology Chap. 2

1.0

Pe (OS)

0 Ee ae ee el
0 | 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 yng
(a)

1.0 Chlorophyta

L/P OS
E
e. 0
fe) 0 | 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
to)
cae (b)
zo)
oO
S 1.0 4
as) Diatoms
S
eE 1Aef OS)
iS
A 0 (reseeeafLa te !
0 l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Oe
(c)

1.0 Flagellates

Ae OS

Figure 2-4 Normalized rate of photosynthesis versus incident light intensity.

concentration of phytoplankton P produced at / to the concentration of the phytoplankton

P, produced at /;. The top part of the figure is a plot of the equation proposed by
Steele:°
ie . I I
sso a OSD (-7+1) (2-28)

where /, is around 300 langleys (Ly) per day and f/f; is the fractional attenuation of the
maximum growth due to a different light intensity (mentioned before).
From the Lambert—Beers law, J = Jp exp (—K,z), where Jp is the intensity at
the surface of the water body, K, is an extinction coefficient, and z is the water depth.

°J. H. Steele (1965). “Primary Production in Aquatic Environments,” in C. R. Goldman (ed.), Notes on
Some Theoretical Problems in Production Ecology. Memorial Institute for Idrobiology, University of California
Press, Berkeley, Calif., 18 Suppl., pp. 383-398.
Eutrophication 49

Substituting in equation (2-28), f) at any depth is

Ipexp(—K,z) Ipexp(—K,z)
fi = —
exp |+ | (2-29)
Hh IS)
A factor may also have to be incorporated to consider the effect of cloud cover.
An empirical relationship relating K, to the Secchi depth z, has been developed.°
The Secchi depth is the depth at which a white disk about | ft in diameter will disappear
from view when immersed in a body of water. The relationship is

Ke
le: (2-30)
AS

The Arrhenius factor f7 used to correct for temperature is normally written in the
form (Meme where the initial temperature is 20°C. Hence the (4, to be used is [yn at
20°C. Ae = 1.068 is generally used.
The effect of nutrient limitation is based on Monod’s concept. Nutrient limitation
means that the rate of growth of the organism is retarded because of the small concen-
tration of the single limiting nutrient. Normally, the nutrient that limits growth is either
nitrogen or phosphorus. To ascertain which is limiting, the Monod expression for nitro-
gen and phosphorus should be evaluated and the smaller of the two chosen. In other
words, with fy as the correction factor,

[N] [P] )
fx = min ( (2-31)
Ky +[N]’ Kp + [P]
where [N] and [P] are the concentrations of dissolved nitrogen and phosphorus, respec-
tively, and Ky and Kp are the respective half-saturation constants. The comma separating
the ratios inside the parentheses means that only the minimum of the two will be chosen.
These ratios are the Monod expression for nitrogen and phosphorus, respectively. If
nutrients other than nitrogen and phosphorus are the limiting terms, instead, their Monod
expression should be evaluated for the minimum and then chosen.
The dissolved forms of nitrogen are ammonia, nitrite, and nitrate, and the dissolved
form of phosphorus is orthophosphorus. Substituting the expressions of the modifying
factors in equation (2-27) yields
Igexp( —K,z exp]—] oexp( —K,.z + 1]|
Lp = Lpm20
It If
(2-32)
as N Pp
of nin ( UN] : [PI )
6 Kw-- [IN] Kp -+-[P]
The value of {4)m29 Should be determined in the laboratory under simulated light condi-
tions. A value of 2.0 per day has been reported.’

®A. M. Beeton (1958). “Relationship between Secchi Disk Readings and Light Penetration in Lake
Huron.” American Fisheries Society Transactions, 87, pp. 73-79.
TUSEPA (1988). WASP4, A Hydrodynamic and Water Quality Model: Model Theory, User's Manual, and
Programmers Guide. EPA/600/3-87/039. Environmental Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Athens, Ga. p. 71.
50 Environmental Chemistry and Biology Chap. 2

Example 2-15
The concentration of active chlorophyll a at the 4-m depth is 10 jg/L . The Secchi depth is
9.2 mand the surface light intensity /, is equal to 2200 Ly/day. Ky and Kp are 25 g/L and
1.0 wa/L, respectively. If [N] and [P] are 50 jg/L and 10 pg/L, respectively, calculate R4.
Assume that k;4 = 0.14 per day, kg = 0.05 per day, z; = 9.2 m, and temperature = 25°C.

Solution

Ra = (Up — ka — ksa)eg
Ipexp(— Kez) Ipexp(—K ez) T-20_- [N] [P]
Ce ——_—__— , —
Lp == Hpm200) | ie exp ——————
ie oc +] g eae Kn +{[N] Kp + [Pl

Assume that J; = 300 Ly/day, (4pm20 = 2 per day, and 6, = 1.068 per day.

Therefore,

9)

(= exp[(—0.2)(4)] | 2200 exp[(—0.2)(4)] 1)

Lp a exp af Il
300 300

(1.0687>~7°) |min x at
25. 50, Ae
= 2(3.3)(0.1)(1.39)[min(0.67, 0.91)] = 0.61 per day

Re= 061 0,05--0:14) 00) 40 Ot Answer

L-day

Phosphorus kinetics. | From Figure 2-3 the state variables involved in phosphorus
kinetics are phytoplankton c4, organic phosphorus (OP) cg, and orthophosphorus (OPO,)
c3. The pool of organic phosphorus is increased by the death of phytoplankton and is
decreased by mineralization to orthophosphorus and by settling. Mathematically, this
phenomenon is expressed by the R derivative Rg as

Rg = kgapceca — Kngcg — Ksgcg (2-33)

Here kyg is the mineralization rate coefficient mainly caused by enzymatic hydrolysis,
and k;g the settling rate of organic phosphorus, and a,, the ratio of phosphorus to active
chlorophyll a in phytoplankton.
There is sorption between orthophosphorus and suspended solids. This interaction
is expressed by the partition coefficient. The sorbed portion of orthophosphorus causes its
reduction by settling. As indicated by Figure 2-3, the concentration of orthophosphorus
is also reduced by utilization of phytoplankton and increased by the mineralization of
organic phosphorus. Let c3, be the concentration of orthophosphorus sorbed onto the
solids. c3, = Ksp3¢3, where K,,3 1s the K,, (partition coefficient) for orthophosphorus
Eutrophication 51

onto the solids m,. The R derivative of orthophosphorus R3 is then given by

R3 = Kngcg — MpapeC4 — K;msC3p = kpgcg — Mpapcl4 — k,ms K 5303 (2-34)

where jl, is as defined before and &, is the settling velocity coefficient of the solids.
[pApcC4 18 equal to kyp3¢3, Where k»3 is the microbial decay coefficient for orthophos-
phorus due to phytoplankton. Note that c3, is expressed as the mass of orthophosphorus
per unit mass of solids.

Nitrogen kinetics. From Figure 2-3, the state variables involved in nitrogen
kinetics are ammonia (NHs3) c), nitrite-nitrate (NO3) c2, phytoplankton (PHYT) c4, and
organic nitrogen (ON) c7. Organic nitrogen is formed during respiration and upon death
of the phytoplankton. Also, during respiration and upon death, ammonia is formed.
Settling and enzymatic hydrolysis to ammonia also reduce the concentration of organic
nitrogen; the R derivative R7 is then

Re FOnhaGnces — key — kacy (2-35)

Here fon is the fraction of cellular nitrogen converted to organic nitrogen upon death
and during respiration, k;7 the enzymatic hydrolysis coefficient, k,7 the settling velocity
coefficient, and a, the ratio of nitrogen to active chlorophyll a in phytoplankton.
When organic nitrogen is hydrolyzed, the product is ammonia. Ammonia is used
directly by phytoplankton and by Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter. Phytoplankton incorpo-
rate ammonia into cells during synthesis. Nitrosomonas produces nitrites, and Nitrobacter
produces nitrates, indicated collectively in Figure 2-3 as NO3. During algal respiration
and death, ammonia is also directly produced. Taking all these processes into consider-
ation, the R derivative for ammonia R, is

R = Knqc7 — Mp4nce4 — Kmb1C\ ae ( ra Son )kaGneC4 (2-36)

HpAncc4 18 equal to kmpic,, Where kip; is the microbial decay coefficient for ammonia
due to phytoplankton and k,,,; is the microbial decay coefficient for ammonia due to the
bacteria Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter (the nitrifiers).
The NO; (nitrite and nitrate) produced from ammonia is either utilized by phyto-
plankton for the synthesis of cells or denitrified to nitrogen gas and other gases, such as
N>O. In utilization of the nitrogen nutrients, however, phytoplankton have the preference
for ammonia. The nitrites and nitrates will only be utilized in accordance with a factor
called the ammonia preference factor, Pxyy3; the affected part of the R derivative R> will
therefore be multiplied by the correction factor, | — Pyy3. The expression for Pyy3 is®

[NO3]
Pyxu3 = [NH3]
(Ky + [NH3])(Kn + [NO3])
(Casy,)
K
+ [NH3] a
([NH3] + [NO3])(Kn + [NO3])
Ky is the half-saturation constant for nitrogen.

STbid., p. 81.
52 Environmental Chemistry and Biology Chap. 2

The R derivative Ro for NO3 is then

Ko = kpicy — 1 Pxu3) MpGncl4 — Kmd2€2 (2-38)

where k,,¢2 is the microbial decay coefficient of NO3 due to denitrification. The first
term of equation (2-38) represents the conversion of ammonia to NOs, the second rep-
resents the utilization by phytoplankton, and the third represents the process of denitrifi-
cation.

Example 2-16
What is the ammonia preference factor in example 2-15 if [N] is broken down as [NH3] =
30 yug/L and [NO, ] = 20 pg/L?

Solution

Ras = NE) ON
— [NO3] Ky
Nu3 =[NH3] e INEGD Kn 4 INOs) >ONS! NGI NOs) (Kn 4 INOs)
20 25
=) L 30) =0(0.58 Answer
(25 =F 30) @5 = 20) (30 + 20)(25
+ 20)

CBOD kinetics. The state variables involved in CBOD kinetics are phytoplank-
ton cq, and carbonaceous oxygen demand (CBOD) cs. cs is increased by the death of
phytoplankton; it is decreased by the biochemical reaction with oxygen and by settling.
Rs 1s then

Rs = kg Qcc€4 — kmsC5 — ks5C5 (2-39)

Ace 18S the CBOD/active chlorophyll a ratio in phytoplankton, k,,,5 is the microbial decay
coefficient of CBOD due to bacteria, and k,5 is the settling velocity coefficient for CBOD.
It is to be noted that the concentration cs does not distinguish between dissolved and
sorbed CBOD but is the total CBOD per unit volume of water.

DO kinetics. In DO kinetics, the following state variables are involved: c¢ (DO),

cs (CBOD), c; (NH3), and cy (PHYT). The concentration of the DO is increased by
aeration from the atmosphere and by photosynthesis. It is consumed by CBOD, microbial
degradation (oxidation) of ammonia, plant respiration, and sediment oxygen demand
(SOD). The SOD is a demand for oxygen exerted by bottom sediments and is incorporated
in that part of c; and CBOD released from bottom sediments.
The difference between the dissolved oxygen that the water body can hold at the
given temperature and pressure and the actual dissolved oxygen concentration is called
the oxygen deficit D. The driving force for the aeration is this deficit, O, — cs = D,
where O, is the saturated DO at the prevailing temperature and pressure. In DO kinetics,
Ampic, 1S expressed in terms of its oxygen equivalent, k,L,, where k, is the microbial
decay coefficient of ammonia when c, is expressed in terms of its oxygen equivalent, L,,.
KmpsCs 18 already expressed in terms of its oxygen equivalent, and by analogy with k,,,1¢1,
is expressed as k,L., where k, iS kmps and L, is cs. Calling the effects of photosynthesis
Glossary 53

and respiration P and R, respectively, the R derivative Re is

RE Ko (One 6 as eet — Kealig — Kp Lp (2-40)

where k> is the overall mass transfer coefficient for aeration.
The photosynthetic reaction which produces oxygen was written as

106CO> + 16NO; + HPO; + 122H.O + 18H* + trace elements —>

(2-41)
(CH2O) 196(NH3) 16H3POy, - trace elements + 1380,

Photosynthetic reactions are related to phytoplankton growth. From reaction (2-41) the
ratio of oxygen produced to phytoplankton a,, is [13802 ]/[(CH2O)106(NH3)16H3PO4] =
[138(32)]/3550 = 1.24, mass of oxygen per unit mass of phytoplankton. If the mass
ratio of phytoplankton to active chlorophyll a is a,,., then

P = App Onc pC4 = 1.24 apc pc4

Ipexp(—K,z) Ipexp(—K,z)
— 1.24 apc {pm20 7 exp 7 + 1
(2-42)

6f 2 Jin ( UN ; [PI he
8 Ky+ [N] Kp +[P]
The reverse of reaction (2-41) can be considered as the reaction for respiration. Hence
by a similar argument, R is

R = 1.24apckaca (2-43)

GLOSSARY

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The energy currency of the cell.

Algae. Eucaryotic protists (which may be unicelled, multicelled, or colonial) capable of
carrying out photosynthesis.
Anaerobic process. Biological decomposition of organic waste in the absence of air.
Anoxic process. A process of decomposition in which the electron acceptor is the nitrate
ion.
Biochemical oxygen demand. A measure of the strength of an organic substance indi-
cated by the amount of equivalent oxygen consumed in its biological decomposition.
Biological combustion. A form of combustion in which an organism utilizes molecular
oxygen to oxidize a substrate producing energy.
Carbonaceous biochemical oxygen demand (CBOD). The biological oxygen demand
corresponding to the carbon content of a substance.
Chemical oxygen demand. A measure of the total ability of a substance to consume
oxygen.
Chloroplast. An organelle that forms the site of the electron-transport system of photo-
synthetic eucaryotes.
54 Environmental Chemistry and Biology Chap. 2

Combustion. Reaction of a substance with molecular oxygen, producing energy.

Completed test for coliforms. Proceeding from the confirmed test, a wire loop is
streaked into a dish containing nutrients and organisms identified using the Gram
stain technique.
Composting. An enhanced process of rapidly oxidizing a solid material using atmo-
spheric oxygen.
Confirmed test for coliforms. Proceeding from the presumptive test and incubating at
35 + 0.5°C using the brilliant green lactose bile broth, this test is positive if gases
are liberated within 24 to 48 + 3 hours.
Cytoplasmic membrane. Found directly beneath the cell wall, forms as a protective
covering of the cytoplasm.
Equivalent weight (or equivalent mass). The mass of a substance participating in a
chemical reaction per unit mole of the reference species.
Eucaryote. A protist whose DNA are arranged in an easily recognizable chromosome
structure.
Eutrophication. The natural process of aging of a body of water.
Five-day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD;). A biochemical oxygen demand exerted
in 5 days.
Free ammonia. Hydrolysis product of organic nitrogen.
Kinetics. The rate of change of the concentration of a substance with respect to time.
Kjeldahl nitrogen. The sum of the concentrations of ammonia and organic nitrogen.
Nitrogenous biochemical oxygen demand (NBOD). The biochemical oxygen demand
corresponding to the nitrogen content of a substance.
Organic nitrogen. Nitrogen content of an organic substance.
Oxygen deficit. The difference between the saturation dissolved oxygen (DOgat) and the
actual dissolved oxygen (DO).
Pheophytin. Dead chlorophyll a.
Presumptive test for coliforms. Incubated at 35 +0.5°C, with liberation of gases within
24 to 48 + 3 hours.
Procaryote. A protist whose DNA are not arranged in an easily recognizable structure
as the chromosomes are.
Reference species. The moles of electrons or the moles of positive (or alternatively,
negative) oxidation states participating in a given chemical reaction.
Settleable solids. The volume of solids that settles after a predetermined period of time.
Suspended or nonfiltrable solids. The fraction of total solids that does not pass through
a filter.
Thermodynamics. Study of the interrelationships of heat and other forms of energy.
Thermodynamic variables. Variables involved in the study of the interrelationship of
heat and other forms of energy.
Total nitrogen. The sum of the concentrations of free ammonia, nitrite, and nitrate
nitrogens.
Total organic carbon. The total carbon content of a substance.
 Problems 55

Total solids. The material left after water has been evaporated from a sample.
Ultimate biochemical oxygen demand. Biochemical oxygen demand exerted after an
infinite time.
Volatile solids. The solids that disappear after a sample is decomposed at 600°C.

SYMBOLS

ae. CBOD/active chlorophyll a ratio

ee nitrogen/active chlorophyll a ratio
Gop oxygen/phytoplankton ratio
Anc phytoplankton/active chlorophyll a ratio
ADP adenosine diphosphate
ATP adenosine triphosphate
C| concentration of NH3-N
C2 concentration of NO »-NO3-N
C3 concentration of orthophosphorus
C4 concentration of phytoplankton chlorophyll a
C5 concentration of CBOD
C6 concentration dissolved oxygen
C7 concentration of organic nitrogen
C8 concentration of organic phosphorus
Fon fraction of cellular nitrogen converted to organic nitrogen
96,494 coulombs per faraday
G Gibbs free energy
k. CBOD decay coefficient
ky nitrogenous decay coefficient
K. extinction coefficient
Ky nitrogen half-saturation constant
Kp phosphorus half-saturation constant
Kp solubility product constant
|e CBOD
les nitrogenous oxygen demand (NBOD)
MPN most probable number

PROBLEMS

2-1. What are the three steps in the qualitative test for coliforms? At what temperature is the
normal coliform test conducted? At what temperature is the fecal coliform test conducted?
Why?
2-2. At what intervals of time are the fermentation tubes checked for evolution of gases? At what
intervals of time are the plates inspected for growth?
56 Environmental Chemistry and Biology Chap. 2

2-3. A presumptive multiple-tube fermentation test of a river sample yielded the following results:

Serial dilution Number of positives

1.0 5
0.1 5)
0.01 3)
0.001 DD
0.0001 0

What is the MPN?

2-4, Solve Problem 2-3 assuming that 0.01 is the highest dilution.
. Solve Problem 2-3 assuming that 1.0 is the highest dilution.
2-6. Samples of 500-mL portions analyzed using the filter-membrane technique produce the fol-
lowing results: 350, 340, 370, and 340 of coliforms. What is the concentration of coliforms
per 100 mL?
. Assuming that the density of coliforms in Problem 2-6 is the same as that of water, what is
the concentration in mg/L?
. In a taste test, 67 mL of the sample is used. What are the volume of distilled used and the
IN?
. Develop a method of taste and odor testing that will not restrict the final volume of distilled
water plus sample to 200 mL.
. Discuss the significance of gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.
. Mg(OH)> reacts with CO2 according to the reaction below. If 100 g of Mg(OH)po is reacted,
calculate the amount of CO2 used using (a) equivalent weights considering the charges in
CO» as the reference species and considering the charges in Mg(OH)2 as the reference
species, and (b) the balanced chemical reaction.

Mg(OH), + 2CO2 > Mg?+ + 2(HCO3)~

2-12. Repeat part (a) of Problem 2-11 using the method developed in this book.
2-13. At standard conditions: (a) What is the oxidation potential for the oxidation of ethanol?
(b) What is the oxidation potential for its reduction? (c) How many moles of electrons are
involved per mole of ethanol? (d) Calculate the equivalent weight.
2-14. In the utilization of NO2~ by Nitrobacter under aerobic conditions, (a) show the donor and
acceptor reactions, (b) calculate the free-energy change of the reaction without synthesis,
and (¢) repeat part (b) considering cell synthesis. Assume that 0.02 mg of Nitrobacter is
produced per milligram of NO2-N.
2-15. Account for the difference between parts (b) and (c) of Problem 2-14.
2-16. Ultimate analysis of a mixture of sewage sludge and solid waste subjected to composting
yields the following results: H = 6.0%, C = 45.0%, N = 2.0%, O = 33.0%, S = 0.5%,
ash = 13.5%, and moisture = 4.8%. The plant composts 100 tonnes/day. Assuming that
23% excess air is used, calculate (a) the cubic meters per minute of air a blower must
force into the pile measured at STP for a complete biological combustion, and (b) the air
requirement (20% excess air) if 30% of the original C is converted to carbon dioxide and
Problems 57

the average empirical formula of the residual organics is C39Hs5;O2¢N. Assume that the
incoming air humidity is 0.016 mol of H2O per mole of dry air.
2-17. The residual organics in Problem 2-16 contains 5% aluminum. Derive the corrected formula.
2-18. Ultimate analysis of a mixture of sewage sludge and solid waste deposited in a sanitary
landfill yields the following results: H = 6.0%, C = 45.0%, N = 2.0%, O = 33.0%,
S = 0.5%, ash = 13.5%, and moisture = 4.8%. The landfill processes 100 tonnes/day
of the mixture of sludge and solid waste. (a) What is the water requirement for complete
decomposition to take place? (b) If it is estimated that 70% of the mixture ends up as
residue and the average empirical formula of the residual organics is C39H5; O26N, calculate
the water requirement.
2-19. Derive

Sh es El Sa C,HyO,NaSp
Eee) NGS + 40
Daina, 2 Sa eae
a Sa eS co
ee anes S797
Sob ow Gn Acai Vian
— 3a =12z 2b
a a
NHa® = ——____——__
—_HC03
y+ 4x — 3a — 2z — 2by : y+ 4x — 3a — 2z — 2b 3
b y —5a
— 2b
(Sie leh) eS
We qa, aay Ooayer
y eso, by

2-20. An organic waste has the following composition: H = 6.0%, C = 45.0%, N = 2.0%,
O = 33.0%, S = 0.5%, ash = 13.5%, and moisture = 4.8%. Using the reaction derived in
Problem 2-19, how much Op is needed to decompose this waste?
2-21. Derive

y + 4x — 3a — 2z — 2b — Y,(e + 4d — 3g —2f — 2D
C,H) O-NaSp + 4 2

Y-CaHeOsNgSp + [(x — a) — Ye(d — g)|COp + (a — gY¥-)NH4t + (a — g¥-)HCO3—

y + 2Y-h — 5a — 2b — Y-(e — 5g)
+ (b — Y-h)HoS + - = H20

2-22. Derive

J 4x + 7a+2b—2z-—y
——_—_——_—C,H,O,N,S»p + — Hy, 0!
ee Soda Ob ic bh 0) 4) 4x 3a = 27 = 2D)
At 4 Ajo) — ath — 9) | a
——CO7 4: =CHy 4 NH4*
8(y + 4x — 3a — 2z — 2b) Breet y + 4x — 3a — 2z — 2b
a b
HCO3~ 4 H>S
Gia a TOT RSP yay His on aeac iy Peeve Gy apy ee

2-23. An organic waste has the following composition: H = 6.0%, C = 45.0%, N = 2.0%,
O = 33.0%, S = 0.5%, ash = 13.5%, and moisture = 4.8%. Using the reaction derived
in Problem 2-22, how much HO is needed to decompose this waste? How much HS is
produced?
58 Environmental Chemistry and Biology Chap. 2

2-24. Derive
4x + 7a + 2b —2z—y — Ygc(4d + 7g + 2h —2f —e)
C,HyO,NagSp + H,O0 >
4
4x +272 +2b+ YacOg+e —4d —2f —2h) —Sa—y
YacCaHeOp¢NeSp af COz
8

+ (a — gYac)NH4* + (a — gYac)HCO3—

+ (b—hYgc)HoS 4 (+ 4x = 3a — 22 =2b) = :Yacle + 4d = 3g — 27 — 2h) CH,

2-25. A 10-mL sample is pipeted directly into a 300-mL incubation bottle. The initial DO of the
diluted sample is 9.0 mg/L and its final DO is 2.0 mg/L. The dilution water is incubated in
a 200-mL bottle, and the initial and final DOs are, respectively, 9.0 and 8.0 mg/L. If the
sample and the dilution water are incubated at 20°C for 5 days, what is the BODs of the
sample at this temperature?
2-26. Solve Problem 2-25 if the volume of the incubation bottle is 200 mL.
2-27. Volatile suspended solids analysis is run on a sample. The tare mass of the crucible and filter
is 55.3520 g. A sample of 260 mL is then filtered and the residue dried and decomposed
at 600°C to drive off the volatile matter. Assume that the filter does not decompose at this
temperature. After decomposition, the constant weight of the crucible and the residue was
determined and found to be equal to 30.3415 g. What is the volatile suspended solids if the
total suspended solids is 142 mg/L?
2-28. Assuming that the temperature is 25°C, calculate the concentration of the other ion indicated
by a question mark.

[OH] = 0.6(10 -)M, [H*] =?

[Ho p—=400=)a|Or i
2-29. Alum is added to a sample of water with sufficient alkalinity. The quantity of the alum is
enough to produce 40 mg/L Al(OH)3. Assuming that the temperature is 25°C, what will be
the equilibrium concentration of Al* and OH”?
2-30. Analysis of algae yields the following formula: (CH2O),096(NH3)16H3PO4. From the knowl-
edge of the breakdown of water molecules during photosynthesis, derive

106CO> + 16NO3~ + HPO4?~ + 122H>O + 18Ht + trace elements >

(CH20)
106 (NH3)16H3POq4 - trace elements + 13802

2-31. The Back River sewage treatment plant in Baltimore discharges to the Back River estuary.
The state of Maryland imposes on its permit a total phosphorus limitation of 2.0 mg/L.
Assuming that all the total phosphorus converts to orthophosphorus and that the dilu-
tion effect of the estuary cannot be neglected, calculate the concentration of algae ex-
pected.
2-32. A sample of estuarine water containing 300 wg/L of chlorophyll a is saturated with oxygen
and incubated under dark conditions. Assuming that sufficient oxygen is present in the
incubation bottle to satisfy the reaction, how many mg/L of oxygen is consumed? Do not
use the method of equivalents but use the balanced chemical equation directly. Assume that
the percent chlorophyll a in algae is 1.5%.
 Bibliography 59

2-33. A wastewater treatment plant discharges treated sewage into a stream. If the concentration
of BODs | mile downstream from the point of discharge is 5 mg/L and k,, is assumed to
be 0.2 per day (in terms of BODs), what is the value of R,, at this point?
2-34. The deoxygenation coefficient to the base 10 for a certain waste is 0.1 per day. What fraction
is BODs to CBOD of this waste?
2-35. What are the fractions of H, C, O, N, and P in algae?
2-36. The concentration of active chlorophyll a at a 4-m depth is 10 jzg/L. The Secchi depth is
9.2 m and the surface light intensity, /,, is equal to 2200 Ly/day. Ky and Kp are 25 jwg/L
and 1.0 jg/L, respectively. If [N] and [P] are 40 wg/L and 10 pg/L, respectively, calculate
R4. Assume that ks4 = 0.14 per day, kg = 0.05 per day, and temperature = 25°C.
2-37. Algae is grown artificially in a laboratory with all the necessary nutrients supplied. Sub-
sequently, the supply of phosphorus is withdrawn. By considering its formula, what will
happen to the concentration of algae?
2-38. The state of Maryland requires that all sewage discharge to the Upper Chesapeake Bay not
exceed 2.0 mg/L of total phosphorus. Comment on this requirement.
2-39. Reviewing Problem 2-38, why do you think that the state of Maryland did not impose
nitrogen limitations?
2-40. What is the ammonia preference factor if [N] is broken down as [NH3] = 45 jg/L and
[NO, ]= 10 pg/L. Ky and Kp are 25 pg/L and 1.0 pg/L, respectively.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

APHA, AWWA, and WEF (1992). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater,
15th ed. American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C.
BEETON, A. M. (1958). “Relationship between Secchi Disk Readings and Light Penetration in Lake
Huron.” American Fisheries Society Transactions, 87, pp. 73-79.
McCarty, P. L. (1975). “Stoichiometry of Biological Reactions.” Progress in Water Technology.
Pergamon Press, London.
Peavy, H. S., D. R. Rowe, and G. TCHOBANOGLOUS (1985). Environmental Engineering. McGraw-
Hill, New York.
SawyYe_Er, C. N., and P. L. McCarty (1978). Chemistry
for Environmental Engineers. McGraw-Hill,
New York.
StNcERO, A. P. (1984). “Eutrophication and the Fallacy of Nitrogen Removal.” Pollution Engineer-
ing. Pudvan Publishing Co., Northbrook, III.
STEELE, J. H. (1965). “Primary Production in Aquatic Environments,” in C. R. Goldman (ed.),
Notes on Some Theoretical Problems in Production Ecology. Memorial Institute for Idrobiology,
University of California Press, Berkeley, Calif., 18 Suppl., pp. 383-398.
Stumm, W., and J. J. MorGAN (1981). Aquatic Chemistry, 2nd ed. Wiley-Interscience, New York.
USEPA (1988). WASP4, A Hydrodynamic and Water Quality Model: Model Theory, User’s Manual,
and Programmers Guide. EPA/600/3-87/039. Environmental Research Laboratory, United States
Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, Ga.
 CHAPTER 3

Environmental Engineering
Hydrology

Environmental engineering hydrology refers to that part of the huge discipline of hydrol-
ogy which engineers use in the practice of environmental engineering. In this chapter
we discuss surface water hydrology, reservoirs, groundwater hydrology, and control of
groundwater contamination.

SURFACE WATER HYDROLOGY

Hydrology may be defined as the science that deals with the study of the properties,
distribution, and behavior of water in nature. The key word in this definition is nature.
To be a part of this definition, water must be “in nature,” not in homes and other artificial
places.
The backbone in the study of hydrology is the hydrologic or water cycle, de-
picted in Figure 3-1. The major parts of the hydrologic cycle are precipitation, infil-
tration (and percolation), surface runoff, and evaporation and transpiration. Since the

60
Surface Water Hydrology 61

ake Trophosphere pe ke ied ee pryeeirey taa

: = Yp
f ry ei : TF ae "Precipitation
rg teat :}; i = Ae ||||||| Transpiration hah

ue SEF tab ee -. t \ Spring ee a and water et

t Lake Cr | |
Percolation

=< Clay formation - ;~—

7 Ee ER Se 2

Figure 3-1 Hydrologic cycle.

hydrologic cycle is a cycle, in its discussion we can start anywhere, but it is most ap-
propriate to start with precipitation. Precipitation results when moisture in the clouds
falls as rain, snow, sleet, hail, or ice, depending on conditions in the atmosphere. As
precipitation reaches the ground, the first processes that transpire are the filling of de-
pressions, called depression storage, and the interception of precipitation by leaves and
branches of trees and similar structures. Soon infiltration begins. /nfiltration is a pro-
cess in which precipitation enters the underground through the surface. After satisfac-
tion of the infiltration capacity, as well as depression storage and interception, surface
runoff begins. As shown in the figure, runoff eventually joins lakes, swamps, rivers,
 62 Environmental Engineering Hydrology Chap. 3

and oceans. Some of the infiltrates continue to follow the pull of gravity and perco-
late downward through the unsaturated zone of the earth’s crust. The water that re-
mains in the unsaturated zone becomes the vadose water. The extra water that cannot
be held in the unsaturated or vadose zone percolates farther and joins the saturated
zone below, forming the huge reservoir of water underneath the earth. The water in
this reservoir is called groundwater. The upper part of the groundwater is called the
water table. Due to attraction by the surrounding soils upon the water molecules, a
water formation exists above the water table. This formation is called the capillary
fringe.
Some groundwaters surface out from the ground to form springs and to become part
of lakes, rivers, swamps, and finally, oceans. From these surfaces, water is evaporated.
Water is also evaporated from intercepted precipitation on wet leaves of plants and trees,
buildings, grounds, and similar structures. Another way of evaporating water into the air
is through transpiration, a process carried out by plants. These waters finally evaporate
to form clouds. To complete the cycle, convective, orographic, and cyclonic processes
operate on clouds, again forming precipitation.
Of the portions of the hydrologic cycle, precipitation and runoff are parts of surface
water hydrology. These subjects are discussed next.

Precipitation

It is important for environmental engineers to know how to measure precipitation and

how to make calculations of precipitation. Calculation of runoff is an important function
in urban drainage. The engineer may be hired to design a storm drainage system, and for
this, must calculate precipitation to obtain runoff. The design of an impounding reservoir
is another reason why environmental engineers must know about precipitation. Water
quality is also a function of precipitation, and this subject can have an important bearing
on how permit limits are set on discharge permits.
In general, precipitation is measured by recording and nonrecording raingages. The
standard raingage 1s the 8-in. cylindrical can. An 8-in. funnel is inserted at the open
end of the can. With the assembly standing upright, the funnel catches the rain and
directs it to a small tube inside the can. The amount of rain caught is then measured
stitute
Technology
of as depth of rainfall, corrected for the 8-in. projected area of the catching funnel. The
Fort
IN
.,
Wayne,
46803 standard raingage is the nonrecording type. The U.S. National Weather Service maintains
approximately 14,000 standard raingages in the United States. Examples of recording
In
ana
j
gages are the tipping bucket and the weighing raingage. Their principles of operation
gtlain
ep
are similar in that the amount of rainfall is recorded on a chart. As opposed to the

ry/ jBivd
Ind ngton
standard raingage, the data on the recording rain gages are continuous. This type of data
recording allows one to compute rainfall intensity, which is important for calculating
runoff (discussed later).
Rainfall data on a particular station are random events. Storm durations vary from
one storm to the next. Rainfall intensity varies within a storm and from storm to storm.
Because of the random nature, they must be analyzed statistically. If the gage is of the
recording type, the whole spectrum of the storm event would have been recorded. In
McMillen
Libra
Wash
E.
1600Bdhp
te
Surface Water Hydrology 63

design, what storm occurrence would be chosen? Of course, there are many storm events
that the design can be based on, but which should be used? Because of the random
nature of storm events, no event on the record should be chosen arbitrarily, but instead,
all of them must be taken into consideration at once. Our object, then, is to synthesize
a single storm to be used for design based on the several storms on record. In other
words, basing the choice on all the records in the station, a single spectral distribution
of rainfall intensity against time will be obtained. This spectral distribution corresponds
to the return period to be used in the design. Return period or interval is the number
of years, on the average, that a particular storm event is equaled or exceeded. The steps
in the procedure for determining the distribution, called probability distribution analysis,
are as follows:

Step I. Scan all the years of record (such as N years of record) and determine the
longest storm duration that ever occurred. Divide this duration into suitable subdurations.
(Note that subdurations are always referred to the beginning of the storm. For example,
a 50-min subduration is a 50-min interval of the storm measured from the beginning.)
After deciding on the subdurations, pick the smallest one, such as 5 min, and proceed to
step 2:
Step 2. Scan the N years of record again and pick the highest depth of rainfall
in each of the N years corresponding to the subduration just chosen. Convert these
depths to intensity of rainfall by dividing the respective depth by the subduration. For
example, let the subduration chosen be 5 minutes and the maximum 5-min depth of
rainfall in a certain year be 1.4 cm. The intensity of rainfall 7 for this “certain year” is
then

oe thee! ee
j= +60) = 16.8 enh “gh

Step 3. Arrange the intensities of rainfall obtained in step2 in an array from the: me=
highest to the lowest (1.e., in decreasing order) and calculate the probability p that each sane
intensity value is equaled or exceeded using the formula

m »
p= (3- Ding ee
N+ ee
where m is the order number. The distribution resulting from the use of equation (3- Lyea >
is called the probability or frequency distribution of the set. es a :
Rusa =
Before giving an example of the use of this formula, it will be discussed. Lets. 22
p =m/N. When m equals N, the array element corresponding to m is the smallest in® ;
the set. The probability p is 1. This means that the smallest value will be ECE Fe S
This is, of course, true but only when applied to the current set of array. However, + #~.
when applied in general, there is no certainty that the smallest will be exceeded, since!ba &
ae
even the smallest may not even occur. What is certain is that the smallest has the highest
probability of being exceeded. To incorporate this fact, the denominator in equation (3- 1) i Bare
has therefore been modified by adding | to N. fear
64 Environmental Engineering Hydrology Chap. 3

Example 3-1
Analysis of 10 years of precipitation data yields the following results for the first to the tenth
years, respectively (in cm): 1.4, 1:8, 1:6, 1:0, 1.3; 1.7, 1-9, 1.0,0:9, and 1-2. Assuming that
these data are for 5-min subduration, calculate the probability distribution.

Solution Arrange the data in descending order as in the first column below and proceed
with the calculations as indicated.

Precipitation Precipitation
depth intensity Ge = ua
(cm) (cm/h) m N+1 11

ino DOES | 0.09

1.8 21.6 2 0.18
lod! 20.4 3 ODT
1.6 19.2 4 0.36
1.4 16.9 5 0.45 Answer
eS IESG 6 0.55
2 14.4 7 0.64
1.0 1WA0) 8 OMS
1.0 12.0 9 0.82
0.9 10.8 10 0.91

499.8 = (1.9/5)(60).

Step 4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 for the next subduration, and so on.
Step 5. After completion of step 4, a number of probability distributions equal
to the number of subdurations would have been established. Now, establish the return
intervals desired, such as once in every 2 years, once in every 5 years, once in every
20 years, ..., once in every 100 years, and so on. From the definition of return inter-
val, the corresponding probability of occurrence can be determined. From the statement
“once in every so many years,” the corresponding probability is | divided by the ‘so
many years.” The “so many years” is the return interval 7. Therefore, the probabil-
ity p is

p= = (3-2)

Step 6. Choose the first return interval (or the corresponding probability) from
the several return intervals established in step 5. From the probability distributions ob-
tained in step 4, determine the magnitudes of the precipitation intensity corresponding
to this return interval for all subdurations previously chosen. For example, if the first
return interval picked is once in every 2 years, the corresponding probability is += 0.5.
Then, from the probability distributions obtained in step 4, determine the corresponding
precipitations for all the subdurations using the probability of 0.5. There were several
subdurations originally chosen, but take the 5-min subduration as an illustration. In this
Surface Water Hydrology 65

case the result of Example 3-1 is handy. From this result, the probability of 0.5 is
sandwiched between 0.45 and 0.55, as shown below.

Precipitation Lid pera LL

(cm/h) m N+1 1]

16.9 5 0.45
i _ 0.50
15.6 6 OiS5

By interpolation,

16.9 = 0.45 =
x-16.9 0.50-0.45
SS Se Se
1 OO re OS) —- 0-45
x; 0)
IS6 = O55 ao On omenla

Therefore, the magnitude of the precipitation intensity corresponding to the probability

of 0.5 for a 5-min subduration is 16.25 cm/h. The same procedure is applied to the
probability distributions of all the other subdurations.
Step 7. Pick the second return interval as established in step 5. Repeat step 6 for
this second interval. After completing, pick the third return interval as established in
step 5 and repeat step 6. Do this cycle of repetition for the fourth, fifth, ..., and the last
return interval.
Step &. After completing step 7, the following table of values will have been
obtained:

First return interval Second return interval tee Final return interval

Duration Precipitation Duration Precipitation Duration Precipitation

X11 Yu X21 Yo XII Yi

X12 Yi2 X22 Yo X12 Yio

This table still needs to be rearranged to conform to real storms. Normally, in

actual storms the peak occurs at about one-third its duration. Therefore, the precipitation
columns should be rearranged to conform to this criterion. It is to be noted that the table
records intensity (precipitation), duration, and frequency and thus is called an intensity—
duration-frequency (IDF) table. Technically, if the return interval is T years, the storm
is called a T-year storm (e.g., a 2-year storm, a 10-year storm, a 25-year storm).
66 Environmental Engineering Hydrology Chap. 3

Example 3-2
To use the probability distribution analysis, records for a sufficient number of years should
be used to produce a good estimate. Since the computation is very long and tedious, this
is normally done using a computer. For illustrative purposes, however, use only 10 years
of record. A weather service station is scanned for precipitation to perform a probability
distribution analysis. The results are as follows (in cm): 5-min subduration: 1.4, 1.8, 1.6,
FOREST Ss Os OO Mand ee2= 2 0=minksubdurations2:9 655-0 e2-cOm2 a eoal Om.05
2.84, 2.69, 2.78, and 2.91; 50-min subduration: 3.98, 3.92, 3.70, 3.89, 4.30, 4.00, 4.10, 3.99,
4.08, and 3.87; and 100-min duration: 4.70, 4.60, 4.76, 4.89, 4.30, 4.98, 4.85, 4.67, 4.79,
and 4.77. Derive the intensity—duration—frequency table.
Solution
Step 1. The subdurations chosen are the 5-, 20-, 50-, and 100-min durations. The
5-min duration is the smallest, so we choose it first.
Step 2. The highest precipitations in each year for the 5-min subduration have been
chosen, and they arewie4y Sakon OMe omnia PO se Om OLO sandal:

Precipitation Precipitation
depth intensity
(cm) (cm/h)

16.8
ZA
IQ
12.0
15.6
20.4
22.8
12.0
10.8
=MOA
5S)
0S
Sea
SSS 14.4
NODOSCNWODA

Step 3.

Precipitation —_Precipitation
depth intensity Ws
(cm) (cm/h) m NE oa

© 22.8 | 0.09
1.8 28) 2 0.18
Ve 20.4 3 O27
1.6 I) 4 0.36
1.4 16.9 5 0.45
ites) 15.6 6 0.55
eZ 14.4 7 0.64
1.0 12.0 8 OW
1.0 12.0 9 0.82
0.9 10.8 10 0.91
Surface Water Hydrology 67

Step 4. For the 20-min subduration:

Precipitation Precipitation
depth intensity ae ee
(cm) (cm/h) m N+1 11
3.20 9.60 ] 0.09
SNC 9.30 2 0.18
3.0 9.00 3 0.27
2.96 8.88 4 0.36
DSM 8.73 5 0.45
2.86 8.58 6 0.55
2.84 8.52 vy 0.64
2.78 8.34 8 Owe
YTS) 8.25 9 0.82
2.69 8.07 10 0.91

For the 50-min subduration:

Precipitation Precipitation
depth intensity LOS ties
(cm) (cm/h) m N+1 11
4.30 5.16 0.09
4.1 4.92 2 0.18
4.08 4.90 3 0.27
4.00 4.80 4 0.36
JY) 4.79 5) 0.45
3.98 4.78 6 ODS
REY 4.70 7 0.64
3.89 4.67 8 0.73
3.87 4.64 9 0.82
3.70 4.44 10 0.91

For the 100-min subduration:

Precipitation Precipitation
depth intensity Us Ue
(cm) (cm/h) m N+1 11

4.98 ESS) | 0.09

4.89 293 2, 0.18
4.85 2.91 3 OL2n
4.79 2.87 4 0.36
4.77 2.86 5 0.45
4.76 2.86 6 0.55
4.70 2.82 7 0.64
4.67 2.80 8 0.73
4.60 2.16 9 0.82
4.3 2.58 10 0.91
68 Environmental Engineering Hydrology Chap. 3

Step 5. Establish as desired the 2-year and 100-year return intervals.

Step 6. The first return interval is the 2-year interval; p = 0.5.
For the 5-min subduration:

Precipitation Precipitation
depth intensity ie
(cm) (cm/h) ie NAS i
14 f69 : we y= 169 050— 0.45
; ; 15.6 — 16.9 ~ 0.55—0.45
x 0.50
13 15.6 6 0.55 x = 16.25 cm/h

For the 20-min subduration:

2.91 8.73 5 0.45

x-873
——____ = —W—
0.50-0.45 _
= (05
8.58 — 8.73 0.55 — 0.45
G 0.50
2.86 8.58 6 (Oe) x = 8.66 cm/h

For the 50-min subduration:

3.99 4.79 5 0.45 =

x-4.79 _ 0.50—0.45
4.78 —4.79 0.55 —0.45
BG 0.50
3.98 4.78 6 0.55 x = 4.78 cm/h

For the 100-min subduration:

ATT) 2.86 S) 0.45

5% 0.50
4.76 2.86 6 0.55 x = 2.86 cm/h

Step 7. The second return interval is the 100-year interval; p = 1/100 = 0.01.

For the 5-min subduration:

x 0.01
22.8-x
———_
0.09 0.01
= —__—_ = ().47
21.6—x 0.18
— 0.01
1.9 22.8 | 0.09
1.8 21.6 2 0.18 23-00) emi

For the 20-min subduration:

9.60 — x 0.09 — 0.01

9.30—x 0.18 — 0.01 Oe
3.20 9.60 | 0.09
3.10 9.30 2 0.18 Ah = Das) camln
Surface Water Hydrology 69

For the 50-min subduration:

S16—% _0,00—0.01
x 0.01 a Se
4.92 —x 0.18 — 0.01
4.30 5.16 | 0.09
4.1 4.92 p) 0.18 Fe = S)3)i/ Cri

For the 100-min subduration:

2.99 — x 0.09 — 0.01

0.01 ee ee set = O47
2.93 — x 0.18 — 0.01
4.98 2.99 | 0.09
4.89 2.93 2 0.18 x = 3.04 cm/h

Step &

2-year interval 100-year interval

Precipitation Precipitation
Duration _ (intensity) Duration _ (intensity)

) 16.25 ) 23.86
20 8.66 20 9.87
50 4.78 50 Dio
100 2.86 100 3.04

Rearranging yields

2-year interval 100-year interval

Precipitation Precipitation
Duration _ (intensity) Duration _ (intensity)

5) 8.66 5 9.87
20 16.25 20 23.86
50 4.78 50 Dahil
100 2.86 100 3.04

Surface Runoff: Rational Method

There are three methods of estimating runoff: empirical, statistical, and the use of rainfall—
runoff relations. For example, the Maryland Geological Survey divides the state into
several regions. For each region, empirical formulas are derived from data obtained
from the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) stream gaging stations. Needless to say, these
formulas are not transportable anywhere, since they apply only in the regions for which
they have been derived. The statistical method of estimating runoff needs a fair amount
of data. It is true that there are now a fair number of records of stream gaging in various
70 Environmental Engineering Hydrology Chap. 3

USGS stations; however, they apply only to the stream where the station is located.
Often, however, runoff data are needed in locations where no gaging station can be
found. For those places fortunate enough to have stations, a statistical method such as
probability distribution analysis can be used accurately. In other places, rainfall—runoff
relations have been used.
The curve-number method developed by the Soil Conservation Service, the unit
hydrograph, and the rational method are methods of rainfall-runoff relations. The rational
method is very simple to use and is very popular. In parking lot design, the rational
method is normally used to determine the peak storm. Figure 3-2 shows a grating of a
storm inlet at a parking lot. This inlet catches runoff above it.

Figure 3-2 Grating of inlet in

parking lot.

The rational formula is very simple:

On Gua (3-3)

where Q is the runoff rate, C the dimensionless coefficient of imperviousness of the

ground surface, i the intensity of rainfall, and A the drainage area. A can be easily
planimetered from a USGS map. The units of Q depend on the units of i and A used.
Values of C that have been used are shown in Table 3-1.
Equation (3-3) assumes a uniform drainage area. In the real world, however,
the area is heterogeneous. To account for this heterogeneity, the areas are weighted
by the coefficient of imperviousness and summed; thus equation (3-3) is revised as
follows:

Onin CA (3-4)
In general, there are two ways of obtaining the value of 7. One is, again, through
the use of empirical formulas but is applicable only in places for which they were derived.
The other is to get 7 from the IDF table. The return or recurrence interval of the runoff
Surface Water Hydrology 71

corresponds to the return or recurrence interval of the intensity of storm rainfall being
used. For example, if the storm is a 2-year storm, the runoff is correspondingly a 2-year
runoff or flood. To obtain 7, the duration t, is needed. In the rational method f, is called
the time of concentration.
Consider a point in the drainage area where a runoff rate is needed. Assume that
the rain has just started. To avoid flooding, the maximum rate of flow is required in
design. To obtain this rate of flow, i is needed to be substituted in Ci A. In turn, to get
i, t. is needed. Now, which f, is to be used, the ¢, in the beginning of the rainfall event
or the f. some time later?
In the beginning of a rainfall event, A is the smallest, since in the beginning not
all areas in the drainage basin are contributing flows to the point under consideration.
Accordingly, the runoff Q may be the smallest. Here comes the concept of the time of
concentration. All flows in the basin must concentrate at the point considered at some
particular time if the flow at the point were to be the maximum. The question is: At
what time will all flows be concentrated. at the point? The answer is that all flows will be
concentrated at the point when all areas are contributing to the flow. The corresponding
time, if found, is clearly the time to be used to obtain 7. This time is called the time
of concentration, and the point under consideration is, appropriately, called the point of
concentration.
To have a valid definition of the time of concentration, the following assump-
tions must be made: (1) All slopes at every point in the basin toward the point of
concentration must be equal, and (2) the contributing areas of the basin must be ho-
mogeneous. From these assumptions it follows that the runoff in the basin will con-
verge uniformly toward the point of concentration. Having agreed on the uniformity
of convergence toward the point, consider another point in the basin located the great-
est distance away. As long as the water particles at this point have not arrived, we
cannot consider all flows to be concentrated, and therefore the rate of flow transpiring
at the point cannot be assured to be the maximum. Therefore, we define the time
of concentration as the time it takes for the particles at the farthest point to reach
the point of concentration, assuming that the flow is converging uniformly toward the
point.
In the real world, assumptions | and 2 are never true; hence the assumption of
uniform convergence is, also, never true. The actual time of concentration would have
to be greater than the ideal one where uniformity of convergence toward the point of
concentration is assumed. In practice, the longest time is used as the measure of the time
of concentration.
Two formulas that may be used for computing the time of concentration are!’*

hick ee
(3-5)
oye: bhbeeen ne

'p_ A. Kirpich (1940). “Time Concentration of Small Agricultural Watersheds.” Civil Engineering, 10(6).
2G. A. Hathaway (1945). “Design of Drainage Facilities.” Transactions of ASCE, 110.
72 Environmental Engineering Hydrology Chap. 3

where L is the channel length in feet and h is the difference in elevation in feet between
the upper and lower limits of the drainage basin; and

0.47

where L is the channel length in feet, S the slope of the basin, and n is Manning’s
roughness coefficient. Values of n to be used in equation (3-6) are listed in Table 3-1.

TABLE 3-1 COEFFICIENTS OF

IMPERVIOUSNESS AND MANNING’S n FOR
VARIOUS TYPES OF SURFACES

Type of surface E

Asphaltic cement streets 0.80—0.95

Gravel driveways and walks 0.15—0.25
Lawns, sandy soil
2% slope 0.05—0.15
2-7% slope 0.15-0.20
> 7% slope 0.20-0.30
Lawns, heavy soil
2% slope 0.10-0.15
2-7% slope 0.15-0.25
> 7% slope 0.25—0.35
Portland cement streets 0.80-0.95
Paved driveways and walks 0.75-0.85
Watertight roofs 0.80-0.95
n

Average grass cover 0.45

Bare packed soil, free of stones 0.15
Dense grass cover 0.85
Poor grass cover or moderately 0.20
rough surface
Smooth pavements 0.02

Example 3-3
The diagram that follows is a schematic of a drainage area. The runoff from area A drains
to manhole 4, the runoff from area B drains to manhole 3, and the runoff from area C drains
to manhole 2. The time of flow between manholes is 5 min. A is equal to 0.05 acre, B is
equal to 15 acres, and C is equal to 30 acres. Assume all areas to be squares. The average
channel slope is 0.0006. For the value of Manning’s n, assume smooth-pavement surfaces.
Using the IDF obtained in Example 3-2, calculate the maximum flow from manhole 2 to 1
for a 2-year storm. The coefficients of imperviousness are as follows: for A = 0.80, for
Be — LOO Mand tom Gi—10195s
Surface Water Hydrology 73

A B a
| ! |

5 4 3) 2 ]

Solution First compute ¢, for each area using equation (3-6).

— 2Ln ee

NENG
For area A: From Table 3-1, n = 0.02.

Area = 0.05 acre = 0.05(43,560) = 2178 ft”

Therefore,

length of one side = J/2178 = 46.67

Let L be the length of the diagonal of the square area. Then L = 46.67\/2 = 66 ft. Thus
0.47
an [zo
= 5.38 min, overland flow time to manhole 4
"| 370.0006
The point of concentration is point 2. Total tf. = overland f, (called the inlet time) plus time
of travel in the sewer from manhole 4 to 2, or

total tf, = 5.38 + 2(5) = 10.38 min

For area B:

length of one side = ,/43,560(15) = 808.33 ft [= 808 22 ede ot

Thus
0.47
_ [2(1143.15)(0.02)
= 21 min, overland flow time to manhole 3
oe 3./0.0006
total te = 21+5 = 26 min

For area C:

L = \/43,560(30)V2 = 1616.67 ft
Thus
0.47
; 2(1,616.67)(0.02)
= 24.21 min, overland flow time to manhole 2
mil 3/0.0006
TOtal gan ert

The highest t, = 26 min, so t, = 26 min.

 74 Environmental Engineering Hydrology Chap. 3

Part of step 8 of Example 3-2 is reproduced below, where the 26 min is being inserted
between the 20- and the 50-min durations.

2-year interval 100-year interval

Precipitation Precipitation
Duration (intensity) Duration (intensity)

5 8.66 5 9.87
20 16.25 20 23.86
26 mE
50 4.78 50 523i

By interpolation,

x—16.25 _ 26-20
AGS 21605 8 50 = 20
iS: 9oren/h

Oe ae CA = 13.96 [0.80(0.05) + 0.90(15) + 0.95(30)]

= 586.88 cm-acre/h

RESERVOIRS

In general, there are two types of reservoirs that an environmental engineer must know:
impounding reservoir and distribution reservoir. An impounding reservoir is a basin
constructed in the valley of a stream or river for the purpose of holding streamflow so
that the stored water may be released to satisfy demand when supply is insufficient.
The distribution reservoir, on the other hand, is a reservoir constructed to equalize the
supply and demand of the community or user for treated water and to provide sup-
plies in times of emergencies. The main difference between an impounding reservoir
and a distribution reservoir is that the former holds untreated water while the latter
holds treated water. The water held by an impounding reservoir may not all end up as
treated water for community use but may be used for other purposes, such as irriga-
tion.
The most important function of both the impounding and the distribution reservoirs
is to ensure that water be available at all times. To be able to supply water at all times
does not, however, mean that the largest reservoir must be constructed. It means that the
reservoir must be adequately sized. Adequate sizing of a reservoir means that it must not
be too large and it must not be too small. To ensure this, the rate of water consumption
of the community or users should be known; in addition, for impounding reservoirs, the
streamflow during drought conditions should be calculated.
Reservoirs 75

Sizing of Impounding Reservoirs and Low-Flow Analysis

To size an impounding reservoir, one of the analysis to be done is that of predicting

streamflow. In this instance, a probability distribution analysis for drought conditions
must be performed, which is the reverse of the prediction of maximum precipitation
that has already been discussed. Since drought conditions are being addressed, in low-
streamflow analysis, instead of starting from the largest flow, the ordering starts from the
lowest flow.
In the analysis for maximum or peak storms, the subdurations used are in terms of
minutes. The reason is that storms last only for minutes, hours, or a few days, which
can conveniently be subdivided into subdurations of several minutes. On the other hand,
droughts do not just last for a few minutes, hours, or days but for several days, months, or
even years. The subdurations used in low-flow analysis is therefore normally in terms of
days. In synthesizing drought flows, steps | to 8 for the probability distribution analysis
of storms is used, with two main differences: (1) the ordering is started from the lowest
flow, and (2) the subdurations are expressed in terms of days rather than in terms of
minutes.
In peak runoff determinations, the rate is usually expressed as an instantaneous rate.
This is so since the instantaneous rate is the one that is used to size such structures as
storm sewers and spillways. In low-flow analysis, on the other hand, the instantaneous
value is not the critical factor. The rate is therefore expressed as the average over the
subduration (1.e., the equivalent or sustained flow during the subduration).
Because the ordering is started from the lowest, a flow magnitude represents the
highest equivalent sustained flow for the stated subduration that can be equaled but not
exceeded in a given return interval. Thus a 7Q10 flow represents the highest equivalent
sustained flow for a 7-day subduration that can be equaled but not exceeded once in
10 years. The 2Q10 has a similar meaning. It is to be noted that the ordering is in terms
of years. If there are only 10 years of record, the highest order is 10, and if there are
50 years of record, the highest order is 50. Thus the return interval derived from this
ordering is always in terms of years.
Sizing of reservoirs is done by applying the principle of material balance, where the
material being referred to is the mass. Since the density of water is practically constant,
the material or mass balance is essentially a volume balance, which states that

required storage = inflow — losses — demand (3-7)

The inflow to the reservoir is a function of streamflow. It is also, theoretically, a

function of precipitation, but for drought conditions, there will hardly be any precipitation
that this parameter is neglected. Losses are the loss due to evaporation and the loss due
to seepage from the reservoir, and demand is the water consumption by the community.
Demand may also include such quantities of water that are needed by downstream users
not benefited by the construction of the reservoir dam and for a required release of water
for resident fish and anadromous fish such as salmon and striped bass.
76 Environmental Engineering Hydrology Chap. 3

Example 3-4
A community has decided to construct an impounding reservoir to supply water for a 5-year
drought. The raw water is to be processed in a water treatment plant. Low-streamflow anal-
ysis of the stream before construction of the dam yielded the following subduration-average
flow pairs: 7, 50; 15, 54; 30, 61; 60, 72; 120, 98; 180, 228; 365, 710. The subdurations are
in terms of days and the average flows are in terms of cubic feet per second (cfs). The other
analysis results are as follows: (1) subdurations and combined evaporation—seepage loss
pairs: 7, 1.2; 15, 2.5; 30, 5.0; 60, 10.0; 120, 20.0; 180, 30; 365, 60.8 (subdurations in days,
evaporation—seepage in inches); and (2) subdurations and community demand pairs: 7, 2800;
15, 6000; 30, 12,000; 60, 24,000; 120, 48,000; 180, 73,500; 365, 140,000 (subdurations in
days, demand in cfs-days). Assume that the reservoir pool area increases to 1000 acres
after construction. Neglecting downstream releases required, determine the volume of the
reservoir.

Solution First, convert all units to acre-ft:

ft (86,400 sec. acre-ft

cfs-days = (day) |————~ } = 1.98 acre-ft
sec day 43,560 ft*

For evaporation since the area of reservoir is 1000 acres,

; 1
ti, = i = 035.5) acre-tt

In the computation below, the material balance equation (3-7) is applied in every subduration.

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

Evapo-
ration
Subdura- Inflow plus Consumer Col. (3) mi- Col. (5) mi-
tion Inflow volume seepage demand nus col. (4) _ nus col. (6)
(days) (cfs) (acre-ft) (acre-ft) (acre-ft) (acre-ft) (acre-ft)

7 50 693 100 5,544 593 4,951

15 54 1,604 208 11,880 1,396 10,484
30 61 3,623 417 23,760 3,206 20,554
60 Ve 8,554 833 47,520 ee) 30) 7/9
120 98 23,285 1,666 95,040 POLS) 73,421
180 228 81,260 2,499 145,530 78,761 66,769
365 WO MIU sox 27,20 508,052 Soe

Col. (3): 693 = 50(7)(1.98); 50 is the inflow for the 7-day subduration
Col. (4): 100 = 1.2(83.3); 1.2 is the evaporation-seepage for the 7-day duration
Col. (5): 5544 = 2800(1.98); 2800 is the consumer demand for the 7-day duration
Col. (6): 593 = 693 — 100, net inflow after correction for losses
Col. (7): 4451 = 5544 — 593
 Groundwater Hydrology 77

The entries in column (7) represent the storage requirement for a given duration. Of
all the storages indicated, the largest will hold the other storage requirements. Therefore,
choose the largest volume, which is 73,421 acre-ft, corresponding to the 120-day drought.
Thus

volume of reservoir = 73,421 acre-ft Answer

If desired, the answer may be refined further by revising the calculations to consider
smaller subduration intervals around the “120-day” drought.

GROUNDWATER HYDROLOGY

Hydrology is defined as the science that deals with the study of the properties, distribu-
tion, and behavior of water in nature. In conformance with this definition, groundwater
hydrology may be defined as the science that deals with the study of the properties,
distribution, and behavior of water in nature as it occurs underneath the surface of the
earth. The subject of groundwater is a broad field. Some books on this subject deal with
well-drilling technology; others deal with the movement of groundwater. In this section
we deal with the environmental aspect of groundwater hydrology.

Underground Waters

Figure 3-3 is a schematic of the various underground waters. In general, with respect
to underground waters, there are two zones: the vadose and groundwater zones. Not
all underground waters are groundwater. Underground water whose pressure is less than
atmospheric is vadose water, while underground water whose pressure is greater than
atmospheric is groundwater.
The vadose region has an upper and a lower zone. The upper zone is where
infiltration from precipitation enters. That portion of the upper zone into which roots of
the plants penetrate is called the root zone. Vadose water in this zone is held by molecular
attraction to soil grains, thus making it available to the plants. Some impervious layer
may exist in the vadose zone. As such, percolating water from the infiltrate may be
trapped in this layer, forming a perched water. The top of the perched water is called a
perched water table. As shown, the perched water rises to form a fringe. This fringe is
called a perched water capillary fringe.
The groundwater finally comes to rest at the very bottom of the figure. It is shown
resting on the top of an aquitard, aquiclude, or aquifuge (defined later). It can no longer
move downward but rests like water resting in a tank. In fact, the groundwater zone is
a huge underground reservoir, which, of course, has to be leaking. There is no other
direction in which the groundwater can go but must follow the contour of the bottom,
restraining formation; hence groundwater flows in a general horizontal direction. The
assumption of a purely horizontal direction is called the Dupuit—Forcheimer assumption.
The reservoir holding the groundwater is called an aquifer.
Groundwater aquifers may be confined or unconfined. When impervious layers
bound the upper and the lower parts, the aquifer is called a confined aquifer; otherwise,
 78 Environmental Engineering Hydrology Chap. 3

Ground surface | | Dey | | u FI? as - '

t |

Picrkce ae Ae ARRAN EN. Root zone

Root zone Upper vadose zone -. See |

I : Perched water table . Ree Pan pias

= Perched water ==

'.. Lower vadose zone

POT si S == ——=— ——= Aquitard, aquiclude, or aquifuge I=

onfined aquifer _—~ Se ee pe eo olin aguiler Aan. fis

BLS ae ot
tee
— S ~ a a a a
ZS ——
eer OS" i ee ~-_

ee => ——_ SS 2 SS SS
~ ee Confined aquifer ~-~_~_~__ ~
Se ene
SS ee

Figure 3-3 Underground waters.

it is called an unconfined aquifer. These confining layers are called aquitard, aquiclude,
or aquifuge. An aquitard is a formation that holds water but cannot transmit it in such a
quantity to be productive regionally. An aquiclude is also a formation that holds water
but cannot transmit it, and an aquifuge neither holds nor transmit water. These formations
are generally called confining layers.
When the head of the water entering a confining layer is greater than the elevation
of the formation, the groundwater is under pressure. Imagine in Figure 3-3 that a well
penetrates the layer. If the top portion of this well is open to the atmosphere, water
will gush out under the heavy pressure. This type of well is called an artesian well, and
the aquifer is called an artesian aquifer. The level to which the water will rise above
or below the ground surface, when not confined, is called the piezometric head. The
piezometric head thus forms a piezometric surface over the aquifer.
In Figure 3-3, next to the confined aquifer, is the unconfined aquifer. By hydro-
statics, the top of this aquifer, called the water table, is at atmospheric pressure. Any
point below the water table is greater than atmospheric and the pressure is equal to the
Groundwater Hydrology 79

atmospheric pressure plus the product of the specific weight and the depth from the
surface. Above the water table surface, water molecules rise due to the attraction be-
tween the molecules and the surface of the soil grains and due to the surface tension of
water. This band of water is called the groundwater capillary fringe. Hence the water
molecules at the capillary fringe are said to be under surface tension. Since the pressure
at the top of the water table is atmospheric and since the capillary fringe is above the
water table, the pressure at this level is below atmospheric. Thus the pressure is nega-
tive gage. The piezometric head corresponds to the water-table level of an unconfined
aquifer.

Well Hydraulics

To control or, otherwise, mitigate the impact of pollution into a groundwater resource, it is
important that the physics of groundwater hydraulics be understood. From fluid mechan-
ics, the head form of the Hagen—Poiseuille equation may be solved for the velocity V:

yD7h h
= —=K— (3-8)
SPAT! l

The ratio 4// is nothing but the loss of head A per unit length, which is the
average energy slope throughout the length /. In groundwater flow, the velocity is very
small. The contribution of the velocity head to the total energy is therefore neglected.
Thus the total energy is simply equal to the piezometric head. To get a more accurate
energy or piezometric slope, dh/d/ is used to represent the slope at a particular point
along / but not across the whole length of /. (Note that the partial notation is used,
indicating that h could be also a function of variables other than /.) Using this ratio
for the slope in equation (3-8) will give the corresponding velocity at the point. In
addition, since h may increase or decrease with /, put a plus or minus sign before the
derivative to make the equation more general. In other words, when / increases with
1, the derivative is positive; and when it decreases with /, the derivative is negative.
Therefore,
ah
Vie arKi G2)
al

Equation (3-9) is called Darcy’s law, and K is called Darcy’s coefficient, hydraulic
conductivity, or coefficient ofpermeability. V is called the Darcy velocity. Representative
values of K are shown in Table 3-2.
Figures 3-4 and 3-5 are schematics of wells penetrating an unconfined and a con-
fined aquifer, respectively. At equilibrium, the head h is only a function of distance / and
not of time ¢. Therefore, dh/d/ = dh/dl. Applying equation (3-9), assuming equilibrium
flow, the groundwater flow Q to the well in Figure 3-4 is

dh dh
 Environmental Engineering Hydrology Chap. 3

TABLE 3-2 REPRESENTATIVE VALUES OF DARCY’S COEFFICIENT (kK), AND

OTHER MATERIAL PROPERTIES

Granular material K (m/day) Consolidated material K (m/day)

Gravel 100-1,000 Rock

Sand and gravel mixes 25-100 Aquifers 0.001—10
Fine sand 1-10 Core samples 0-400
Medium sand 5-30 Shale 10m
Coarse sand 25-100 Dense, solid rock <10~°
Clay, sand, and gravel 0).001-0.1 Fractured or weathered 0-1050
mixes (till) volcanic rock
Clay soils (surface) 0.01—0.15 Sandstone 0.001—0.1
Deep clay beds 10-8-10-? Carbonate rock with 0.01-01
Loam soils (surface) 0.1-1 secondary porosity

Specific Specific Hydraulic

Material Porosity yield retention conductivity (m/day)

Basalt 0.10 0.07 0.03 10-8 — 1000

Clay 0.50 0.05 0.45 (0 105.
Granite 0.001 0.0008 0.0002 10-1
Gravel 0.20% 0.18 0.02 100 — 7000
Limestone 0.20 0.18 0.02 10~* — 6000
Sand 0.25 0.20 0.05 0.05 — 130
Soil 0.60 0.40 0.20 10>? = 10
Sandstone 0.10 0.05 0.05 lOve t

Ground surface
ENGINES

Drawdown curve
Hydraulic gradient
_ahdr -

Radial
flow

YY EEEEEEEE@HE!@@”_
Impermeable

Figure 3-4 Radial flow to well penetrating unconfined aquifer. (From M. J. Ham-
mer (1986). Waste and Wastewater Technology, John Wiley and Sons, New
York.)
Groundwater Hydrology 81

Ground surface

I
Drawdown curve

Piezometric
slope = —
dh h,
h d

—
Impermeable
ttt hitttt tlt ttt ttttt gy Zs tlh.

aa
=F
bee |
F| Radial
Confined aquifer —»> | <<
—} flow

YSALSTST1 11 Wiss Yi
eee
LTT| Ye
Impermeable

Figure 3-5 Radial flow to well penetrating confined aquifer. (From M. J. Ham-
mer (1986). Waste and Wastewater Technology, John Wiley and Sons, New
York.)

Note that / is r in the figure, which is any distance circumscribing a cylinder about the
well. Also, the slope dh/dr is positive since r increases with h. A is the lateral area
of the circumscribing cylinder, which is equal to 277rh. Substituting this value of A into
equation (3-10) and integrating between the limits of 4 to ho and r to ro,

9) 9}
hah
Omnis Solel
In(ro/r)

The radius rp is called the radius ofinfluence, and the locus of r and h is called the
drawdown curve. The distance from any point along the drawdown curve to the original
piezometric level is called the drawdown.
The area A of the circumscribing cylinder for the confined aquifer is 277rb, where b
is the thickness of the aquifer. Using this term for A and similarly applying equation (3-9)
to the well in Figure 3-5, the formula for the groundwater flow to the well is

ho —h
= 27 Kb———_ Gale
2 In(ro/r)

Example 3-5
A 0.60-m well is constructed in a confined aquifer of b = 20 m. Assume the aquifer to
be composed of a mixture of sand and gravel. The upper confining impermeable layer
extends from the top of the aquifer to the ground surface and has a thickness of 40 m.
82 Environmental Engineering Hydrology Chap. 3

The original piezometric surface is 10 m below the ground surface. Pumping has stabilized
at the following drawdowns: 2.5 m at the observation well 25 m away from the pumped
well and 4.0 m at the observation well 3 m away from the pumped well. Calculate the
flow Q.

Solution From equation (3-12),

ho —h
= 217 Kb——
Q : “in(ro/P)

From Table 3-2, use K = 50 m/day. Use the top of the aquifer as the reference datum.
ho = 40 — 10
— 2.5 = 27.5 m, ro = 25 m, h = 40 — 10 —4 = 26 m, andr =3 m. Thus

275
= 26
0 = 2ns0020)| |= #485w?iaay= 51.4Li Answer
In(25/3

The three other terms in Table 3-2 will now be defined: porosity, specific yield, and
specific retention. Porosity is the fraction of space in the bulk volume of any substance.
Hence in the case of an aquifer, it is the fraction of the bulk volume of the aquifer
occupied by water. Specific yield is the fraction of water that drains freely under the
influence of gravity in a given bulk volume of an unconfined aquifer. The fraction of
water that remains after the rest has drained out is called the specific retention of the bulk
volume. The term specific yield cannot be applied to a confined aquifer since a confined
aquifer is acted upon not only by gravity but also by a positive pressure head. Hence the
aquifer cannot be drained freely under gravity. A more general term, storage coefficient,
is therefore coined to apply to both the confined and unconfined states of the aquifer.
The storage coefficient is defined as the fraction of water that is drained from an aquifer
when the piezometric head is lowered a unit distance. Another term used in groundwater
hydraulics is transmissibility 7. It is defined as the product of the Darcy coefficient K
and the depth of the aquifer.
In 1935, Theis* presented an unsteady-state analysis assuming a homogeneous and
isotropic aquifer. The formula is
O [e,@) Bae

r a ey ae)
eld a) ee a eae)

where Z, is the drawdown in an observation well r distance from a pumped well. T is

the transmissibility coefficient and wu is defined as
,
rose
u= ATi (3-14)

where s, is the storage coefficient and ¢ is the time of pumping from the start. Although

3C. V. Theis (1935). “The Relation between the Lowering of the Piezometric Surface and the Rate
and Duration of a Well Using Groundwater Storage.” Transactions of the American Geophysical Union, 16,
pp. 519-524.
Groundwater Hydrology 83

Theis originally developed equation (3-13) for a confined aquifer, it can also be applied
to an unconfined aquifer, provided that the drawdown is relatively small.*
The integral of equation (3-13) is called the well function of u, W(u). e~“ is always
dimensionless, and since du divides u, W(u) is therefore dimensionless. The integral
may be solved by expressing it in a series:

aes’ee
ie
——= (U1 i“) se
ee ZiT)
: ne u
2(21) ' 3G!) eee
4(4!)
te (3-15)
=

where ! is the factorial notation.

Example 3-6
A 0.60-m well is constructed in an unconfined aquifer of b = 20 m. Assume the aquifer to
be composed of sand. The original piezometric surface is 10 m below ground surface. After
pumping the well for 1 day, the drawdown in the observation well 25 m away is 2.5 m.
Calculate the pumping rate Q that effected this drawdown. Maintaining this pumping rate,
what will the drawdown in the observation well be after 1 year?

Solution Since the aquifer is unconfined, s, is equal to the specific yield. From Table 3-2,
use s- — 022. Also, K = 50 m/day.

Vase
u=
ATt
Thus
25° (0.22) Sar)
We yy = 9-034 (dimensionless)
4[50(20)(1)]

+ uw a. Ww ut y
W(u) = —0.5772 — Inu
nlkinawien a MIC) es! MAD
en
0, ; = =
=e no.

a2 36
Therefore,

Zr(4T) — 2.5(477)(50)(20)
Q= = atl OMMeoe m?/day Answer
W (u) 2.836

After 1 year of pumping,

257(0.22
— 2s = ().0000942 (dimensionless)
4[50(20) (365) |

(.00009422 —0.00009423
W (uw) lI= —0.5772 — In0.0000942 + 0.0000942 —
4 18
15,092

4A L. Prasuhn (1987). Fundamentals of Hydraulic Engineering. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York,
 84 Environmental Engineering Hydrology Chap. 3

Thus
yet OW (u) Py 11,077.55(8.692) slag 4 aml eine
4xT 4 (zr)(50)(20)

CONTAMINATION OF GROUNDWATER

Groundwater is a very important source of drinking water. About one-third of U.S. wa-
ter needs for drinking water is supplied from this groundwater resource. Historically,
groundwater was considered to be so safe that it has been consumed directly from wa-
ter wells without further treatment. In underdeveloped countries, practically all villages
rely on groundwater from shallow-dug wells. Cebu City, the second largest city in the
Philippines, has relied solely on groundwater, after its impounding reservoir was silted
up due to poor management. Water pumps are distributed strategically throughout the
city to supply water directly to consumers.
In the United States, however, along with the benefits of comfortable living, lies
the specter of groundwater contamination. In New Jersey, for example, a community
was forced to rely on bottled water because of contamination of its water supply. In-
cidence of high cancer rates suspected to be the result of the contamination of water
supply is often reported in the media. In one instance, the water supply was reported
to be close to a chemical plant. But unfortunately, the persons affected happened to be
making their livelihood in the very chemical factory that was polluting their drinking
water.
Once a groundwater formation is contaminated, it is very difficult for it to be re-
stored. Several drinking wells across the United States have been shut down. There
are several ways that an aquifer can be contaminated: through a legally or an illegally
constructed hazardous waste landfill, old sanitary landfill as well as new, injection wells,
impoundments, and illegal dumping grounds.
Figure 3-6 is a schematic of the various ways that contaminants enter the ground-
water system. Starting from the left-hand side of the figure, contaminated water from
a land spreading operation percolates through the aquifer. Also shown is the injec-
tion well. Injection wells are normally well designed. Those used for disposing highly
toxic wastes are usually designed for a depth of not less than 1000 ft. The major-
ity are in the range 2000 to 6000 ft. Quite a few are beyond 7000 ft, with some
reaching 8000 ft below the ground surface. These depths are well below the loca-
tion of productive potable aquifers. Nonetheless, potable aquifers can still be con-
taminated by leakage through the casing, as indicated in the figure. In addition, as
we discuss later, injection-well disposal has a grave potential threat for environmental
damage.
Next is the leakage through septic tanks and cesspools. Septic tanks have been
found to fail and to leak profusely, causing environmental damage. For example, studies
of the Rhode River estuary in Maryland suggest that the cause of its eutrophication is
septic tank leakage from a community on the Mayo Beach peninsula bordering the water
body. All the septic tanks have now been abandoned in favor of a centralized treatment
 ae
i OO
wonridioarg
wr
uonesidsur.jodeag
aS a ri nN
>
e
[esodsiq
Jo \
NY =
.
uonosafut
]]J2% ‘[[1ypueq
duinp
t surdung
[9M 10 asnjaraid surduing
[[2M
pueq Surpeoids ondasyur)
10 ‘uoose7
id 10 uIseq
UONvSILII Io

4p ie fue AA 191 2]quI

fess Xa zie
ah wone[oo1eg.
. stneuonudiog _abreyosiq.
CSS SLNaUONUAIO
ae d ea
AA
21qe)
-
:Ide
esse Souls.
oe oO ae
jinsaoe Foe oy eeeea
SULUTZUOD
9UuOZ

uetsayry Jajinbe (ysoly)

¢ -oseyroy

SULUTJUOD
dUOZ

puasay
ueisoyy 1ajinbe (oul[es)
[euonuayuy
yndur
Q51BYosiq:.
“"
oeelOlaee!
Se [euonuayutug
indur
-« monoatur
=,
UOTIAIIG
JO Ja]VMpUNOIS
JUSUISAOUI

BANS [BI9A9S«O-¢g
dIqQISSod
ShemJo SuNvUTUTeIUOD
& JOMpPUNOIS
“WOISAS

85
 86 Environmental Engineering Hydrology Chap. 3

system, a part of which is an artificial wetland. The other possible sources of contami-
nation shown in the figure are the landfill in the middle and the lagoon on the right-hand
side. After the contamination, the aquifer is pumped, one of the purposes of which could
be for drinking water supply purposes. The two pumps are shown on the right side and
near the middle of the figure.

Injection-Well Disposal Contamination

More may be said of the potential hazards of injection wells in addition to the one
depicted in Figure 3-6. Hazardous wastes deposited by injection wells underground are
like time bombs waiting to erupt on future generations. For example, wastes are deposited
in anticlines and synclines of folds? as waste reservoirs. But there is no guarantee that
conditions stay this way. Synclines and anticlines, faults and fractures are a manifestation
of a changing earth crust. Hence in future generations they may be transformed into a
productive aquifer. By injection disposal, the present generation is depositing time bombs
for future generations to discover sitting on productive aquifers that could be developed
for water supply. Just as past generations were indiscriminately dumping hazardous
wastes to haunt the present generation, the present generation could be doing the same
things to haunt future generations. A sketch of an injection well is shown in Figure 3-7;
will it hold?

CONTROL OF GROUNDWATER POLLUTION

The control of groundwater pollution may include physical containment and extraction of
contaminated water for subsequent treatment. The physical containment method involves
literally stopping the plume of an advancing pollution by a barrier. A trench about | to
2 m wide is dug from the surface down to the depth of the impermeable layer to stop the
plume. The trench is then backfilled with an impermeable material. Backfill materials
that have been used are a mixture of soil and bentonite.® Of course, this method of
control is only temporary while other measures are applied to clean up the aquifer.
Figure 3-8 shows sectional views of contaminant plumes. Although the figure
indicates the spills as sources of contamination, it can generally represent other sources
as well. To remove the contaminants by extraction, the whole width of the plume must be
captured by the pumping operation. The capture zone may be delineated, approximately,
using the superposition of a plane sink and a plane uniform flow.
A sink is indicated on the top left of Figure 3-9. The sink is the effect of the
pumping operation. On the right-hand side is the uniform flow, which represents the flow
of the groundwater conveying the contaminants. The objective is to derive the coordinates

°D. L. Warner and J. H. Lehr (1981). Subsurface Wastewater Injection. Premier Press, Berkeley, Calif.
pool
©G. M. Masters (1991). Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science. Prentice Hall, Engle-
wood Cliffs, N.J., p. 165.
 Injection pressure
. “ee eage

<—— Control valve

<—— Waste stream

Well head ——>

Annulus pressure

YY
a gape

Annulus area filled with

biocides and corrosion
inhibitors

one as > 2 x . 5 Peri sOni0 : Os Oeics

Sol fo4g1of 1 Surface hole 4° f.’ bs = : ee

Od UeEO ao Te Petree Balle Vaca seen Cravel and: ni. 2
E oN an potable water.;: : Pee
tn 3
OF Oe ee <a
| ee » <af ese: wo ee aint
cass Pe oe
. 32 ce _ ‘Clays _..

a6 Se IE AP ee al Nine LimestoneL-
allile elt ‘
chale ae “1°
Wotdte* Potable .
——— % “s rx water Sand

b= ——S—SsCS Dolomite

SA fe. See

4 = =
- < ~ ~ Protection casing
rae \ \ Wat AR : \ Wes we wy)
| ars ieee 7s, ! Cement — * F fe ent = | eae ORs = \
Ping® PR A a eerie ee iMacs AN IND ace meanc cle
17% aes ~ _ Injection tubing <j. ae AS 2 Phim
es Se Saiebion 22 Peg
2 S_ iL
. vf re ni ay ony

= im ape meer aaeia (0), as /

Ne sina ey Ee le Wl rome | Ro ea SS a \ Sl
Gg ae alii Bere sb mie RUN: a eX Bib
Zoe a =) il SO det mis Sigal estes ; Fe Ng ee NOP eae Ae
rs ~ Z = . —— AC B € Ss N27 as 7 Nn 2 sa oye >
at ~ ~ Sealing packoff = Oy Wea! Gam i aoe
= 6 / aN a eS aR ce ff RO
Tec TT ea ees 4 Coco «

| | Protection
‘
casing Va | il
LLELLL
Tp +
setting depth
ieee i vlLUT ireDolomite
i dispo

Figure 3-7 Design of hazardous waste injection well.

87
 ~ re) ve) SS: eS ee, SS =
= N (At -¢ Groundwater
flow: > @ XN CVn eae Caan
= De fio TSN
AN OS OsOeAe ee a
3
GB iw aa
:
S es ee ue
ae eeNel ee oe
OQ
- ——_——— — =

ZEMAN SMAI RAS Qs Rs

Clayformation
aan :
SKC
Zl Ail SGI 7) Ns Nese N SS /

(a)

estan ,
a Ope ONO aS —-s
Ore
ee ee etre Se ee
Ss Reus Os: Rae eee ;
_ . ©» Groundwater flow ‘O- ee Onno S ¢

Si SO Oa E See ee
ee =
1S OQ © @& Aquifer2 ee
OF ES (Ze SL Ea ESC Cm _ See
ee 2 4 CGO GLLGEELEEE
DL A KSY Lp
Boe hee
eS Se Lae eo Aa oo
SyKATMSVSKAMSSZ AMS VAAN SSZANMSSAMMNSSVA
SVS;
NFS GX= YS
\Z= Clay
Nay formation
10D S GS
TOW GS
N= GS
SISSEX
ZINN \CANN\\| ZN NAA NI -.WNIt-.- WNIi - Nii AN
(b)
Immiscible plume denser than water.

Figure 3-8 Sectional views of contaminant plumes: (a) dissolved contamina-

tion plume; (b) immiscible plume denser than water.

88
 Control of Groundwater Pollution 89
Plan view

Equipotential
lines
A

Sink flow Uniform flow

Capture-zoné curve 2
z 1 =
IL-
ai}

1
'
acs \ mb
ye OR A ee et Se

SO helo Regional flow

Dp @—eywm_—_—_—-- --------------~-------b--- oe =
Se ee

el a cS eT ee Sr re ee

pie + Fae ayed SS ee

eR Po SSSA —---------------

= eee

Figure 3-9 Derivation of capture zone.

of the capture zone delineated at the bottom portion of the figure. Once delineated, proper
location of the extraction pump and its size can be specified.
For the proper perspective and to appreciate the limitations of the formula to be
derived, we define the term potential flow as inviscid, incompressible, and irrotational
flow of fluids. The term inviscid means that the flow is frictionless. Despite the obvious
presence of friction in groundwater flow, since the motion is very, very slow, the flow may
be assumed inviscid. That is, since the motion is very slow, the effect of friction is not
felt; hence the flow is equivalent to being inviscid. Water is, of course, incompressible.
90 Environmental Engineering Hydrology Chap. 3

The term rotation refers to the fact that when a fluid parcel moves, it is dragged by
neighboring parcels because of friction. This dragging cause the parcel to rotate. The
term irrotational then connotes the absence of friction; hence in potential flow the parcel
does not rotate. Again, since the motion is very, very slow, the effect of friction is
negligible, such that groundwater flow may be assumed irrotational as well. To conclude,
it is assumed that groundwater flow is a potential flow. In addition, it will be assumed
that the flow is a plane flow (i.e., two-dimensional in the horizontal plane).
The technique of derivation is to superimpose the sink flow due to pumping and
the groundwater flow, assumed to be uniform. This superposition will result in a point
p called the stagnation point, where the sink and the uniform flows separate. At the
stagnation point, the velocity of the groundwater U and that of the sink v, due to the
extraction will be equal. Assume that the sink is extracting m cubic units of flow per
unit depth of the aquifer. Therefore,

m = (271r)vu,n (3-16)

where r is the radius of a “cylinder” of flow, v, the radial velocity of flow, and 7 the
porosity. Since v, = U at the stagnation point p,

m = 2bUn (3-17)

U is not the same as the Darcy velocity V, an apparent velocity. U is the actual velocity
of the particles of water that flow through the interstices of the formation. Since the
interstitial cross-sectional area is much smaller than the gross superficial cross-sectional
area from which V is derived, U is much larger and is related to V by the porosity as
follows: U = V/n, where n is the porosity.
To proceed further, find the equation of the superimposed streamline that passes
through the stagnation point. First, solve for the stream function of the sink flow. From
fluid mechanics, (1/r)(0W/d0) = —v,, where W is the sink-flow stream function and
@ is the polar cylindrical coordinate. Substituting this equation in equation (3-16) and
integrating for V gives

Ww = —-——96 (3-18)

The stream function differential equation for the uniform groundwater flow is (dW /dy) =
—U, where y is the familiar vertical y coordinate. Integrating this for V, noting that
y =rsin@, we obtain

UW = —Ur sin@ (3-19)

Superimposing equations (3-18) and (3-19) produces

Mm
VW = ———_é@ —Ursiné@ (Ge20))
2m

Equation (3-20) is the equation of the superimposed streamlines of the sink and
groundwater flows of the lower figure of Figure 3-9. At the stagnation point, 6 = a and
Control of Groundwater Pollution 91

the equation becomes

m
WVstagnation = wea (3-21)
(27)
From equation (3-17), m/(2n) = 2bU and m/(2n) = bU. Substituting equation (3-21),
with Wstasnation = —/(2n) = —bU and m/(2mn) = bU in equation (3-20), the equation
of the streamline passing through the stagnation point is

—abU = —bU@ — Ur sind (3-22)

Solving for r sin@ gives

Psinigu=— bro) = (3-23)

Equation (3-23) gives the coordinates of the envelope of the capture-zone curve.
Referring to Figure 3-9, as 6 — 0, y equals the half-width of the capture zone. Hence
the width of the capture zone w-, twice the half-width, is

ie 270 (3-24)

Equation (3-24) gives the width of the capture zone of one extraction pump. Assuming
n extraction pumps, the total width W. of the combined capture zones is simply the sum
of the individual widths. If all the pumps have the same capacity,

Va (3-25)

To extract all the contaminants in the flow, W. must be equal to the width of the
plume. Therefore, to design an extraction pumping system, the width of the plume should
first be determined and made equal to W.. Having obtained W,, b is calculated from
equation (3-25). The value of m is then solved using equation (3-17). This value gives
the size of each pump. The exact locations of the pumps in the field may be determined
by plotting equation (3-23) separately for each pump so that the overall capture curve
will include or envelop the boundary of the plume. This will involve trial and error until
the desired envelope is obtained.

Coefficient of Retardation

The velocity U used in the equations above is not the velocity of the contaminant plume
but, as defined, the velocity of the groundwater. In general, when the contaminant travels
in the formation, it is retarded. Hence define the coefficient of retardation C,. as the ratio
of the velocity U, of the centroid of the contaminant plume divided by the groundwater
velocity U, as follows:

(3-26)

Some values of coefficient of retardation are shown in Table 3-3, which indicates that C,.
is a function of the time of travel.
92 Environmental Engineering Hydrology Chap. 3

Example 3-7
A contaminant plume of carbon tetrachloride from a spill is discovered. The largest width
of the plume is approximately 80 m. The depth of the contaminated aquifer is 30 m. Field
investigation indicates that the aquifer is mainly sandstone and that the groundwater elevation
is 30 m above the river 3300 m downstream. (a) How long will it take for the spill to reach
the river? (b) If management decides to extract the compound using two pumps, determine
their sizes and the spacing between them in the field.

Solution (a) V = K 4".

dl?
assume that K = 1072 m/day; n = 0.11. Then

300 91 (107°
V=10° (ae )=9.1(10->) midday U= ee = 8.3(10-*) m/day

From Table 3-3, for carbon tetrachloride, C, = 0.40. Thus

3300
time to reach the river = = 9,9(10°) days = 27,349 years Answer
0.4(8.3)(10~4)
(b)) We= mw = Dna

Wee 80"
Onn 22)n
m2?
m = 2nbUn = 27 (6.4)(8.3)(10~*)(0.11) = 0.0037
day-m
Thus

size of one pump, Q = 0.0037(30) = 0.1 1m? /day Answer

Spacing = 27b = 277 (6.4) = 40.0 m_ Answer

Note: Management does not need to install a pump.

TABLE 3-3 COEFFICIENTS OF

RETARDATION OF SOME COMPOUNDS

Travel time
Compound (days) CG;

Hexachloroethane 100 Oe
Dichlorobenzene 100 0.17
400 One
640 0.11
Tetrachloroethylene 100 0.25
400 0.19
640 One
Bromoform 100 0.43
400 0.36
640 0.34
Carbon tetrachloride 100 0.48
400 0.43
640 0.40
Glossary 93

GLOSSARY

Aquiclude. An underground formation containing water that cannot be transmitted.

Aquifer. An underground reservoir or formation where water flows at rate that can
productively be retrieved regionally.
Aquifuge. An underground formation that does not hold water.
Aquitard. An underground formation containing water that cannot be transmitted at such
quantity to be productive regionally.
Capillary fringe. A curtain of water that forms above the water table due to the attraction
of the soil formation on the water.
Capture zone curve. The limit that defines the extent of groundwater contamination that
can be extracted by a pump or combination of pumps.
Coefficient of retardation. The ratio of the velocity of the contaminant plume to the
groundwater velocity.
Confining layer. A layer of aquitard, aquiclude, or aquifuge that restricts the vertical
movement of the water in the aquifer.
Depression storage. Fraction of rainfall that fills puddles and depressions on the surface
of the earth.
Distribution reservoir. A reservoir constructed to equalize the supply and demand for
treated water in a community and to provide supply of water during emergency
situations.
Drawdown. The vertical distance from the original surface of the groundwater to the
existing surface of the pumped groundwater.
Drawdown curve. The locus of the drawdown.
Groundwater. The precipitation that gravitates toward the lowest possible point under
the surface of the earth; its pressure is greater than atmospheric.
Groundwater hydrology. The study of the properties, distribution, and behavior of
water in nature as it occurs under the surface of the earth.
Hydraulic conductivity, permeability coefficient, or Darcy’s coefficient. The propor-
tionality coefficient in Darcy’s law.
Hydrology. The science that deals with the study of the properties, distribution, and
behavior of water in nature.
Impounding reservoir. A reservoir in the valley of a stream or river constructed for the
purpose of holding streamflow; this flow may be released to satisfy demand during
times of low stream flows.
Infiltration. The process of entering of precipitation from the air into the subsurface of
the ground.
Inviscid flow. Frictionless flow.
Irrotational flow. A flow where the fluid has no tendency to form vortices.
Point of concentration. The point in a drainage area where a maximum rate of flow is
to be determined.
Porosity. The fraction of space in the bulk volume of any substance.
Potential flow. The inviscid, incompressible, and irrotational flow of fluids.
94 Environmental Engineering Hydrology Chap. 3

Precipitation. Any of the forms of H2O that result when clouds become heavily laden
with moisture.
Probability distribution analysis. A method of statistical analysis where the prob-
ability of occurrence of events are arrayed either in descending or ascending
order.
Radius of influence. The horizontal distance from the center of a well to the point where
the drawdown is zero.
Return period or return interval. The average number of years that a particular event
is equaled or exceeded.
Runoff. That part of precipitation that flows on the surface of the earth or just immedi-
ately beneath the surface of the earth.
Specific yield. The fraction of water that drains freely under the effect of gravity in a
given volume of unconfined aquifer.
Spillway. A channel built at a point along a dam or reservoir used to convey excess
water from the reservoir.
Storage coefficient. The fraction of water that will drain from an aquifer under the effect
of gravity per unit lowering of the piezometric head; in an unconfined aquifer, it is
equal to the specific yield.
Time of concentration. In a given drainage area, the time it takes for the area to
contribute at a particular point the maximum rate of flow; it is the time it takes a
particle from the farthest point in the drainage area to the point under consideration
assuming that the flow converges uniformly toward the point.
Vadose water. Water in the vadose zone whose pressure is less than atmospheric.
Vadose zone. The zone in the underground formation from the surface to the groundwater.
Watershed. The same as catchment area.
Water table. The surface of a groundwater.

SYMBOLS

G coefficient of runoff in the rational method

i rainfall intensity
IDF intensity—duration—frequency
m order number in probability distribution calculation; flow
per unit depth of aquifer
med million gallons per day
n the Manning coefficient of roughness; number of extraction
pumps
probability that a certain event is equaled or exceeded
r radius of concentric cylinder about a well
Px radius of influence of a well
 Problems 95

a storage coefficient
time
time of concentration
eek transmissivity
roSvAalt
velocity of groundwater
velocity of centroid of contaminant plume of a single dump
of the contaminant
radial velocity of flow to an extraction well
half-width of a capture zone corresponding to one extraction
pump
largest width of contaminant plume
drawdown of well
porosity
polar coordinate
stream function

PROBLEMS

3-1. Define hydrology and environmental engineeering hydrology.

3-2. Define surface hydrology and groundwater hydrology.
3-3. Differentiate between groundwater hydrology and hydrogeology.
3-4, A total of 13 in. of precipitations falls on a 45-mi* drainage area in 24 h. Calculate the total
volume of runoff during the period.
3-5. What is the average rainfall intensity in Problem 3-4?
3-6. Express the volume of runoff in Problem 3-4 in cubic meters.
3-7. For the weather station nearest your hometown, record the average precipitation for each
month of the year and construct a monthly bar graph. The information may be obtained
from the Climatological Data, U.S. National Weather Service.
3-8. What is the highest rainfall intensity in Problem 3-7?
3-9. Analysis of 10 years of precipitation data for a 20-min subduration yields the following
results for the first up to the tenth year, respectively (in cm): 2.96, 3.0, 2.86, 2.75, 3.10,
3.20, 2.84, 2.69, 2.78, and 2.91. Calculate the probability distribution.
3-10. In Problem 3-9, what is the rainfall intensity having a return interval of 20 years?
3-11. A weather service station is scanned for precipitation to perform a probability distribution
analysis. The results are as follows (in cm): 5-min subduration: 1.4, 1.8, 1.6, 1.0, 1.3, 1.7,
1.9, 1.0, 0.9, and 1.2; 20-min subduration: 2.96, 3.0, 2.86, 2.75, 3.10, 3.20, 2.84, 2.69,
2.78, and 2.91; 50-min subduration: 3.98, 3.92, 3.87, 3.89, 4.30, 4.00, 4.10, 3.99, 4.08, and
3.87; and 100-min subduration: 4.70, 4.60, 4.76, 4.89, 4.30, 4.98, 4.85, 4.67, 4.79, and 4.77.
Synthesize the 10-year storm.
3-12. For the 10-year storm of Problem 3-11, what is the average intensity for the 20-min-duration
storm?
96 Environmental Engineering Hydrology Chap. 3

3-13. A method of estimating a missing precipitation record is by weighting observations of

nearby stations by the inverse distance to the point of the missing record. The expres-
sion 1s

oe
pares (Ue
a /ri)

where ro; is the distance between station i and station 0. In analyzing the long-term pre-
cipitation records of four stations, one station was found to have missing records for the
months of June, July, and August in a particular year. The following are the records in
mm depth of rainfall: First station: June, 54; July, 48; and August, 44. Second station:
June, 67; July, 56; and August, 49. Third station: June, 75; July, 44; and August, 57.
The long-term average precipitations for all four stations are as follows: First station: June,
60; July, 48; and August, 45. Second station: June, 65; July, 56; and August, 47. Third
station: June, 70; July, 65; and August, 60. Fourth and missing station: June, 67; July, 60;
and August, 55. Estimate the missing precipitations using r4; = 5 km, r42 = 1.5 km, and
r43 = 10 km.
3-14. The diagram below is a schematic of a drainage area. What are the maximum inlet flows
to manholes 4, 3, and 2 from the respective areas A, B, and C? At what respective times
are these occurring? With rainfall intensity 7 = 13.96 cm/h, calculate the 10-year storm
from manhole 2 to 1. The runoff from area A drains to manhole 4, the runoff from area
B drains to manhole 3, and the runoff from area C drains to manhole 2. The time of flow
between manholes is 5 minutes. A is equal to 0.05 acre, B is equal to 15 acres, and C is
equal to 30 acres. Assume all areas to be squares. The average channel slope is 0.0006.
For the value of Manning’s n, assume smooth-pavement type of surfaces. The coefficients
of imperviousness are as follows: for A = 0.80, for B = 0.90, and for C = 0.95.

. For the figure in Problem 3-14, a 20,000-gal holding tank is placed at manhole 2 to reduce
the peak flow from manhole 2 to 1. The runoff will be diverted to the tank only when
the flow to manhole 2 exceeds 20 cfs, which, thereafter, the diverted flow accepted will be
two-thirds of the difference between the peak flow from the drainage area and 20 cfs. After
the tank is full, all flow goes down the sewer, and when the total flow from the drainage
area goes below 20 cfs, a pump starts to empty the tank at a rate of 745 gpm. What is the
maximum rate of flow from manhole 2 to manhole 1?
. What size sewer should be provided between manhole 2 and manhole 1 in Problem 3-15?
Use a self-cleaning velocity of 2.5 fps in the sewer.
. In Problem 3-15, how many minutes after the storm starts will the pump have emptied the
tank?
Problems 97

3-18. In Problem 3-15, what percentage of the peak flow from the drainge area does the peak flow
in the sewer represent?
3-19. In Problem 3-15, at what time after the storm starts does the peak flow occur in the sewer?
3-20. Given the design rainfall intensity as i = 3.5/(3 + t-) for a concrete area of an airport,
calculate the peak rate of runoff. The area is 30 acres and ft. = 15 min.
3-21. If a rectangular channel is used to convey the drainage from the airport in Problem 3-20 and
if a self-cleaning velocity of 2.5 fps is to be maintained, what will be the depth of flow in
the channel?
3-22. Solve Problem 3-21 using a circular channel.
3-23. One of the two following 7-day drought figures is a 10-year drought and the other is a 5-year
drought: 50 cfs and 45 cfs. Which is the 10-year drought and which is the 5-year drought?
Why?
3-24. Calculate the diameter of the circular pipe used to convey the 10-year flow in Problem 3-23,
3-25. A community has decided to construct an impounding reservoir to supply water for a 10-year
drought. Analysis of the stream before construction of the dam yielded the following
subduration-average flow pairs: 7, 45; 15, 49; 30, 56; 60, 67; 120, 93; 180, 220; 365,
702. The subdurations are in terms of days and the average flows are in terms of cfs. The
other analysis results are as follows: (1) subdurations and combined evaporation—seepage
loss pairs: 7, 1.0; 15, 2.3; 30, 3.5; 60, 7.0; 120, 17.0; 180, 25; 365, 57 (subdurations in days,
evaporation—seepage in inches); and (2) subdurations and community demands pairs: 7, 2600;
15, 5000; 30, 11,000; 60, 22,000; 120, 46,000; 180, 72,000; 365, 138,000 (subdurations in
days, demand in cfs-days). Assume that the reservoir pool area increases to 1000 acres after
construction. Assuming a downstream release requirement of 50 cfs, determine the volume
of the reservoir.
3-26. What critical rate of consumer demand will be satisfied by the reservoir of Problem 3-25?
3-27. For the downstream release requirement of Problem 3-25, what is the head over the spillway,
assuming it to be in the form of a broad-crested weir?
3-28. A dam has been constructed to hold a volume of 90,000 acre-ft. The average annual runoff
from the drainage area 1s approximately 40 cfs. How many years of average annual runoff
will the reservoir be able to hold?
3-29. Negiecting evaporation and seepage, a spillway of what flow capacity should be provided in
Problem 3-28?
3-30. A 0.60-m well is constructed in a confined aquifer of b = 20 m. Assume the aquifer to be
composed of fine sand. The upper confining impermeable layer extends from the top of the
aquifer to the ground surface and has a thickness of 40 m. The original piezometric surface
is 10 m below ground surface. Pumping has stabilized at the following drawdowns: 2.5 m
at the observation well 25 m away from the pumped well, and 4.0 m at the observation well
2 m away from the pumped well. Calculate the flow Q.
3-31. Two wells are dug 430 m apart. Both fully penetrate a 200-m-thick confined aquifer.
They are both pumped at a rate of 0.1 m?/min. If the hydraulic conductivity is 2 m/day,
and the piezometric head was originally 120 m above the top of the aquifer, calculate
the drawdown to be expected halfway between the wells. Assume a radius of influence
of 300 m.
3-32. A 0.60-m well is constructed in an unconfined aquifer of b = 20 m. Assume the aquifer to
be composed of fine sand. The original piezometric surface is 10 m below ground surface.
 98 Environmental Engineering Hydrology Chap. 3

After pumping the well for 1 day, the drawdown in the observation well 25 m away was
2.5 m. Calculate the pumping rate Q that effected this drawdown.
3-33. Maintaining the pumping rate in Problem 3-32, what will be the drawdown in the observation
well after 1 year?
3-34. What is the volume above the original water surface if injection of 0.1 m?/min of hazardous
waste resulted in a condition of steady state. The water level in the injection well is observed
to be 10 m above the original groundwater surface. Assume that the mounded hazardous
waste surface coincides with the original water level at a distance of 180 m from the well.
3-35. A well starts pumping at a rate of 990 m*/day. After 1 day the rate was increased to
1500 m?/day. What is the drawdown at an observation well 1000 m from the pumped well
3 days after the start of pumping? The aquifer is confined with the following characteristics:
T = 1400 m?/day and s, = 1074.
3-36. A contaminant plume of dichlorobenzene from a spill is discovered. The largest width of
the plume is 80 m and the depth of the aquifer is 30 m. Field investigation indicates that
the aquifer is mainly limestone with a K value of 20. m/day, a porosity of 0.20, and a
groundwater elevation of 30 m above the river 300 m downstream. How long will it take
for the spill to reach the river?
3-37. Repeat Problem 3-36 if the plume is bromoform.
3-38. In Problem 3-36, if management decides to extract the compound using three pumps, deter-
mine their sizes and the spacing between them in the field.
3-39. Repeat Problem 3-38 if the plume is bromoform.
3-40. It has been determined that an extraction rate of 0.006 m°/s is sufficient to decontaminate
a contaminate aquifer. The aquifer has an average depth of 30 m, a hydraulic conductivity
of 10~* m/s, and an average gradient of 0.002. If the plume is 100 m wide, locate a single
extraction pump to remove the contaminant totally.
3-41. Solve Problem 3-40 if three extraction pumps are to be used.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

HatHaway, G. A. (1945). “Design of Drainage Facilities.” Transactions of ASCE, 110.

KirpicH, P. A. (1940). “Time Concentration of Small Agricultural Watersheds.” Civil Engineer-
ing, 10(6).
Masters, G. M. (1991). Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science. Prentice Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
McGuegE, T. J. (1991). Water Supply and Sewerage. McGraw-Hill, New York.
PRASUHN, A. L. (1987). Fundamentals of Hydraulic Engineering. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New
York.
RoBERSON, J. A., J. J. Cassipy, and M. F. CHAUDHRY (1988). Hydraulic Engineering. Houghton
Mifflin, Boston.
THEIS, C. V. (1935). “The Relation between the Lowering of the Piezometric Surface and the Rate
and Duration of a Well Using Groundwater Storage.” Transactions of the American Geophysical
Union, 16, pp. 519-524.
Warnek, D. L., and J. H. LEHR (1981). Subsurface Wastewater Injection. Premier Press, Berkeley,
Calif.
 CHAPTER 4

Environmental Engineering
Hydraulics and Pneumatics

It is the purpose of this chapter to discuss various hydraulic and pneumatic engineering
tools needed by environmental engineers in practice. The sections are broadly categorized
under the headings of water supply and distribution systems, collection of wastewater,
pumping stations, and pneumatic systems.

WATER SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION OF WATER

Distribution of water refers to the actual delivery of treated water to homes, businesses,
and industries. (It is axiomatic that no water should be delivered without treatment.)
Before water can be treated and distributed, it has to be collected from a water supply
source and transmitted to a water treatment plant.

Collection of Water

In general, there are two types of sources of raw water: surface and ground. In searching
for a surface water supply, there are two things to be considered: the catchment area
and the reservoir site. The catchment area (also called watershed or drainage area) is
that area of ground that intercepts the precipitation that forms into runoff toward a point
of concentration. Since along with the legitimate water runoff, sediments could also be
carried, the catchment area must be chosen carefully if a reservoir is to be constructed
downstream. Areas that yield too much sediment should be avoided, as this will shorten

fs)
100 Environmental Engineering Hydraulics and Pneumatics Chap. 4

the life of the reservoir. A catchment area must also be of satisfactory sanitary quality.
The area may be patrolled to ensure that the water quality does not become unsafe.
Where there are no natural lakes available, a reservoir may be constructed. The
siting of the reservoir should meet some criteria, among which could be the following:

1. The surface topography should create a high ratio of reservoir to dam volume.
This means, for example, that a surface topography converging into a gorge is
desirable. Construction of a dam across the gorge would entail a smaller volume of
dam materials, thus saving the community while providing a reservoir of relatively
larger storage volume for water.
ee The subsurface geology at the dam site should provide a safe foundation for the
dam and spillway. This is a very important consideration as thousands of lives
have been lost due to dam failures.
3. The catchment area for the reservoir should be sparsely populated. When the dam
is filled up, large areas will be inundated: this means an entire community, with
houses, churches, playgrounds, schools, and cemeteries. Therefore, it is better for
the water utility to deal only with a sparsely populated area, if it is available.
4. If possible, the reservoir should be located at a higher elevation so that water can
be transmitted to the water treatment plant by gravity. This saves having to pump
the water.

Raw surface water supplies can also come from large rivers and lakes in lowland
areas, which, with additional impounding, provide an abundant supply of water. These
sources are normally under multijurisdictional control (1.e., the management of the catch-
ment area is a concern not only of a single community but of several). It may even
transcend beyond more than one state or even country. Such is the case, for example, of
the Nile River, the longest river in the world, which traverses 4000 miles through central
Africa to the Mediterranean Sea.
As mentioned, the other source of water is the groundwater. Groundwaters are
drawn (1) from the pores of alluvial (waterborne), glacial, or aeolian (windblown) deposits
of granular materials such as sand, gravel, and sandstone; (2) from solution passages,
cleavage planes, caverns, fissures, or fractures of rocks including limestone, slate, shale,
and igneous rocks; and (3) from combinations of (1) and (2). Limestone is an impure
calcium carbonate. Sandstone is sand grains cemented together and may be very pervious.
Shale is a result of the consolidation of clays and is generally impervious acting as
aquiclude. S/ate is a further transformation of shales and is also relatively impervious.

Transmission of Water

The word transmission is the term used for the conveyance of raw water from the collec-
tion source to the water treatment plant and for the conveyance of the treated water from
the treatment plant to the distribution mains. Transmission conduits before the treatment
plant may be under pressure or under a free-flow condition. Transmission conduits after
the treatment plant for the treated water is always under pressure. Examples of free-flow
Water Supply and Distribution of Water 101

conditions are the flows in canals, flumes, grade aqueducts, and grade tunnels. Exam-
ples of pressure-flow conditions are the flows in pressure aqueducts, pressure tunnels,
pipelines and force mains, and depressed pipes or inverted siphons. Canals are open
channels formed by a balanced cut-and-fill on the ground surface. Flumes are also open
channels formed of wood, masonry, or metal that are supported on or above the ground.
Aqua means water and duct means conduit; therefore, aqueduct means a conduit used to
convey water. The term aqueduct refers only to large conduits, however. Tunnels are
openings constructed through rocks or other formations. When the pressure of the flow-
ing water inside the aqueduct or tunnel is at atmospheric, the conduit is called a grade
aqueduct or grade tunnel; when the pressure of the flowing water is above atmospheric,
the conduit is called a pressure aqueduct or pressure tunnel. A force main is that part
of a main where the water is pumped (forced) to a higher elevation. An inverted siphon
is a pressure conduit laid underground to convey water through an obstruction such as
crossing a river or conveying water under a road.

Distribution System

Treated waters are distributed to the city by gravity, by pumps alone, by pumps and reser-
voirs storage, or by a combination of gravity, pumping, and storage. The most desirable
method is gravity distribution, and the least desirable method is pumped distribution
alone.
All pipes in the distribution system conveying water that ultimately leads to con-
sumers’ premises are called mains. Starting from the house or building, water is supplied
here through the house, building, or service pipe. This service pipe is connected to
a small main along the street. The small mains are the actual distributors of water
and are called service, distributor, or street mains. The service mains are connected
to a second, larger system of mains that serves larger areas and at spacings of two to
four blocks. These second and larger mains are called secondary feeders. The word
feeder is exactly what it is; it is a feeder that “feeds” water to the service main. The
secondary feeders are, again, connected to the third and largest mains in the system.
These largest mains are called primary feeders. Primary feeders are normally spaced
1 to 2 km apart; hence they can circumscribe an entire community. Finally, the pri-
mary feeders are connected to the main, which is connected, in turn, to the transmission
system conduit. This last main is the main supply or trunk feeder. Since the primary
feeder resembles the artery that carries blood from the heart to all parts of the human
body, they are also called arterial mains. Arterial mains form the basic structure of
the system and carry flows from trunk feeders and pumps to distribution reservoirs and
to various districts of the city. The secondary feeders, on the other hand, aside from
supplying the service mains, carry the large volumes of water needed for firefighting
purposes. The service or distributor mains also resemble the capillaries that ultimately
supply blood to the tissues. They are also, therefore, called capillary mains, to distin-
guish them from arterial mains. The smallest capillary main should not be less than
150 mm. If dead ends are to be allowed, the smallest capillary main should not be less
than 200 mm.
102 Environmental Engineering Hydraulics and Pneumatics Chap. 4

All pipes in the system should form a grid that prevents the establishment of dead
ends. Dead ends cause sediments to build up, since the pipe at these places is not
subjected to a continuous flow of water. When the system is disinfected after repairs,
disinfectants cannot go into dead ends, since there is no continuous flow there. On the
other hand, water flows continuously in the grid system form of distribution. Hence
sediments cannot build up and the system can be easily disinfected after repairs.
Figure 4-1 shows a typical residential service connection (a) and distribution system
(b). Notice that the water in the grid system of pipes can flow continuously in a loop.
In the grid distribution system (3 of b), the biggest conduit introduced at the middle of
the system and to the left of it is the transmission conduit. This then joins with the trunk
feeder. The three conduits perpendicular to the trunk feeder running up and down the
figure are the primary feeders. The primary feeders form into loops at their extremities at
the uppermost and bottommost parts of the figure. Bigger rectangles appear at the bottom
and right-hand side of the grid. These represent the secondary feeders which, as shown,
connect to the primaries. At the top of the figure are smaller rectangles, representing the
street mains. In 4 of b, the mains are at dead ends. This type of a distribution system
should be avoided.
The final components making up the distribution system are the valves necessary
to control the flow, the fire hydrants, the distribution reservoirs and standpipes needed
to equalize supply and pressures in the system, and the meters to measure the flows
that go to the various consumers. A standpipe is a vertical, cylindrical pipe of height
considerably larger than its diameter designed to hold water and to maintain the needed
pressure. When the height is equal to or less or only a little bit larger than the diameter,
the cylinder is simply a tank—a storage tank.

Water Quantity Requirements

In the design of distribution systems and other parts of a waterworks system, there are
three flow terms that an environmental engineer needs to know: average flow, maximum
daily flow, and maximum hourly flow. The average flow is the average daily flow,
computed over a year as follows:

— (4-1)
365(p)

where x is the consumption in units of volume per capita per day, y the total cubic units
of water delivered to the distribution system, and p the midyear population served by the
distribution system.
From this definition it is evident that there would be a number of values, depending
on the number of years that the averages are computed. For purposes of design, the
engineer must decide which value to use. The highest value may not be used arbitrarily
since this may result in overdesign; on the other hand, the lowest value may also not be
used for a similar but reverse reasoning. This deduction implies the use of probability
distribution analysis to pick the proper average flow value. Depending on the source
of information, average values may be very different as the following table of average
 Water Supply and Distribution of Water 103

ypical residential service connection.

) Service line and meter box installation.
) Complete residential water service.

Service box

Corporation stop

Distribution main Ground key curb stop Property line

and drain

Relief valve

Meter stop

'W ater meter

Pressure regulator
(if needed)

Curb box

<—— Curb valve

Corporation stop Pipe networks. (3) Gridiron distribution system

consisting of an arterial pipe network with a
superimposed system of distribution mains.
(4) Undesirable dead-end distribution system.
(a) (b)

Figure 4-1 (a) Typical residential service connection. (b) A grid distribution system.
(M. J. Hammer (1986); Water and Wastewater Technology. Reprinted by permission of
John Wiley & Sons, New York, New York.)
104 Environmental Engineering Hydraulics and Pneumatics Chap. 4

usages (in gallons per capita per day) indicates:

Data from Data from

source A, source B,
User gal per cap per day gal per cap per day

Domestic BS 64
Commercial and industrial 30 65
Public and losses 35 20

The table shows that you are likely to obtain widely differing data from different sources
and therefore have to gather your own.
The design of a distribution system must satisfy two requirements: (1) the water
demands of regular domestic, industrial, and commercial consumers, and (2) the water
demands of the other principal consumer—water for firefighting. Ideally, to meet these
requirements, the system must be designed to satisfy all peak instantaneous consumer
demands. In practice, however, for two reasons, the satisfaction of instantaneous demand
is not considered: (1) the probability that the peak demands of al/ normal domestic,
industrial, and commercial consumers and firefighting requirements will happen coinci-
dentally is low; and (2) the system design is sufficiently far reaching in that as long as
the design period is not exceeded, the system has excess capacity. The design of the
distribution system is therefore based on either one of the following: maximum day plus
firefighting requirements, or maximum hour if this exceeds the former combination of
maximum day and fire flow. To get the maximum day and maximum hour, the proper
average daily flow is multiplied by the ratios of the maximum day and maximum hour
to the average day, respectively.
The question of what maximum ratios to use is not easy to answer. There are,
literally, hundreds of maxima in the record. Philosophically, there should be only one
maximum. However, this maximum may be so high that its use will result in overdesign.
Again, as in the case of the choice of the proper average, this deduction implies the use
of probability distribution analysis.
The record may be scanned for the occurrence of the daily maximum hourly and
divided by the proper daily average. The results obtained are then arranged serially in
decreasing order and frequency distribution calculated. The probability obtained from this
calculation is a daily probability, as distinguished from the probabilities of occurrence of
storms that are based on years and hence are yearly probabilities. A weekly, monthly, or
yearly probability of the maximum hourly may also be calculated, but the daily probability
is more accurate. The maximum hourly ratio that is equaled or exceeded, corresponding to
the desired probability of occurrence, is then interpolated from the calculated probability
distribution. The same procedure is followed for the ratio of the maximum day to the
average day. Weekly or yearly probabilities may also be calculated.
Taking into account the probabilistic nature of the maximum hourly and the max-
imum daily ratios, the following definitions are made: The maximum hourly flow is the
highest of the hourly flows of the appropriate probability of occurrence; the maximum
daily flow is the highest of the daily flows of the appropriate probability of occurrence.
Water Supply and Distribution of Water 105

In addition, the average daily flow is the yearly daily average flow of the appropriate
probability of occurrence.
Example 4-1
As in the probability distribution analysis of precipitation and runoff, a sufficient number
of years of record should be available to have accurate results. But in this example, for
illustration purposes, only 11 figures (not necessarily years) will be used. A review of the
water consumption of a small American town revealed the statistics in the table below (the
dividing line between a small and a large community is taken as 50,000 people). (a) What
are the ratios of the maximum day and maximum hour to the average day if the 10%
probability of occurrence is the criterion for choosing the ratios? (b) If the average daily
flow is 0.49 m?/capita-day, what are the maximum hourly and daily flows, respectively?

Ratio to average

Item Max. day Max. hour

| 1.48 DPE
2 W538} 2.30
3 1.50 Dol
4 1.44 ep)
5 Il M3)
6 1.49 eer
7 1.42 Dales)
8 hos 9)
9 1.54 2236
10 LES2 2.28
1] 1.42 DE

Solution Arranging the data serially from highest to lowest and computing the probabilities
give us the following table:
(a)
Ratio to average

Serial m
number Max. day Max. hour IN ae II

| 1.54 239 0.08

2 Ila8) 2.36 On
5 PS) 2.35 0.25
4 lo 23h 0.33
3 IL5) 230, 0.42
6 1.50 2.28 0.50
7 1.49 DPE 0.58
8 1.48 STS) 0.67
9 1.44 Ap| ONS
10 1.42 Dp) 0.83
Ih 1.42 eM) 0.92
106 Environmental Engineering Hydraulics and Pneumatics Chap. 4

Interpolating, we find

| | oy Sync): O00)
2 a y 0.10
3 los 2.38) O25

SS
x—154 0.10
—0.08
Se ee x =1.54 Answer
1.53—1.54 0.25 —0.08

y—2.39 ~ 0.10—0.08
y =2.39 Answer
P35 LF35 0 25 — 0.08
(b) Maximum hourly flow = 2.39(0.49) = 1.17 m?/capita-day Answer

Maximum daily flow = 1.54(0.49) = 0.75 m?/capita-day Answer

For expansion to an existing system, the records that already exist may be ana-
lyzed to obtain the design values. For an entirely new system, the records of a similar
community nearby may be utilized to obtain the design values. Of course, in selecting
the final design value, there are other factors to be considered. For example, the prac-
tice of metering consumption encourages the consumer not to waste water. Therefore,
if the record analyzed contains a period when a meter was used and one when it was
not, the conclusion drawn from statistical analysis must take this fact into consideration.
The record might also contain years when use of water was heavily curtailed because of
drought and years when use was unrestricted. This condition tends to make the data in-
homogeneous. Considerable engineering judgment must therefore be exercised to arrive
at the final value to use.
Concurrent with estimation of the various maxima is the forecast of the popu-
lation values to be used in design. A number of methods that should be reviewed
exist in the literature. Water intakes, wells, treatment plants, pumping, and transmis-
sion lines are normally designed using the maximum daily flow with hourly varia-
tions handled by storage. For emergency purposes, standby units should also be in-
stalled.

Water Pressure Requirements

The distribution system should satisfy pressure requirements. First, the pressure must
enable the water to come out of the faucet, showerheads, and similar outlets at de-
sirable speeds and flow rates. Second, as residential houses are normally constructed
one to three stories high, the pressure must also enable the water from fire hoses to
reach the roofs of three-story residential homes during conflagrations. Third, the pres-
sure must enable the water to reach the upper stories of tall buildings in the downtown
areas of cities, and have sufficient residual pressure at faucets and similar outlets and
for firefighting purposes. For residential areas, to meet the foregoing requirements,
the recommended residual gage pressures in the street mains are at least 278 kilo-
pascal gage (kPag) [40 pounds per square inch gage (psig)]. Pressure in excess of
Water Supply and Distribution of Water 107

690 kPag (100 psig) is undesirable. For high-value districts, the recommended pressures
normally range from 417 to 520 kPag (60 to 75 psig) in the streets. By using this
pressure range, however, water reaches only several stories high. To provide water to
the upper stories, booster pumps are provided to store water in rooftop tanks or water
towers.
The distribution system is not designed for higher pressures for two reasons:

1. The rate of discharge Q is directly proportional to the square root of the head
loss (or pressure drop). Increasing pressures would mean excessive pressure drops.
Hence increasing pressure will increase leakage in the system.
2. High pressures cause excessive stresses in the plumbing systems, which can result
in pipes bursting. This will require installing pressure-reducing valves. Pipes
and fittings used for plumbing systems are designed for a maximum pressure of
1030 kPag (48 psig).

Engine pumpers can deliver high rates of flow (1500 gpm) at adequate pressures at
the nozzle to the scene of fire. Therefore, it is not necessary to build the pressures to a
much higher level at the fire hydrants to combat fire. However, if the water is overdrawn
from the mains, a vacuum could be created inside the pipes, sucking in pollution from
outside. Theoretically, a gage pressure of zero inside the pipe will not allow the pollutants
to be sucked in; however, as a factor of safety, the pressures inside the mains may be
only allowed to drop to values of 69 to 139 kPag (10 to 20 psig) during the time of
fighting fires.

Example 4-2
Hydrants are normally spaced to cover a radius of 60 m. Assuming a rubber-lined hose of
21-in. diameter is used, calculate how high the water will rise if the hose is aimed at an
angle of 60° with the horizontal and (a) the hose is connected to a hydrant in a high-value
district; (b) the hose is connected to a hydrant in a residential area. Assume a standard fire
stream of 250 gpm at a temperature of 20°C.

Solution (a) Cross-sectional area A = 2 (2.5/12)?/4 = 0.034 ft?; assume a hose length,
£ = 60 m = 196.86 ft. As 250 gpm = 0.56 cfs, cross-section velocity V = 0.56/0.034 =
16.47 fps inside hose. From Appendix 18,

ee 998 kg/m? 998 (2.2) 1.93 slug

ensi = fae ee ee = 1 OR
as e 32.17(3.2813) fe
DED, slug
iscosi = 104 10a" heme ee O10) |——— | = 20810)
Mca, 10. (10a) asin s/— 104 | san | i anuth tics
es : N Ibe
specific weight y = 998(9.81) — = 62.09 Fas
m- ii
2.5/12)(16.47) (1.93 ) = 3.18(10)
(2.5/12)(16.47)(
Reynolds number, Re =
2.08(10-5)
108 Environmental Engineering Hydraulics and Pneumatics Chap. 4

Using the Moody diagram (Appendix 17), assuming a smooth hose, f = 0.0145. Therefore,

Tye 196.86 \ 16.47?

scar JWives
Mee Beis = 0.0145 (| 232.2) = 57.71 ft
neglecting entrance loss from hydrant to hose. D is the diameter of the hose and g is the
gravitational constant. If entrance loss is not to be neglected, hr = h+K(V7/2g). Applying
the energy equation from the base of the hydrant to the tip of the nozzle assuming a hydrant
pressure of 75 psig = 10,800 psfg (pounds per square foot gage),

where P is the pressure at point 1, P2 the pressure at point 2, z; the elevation of point 1
from datum, and z the elevation of point 2 from datum. Assume that z; = z2; and P; = 0.

16.472 10,800 V
~ 57.71 =
2¢ 62.09 2¢
V> = 88.07 fps

From kinematics,

V? = Vi + 2¢5 = 0 = (88.07 sin60°)” + 2(—32.2)s

s = 90.35 ft Answer

(b) Assume that P = 40 psig = 5760 psfg and P = 20 psig = 2880 psfg.

16.472 5760 Ve 16.472 2880 ve

Sel te nile
22 62.09 22 29 62.09 2¢
Vz = 50.28 fps V> = negative

V7 = Ve + 2¢5 > 0 = (50.28'sin 60°)? + 2(=32.2)s

s = 29.44 for 40 psig at hydrant Answer

Distribution Reservoirs

As soon as raw water has been treated, it is ready for distribution to the community.
To equalize the supply and demand for treated water, to provide more uniform pressure
throughout the distribution system, and to provide for emergency supply such as fire-
fighting, distribution reservoirs are normally constructed. Figure 4-2 shows a picture of
a distribution reservoir at Bonita Springs, Florida, and Figure 4-3 shows two possible
locations around a distribution system.
C in Figure 4-3 represents the community. As shown, the distribution reservoirs
can be placed either between the pumping station and the community or beyond the
Water Supply and Distribution of Water 109

Figure 4-2 Distribution reservoir at

Bonita Springs, Florida.

community. The uppermost part of the figure shows that without the reservoir dur-
ing a maximum day with fire supply, it needs 329 ft of energy to pump the water
through the distribution system, whereas in the middle and bottom parts, with the in-
stallation of the distribution reservoir, this energy requirement has been reduced to 227
to 250 ft. Thus distribution reservoirs save energy. Also, by comparing the slopes of
the energy lines, the system with the reservoir constructed has a more uniform pres-
sure.
Distribution reservoirs are sized using the material balance equation. As discussed
later, the demand for the maximum day is the one used for the calculation. An example
of reservoir sizing is illustrated in the next example.

Example 4-3
The estimated hourly requirement for the maximum day in a small city is tabulated below.
Fire flow has been determined to be 65 L/s for a conflagration of 2 h. If pumping is to start
at hour 0800 and end at hour 1600, calculate the storage requirement.

Solution Length of pumping 1600 — 0800 = 8.0 h

110 Environmental Engineering Hydraulics and Pneumatics Chap. 4

Required
Demand Water pumped storage
Hour ending (m3) (m?) (m?)

0100 160 0 160

0200 129 0 129
0300 146 0 146
0400 138 0 138
0500 iS) 0 I5®
0600 196 0 196
0700 274 0 274
0800 390 0 390,
0900 480 Toy v2) _
1000 500 961.25 —
1100 473 961.25 —
1200 45] 9G1E25 —
1300 444 Qo 2s —
1400 447 Qo Zs —
1500 434 961.25 —
1600 AQ5 961.25 —
1700 417 0 417
1800 : 421 0 42]
1900 406 0 406
2000 343 0 343
2100 LH 0 270
2200 223 0 8}
2300 199 0 199
2400 185 0 185

MS. 7690 7690 4056

Therefore,

storage requirement = 4056 m? + fire-flow requirement

65
= 4056 + Fo00 (009602) = 4524 m> Answer

Fire-Flow Requirements

Although the actual yearly consumption of water for firefighting is very small, the rate
of use during a conflagration is very high and can even govern the sizing of distribu-
tion system components. In rating cities and municipalities for insurance purposes, the
Insurance Service Office (ISO) considers the following components of a water supply
for evaluation of adequacy and reliability: source of supply, pumping capacity, power
supply, mains, spacing of valves, and location of fire hydrants. These are all the essential
components of the firefighting facilities of a municipality. The ISO! calculates fire-flow

'T. J. McGhee (1991). Water Supply and Sewerage. McGraw-Hill, New York. ja, WS),
Water Supply and Distribution of Water 111

Se ee ea | May. oO Hydraulic Grades

> YX With firs. with No Storage
yee 2-58: Rourly raye~~PPly
i |_ — ——| Max. daily rate” Pepe eee
ay
ao)
|
| Tr A verasce
Pal ese ae ee 1
aay rate ——(it
ar eg
sis cies.

Siu ~
is Flow direction S a
| |Ct Pumping station Y
eee (000 See SS 5000: Community
A 241+ BeeaeanG

| Hydraulic Grades
|Max. dail with Elevated Tank between Pumps
| Max eeoe hourly rate and Center of Distribution
{eo Se ia Meee gt, Oil fire su ] 2
| a wets MATE etpeee eae) Reservoir
x | ee eee eee
Guy
nN S

“ Flow direction
ty 4

| Sel

| a: Pumping station 4
a 20,000' Community
A 24" Biase ¢
Hydraulic Grades
|Max. daily rate with Elevated Tank
1g te eS elt Max. day with fire supply beyond Center of Distribution

| 1erases oie ces ~ Reservoir

re in i Average daily rate = a &
S S e Flow direction S
vat | sal

| | |T pPumping station y
Pi 2000 =
A py aw C24 eB
Community

Figure 4-3. Two possible locations of distribution reservoirs in a distribution

system.

requirement F in m*/s using the following formula:

ee JO, Cia) (4-2)

where C is a dimensionless coefficient related to the type of construction: 1.5 for wood-
frame construction, 1.0 for ordinary construction, 0.8 for noncombustible construction,
and 0.6 for fire-resistive construction. A is the total floor area, excluding the basement, in
m~. For fire-resistive constructions, the six successive floor areas are used if the vertical
openings are not protected, while if the openings are protected, only the three successive
floors are used.
Regardless of calculation results, the ISO recommends that the maximum values
of F cannot exceed the following: 0.54 m*/s for wood-frame or ordinary constructions
112 Environmental Engineering Hydraulics and Pneumatics Chap. 4

and 0.38 m?/s for noncombustible, fire-resistive, or one-story building of any type of
construction. Also, regardless of calculation results, the minimum value of F' should not
be less than 0.32 m?/s. For high-fire-hazard loadings such as chemical works, explosives,
oil refineries, paint shops, and solvent extraction, the value of F may be increased up to
25%. However, the maximum value after the adjustment should not exceed 0.76 m*/s.
The ISO also recommends that the required fire flow be available for the expected time
of duration of a fire as shown in Table 4-1.7

TABLE 4-1 FIRE-FLOW DURATIONS

Fire flow Duration Fire flow Duration Fire flow Duration

(m?/s) (h) (m*/s) (h) (m*/s) (h)
> 0.61 10 0.54—0.61 9 0.48—0.54 8
0.42-0.48 7 0.36—0.42 6 0.30-0.36 5
0.24—0.30 4 0.16-0.24 3 <0.16 2

Synthesis of the Maximum Day

Just as the progress of a peak storm over its duration was synthesized in Chapter 3, the
progress of the use of water over a maximum day may also be synthesized. As mentioned
before, no one maximum day may be chosen arbitrarily to represent the design maximum,
but rather, the maximum day should be derived statistically. The statistical derivation
is similar to that used for the synthesis of the maximum storm; it uses the probability
distribution analysis. To illustrate, the data for water consumption used in Example 4-3
may be used.
At the end of hour 0100, the consumption was 160 m*. This means that the data
were analyzed for the interval 2400-0100. Throughout the duration of the record, the
largest consumption values for this interval of time in each day, week, or year, depending
on the type of probability desired, were chosen and arranged in descending order and
the probability distribution analysis performed as was done for the synthesis of the peak
storm. Then, depending on the criterion of probability chosen (5% chance, 10% chance
of being equaled or exceeded, and so on), the consumption for the interval 2400-0100
was interpolated from the calculated distribution. In the example, the consumption for
the interval was 160 m?. The same calculation procedure was used for the interval
0100-0200, the interval 0200-0300, the interval 0300-0400, and so on. According
to the table, the maximum consumption for the interval of 0100-0200 was 129 m}.
For the interval of 0200-0300, it was 146 m3, and so on. Table 4-1 therefore represents
the synthetic consumption for the maximum day using a certain probability criterion,
such as 10%.

°M. J. Hammer (1986). Water and Wastewater Technology. John Wiley & Sons, New York, New York.
p. 18S.
Water Supply and Distribution of Water 113

Example 4-4
If the city in Example 4-3 is assumed to be built of buildings of ordinary construction as a
general characterization with a total combined floor area of 2000 m? per story, compute the
storage requirement. Assume that the average number of stories per building is three.

Solution
F =3.7(10~°)C(A®)
= 3.7(10~7)(1.0)[2000(3)]°> = 0.29 m3/s
From Table 4-1, the expected duration is 4 h. From Example 4-3, the required storage
for normal demand is 4056 m>. Therefore,
total storage requirement = 4056 + 0.29(60)(60)(4) = 8232 m> Answer

Hydraulics of the Distribution System

The purpose of a hydraulic analysis of a distribution system is to determine the pressure

contour and flow patterns of the system. Information on the pressure contour and flow
patterns will enable the environmental engineer to determine if the system can meet
the demands for which it was designed. Of the methods available, the most practical
that lends itself easily to computer programming is the Hardy Cross method. In this
method the distribution system is divided into interconnected loops. To make it simpler
to visualize, Figure 4-4 shows only three loops out of a multitude of loops in a distribution
system. To derive the method, consider loop JHBAI or IABHI. The principle used in the
derivation is that given any two points A and /, the head loss in going from A to J, hy 4;
through the direct path A to / is equal to the head loss in going from A to J, haga,
through the indirect path A to B to H to J. This is true because if the head loss hp,
were less than the head loss hr4gy,;, no flow would pass through AB, BH, and HI.
The flow would simply bypass the loop and go directly from A to / through the direct
path AJ. Hence, the sum of the clockwise head losses }> hr. between any two points in
a loop is equal to the sum of the counterclockwise head losses > h¢¢c. In symbols,

DS,i SS Wt fac (4-3)

From fluid mechanics,

O* =kO* (4-4)
where hy is the head loss, f the Fanning friction factor, V the velocity, D the diameter of
the pipe, Q the rate of flow, A the cross-sectional area of flow, and k is a proportionality
constant. Therefore, substituting in equation (4-3) gives us

kD: = kOe.
) (4-5)
where Q, is the clockwise flow and Q,, is the counterclockwise flow.
In Figure 4-4 there is an inflow at A and three outflows at B, H, and J. According
to equation (4-5), these flows must apportion themselves so that the equation will be
satisfied. In the derivation of the Hardy Cross method, this apportioning is done by
114 Environmental Engineering Hydraulics and Pneumatics Chap. 4

2.2 m3 /min

Take off 305 mm ae Supply

1000 m 25 m3 /min

E,& g
Elo I 5
a|S val
a= g

0.5 m3 /min
Take off |H 250 mm Take off
Take off
2.5 m3 /min 1100 m ve le :
2.0 Ne f=
wm S Ill S

Ele ef ‘i
| 200 mm
Alive. Ul P
Ss _|£ 1.5 m3 /min
e| & Take off
ac
E 305 mm F
1100 m
14 m3 /min 2.3 m3 /min
Take off Take off

Figure 4-4 Derivation of the Hardy Cross method.

trial-and-error. Assume that in the course of the trial-and-error procedure, the clockwise
Q was assumed larger by AQ. Accordingly, the counterclockwise Q is smaller by AQ.
To restore the balance, the flows are corrected as

DU ROe— AO) = Yo k(Qee + AO)? (4-6)

A very important point must now be noted. The assumption has been made that
the clockwise flow is larger than the counterclockwise flow. This assumption sets the
convention that the correction or error AQ, whether positive or negative, must be sub-
tracted from Q, and added to Q,,. This is indicated in equation (4-6). If the assumption
of the magnitudes of the flows had been the other way around, these statements would
have to be reversed, accordingly, and equation (4-6) revised to interchange the plus and
minus signs before AQ to reflect the other assumption.
Expanding equation (4-6) by the binomial theorem, neglecting the second power
of AQ after the expansion, and solving for AQ yields

Ipeeidk Cini > KO lgtg 2 Kenta

Ose ag Oe
2h Oath. > p2RO sch md yeh OA nok Oe? SO
Water Supply and Distribution of Water 115

In the numerator, by putting the minus sign inside the summation sign, a second con-
vention has just been set: The product of the square of the counterclockwise flow
Q.- and k must always be negative; the product of the square of the clockwise flow
Q. and k must always be positive. Also, the denominator of equation (4-7) sets the
third convention: The respective products of Q, and Q,. with k must always be posi-
tive.

Example 4-5
For the given source and load in Figure 4-4: (a) how will the flow be distributed in the
network, and (b) what will be the pressure at load points B, H, and / if the pressure at the
source is 60 psig? Assume that all pipes are horizontal and f = 0.012.

Solution Name a pipe by the letters at its endpoints, such as pipe A/ or /A in Figure 4-4.
Also, a suffix c or cc will be affixed to the name, depending on whether the direction of flow
in the pipe is clockwise or counterclockwise, respectively; that is, if the flow is clockwise,
Alc or I Ac, or if the flow is counterclockwise, Alcc or I Acc.

—— = fei!
0.012 |—~—_, | = 9.92(10~4)
2eDA —
2g D(x D?/4) -
(a) First pass:

Loop I (starting point less = A, ending point = H):

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

Pipe D (m) € (m) k O (m?/ min) QO (m?/s) kQ? kQ

ABc 0.41 1250 107.0 13 0.22 518 23.54

BHc 0.25 0p ein 3 0.05 2.79 55.87
Alcc 0.31 1000 346.5 12 0.2 = 13.86 69.3
{ice 0.31 1000 346.5 9.8 0.16 —8.87 55.44

kQ? 14:76
IN BLECe — —0.036 s 14.76 204.15
SO 200415)

Col. (1): With respect to starting point A, AB is clockwise, BH is clockwise, AJ is

counterclockwise, and /H is counterclockwise.
Col. (2): The diameters are given.
Col. (3): The lengths of pipes are given.

Col. (4): k=
ol. (4): f 00
lig wei Zz 5 — 9,92(10-4)
=I9IL D>
2¢DA2 2¢ D(x D2 /4)?
116 Environmental Engineering Hydraulics and Pneumatics Chap. 4

Col. (5): Given or assumed.

Col. (6) Colm)

ol. (6): ‘
60
k 2
Col. (7): From ae= kQ* must be calculated for each pipe length. Note that A/ and

IH have negative signs.

p)
os
z

Col. (8); From . kQ must be calculated for each pipe length. Note that all entries
2>°kO
in the column are positive.

Loop II (starting point = B, ending point = G):

(9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16)

Pipe D(m) &(m) k Q (m?/min) Q (m?/s) kQ? kO
BEc 0.36 400 65.62 6.5 0.11 0.77 rey)
EFc 0.36 600 98.44 6.0 0.10 0.98 9.84
FGe 0.31 1100 = 381.15 3.7 0.06 45 22.87
BHcc 0.25 1100 1117.39 3 0.05 9.79 Sey)
HGcc 0.31 1250 433.12 10.3 O17 =12.:76 73.63

ko? = 12135
AO = ee ee). 086 ~12.35 169.43
g 25°kQ — 2(169.43) De
Note: The same explanations hold as in loop I.

Loop II (starting point = B, ending point = D):

(7) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (24)

Pipe D (m) € (m) k @) (m?/ min) O (ms) kQ? kQ

BCG 0.20 500 1550 LS 0.025 0.97 38.75

GDG 0.20 400 1240 1.0 0.02 0.50 24.8
BEcc 0.36 400 65.62 6.5 0.11 —0.79 TOP
EDcc 0.20 500 1550 OS 0.008 —0.11 ee

I O- 0.57
KOE = —— = 0.0034 : :
g DY EO 2(83.17) aS 037 ere
Water Supply and Distribution of Water 117

First correction:

(25) (26) (27) (28)

Correction from AQ

Pipe Loop I Loop I Loop III Q previous Q corrected

AB —(.036c 0 0 0.22 0.26+

BH —().036c —0.036cc 0 0.05 0.05+
Al —(.036cc 0 0 0.20 0.16+
Hele —(.036cc 0 0 0.16 0.12--
Bi 0 —().036c 0.0034cc 0.11 0.15-++
EE 0 —():036¢ 0 0.10 0.14+
FG 0 —0.036c 0 0.06 0.10+
HG 0 —0).036cc 0 ONG 0.13+
BC 0 0 0.0034c 0.025 0.022-+
CD 0 0 0.0034c 0.02 0.020+
11D) 0 0 0.0034cc 0.008 0.011+

Notes: In col. (26), suffix c denotes clockwise and suffix cc denotes counterclockwise
for the direction of flow in the pipe where correction is to be made. In col. (28),
“+” means that the direction of flow in the pipe remains the same as it was before
correction, and “—” means that direction is now reversed after correction.

To get correction for BE: From convention, AQ (= —0.036) for loop II must be
subtracted from the previous Q (= 0.11) since the direction of flow in BE is clockwise in
loop Il; and AQ (= 0.0034) for loop III must be added to the previous Q (= 0.11) since BE
is counterclockwise in loop II. Therefore,

corrected QO for BE = 0.11 — (—0.036) + (0.0034) = 0.1494 = 0.15

(Also, the direction of flow remains the same as it was before corrections were applied.)
Corrections for the other conduits are similar.

Second Pass:

Loop I (starting point = A, ending point = H):

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

Pipe Dim) 6 (ra) k QO (m?/ min) Q (m/s) kQ? kO
ABc 0.41 1250 107.0 0.26 7.23 2782
BHc 0.25 1100: 9 eTti 74 0.05 2.79 55.87)
Alcc 0.31 1000 ~—-346.5 0.16 3.87 55.44
1Hcc 0.31 1000 ~—-346.5 0.12 —4.99 41.58

kQ? eel
KOE EO ee ee 5510 »s —3.84 180.71
~ 2>°kQ 2180.71)
 118 Environmental Engineering Hydraulics and Pneumatics Chap.

Loop II (starting point = B, ending point = G):

(9) (10) ai) (12) @is)) (14) (15) (16)

Pipe D (m) é (m) k QO (m?/ min) Q (m*/s) kQ? kQ

BEc 0.36 400 65.62 0.15 1.48 9.84

EFe 0.36 600 98.44 0.14 1.93 13.78
FGc Oil 1100 381.15 0.10 Breil BSal2
BHcc OS 1100 ISS 0.05 —2.79 Dine
HGcc 0.31 1250 ASS a2, 0.13 —7.32 563i

kQ? 22:39
AQ = 2 = —0.0083 ye —2.89 173.92
2TKO 2173-92)

Loop III (starting point = B, ending point = D):

(17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (24)

Pipe Dim) @(m) k Q (m?/ min) Q (m/s) kQ? kO
BGG 0.20 500 1550 0.026 1.048 40.3
CDe 0.20 400 1240 0.022 0.60 27.28
BEcc 0.36 400 65.62 0.15 —1.48 9.84
E Dec 0.20 500 1550 0.0064 —0.063 9.92

>» kQ? — —0.105

KO = —— = —(0.00060 —0.105 87.34
2 p} 2 kQ 2(87.34) Ds

Second correction:

(25) (26) (27) (28)

Correction from AQ

Pipe Loop I Loop I Loop Ul Q previous QO corrected

AB —0.010c 0 0 0.26 0.27+

BH —0.010c —0.0083cc 0 0.05 0.052+
Al —0.010cc 0 0 0.16 0.15+
IH —().010cc 0 0 0.12 O.11+
BE 0 —0.0083c —0.00060cc ORS O.158+
EF 0 —0.0083c 0 0.14 0.148+
FG 0 —0.0083c 0 0.10 0.108+
HG 0 —0.0083cc 0 Onis 0.122+
BC 0 0 —0.00060c 0.022 0.023+
GD 0 0 —().00060c 0.020 0.021+
ED 0 0 —().00060c 0.011 0.012+
Water Supply and Distribution of Water 119

The summations under cols. (7), (15), and (23) should all be zero to have the correct balance
of heads and flows. However, since the procedures for succeeding passes are the same, we
will stop at this point. The distribution of flows are, therefore, shown in col. (28) of the
second correction. Answer
(b) Since the pipes are given to be horizontal, the only loss of energy is due to the
friction, hp = SS k0-. If the pipes were not assumed horizontal, the energy equation
must be applied in each segment of the loops. The source is at point A with an inflow of
25 m?/min. The loads are at points B, H, I, G, F, C, and D.
For pressure at point A:

ft 32.2 Ib 1m kg-m
1 lbp= 1 swe (15) (ae) (= ( | ee On
Sa slug =) (a ;) S28 it s?
kg-“mh
A WAG == oii Ae ft kg
tn = ( mo)(ee STAVE) ==
is in? ft m -s?

IN=1kg(1 5) == m iy 2z
s* S* MESm m-

Therefore,

i psi= 6913.69 — = 6.91,—.

N kPa
m- m-
Pa = 60(6.91) = 414.60 kPag

For pressure at point /:

har= Yoko? ot APar = (Yk? )o

_ 346.5(0.15)2(998)(9.81)
~ Bes kPa
assuming a temperature of 20°C. Therefore,

P; = 414.60 — 76.33 = 338.27 kPag Answer

For pressure at point B:

107(0.277)
(998) (9.81)
ee eee OCP
APB 1000 f
Therefore,

Pz = 414.60 — 76.37 = 338.23 kPa Answer

Note: The pipes should also be checked for excessive velocities. Normal velocities for
design range from 0.90 to 1.50 m/s.

For pressure at point H:

346.5(0.117)(998)(9.81
APgH = Ce — 41.05 kPa

Therefore,

Py = 338.27 — 41.05 = 297.22 kPa Answer

 120 Environmental Engineering Hydraulics and Pneumatics Chap. 4

Design Period

In designing the water supply system, a period of design must be decided. The informa-
tion below for the period of design of various water supply components may be useful
to arrive at this decision.

Large dams and conduits: 25 to 50 years

Wells, distribution systems, and filter plants: 10 to 25 years
Pipes more than 300 mm (12 in.) in diameter: 20 to 25 years
Secondary mains less than 300 mm (12 in.) in diameter: full development

COLLECTION OF WASTEWATER

Wastewater is the spent water after homes, commercial establishments, industries, public
institutions, and other entities have used their waters for various purposes. It is syn-
onymous with sewage, although sewage is a more general term that refers to the liquid
waste that is conveyed in a sewer, and hence may contain, in addition to wastewater,
stormwater, infiltration, and inflow. A sewer is a channel or conduit intended for the
conveyance of liquid wastes. Wastewater that comes from the sanitary conveniences of
homes, institutions, industries, commercial establishments, and other entities is called
sanitary sewage. Sanitary sewage from homes is called domestic sewage. Stormwater:
is also called storm sewage, since it is actually a contaminated liquid. Infiltration is that
portion of precipitation that enters sewers through cracks in the pipe and faulty joints.
Inflow refers to the precipitation that enters the manhole through holes in its cover and
from roof leaders through illegal connections. Manhole is an opening that allows a person
access to the underground sewer system for maintenance and other purposes.
The act of gathering all the sewage is called collection. The system used to collect
the sewage is called the collection system. Strictly, a wastewater collection system collects
wastewater only. In practice, however, it also collects infiltration and inflow; that is,
it collects all the sewage. Sewerage is a term that refers not only to the collection
of wastewater or sewage but also to its treatment and disposal. Sewerage works or
sewage works include all the physical structures required for the collection, treatment,
and disposal of sewage.
In the past, three types of collection system were normally used: sanitary, stormwa-
ter, and combined. At present, because of the stricter regulations of the Clean Water Act,
the combined system is no longer allowed. As the names imply, the sanitary system
conveys only sanitary sewage, and the stormwater system conveys only stormwater. The
combined system conveys both sanitary sewage and stormwater in the same conduit. At
present, combined systems have already reached their design capacity and are frequently
overflowing. These overflows are called combined sewer overflows (CSOs). Washington,
D.C. and Cumberland and Cambridge in Maryland have combined systems. They all
have CSO problems.
Collection of Wastewater 121

Figure 4-5 is a schematic drawing showing the various parts of a collection system.
Starting from a building or house, sewage from various sources inside (sinks, bathtubs,
etc.) is collected into the building or house sewer, shown at the bottom of the figure.
This sewer is just outside the house and within the property boundary of the owner’s
premises. The sewage from the house sewer then goes to the branch or lateral sewer.
Lateral sewers are the first element of the public collection system, and they are used
to collect sewage from one or more houses or buildings. The laterals then join the

Manhole
Sewer
cover
Manhole cleanout

|~ air Trunk rn
sewer |

i NSE Se pe
sections

ta Ses = ewe ZESX yp Wye

connection

a (eesKe Lateral or
; &
Coe
Lateral or
> ( sewer
LX) branch
Main
sewer
> (( sewer

Flow to
") (A is from ()
intercepting
© — house
sewer or
treatment a ,
plant Wye
connection

section

Figure 4-5 (a) Definition sketch of wastewater collection system. (b) Geometric ele-
ments of circular sewer.
122 Environmental Engineering Hydraulics and Pneumatics Chap. 4

main sewer, which is a sewer that collects all sewage from one or more laterals and
conveys it to the trunk sewer. The trunk sewer conveys the sewage either to an in-
tercepting sewer or directly to a sewage treatment plant through an outfall sewer. The
trunk sewer is analogous to a tree trunk. The trunk is the largest part of a tree, so
is the trunk sewer in the collection system. The trunk sewer is the largest part of the
branching mains, which resemble the branches of a tree. As in the water distribution
system, laterals, mains, and trunk sewers are all called mains. Any main smaller than
a given main is a submain of the main. As the name says, an intercepting sewer is a
sewer that intercepts flows. It is a large conduit that intercepts flows from a number
of trunk or main sewers. The sewer that conducts the sewage to a treatment plant is
called an outfall sewer. An outfall sewer is also the sewer that conducts the treated
effluent from a treatment plant or the sewage from the collection system to a point of
final discharge.

Quantity of Sewage

To design the wastewater collection system, the quantities to be collected must be known.
The amount of wastewater produced is related directly to the amount of water consumed,
although not all of the water supply delivered to a community ends up as sewage. The
discrepancies may be accounted for by the volume used in sprinkling lawns, car wash-
ing, leakage in the distribution system, and other losses. Values of 60 to 130% of the
water consumption have been cited in the literature.? Many designers assume for design
purposes that the value of wastewater produced equals water consumed, including the
allowance for infiltration and inflow.
Data abound in the literature on the amount of water usage from which wastewater
production can be judged. For example, low-income, single-family homes consume
270 liters per capita per day, while the rich homes consume 380 liters per capita per day.
For restaurants, the consumption is 30 liters per customer per day; and for department
stores, the consumption is 40 liters per employee per day. If you were the consultant,
would you really trust these figures? They may be used as reference, but should not be
trusted when designing facilities that cost thousands of dollars.
Since places are, literally, dotted with collection systems, it may be more suitable
to measure the flow in the sewer. For an expansion to an existing system, the flow meas-
urement can be done easily, since the system already exists. For brand-new collection
systems, the metering may be done in a nearby town or village, where the characteristics
of the system and the habit of the people are similar to those of the proposed. The
requirement of similarity is very important. To have accurate predictions of sewage
flows, it is obvious that the reference town should have characteristics similar to those
proposed. This method of obtaining data is much better than getting them from the
literature, where the data may have been obtained from faraway and dissimilar places
such as Iraq and Kuwait or even Kuala Lumpur.

35. R. Qasim (1985). Wastewater Treatment Plants: Planning, Design, and Operation. Holt, Rinehart
and Winston, New York. p. 19.
Collection of Wastewater 123

The purpose of sewer metering is twofold: to measure the dry-weather flow and
to measure the combined infiltration inflow. The information on the dry-weather flow
will enable the designer to determine the minimum flow. Sewer systems are designed as
open channels. As such, in order to hold in check the deposition of waste matters onto
sewer bottoms (called inverts), a minimum self-cleaning velocity of 0.60 to 0.75 m/s (2.0
to 2.5 fps) should be provided—and this means providing this velocity at the minimum
flow. When added to the dry-weather maximum flow obtained during dry-weather flow
measurement, the information on infiltration inflow will determine the ultimate maximum
flow expected in the sewer. Again, this ultimate maximum flow is used to size the
sewers.
To determine what time of year the metering of both dry-weather and infiltration-
inflow (wet weather) surveys are to be done, precipitation records should be consulted.
The records will show at what months dry-weather and wet-weather conditions are ex-
pected. In Maryland, for example, dry weather is normally June to August. From the
results of the dry-weather survey, the ratio of minimum and maximum dry flows to
the average can be determined. The flow records in the treatment plant corresponding to
the dry-weather months may constitute the data for the dry-weather survey.
The dry-weather flow survey will establish a typical pattern of dry-weather flow.
The design pattern may then be derived by probability distribution analysis, similar to
the method of synthesizing the maximum day for water use. Or, if accuracy is not
much of a concern, the pattern may be derived by simply picking a particular pat-
tern from the several patterns obtained during the survey. Having established the pattern,
the typical wet-weather flow pattern is superimposed over the dry-weather flow pattern.
Once superimposed, the contribution of the infiltration can be determined. The deter-
mination of the wet-weather flow pattern is derived similarly as the dry-weather flow
pattern.
Inflow to the sewer system appears as a burst of increased flow to the system. The
engineer must therefore be on the watch of the progress of the precipitation record to
ascertain when the heavy rain has occurred. The flow monitoring record is then inspected
to determine the time of the burst. This occurs later from the time the heavy rain occurs
because of time lag in the drainage basin and in the sewers. The flow monitoring pattern
that contains the burst is then superimposed over the two previous patterns. From the
superimposition, the inflow can be determined.
Above the maximum dry weather flow, the value on infiltration—inflow may then
be added to obtain the ultimate maximum flow needed to size the sewers. The ultimate
minimum flow may, similarly, be obtained. This flow is also used to size the sewers to
ensure that they are self-cleaning at low-flow conditions.
Example 4-6
A representative section of the Town of Middletown collection system was studied for its
dry-weather and wet-weather flow characteristics. The study, which lasted for three months,
showed the average peak dry-weather flow to be 205 L/s, the average minimum dry-weather
flow to be 46 L/s, and the average flow to be 96 L/s. The combined infiltration—inflow
was found to be 70 L/s. The sewage inflow records of the Middletown Sewage Treatment
Plant were also analyzed for the average flow of the driest months of each year (average of
124 Environmental Engineering Hydraulics and Pneumatics Chap. 4

the flows during the successive months of June, July, and August of each year of record)
yielding the following probability distribution.

Average dry-weather flow Probability p that flow is

(L/capita-day ) equaled or exceeded

310 0.019
307 0.080
304 0.23
300 0.38

160 0.84
147 0.99

(a) Find the ratios of the minimum and the maximum flows to the average flow. (b) If
the midyear population of Middletown is 58,600, what are the present minimum, maximum,
and average flows of the town assuming 10% probability of occurrence as the criterion for
determining flows?

Solution
Minimum 46
(a) ——_— = — = (0.48 Answer
Average 96

Maximum 205
= =2.14 Answer
Average 96
x — 307 0.10 — 0.08
(b) a ae =
304 — 307 ~=—0.23 — 0.08
3% 0.10
304 0.23 x = 306.6 L/capita-day
Therefore,

average flow at 10% probability = 306.6(58, 600) = 17,966,760 L/day = 0.21 m>/s

70
infiltration—inflow allowance = one 0.73 per average flow

minimum flow = (0.48)(0.21) = 0.10 m/s Answer

maximum flow = (2.14 + 0.73)(0.21) = 0.60 m°/s_ Answer

Self-Cleaning Hydraulics of Sewers

In the hydraulic design of sewers, one of the most important consideration is assuring
that the flow will be self-cleaning at all depths of flow. Sewers normally flow partially
full, especially at the laterals. At the shallower depths of flow, velocities tend to slow
down, causing debris to settle at the invert. This leads, ultimately, to clogging of the
sewers. Hydraulic design techniques must therefore be developed to assure that flows
Collection of Wastewater 125

are self-cleaning at all times. Normally, a velocity of 0.60 to 0.75 m/s will be self-
cleaning; hence if this velocity can be maintained from full depth at maximum flow
to the shallowest depth at the minimum flow, freedom from undue maintenance of the
sewers due to premature clogging may be assured. Formulas for self-cleaning properties
will now be developed.
The formula used to compute velocities in sewers V and v for full and partial flows,
respectively, is normally the Manning equation,

Y=
| 2/3 @1/2
Ne “ieee full flow (4-8)

p= ari partial flow (4-9)

where N and n are roughness coefficients for full and partial flows, respectively; R and
r are hydraulic radii for full and partial flows, respectively; and S and s are energy slope
for full and partial flows, respectively.
Both sides of equations (4-8) and (4-9) may each be multiplied by cross-sectional
areas A and a, for full and partial flows, respectively, producing the corresponding equa-
tions below. Q and g are the full and partially full rates of flow, respectively.

A
Oa RP si? full flow (4-10)

6 ee
a 2/3
lt
9
partial flow (4-11)
n

Dividing equation (4-9) by equation (4-8) and equation (4-11) by equation (4-10)
produce the corresponding equations.

7-2)" @)" “9
5-85" @)" “9
To dislodge the debris at the invert for conditions of all depths of flow, the tractive
stress on the debris at partial flow must be equal to the tractive stress that dislodges the
same debris at full flow. This stress is equal to the component of the weight of water
parallel to the invert and is given by y Vsin6, (where y is the specific weight of water,
¥ the volume, and @ the angle of slope of the invert) divided by the area A, upon which
the debris is resting. ¥/A, equals R for full flow and equals r for partial flow. For small
angles sin@ is equal to tan@, which, in turn, is the slope of the invert. In addition, for
uniform flows, the slope of the invert is equal to the energy slope. Hence

Vrs =VRS (4-14)

me (4-15)
126 Environmental Engineering Hydraulics and Pneumatics Chap. 4

Substituting equation (4-15) in equations (4-12) and (4-13) gives

Uv Us N ;r\v'/6
Ea ee eee (ee 4-16

pot en
V V n (4 ( )
1/6

n
v, is the self-cleaning v at partial flow. If V is a self-cleaning velocity at full flow, then
to be self-cleaning at partial flow, v, must be equal to V; hence v,/V = 1. Solving
equation (4-16) for N/n yields

Noy a
— (=) (4-18)
n

1/6 1/6
q_@ (=) (=) (4-19)
O ANG Ss
In the hydraulic design of sewers, g and Q are known. Assuming a self-cleaning
velocity, a, A, S, and R.can then subsequently be found. If the wetted perimeter is
known, r can be computed from a. Once r is known, the desired slope s can then be
computed.
In particular, for a circular sewer, the wetted perimeter may be derived by referring
to Figure 4-5. From the figure at the bottom, the wetted perimeter p is
0
= 0 D 4-20
Bee ape
Also, from the figure, the area a is
a = area of sector — area of triangle (4-21)

@ (xD? (4.23)
area sector = —— {|—— -2
360 4
peel ha! a D ae! D 0 8
area O OT 2 a Oy (4-23)

Substituting equations (4-22) and (4-23) in equation (4-21) and simplifying, we have
D? (x@ ~~ siné@ ion
a= — |— - — =p
4 360. 2 ( )

From knowledge of the value of a, 6 can be solved from equation (4-24). Once
known, p can be computed, and it follows that r can also be computed. Once r is found,
the value of s can be solved.
The hydraulic radius r may also be solved by dividing equation (4-24) by equa-
tion (4-20). The result is

D (1 360 sin é 455

r= — =—- =

210 Cee
Collection of Wastewater 127

Also, from the figure, the half-angle of 6 may also be found as follows:

erie (4-26
p D
COS SSL 2 | a)

The value of n varies with the depth of flow. Table 4-2 shows the variation of N/n
with the depth of flow in circular conduits as given by the ratio of partial-flow depth d
to full depth D. Values of N for different conduit materials are given in Table 4-3.

TABLE 4-2. VARIATION OF N/n WITH THE DEPTH OF FLOW IN

CIRCULAR CONDUITS

d/D N/n d/D N/n d/D N/n d/D N/n

1.00 1.00 0.90 192 0.80 0.89 0.70 0.84

0.60 0.81 0.50 0.80 0.40 0.79 0.30 0.79
0.20 0.79 0.10 0.80 0.00 = = =

TABLE 4-3. VALUES OF N FOR DIFFERENT CONDUIT MATERIALS

Condition of interior surface

Conduit material Best Good Fair Bad

Tile pipe
Vitrified (glazed) 0.010 0.012 0.014 0.017
Unglazed 0.011 0.013 0.015 0.017
Concrete pipe 0.012 0.013 0.015 0.016
Cast-iron pipe, coated 0.011 0.012 0.013 —
Brick sewers
Glazed 0.011 0.012 0.013 0.015
Unglazed 0.012 0.013 0.015 0.017
Steel pipe
Welded 0.010 0.011 0.013 _
Riveted 0.013 0.015 0.017 _
Concrete-lined channels 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018

Example 4-7
The facility plan for a development recommended that the minimum and maximum flows to
be considered for the design of a proposed collection system are 5037 and 15,319 m°/day,
respectively. (a) What size of trunk sewer should be used to carry these flows? (b) To
ensure self-cleaning at all times, at what slope should the sewer be laid? (c) What is the
minimum depth of flow? Assume a concrete pipe sewer.

Solution (a) Assume a self-cleaning velocity of 0.60 m/s. Thus

15,319/[24(60)(60)] 0.177 mtD-

= ee 50) me
4 0.60 0.60 4
128 Environmental Engineering Hydraulics and Pneumatics Chap. 4

D = 0.62 m; if not available, use the next-larger pipe. |Answer

5,037/124(60)(60)] _ 9 99 2? = 2 (F fe =)
2 .

ie ihe 0.60 Wa \ Scomemno

_ 0.62 (76 — siné
£ sah 360- yey

sind
1.01 = 0.008736 — ae Y

sin@
6 0.008730 D Y
ee a Poe ae tO 1.01 — 0.49
110 0.96 0.47 0.49 Bs a aeoe
150= 110 106 = 0.49.
3% 1.01
150 (311 0.25 1.06 x = 146.49°

146.49
= 0.62) = 0.79
5600) ta aan
0.097
r= — =0.12m
0.79
ae | 22/3 1/2
N

From Table 4-3, N = 0.012; R = (210.627 /4)/( 0.62) = 0.155 m. Therefore,

0.60(0.012
si? — ee = 0.0249 S = 0.00062
0.1552/3
q a(R 1/6 76 1/6

Q SAN Ss

5037 (0.097 (0.155 \'° (0.00062 \'/°

15,319 \ 03 0.12 5
0.00062 \ '/°
= 0.97
Ry

s = 0.00074 Answer

d=0.22 m Answer
 Pneumatic Systems 129

Design Period

In designing the wastewater collection system, a period of design must be decided. The
following information for the period of design of various collection system components
may be useful to arrive at this decision.

Laterals and submains less than 380 mm (15 in) in diameter: full development
Main sewers, outfalls, and interceptors: 40 to 50 years
Treatment works: 10 to 25 years

PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS

The word pneumatic refers to air and other gases. Therefore, a pneumatic system is one in
which air or other gases are conveyed around a structure to serve some purpose. Examples
of pneumatic systems are the air-conditioning and heating systems of a residential home.
In air conditioning, air is drawn from outside and forced to contact the surfaces of a
unit that has been cooled, cooling the incoming air. The cooled air is then distributed
to various points around the house. In heating, the same process operates, except that
instead of a cooled surface, a heated surface is used. In environmental pollution control,
the pneumatic system is a system composed of the collection, conveyance, and treatment
of polluted air, which by analogy to the wastewater collection system may be called a
waste air collection system.
The components of a waste-air collection system are the hood, the fan, the duct, and
the air pollution control device that treats the polluted air before discharge to the ambient
atmosphere. By analogy to sewerage works (sewage works or wastewater works), the term
waste air works will be used to refer to the physical structures required for the collection,
treatment, and disposal of the waste air system. The hood is a device or structure that
captures the emissions from a process. To capture these emissions, a suction force is
necessary. This is provided by the fan. The captured emissions are then conducted by
means of a duct to the air pollution control device. The duct is just a conduit analogous
to the conduits or pipes in the wastewater collection or water distribution system. It is
simply called a duct when dealing with pneumatics.
Figure 4-6 shows a schematic of the waste-air collection system for a particular
industrial operation. Point | is a dump hopper, where materials are “dumped” for subse-
quent conveyance by the bucket elevator 2. A bucket elevator is one in which materials
are scooped at the bottom of the structure by a series of buckets attached to a continuous
chain that travels up and down the elevator structure. Unit 2 is indicated simply as a
rectangular box, but inside it are these continuous buckets. The bucket elevator then
conveys (elevates) the materials to the ribbon blender 3. A ribbon blender is one in
which a ribbon-shaped blade is used to blend the materials. The blended materials are
then dropped to drums at 4.
The waste air collection system of the above-mentioned industrial operation is
indicated by the lines A, B, C, D, E, F, G, and H. Lines A, B, D, and F are called branch
 130 Environmental Engineering Hydraulics and Pneumatics Chap. 4

5a
Opening

tires [] 4 Figure 4-6 Waste air collection

system.

ducts or laterals, just as the lines that collect sewage from individual homes are called
branches or laterals. Since dusts are created from the dumped materials, branch duct
A collects the waste air from hopper | through a hood over the hopper. For the same
reason, dust-laden waste air is also collected at the elevator, ribbon blender, and drum
booth. The branches then convey their contents into the main duct, labeled at the top
of the sketch as CE. The main duct conveys its contents to the outfall or trunk duct G,
which, in turn, introduces the waste air into the air pollution control device 5. In the
case of dusts, a bagfilter is the control device normally used to clean the air (5 in the
sketch). A bagfilter is the same as the vacuum cleaner used in homes, but much, much
larger. H is the exhaust to the ambient air. A more simplified schematic is shown at the
bottom.

Hood

Even how elaborate the duct system and the pollution control devices are, the treatment
of the whole waste airs will not be as efficient without a good catch of the pollutants
emitted from the process. This makes the catching hood a very important element in the
whole waste air collection works systems design. Hoods must be carefully designed to
catch all emissions, especially toxic emissions.
In general, there are three types of hoods: capturing hoods, canopy hoods, and en-
closures (Figure 4-7). Capturing hoods are those designed to create conveying velocities
at points away from the direct influence of the hood. As shown in part (c) of the figure,
the pollutants emitted from the tank are not under the direct influence of the hood. To
catch them, sufficient conveying velocities must be created on the tank surface to draw
the air into the hood. Canopy hoods are those constructed above an emitting surface to
Pneumatic Systems 131

() To exhaust fan

To exhaust fan

To exhaust fan

(c)

Figure 4-7 Three main types of hoods: (a) enclosures—contain contaminants

released inside the hood; (b) canopy hoods—catch contaminants that rise into
them; (c) capturing hoods—reach out to draw in contaminants.

catch the emissions. As indicated in part (b), the emissions are under the direct influence
of the hood above them. If the emitting surface is hot, the air flows into the canopy
by mere convection. Enclosures, on the other hand, completely encloses the emission
source, except for an access opening, as shown in part (a).

Capturing hoods. Denote Y as the fraction of the centerline velocity at the en-
trance to a circular hood of area A. At a distance x from the hood entrance measured
132 Environmental Engineering Hydraulics and Pneumatics Chap. 4

parallel to the centerline, Y is given by Della Valle as

ie O.1A
(4-27)
2 yaw #2
A and x can be expressed in any consistent set of units. Combining equation (4-27) with
the equation of continuity, Q = AV,

QO = v,(10x? + A) (4-28)
where Q is the rate of airflow into the hood, called ventilation volume, and v, is the
velocity at a given point a distance x measured parallel to the centerline from the entrance
to the hood. If half of the hood is constructed against a wall, the other half, called the
virtual hood, may be imagined to exist. Calling the area of the virtual hood plus the
actual “half-hood” A, and the flow as Q,, and using equation (4-28) yields

0, — v, (10x? == Aw) (4-29)

But A, = 2A and Q, = 2Q. A and Q are the actual area and flow to the half-hood,
respectively. Substituting in equation (4-29), we obtain

0 = v;,(10x* + 2A) (4-30)

2
To use the equations above, v, must hold at the null point of the emission. The
null point is defined as the maximum extent that a pollutant particle will wander in the
absence of a capturing influence. To capture this particle at the null point, v, must catch
it at this point and convey it toward the hood. A minimum design velocity at the null
point of 15 to 30 m/min (50 to 100 fpm) is usually provided. To get the null point for
a specific application process, an actual experiment should be conducted before design.
The formulas above hold for hoods of circular cross sections and for hoods of rectangular
cross sections up to a length/width ratio of 3:1.
Example 4-8
A paint spray booth has a 3-m x 2-m entrance. The null point was determined by an ex-
periment to be 1.5 m measured parallel to the centerline from the face of the booth. If a
velocity of 100 fpm is to be provided at the null point, (a) what is the ventilation volume
required? and (b) what is the face velocity at the entrance to the booth?

Solution Since the bottom part of the opening to the booth is set against the floor, the
formula to be used is the one involving the virtual hood.

Us (LOx> 4 DA)
(a) Q= aiaetaeanne

100
Vy = = 30.48 m/ min
3.281

O=
30.48[10(1.52) + 2(2)(3)]
Z = LOu8 m?/ min Answer
Pneumatic Systems 133

526.78
(b) Vis a 87.63 m/min Answer

A special type of capturing hood is the slot hood, which is used to capture emissions
from an open tank as shown in Figure 4-8. The hood of width b, is constructed on the
periphery on the tip of the tank. Slot hoods and capturing hoods, in general, should
only be used to capture emissions from cold processes as opposed to hot processes. The
formulas developed for hoods so far are not applicable to this type of hood, since those
formulas apply only up to a maximum length/width ratio of the opening of 3:1. To
design the slot hood an actual experiment should be conducted on a similar installation
and ventilation rate determined from there; or a pilot study may be conducted. For
the ventilation rate determined to be appropriate, the slot velocity should not be below
610 m/min (2000 fpm).

Slot width b, Width of plenum

Liquid as Exhaust duct

Plenum

Gr
Figure 4-8 Slot hood for capture of emissions from open-surface tank.

Example 4-9
A slot hood is to be used to capture emissions from a chrome-plating tank. The tank measures
2 m by 3 m on the surface. The slot is to be put on one of the 2-m sides and on both of the
3-m sides. From an actual experiment, the ventilation rate was determined to be 200 cfm/ft?
of tank surface. Determine the slot-hood dimensions.

Solution

a cfm _ 200(3.2817) mine m?/ aa

ft? 3.2813 m?
134 Environmental Engineering Hydraulics and Pneumatics Chap. 4

Therefore,
O = 60.96(2)(3) = 365.74 m*/ min
length of hood = 2(3)-+2=8m Answer

Assume a slot velocity of 610 m/min. Then

365.74
width of slot = = 0.075 m=7.5 cm Answer
610(8)

Canopy Hoods

Canopy hoods may be high or low. Low canopy hoods may go as low as conve-
nience in operation permits. A very high canopy hood results in excessive ventilation
requirements. When heat is added to air, such as over a heated process tank, the den-
sity of the surrounding air becomes relatively greater than that of the heated air. This
condition causes a convective motion as the higher-density surrounding air rushes to-
ward the lower-density heated air. The heated air can rise at a velocity as high as
122 m/min (400 ft/m). The diameter D, in meters of the rising air at a distance x+
in meters above a hypothetical point source, as shown in Figure 4-9, is given empiri-
cally by*
De ase (4-31)
From the figure,
xXp=zty (4-32)

where z is the distance from the hot-point source to the hypothetical point source in
meters and is given empirically by
Z=0 50D (4-33)
D, is the diameter of the hot point source in meters. As shown in the figure, y is also
in meters. Dy is the diameter of the hood.
According to Hemeon,* the velocity of the rising heated air vy in m/min is given
in terms of x,¢ and the heat added to the air g, in kJ/min as follows:
7.85 1/3
Ut = Xp~p79
(Ge) © (4-34)

TUN BYUIE (4-35)

where A, is the area of hot source in m? and AT the temperature difference between
the hot source and the ambient air in kelvin. The following design criteria have been

4D. A. Danielson (1973). Air Pollution Engineering Manual. Office of Air Quality Planning and Stand-
ards, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC p. 35.
‘Tid.
Pneumatic Systems 135

To exhaust fan

Hypothetical
point source sel
ews

Figure 4-9 Dimensions used to design canopy hoods.

recommended: Increase D, by 0.8y to obtain Dy and increase the ventilation rate obtained
by the use of equation (4-34) by 20%.
The formulas above may be used for rectangular sources by considering the two
pairs of opposite sides of the rectangle as two circular sources and superposing the results
of the calculation. This is illustrated in the next example.

Example 4-10
A batch-galvanizing operation uses a batch kettle measuring 2 m by 3 m. Because of
interference of the crane used to load the kettle, the hood must be located 3.5 m above
136 Environmental Engineering Hydraulics and Pneumatics Chap. 4

the molten zinc surface. The metal temperature is 885°F and the room temperature is
approximately 80°F. Determine (a) the dimensions of the hood and (b) the ventilation rate.

Solution

(a) z = 2.59(D,) 118

For the 2-m side of the kettle,

138 = 5.70 m
zo = 2.59(2)!
Thus,
xf2= 5/03 — 92m

Depp 043005 = 0.43(0.2)) i 3.08 m

and

Dez = De. + :0.8y = 3.03 + 0.8(3.5) = 5.83 m_ for one side of hood

For the 3-m side of the kettle,

z3 = 2.59(3)1-138 = 9.04 m
Thus,
x3 = 9.04 + 3.5 = 12.54 m

Dg =043x))° = 0431254)" = 3.98 m

and

D3 = De3 + 0.8y = 3.98 + 0.8(3.5) = 6.78 m_ for the other side of hood

Thus,
dimension of hood: 5.83 m by 6.78 m Answer
7.85
(b) vf = 5 (Ge)?
ae
f

ge = 0.15A5(AT)!> = 0.15(2)(3) (=>)

3s5e 80a = 1851 kJ/min

D 22.
Xfave = = (05S 7m
Thus, i
uf = Taw bss" = 48.23 m/min

and

Q = 1.20(48.23)[5.83(6.78)] = 2288 m?/min Answer

Pneumatic Systems 137

Enclosures

An enclosure hood completely encloses the source of emissions except for an access
opening. In the case of large enclosures, the access opening provides room for workers
to move about. In its design, three things must be considered: the leakage through
openings above the level of the hot source due to chimney effects, indraft velocity,
and ventilation requirement for thermal draft. /ndraft velocity refers to the velocity of
the inflow of air from outside the enclosure to the inside replacing the volume of air
exhausted from inside the enclosure to satisfy ventilation requirement. Thermal draft
refers to the convection flow setup inside the enclosure as the emission rises. Sufficient
ventilation must be provided for this draft to exhaust the pollutants to the ducting system;
otherwise, the pollutants would simply bounce back. The ventilation requirement may
be computed using the same method for the canopy calculation. Indraft velocities that
have been used range from 30 to 240 m/min (100 to 800 fpm). The higher ranges
are used for air contaminants released with extremely great force, as in the direct-arc
steel-melting furnace. The enclosure should be designed to prevent leakage. However,
some situations may prevent the enclosure to be leakage-proof. Hemeon developed an
equation for leakage velocities v, in meters per minute by assuming the openings to be
orifices:
(aye 3B
Dine aie a's) ) (4-36)
AoT
where fo is the vertical distance from the upper boundary of the access opening to the
leakage orifice, g. is as defined before, Ao is the area of the orifice, and T is the average
temperature of the air inside the hood in kelvin.
Example 4-11
If the emissions from the galvanizing kettle of Example (4-10) are to be captured by an
enclosure, determine the total ventilation requirement. The enclosure is 8 m wide by 10 m
long by 6 m high. The access opening is 3 m high by 10 m long and runs along the length
of the enclosure. Total leakage area 1s approximately 0.093 m2 and is located at the top of
the enclosure. Assume an indraft velocity of 60 m/min. The average temperature of the air
inside the hood is 66°C.
Solution Assume thermal draft requirements the same as in Example (4-10). Hence Dez =
3.03 m, D3 = 3.98 m, and ve = 48.23 m/min. Thus,

thermal draft requirement = 48.23(3.03)(3.98) = 581.62 m?/ min

1/3
Pas
Ve lI 33 13,( coe
AgT.
ge = 0.15A,(AT)!*° = 1851 kJ/min from Example (4-10)
1/3 1/3
= 3. 1 C04e ) eh Goce
ae eee
(6— 3)(1851)
a eeaoa faa;
go = Aove = 185.71(0.093) = 17.27 m/min
138 Environinental Engineering Hydraulics and Pneumatics Chap. 4

indraft requirement = 60(3)(10) = 1800 m?/ min

Thus, total indraft plus leakage requirements = 1800 + 17.27 = 1817.27 m/min >
581.62 m°/ min for the thermal draft requirement, and

total ventilation requirement = 1817.27 m?/ min Answer

Duct System

Important calculations to be performed in the design of a duct system are those for the
head losses. As in water and wastewater systems, the head losses involved are those
for the straight runs of pipe or duct, transitions, and fittings losses. The method of cal-
culations has already been discussed. An important consideration is that the velocities
inside the duct must not fall below the minimum conveying velocities found to work
in practice, especially for dust emissions. (In the jargon of the air pollution special-
ist, dust emissions are also called fugitive dusts or particulates.) The following values
have been recommended: (1) for gases, vapors, smokes, fumes, and very light dusts,
minimum velocity = 610 m/min; (2) for medium-density dry dusts, minimum velocity
= 915 m/min; (3) for average industrial dusts, minimum velocity = 1220 m/min; and
(4) for heavy dusts, minimum velocity = 1525 m/min. Examples of the first category
are all vapors, gases, and smokes, zinc and aluminum oxide fumes, wood, flour, and
cotton lint; for the second category: buffing lint, sawdust, grain, rubber, and plastic
dusts; for the third category: sandblasting and grinding dusts, wood-shavings dust, and
cement dust; and for the fourth category: lead and foundry shakeout dusts, and metal
turnings.
Tables 4-4 and 4-5 show various transition losses. In particular, Table 4-4 expresses
the loss in terms of the equivalent feet of straight duct. For example, a 6-in. duct of
throat radius of 1.5D(1.5 x 6 = 9 in.), the equivalent length is 7 ft. The definition
of throat radius is indicated in the table. In Table 4-5 the loss factor coefficients for
expansion and contraction are multiplied by the respective velocity head differences
between the sections at D; and Dz. The results are always considered positive. For
abrupt contractions of angles greater than 60°, the loss factor K is multiplied by the
velocity head at D>.
It will be recalled that in the Hardy Cross method, the head loss in a loop from
a starting point to an endpoint going in a clockwise direction is made equal to the head
loss from the same starting point to the same endpoint but going in the counterclockwise
direction. In the pneumatics of ducts, the same principle is applied. Refer to Figure
4-6. The pressure at | is the same as the pressure at 2. Since the points are of the
same pressure, to form one loop, point | or 2 may be considered as the starting point
and another point, the upper intersection of B, as the ending point. From Hardy Cross,
h,, = hj2z. This loop is the loop of the dump hopper and the bucket elevator, loop
1AB21. The second loop of the system is the one formed between the bucket elevator
and the ribbon mixer. As in the first loop, the pressures at 2 and 3 are all at atmospheric.
This loop may be called 2BC D32. The Hardy Cross head loss equation for the loop can
be h2gc = h23p. The third and last loop is that formed between the ribbon mixer and
 Pneumatic Systems 139

TABLE 4-4 AIR FLOW RESISTANCE EXPRESSED AS EQUIVALENT FEET OF STRAIGHT DUCT

; 90° Elbow 60° Elbow 45° Elbow Branch entry

eaves throat radius (R) throat radius (R) throat radius (R) angle of entry (6)
of duc
(in.) 1.0D 1.5D 2.0D 1 ay 1.5D | 20p

3 5 4 3 4 3 2
4 7 5 4 5 4 3
5 9 6 3) d 5 4
6 1] a 6 8 5 4
i 12 9 i 9 6 5
8 14 10 8 11 7 6
9 il 12 10 1 9 Y
10 20 13 il 14 10 8
1] 23 16 13 i7/ 12 10
12. 25 lig 14 20 13 1]
14 30 Bil 17 23 16 13
16 36 24 20 27 18 15
18 4] 28 23 32 DD 18
20 46 32 26 36 24 20
Dp) 53 37 30 39 27 BD
24 59 40 33 44 30 25
26 64 44 36 48 33 27
28 7) 49 40 32 35 29
30 ahs 51 42 55) 38 31
36 92 63 52 68 46 38
40 105 WD} 59 75 51 42
48 130 89 WS) 9] 62 51

the drum booth, loop 3DE F43. The pressure at 4 is also atmospheric. The head-loss
equation can be h3pp¢ = h34r. The application of the Hardy Cross method is illustrated
in the next example.

Example 4-12
Ventilation requirements of the waste air works system of Figure 4-6 have been determined
to be as follows: dump hopper = 20 m*/ min, bucket elevator = 6.0 m?/ min, ribbon blender
= 8.0 m?/ min, and drum booth = 19.0 m?/ min. The duct lengths and fittings required are
140 Environmental Engineering Hydraulics and Pneumatics Chap. 4

TABLE 4-5 ENTRY, EXPANSION, AND CONTRACTION LOSSES IN DUCTS

Taper angle, 0
(deg.) Loss factor

33 0.22
5 0.28
10 0.44
15 0.58
20 0.72
25 0.87
30 1.00
over 30 1.00

For abrupt contraction (6 > 60°)

Taper angle, 6 x Loss fraction
(deg.) D,—D, | of h, difference | Ratio D>/D, Factor K

5 S/S 0.05 0.1 0.48

10 2.84 0.06 0.2 0.46
15 1.86 0.08 0.3 0.42
20 1.38 0.10 0.4 O37
25 1.07 0.11 0.5 0.32
30 0.87 0.13 0.6 0.26
45 0.50 0.20 0.7 0.20
60 0.29 0.30
 Pneumatic Systems 141

as follows:

Length Number of elbows Number of branch entries

Branch (m) (deg) (deg)

A 4.0 il, 0) 0
B 13 0 1, 45
C Das) 0 0
D 0.5 0 as ()
E eS 0 0
Ji Sa) S90) 1, 30
G 4.0 1, 90 Expands into 5

Determine the head loss needed to size the fan H. Assume that f = 0.03 in all ducts and a
throat radius for bends of 2D. Assume that a minimum conveying velocity of 1000 m/min
is sufficient. Although it cannot be neglected, neglect the head loss at the outfall main G
and the losses in the bagfilter assembly 5.

Solution

k = f——; =0.03 gol) tek etal = 6.88 (107)

2¢DA? 2(35,316)(D)(aD?/4)? D
Loop 1A 821, first iteration (starting point = 1, ending point = upper intersection of B):

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) X

Duct O (m?/ min) A (m?) D (m) Dyess (run.) Deor (m) AVeorm (laa )

Ac 20 0.020 0.16 6 Omlis 0.0182

Bcc 6.0 0.006 0.088 3 0.076 0.0046

(8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15)

Veor (m/min) leq (m) £4 (m) £ (m) k kQ> (m) he (m) h, (m)

1099 1.83 4.0 5.83 0.053 21.16 8.55 29.71

1304 0.91 3 DD 0.60 —21.6 —12.04 —33.64

|—33.86 > 29.71].

Col. (1): With respect to starting point 1 or 2, A is clockwise and B is counterclockwise.

Col. (2): Ventilation rate, given.
Col. (3): Duct cross-sectional area at conveying velocity of 1000 m/min.
Col. (4): Duct diameter corresponding to area in col. (3), D = 1.13VA.
 142 Environmental Engineering Hydraulics and Pneumatics Chap. 4

Col. (5): Duct diameter available according to Table 4-4, nearest lesser or equal to the D of
col. (4) in inches obtained by 39.37 times [col. (4)]. The nearest lesser or equal diameter is
chosen to maintain or improve the conveying velocity. Choosing the nearest larger diameter
will decrease the conveying velocity, hence will decrease the collection efficiency of the
system.
COL)
Col. (6): Duct diameter available in meters = =
12(3.281)
4
Colmn@): Cross-sectional area corresponding to col. (6) = 0.785[col. (6)]
Col. (2)
Col. (8): , actual ventilation velocity.
Col. (7)
Col. (9): Equivalent length from Table 4-4 for the elbows and branch entries.
Col. (10): Length of duct, given.
Col. (11): col. (9) + col. (10)
biel
Col. (12): k = f = 6.89(10 a
2¢D A?
Col. (13): From h = kQ?. Note that from convention used in the derivation, On 1S
negative while kQ2 is positive. This is a loss due to skin friction of straight runs of pipe
and equivalent lengths of bends and branch entries. Skin friction refers to the loss of head
due to the rubbing of fluid with the interior surfaces of pipes.
Col. (14): Entrance loss, he. From Table 4-5, K > 0.48. Let he = 0.5h, (hy = velocity
head). This is a loss when air enters the duct from the hood.
Col. (15): Total loss, hy = col. (13) + col. (14). In this iteration, two head losses are
obtained: 33.64 m and 29.71 m. To pull 6.0 m?/min through the B part of the loop (the
counterclockwise part), the 33.64-m head loss must exist. To balance, this 33.86 m must also
exist in the A part of the loop (the clockwise part); hence the larger head loss controls. From
OQ « Vh;, the new Q,4 may be calculated as follows: Q4/20 = /33.64// 29.71; Og
21.28 m?/min. The second iteration will show that this new Qp of 21.35 m°/ min will
balance the loop.

Loop 1A 821, second iteration (starting point = 1, ending point = upper intersection
of B):

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

Duct Q m?/min A (m7?) D (m) Der Uns) Deor (m) Acor (m?)

Ac 21.28 0.021 0.16 6 0.15 0.0182

Bcc —_ 3 0.076 0.0046

(8) (9) (10) (i) (14) (15)

Voor (m/min) leq (m) ld (m) € (m) he (m) h; (m)

1169 1.83 4.0 83:67)

1304 0.91 1:3 Dees —12.04 —33.64
 Pneumatic Systems 143

Thus,
33.67 + 33.64
i FS. OOnmMmOlealn
2
Loop 2BC D232, first iteration (starting point = 2, ending point = upper intersection of D):

(16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22)

Duct QO m?/min A (m*) D (m) Deoe Gin.) Despina eee an7)

Bc 6.0 — — 3 0.076 0.0046

Ge 27.28 0.027 0.186 7] 0.178 0.0249
Dec 8.0 0.008 0.100 3 0.076 0.0046

(23) (24) (25) (26) (27) (28) (29) (30)

Veor (m/min) feg(m) fg (m)_— £ (m) kQ* (m) he (m) hy (m)
1304 0.91 133 DDs| 0.60 21.6 12.04 33.64
1096 _ DS DS 0.0096 Soll3 _ 7.14

40.78
1739 0.61 0.5 Hit 0.30 —19.2 —21.41 —40.61

40.78 + 40.61
he Tal i - = 40.70
m of air

Loop 3DE F43, first iteration (starting point = 3, ending point = intersection of E
and F): ,

(31) (32) (33), (34) (35) (36) (37)

Duct Q (m?/ min) A (m7?) D (m) Dee tin.) Deor (m) Acorn (m")

De 8.0 0.008 0.100 3 0.076 0.0046

Ec 35.28 0.035 0.21 8 0.203 0.032
Fcc 19.0 0.019 0.155 6 0.152 0.0182

(38) (39) (40) (41) (42) (43) (44) (45)

Voor (m/min) leq (m) fa (m) ¢ (m) k kQ* (m) he (m) hy (m)

= = — — — — _ 40.70
1103 _ 2.0 2.0 0.0040 4.98 8.61 [B59

54.29
1044 3.35 Bu, 7.05 0.06 —21.66 —7.72 —29.38

|-29.38] < 54.29

 144 Environmental Engineering Hydraulics and Pneumatics Chap. 4

iiherstoreis@ 7 lon J54.29//29.38, Qi = A3s33) m?/m, Ha 13-59imy of air,

and hr = 54.29 m of air.

ha thc the = 33.66

+ 7.14 + 13.59 = 54.39 =hg +hc+he

hp +heg = 40.70 + 13.59 = 54.29

Therefore,

54.39 + 54.29
head loss needed to design fan = = 54.34 m of air Answer
D
ya

PUMPING STATIONS

The location where pumps are installed is a pumping station. There may be only one
pump, or there may be several. Depending on the desired results, the pumps may be
connected in parallel or in series. In parallel connection, the discharges of all the pumps
are combined into one. Hence connecting the pumps in parallel increases the discharge
from the pumping station. On the other hand, in series connection, the discharge of the
first pump becomes the input of the second pump, and the discharge of the second pump
becomes the input of the third pump, and so on. In this mode of operation, the head
built up by the first pump is clearly added to the head built up by the second pump, and
the head built up by the second pump is added to the head built by the third pump, and
so on. Hence pumps connected in series increase the total head output from a pumping
station by adding the heads of all pumps.
Figure 4-10 shows section and plan views of a sewage pumping station. Note that
the pumps are connected in parallel and that the discharges are conveyed into a common
manifold pipe. As indicated in the drawing, a manifold pipe has one or more branching
pipes connected to a main, larger pipe.
The word pump is a general term used to designate the unit used to move a fluid from
one point to another. The fluid may be contaminated such as air conveying fugitive dusts
or water conveying sludge solids. There are two general classes of pumps: centrifugal
and positive-displacement pumps. Centrifugal pumps move fluids by imparting to the
fluid the tangential force of a rotating blade called an impeller. The motion of the fluid
is a result of the indirect action of the impeller. Displacement pumps, on the other hand,
literally push the fluid in order to move it. Hence the action is direct and moves the fluid
positively, hence the name positive-displacement pumps. Figure 4-11 shows an example
of a positive-displacement pump. Note that to move the wastewater, the screw pump
literally pushes it.
Fluid machines that turn or tend to turn about an axis are called turbomachines.
Thus centrifugal pumps are turbomachines, as are turbines, lawn sprinklers, ceiling fans,
lawn mower blades, and turbine engines. The fan used to exhaust contaminated air in
waste air works is a turbomachine. Of course, the fan is also a pump—a pump used in
waste air works.
is
Lee Soules

aw
rey
if
v8
gn
S©
TU

Reflux
valve

LS SEE PaaS Ls SNS Dey Ws

ASS Sy
BW AS 3
Oe =
(an) :

ye
e e:
-
r= os
Oh
EN
-
ag
Ay

“St Suction b aa
a well aul
Sq
ues aie
a). ;
Sluice
ay PENS, A valve
Sag: | Centrifugal
ine wa pumps
in = Float eX q
pe tube eG
et

i]
Q aA ‘ Ds Nerd
a.
veae
oy
Ia)
1 wee ewe ue We Ake
\
i)
'
eimai
‘

Sewer Rising
main
Sectional plan

Figure 4-10 Plan and section of pumping station.

146 Environmental Engineering Hydraulics and Pneumatics Chap. 4

Figure 4-11 Screw

positive-displacement pump.

Pump Scaling Laws

When designing a pumping station, the engineer refers to a pump characteristic curve
that defines the performance of a pump. Since there are several different sizes of pumps,
theoretically, there should also be a number of these curves to correspond to each pump.
In practice, however, this is not done. The characteristic performance of any other pump
can be obtained from the curve of any one pump by the use of pump scaling laws,
provided that the pumps are similar. The word similar will become clear later.
In pump operation, the following variables are encountered: the discharge Q, the
pressure developed AP, the power requirement P, and the efficiency 7. The other
variables are the diameter of impeller D, the rotational speed w, the viscosity of the fluid
j4, some roughness €, the mass density of the fluid p, and some characteristic length @ of
the chamber space. Some of these variables may not, of course, be important, depending
on the type of dependent variable considered for the analysis.
D, p, w, Q, wb, €, and, @ are variables intrinsic to the pump system operation.
They are the independent variables. AP, P, and 7 are variables that are resultants to the
effect of the intrinsic variables. They are the dependent variables. For AP the functional
relationship is

ISIP = OYO, 1D, Qs fills,&) (4-37)

P and 7 are not independent variables and are therefore not included. Since the
friction factor f is a function of jz through the Reynolds number, the effect of on AP
may be gaged on the effect of f on the AP. From the Moody diagram (Appendix 17),
the value of f remains constant as the Reynolds number increases. Hence at high
Reynolds numbers or high velocities as occurring in pump impellers, f does not affect
AP; accordingly, 4 does not affect AP either. Thus ;4 may be dropped. @ as a measure
of the pump chamber space is already included in D. It may also be dropped. Finally,
since the casing is too short, the effect of roughness € is too small compared to the other
Pumping Stations 147

causes of the AP. It may therefore also be dropped. Equation (4-37) now takes the form
Ns Oy ale). 0) (4-38)
Letting (x) represent “the dimensions of x,” (AP) = F/L?, (p) = Ft?/L*, (w) =
I/t,(D) = L, and (Q) = L*/t. By inspection of these dimensions, the number of
reference dimensions is three. Since there are five variables, the number of I terms is
two (number of variables minus number of reference dimensions, 5 — 3 = 2). The T]
terms will be I], and I>.
To eliminate the dimension F,, divide AP by p. Hence

AP AP P/E? Lb?
— 2--)= 5 5 (4-39)
p p Nee Me
To eliminate t, divide by w* as follows:
AP AP jb ;
Po
53 (—)=—
po Pj)
=P (4-40)
To eliminate dimensions completely, divide by D* as follows:
AP = ( AP yes (4-41)
par D? pw2D?/ — L2
Thus,

I ae (4-42)
Aa pa D?
To get IIx, operate on Q to obtain

a
IN, = |—>
O )

a9
4-43

The final functional relationship is

KP
ae et g (4-44)
pa D? wD?
But AP = yH, where H is a head loss or gain. Since y = pg, substituting in
equation (4-44) produces
He
: g iev( Q ) (4-45)
MaDe wD?
Hg /(w* D*) is called the head coefficient Cy, while Q/(w D*) is called the flow coefficient
Cg. Since no one pump was chosen in the derivation of equation (4-45), the equation is
general. For any number of pumps a, b, c, ..., n and using equation (4-45) we get the
relationships

Mell eraimlerc
Hg
2
—
Hg
D
—
Hg oon, 02) 8)

w
Hg
alors,
== G n (4-46

Q Q Q Q
el >|celh thai eet kee
148 Environmental Engineering Hydraulics and Pneumatics Chap. 4

Pumps that follow the relations above are called similar or homologous pumps. In
particular, when the IT variable C;,, which involves force is equal in the series of pumps,
the pumps are said to be dynamically similar. When the IT variable Cg, which relates
only to the motion of the fluid, is equal in the series of pumps, the pumps are said to be
kinematically similar. Finally, when corresponding parts of the pumps are proportional,
the pumps are said to be geometrically similar. The relationships of equations (4-46) and
(4-47) are called similarity or scaling laws.
Considering the power P and the efficiency 7 as the dependent variables, similar
dimensional analyses yield the following similarity relations:
er = ie = Ls 4-48
(4-48)
—_————_—_—— —ee
| {Cp},
——— = —— =

| | | | | } |

Wa = ly = Mie = ae sy (4-49)
where Cp is called the power coefficient. Note that the efficiencies of similar pumps
are equal. The similarity relations also apply to the same pump, where in this case the
subscripts a, b, c, ..., n represent different operating conditions of the pump.
Figure 4-12 shows typical pump characteristic curves indicating the head, dis-
charge, power, rotational speed, and efficiency. The head is actually the head developed

30 100
rev/min

uf
25~ 4 80 Se
ss
Efficiency (%)

a
il SS]QH

a
Head
(m) =

0 0.1 0.2
Discharge (m?/s)

Figure 4-12 Typical pump characteristic curves for 375-mm-diameter im-

peller variable-speed pump.
Pumping Stations 149

by the pump TDH, which is equal to the energy head at the exit of the pump. The
power is the brakepower. The efficiency is the ratio of the fluid power Py to the brake-
power P,.
Example 4-13
For the pump represented by Figure 4-12, determine (a) the discharge when the pump is
operating at a head of 10 m and at a speed of 875 rpm, and (b) the efficiency and the power
used.

Solution (a) From the figure, Q = 0.17 m3/s_— Answer

(b) 7 =63% Answer; P; =26kW Answer

Example 4-14
If the pump in Example 4-13 is operated at 1170 rpm, calculate the resulting H, Q, P,,
and 7.

Solution

H
ee a meee
H say
H,
aa. -
H,
ae = H, = 10
117075
wD"), OoUe || w,D* wqD* 875

= 17.88 m Answer

Q Q Op Oa 1170

wD3 b wD? 3 wp D3 Wa D3 Qs 875

= (03) m/s Answer

P. P =x Psb Psa = %6 1 170°

i eee a =) oes
= re Wy =
pw D5 b pw D5 . po, D> pwe D> 8753

= 62.16 kW Answer

n = 63% Answer

Example 4-15
If a homologous 30-cm pump is to be used for the problem in Example 4-14, calculate the
resulting H, Q, P; and n for the same rpm.

Solution The diameter of the pump represented by Figure 4-12 is 375 mm.
Hi a | H Hpg
| ee Hyg Te 17.88 (307 :
we D+ b we D+ - wD, wo Dz Dheoe,

= 11.447 m Answer

= QO ae Op # Oa an Op —0.23 303 :
wD} zi wD; wD} 37ae

1) m/s Answer

ss
P SNS ia
P —-
Ps Z ee
Ps = 5 => Psb = 62116
30°
ee A=
pw? D> b por D2? \ pw D; pw? D? Bijeos
150 Environmental Engineering Hydraulics and Pneumatics Chap. 4

20.37 kW Answer

n= 63% Answer

Pump Specific Speed

Raising the flow coefficient Cg = Q/wD? to the power 5 and the head coefficient
Cy = gH/wD? to the power 2, forming the ratio of the former to that of the latter, and
simplifying, the expression for the specific speed N, is obtained. The formula is

yee
(gH)?
(4-50)
Since N, is dimensionless, it can be used as a general characterization for an entire
variety of pumps without reference to their sizes. Thus a certain range of the value of
N, would be a particular type of pump such as axial (no size considered), and another
range would be another particular type of pump such as radial (no size considered). By
characterizing all the pumps generally like this, the specific speed is of great importance
in selecting the particular type of pump, whether radial or axial or any other type. For
example, refer to Figure 4-13. The radial-vane pumps are in the range N, = 9.6 to 19.2
(reading the metric units); the Francis vane pumps are in the range of 28.9 to 76.9; and
so on. Therefore, if Q, w, and H are known, N,; can be computed using equation (4-50)
and thus, depending on the value obtained, the type of pump can be specified. In the
United States, the equation is modified by using rpm as the unit for w, gpm as the unit for
Q, ft for the unit for H, and g is disregarded. Hence in U.S. practice, N, is dimensional.

Pumping Station Heads

In the design of pumping stations, the engineer must be sure that the pumping system can
deliver the fluid to the desired height. For this reason, energies are expressed in terms of
heads. The various terminologies of heads are defined in Figure 4-14. The terms suction
and discharge in the context of heads refer to the systems before and after the pumping
station, respectively. Static suction lift he is the vertical distance from the elevation of
the inflow liquid level below the pump inlet to the elevation of the pump centerline
(see the pump centerline in the figure). A lift is a negative head. Static suction head h,
is the vertical distance from the elevation of the inflow liquid level above the pump inlet
to the elevation of the pump centerline. Static discharge head hy is the vertical distance
from the centerline elevation of the pump to the elevation of the discharge liquid level.
Total static head hy; is the vertical distance from the elevation of the inflow liquid level
to the elevation of the discharge liquid level. Suction velocity head hy, is the entering
velocity head at the suction side of the pump hydraulic system. In Figure 4-14, since
the velocity in the wet well is practically zero, h,, will also be practically zero. Discharge
velocity head hyq is the outgoing velocity head at the discharge side of the pump hydraulic
system. In the figure it is also practically zero. Total dynamic head or total developed
head H or TDH is the sum of the total static head, the friction head losses hy, and the
velocity head difference h,g — hys. It is the total head developed by the pump or pump
Pumping Stations 151

SER
100

90 = Sa eS
aaa iP over 0). 6333
0. 6333 m3/s m/s
80 F g
0.0317 m3/s
0.0127 m3/s

Wy)
LM
ani
Be
aNS

|_|
WW |
#8
lh
ip
osha|Specific speed, metric units 115.4
SOMES)
t a
|) eseci alee
1
TSS SNS) SA DY Xo |
ISI8| WPS — OS. S46
Sis == S =) =) Sea Ss SS is) =)
oS 3 SoS S S S Ss S| = = SS S S
m © aS a S Ss S © S © S ra)
| 4 — fo (og) + a) \o oo Oo w oO
a | N

|
0
cm
i=)
500
———600
4 700
4 co 900 000
4 000 000
N 3000
4 70008000
9000
n pecific speed (U.S. customary units) 10,000 15,000 20,000

(a Impeller shrouds
Impeller shrouds
Impeller
4 s, Hub A aes
£ “\vanes Vanes ode anes Vanes Axis of
Radial-vane area Francis-vane area Mixed-flow area Axial-flow area rotation
(propeller)
(b)

Figure 4-13 Selection of pumps by specific speeds.

assembly; it is the energy head given by the pump impeller to the pumped fluid. Friction
head losses are the sum of the losses in straight runs of pipes /, transition losses, and
fitting losses. Transition and fitting losses are called minor losses h,,. Friction losses
are also composed of suction friction losses hy, and discharge friction losses hrg. In
symbols, TDH is given by
TDH = hgp-- pe Cyd — bys) (4-51)

hy =h+hy = hye, + hea (4-52)

152 Environmental Engineering Hydraulics and Pneumatics Chap. 4

Static discharge
head, hy
Total
static Static
head, h,, discharge
head, hg

Static
:
ee
impeller
suction
lift, hy

Static suction
Wet well head, h, Y
¢ Pump impeller

(a) > (b)

Figure 4-14 Head terms used in pumping: (a) pumping arrangement with
suction lifts; (b) pumping arrangement with suction head.

The inlet manometric head h; is the manometric level at the inlet to the pump; the
outlet manometric head h, is the manometric level at the outlet of the pump. (Manometric
level is the height of liquid corresponding to the gage pressure.) In terms of these new
variables and the velocity heads h,; and h,, for the pump inlet and outlet velocity heads,
respectively, TDH may also be expressed as

TDH = ho + hyo — hi — hy; (4-53)

For static suction lift conditions, 4; is negative and its theoretical limit is the nega-
tive of the difference between the prevailing atmospheric pressure and the vapor pressure
of the liquid being pumped. Because of the suction action of the impeller and because
the fluid is being lifted, the fluid column becomes “rubber-banded.” Just like a rubber
band, it becomes stretched as the pressure due to suction is progressively reduced; even-
tually, the liquid column ruptures. As the rupture occurs, the inlet suction pressure will
actually have gone down to equal the vapor pressure, thus vaporizing the liquid and
forming bubbles. This process is called cavitation. Cavitation can destroy hydraulic
structures by the action of the outside atmospheric pressure, which has become greater
than the pressure inside the structure. Also, as the bubbles that have been formed at
a partial vacuum pressure at the inlet gradually progress along the impeller toward the
outlet, the sudden increase in pressure causes an impact force. Continuous action of this
force shortens the life of the impeller. The difference in pressure between the outside and
Pumping Stations 153

the inside at incipient cavitation is the prevailing atmospheric pressure minus the vapor
pressure of the liquid pumped.
The sum of the inlet manometric head and the inlet velocity head is called the
total inlet dynamic head (TIDH). The sum of the outlet manometric head and the outlet
velocity head is called the total outlet dynamic head (TODH). Of course, the TDH is also
equal to the total outlet dynamic head minus the total inlet dynamic head.
TDH = TODH = TIDH (4-54)
Example 4-16
A designer wanted to recommend the use of an axial-flow pump to move wastewater to
an elevation of 30 m above a sump. Friction losses and velocity at the sewage discharge
level are estimated to be 20 m and 1.30 m/s, respectively. The operating drive is to be
1200 rpm. Suction friction losses are 1.03 m; the diameter of the suction and discharge
lines are 250 and 225 mm, respectively. The vertical distance from the sump pool level to
the pump centerline is 2 m. (a) Is the designer recommending the right pump? (b) If the
temperature is 20°C, has cavitation occurred? (c) What are the inlet and outlet manometric
heads? (d) What are the total inlet and outlet dynamic heads? From the values of the TIDH
and TODH, calculate TDH.

Solution
o/O
(a) Ns — (gH

TDH = hs; + hf + (Ava — hys)

Take the sump pool level as point | and the sewage discharge level as point 2. hy, = 0,
since the pool velocity is zero.

1.307
pep = = 0.086 m
2(9.81)
TDH = 30 + 20 + 0.086 = 50.086 m
1200(277)
@® = ———— _ = 125.67 rad/s
60
#D? 7(0.2257)
Aq = cross section of discharge pipe = PSH alone 0.040 m?

O = (1.3)(0.040) = 0.052 m/s

Thus,

125.67/0.052 fis :
= ag = 9-27 falling outside the range of specific speeds in

However, the pump should not be an axial flow pump as recommended by the designer.
Answer

b
(b) Mt
eh 24 i Eu ly 1 de beeBp eUa xh 88, oP
nl ae AO hl ae
Dimmbias JA Coad tide? S Dg y
154 Environmental Engineering Hydraulics and Pneumatics Chap. 4

Let the sump pool level be point | and the inlet to the pump be point 2.

(0.257) _ 0.052
a 04S Vo= 1059 mys
Ap 4 Os 2 = 6.049 a
Thus,

020-600
0 = 103-20 Seer
0. Le yPo

i)
2722 3087 ima
y
At 20°C, P, = 2.34 kN/m? = 0.239 m of water. Assume a standard atmosphere of | atm
= 10.34 m of water. Then

theoretical limit of pump cavitation = —(10.34 — 0.239) = —10.05 m < —3.087

so cavitation has not been reached. Answer

(c) Inlet manometric head = —3.087 m Answer

TDH = hy + hyo — hi — hyi

5006sRey Bee Hales

5

ie | BSD
ho = 46.97 m = outlet manometric head Answer
1.0597
d
(d) TDs!
= fae
i $6 (aig
+Ayi = =3L00S7) + 3068p = —3.031 m Answer

TODH = ho + hyo = 46.97 + = 47.059 m Answer

2(9.81)

T DE TODE iD Ei 72059 (32031) 50.09 ima Ans wer

Net Positive Suction Head

For a fluid to enter the pump, it must have sufficient energy to force itself toward the
inlet. This means that a positive head (not negative head) must exist at the pump inlet.
This head that must exist for pumping to be possible is termed the net positive suction
head (NPSH). It is an absolute, not a gage, positive head.
Refer to Figure 4-14a. At the surface of the wet well, the net absolute pressure
acting on the liquid is equal to the atmospheric pressure Pt, minus the vapor pressure
of the liquid P,. This net pressure is thus the atmospheric pressure corrected for vapor
pressure, an “available energy” that forces the liquid to reach the inlet of the pump. Note
that before the impeller can do its job, the fluid must reach it. Hence the need for a
driving force at the inlet side. Since the surface of the well is below the pump, the
available energy must be subtracted by hy before reaching the pump inlet. The other
Pumping Stations 155

debits are the friction losses hy. For Figure 4-14b, since the surface of the well is above
the pump, /, will be added, increasing the available energy. The losses will, again, be
subtracted. In symbols,

NPSH = ———
Pam = Py
y — hy (or + hs) — hy, (4-55)

It is instructive to derive equation (4-55) by applying the energy equation between

the wet well pool surface and the inlet to the pump. Applying it to Figure 4-14a, the
equation is derived as follows:

Pete <1Sa eerie

== E gtWieUral
n WhtereVash
ae LD. sere
a
2g y OE y
0+04 Pinatm =P; u Wo
Vy
a= shines
2;
=
22 y
where Vj is the velocity at the wet pool level, z; the elevation of the pool level with
reference to a datum (the pool level, itself, in this case), P, the pressure at pool level,
hy the friction loss from pool level to the pump inlet, V2 the velocity at the pump inlet,
z2 the elevation of the pump inlet with reference to a datum (the pool level), and P) the
pressure at the inlet to the pump. P; is the “net” absolute pressure at the pump inlet (i.e.,
not a gage pressure but an absolute pressure with correction for vapor pressure). By also
considering Figure 4-14b, the final equation after rearranging is

own Pat ark,

= ~ — hy (or ths) — hy (4-56)
oe ay. Y
Therefore, NPSH is also

a ad a Paes
NPSH = 32 4 2 = 2 4 (1,4+SB) (4-57)
gee ale Y
In simple words, the NPSH is the amount of energy that the fluid possesses at the
inlet of the pump. It is this energy that pushes the fluid into the pump impeller blades.
Finally, NPSH and cavitation effects are related. If NPSH does not exist at the suction
side, cavitation will obviously occur.

Example 4-17
In Example 4-16, what is the NPSH using (a) equation (4-57) and (b) equation (4-56)?

Solution

V3 Ps Vy Patm — Py
(ayNES He
Leer ye 28 y
1.0597
= —3,.087 + (10.34 — 0.239)] = 7.07 m_ Answer
2(9.81) oi
156 Environmental Engineering Hydraulics and Pneumatics Chap. 4

(b) NPSH as Pipeatm =e U he hy ae P.atm Pv

y Vv Me
= 10.34 — 0.239 — 2 —1.03 = 7.07 m Answer

Pumping Station Head Analysis

The pumping station and the piping system constitute the pumping system. In this system
there are two types of characteristics: the pump characteristics and the system characteris-
tic. The term system characteristic refers to the piping system characteristic. Specifically,
system characteristic is the relation of Q and the associated head requirements. In the
design of a pumping station, the pump characteristics and the system characteristic must
be considered simultaneously.
Three types of heads are added in a system characteristic: total static head, friction
head losses, and velocity head. These heads are the elements of the total developed head
requirement of the system, TDHR. Note that TDH refers to the head produced by the
pump and that the piping system “requires” this head in order for the fluid to flow (i.e.,
TDHR requires TDH).
It should be obvious that if the TDH of the pump assembly is less than the TDHR
of the piping system, no fluid will flow. To ensure that the proper size of pumps is
chosen for a given desired pumping rate, the TDH of the pumps must be equal to the
TDHR of the piping system. This is easily done by plotting the pump head-discharge-
characteristic curve and the system-characteristic curve on the same graph. The point of
intersection of the two curves is the desired operating point. The principle of series or
parallel connections of pumps must be used to arrive at the proper pump combination to
suit the desired system characteristic requirement.
The piping system is composed of the suction piping, the pumping station piping,
and the discharge piping system. For the purpose of system head calculations, it is
convenient to disregard the head losses of the pumping station piping and the suction
piping system. In this case the TDHR of the system characteristic will only include the
total static head, the discharge piping losses, and the difference of velocity heads. The
disregarded pumping station and suction piping losses are designated as station losses and
applied as corrections to the pump head-discharge curve supplied by the manufacturer to
obtain the effective pump head-discharge curve.
An illustration of this procedure is shown in Figure 4-15, which is a plot of the
next example problem.
Example 4-18
Calculations for the system characteristic curve yield the following results:

QO (m?/s) TDHR (m) | Q (m/s) TDHR (m) | Q (m/s) TDHR (m)

0.0 10.00 0.1 10.84 0.2 13.37
0.3 17.59 0.4 Deke 0.5 31.06
Pumping Stations 157

50

40

System
head-capacity
curve

mP2 and mP1

Head
(m) added horizontally

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.eiate

via
cok
bosieene
ieseetaerre
esme
Discharge (m?/s)

Figure 4-15 Use of pump characteristic head-discharge curve and system

characteristic curve for sizing a pumping station.

The station losses are as follows:

Pump 1:

Q (m*/s) hy (m) |Q (m/s) hr ‘eed Q (m*/s) hy (m)

0.0 0.00 | 0.1 0.14 0.2 0.56

Pump 2:

OQ (m?/s) hr (m) |O (m/s) hp (m) | O (m?/s) hp (m)

0.0 0.00 0.1 0.06 0.2 0.26

0.3 0.58 0.4 1.03

If two pumps with head-discharge characteristics plotted in Figure 4-15 (dashed lines) are to
be used, determine (a) the pumping system discharges when each pump is operated separately
and when both pumps are operated 1n parallel and (b) the head at which both pumps operated
in series will deliver a discharge of 0.2 m*/s.
158 Environmental Engineering Hydraulics and Pneumatics Chap. 4

Solution (a) The system head-discharge or head-capacity curve is plotted as shown in the
figure. The pump head-discharge curves supplied by the manufacturer (dashed lines) are
modified by the head losses as given above. The resulting effective head-discharge curves
are drawn in solid lines designated as mP, and mP> for pumps | and 2, respectively. The
intersection of the effective head-discharge curve and the system curve, when only pump |
is Operating, the pumping system discharge is 0.2 m/s. Answer
When only pump 2 is operating, the system discharge is 0.31 m/s. Answer
When both are operated in parallel, the effective characteristic curve for pump | is
shifted horizontally to the right until the top end of the curve coincides with a portion of
the effective curve of pump 2, as shown. This has the effect of adding the discharges for
parallel operation. As indicated, when both are operated in parallel, the system discharge 1s
0.404 m?/s. Answer
(b) For the operation in series, the TDH for pump | for a system discharge of 0.2
m/s is 13 m; that of pump 2 is 32 m. Therefore, the system TDH is 32 + 13 = 45 m.
Answer

GLOSSARY

Aqueduct. Aqua means water and duct is a conduit; therefore, aqueduct is a conduit
used to convey water.
Arterial main. The primary feeder.
Average daily flow. The yearly daily average flow of the appropriate probability of
occurrence.
Branch sewer. Also called lateral sewer, the sewer that collects sewage from one or
more buildings.
Building, house, or service pipe. The pipe that conveys water from the street main to
the house or building.
Building or house sewer. The sewer that conveys sewage from the building or house
to the branch or lateral sewer.
Canals. Open channels formed by a balanced cut-and-fill on the ground surface.
Capillary main. The distributor or street main.
Cavitation. A state of flow where the pressure in the liquid becomes equal to its vapor
pressure.
Centrifugal pump. A pump that conveys fluid through the momentum created by a
rotating impeller.
Combined sewer system. A system where stormwater and sanitary sewage are collected
together.
Design period. A length of time for which the design is supposed to hold.
Discharge. In a pumping system, the arrangement of elements after the pumping station.
Discharge velocity head. The velocity head at the discharge of a pumping system.
Distribution reservoir. A reservoir constructed to equalize the supply and demand for
treated water in a community and to provide a supply of water during emergency
situations.
Glossary 159

Domestic sewage. Sanitary sewage coming into homes.

Dry-weather flow. Sewage flow in a sanitary sewage collection system during periods
of very low precipitation.
Fittings losses. Head losses in valves and fittings.
Flumes. Open channels formed of wood, masonry, and steels supported on or above
the ground.
Force main. That part of a main where water is pumped or forced to a higher elevation.
Friction head loss. A head loss due to loss of internal energy.
Homologous pumps. Pumps that are similar. Similarity may be established dynami-
cally, kinematically, or geometrically.
Impounding reservoir. A reservoir in the valley of a stream or river constructed for the
purpose of holding streamflow; this flow may be released to satisfy demand during
times of low stream flows.
Infiltration. That portion of precipitation that enters sewers through cracks and faulty
joints.
Inflow. That portion of precipitation that enters sewers through holes in manholes and
through roof leaders by illegal connection.
Inlet manometric head. The manometric level at the inlet to a pump.
Intercepting sewer. The sewer that accepts sewage from one or more trunk sewers.
Inverted siphon. A pressure conduit used to convey water across an obstruction.
Main. All pipes in the distribution system conveying water that ultimately reaches the
consumer’s premises.
Main sewer. The sewer that collects the sewage from one or more branch sewers.
Manhole. Manhole is an opening that allows a person to gain access to a structure.
Manifold pipe. A pipe with two or more pipes connected to it.
Maximum daily flow. The highest of the daily flows of the appropriate probability of
occurrence.
Maximum hourly flow. The highest of the hourly flows of the appropriate probability
of occurrence.
Net positive suction head (NSPH). The amount of energy possessed by a fluid at the
inlet to a pump.
Outfall sewer. The sewer that conveys the sewage from a trunk or intercepting sewer
into a sewage treatment plant; it is also the sewer that discharges the treated sewage
into a receiving stream.
Outlet manometric head. The manometric level at the outlet of a pump.
Pneumatic system. A system used to convey air and other gases.
Positive-displacement pump. A pump that conveys fluid by moving it directly using a
suitable mechanism such as a piston or a screw.
Primary feeder. Main that conveys water to the secondary feeder.
Probability distribution analysis. A method of statistical analysis where the probability
of occurrence of events are arrayed in either descending or ascending order.
Pumping station. A location where one or more pumps are operated to convey fluids.
Pumping system. The pumping station and the piping system constitute the pumping
system.
160 Environmental Engineering Hydraulics and Pneumatics Chap. 4

Return period or return interval. The average number of years that a particular event
is equaled or exceeded.
Sanitary sewage. Sewage coming from the sanitary conveniences of homes, commercial
establishments, industries, and the like.
Sanitary sewer system. The system for the collection of sanitary sewage.
Scaling laws. Mathematical equations that establish the similarity of homologous pumps.
Secondary feeder. Main that conveys water to the distribution mains.
Sewage. Liquid waste conveyed in a sewer.
Sewer. A conduit designed to convey liquid waste.
Sewerage. The collection, treatment, and disposal of sewage.
Sewerage works or sewage works. The equipment and physical structures required for
the collection, treatment, and disposal of sewage.
Specific speed. A ratio obtained by manipulating the ratio of the flow coefficient to the
head coefficient of a pump.
Standard fire stream. A fire flow of 250 gpm.
Standpipe. A vertical cylindrical tank whose height is considerably longer than its
diameter.
Static discharge head. The vertical distance from the pump centerline to the elevation
of the discharge liquid level.
Static suction head. The vertical distance from the elevation of the inflow liquid level
above the pump centerline to the centerline of the pump.
Static suction lift. The vertical distance from the elevation of the inflow liquid level
below the pump centerline to the centerline of the pump.
Storm sewage. Stormwater or water produced from rainfall.
Stormwater system. The system used for the collection of stormwater.
Street, service, or distributor main. Main laid along the street or some convenient
place that actually distributes water to the consumers.
Suction. In a pumping system, the system of arrangement before the pumping station.
Suction velocity head. The velocity head at the suction side of a pumping system.
Total dynamic head or total developed head. The sum of the total static head, friction
head losses, and the difference between the discharge velocity head and suction
velocity head.
Total inlet dynamic head. The sum of the iniet velocity head and inlet manometric head
of a pump.
Total outlet dynamic head. The sum of the outlet velocity head and outlet manometric
head of a pump.
Total static head. The vertical distance between the elevation of the inflow liquid level
and the discharge liquid level.
Transition losses. Head losses in expansions, contractions, and bends.
Trunk or main feeder. The main that conveys water to the primary feeder.
Trunk sewer. A large sewer that accepts sewage from one or more main sewers for
discharge into an intercepting sewer or for discharge into a treatment plant through
an outfall.
Turbomachine. Fluid machine that turns or tends to turn about an axis.
Symbols 161

Ventilation volume. The rate of flow used to convey polluted air into a control device.
Wastewater. Spent water after homes, industries, commercial establishments, public
places, and similar entities have used their water.

SYMBOLS

aS air contaminant capturing area of a virtual hood

Cy head coefficient
Cp power coefficient
Co flow coefficient
Cy. velocity coefficient
d partial depth of flow
D diameter of pipe; depth at full depth of flow
Dp diameter of a rising column of hot air a distance, y, from
the surface of a hot bath source
be: diameter of a high canopy hood
D, diameter of a hot bath source
‘3 Darcy—Weisbach, Blasius, or Fanning friction factor
F rate of flow in fire-flow formula
g earth’s gravitational acceleration
h head loss in straight run of pipe, piezometric head
ha static discharge head
hy friction head loss
hra discharge friction losses
hes suction friction losses
h; inlet manometric head
he suction lift
Dp outlet manometric head
Ip suction head
hs total static head
Me discharge velocity head
hy; inlet velocity head
ie outlet velocity head
Ieee suction velocity head
H total dynamic or developed head
k (fr) /(2 f DA), a head-loss coefficient in the Hardy Cross
method
K K,. = expansion loss coefficient, K. = contraction loss
coefficient, K, = velocity head loss coefficient, K, =
bend loss coefficient, etc.
£ length of pipe segment
mgd million gallons per day
 162 Environmental Engineering Hydraulics and Pneumatics Chap. 4

n Manning coefficient of roughness; number of extraction

pumps of equal sizes
N Manning roughness coefficient at full flow in pressure flow
Ns specific speed
NPSH net positive suction head
p wetted perimeter at partial flow
P pressure
le vapor pressure
q rate of flow at partial flow
O rate of flow
ORO in the Hardy Cross method, clockwise and counterclockwise
flow in a loop, respectively
OF rate of heat added to system
OF rate of flow into a virtual hood
ie hydraulic radius at partial flow
R hydraulic radius
Re Reynolds number
S energy slope at partial flow
S energy slope at full flow
TDH total dynamic or developed head
TIDH total inlet dynamic head
TODH total outlet dynamic head
v velocity of flow in sewer at partial flow
Us self-cleaning velocity at partial flow
Vy velocity at distance x measured parallel to an axis from
hood entrance
id fraction of the hood entrance velocity
pump efficiency
LL absolute or dynamic viscosity
° dot product operator

PROBLEMS

4-1. Treated wastewater at 20°C discharges from the secondary clarifier to an estuary below. The
elevation at the discharge trough of the clarifier is 7 m. The water from the trough enters
the circular discharge pipe at a rate of 2.5 m°/s. The length of the pipe is 50 m. Calculate
the diameter of the pipe, assuming that it is made of reinforced concrete.
4-2. In Problem 4-1, calculate the entrance loss as the water enters the discharge pipe from the
trough.
4-3. Water at a temperature of 22°C is to be conveyed from a reservoir with a water surface
elevation of 70 m to another reservoir 300 m away with a water surface elevation of 20 m.
Determine the diameter of a steel pipe if the flow is 2.5 m/s. Assume a square-edged inlet
and outlet and that there are two open gate valves in the system.
Problems 163

4-4, Assume that a turbine is installed between the two reservoirs in Problem 4-3. If the turbine
incurred an energy loss equivalent to 0.2 of the velocity head, how much power did it
develop?
4-5. Treated water from a water treatment plant is conveyed through a 4-in.-diameter steel main
at an average velocity of 5.5 fps. A few feet downstream the 4-in. main is bypassed by a
l-in. steel pipe having an equivalent of 30 ft. The length of the main being bypassed is
approximately 25 ft. Neglecting entrance and exit losses, determine the rate of flow of the
water bypassed.
4-6. Solve Problem 4-5 by not neglecting the entrance and exit losses.
4-7. The estimated hourly requirement for the maximum day in a small city is tabulated below.
Fire flows have been determined to be 65 L/s for a conflagration of 2 h. If pumping is to
start at hour 0800 and to end at hour 1600, calculate the storage requirement. Determine the
storage requirement by a method of storing the excess pumpage over the demand.

Demand Demand
Hour ending (m3) Hour ending (m?)

0100 160 1300 444

0200 129) 1400 447
0300 146 1500 434
0400 138 1600 405
0500 Iss 1700 417
0600 196 1800 421
0700 274 1900 406
0800 390 2000 343
0900 480 2100 270
1000 500 2200 223
1100 473 2300 IDE
1200 451 2400 185

4-8. In Problem 4-7 plot the demand and pumping against time and determine the storage re-
quirement.
4-9, A transmission main carries a flow of 180 mgd of treated water. It is made of reinforced
concrete. The elevation at the distribution reservoir is 70 m and the elevation at the “foot of
the hill” before the transmission main joins the primary main is 10 m at an available pressure
of 415 kPa gage. Assume the combined friction losses to be two times the velocity head.
Determine the diameter of the transmission main.
4-10. In Problem 4-9 a turbine is installed along the transmission line to charge an arrangement
of electric batteries in an electric battery powerhouse. This powerhouse is used for electric
power in a shop nearby. If the turbine has an energy loss of 0.2 of the velocity head, how
much energy is stored as electric charge?
. Hydrants are normally spaced to cover a radius of 60 m. Assuming that a rubber-lined hose
of 24-in. diameter is used, calculate how high the water rise will be if the hose is aimed at
an angle of 60° with the horizontal and (a) the hose is connected to a hydrant in a high-value
district, and (b) the hose is connected to a hydrant in a residential area. Assume a standard
fire stream of 250 gpm at a temperature of 20°C. Consider entrance and exit losses of the
hose.
164 Environmental Engineering Hydraulics and Pneumatics Chap. 4

4-12. Draw a sketch of a fire hydrant.

4-13. If the city in Problem 4-7 is assumed to be built of buildings of ordinary construction as a
general characterization with a total combined floor area of 2000 m2 per story, compute the
storage requirement. Assume that the average number of stories per building is two.
4-14. Solve Problem 4-13 for a noncombustible construction.
4-15. Solve Problem 4-13 for a fire-resistive construction.
4-16. For the given source and load in figure of the derivation of the Hardy Cross method, (a) de-
termine the distribution of flows in the network and (b) the pressure at the load points B,
H, and I if the pressure at the source is 60 psig using the starting and ending points below.
Assume that all pipes are horizontal and that f = 0.012.

Loop Starting point Ending point

I A H
Il H G
Il D B

4-17. What is dry-weather flow?

4-18. The sewage inflow records of the sewage treatment plant in the town of Middletown were
analyzed for the average flow of the driest months of each year (average of the flows
during the successive months of June, July, and August of each year of record), yielding the
following probability distribution.

Average dry-weather flow Probability p that flow is

(L/capita-day ) equaled or exceeded

310 0.019
307 0.080
304 0.23
300 0.38

160 0.84
147 0.99

A representative section of the Middletown collection system was then selected for study
for its dry-weather and wet-weather flow characteristics, producing the following results:
average peak dry-weather flow = 205 L/s, average minimum dry-weather flow = 46 L/s, and
average flow = 96 L/s. The combined infiltration inflow was found to be 70 L/s. If the
midyear population of Middletown is 58,600, what are the present minimum, maximum, and
average flows of the town that are equaled or exceeded 1% of the time?
4-19. An extensive study was done on the collection system of a town. The minimum and max-
imum flows were found to be 5037 m3/day and 15,319 m?/day, respectively. Assuming a
self-cleaning velocity of 0.76 m/s, what size sewer should, at least, be discharging this flow
at the present time?
Problems 165

4-20. At what slope should the sewer in Problem 4-19 be laid to ensure self-cleaning?
4-21. A spray booth has a 3-m by 2-m entrance. The 3 m is the vertical dimension and the 2 m is
the horizontal dimension. A null point determined by experiment was located a distance of
2 m from the vertical centerline of the entrance, 1.5 m above the floor, and 2 m away from
the face of the booth. If a capture velocity of 100 fpm is to be provided at the null point,
what ventilation volume is required?
4-22. What is the face velocity at the entrance to the booth in Problem 4-21?
4-23. A plant is to be redesigned to increase the airflow from 10,000 cfm to 12,000 cfm. The
existing fan runs at 1600 rpm, providing a pressure drop of 7.0 in. of water. Estimate the
new fan speed.
4-24, What is the new pressure drop in Problem 4-23?
4-25. A slot hood is to be used to capture the emissions from a chrome-plating tank. The tank
measures 2 m by 3 m on the surface. The slot is to be put on both of the 3-m sides only.
From an actual experiment, the ventilation rate was determined to be 200 cfm/ft? of tank
surface. Determine the slot hood dimensions.
4-26. A batch-galvanizing operation uses. a batch kettle measuring 3 m in diameter. Because of
interference of the crane used to load the kettle, the hood must be located 3.5 m above
the molten zinc surface. The metal temperature is 885°F and the room temperature is
approximately 80°F. Determine the dimensions of the hood.
4-27. Calculate the ventilation rate in Problem 4-26.
4-28. If the emissions from the galvanizing kettle of Problem 4-26 are to be captured by an
enclosure, determine the total ventilation requirement. The enclosure is 8 m wide by 10 m
long by 6 m high. The access opening is 3 m high by 10 m long and runs along the length
of the enclosure. The total leakage area is approximately 0.093 m2 and is located at the top
of the enclosure. Assume an indraft velocity of 60 m/min. The average temperature of the
air inside the hood is 66°C.
4-29. In the sketch for the waste air collection system discussed in this chapter, determine the
head loss needed to size the fan H. Ventilation requirements have been determined to be
as follows: dump hopper = 30 m°/min, bucket elevator = 8.0 m?/min, ribbon blender =
10.0 m3/min, and drum booth = 25.0 m3/min. The duct lengths and fittings required are as
follows:

Number of Number of
Branch Length (m) elbows (deg) branch entries (deg)

A 4.0 ih, S10) 0

B eS 0 1, 45
€ 2.0 0 0
D Le 0 Il, 0
ie) II,5) 0 0
F 3h) Il, 210) Ih, BO)
G 4.0 1, 90 Expands into 5

Assume that f = 0.03 in all ducts and a throat radius for bends of 2D. Assume that a
minimum conveying velocity of 1000 m/min is sufficient. Although it cannot be neglected,
neglect the head loss at the outfall main G and the losses in the bagfilter assembly 5.
 166 Environmental Engineering Hydraulics and Pneumatics Chap. 4

4-30. For the pump represented by the characteristic curve mentioned in this chapter, determine
the discharge when the pump is operating at a head of 20 m at a speed of 1100 rpm.
4-31. Calculate the efficiency and power for the pump in Problem 4-30.
4-32. If the pump in Problem 4-30 is operated at 1170 rpm, calculate the resulting H, Q, P;, and 7.
4-33. If a homologous 30-cm pump is to be used in Problem 4-30, calculate the resulting H, Q, Ps,
and 7 for the same rpm.
4-34, The outlet manometric head at the discharge of a pump is equal to the equivalent of 50 m
of water. If the discharge velocity is 2.0 m/s, what is the total outlet dynamic head?
4-35. You are required to recommend the type of pump to be used to convey wastewater to an
elevation of 8 m above a sump. Friction losses and the velocity at the sewage discharge level
are estimated to be 3 m and 1.30 m/s, respectively. The operating drive is to be 1200 rpm.
The suction friction loss is 1.03 m; the diameters of the suction and discharge lines are
250 and 225 m, respectively. The vertical distance from the sump pool level to the pump
centerline is 2 m. What type of pump would you recommend?
4-36. In Problem 4-35, if the temperature is 20°C, has cavitation occurred?
4-37. Compute the inlet and outlet manometric heads in Problem 4-35.
4-38. In Problem 4-35, what are the inlet and outlet total dynamic heads? From the values of
TIDH and TODH, calculate TDH.
4-39. In Problem 4-35, what is the NPSH using
2 /

(a) a =P =D = Pam ~ Po—he (or+hy) — he

2g 0
2 / 2
(b) Nes = 324 2 = 324(4,+ om 7
“8 v +8 NM,
4-40. In Example 4-18, calculate the percent errors in the answers if the characteristic curves of
the pumps are not corrected for the station losses.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cooper, C. D., and F. C. ALLEY (1986). Air Pollution Control: A Design Approach. Waveland
Press, Prospect Heights, IL.
DANIELSON, D. A. (1973). Air Pollution Engineering Manual. Office of Air Quality Planning and
Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC.
HaAmMMe_R, M. J. (1986). Water and Wastewater Technology. Wiley, New York.
McGueEzE, T. J. (1991). Water Supply and Sewerage. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Peavy, H. S., D. R. Rowe, and G. TCHOBANOGLOUS (1985). Environmental Engineering. McGraw-
Hill, New York.
Qasim, S. R. (1985). Wastewater Treatment Plants: Planning, Design, and Operation. Holt, Rinehart
and Winston, New York.
 CHAPTER 5

Introduction to Environmental
Quality Modeling

Environment connotes surroundings; and surroundings include the air, surface water, and
soil. The environment of soil includes the vadose zone and the groundwater. Envi-
ronmental quality modeling is defined as the representation of the various characteristic
quality processes that occur in the air, surface water, and soil. In general, environmental
quality modeling deals with the effect of waste discharges on the quality of the envi-
ronment. These wastes may be hazardous or conventional in nature. Hazardous wastes
include such wastes as pesticides and radioactive materials; conventional wastes are such
wastes as the familiar biochemical oxygen demand.
The environmental qualities of air, surface water, and soil are the prototypes; the
representations of these qualities are called models. In the form of mathematical equa-
tions, the models are called mathematical models. If actually representing smaller- or
larger-scale versions of the prototypes, the models are called physical models. Mathe-
matical models that are programmed in a computer by using various computer languages,
such as FORTRAN, QuickBASIC, and Turbo Pascal, are called computer models. In
this chapter we derive mathematical models of air quality, surface water quality, and
subsurface water quality. Subsurface water refers to the underground waters, which,
in turn, can be subdivided into the vadose or unsaturated zone and the groundwater
zone.

167
 168 Introduction to Environmental Quality Modeling Chap. 5

GENERAL POLLUTANT MATERIAL BALANCE

From the Reynolds transport theorem, let @, the property per unit mass, be designated
as c’, the mass of any pollutant per unit mass of the control mass. Then c’(p) = c, the
mass of any pollutant per unit space volume, where p is the mass density of the control
mass. (For discussions on the Reynolds transport theorem and the meaning of con-
trol mass, the reader should read these topics in Appendix 21 or in any book on fluid
mechanics.) Substituting into the theorem and simplifying gives us
D )
a ee (5-1)

where D/Dt is the material derivative and v is the velocity vector. The left-hand side of
equation (5-1) is the Lagrangian method of describing the rate of change of c, while the
right-hand side is the equivalent Eulerian method of describing the rate of change of the
same property, c. (Again, see Appendix 21 for the meaning of the Lagrangian method
and its counterpart, the Eulerian method. It should be noted here that by this theorem the
boundaries of the control mass and the control volume coincide. The Lagrangian method
addresses the control mass, and the Eulerian method addresses the control volume.)

SURFACE WATER QUALITY MODELING

Figure 5-1 shows a picture of a surface water body in the Everglades, Florida. Models
of surface water similar to this are derived in this section. The basis of surface water
quality modeling is the pollutant material balance equation, equation (5-1). But from the
definition of the material derivative, Dc/Dt = dc/dt+Vcev. Therefore, cVev = 0, and
De *0e dc dc dc dc
—S = — V = } (5-2)
Dp gp Dey OE eee a ae Nee ial a
where x,y, and z, are the Cartesian coordinates and u,v, and w are the respective
components of v in the x, y, and z directions.
The concentration c may be present in the dissolved form cg and in the sorbed
form Cs,. Cs, may be defined as the mass of solute per unit mass of solids or sedi-
ments suspended in water. The concentration of solids may, in turn, be designated as
ms, the mass of solids per unit volume of water. It has been observed that pollutants
in water, particularly the hydrophobic organics, may be sorbed onto sediment particles,
the c,,.'_ This sorption phenomenon is due largely to the carbon content of the parti-
cles. Hence, corresponding to these two forms, in a unit of space volume, two material
derivatives should be written: D(ncg)/Dt and D(Cspnm;)/Dt, where n, the porosity or
volume fraction occupied by water, is used to convert concentrations to space values.

'USEPA (1988). WASP4, A Hydrodynamic and Water Quality Model: Model Theory, User’s Manual, and
Programmer’s Guide. EPA/600/3-87/039. Environmental Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Athens, Ga., p. 105.
Surface Water Quality Modeling 169

Figure 5-1 Surface water body in the Everglades, Florida.

Equation (5-2) then becomes

D(cq) D(Csp Ms ) d(C) ) (Csp MN s ) ( OCq OCq dCq

Di Di TE eay HERD Tee) eee

The concentration cy 1s expressed as the mass of solute per unit volume of water.
cq is larger than solute concentrations referred to space. The porosity 7 is used to
convert cy to its equivalent concentration referred to space. The same statement holds
for m,.
Csp 18 expressed as the mass of the adsorbate pollutant per unit mass of the adsorbent
particle. c,, and cg are related to each other by the partition coefficient Ks, as follows:

Csp = KnCad (5-4)

K,, is related to Ks. by

K sp = top Kse (5-5)

where f,, 1s the mass fraction of carbon in the particles and K,, is the partition coefficient
of the solute between water and carbon. Equation (5-5) is interpreted to mean that sorption
into the solid is due to the carbon fraction it contains.
The partition coefficient is a measure of the distribution of the pollutant between
water and solid. It is determined by mixing the chemical in the system and determining
170 Introduction to Environmental Quality Modeling Chap. 5

the concentrations in the resulting phases after standing. The ratio of the chemical con-
centration in the solid phase to that in the liquid phase is the partition coefficient.
A unit volume of space is occupied by the water, pollutant solute, and sediment
particles. cy, which is a mass per unit volume of water, is equivalent to ncy when
expressed in terms of mass per unit volume of space. Also, cs, = Kspcg 1s equivalent to
fep KscCamsn in mass per unit volume of space. c is in mass per unit volume of space.
In terms of cg and fp KsceCamsn(= Csp),

Cc = NCq Ar ies KyceCaMs)] = can(l te ep nerita) (5-6)

In terms of space volume, the fraction of the dissolved pollutant fa is, therefore,

faztt= Gl
us a
= (5-7)
c can (1 a fep Ks-ms) Le Sep KscMs

The corresponding fraction of pollutants sorbed onto the particles /;, is

f a CspMs1) ae Sep KscCaingh mn Sep KscCamsn a Sep Kscms (5 8)

Con c i c = can( se Sep KscMs) os I aie Joep KsctMs

When samples of river water are taken and concentrations measured, the values
obtained are not for c but for cg. Hence cg is the practical concentration to be used. In
equation (5-3), c has been expressed in terms of cg and c,,. By the use of equations (5-4)
and (5-5), cs, may be expressed in terms of cg as

Csp = Ves K scCa (5-9)

Substituting equation (5-9) into equation (5-3) and simplifying yields

D(neq) 0(7Ca) a a ac,

i CE it ae: = oF (14+ fepKscms)7 («Espace aoaaes OB Ce]
Ox dy Oz

Equation (5-10) has been derived to predict the concentration of any dissolved pollut-
ant in water. The corresponding equation for c,, may be obtained by following similar
mathematical steps. The result is

Diness) ( | ) I(NCsp) ( |
rill, | = ie
Dt : fep K 5c ot digg Kye
(5-11)
ae 1 (
u
ICsp z v ICsp r w OCsp
Sep Kye OX di OZ

Example 5-1

It is desired to model the concentration of suspended solids m, in water. Write the model
equation.

Solution

Dims Ooms Ooms OMs OMs

Answer
Di ae gg Te ariaiies2
Surface Water Quality Modeling vice

Material Derivative, D(7c,) /Dt

To complete equation (5-10), the material derivative should be evaluated. From fluid
mechanics, the material derivative is the Lagrangian method of evaluating a rate of
change (see Appendix 24). Hence the material derivative is a Lagrangian derivative. In
the Lagrangian method, the control mass (water in the present case) is not allowed to pass
through the control mass boundary; however, its properties, such as heat and momentum,
can pass through. In this method of description, the control mass is followed everywhere
it goes around in the surroundings, and the fate of any given property transpiring inside
it is tracked. In the present case, this property is the concentration cy. Since the control
mass is not allowed to cross the boundary, the only way that this property can change is
for cy to diffuse or disperse across the boundary or for it to decay or grow in the control
mass. Diffusion and dispersion here are collectively called dispersion.
Dispersion of pollutants or any substance can be from the outside to the inside of
the control mass boundary, or vice versa. There are three possible cases that determine
the direction of dispersion: the first case is when the substance is conservative, the second
case is when the substance is nonconservative, and the third case is when the substance
is growing inside the control mass. Conservative substances are those substances that
do not decay, while nonconservative substances are those substances that do decay. An
example of a conservative substance is salt, an example of a nonconservative substance
is BOD, and an example of a growing substance is algae inside the control mass. Each
of these possible cases will have have its own direction of dispersion and total derivative
(the material derivative).
Ascertaining the direction of dispersion is very important, as it will govern the
form of the differential equation that represents the process. The differential equation
for processes where the direction of dispersion is from the inside to the outside of the
control mass is different from those differential equations where the dispersion is from
the outside to the inside of the control mass.
Consider a control mass as small as a point holding a conservative pollutant. As
this mass moves about in its surroundings, the pollutant has two choices: remain in its
place in the point control mass or move away. Hence, if dispersion is to occur, it would
be away from the control mass toward the surroundings. Now, start with the same point
control mass, again, but this time with a nonconservative pollutant. Since the pollutant is
nonconservative, it will decay, and as it decays, a void will exist at its location. This void
will clearly create a concentration gradient from the vicinity toward the point. Thus the
direction of dispersion of nonconservative substances is from the outside of the control
mass toward the inside.
In addition to the normal pollutants that are “floating” in the water column and
diffusing toward the voids created by decay, pollutant sources may also exist distributed
along the path of travel of the control mass. Although these sources will diffuse toward
the voids, their motion toward the voids will be considered as a direct input G expressed
in units of mass per unit time per unit volume of space. An example of these sources is
the sediment oxygen demand, the organic substances deposited at streambeds, and leaves
of trees falling into streams.
 172 Introduction to Environmental Quality Modeling Chap. 5

The third possible case, growth, is exemplified by the growing of algae inside the
control mass. Since it is growing, algae will accumulate and therefore must disperse out
of the control mass. Hence for growth processes, the direction of dispersion is from the
inside toward the outside.
Inside the control mass, the decay or growth of cg may be biological, chemical,
or physical. An example of a biological reaction is the consumption of the pollutant by
microorganisms; an example of a chemical reaction is the disappearance of the substance
by hydrolysis; and an example of a physical reaction is settling. All these reactions
may be considered separately, grouped according to similarity of reactions, or lumped
into one. These reactions are called kinetic reactions or kinetic transformations. Kinetic
reactions may decrease or increase cg, as when the substance is one that is growing in
the control mass.
The dispersion, kinetic transformation, G, and the like make up the member ele-
ments of the material derivative. Calling j the vector of dispersion, k the lumped decay
coefficient, 7 the unit normal vector to the control surface A of control mass M, and ju
the growth coefficient, the material derivative (total derivative) equations corresponding
to the conservative, nonconservative, and growing substances are, respectively,

posi en)dA conservative substance

A

fjenaat | —knesd¥
[ eae A M
nonconservative substances (6-12)
M Dt
+f +Gd¥
M

$i en)dA+ i)“ncgd¥ — growing substances

A M

V is the volume of the control mass, which by the Reynolds transport theorem, is
also equal to the volume of the control volume since the respective boundaries of the
two systems coincide.
When dispersion is going out of the control mass, j and 7 have the same signs,
and when dispersion is going into the control mass, j and 7 have opposite signs. (The
positive n is always normal to the control mass boundary, on the outside, and pointing
in the direction away from the control-mass boundary surface. In the first and the last
of equations (5-12), dispersion is going out of the control mass; hence the positive sign
has been prefixed. In the second equation, dispersion is going toward the control mass;
therefore, the negative sign has been prefixed. On the other hand, the kinetic coefficient
is negative when cg is disappearing or decaying and positive when cy is increasing. To
conform to these conventions, the negative sign has been used for k and the positive sign
has been used for jz. Finally, G as a source is always positive. Using the Gauss—Green
theorem (see Appendix 20) to the surface integrals and canceling d¥ in the limit, the
 Surface Water Quality Modeling 173

total derivative differential equations are, respectively,

D(ncq) (+V ej) conservative substances

c
=: = { (-Vej)—kncgt+G nonconservative substances (5-13)
(+V ej) + uNCca growing substances

j is equal to E e[—V(ncq)], where E is the dispersion tensor. For dispersion to occur, it

must flow in the direction of decreasing concentration; thus the concentration gradient,
V (neq), is inherently negative. A negative sign is therefore prefixed to make the entire
gradient term positive. Also, 7 has been inserted in the argument (before V) since cq is
a concentration in the water while the gradient is with respect to the space. Substituting
gives

5 V e{Ee[—V(1cq) conservative substances

en = 1 —Ve{Ee[—V(ncqg)] —kncg + G nonconservative substances (5-14)
V e {Ee [—V(ncg)] + “NC growing substances

The second-order tensor FE in the xyz coordinates is

E = Exii + Ey OP kee PET

" i, = ry, (5-15)
BEB} (kan EAM Byki De kk

where i, j, and k are the unit vectors in the x, y, and z directions, respectively. Also, in
the xyz coordinates V is

(0) x) 0
V =i—+j7—t+k— (5-16)
ae OZ

Substituting these expressions for EF and V in the nonconservative substance equa-

tion of equation (5-14) and simplifying yields

ae (é.anca a) ( anca a) “Ks

wea Eyy—— = pr ley
=|= a
Ox fepe AN 8 Ah Ox Pek
r) OnCcd ry) ( OnCa r) “ie
ES jee + — | E,,— 5=17/
aS (5: Ox ie Tay, dy ore )
0 0 Cd 0 Onca 0 ( 0 Cd )
—|E., +—|E., +—|E,, —kncg+G
+o ( 720% ) mall oy dz @ ihe a

Dispersion (or diffusion) is a process that passes normal to an area. Dispersion

coefficients with mixed indices such as E,, and Fy, signify dispersion parallel to an
area, not normal to it; hence terms containing are zero. Therefore, equation (5-17) and
 174 Introduction to Environmental Quality Modeling Chap. 5

the rest of equations (5-14) become

a) a) a) ONC,
Ae BIT © Fee ee ai ree Eye)
Ox Ox dy dy
conservative substances
0
S|
OnCa

Lay ( ~ OK )
0 0 C 0 0 a

D(nca) a. Ox Ox dy dy
nonconservative substances
(Es. 3 | )i (e : ) )

Dt a) )
fa (E. al ie, OG
0 OnCca a) OnCca
—|— ( Ey, — | E,,
al Se | ack: growing substances
vi@) E OnCg Ee
—|E..
az ae c
HMNCd
(5-18)
Equations (5-18) are the material derivatives of cy. If the growing substances also
decay, such as in death, the decay coefficient may also be incorporated.

Complete Material Balance Equations

Since the volume of the particles is extremely small, 7 ZS ll. Respectively substituting
equations (5-18) into equation (5-10), considering that 7 Wale and rearranging, we have

Cg au 0 E 0Ca a 0 E 0Ca ae 0 E 0Ca

Of Ox tax Oy Nom Oz \ Oz
a | Ca . OCq An Ca 0 ti b t
era ea
——————— ae
| u— +0 Dy U ) az = conservative
f substances

OG 0 0 ¢ 0 0 " a) 0 a

— PAT one are ies Eyy =a ; Ee <1)

Ot Ox Ox CV anand y) OZ OZ
o | OCa a. OCa A. OCq
———————_ Ju—. +-v—— )
se hha cealdd Ox dy - Oz

+kcg—-G=0 nonconservative substances

Cg 0 OCa 0 0Ca 0 Cd
— et | rage oh ee ae | Hz
a a ( coor )i dy ( cary i ae ( ey
te 0Cd OCaq OCa 0 ; b
—————_—_——
1+ a ean |i Dy Vv a ; Ww De LEGA — or
growingo substances
q

(5-19)
Equations (5-19) are the complete pollutant material balance differential equation in the
xyz coordinates.
Surface Water Quality Modeling 175

Transport Terms and Determination of Dispersion

Coefficients

The terms ‘ax

“4 (E,,"XX %),
ax)? +dy (EYYye),
ay }? 4
az (E..%4)
az and the term containing u a4 + v4
dy +
wee of equation (5-19) are called transport terms. The terms containing the E’s are the
dispersive transport and the terms containing the velocity components are the convective
or advective transport. For the dispersive transport terms, three types of dispersion
coefficients are often encountered in practice. The first is the dispersion coefficient in
streams and rivers, the second is the dispersion coefficient in tidal waters, and the third
is the dispersion coefficient in lakes and reservoirs or open bodies of water. In streams
and rivers, although there are strictly dispersions sidewise to the direction of flow, the
predominant one is in the longitudinal dispersion in the direction of flow. Furthermore, as
far as sidewise dispersion is concerned, after complete mixing downstream from a point
of pollutant discharge, there is practically zero concentration gradient in this sidewise
direction. Hence the three diffusive transport coefficients, E,,, Eyy, and E,,, reduce to
only one. If the x coordinate is taken as the longitudinal direction, the only dispersion
coefficient is E,,.
Fisher and others” suggested that the following equation be used for estimating
E,,, in mi’/day, in streams and rivers.
2 R2
|e elie ee (5-20)
jal Of
U is the mean velocity in fps, B the mean width in feet, H is the mean depth in feet,
and U* is the shear velocity in fps. From hydraulics, U* is

U* = ./gHs (5-21)
where g = 32.17 fps” and s is the energy slope.
Based on an evaluation of 18 streams and 40 time of travel studies with flows
ranging from 35 to 33,000 cfs, river bed slopes ranging from 0.00015 to 0.0098, and
Froude number F less than 0.5 (F = U/./gH), McQuivey and Keefer’ proposed the
following equation for predicting E,,, in mi?/day:

(ae 1.8(10-4) & (5-22)

5oB

Q is the river flow in cfs, sq is the bed slope, and B is the mean river width in feet.
Time-of-travel studies is the terminology given to a procedure of determining the average
velocity of a stream. This is usually accomplished by dumping a tracer dye at an upstream

2H. B. Fisher, E. J. List, R. C. Y. Koh, J. Imberger, and N. H. Brooks (1979). Mixing in Inland and
Coastal Waters. Academic Press, New York.
3R. §. McQuivey and T. N. Keefer (1974). “Simple Method for Predicting Dispersion in Streams.”
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers,
100(EE4), pp. 997-1011.
176 Introduction to Environmental Quality Modeling Chap. 5

river point and taking note of the time taken for the dye to travel to a downstream
river point of a known distance from the upstream point. From the data, the average
velocity can thus be calculated. Note that equations (5-20) and (5-22) are dimensional
equations.

Example 5-2
A river flow of 200 cfs has a mean depth 5 ft and a mean width of 40 ft. The bed slope is
0.0014. Using the two equations above, calculate E,,.

Solution
UPB
Exx = 3.4(10~>)
lahtUr
U* = ./gHs; assume that s = bed slope of so = 0.0014.

200
U= — 1 fps
5(40)

U* = ,/32.17(5)(0.0014) = 0.475 fps

Therefore,

Ee = S405 5, 50475)
1740? 2
= 0.023 mi“/day Answer

U
= — = — = 0.079
< 0.5
Veait” AOE

Ex, =1 g1o-4) =] Nile Sate = (.642 mi*/day Answer

ara Baas 0.001440) 3
Note: These results show that values of E,, depend on the source of the information.

A better method for predicting E,, is as follows. Dump a conservative dye at some
point in a stream and determine the resulting average dye concentrations at one or more
downstream points. The average concentrations at these downstream points will have
been reduced due to dispersion. Using equation (5-18), neglecting sidewise dispersion,
the material balance equation with n = | is
D
GG; d*ca
di
Tae a CaP
ax? Oe)
-2

In the Lagrangian method, the control mass is followed. Hence, for a differential
strip distance of dx traversed, dt is equal to dx/u, where u is the longitudinal velocity.
Substituting and rearranging, equation (5-23) becomes

d*ca dcq
Ey,— +u =) (5-24)
“~ dx? dx
Surface Water Quality Modeling 177

Using the point where the dye is dumped as the origin results in the following
boundary conditions: cg = cg when x = 0 and cg = 0 when x = 00 . The solution is

Cli Cape (5-25)

Because of dispersion, the mass of dye will not arrive at the downstream points
at the same time, but some will arrive sooner and some will arrive later. The time lag
between the first arrival and the latest arrival is a proportionate measure of the dispersion
coefficient E,,. Any average dye concentration cy at a downstream point may be obtained
by taking the time-average concentration. The equation is

7 >». Caiti
Cd (5-26)
iy Th)

where f¢; is the time interval during which cg; is the average concentration, and f; and fy
are the first and last times of arrival, respectively.
Put equation (5-25) in a form suitable for the field determination of F,,. Rearrang-
ing this equation produces
uUXx
1 a ee (5-27)
In (cg /cao)
Example 5-3
A dye study was conducted at the free-flowing portion of Grays Inn Creek in the town of
Rock Hall in eastern Maryland on November 16, 1987. Approximately 6.7 g of Rhodamine
WT in 100 mL of solution was dumped at the discharge point of the lagoon treatment plant,
resulting in a concentration cgo of 5.0(10’) g/L a few feet downstream. The resulting
concentrations monitored over time at a distance of 1047 m downstream are shown in the
following table. The stream time-of-travel velocity was 8373 m/day, and its flow was
900 m?/day. Calculate E,,.

Time, A.M. Concentration (ppb) Time, A.M. Concentration (ppb)

09:20 0.0 09:30 0.0

09:40 0.03 09:45 0.17
09:50 0.70, 09:55 3.0
10:00 9.0 10:05 19.0
10:10 30.0 10:15 39.0
10:20 43.5 10:25 50.0
10:30 510 10:35 52.0
10:40 50.0 10:45 48.0
10:50 45.0 NOs 42.0
11:00 39.0 Hlests) 31.0
11:30 24.0 11:45 19.0
12:00 16.0 12:30 12.0
13:00 6.4 14:00 4.7
15:00 1.8 16:00 0.70
17:00 0.0 18:00 0.0
178 Introduction to Environmental Quality Modeling Chap. 5

Solution

a cae
eS 2 I FS 10:03 452280) 50.17 G0 40020 165)
ag Tree GN
+ 3.0(60 — 50) + 9.0(65 — 55) + 19(10 — 0.0) + 30(15 — 5) + 39(20 — 10)
+43.5(25 — 15) + 50(30 — 20) + 52(35 — 25) + 52(40 — 30) + 50(45 — 35)
+ 48(50 — 40) + 45(55 — 45) + 42(60 — 50) + 39(75 — 55) + 31(30 — 0)
+ 24(45— 15)+ 19(60 — 30) + 16(90 —45) + 12(60) + 6.4(90)
+ 4.7(120)
+ 1,8(120) + 0.7(120)] = Z=(10.714.15) = 23.81 ppb = 23.81 ug/L

‘ 3(104 :
fee ae Be LONI aes (03 (lasing lag ewer
In(ca/cao) __‘In{23.81/5.0(107)]

Diffusion is an intrinsic property of the pollutant diffusing, whereas dispersion is a

property of the medium (water, in our case) through which the pollutant is dispersing—
the pollutant is mechanically dispersed by turbulence. Since the pollutant is mechanically
dispersed, this dispersion is called mechanical dispersion. In other words, dispersion is
a function of the mechanical movement of the medium (i.e., on the degree of turbulence,
not on the pollutant). Since diffusion and mechanical dispersion cannot be separated
from each other, a single term called hydrodynamic dispersion is used to characterize
these processes together. Since dispersion coefficient is not a function of the dispers-
ing chemical, any conservative chemical may be used for its determination; the value
thus obtained may henceforth be used as the coefficient for any substance or chemical
dispersing in the particular stretch of water.
In tidal water waters, the flow behavior is such that water rushes toward inland
during flood tides and empties toward the sea during ebb tides. Theoretically, one could
obtain dispersion coefficients for each of the flooding and ebbing tide regimes. For
practical purposes, however, this is not warranted, but rather, a tidally averaged value
is determined. The corresponding velocity to be used is the net advective velocity, also
called the tidally averaged velocity.

E,, from a Natural Tracer

Develop a method for determining the tidally averaged E,, by taking advantage of a
natural tracer that exists in estuaries—salt. The value obtained will then be applicable to
the particular stretch of estuary or tidal river.
Follow a parcel of water from the headwaters. At its origin the water is fresh;
however, as it approaches the mouth of the estuary it becomes contaminated with salt:
The direction of dispersion is therefore from the outside to the inside and the conserva-
tive equation of equation (5-18) must be modified. Neglecting sidewise dispersion, the
Surface Water Quality Modeling 179

conservative material balance equation after rearranging and transposing terms is thus
d E dcq dcq 0 (5 28)
See (Cae) ta — =
dx AX dx
Consider as an origin any point in the estuary where the concentration is some value
cao. Imagine traversing in the direction upstream from this point until the concentration is
zero. Hence, with the upstream direction negative, the boundary conditions are cg = Cgo
at x = O and cg = 0 at x = —ow. The auxiliary equation of equation (5-28) is
Ey,xm’ —um =0 (5-29)
With this auxiliary equation along with the boundary conditions, the solution is

Ca = Cao EXP (=) Sh (5-30)

ES In(ca/cao)
Example 5-4
Thirty miles upstream from the mouth of the Hudson Estuary, the following average chloride
concentrations were obtained: 5000 mg/L, 5029 mg/L, and 4996 mg/L. At a point 48 miles
upstream from the mouth, the chloride concentrations are 1800 mg/L and 1850 mg/L. The
tidally averaged velocity is 0.025 fps. Calculate Fy.

Solution
ee a

In (es)
i oe ae 5

Use the 30-mile point as the origin:

5000 + 5029 + 4996

€d30 = Cd0 = ssid Waks Sb SaiaaEs 5008.33 mg/L

1800 + 1850
CnC . = 1825 mg/L at the 48-mile point
a

Thus,
0.025[—(48 — 30)(5280)]
°F ae! = T5359) ft?/s = 1) mi’/day Answer
In(1825/5,008.33)

General Values of Dispersion Coefficients

For discharges into lakes and reservoirs or open bodies of water, since the hydrodynamic
motion is conceivably in all directions, the most general equation [equation (5-19)] should
be the one applied to the conservative tracer under consideration. The resulting equation
should be solved numerically. For a conservative tracer dumped into the body of water,
equation (5-19) becomes
0Ca 0Ca 0Cq 0 0Ca 0 ( =) Ca Ca 0Ca
eee | | ot— | Ey —— | + — | Ex i ()
at Ox (i | dy \ ” dy ve MO ax dy az
(6-31)
180 introduction to Environmental Quality Modeling Chap. 5

To use equation (5-31) in solving the dispersion coefficients, the concentrations of

the tracer cy from several node points in the lake or open body of water must be sampled
for. (Node points are the points in the water body that are utilized in a particular method
of numerical analysis.) If wu, v, and w are known and if the equation has been programmed
into a computer, the dispersion coefficients may be determined by matching computer
results of concentration using assumed coefficients with the field-sampled values. The
assumed coefficient values that produce computer concentration results that match with
the observed cy field values are the correct dispersion coefficients. If the u,v, and
w values are not known, the momentum equation must also be programmed into the
computer and the velocities determined. The results are then coupled to equation (5-31)
to determine the coefficients.
In lakes or reservoirs, sediments settle to the bottom and later decompose. The
decomposition products then disperse from the bottom upward to the main body of water.
Since the decomposition products are distributed all over the bottom, the concentration
in any horizontal dimension in the main water body is constant or practically so; hence
the concentration gradient is zero in this direction. The only direction of dispersion is
therefore vertical. Once the vertical dispersion coefficient has been determined, the dis-
persal of the bottom-sediment decomposition products may then be modeled as only
moving upward. Some values of tidal water longitudinal dispersion coefficients and lake
vertical dispersion coefficients are shown in Table 5-1.

Kinetic Transformation Term, kcg

The kinetic transformation that a pollutant or any substance may undergo can be one or
more of the following: hydrolysis, photolysis, microbial degradation or growth, settling,
and volatilization. Hydrolysis is the reaction of a chemical or substance with water;
photolysis 1s the breakdown of a chemical due to the absorption of light energy; microbial
degradation results when microorganisms utilize the chemical for food; settling is the
action of gravity on the mass of particles; and volatilization is a process where mol-
ecules of the chemical escape from the liquid surface to enter into the gaseous phase. A
transformation that decreases the concentration is a degradation. In general, excluding
volatilization, k for the degradation of a given pollutant may then be written as

n= Khe Kp a Kaa ae Ks (=32)

where ky, kp, km, and k; correspond to the kinetic coefficients for hydrolysis, photoly-
sis, microbial degradation, and settling, respectively. The reason for the exclusion of
volatilization will be known in the latter part of this chapter.

Laboratory determinations of k values. Field determination of the k values is

not possible because of the possible concurrent occurrences of other processes in the
ambient environment. Hence individual k values should be determined in the laboratory
where other variables can be controlled. For example, if k, is to be determined, the
acidity or basicity of the sample may be adjusted to a suitable pH. The disappearance of
the test chemical can then be determined at several intervals of time and k;,, subsequently,
Surface Water Quality Modeling 181

TABLE 5-1 TIDAL WATER LONGITUDINAL DISPERSION

COEFFICIENTS, Exx, AND LAKE VERTICAL DISPERSION
COEFFIGIENTSs E

Piper (mi?/day) or
Water body Type E-(cm?
/s)

Cape Fear River, NC Tidal 7

Compton Creek, NJ Tidal
Wappinger and Fishkill Creek, NY Tidal 1
River Foyle, N. Ireland Tidal S)
Upper Delaware River Tidal 7
Lower Delaware River Tidal 7
Upper Potomac River Tidal 6
Lower Potomac River Tidal 10
Hudson River, NY Tidal 30
East River, NY Tidal 15
Cooper, SC Tidal 30
South River, NJ Tidal 5
Houston Ship Channel, TX Tidal 30
Southern San Francisco Bay Tidal 6
Northern San Francisco Bay Tidal 50
Rio Quayas, Ecuador Tidal 25
Thames River, England, low flow Tidal 3
Thames River, England, high flow Tidal 1
Lake Vomb, Sweden Lake 20
Lake Mein, Sweden Lake 10
Lake Ontario, United States and Canada __Lake 10
Rochester Bay, Lake Ontario Lake yD
Lake Erie, Central Basin Lake 1
Cayuga Lake, NY Lake 2,
Atlantic Ocean, east of Barbados
0 to 10-m depth Ocean 7-45 cm?/s
30 to 40-m depth Ocean 0.25-0.85 cm?/s

calculated. Imagine determining k,, in the field, where k,,k,, and k, are happening at
the same time.

Hydrolysis. Hydrolysis reactions may be neutral, acid catalyzed, or base cat-

alyzed. Recall that in previous equations the term containing k is a part of the material
or Lagrangian derivative. In Chapter 2 this term was called R derivative. Hence the
hydrolysis rate will be designated by the R Lagrangian derivative, R,,. In neutral hydrol-
ysis, the hydrogen and hydroxyl ions balance out; however, in acid or base hydrolysis,
there is excess of either ions. In acid or base hydrolysis, because of the excess, ions
affect the rate of reaction; neutral reactions are not affected by these ions. The three
rates for neutral R;,,,, acid-catalyzed Rj;,q, and base-catalyzed reactions Rj,» are presented
in the respective equations

Rin = Kin Cd (5-33)

182 Introduction to Environmental Quality Modeling Chap. 5

Rha = —Kna{H* }ca (5-34)

Kip pp Ole en (5-35)

where {-} is the symbol for “activity of,” kj, is the k, for neutral hydrolysis, kjq is the
k;, for acid hydrolysis, and kp» is the k, for base-catalyzed hydrolysis. The rates for
the acid-catalyzed and base-catalyzed reactions are assumed first order in each of the
concentrations; hence the overall rates are second order. The minus signs are used since
Cq will decrease.
Under neutral conditions, ky, is simply kpj,; at other conditions,

kn = Kral” |+ k,p[OH| (5-36)

The overall values of k, may range from 107! to 1077 per day.
k, may be corrected for temperature using the Arrhenius law as follows:
kn ERE — Th)
Shika kg et 37)
"km R(T)
where the subscripts | and 2 refer to the first and second conditions, respectively. E and
R are the activation energy and gas constant (= 8.314 J/mol-K), respectively. 6 is the
temperature correction factor.
Example 5-5
A laboratory experiment on a certain pollutant found the values of kjg and kyp to be
2.01107) L/mol-day and 10 L/mol-day, respectively, at 25°C. Compute k, at pH 6 and
25°C. What is R;, if cq for the pollutant is 10-7 mol/L? If the activation energy is 26,000
J/mol, what is R;, at 30°C?

Solution

pOH= 14— pH= 14-6=8

Thus,

[H+] =10-° mol/L = [OH~] = 10-8 mol/L

kh = knalH*] + knp[OH™ ]= 2.0(107)(10-©) + 10(1078) = 2.0(10~4) per day Answer

Rn = —knca = 2.0(10~4)(10-) = —2.0(10~") mol/L-day Answer

SUE TotasTg)
Kn R(T, T2)

T, = 30+ 273 = 303 K t= 2522731

= 298K

Therefore,

kn2 __ 26,000(303 — 298)

a. ————— = = 0.173 no = 2. =e
2.0(10-4) _ 8.314(303)(298) Rg 2 810% Voerday

Rp = —2.38(10~*)(10-3) = —2.0(1077) mol/L-day Answer

Surface Water Quality Modeling 183

Photolysis. | When a photon of light energy hv is absorbed by a molecule, the

molecule becomes unstable and a number of reactions becomes possible. These possi-
bilities are shown below.

hv absorption
Ao > A* > intersystem crossing ————> A*
— > Ao + heat (internal conversion)
—> Ao+ hy» (fluorescence)

— > Agt+ Q (quenching)

—-, chemical reaction (photooxidation,
photoreduction, photoisomerization,
photosubstitution, photoaddition,
photofragmentation, and photohydrolysis)

As shown above, an original molecule in its ground state Ag absorbs a photon of light
of energy hv, converting the molecule into its excited state A*. From A*, five paths are
possible. In the first path, the excess energy may be transferred to another molecule,
forming the excited molecule A” through a process called intersystem crossing. Ao,
in this case, only serves as a sensitizer. In the second path, the energy absorbed may
simply be released, reverting the molecule back to the ground state in a process called
internal conversion. In the third path, the excited molecule may re-release its photon of
energy /v, reverting the molecule back to its original ground state. This process is called
fluorescence. A second molecule Qo in its ground state may absorb the energy from the
first molecule, transforming the second molecule into its heated state O; This process
is called quenching. Or, in the last possible path, the excited molecule A* may undergo
several chemical reactions.
The excited molecule A® formed from the intersystem crossing undergoes further
reactions in accordance with the following possible schemes:

A> —————> A* —— A, + heat (internal conversion)

—>+ Ay + hv (phosphorescence)

— > Aot+ Q
— chemical reaction (photooxidation,
photoreduction, photoisomerization,
photosubstitution, photoaddition,
photofragmentation, and photohydrolysis)
184 Introduction to Environmental Quality Modeling Chap. 5

The explanations for these possible paths are similar to the first set of possible schemes,
except for phosphorescence. Phosphorescence is the term given for the second emission
of hv. The first emission is called fluorescence. Heat energy released in phosphorescence
is smaller than in fluorescence.
Let the R derivative of photolysis be designated by R, and the amount of pho-
ton absorbed by A. R, is a function of A and cg; hence, assuming first order in
each,

Ry = =Kpn Aca (5-38)

As it stands, A is not an easy parameter to determine. The easier way is to lump kp~A
into k,, which makes this a pseudo-first-order coefficient. k, may be determined in the
laboratory by measuring the decrease of cg at intervals of time using a simulated sunlight
and using equation (5-38). The value obtained may be used as the coefficient at the water
surface in the ambient or environment kp. kpo is the k, at the surface which corresponds
to the light intensity at the surface.
Light is attenuated as it penetrates below the surface according to the Lambert—Beer
law. Hence, using the law, dk, /dz = —K-k,, and k, at any depth is derived as

Kp = Kno eXp(— KZ) (5-39)

K, is the light extinction coefficient. A factor may also have to be incorporated to con-
sider the effect of cloud cover. An empirical relationship relating K, to Secchi depth
Zs was presented in Chapter 2. Table 5-2 shows some values of z,. Example kpo
values for naphthalene and benzo[a]pyrene are 0.23 per day and 31 per day, respec-
tively.

TABLE 5-2 VALUES OF SECCHI DEPTHS, Zs

Water body and location Zs (m)

Delaware at Trenton, NJ DS)

Delaware at Philadelphia, PA 0.8
Tahoe 90
Ontario 92
Sewage stabilization pond, Kadoka, SD 0.2

Example 5-6

If the average concentration of benzo[a]pyrene in Lake Ontario is 10~* mmol/L and kyo = 31
per day, what is the rate of decay due to photolysis R, at a 4-m depth?

Solution

Kp = Kpo exp(— Kez)

Kea Lio Metrompltables=2

Surface Water Quality Modeling 185

Thus,

K.= Ls et ee
e= 92 =VU.LmMm

Kp = (31) exp[—0.2(4)] = 13.93 per day

Therefore,

R, = —13.93(10-°) mol/L-day Answer

Microbial kinetics. The process of microbial degradation of pollutants, microbial

growth, and microbial death is called microbial kinetics. Metabolism and cometabolism
are responsible for the microbial degradation of a substance. Metabolism is the term used
when the substance is used for food by microbes for growth and energy. These microbes
may include bacteria, algae, and fungi. Cometabolism occurs when the substance is de-
graded, not as a food, but coincidentally used in the process of consuming the regular
substances used for food. Microbial degradation follows directly from Monod’s equation,
as discussed elsewhere in this book. In water quality modeling, however, the equation
is modified somewhat as shown in what follows. Utilizing Monod’s concept, assuming
that the pollutant in question is the limiting nutrient, the degradation is

Ry = - Ke
UmCd

+ Ca)
(5-40)

where j4,, is the maximum specific growth rate coefficient, [X] is the concentration of
microorganisms consuming the substrate, Y is the specific yield of organisms based on
the limiting nutrient, and K,,, is the half-saturation constant for the substrate. Although
the food cy could change with time, the concentration of organisms X may be considered
constant or changing at a very, very slow rate compared to that of cy. Also, if ca « K¢,,
the denominator is practically constant and all the factors on the right-hand side of
equation (5-40), except cg, can be considered constant. All these factors may then be
lumped into one single microbial decay coefficient k,,. Hence

Rr = hee (5-41)

It must be carefully noted that the basis of equation (5-41) is the assumption that
Ca < K,, and that the pollutant in question is the limiting nutrient. In some situations,
however, the given pollutant may not be the one limiting, but other nutrients, such as
nitrogen and phosphorus. In other words, Ryn = —UmS/[Y
(Ks + S)], where S is the
concentration of the limiting nutrient and Ks is the half-saturation constant for the nutri-
ent. In these cases it is prudent to assume that the rate of disappearance of the pollutant
is proportional to the concentration of microorganisms present and the concentration of
the pollutant (i.e., Rm & ca[X]). At a given situation, the concentration of the organisms
would be constant or changing at an exceedingly slow rate compared to that of cy; thus
[X] in combination with the proportionality constant will be k,,. R,, would then still
186 introduction to Environmental Quality Modeling Chap. 5

be given by equation (5-41). k,, may also be temperature corrected using the Arrhenius
equation. Concomitant with the degradation of the pollutant is the resulting growth of
the microorganisms and their eventual death. Microbial growth and death kinetics are
discussed in Chapter 7.

Example 5-7
A wastewater treatment plant discharges treated sewage into a stream. If the concentration
of BODs 1 mile downstream from the point of discharge is 3 mg/L and k,, is assumed to
be 0.2 per day (in terms of BODs), what is the value of R,, at this point?

Solution

JL
Ro Eee O(a eee OG _ of BODs Answer

Settling. | This process applies only to solids suspended in water and is represented
simply as a first-order process. Using R, to designate rate of settling,

R, = —k,ms (5-42)

where m, is the concentration of suspended solids. Again, as in other k values, k, is

very difficult to determine in the field because of competing processes that can occur all
at the same time. Hence &, should be determined in the laboratory by a settling test.
Representative river samples should be taken. A method is indicated in the following
example.

Example 5-8
A river sample is put in a settling column. At two points in time, samples are taken at the
sampling port, producing the following results: at 0 day, ms; = 20 mg/L; at 2 days, ms =
15 mg/L. Determine the settling coefficient k,.

Solution

R; = —ksms

dms _ k hee ag Ms _ ly 15 0 :
re sie Sia = ; n inh a ne = 0.14 per day Answer

Volatilization. A pollutant dissolved in water with concentration cq will volatilize

into the atmosphere if the equilibrium concentration c? in water corresponding to the
concentration of the pollutant in the air cg is less than cg. By mass transfer theory, the
rate of volatilization R, is

Ry = —Ky(Cg 7 ci) (5-43)

Surface Water Quality Modeling 187

where k, is the overall mass transfer coefficient. c% is related to cy by the Henry’s law
constant Ky as

Crue oO, (5-44)

Substituting in equation (5-43) gives us

Ry = —ky (<u= = ) (5-45)

From equation (5-45), R, is not directly representable as a pseudo-first-order proc-

ess, hence the exclusion in the general k coefficient expression as stated before.
Example 5-9
HoS is liberated if an organic substance containing sulfur is degraded anaerobically. (a) If
there is 10~’ mol/L of H)S in water at equilibrium, what is its concentration cq in air
expressed in mole fraction and in atmospheres? (b) If the concentration in water of H2S
is 10~© mol/L, with the concentration in air found in part (a), what is R, under these
concentration conditions? Ky for H2S is 0.0483(10*) atm/mol fraction at 20°C. Assume
that temperature is 20°C.

Solution

(a) €q = Kyc;

1077
= — 1.8(10~°) mol fraction
4 ~ 10-7 + 1000/18
Thus,

Cq = 0.0483(107)(1.8)(10-°) = 9.011077) mol fraction = 9.0(1077)(1)

= 9.0(10~’) atm Answer

Ca : 9.0(10~7)
eb Ry = —ky (i, )=
|
—k, |107° — TR
FuEae|
|
= =9.98(10- ky = Answer

DO Sag

When an oxygen-consuming pollutant in large concentration is discharged into a stream,

the DO will be initially consumed faster near the point of discharge. This will cause the
oxygen concentration to decrease, which can, in severe cases, deplete the oxygen totally.
Downstream from the discharge point, however, as the CBOD and NBOD are slowly
used up and with the continuous reaeration from the atmosphere, the stream recovers and
the DO goes back up again. The resulting profile of the dissolved oxygen concentration
along the reach of the stream is called the DO sag or DO profile. Because of the presence
188 Introduction to Environmental Quality Modeling Chap. 5

of the oxygen-consuming pollutant, the DO can be below the saturation, O,;; hence the
term sag. A plot of the DO sag is shown in Figure 5-2.
With 7 equals 1 and from the R derivative of DO (Re; see the discussion of kinetics
in Chapter 2), the Lagrangian derivative for dissolved oxygen is

Dc | 0 a ee p 2% ne Bat) + Re+6
Di widte\a 2 OF) ay eae Sorta
) 0c a) ac ) ac 5-46
aes (LB sl a Eno |cai (OAtAC ems 4 aL
Ox Ox y dy OZ

SIP Se Soll Ng the a Gig)

Go is the G of DO, c¢ the concentration of dissolved oxygen, k2 the reaeration coefficient,

O, the dissolved oxygen saturation, P the rate of photosynthesis, R the rate of respiration,
k. the CBOD deoxygenation coefficient, L. the CBOD concentration, k, the nitrogenous
deoxygenation coefficient, and L, the NBOD. An example of when Go can occur is
when the stream is aerated.

~
on

E
Q

3
—
o
a)
(e)
(2)

0 es
0 Distance, x
time of travel
(a)

DO saturation

00 a
x
|
Distance, x
_
(b) time of travel

Figure 5-2 DO sag.

Surface Water Quality Modeling 189

As originally derived by Streeter and Phelps,’ the effects of dispersion, P, R, the

NBOD, and Go were neglected. Hence, equation (5-46) becomes simply

seer 2(0;
Di
aan (O. s _€6) 6 en — tLKeLic (5-47)
fs

In Streeter and Phelps’ derivation, the differential for L, was assumed as DL,/Dt
(or dL, /dt) = —k'L,, which integrates to

DL ems (5-48)
ko) ke kag.) where k,5,1s the rate of settling of CBOD, Lz is Lo att = 0. tis
the oxygen equivalent of the waste. The oxygen consumed at time ¢ is then equal to
ta Ley = La — Lo exp(— Kt) = Lol i exp(—k.2)| Hence the original-oxysen
equivalent of the waste L.o can be obtained by measuring the oxygen consumption y
after any time rt. Thus
y
Lo = ———_—_—
I —exp(—-k.2)
(5-49)

From the definition of the deficit D = O, —c6, Dcg/Dt is —dD/dt. Substituting in

equation (5-47), along with equation (5-48), and using the boundary conditions D = Do
at tf= 0 and D=0 at t = o&, the original DO sag or Streeter—-Phelps equation below
is produced. This assumes that k’ = k..

ixa kel :0 (eh i eH) at Doe (5-50)

We should note that in equation (5-46) the Streeter—Phelps equation is derived as a

Lagrangian equation. In other words, the equation is a model where the pollutant inside
the control mass has been followed as it travels down the water body—the Lagrangian
approach. By this approach the time ¢ can be calculated by the distance the pollutant
(control mass) has traveled divided by the velocity: tf= x/u, where x is the distance
traveled and u is the velocity.
In practice, the most useful application of equation (5-46) is its one-directional
version. First, the Lagrangian derivative of L., L,, P, and R must be simplified so that
the results can be substituted into equation (5-46). DL,/Dt is equal to DL, /(Dx/u) =
u(dL,/dx). In the x-coordinate direction, the Lagrangian derivative of L, is, therefore,

See Lee (5-51)

Graisine.G Otis.

4H. W. Streeter and E. B. Phelps (1925). “A Study of the Pollution and Natural Purification of the Ohio
River.” Public Health Bulletin 146. Treasury Department, U.S. Public Health Service, Washington, D.C.
190 Introduction to Environmental Quality Modeling Chap. 5

Using the boundary conditions L. = L.o when x = 0 and dL,/dx = 0 when

x = too , the solutions of equation (5-51) are

Leoe* Gs:
+ ae 2 | on A
L.= : (5-52)
LapekG.
=a =
=e %t*) x <0

where
u+ fu? + 4Eyxk/. : u—/J/u>+4E,ki.
Soe LM C.. = ——————=
pe DE xx de 2B,
Equations (5-52) are called the downward and upward CBOD transport equations, re-
spectively.
The differential equation for L,, is similar to that of L.. Manipulating this differ-
ential equation similar to that of L. with the following boundary conditions: L,;, = Lino
when x = 0 and dL,,/dx = 0 when x = +o , the solutions are

Let iG,
+ —= (ie?) x 0
Ln = ‘ (5-53)
ee
hae aL — (1 ue Ga)
: ws O

where

u+./u2 +4E,,k, u— Jur +4Ey rk,

Ga and q7= =
Dior Zi
Equations (5-53) are called the downward and upward NBOD transport equations, re-
spectively.
The production of oxygen by photosynthesis P and its utilization by respiration R
is related to the concentration of chlorophyll a, c4, in algae growth. Hence simplify the
Lagrangian derivative of c4 and use the result to calculate the corresponding P and R.
Since algae is growing inside the control mass, the direction of dispersion of chloro-
phyll a is from the inside toward the outside. As a result, the sign for the term containing
Ex. 18 negative. This results in the equation for chlorophyll a corresponding to equa-
tion (5-46) as follows:

dca d*c4
ae a (2.3] + pea + —kacg — kyaca = —(Kg + kya)ca = —Kkc4) (6-54)

/4, is the growth rate coefficient of algae, kg the respiration rate coefficient, and
ks4 18 the settling rate coefficient of chlorophyll a,c4. The boundary conditions are
x = 0,c4 = c4g and x = 200 , de4/dx = 0.” With these boundary ;conditions: the
solutions are
a Qp-*X 5
Ca |rick
C4 et*
ue Q
x = 0
(5-55)
Surface Water Quality Modeling 191

where

<u — \/u? + 4E x. (Mp — kk) —u t+ Ju? +4Eyx (ip — kk)

qu ——— IE
and
dat
=
2Exx
Equations (5-55) are called the downward and upward chlorophyll a transport equations,
respectively.
As derived in Chapter 2, P and R are, respectively,

0 1.24a,-[pcaget-*
pc pC40 : ea) (5-56)
1.24ap-Upca4oet* aa)

as 1.24a,-Kac4pe"*
pcKdC4o 36 cau) (5-57)
1.24a,-kgcage™** m0)

Substituting the expressions for L,, L,, P, and R into the one-directional deficit
form of equation (5-46) in the positive direction and rearranging gives,

d°-D dD ae :
Fh aD Th soe Ke Di 1.24 dpc Mp Cane in 1.24ay-kacage

= k. [re as se
ee o. ay] -_ Kn Eno
Gin
= aa = em] ate Go
5-58)

Using the boundary conditions D = Do at x = 0 and dD/dx = 0 at x = Xo, the solution

for equation (5-58) is

| 244 y-C40 (Up i kq) Cl

De Derr,
ky — Ee Ug

ae L. .K. (etee* eB")C Ky

L, at (et-* - = ef-*)2
k= Exe + UGe— ke, = ExxGn- + UGn—
1 — ef-* e4e-¥ — @-*
+ Gre z
: a oe Ed at al So,
ie,
{| Sgt! edn-* _ @0-*

‘ ko (k2 = Eeges a Ugn—)

G
— 29 (4 — e%-*) Byam (()
ko

Vi = xf uz + 4E ko

doe 2 PNT

Equation (5-59) is the downward deficit transport equation.

192 introduction to Environmental Quality Modeling Chap. 5

The differential equation of the oxygen deficit in the negative direction is

CID gb) . .
CEE: e Leen —k,D= I 24a,efpcae = 1.24ay-kacqge™**

(5-60)
| 4 G G 2 G n
— ef
G
|+ Go
— Ke Lae shiz a = ay] = ky, Enno se a
(S n

Doing similar manipulations and using the following boundary conditions D = Do

at x = 0 and dD/dx = 0 at-x = —xo0, we obtain

p= Doe*** — LEG eolia aia) (eft 25 eur)

Lp Bhi a Udyt

0Kc
aL seen Soc Meera kt na ef+*) abe L, Skn (ea F a e10+*)p

kp — Exxqey + uge ka — ExyGn4 + UGn+

SE‘ (——— ——— ———

= eit edce+X — e+ )

ko ka — Exxo4 + Uge— (5-61)

eit edn+x = e+

oP Gu ( 5 )
ky ky — ExxQny +UGn+

=
G= (1 — Cie) Mies 0

u+/u? +4Ey ko
qo+ =
Et as

Equation (5-61) is the upward deficit transport equation.

Use of the deficit equation. As shown from the equations above, the deficit D
at any point in the receiving water is a function of the downward as well as upward
transports of pollutants. This means that to calculate the deficit at any point, both the
downward and upward transport equations have to be used. Calculations become very
long and tedious. As a part of this book, a diskette is therefore provided containing a
computer program called WAT25. WAT25 is a program for all the transport equations
derived above. The instructions to run this model are given in Appendix 22. WAT25 can
be run in any IBM-compatible computer. The program has been made as user friendly
as possible. To run it, just simply follow the instructions in the computer screen. In
addition, the source code, WAT25.BAS, is included in the diskette. WAT25.BAS is
written in QuickBasic v. 4.5.
Surface Water Quality Modeling 193

WAT25 requires input values for ke, kn, fp, ka, and ky be at 20°C. To find the
values of these k’s and jz, at other temperatures, the Arrhenius relationships are used as
follows:

kp = kyo?” (5-62)
where kr is ke, kn, Mp, ka Or ky and @ is the Arrhenius temperature correction. For ke,
the correction is 6. = 1.08; for k,, the correction is 6, = 1.047; for k2, the correction is
02 = 1.028; for w, and kg, the corrections are 1.068 for both.

Concentrations at the point of discharge. Concentrations at the point of discharge

or at confluence of two streams are computed by a simple material balance. Let Q, be
the background flow, cg, be the background concentration of any pollutant, Qi, be the
discharge flow of the treatment plant or the confluence stream, and Cai, be the pollutant
concentration in Qyip. The concentration cgo, after mixing is

Cap Op) a Gani Oni)

= 22S 5-63
a Op + Onn ee
Example 5-10
A sodium chloride tracer resulting in a concentration of 5000 mg/L in the discharged effluent
of a sewage treatment plant is used to determine the dispersion coefficient, Ey,. The
concentration of sodium chloride in the background stream is 50 mg/L. If the plant flow is
200 m3/day and that of the stream is 2456 m?/day, what is the resulting salt concentration
in the mixed stream?

Solution
_ Cab( Qn) + Catrib(Qurib1) Pete= 50(2456) + 5000(200) = 423 mg/L Answer
Op + Orrib 2456 + 200 8/

Example 5-11
A community applied for a discharge permit from a state agency to discharge 15,000 m3/day
of sewage into a free-flowing freshwater stream. The stream characteristics upstream of the
point of discharge are as follows: flow rate = 15,000 m?/day, temperature = 22°C, BOD; =
3 mg/L, NH3 = 2 mg/L as N, and DO = 8.0 mg/L. The state determined that the following
information holds for the entire stretch of stream: u = 0.2 m/s (stream flow plus treated
sewage), reaeration coefficient ky = 10 per day, Ex, = 6.03(10°) m?/day, and instream
decay coefficients for CBOD and NHg3 are 0.34 per day and 0.4 per day, respectively. Also,
the discharge effluent averages 25°C in temperature. Five miles downstream from the point
of discharge the stream meets a very large river having of a discharge flow of 100 mgd. At
20°C, the bottle decay coefficient was determined to be 0.2 per day. What limitations should
the state agency impose on the discharge permit if the state water quality standard for DO
is 5.0 mg/L? Neglect P and R. There are no GL,, GLy, and Go. Assume any other value
required by the model.

Solution In practice, discharge limitations are set by assuming trial values and substi-
tuting them into model equations to see if the dissolved oxygen in the receiving stream does
not fall below the state-adopted water quality standard. The procedure is so long and tedious
that a computer model must be used. Prepare input to WAT25 and run the program.
194 Introduction to Environmental Quality Modeling Chap. 5

Input. There are two types of inputs to WAT25: project constants and station parameters.

A. Project constants

Project name: Example 5-11

Modeler: Roscoe A. Sincero

Number of stations: 5 (this means that the stretch of stream from the point of
discharge to 5 miles downstream is divided into five stations)

ke at 20°C (per day): 0.2

ky at 20°C (per day): 0.4
kq at 20°C (per day): 0
fu at 20°C (per day): O
Apc (dimensionless): 0
6¢: 1.047
6,: 1.08
O42: 1.028
A: 0
Og: 0
Ly (background CBOD, mg/L): 3.0(1.5) = 4.5, 1.5 is a conversion factor from BODs to
CBOD
Lnp (background NBOD, mg/L): 9.14

NH3 + 20) > NO, + H* +H20

Therefore,

2(32)
| mg/L NH3-N = ——— = 4.57 mg/L DO

Lp 20457 i 94

Op» (background dissolved oxygen, mg/L): 8.0

c4p (background chlorophyll a, mg/L): 0
tempp (background temperature, °C): 22
O, (saturation dissolved oxygen, mg/L): 8.48

Opa Gow 2 mer1a Os at 25°C = B24

8.72(15,000) + 8.24(15,000)
average O, = 30.000 = 8.48

Q» (background flow, m>/day): 15,000

Surface Water Quality Modeling 195

B. Station parameters

Station

1 2 3 4 )

X (m, distance from station 1) 0 OIA 4,022 6,033 8,046.33

Note: 8046.33 m = 5-mile distance
Ey (m*/day) 603,000 603,000 603,000 603,000 603,000
u (m/day) 17280 2 SO 280 eleSOmani ie28(0)
17,280 m/day = (0.2 m/s)(60 s/min)(60 min/h)(24 hr/day) = 17,280
ks (per day) 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14
ki, = 0.34 per day; ke = 0.20 per day; ks = ki, —k- = 0.14 per day
k> (per day) 10 10 10 10 10
Lirib (mg/L, tributary L) 45 0 0 0 4.5
(20 is the CBOD from the plant)
Lntrib (mg/L, tributary L,) 115 0 0 0 9.14
(40 is the NOBOD from the plant)
Otrib (mg/L, tributary DO) 5.0 0 0 0 8.0
(5.0 is the DO from the plant)
C4trib (mg/L, tributary chlorophyll a) 0 0 0 0 0
temptrib (CC, tributary temperature) DS 0 0 0 ap
Qevap (mday, evaporation) 0 0 0 0 0
Gyc (mg/L-day) 0 0 0 0 0
Gyn (mg/L-day) 0 0 0 0 0
Orrib (m*/day) 15,000 0 0 0 378,512.1
(15,000 is the plant discharge)
378,512.1 m?/day = [100(10°) gal/day}/[(7.48 gal/ft3)(3.2817 ft/m*)
Go (mg/L-day) 0) 0 0 0 0

Running WAT25 using the inputs above produces the following results.

Station L (mg/L) L, (mg/L) O (mg/L)

l 24.75 62.07 6.50

2 23.69 58.40 5).
3 22.68 54.95 So)
4 D2) Slava) 5.46
5 SHI Aly! Wahl

The lowest dissolved oxygen concentration is 5.37 mg/L, which is greater than the
water quality standard of 5.0 mg/L, implying that secondary limits are acceptable. Therefore,
referring to the station parameter input table above (see station 1), limitations of CBOD =
45 mg/L, NBOD = 115 mg/L, and DO = 5.0 will be sufficient to meet the water quality
196 introduction to Environmental Quality Modeling Chap. 5

standard. In practice, these limitations are expressed in terms of BODs, TKN, and DO,
repectively. Therefore, limitations
45
BODs = — = 30 mg/L
Hh)
115
TKN (or ammonia) = 1577 25 mg/L Answer

dissolved oxygen = 5.0 mg/L

Example 5-12
The community in Example 5-11, is investigating the possibility of discharging into a nearby
tidal estuary which empties into an open sea. For practical purposes the water quality of
the sea will not be affected by the discharge. The estuary has the following characteristics:
depth = 8 m, net advective flow rate = 15,000 m°/day, u = 0.02 m/s, reaeration coefficient
ky = 2.0 per day, Ex, = 7.29 mi*/day, BODs = 3 mg/L, NH3 = 2 mg/L as N, DO =
8.0 mg/L, temperature = 22°C, and instream decay coefficients for CBOD and NH3 are 0.34
per day and 0.4 per day, respectively. Additional data: ap- = 66.67, Up = 0.6 per day at
the 4-m depth, cg = 10 g/L at point of discharge, kg = 0.05 per day, ks4 = 0.14 per day,
Gre = 0.01 mg/L-day, Gz, = 0.01 mg/L-day, and Go = 0. What should be the limitations
that the state impose? Which permit should the community adopt? Assume any reasonable
values required by the model.

Solution Prepare input to WAT25 and run the program.

A. Project constants

Project name: Example 5-12

Modeler: Arcadio A. Sincero Jr.

Number of stations: 5 (this means that the stretch of stream from the point of
discharge to 5 miles downstream is divided into five stations)

ke at 20°C (per day): 0.2

Kn at 20°C (per day): 0.4
kq at 20°C (per day): 0.05
jz at 20°C (per day): 0.6
Ape (dimensionless): 66.67
Oc: 1.047
G3 10k
O42: 1.028
6: 1.068
Oa: 1.068
Ly (background CBOD, mg/L): 3.0(1.5) = 4.5, (1.5 is a conversion factor from BODs to
CBOD)
Lnp (background NBOD, mg/L): 9.14
 Surface Water Quality Modeling 197

NH3 + 207 > NO, +Ht +H20

Therefore,

2(32)
1 mg/L NH3-N = Sica 4.57 mg/L DO

bp, = POE!) = Ole!

Op» (background dissolved oxygen, mg/L): 8.0

c4p (background chlorophyll a, mg/L): 0.01
tempp (background temperature, °C): 22
O, (saturation dissolved oxygen, mg/L): 8.48

O; AIP Cs 8.72 maf OQ; ai 2c = 824

8.72(15,000) + 8.24(15,000
average O, after mixing = a ayemee = 8.48

Q» (background flow, m°/day): 15,000

B. Station parameters

Station

1 D 3 4 5)

X (m, distance from station 1) 0 2,011 4,022 6,033 8,046.33

Note: 8046.33 m = the 5-mile distance
Fixx (m?/day) LIST I25 PYIIBII LZXOISS.329 2ISMS35 PISOTSIS35
u (m/day) 1728 1728 1728 1728 1728
1728 m/day = (0.02 m/s)(60 s/min)(60 min/h)(24 h/day) = 1728
k; (per day) 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14
ki’. = 0.345 per day; k- = 0.20 per day; ks=k/, — ke = 0.14 per day
kz (per day) 2 2 2 yy 2
Lirib (mg/L, tributary L) 13 0 0 0 4.5
Lntrib (mg/L, tributary L,) 30 0 0 0 9.14
Orib (mg/L, tributary DO) 340 0 0 0 8.0
C4rib (mg/L, tributary chlorophyll a) 0 0) 0 0 0.01
temp,,jp(C. tributary temperature) 25 0 0 0 22
Qevap (m?/day, evaporation) 0 0 0 0 0
Grz- (mg/L-day) 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Grn (mg/L-day) 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Orrib (m?/day) 15,000 0 0 0 1.0(10!7)
1.0(10!2): assumed a large value as the equivalent Qi;\, for the sea
Go (mg/L-day) 0 0 0 0 0
 198 tntroduction to Environmental Quality Modeling Chap. 5

Running WAT25 using the foregoing inputs produces the following results.

Station L (mg/L) Ly (mg/L) O (mg/L)

1 10.33 a) 6.18
Z 7.34 14.82 5.02
3 5.28 Ql 5.70
4 4.09 Tet 6.54
5 4.50 9.14 8.00

The dissolved oxygen concentration at station 2 is 5.02 mg/L, which is above the
water quality standard of 5.0 mg/L. Therefore, referring to the station parameter input table
above (see station 1), limitations of CBOD = 5.0 mg/L, NBOD = 15 mg/L, and DO =
5.0 will be sufficient to meet the water quality standard. In practice, these limitations are
expressed in terms of BODs, TKN, and DO, repectively. Therefore, limitations
13
BODs = Fists 8.67 say, 8 mg/L

20
TKN (or ammonia) = 577 4.38 say, 4mg/L Answer

dissolved oxygen = 5.0 mg/L

The community should adopt the permit for discharge to the free-flowing stream. Answer

SUBSURFACE WATER QUALITY MODELING

Subsurface water consists of the water in the unsaturated or vadose zone and groundwater.
The various transport and kinetic processes that occur in the surface water also occur
to various degrees in subsurface water. For example, dispersion transport also occurs,
although in a more complicated form due to the presence of soil grains. Pollutants
also degrade both aerobically and anaerobically, as in surface waters. Of course, there
are some processes occurring in surface waters that do not occur in subsurface waters,
examples of which are settling and photolysis. Sunlight cannot penetrate the thickness
of the soil.

Groundwater Quality Modeling

Subsurface water quality modeling is divided into two major divisions: groundwater
quality modeling and vadose zone water quality modeling. These divisions differ as
follows: groundwater is characterized by the absence of air, while the vadose zone is
characterized by the presence of air and unsaturation by water.
For application to groundwater, m, must be converted into a suitable form. m, is
the solids content per unit volume of water in groundwater; however, the solids content
is analyzed as mass of solids per unit volume of space. Let mg represent this solid
Subsurface Water Quality Modeling 199

concentration. m; and mq are then related by nm, = mg, and the Reynolds transport
equation for cy becomes

D(nca) ( fot d(nCca) fepKscMa )

——— (1+ ——— ] = —— [1 4 SO YSgtin (ue dca 4 OCa OCa
Dt i ot Mh i( Ox dy tee OZ
(5-64)
The corresponding equations for conservative and nonconservative substances are
then, respectively,

0 (NC) ) OnCa 0 Onca 0 OnCca

SF |hoop = Eyy—— eiegd Ee
or Ox ( Cm s a Gye \nes, oy “ OZ a\ ee Og
a 1) OCa i OCa Ee Ca 0 f bet
—— [ v—+w = conservative substances
tie, Ractita, i Ox dy Oz

d(nca) a oes peca a(|pee)

ican © MES |pie d Panes (ine dSe (5-65)
ot Ox Ox Oy \=" dy Oz OZ

7) OCq
wii a cdo a Cd
Le Si ra Sa eanG) Ox dy Oz
pkycast (Kke;,mg = Kea fepKsema) — G = 0 nonconservative substances

An example of growing substances are the bacteria that grow on hazardous wastes;
however, they would not have any transport equation since they will simply be attached
to the soils. A differential equation was not therefore formulated for them. kcs,ma
represents the decay of the substance sorbed onto solids.
From fluid mechanics the general conservation equation is given by

dp a d(pu) n d(pv) ifphous)

(5-66)
ot Ox dy OZ
where p is the mass density of control mass and u, v, and w are the velocities in the x,
y, and z directions, respectively. Applied to groundwater, this equation must be modified
by multiplying p by 7 to convert p to a density referred to space. In addition, not all the
water in the space will flow but only a fraction given by the specific yield s,. Hence the
conservation of mass for groundwater flow, assuming that p is constant, is

O(nsy) du ov daw
—— —+— =) 5-67
ianry: +o (= i Be edly
From Darcy’s law, u = (K,x/n)(0h/dx), v = (Ky,/n)(dh/dy), and w = K,,/n)(dh/0z),
where K,,, Kyy, and K-, are the hydraulic conductivities in the x, y, and z directions,
respectively, and h is the piezometric head. Substituting in equation (5-67) and canceling
p yields

d(nSy) d i) tobe a n Oy a n OZ
+ =1() 5-68
Ot di Ox dy OZ
 200 Introduction to Environmental Quality Modeling Chap. 5

A(nsy)/At is equal to [A(qsy)/dh] (24) - A(msy)/AN is the volume fraction of water

drained per unit drop in piezometric head, the storage coefficient s.. Substituting in
equation (5-68), we have
ah a7h 07h 07h
Sem + Kure t+ Ky t+ Kuz =9 (5-69)
6 Paoe dz
This equation can be solved for h; u, v, and w can then be computed using Darcy’s law.
The total derivative in the positive x direction for the conservative and nonconser-
vative substances are, respectively,

d?
poiea) ee ie conservative substances
dx ~ dx?
AUIS. IGE ops d’nca _ fia (5-70)
PD: dx dx? nonconservative substances

te keg fepKscma

In the above, the distributed source G has been neglected. The solutions to equations
(5-70) are, respectively,

es cane Ee x >0O conservative substances (5-71)

: cage? * x >0O nonconservative substances

u— Jud +48 k(n) (1+ Xs") C 7]Kc Mg

qG= =
PHSe

Equations for K-. Table 5-3 shows some equations that may be used to esti-
mate K;-. Ko,» is the octanol—water coefficient. This is obtained by shaking an organic
compound in a mixture of n-octanol and water and measuring the concentration of the

TABLE 5-3 EQUATIONS FOR ESTIMATING Kgc

Equation Chemicals used in determination

log Kse = 1.00log Ko.w — 0.21 10 polyaromatic hydrocarbons

K =0.63Ko.w Miscellaneous organics
log Ksc = 0.544 log Ko.w + 1.377 45 organics, mostly pesticides
log Ksc = 1.029 log Ko, w — 0.18, r? = 0.91 13 pesticides
log Ksc = 0.94 log Ko, w + 0.22 s-Trizines and dinitroanilines
log Ksc = 0.989 log Ko w — 0.346, r2 = 0.991 5 polyaromatic hydrocarbons
log Ksc = 0.937 log Ko » — 0.006 Aromatics, polyaromatics, and triazines
In Ke = 1K a — 0.7301 DDT, tetrachlorobiphenyl, lindane, 2,4,D,
and dichloropropane
log Ksc = 0.72 log Ko, w + 0.49, r? = 0.95, n = 13 Methylated and chlorinated benzenes
log Kse = 1.00 log Ko,» — 0.317, r2 = 0.98 22 polynuclear aromatics
Subsurface Water Quality Modeling 201

compound in the two phases that are formed. The ratio of the concentration in the
octanol phase to that in the water phase is the octanol—water coefficient. Some values
of Ko,» are as follows: dichloroethane = 62, benzene = 135, trichloroethylene = 195,
perchloroethylene = 760, naphthalene = 2350, and pyrene = 209,000.

Gaussian plume model. Figure 5-3 shows various plume configurations resulting
from the discharge of a waste into groundwaters. The concentration at the center of
the plume will be the highest; the concentration tapers off in the transverse directions.
This transverse variation of concentration may be modeled by the Gaussian (normal)
distribution (see the normal distribution at the bottom of the figure).
The normal distribution is defined as

|
i enn le (5272)
ov 20
where Y is the probability coordinate of the normal curve, r the transverse distance from
the center of the plume corresponding to a transverse concentration c, and o the transverse
distance from the center of the plume corresponding to the standard deviation of the
distribution of the transverse concentrations.
At the center of the plume, r is equal to zero and Y equals Y. = 1/o /2n. As
predicted by the transport model, the concentration cy applies at the center of the plume.
Therefore, the transverse concentration c is to cg as Y 1s to Y,. Or,

| Jame U2 /o* B72)

MSE
Es Seas Ssc=ce tere 6-3)
Cd l/o /20
But r? = y? +z’. Substituting in equation (5-73) yields

DE re Ue eye OV 20? 9~ (2/V22) (5-74)

Using equations (5-71), the concentrations at any point x, y, z from the point of
origin of the plume are given below for the conservative and nonconservative substances,
respectively.
= oe eee BO
ype M/E)®@—WIV 26)" g—GV 20%) x >0O conservative substances
oe deter a) Del sits 7), 2 5
canoer *e (y//20n)? 9—(//20n) x >0 nonconservative substances
(=7>)

Concentrations from relationship between E and ao. Express o in terms of E.

From equation (5-75), the following relation may be deduced:

e C/E )y = ey oe conservative substances (5-76)

Solving for 207, yields

Ce ey ee (5-77)
 Normal (Gaussian) distribution

Figure 5-3 Gaussian plume configurations and the normal distribution.

202
Subsurface Water Quality Modeling 203

Hence, from equation (5-77), the transverse concentrations may be normally dis-
tributed if y/u and z/w are constant. Also, for plume models, the transverse velocities
are diffusion velocities; hence v and w are diffusion velocities.
Doing similar manipulations to the nonconservative substances gives, 07 = —y/2q,
and 0° = —z/2q-. Substituting the appropriate relations into equation (5-75) we have,

os |Cine HE) @ CLE Vg Wika )2) x >0O conservative substances

Cie 6 Ee x >0O nonconservative substances
(5-78)
—_ J dy- ve 0
Wie yew
yA eh eA
qz = ek z<0

a. u — a)WP oP 4E k(n) Si Top Ksctta/)

ric ae
Ae, = V v2 a= 4E,,k(m)C ar Sep Kscma/N)

dye A

me Usp Jv aig 4Ey k(n) an Jop Mechta 7)

ay Me,
Ts Jw? + 4E--k(n)d + Sep Kscma/N)
q:- = Ey,

w + Jw? +4Ezk(n)C + fep Ksema/n)

Gz+ = OE.

Example 5-13
Benzene, whose solubility equals 0.07 part per 100 parts of water by weight, was spilled
into an aquifer having a hydraulic conductivity K,, = 100 m/day. What is the centerline
concentration of the plume when it reaches the river bank 3300 m downstream? Field
investigation showed that the elevation of the groundwater table is 30 m above the river. Use
the following additional information: f-p = 0.1, 7 = 0.55, formation specific gravity = 2.65,
Exx = 3.76(10~*) cm?/s, and k = 0.07 per day.
Solution

c = cqoe x—% ody

Ypez

qy =90 qz =9

u — Jue + 4Exxk() 1 + fepKscma/n)

ie Male
= Kean = st001/ 20 = 1.65 m/d
See 05000 eo
204 Introduction to Environmental Quality Modeling Chap. 5

Use log Ksc = 0.72 log Ko, y + 0.49.

Koay = WSS

Thus,

log Ksc = 0.72 log(135) + 0.49 = 2.02

Kye = 104.7L/kg
= 0.1047 m*/kg
mg = 2.65(10%)(1.0
— 0.55) = 1.19(10°) kg/m?
e 0.07 g benzene . 0.07(1000) 4 mg benzene
CO PeRiteataere, it, S L water

Ex, = 3.76(10~*) (1072) (60) (60) (24) = 0.0032 m? /day

ee fep Ks-md = 0.1(0.1047)(1.19)(103)

= 3}.
1) 0.55

pala: 1.652 + 4(0.0032)(0.07)0.55(23.65) =

0.55
hom 2(0.0032)
c= TWWex Pe OO) =Q Answer

Vadose Zone Water Quality Modeling

In the vadose zone, three major phases exist: soil, water, and air. Because of the existence
of three phases, three Lagrangian total derivatives will be written: Dc,,mqg/Dt, Dca/Dt,
and Dc,/Dt. The subscript a refers to the concentration in air. Depending on whether or
not the material is decaying, the differential equations converted to space concentrations
are written below.

D(Cspma) D(naca) D(NaC€a) 0° (naca) 0° (naca)

Seen ar ao [Eg aE )\a ae
Dt Dt Dt Ox ee ye

d°(naca) d°(NaCa) p28 (aca)

oor Pouca) _ CS GNC oee i a

0? (NaCa
2: Bag ee conservative substances

D(cspma)
CspMad _D(naca)
NdCad
+
_D(naCa)
NaCa
=
0°“(dd (naca)
E..————
0?“(NdCd (naca) sae
Dt i. By Re dy?
E See

a? (naca) 0? (NaCa) d= (Haca)

te ae abuse zi Eats ai 5S

a? (Maca)
+ rr —KiGep ity kaon)

pk (Na Ca ) nonconservative substances

 Subsurface Water Quality Modeling 205

Na and ny, are the percent void volumes or porosities of water and air, respectively.
"Nd si ha, = le
Equations (5-79) may be substituted into the Reynolds transport theorem, producing

—E yx *(naca) ey ree *(naca) ery (nace) 3 | Gres be so htata)

Ox “ney? made hee oy

peeled = O(Cspma) O(NaCa) ns0 (Hala) 4 ead)
Oa ot ot ot Ox
r) r) i
+u (na¢a) + (aca) conservative
dy dz

d?(naca) 0? (naca) 0? (naca)

972 ees + Egy.
O (aca)
ax? SNeayy
0? ay (Nala) (5-80)
a1x2 ak + By,
bes ay?Sa
at ci 1SEee ere Eage a

a mre — K(Cspma) — k(naca) — k (Naa)

02 67,C,)

_ 9(Cspma) | A(Naca) | A(MaCa) 5 utaea) i od inaca)

ot ot Ot Ox dy
0
+ at) nonconservative
Z

Vertical component equations. — In vadose zone modeling, the motion is vertical.

Any sidewise direction may be accounted for by considering concentrations in this direc-
tion as normally distributed. In the z direction (positive z downward), equations (5-79)
become, respectively,

D(Cspma) d(CspMq) D(naca) d(naca) D(NaCa) d(NaCa)

Dt dz Dt dz Dt dz

d°(naca) E d°(NaCa)
= —-E,, ie a 73 conservative

D(Cspma) d(CspMa) D(naCca) d(naCca) D(a Ca) d(NaCa)

SSS — 1) “+ 1) + 3.)
Dt dz Dt dz Dt i,

a? Cy q? Nala
= ae Bae — k(c;pma) — k(naea) — Kala) nonconservative

(5-81)
As before, the most practical concentration to use is cy. All concentrations above
will therefore be expressed in terms of cg. Csp is equal to fcpKscca. By Henry’s law,
Ca = Kuyca, where Ky is the Henry’s law constant. Since the dispersion coefficient is
a function of the medium, E,-, is equal to EF, also. Substituting all in equations (5-81)
206 introduction to Environmental Quality Modeling Chap. 5

and solving yields,

cqoe of wax z>0 conservative substances (5-82)

C= 3 :
: cqoe?’=* z>0O nonconservative substances

f= Sep Kscma + Na + NaKy

Ee, = EUd + naka)

fw —J(fw) + 4é.fk
qduz- =
2522
Since w is a longitudinal velocity, it is an advective velocity.
Corresponding to equations (5-78), the general equations by extending equations
(5-82) for any point x, y, and z assuming Gaussian plumes are

a Cane Fhe e—Su Bax dx p— Fri yy)y z>0O- conservative substances

Cane et et z>0O _ nonconservative substances
(5-83)

Ex = Beeld + NaKy)6 Eyy = Eyy(/d Gig Na Ky)

ee |Gre = x =

_ J dy yz0
dey - Quy+ yy =< 0

fun J (fu)? + dbxfk _ fut (fu? + 4bcxfk

i = ae duxt+ = Nae,

nae fu — J(fv)? +48),fk a fue / (f0)7-F 48,fk

0) a Ur Ma
PRS 2b oy2 ae
whi ac a eek

Since u and v are transverse velocities, they are diffusion velocities.

Example 5-14
A soil sample of 0.25 ft? is dried in an oven at 103°C to constant weight. The porosity of
a similar sample from the same batch was originally determined to be 0.55. If 2691 g of
moisture was liberated, calculate ng and nq.

Solution

' 2691 3
Volume of H2O liberated = ————— = 0).095 ft
454(62.4)
Thus,

0.095
= (038 Answer; 7q = 0.55 —0.38 =0.17 Answer
Ue 60.05
Subsurface Water Quality Modeling 207

Buckingham-Darcy law. The components uw, v, and w in the foregoing equations

must be determined. In groundwater flow, the interstitial velocity is determined by means
of Darcy’s law in conjunction with the porosity. In vadose zone flow, the counterpart is
called the Buckingham—Darcy law. These two laws are identical except that the former
deals with saturated conditions, whereas the latter deals with unsaturated conditions,
which are under tension (i.e., the pressure is below atmospheric). Tension pressure 1s
measured in the field by a tensiometer (Figure 5-4).
Tension pressure is also called capillary or matric potential. At any point in the soil
formation Z distance above a reference datum, the total potential ¢ is given by the sum of
the matric potential y and the gravitational potential Z. Hence the Buckingham—Darcy
law is
K K
v— eV OC — ony (2) (5-84)
7 u]
where K is a vector of unsaturated hydraulic conductivity. In the z direction, equation
(5-84) becomes
K.. a
w= —-——(W + Z) G285)
a Oz

Example 5-15
Tiny droplets of benzene are slowly leaking from an on-ground storage tank. Tensiometers
as shown in Figure 5-4 show readings of —88 cm and —126 cm of water at depths of
30 cm and 100 cm, respectively, below the ground. The vertical unsaturated hydraulic
conductivity K,, is 5.4 m/day. The porosities are 7 = 0.55, nq = 0.38, and ng = 0.17.
The other pertinent information are fep = 0.1, Ksc = 104.7 L/day, mg = 1.19(103) kg/m,
and E-- = 0.0012 m*/day. The half-life of benzene is 10 days and its solubility in water is
0.07 part per 100 parts by weight. The vapor pressure of benzene is 1.0 mmHg. Calculate
the benzene concentration 10 m below the surface.

Solution
C= Cipen
ere ety z= 0 nonconservative substances

Gux— = Qvy— = 9

f= Sep Kscemd + Nd + Nake

E22 = Ezz(na + Na Ku)

fw —J/(fw)? + 4€,,fk
qvuz- =
2822
ike
ies ea (yr Z,)
ig, Oz

Ky = =
Cd

: my 1.0 mol benzene

Cq = 1.0 mmHg in 760 mmHg of total air mixture = 760 0.0 Alain

Cog —12(6)-- 1.008 (6) = 78

 Pressure
tranducer-
equipped
tensiometer

—126 cm

— Water-filled— 4
Sal

+ Porous cup —

Figure 5-4 Field determination of matric potential.

 Air Quality Modeling 209

Assuming a temperature of 20°C yields,

oe 0.0013(78) (1000) ne mg benzene
POAT 20/273), L air
0.07 g benzene __0.07(1000) mg benzene
cq = = = 700
100 g H20 0.1 L water
Then

4.22 L water m? water

ce = 0.006 = 0.006 ————
oo m3 air
f = 0.1(0.1047)(1.19)(10) + 0.38 + 0.17(0.006) = 12.84

&-- = 0.0012[0.38 + 0.17(0.006)] = 0.00046 m7? /day

In (ca/cao) In 0.5 In0.5
k = ———— = = = —0.07 day > 0.07 d
; half-life 10 eet SONI pet ee
5-4) ( 1—-126)G0>7).4.(— 100102) — 188) 10-2) + 3000)
CS SS
0.55 (100 — 30)(10~2)

= 15.15 m/day

a ae (15.15) ——/[12.84(15.15)]?
12.84(15.15) 12.84(15.15)]? ++ 4(0.00046)
4( ISON
(12.84) (0.07 ay tists
2(0.00046)
Cao
= 700 mg/L

cq = 700e~ 461) (19, 1] = 7000.99) = 669 mg/L Answer

AIR QUALITY MODELING

Equations for air quality models are similar to those that have already been derived,
except that in air models no porosity is involved. The equations will simply be written
at once.
= cae Ee eC Ew )y gw / Eade x >0O conservative substances (5-86)
Cgc eto” ett x >0O nonconservative substances

u—/(u)? + 4E,yk v—./(v)? +4E£,yk

i day=— Wz 0
2E xx 2E yy

w — /(w)? + 4E,.k
Gaz— = a ae)
2E
ler (v)? +4Ey,k
day+ 3 9 (aes

W + J (Ww) (w)? +422,

+ 4E,.k ries
qaz+ = Sie,
210 Introduction to Environmental Quality Modeling Chap. 5

In terms of the standard deviations 0, and o,, equations (5-86) may be written as
= mde)
CapeME % @— OV 200) 9 (@/ V 20.) x >0O conservative substances
te O/V200) g—/V 201)
capes x >0O nonconservative substances
(5-87)

Lapse Rates and Dispersion

Dispersion of pollutants in the air is a function of lapse rate, which is the rate of change of
temperature with height. The dry adiabatic lapse rate is the rate of change of temperature
with height as a parcel of dry air rises or sinks without exchange of heat with the
surroundings (adiabatic heat exchange). The wetadiabatic lapse rate is an adiabatic lapse
rate with the atmosphere containing moisture. In this section we derive expressions for
these lapse rates.
The ideal gas law applied to the air is p = pRT/M,, where p is the pressure,
p the density, R the universal gas constant, T the absolute temperature, and M, the
molecular weight of air (28.84). The rate of change of pressure with height is also given
by dp/dz = —pg. Combining with equation (5-87) gives

dp gM,
dz (5-88)
po RT
The internal energy dU of the adiabatically rising dry air is given by the first
law of thermodynamics: dU = 5Q (= OQ, since the process is adiabatic) —pdV =
—pdV, where Q is the heat transfer and V is the volume of the parcel. dU is
equal to C,dT, where C, is the heat capacity at constant volume. The ideal gas
law for an air parcel of volume V is pV = mRT/M,, where m is the mass of air.
Hence d(pV) = pdV + Vdp = (mR/M,) dT. Substituting all into the first law, we
obtain
R RT d
CUT
RV pe eee
Ma Ma, p Ma
Solving for dp/p gives

dp mR M,
oma
Ser WEE 28
a ad
ae Ne
5-

Combining equation (5-89) with equation (5-88) produces the lapse rate dT /dz.
dT
Geel
dz
AS Se
Cy/m + R/M,
= i
Cy + R/M, Cp
(5-90)
Cy and Cp are the specific heats at constant volume and pressure, respectively. The average
temperature in the troposphere of a standard atmosphere could range from —63°C at 48 km
above the surface of the earth to 27°C at the surface of the earth. From handbooks, Cp (for
air) at this range is approximately 0.245 cal/g—°C = 245 cal/kg-°C. Use the following
conversions: | cal = 4.184 J = 4.184 N-m. g = 9.81 m/s” = 9.81 N/kg. Therefore, the
Air Quality Modeling 211

dry adiabatic lapse rate is

one i
fee gee 5 23
(4.184) 2 0.0095700°C
ee
If the atmosphere contains @ fraction of water vapor, the lapse rate becomes
—g/[U—a@)cp+ @cpw], where cp, is the specific heat of water vapor at constant pressure.
From handbooks, at the range of —63 to 27°C, cp» is approximately 440 cal/kg-°C. The
saturation absolute humidity at this temperature range is 0.00079 lb of water vapor per
pound of dry air. Hence w is 0.00079/(0.00079 + 1) = 0.00079. The saturated adiabatic
lapse rate is, therefore,

J 9.81
— =f = —-—_W_______W______________ — _(),009564°C
dz (1 — 0.00079)245 + 0.00079(440) (4.184) an

Thus the average lapse rate for the dry adiabatic is slightly larger than the average lapse
rate for the saturated adiabatic process.
A parcel of heated polluted air when released from a smokestack will rise rapidly
because of the large difference in density between the heated and the surrounding air.
Because of this rapid rise, exchange of heat with the surroundings is negligibly small.
A rapidly rising smoke is therefore practically under an adiabatic process. Whether or
not the pollutant will be dispersed will depend on the actual ambient lapse rate of the
surrounding air.
Figure 5-5 shows behaviors of plumes as functions of the ambient lapse rate. The
adiabatic lapse rate of the rising plume is represented by the dashed line, and the actual
ambient lapse rate is represented by the solid line. In the topmost figure, the ambient
lapse rate is much faster than the adiabatic lapse rate. Hence the surrounding air is colder
than the rising plume during transit and because the surrounding air has a greater density
as a result, the plume will continue to rise until its temperature becomes equal to that of
the surroundings. This type of ambient lapse rate is called superadiabatic, and the air is
unstable. Because of this instability, pollutants will disperse very easily. As shown, the
instability causes a looping condition.
When the ambient lapse rate is less than the adiabatic (second figure from the top),
a condition called subadiabatic, the surrounding air becomes warmer during transit, and
the plume released cannot rise. The lapse rate is weak and this condition is called stable,
resulting in plumes that are coning.
During the night, the cool earth cools the overlying air. This results in an inverted
lapse rate, which can persist even up to the morning hours until the sun breaks the
inversion by heating the ground. This inverted lapse rate is called an inversion. Inver-
sion inhibits vertical mixing, is stable, and causes the plume to spread horizontally. This
spread is called fanning. When there is inversion below but a lapse rate above, the plume
will disperse aloft but not below. This plume configuration is called lofting. When the
reverse is true, that is, there is inversion above but lapse rate below, the plume will fumi-
gate the ground. The configuration is called fumigation. When an inversion layer prevails
below and above the plume, the plume is trapped. This configuration is called trapping.
212 Introduction to Environmental Quality Modeling Chap. 5

WsinG), =

aa Strong lapse condition (looping)

ft aes Weak lapse condition (coning)

IO SSeate Inversion condition (fanning)

Inversion trap

Inversion below, lapse aloft (lofting)

Weak lapse below, inversion aloft (trapping)

Figure 5-5 Types of plume behavior.

During calm days, the velocity of the air is zero. Under this condition, the plume will
not move horizontally but straight up through buoyant forces. This type of configuration
is called neutral, and the plume is a neutral plume.
Air Quality Modeling 213

Plume Model

Figure 5-6 shows a plume configuration with coordinate reference point indicated. Let
W mass per unit time be the stack emission of pollutants. Normally, the drifting of
the plume in the x direction is so much faster that the transport may be approximated
solely by convection. In addition, because of the speed of propagation and the short
time frames involved, the process can be considered conservative. By considering the
transport as convective and conservative, the downstream average concentration cg = Cgo
exp[(—u/E,,)x] may be approximated by W/(wA,), where A, is the transverse cross-
sectional area of the plume a distance x from the origin. At x = 0, A, would be the
cross-sectional area of the stack; at x > 0, A, would expand laterally because of dis-
persion. Call this expanded cross section as the equivalent stack section at distance x
from the origin. The extent to which A, would expand can be computed from the vari-
ance of the distances (a*) from the plume centerline. From the property of the normal
distribution, one standard deviation distance from the centerline of the plume represents
68.26% of the area of the equivalent stack section. Hence, at any distance x, A, is
therefore equal to 1707 /0.6826. Because of uneven dispersion in the y and z directions,
however, A, will not be circular but more of an ellipse. (Note that the circle is a spe-
cial type of ellipse with the major and the minor axes equal.) Hence, approximating as
an ellipse, A, is equal to 2o,0,/0.6826, where o, and o, are the standard deviations
corresponding to the variances of the distances in the y and z directions, respectively.

Figure 5-6 Plume dispersion coordinate system.

214 Introduction to Environmental Quality Modeling Chap. 5

TABLE 5-4 VALUES OF a, c, d, AND f

56 =< Ml Veal x >1km

Stability
type a € d ff c d i

A 213 440.8 1.94] aT 459.7 2.094 —9.6

B 156 106.6 1.149 Joa! 108.2 1.098 2.0
C 104 61.0 0.911 0 61.0 0.911 0
D 68 382 OM/2Z25 Sl 44.5 0.516 —13.0
E 50.5 22.8 0.678 —1.3 55.4 0.305 —34.0
F 34 14.35 0.740 —0.35 62.6 0.180 —48.6

At any distance x from the origin, the average concentration of pollutant at the equivalent
stack section may now therefore be approximated by 0.6826W /uz oyo-.
For turbulent flows in pipes, the ratio of the average velocity to the maximum
velocity ranges from > 0.5 to 0.82. This gives an average of 0.66. Considering the
plume as a turbulent pipe and approximating the ratio of the average concentration to
the maximum concentration at the center of the plume as 0.66, the plume centerline
concentration cy 1S
0.6826W 1.03W
—— = 0..66cg > ca = (5-91)
UIT Oy Oz UIT Oy Oz
With cg known, assuming a conservative process, and using the coordinates of
Figure 5-6, equation (5-87) becomes
1.03W e-/V 20, -—(@—-H/V20,)?
(5-92)
UI Oy 0;
where H is the effective stack height.
The effective stack height is equal to the stack height / plus a correction Ah. The
correction may be estimated by Holland’s empirical equation,
d ATd
IN eS E i 2.68(10- yp | (5-93)
u s
where v, 1s the stack gas velocity in m/s, p is the atmospheric pressure in mbar; AT is
the stack gas temperature minus ambient air temperature in Kelvin, d is the inside stack
diameter in meters, and 7, is the stack gas temperature in Kelvin.
Martin? curve-fitted empirical equations for oy and o,. They are
Re ax 0894 (5-94)

Gp = Ox" ef (5-95)
Martin’s constants a, c, d, and f are shown in Table 5-4. The downwind distance x
must be expressed in kilometers to obtain o, and o, in meters.

°D. O. Martin (1976). “The Change of Concentration Standard Deviation with Distance.” Journal of the
Air Pollution Control Association, 26(2).
Air Quality Modeling 215

Stability types A, B, C, D, E, and F are defined in Table 5-5. These stability types,
which depend upon prevailing environmental conditions, were introduced by Pasquil,°
hence are called Pasquil stability types.

TABLE 5-5 PASQUIL STABILITY TYPES?

Day Night
Surface wind
speed at 10 m Incoming solar radiation:
above ground Mostly Mostly
(m/s) Strong Moderate Slight overcast clear

<2 A A-B B = =
2 A-B B C 13) je
4 B B-C C D ie)
6 (c C-D D D D
>6 C D D D D

“A, extremely unstable; B, moderately unstable; C, slightly unstable; D, neutral; E,

slightly stable; F, moderately stable.

The surface wind speeds in Table 5-5 are measured 10 m above the ground. Wind
speeds at other elevations are calculated using the power law written as
P
Uu| ZI
—= (=) (5-96)
uz JQ)

where uw; and uz are the velocities at the lower elevation z; and higher elevation 2,
respectively. The wind exponent p is obtained as follows:

Stability type p

A 0.15
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.40
TM
ypaw 0.60

Example 5-16
A power plant burns 10 tonnes/h of coal that contains 5.0% sulfur and discharges the com-
bustion products through a stack 200 m high and 1.0-m inside diameter. A weather station
anemometer located 10 m above the ground measures the wind speed at 3.0 m/s.

°F, Pasquil (1961). “The Estimation of the Dispersion of Windborne Material.” Meteorological Magazine
90, p. 1063.
216 Introduction to Environmental Quality Modeling Chap. 5

Other pertinent information is as follows: air temperature = 15°C, barometric pressure =

1000 mbar, stack gas velocity = 10 m/s, and stack gas temperature is 150°C. The atmospheric
conditions are moderately to slightly stable. (a) Determine the ground-level concentration
of SO at a distance 2 km downwind from the stack along the plume axis. (b) Assuming an
effective stack height of 75 m but with the same wind velocity, determine the ground-level
concentration at this distance. (c) What is the average concentration at the equivalent stack
section at this point? (d) What is the concentration at the centerline of the plume at this
point?

Solution

(a) c= ST eWS O26, p-@-H/V20,)°

UIC OyOz

S + O27 —— > SO?

Then,

SO
W = SO) produced = 10(1000)(0.05) = = 10(1000) (0.05) (73)

= 16,000 kg/h = 4.44 kg/s

uj aA rel #

U2 ED

The stability type is between E and F; hence, from the table, p = 0.5.

pa = hh Ap 200A
d AE
Nie i 15426800) pT]
S

vs = 10 m/s seem SIE == Iai) 115) = BEE = IB BIK

Ts = NOE 27S) SS CODEN p = 1000 mbar

10(1 ;
Abe a ) {15 + 2.68(1073)(1000) ar ||ee ees ee
u uz

B.S 10 RS #0 3,0 10 ies

ae 200s Sans pio as / 200 + 23.55/uy

u2 EXa

Tie
Wy. AAG
ghee rte Ome, & BO 2135 4

13 1.03
Glossary 217

P35 2B
H=h+Ah=200+ 900 + 22>? = 201.77 m
ur 13.28
oy = ax0894

o, =cx4 + f
From the table,

50.5 + 34 ‘ ‘
boii) ne Fae Rin Gs eS
2 2
0.305 + 0.18 —34.0 — 48.
d= =0.04 fa SE e413
Oy = 42.25(0.0)° = 78 51m
o- = 59.0(2.0)94 — 41.3 = 28.38 m
Thus,

&, 1.03(4.44) — (0/1 2(78.51))? .—(0—201.77/V/2(28.38))?

_5 lay
© 13.287 (78.51)(28.38) - : pate ne hs
= 5.13(10~°) ug/m?. Answer

(b) Es EE 0) 7208 51) 015 208158))2

© * 73.287 (78.51) (28.38)
= 1.5(10~°) kg/m? = 1.50(10°) wg/m*> Answer

me 0.6826W 0.6826(4.44) gira ean oer

umoyo, 13.287(78.51)(28.38) g/m
eS ee SS) -

= 3.26(10*) ug/m> Answer

1.03W 1.03(4.44
(d) = pete Bs PE ence ests 917 (35) kg/m3
uoyo, 13.287 (78.51)(28.38)
= 4.92(10*) ug/m? Answer

GLOSSARY

Capillary potential. The matric potential (see Matric potential).

Computer models. Mathematical models programmed into a computer.
Conservative substance. A substance that does not decay.
Convective or advective transport. A transport of solute by the flow of the solvent.
Diffusion. A mass transfer due solely to the concentration gradient of the solute molecules.
218 Introduction to Environmental Quality Modeling Chap. 5

Dispersive transport or dispersion. A mass transfer due to a gradient in concentration

aided by the turbulence of the medium.
Dry adiabatic lapse rate. The rate of change of temperature with altitude as a parcel of
dry air rises or sinks without exchange of heat with the surroundings.
Effective stack height. The height of a stack plus a correction.
Environmental quality modeling. The representation of the various characteristic qual-
ity processes that occur in the air, surface water, and the soil.
Fanning. Said of a plume that cannot disperse vertically but spreads horizontally.
Fluorescence. The re-release of an absorbed photon by the photon-absorbing excited
molecule without invoiving another molecule.
Fumigation. The behavior of a plume when there is lapse rate below the point of exit
of the plume but inversion above the point of exit of the plume.
Gaussian plume. Plume shaped like the normal distribution.
Hydrodynamic dispersion or, simply, dispersion. The dispersion of solute due to
diffusion and mechanical dispersion.
Hydrolysis. The breakdown reaction of a substance with water.
Intersystem crossing. The transfer of excess energy from a photon-absorbing molecule
to transform a second molecule to its excited state.
Inversion. A lapse rate where the temperature increases with altitude.
Lagrangian derivative. A total derivative of the control mass.
Lofting. Behavior of a plume where there is lapse rate above the point of exit of the
plume but inversion below the point of exit of the plume.
Material derivative. A Lagrangian derivative.
Mathematical model. A model expressed in terms of mathematical equation.
Matric potential. The tension pressure in the vadose zone.
Mechanical dispersion. A dispersion of the solute due solely to the influence of the
medium.
Model. The representation of a prototype.
Neutral plume. A plume formed in the absence of wind velocity.
Nonconservative substance. A substance that decays.
Oxygen deficit. The difference between the saturation dissolved oxygen (DO,at) and the
actual dissolved oxygen (DO).
Partition coefficient. A proportionality constant relating the concentration of solute in
the solvent to the concentration of this solute in the solid.
Pheophytin. Dead chlorophyll a.
Phosphorescence. The simple release of energy without involving another molecule by
the second excited molecule formed in the intersystem crossing.
Photolysis. The breakdown of a substance by absorption of light.
Physical model. A representation of the prototype by its smaller- or larger-scale version.
R Lagrangian derivative. That portion of the Lagrangian derivative representing the
kinetic process.
Sensitizer. The molecule that absorbs a photon of energy but transfers it to second
molecule to transform the molecule to an excited state.
Stable atmosphere. An atmosphere incapable of efficient dispersion of pollutants.
Symbols 219

Subadiabatic lapse rate. The atmospheric condition where the actual ambient lapse rate
is less than the adiabatic lapse rate.
Superadiabatic lapse rate. The atmospheric condition where the ambient lapse rate is
greater than the adiabatic lapse rate of the rising parcel of air.
Tensiometer. A device used to measure the tension pressure in the vadose zone.
Tensor. A general term given to quantities such as scalar, vectors, and similar quantities
of higher order.
Transport. The dispersion and convective terms of the material balance equation.
Trapping. The behavior of a plume when there are inversions both above and below the
point of exit of the plume.
Unstable atmosphere. An atmosphere capable of efficient dispersion of pollutants.
Vadose zone. The zone from the surface of the earth to the groundwater surface.
Vector. A tensor of order 1.
Volatilization. The escape of molecules from a liquid or solid surface to enter the gaseous
phase.

SYMBOLS

Cit CBOD/active chlorophyll a ratio

a. nitrogen/active chlorophyll a ratio
op oxygen/phytoplankton ratio
Ape phytoplankton/active chlorophyll a ratio
A, plume equivalent stack section
é pollution concentration property of control mass per unit
volume of space
Cd concentration of pollutant dissolved in a unit volume of
control mass
Csp concentration of pollutant sorbed per unit mass of sorbing
solid or particulate
Cj concentration of NH3-N
C2 concentration of NOz-NO3-N
C3 concentration of orthophosphorus
C4 concentration of phytoplankton chlorophyll a
C5 concentration of CBOD
C6 concentration dissolved oxygen
C7 concentration of organic nitrogen
C8 concentration of organic phosphorus
E dispersion tensor
Wo fraction of carbon in particulate or solid
ta fraction of dissolved pollutant
fon fraction of cellular nitrogen converted to organic nitrogen
 Introduction to Environmental Quality Modeling Chap. 5

fraction of sorbed pollutant

distributed pollutant source (Gz-, Grn the G of L, and Ly,
respectively)
piezometric head
effective stack height
dispersion vector
decay coefficient
CBOD decay coefficient
nitrogenous decay coefficient
hydraulic conductivity; K,,, Kyy, and K-,, the hydraulic
conductivity in the x, y, and z directions
extinction coefficient
nitrogen half-saturation constant
phosphorus half-saturation constant
partition coefficient of pollutant between water carbon
partition coefficient of pollutant between water and solid
CBOD
nitrogenous oxygen demand, NBOD
Mad mass of solid per unit volume of space
Ms mass of solid per unit of control mass
ne ae Nk unit vectors; 7, 7, and k are indices
pressure
Lagrangian derivative kinetic component
storage coefficient
specific yield of aquifer
x, y, and z components of v
velocity vector
space volume
Secchi depth
gravitational potential
nabla operator
lapse rate
porosity
growth coefficient
mass density of control mass
standard deviation of the transverse distances corresponding
to the transverse concentrations c in a Gaussian plume;
oy and o;, the o in the y and z directions, respectively;
O-y and o,,, the o in the y and z directions, respec-
tively, for conservative substances; o,y and o,-, the o in
the y and z directions, respectively, for nonconservative
substances
total potential
matric potential
 Problems 221

PROBLEMS

5-1. At 30 miles upstream from the mouth of the Hudson Estuary, the following average chloride
concentrations are obtained: 5000 mg/L, 5029 mg/L, and 4996 mg/L. At a point 48 miles
upstream from the mouth, the chloride concentrations are 1800 mg/L and 1850 mg/L. The
tidally averaged velocity is 0.025 fps. Calculate E,, using the 48-mile point as the origin.
5-2. Calculate E,, in Problem 5-1 by a graphical method.
5-3. In a dye study approximately 6.7 g of Rhodamine WT in 100 mL of solution was dumped
at the discharge point of a lagoon treatment plant, resulting in a concentration cgo of
5.0110’) g/L a few feet downstream. The resulting concentrations monitored over time
at a distance of 1047 m downstream are shown in the following table. The stream velocity
was 8373 m/day, and its flow was 900 m?/day. Determine the location of the centroid of
the dye concentration expressed in time.

Time, A.M. Concentration (ppb) Time, A.M. Concentration (ppb)

09:20 0.0 09:30 0.0

09:40 0.03 09:45 0.17
09:50 0.70 09:55 3.0
10:00 9.0 10:05 19.0
10:10 30.0 10:15 39.0
10:20 43.5 10:25 50.0
10:30 52.0 10:35 52.0
10:40 50.0 10:45 48.0
10:50 45.0 10:55 42.0
11:00 39.0 IS 31.0
11:30 24.0 11:45 19.0
12:00 16.0 12:30 12.0
13:00 6.4 14:00 4.7
15:00 1.8 16:00 0.70
17:00 0.0 18:00 0.0

5-4. From the dye study of Problem 5-3, calculate the time of travel velocity of the stream.
5-5. In Problem 5-3, determine the ratio of (a) the maximum concentration to the minimum
concentration, (b) the maximum concentration to the average concentration, and (c) the
average concentration to the minimum concentration.
5-6. In Problem 5-3, calculate the ratios of the maximum, average, and minimum concentrations
to the value of the centroidal concentration.
5-7. A laboratory experiment on a certain pollutant found the values of kpq and kpp to be
2.0(10) L/mol-day and 10 L/mol-day, respectively, at 25°C. Compute ky, at pH 8 and
SESAC.
5-8. Given in Problem 5-7 that cg = 10~* mol/L and the activation energy = 26,000 J/mol,
calculate R;, at 30°C.
5-9. The average concentration of benzo[a]pyrene in Lake Ontario is 10-3 mmol/L. What is its
rate of decay due to photolysis Rp at the 5-m depth if kpo = 31 per day?
5-10. Assume that the concentration of the benzo[a]pyrene in Problem 5-9 is found at a given
point of a free-flowing stream. Assuming that the stream velocity is 0.03 m/s, what would
222 Introduction to Environmental Quality Modeling Chap. 5

be the concentration 2.0 km downstream from the point? Assume first-order decay.
5-11. The BODs of a waste is 225 mg/L and its CBOD is 325 mg/L. What is the decay coefficient
to the base 10? What is it to the base e?
5-12. Assume that the BODs of Problem 5-11 is found at the same point in the stream of
Problem 5-9 that contains benzo[a]pyrene. Assuming first-order decay, what would be the
BODs concentration at the same 2.0 km downstream from the point?
5-13. A wastewater treatment plant discharges treated sewage into a stream. If the concentration
of BODs one mile downstream from the point of discharge is 5 mg/L and kj, is assumed to
be 0.2 per day (in terms of BODs), what is the value of R,, at this point?
5-14. In Problem 5-13, the concentration of BODs at the point is 5 mg/L. What was the concen-
tration | mile upstream?
5-15. A sample is obtained at point A and another at point B along a stream. What is the term
given to the proportionality constant for the decrease in CBOD concentration of the sample
between the points? If sample A is analyzed for CBOD between two time periods, what is
the term given to the proportionality constant?
5-16. Two students from the environmental engineering class at Morgan State University are study-
ing Herring Run, a stream cutting through the property of the university. Their objective is
to determine the distributed pollutant load (Gz- and G ;,,) into the run. Write the differential
equation that would be needed to meet the objective.
5-17. Integrate the differential equation in Problem 5-16.
5-18. Create a problem that will apply the formula derived in Problem 5-17.
5-19. The deoxygenation coefficient to the base 10 for a certain waste is 0.1 per day. What fraction
is BODs to CBOD of this waste?
5-20. Calculate the deoxygenation coefficient of Problem 5-19 to the base e.
5-21. The CBOD of a waste is 280 mg/L. Calculate the BODs if the deoxygenation constant to
the base e is 0.23.
5-22. Solve Problem 5-21 by first converting the deoxygenation constant to the base 10.
5-23. An estuarine sample is put in a settling column. At two points in time, samples are taken
at the sampling port producing the following results: at 0 day, chlorophyll a = 20 ug/L, at
2 days, chlorophyll a = 15 wg/L. Determine the settling coefficient, k,.
5-24. Calculate ks in Problem 5-23 by graphical method.
5-25. A wastewater treatment plant discharges treated sewage into a stream. The characteristics
of the effluent are: flow rate = 15,000 m3/day, BODs = 10 mg/L, NH3 = 5 mg/L as N,
DO = 2.0 mg/L, temperature = 25°C, and the bottle decay coefficient of the CBOD is 0.2
per day. The stream characteristics upstream of the point of discharge are as follows: flow
rate = 0.2 m/s, u = 0.2 m/s (stream flow plus treated sewage), reaeration coefficient, ky =
26 per day, Ex, = 6.03(105) mi*/day, BODs = 3 mg/L, NH3 = 2 mg/L as N, DO = 8.0
mg/L, temperature = 22°C, and instream decay coefficient for CBOD, and NH3 = 0.3 per
day and 0.4 per day, respectively. Find the DO concentration 5 miles downstream from the
point of discharge. Neglect P and R. There are no Gz-, Gyn, and Go.
5-26. Using the stream characteristics of the stream in Problem 5-25, calculate the effluent limi-
tations for a discharge of 20,000 m?/day. Assume that the state water quality standard for
DO is 5.0 mg/L.
5-27. Determine the DO 5 miles downstream if the treated sewage in Problem 5-26 is discharged
into a tidal estuary with the following characteristics: depth = 8 m, net advective flow rate
Problems 223

= 0.2 m*/s, u = 0.002 m/s (net advective velocity upstream of point of discharge), reaeration
coefficient ky = 3.0 per day, Ey, = 7.29 mi*/day, BODs = 3 mg/L, NH3 = 2 mg/L as N,
DO = 8.0 mg/L, temperature = 22°C, and instream decay coefficient for CBOD, and NH3
= 0.3 per day and 0.4 per day, respectively. Additional data: ap. = 66.67, 4p) = 0.6 per
day at the 4-m depth, cg = 100 jg/L at point of discharge, ky = 0.05 per day, ks4 = 0.14
per day, Gz. = 2 mg/L-day, Gz», = 4 mg/L-day, and Go = 0.
5-28. What are the permit limitations if an effluent of 20,000 m3/day is discharged to an estuary
similar to the one in Problem 5-27? Assume that the state water quality standard for DO is
5.0 mg/L.
5-29. Search the literature to determine representative values of Gz-, Grn, and Go; from these
values, resolve Problem 5-27.
5-30. A town plans to discharge 15,000 m3/day of treated sewage into Lucky River. The charac-
teristics of the stream are as follows: k, = 0.4 per day and ky = 2.3 per day, both at 15°C;
river temperature = 22°C; flow = 6.0 m/s; background BODs = 2.0 mg/L; background
DO = 8.0 mg/L; and velocity with discharge incorporated = 0.40 m/s. Assume that the
river is very long. Neglecting the effect of NBOD, what BODs can be discharged if the DO
along the river should not fall below 5.0 mg/L? Assume that the DO at the effluent is set at
5.0 mg/L. If the ammonia content of the effluent is 25 mg/L and the background ammonia
is 1.0 mg/L, what will be the lowest DO in the stream?
5-31. Benzene, of solubility equal to 0.07 part per 100 parts of water by weight, was spilled
into an aquifer having a hydraulic conductivity Ky, = 1000 m/day. What is the centerline
concentration of the plume when it reaches the river bank 3300 m downstream? Field
investigation showed that the elevation of the groundwater table is 60 m above the river.
Use the following additional information: f-p) = 0.1, 1 = 0.55, formation specific gravity
= 2.65, Ey, = 3.76(10~*) cm?/s, and k = 0.07 per day.
5-32. Tiny droplets of benzene are leaking slowly from an on-ground storage tank. As shown
in Figure 11-6, tensiometers show readings of —88 cm and —126 cm of water at depths
of 30 cm and 100 cm, respectively, below the ground. The vertical unsaturated hydraulic
conductivity K-, is 10 m/day. The porosities are 7 = 0.55, nq = 0.38, and ng = 17. The
other pertinent information are fcep = 0.1, Kse = 104.7, mg = 1.19(10°) kg/m3, and E-, =
0.0012 m*/day. The half-life of benzene is 10 days and its solubility in water is 0.07 part per
100 parts by weight. The vapor pressure of benzene is 1.0 mmHg. Calculate the benzene
concentration 10 m below the surface.
5-33. Calculate the effective stack height using the following data: stack gas temperature = 150°C,
stack gas velocity = 9.2 m/s, atmospheric pressure = 29.92 in. Hg, ambient air temperature
= 13°C, wind velocity = 4 m/s, and physical stack height = 200 m with inside diameter of
1.0 m.
5-34. A power plant burns 5.45 tonnes/h of coal that contains 4.2% sulfur and discharges the
combustion products through a stack 75 m high and a 1.0-m inside diameter. A weather
station anemometer located 10 m above the ground measures the wind speed at 3.0 m/s.
Other pertinent information is as follows: air temperature = 15°C, barometric pressure =
1000 mbar, stack gas velocity = 10 m/s, and stack gas temperature is 150°C. The atmospheric
conditions are moderately to slightly stable. Determine the ground-level concentration of SO2
at a distance of 2 km downwind from the stack along the plume axis.
5-35. In Problem 5-34, what is the average concentration at the equivalent stack section located at
the 2-km point downwind from the stack?
 224 Introduction to Environmental Quality Modeling Chap. 5

5-36. In Problem 5-34, what is the concentration at the centerline of the plume at the 2-km point
downwind from the stack?
5-37. A power plant burns coal containing 4.8% S at the rate of 6.5 tonnes/h. The combustion
products are discharged through a stack having an effective height of 85 m. If atmospheric
conditions are slightly unstable and the wind velocity is 8.0 m/s, calculate the maximum
ground-level concentration of sulfur dioxide.
5-38. In Problem 5-37, at what distance from the stack does the maximum concentration occur?
5-39. A parcel of dry air is rising above a burning grass. Its temperature at 10 m is 60°C. Assuming
adiabatic rising, what will be the temperature at 200 m?
5-40. Solve Problem 5-39 assuming a wet adiabatic lapse rate.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Davis, M. L., and D. A. CORNWELL (1991). Introduction to Environmental Engineering. McGraw-

Hill, New York.
FETTER, C. W. (1993). Contaminant Hydrogeology. Macmillan, New York.
FISHER, H. B., E. J. List, R. C. Y. Kou, J. IMBERGER, and N. H. Brooks (1979). Mixing in Inland
and Coastal Waters. Academic Press, New York.
Martin, D. O. (1976). “The Change of Concentration Standard Deviation with Distance.” Journal
of the Air Pollution Control Association, 26(2).
McQuivey, R. S., and T. N. KEEFER (1974). “Simple Method for Predicting Dispersion in Streams.”
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil
Engineers, 100(EE4), pp. 997-1011.
PASQUIL, F. (1961). “The Estimation of the Dispersion of Windborne Material.” Meteorological
Magazine, 90, p. 1063.
Peavy, H. S., D. R. Rowe, and G. TCHOBANOGLOUs (1985). Environmental Engineering. McGraw-
Hill, New York.
STREETER, H. W. and E. B. PHELPs (1925). “A Study of the Pollution and Natural Purification of
the Ohio River.” Public Health Bulletin 146. Treasury Department, U.S. Public Health Service,
Washington, D.C.
THOMANN, R. V., and J. A. MUELLER (1987). Principles of Surface Water Quality Modeling and
Control. Harper & Row, New York.
USEPA (1988). WASP4, A Hydrodynamic and Water Quality Model: Model Theory, User’s Manual,
and Programmers Guide. EPA/600/3-87/039. Environmental Research Laboratory, U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, Athens, Ga.
 CHAPTER 6

Conventional Water Treatment

Probably, about 90% of the population in the United States turn their faucets every
morning, and probably, they never even wonder where the water came from or whether or
not it is safe. The drinking water in the United States is relatively safe, but in developing
countries, thousands of people die daily from waterborne diseases. Schistosomiasis and
filariasis, major causes of blindness, are estimated to affect some 450 million people in
more than 70 nations.! About 60% of the babies born in developing countries die of
infantile gastritis. The localized Asiatic cholera epidemic in 1854 caused by London’s
Broad Street pump is well known. The epidemic continued until John Snow allegedly
removed the handle of the pump. It is axiomatic that water for human consumption
should be free of pathogens as well as deleterious chemicals. This means that unsafe
water should he treated to meet drinking water standards (see Chapter 2).
Basically, the essence of a standard water treatment is removal of dissolved and
undissolved materials. The basic conventional treatment of doing this is performed by
two unit operations: settling and filtration and the unit process of disinfection. There are
other methods of treating water such as reverse osmosis and carbon adsorption. These are
advanced methods and are not discussed here. In this chapter we discuss only conven-
tional treatment methods; advanced methods are treated in Chapter 9. Complementing
the unit operations are unit processes the aims of which are to convert contaminants to
solid forms that can easily be removed by settling and filtration. Examples of these unit
processes are coagulation and softening; they are discussed in this chapter.

'From remarks of former USEPA Administrator Russel E. Train delivered before the Los Angeles World
Affairs Forum, December 16, 1976.

225
 226 Conventional Water Treatment Chap. 6

Because of the application of the same physical principles, unit operation is an

operation that is used in similar ways in different types of plants and factories. Settling
and filtration are unit operations that are used in similar ways in water treatment plants,
wastewater treatment plants, and other plants. Another example of a unit operation is
the pumping of fluids as applied in water treatment, wastewater treatment, and chemical
plants. A unit process, on the other hand, is a process that because of the application of
the same chemical or biological principles is used in similar ways in different types of
plants and factories. Coagulation and softening, mentioned above, are unit processes that
are used in various types of plants, such as water and wastewater treatment.
Figures 6-1 and 6-2 are schematics of water treatment plants that treat groundwaters
and surface waters, respectively. The aeration in Figure 6-1 is a physical process and is
an example of a unit operation. Considering Figures 6-1 and 6-2 together, the following
are the other unit operations: storage, presedimentation, mixing, flocculation, and settling.
The unit processes are softening and disinfection.
The various unit operations and processes mentioned above are discussed in this
chapter. The unit process called adsorption, which may be included in a process train, is
discussed in a separate chapter. The end result of treatment is the production of water
that meets safe drinking water standards and is therefore safe to drink. For discussions
on the chemistry and biology of drinking water, see Chapter 2.

Aeration

Softening Sludge removed and

dispo
sposedsed ¢of

Filtration

Disinfection

Storage

distribution Figure 6-1 Typical plant flowsheet

system treating hard groundwater.
 Settling or Sedimentation 227

Chlorine
———————
>
Presedimentation Ammonia Sludge removed
——

Mixing,
flocculation, Sludge removed
settling

Filtration

Disinfection

Storage

to
distribution Figure 6-2 Typical plant flowsheet
system treating turbid surface water.

RAW WATER

The raw water may be either hard or soft. If the raw water is hard, the treatment scheme of
Figure 6-1 is applicable; if the raw water is soft, it is likely that the raw water is a surface
water and the treatment scheme of Figure 6-2 is applicable. A general classification of
raw water hardness is as follows:

Soft <50 mg/L as CaCO;

Moderately hard 50-150 mg/L as CaCO;
Hard 150-300 mg/L as CaCO;
Very hard > 300 mg/L as CaCO;

SETTLING OR SEDIMENTATION

If the materials to be separated are already in solid form, the unit operation of settling is
immediately applied to the materials; if the materials are dissolved or in a very minute
form, means must be applied to transform the materials into solid forms that can be
acted upon by gravity. In general, there are four types of settling: types 1 to 4. Type 1
settling involves the removal of discrete particles, type 2 settling involves the removal
228 Conventional Water Treatment Chap. 6

of flocculent particles, type 3 settling involves the removal of particles that settle in a
contiguous zone, and type 4 settling involves settling where compression or compaction
of the particle mass is occurring at the same time.

Type 1 Settling

When particles in suspension are dilute, they tend to act independently; hence their
behaviors are therefore said to be discrete with respect to each other. Type | settling is
also called discrete settling.
As a particle settles in a fluid, its body force f,, bouyant force f;, and drag force
fa act on it. Applying Newton’s second law in the direction of settling,

fe — fo — fa = ma (6-1)
where m is the mass of the particle and a its acceleration. Calling p, the mass density
of the particle, p, the mass density of water, ¥, the volume of the particle, and g the
acceleration due to gravity yields

fe = Pp&¥p (6-2)

fo = Pw8Vp (6-3)

Because particle will ultimately settle at its terminal settling velocity, the acceler-
ation a is equal to zero. Substitutions in equation (6-1) produce

(Pp — Pw)8%p — fa =9 (6-4)

The drag stress is directly proportional to the dynamic pressure, p,,v7/2, where v
is the terminal settling velocity of the particle. Hence
v2
fa = Cr Ap Pw > (6-5)

where Cp is the coefficient of proportionality called drag coefficient and A, is the

projected area of the particle that is causing the drag. Substituting equation (6-5) in
equation (6-4) and solving for the velocity of spherical particles of diameter d (from
Ap = md? /4, d = diameter of spherical particle), we have

4 (Pp = Pwd
v= f (6-6)
4 Cpr pw

The value of the coefficient of drag Cp varies with the flow regimes of laminar,
transitional, and turbulent flows. The respective expressions are shown below.
24
pad ,
for laminar flow
Re
Gp » an Soe
—+ ——+0.34 oF
for transitional flow ee
Re Re!”
0.4 for turbulent flow
Settling or Sedimentation 229

where Re is the Reynolds number = vp, d/j1, and ju is the dynamic viscosity of water.
Values of Re of less than | indicate laminar flow, while values greater than 10* indicate
turbulent flow. Intermediate values indicate transitional flow.
Substituting the Cp for laminar flow (Cp = 24/Re) in equation (6-6) produces the
Stokes equation,
&(Pp = Pwd?
CS SS ae
18p ea

To use the equations above for nonspherical particles, the diameter d must be the
diameter of the equivalent spherical particle. The volume of the equivalent spherical
particle, ¥, = 4/3 (d/2)*, must be equal to the volume of the nonspherical particle,
¥, = pd}, where f is a volume shape factor. Therefore,

Me cifeain? ;
ells) te ies
d= 1.248°°""d, (6-10)
The following values of sand volumetric shape factors 6 have been reported: angular =
0.64, sharp = 0.77, worn = 0.86, and spherical = 0.52.

Example 6-1
Determine the terminal settling velocity of a spherical particle having a diameter of 0.6 mm
and specific gravity of 2.65. Assume that the settling is type | and the temperature of the
water is 22°C.

Solution
4 (Pp = (Ohm yal
VS A ae
3 CpPpw

1g == Deel m/s”

pu2 = 997 kg/m

Pp = 2.65(1000) = 2650 kg/m*
(ih 0.6(10-°) m

22 = 921077) kg/m-s = 9.2(10~4) N-s/m?

Then
Jie 31) 2650 = 997)[0.6(10-3)] 0.114
(= yl SO = =
3 Cp(997) J/Cp

24 5
— (for Re < 1)
Re
Cre 4024
Soe. 3 34 for = Re <10°)
0.4 (for Re > 104)
230 Conventional Water Treatment Chap. 6

ee ED enencewairi here
mn 9.2(10-4)
Solve by successive iteration.

Cp v(m/s) Re

1.0 0.114 74
1.0 0.114 74

v=0.114 m/s Answer

Example 6-2
Determine the terminal settling velocity of a worn sand particle having a measured “diameter”
of 0.6 mm and specific gravity of 2.65. Assume that the settling is type | and the temperature
of the water is 22°C.

Solution

4 (Pp — Pw)d
v= ,/-g—————_
5 CD pw

== O)i3Il m/s”

Pw22 = 997 kg/m?

Pp = 2.65(1000) = 2650 kg/m?
22 = 9.2(10~*) kg/m-s = 9.2(10~4) N-s/m?
BOYS2 hs for worn sands, B = 0.86

Thus

d = 1.24(0.86933)(0.6)(1077) = 0.71(1073) m

»= 4
[48 2 i: 997)[0.71(10-3)]
= 0.123
Cp(997) Aes
(for Re < 1)

=F =e 0.34e lord ea Re 10")

Re!/?
(for Re > 10*)

dvp _ 0.71(1073)v(997)
Re = 769.42
LL 9.2(10-4) peak
Solve by successive iteration.
Settling or Sedimentation 231

Cp v (m/s) Re

1.0 0.123 94.6

O90 O20 964
Ohi @ININSy RS FAS
Oo Sie OS ORO 120)
0.91 Oils — DONS

v=0.118 m/s Answer

In an actual treatment plant, there is, of course, no single particle but a multitude
of particles settling in a column of water. For this reason, a new technique must be
developed. A raw water that comes from a river is usually turbid. In some water
treatment plants, a presedimentation basin is therefore constructed to remove some of
the turbidities. This basin is called the prototype. To design this prototype properly, its
performance should be simulated by a model. In environmental engineering, the model
used is a column. Figure 6-3 shows a schematic of the settling column and the result of
an analysis.
At time equals zero, let a particle of diameter dy be at the water surface of the
column. After time fo, let the particle be at the sampling port. Any particle that arrives
at the sampling port at f9 will be considered removed. In the prototype tank, this removal
corresponds to the particle being deposited at the bottom of the tank. Call the time it takes
a particle to travel from the surface to the port the removal time to. In the actual prototype
sedimentation tank, this time corresponds to the time the particle is in residence inside the
tank; hence it is also called the retention or detention time. The corresponding velocity
of the particle is v9 = Zo/to, where Zo is the depth. Since particles with velocities equal
to vg are removed, particles of velocities equal or greater than vp will all be removed.
If x9 is the fraction of all particles having velocities less than vg, 1 — xo is the fraction
of all particles having velocities equal to or greater than up. Therefore, the fraction of
particles that are removed with certainty is | — xo.
Assume that x9 is put back into the column in Figure 6-3. During the removal time
fy, particles closer to the sampling port will be removed. Let the particles throughout
the length of Z, be the ones removed, and let their average velocity be vp. Since
removal is proportional to velocity, the portion in x9 that can be removed is (Up9/U0) (x0).
Applying this expression, let dx be a differential of the remaining x9 with average velocity
of removable portion equals v,. The partial removal in the fraction dx is therefore
(v,/vo) dx and the total removal R comprising all the particles with velocities equal to
or greater than vp and all particles with velocities less than vo is then
x0) Up

R= 129+ | — dx (6-11)
0 VO
To evaluate the integral of equation (6-11) by numerical integration, we set
Vp |
—dx = — Dey NOG (6-12)
i V0 Vo Ds :
 Water level

|
=F Sampling port
(Sample at given
interval of time)

UOIVIJ
SUIUTLWII
JUSIOMA
X

3.0 4.0

Velocity (m/min x 10~2)

Figure 6 3 Settling column analysis of a type | suspension.

232
Settling or Sedimentation 233

This equation requires the plot of v, versus x. If the original concentration in the
column is Co and, after a time of settling, the remaining concentration measured at the
sampling port is C, the fraction of particles remaining in the water column adjacent to
the port is
Cc
Xx =, (6-13)

Corresponding to the fraction remaining x of equation (6-13), and referring to

Figure 6-3, the average distance traversed by the particles from Z, = 0 to Z, is Z,/2.
Therefore, v, is

=Mo 6-14
(6-14)
The values x may now be plotted against the values v,. From the plot, the numerical
integration may be evaluated as explained in the next example.
Example 6-3
A certain municipality in Thailand plans to use the water from the Chao Praya River as a
raw water for a contemplated water treatment plant. Since the river is very turbid, presedi-
mentation is necessary. The result of a column test is as follows:

Time (min) |0 60 80 100 130 200 240 © 86420

Conc. (mg/L) | 209 I) 169 157 H@ 7 28

What is the percentage removal of particles if the hydraulic loading rate is 25 m?/m?-day?
The column is 4 m deep. (Hydraulic loading rate is the flow to the sedimentation tank
divided by the surficial area of the tank.)

Solution

Time (min) 60 80 100 130 200 240 420

x & =5 0.63 O60 OS OmmELOL2 037 0.26 80.09

vp (10) (m/min) a9 DU) 2.0 ila) 1.0 0.83 0.48

The value of vp = 3.3(10~2) is obtained as follows:

Zp 4 )
Vp = —— = ———~ = 0.033 = 3.310 “)
2to 2(60)

All the other v,’s are obtained similarly. The values of x versus vp are plotted in Figure 6-3.
50 m?/m2-day = 1.74(10~7) m/min = vo. From the figure, x9 = 0.54. Then
1 — xXx) = 0.46

x0 0.54
VU Vv U
/ Bax =f dx = ) aN:
0 vO 0 v0 vO
234 Conventional Water Treatment Chap. 6

From the figure,

Up
Daye tees 1.25
ee 1.0 oe 0.85
EE 0.7
at ee 0.4 ayes
are £2 (0.06) + (0.06) + Te eye ener ares
0.1
—— (0.06) = 0.26
el
Therefore,

R=0.46+ 0.26 =0.72 = 72% Answer

Type 2 Settling

Particles settling in a water column may have affinity toward each other and coalesce
and form into flocs or aggregates. These larger flocs will now have more weight and
settle faster, overtaking the smaller ones, thereby coalescing and growing still further
into much more larger aggregates. The small particle that starts at the surface will end
up as a large particle when it hits the bottom. The velocity of the floc will therefore not
be terminal but changes as the size changes. The analysis used for discrete settling will
accordingly not apply. Since the particles form into flocs, this type of settling is called
flocculent settling or type 2 settling.
Since the velocity is terminal in the case of type | settling, only one sampling
port was provided. In type 2 settling, however, to catch the changing behavior, multiple
sampling ports are provided. Figure 6-4 shows the drawing of a column with multiple
ports and the result of a settling analysis.
As before, let x9 be the fraction remaining. Then ro, the fraction removed, is
1 — xo. In general, r = 1 — x, where r is the fraction removed corresponding to the
fraction remaining at any time ¢. The removal at the desired depth is, as before,
Xo Ve X0 Up
R=1-29+ | 2adx=ro+ | at (6-15)
0 Vo 0 Vo
But vp/v9 = (Zp /2to)/(Zo/to) = Zp/(2Zo) and dx = —dr. Also, from 1 — x =r, when
x = 0, r= 1, and when x = x9, r = ro. Therefore, equation (6-15) becomes
Xo v ‘0 Zp I Th
R=r +f “2dx =r)— —dr=r +/ Ped 6-16
; 0 vo P25 . fo LO J
The integral in equation (6-16) calls for the plot of Z,/Zo against r. In performing
the experiment using the column in Figure 6-4, samples are taken at the sampling ports
at predetermined time intervals. Therefore, for each time interval, data are available
for Z,/Zo and r corresponding to the locations of the sampling ports. Hence a two-
dimensional plot can be made using Z,/Zo as the ordinate, r as the abscissa, and the
time intervals as the parameter. From this plot, the integral of equation (6-16) may be
integrated numerically for each of the time parameters.
Environmental engineers, however, prefer not to use the method of plotting dis-
cussed above. The preferred method is to plot the time not as a parameter but as the
abscissa, and to use r as the parameter. Z,,/Zo is still the ordinate.
 Sampling ports

0 100%

i
90%

20 é 81 + es
48 7S dah S|
69 Ahy | =
@73 @76 @ 82
39 55 79

40
80%

NINN
Ah,

60 1

710%

80 :
60%
Ah,
50% \
40%
100
0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (min)

Figure 6-4 Settling of flocculent particles.

235
236 Conventional Water Treatment Chap. 6

The time intervals used as parameters, mentioned above, are the times that the
particles were in residence in the water column before reaching the respective sampling
ports. These times are removal or detention times, which correspond to the detention
times of the prototype tank. As recommended by Eckenfelder, the prototype deten-
tion time is normally obtained by scaling up the model removal time by 1.75; simi-
larly, the prototype overflow rate is obtained by scaling down the model overflow rate
by 0.65.”

Example 6-4
Assume that Anne Arundel County wants to expand its softening plant. A sample from their
existing softening tank is prepared and a settling column test is performed. The initial solids
concentration in the column is 250 mg/L. The results are as follows:

Sampling time (min)

Zp

Te 5 i Ky. Web es mcs

0.1 O5°a OS eo5 930 23

Oy ie ai sy i SB
(Okey iis iliiss OR ss GD) SS AS

“Values in the table are the results of the test for the
suspended solids concentration at the given depths.

(a) If the settling column has a depth of 4 m, what is the model overflow rate corresponding
to a model removal time of 25 min? (b) What are the corresponding prototype detention
time and overflow rate, respectively? (c) What is the model removal efficiency at the 4-m
depth? Is this equal to the prototype removal efficiency of a prototype sedimentation tank
of 4-m depth?

Solution
4 m>
(a) Model overflow rate = — = 0.16 m/min = 0.16 - Answer
25 m?-min

(b) Prototype detention time = 25(1.75) = 44 min Answer

m?
Prototype overflow rate = 0.16(0.65) = 0.10—~ Answer
m--min

: [ “Zp
it

(c) R=ro+ : dr

2W. W. Eckenfelder (1980). Principles of Water Quality Management. CBI, Boston.

 Settling Operations 237

Sampling time (min)

Zo 5 KM) SPX SKU I)

WE Mesa e WyLEP OUTS MONSEe mene

(2 Se) nO
O23 3 5 © © 2 mW PY we

*“ The percentage-removal values in the table are obtained

as follows: For example, for 62,

The table above has been plotted at the bottom of Figure 6-4, where time is the abscissa,
Zp/Zo the ordinate, and r the parameter. Isoremoval lines are then sketched as indicated
by the solid curve lines.
From the figure, ro at to of 25 min and Z,/Lo of 100% for the depth of 4 m is
approximately 55%.
1
Z Ah Ah3
/ ails (an + in + aly +S) (60 — 55) + (am + Ah2 + a (70— 60)
ro 0

Ah» Ah,
+ (an +3) (80 — 70)+ (= )200-80

= (WI) 420,119 220,35 4> WIE OO — 55) 4 (9 4-010 =O. 7a yG0 = GD)

+ (0.19 + 0.095)(80 — 70) + 0.095(100 — 80)

= 0.866(5) + 0.555(10) + 0.285(10) + 0.095(20) = 14.63

Then
14.63
R=55+ Sy 62.3% = model removal efficiency Answer

To obtain this removal efficiency in the prototype, the model removal time should be in-
creased by 1.75. Answer

Type 3 and Type 4 Settling

The principles involved in these types of settling apply to solids in a very concentrated
suspension. We defer the discussion of this important topic until Chapter 7.

SETTLING OPERATIONS

In the production of potable water, the type of settling discussed above can be applied
to remove suspended solids and dissolved solids that have been precipitated by chemical
treatment. (Potable water is water absent substances in harmful concentrations. A potable
water may not be palatable.) Settling units applied to water treatment are classified
238 Conventional Water Treatment Chap. 6

as rectangular basins, circular basins, and solids-contact clarifiers. The solids-contact

clarifier is used to removed the solids that have been precipitated from a chemical reaction
such as would occur in softening reactions to be discussed later.
Rectangular settling basins are basins that are rectangular in plans and cross sec-
tions. In plan, the length may vary from two to four times the width. The length may
also vary from 10 to 20 times the depth. The depth of the basin may vary from 2.5 to
4 m. The influent is introduced at one end and allowed to flow through the length of
the clarifier toward the other end. The solids that settle at the bottom are continuously
scraped by a sludge scraper and removed. The clarified effluent flows out of the unit
through a suitably designed effluent weir. Figure 6-5 is a photograph of a rectangular
settling basin in Anne Arundel County, Maryland. A schematic of an effluent weir is
shown in Figure 6-6.

Figure 6-5 Settling basin in Anne Arundel County, Maryland.

Circular settling basins are circular in plan. Unlike the rectangular basin, circular
basins are easily upset by wind cross currents. Because of its rectangular shape, more
energy is required to cause circulation in a rectangular basin; in contrast, the contents
of the circular basin is conducive to circular streamlining. This condition may cause
short circuiting of the flow. For this reason, circular basins are normally designed for
diameters not to exceed 30 m in diameter.
The influent feed is introduced at the center feed pipe in a circular clarifier. From
the center, the flow travels horizontally toward the outlet weir at the rim of the tank,
dropping its suspended solids load along the way forming sludge at the bottom. As in
Settling Operations 239

Figure 6-6 (a) Removal at the settling zone. (b) Weir arrangement at the outlet zone.

the case of the rectangular clarifier, the sludge is scraped continuously and subsequently
withdrawn.
The solids-contact clarifier owes its name to the contacting of solids originally
formed with the incoming influent during reaction. These contacting solids are sludge
240 Conventional Water Treatment Chap. 6

from the settling zone recycled to serve as nuclei in the reaction zone. There are two
reaction zones: the primary and secondary zones. It is at these zones that the influent
flow and the solids are in intimate contact. After contact, the mixture is introduced to
the settling zone to clarify. The clarified water then moves out into the effluent weir.
There are generally four functional zones in a settling basin: the inlet zone, the
settling zone, the sludge zone, and the outlet zone. The inlet zone provides a baffle
aimed at properly introducing the inflow into the tank. For the rectangular basin, the
baffle spreads the inflow uniformly across the influent vertical cross section; for the
circular clarifier, a baffle at the tank center turns the inflow horizontally toward the rim
of the clarifier; and for the solids-contact clarifier, draft tubes which also serve as baffles
turn the inflow toward the rim of the clarifier. The length of the inlet zone is normally
designed equal to the depth of the settling zone.
The settling zone is where the suspended solids load of the inflow is removed to
be deposited into the sludge zone below. The outlet zone is where the effluent takes off
into an effluent weir overflowing as a clarified liquid. The outlet zone is also normally
designed equal to the depth of the settling zone. A settling zone and an outlet zone
arrangement are shown in Figure 6-6.
Figure 6-6a shows the basic principles of removal of solids in the settling zone.
The settling column discussed before is shown moving with the horizontal flow of the
water from the inlet of the tank to the outlet. As the column moves, visualize the solids
settling inside it; when the column reaches the end of the tank, these solids will have
been deposited at the bottom already. The behavior of the solids outside the column will
be similar to that inside. Thus the fp in the settling column is the same fo in the settling
basin.
A particle possesses both downward terminal velocity vp or v;, and a horizontal
velocity v;,. For the particle to remain deposited at the sludge zone, v; should be such as
not to scour it. For light flocculent suspensions, v, should not be greater than 9.0 m/h or
0.5 fpm; and for heavier, discrete-particle suspensions, it should not be more than 36 m/h
or 2 fpm. If A is the vertical cross-sectional area, Q the flow, and W the width,

Q
Up = —
A
(6-17)
Q
ZoW
For discrete particles, the detention time f) normally ranges from 1 to 4 h, while
for flocculent suspensions, it normally ranges from 4 to 6 h. Calling V the volume of
the tank and L the length, there are two ways that f can be calculated: tf = Zo/vo and
to = V/Q = (WZoL)/Q. Therefore,
Zy WZL Q Q an
—= and v — = — 4
Vo O Soa ee oe ci)
where A, is the surface area of the tank and Q/A, is called the overflow rate, qo.
From this equation the overflow rate must be equal to the terminal settling velocity of the
particles.
Settling Operations 241

In the design of circular basins, the horizontal velocity, called flow-through velocity
Up, 1S Not normally considered. In these clarifiers, the particles starting from the center
of the tank are progressively slowed down as they approached the rim. Hence there is no
danger of the scouring velocity being exceeded. In the case of the rectangular clarifier,
on the other hand, the length can be long, thus scouring velocities may occur in the
settling zone.
In the outlet zone, weirs are provided for the effluent to take off. Even if uv, has
been chosen properly but overflow weirs are not properly sized, flows can be turbulent
at the weirs; this turbulence can entrain particles causing the design to fail. Overflow
weirs should therefore be loaded with the proper amount of overflow. Weir overflow
rates normally range from 6 m*/h per meter of weir length for light flocs to 14 m*/h per
meter of weir length for heavier discrete-particle suspensions. When weirs constructed
along the periphery of the tank are not sufficient to meet the weir loading requirement,
inboard weirs may be constructed. One such example is shown in Figure 6-6b.
Example 6-5
The prototype detention time and overflow rate were calculated to be 44 min and 0.10 m/min,
respectively. Design a rectangular settling basin using these values for a flow rate of
20,000 m3/d.
Solution

Zo = voto = 0.1(44) = 4.4 m

Use ou, = 8 in/he

20,000
W Zoun = W(4.4)(8) = =rriat W = 23.67 m

Use two tanks. Thus W per tank = 23.67/2 = 11.83, say 11 m. Then
20,000/[2
(24) (60) ]
Wi Ae OvcnliOw ated) —s lj Seen eee = 69.44; A= 6.45

20,000/[24(2) ]
Vh(actual) = ice = 8.6 m/h O.K.

Check for flow-through travel:

44
flow-through travel = vy, (to) = 8.6 (=) = (9,3) OF

Provide 4.4 m for each of inlet and outlet zones, 0.5 m freeboard, and 0.5 m sludge zone.
4.4 m is Zo, the depth of settling zone. Therefore,

length = 6.3 + 2(4.4) = 15.1 m_ Answer

width = 11 m Answer

depth = 4.4+0.5+0.5=5.4m Answer

Determine the overflow weir requirement. Use a weir loading of 6 m°/h per meter of
weir. Thus
20,000/[2(24)]
weir length = = 69.44 m
6
 242 Conventional Water Treatment Chap. 6

Since the width of one tank is only 11 m, an inboard weir arrangement such as that of
Figure 6-6b should be provided. |Answer
Two sedimentation basins should be provided. |Answer

Example 6-6
Repeat Example 6 — 5 for a circular settling basin.

Solution First determine A,.

20,000 /[24(60 61D

As = surface overflow area = i. (60)] = 138.89 m? =A — wloO

D = diameter of tank = 13.30 m

Zo = voto = 0.1(44) = 4.4 m

Provide 4.4 m for each of inlet and outlet zones, 0.5 m freeboard, and 0.5 m sludge zone.
Therefore,

D = diameter of tank = 13.3 + 2(4.4) = 22.1 m Answer

depth = 4.4+05+0.5=5.4m Answer

Determine the overflow weir requirement. Use a weir loading of 6 m°/h per meter of
weir. Thus
20, 000/24
weir length = oS = 138-69 em

Since the circumference of the tank is 2 (22.1) = 69.43 m only, an inboard weir arrangement
such as that of Figure 6-6b should be provided. Answer

FILTRATION

Normally, filtration follows settling. Figure 6-7 shows sketches of the various modes of
filtration. In part (a), the influent water to be filtered is introduced at the bottom. The
water, then, passes through the bed of sand in the upward direction and thus is filtered.
In part (b), the influent is split into two flows; hence the operation is said to be in the
biflow mode. In part (c), the influent is introduced at the top and is filtered through two
beds of filter media in a downward flow; the filter is called a dual-media, downflow filter.
In part (d), the filter is a triple-media filter.
If the influent introduced at the top is allowed to flow down the filter without
the aid of a pump, the filter is said to be a gravity filter. In general, there are two
types of gravity filters: slow-sand and rapid-sand filters. In the main, these filters
are differentiated by their rates of filtration. Slow-sand filters normally operate at a
rate of 1 to 10 mgad (million gallons per acre per day), while rapid-sand filters nor-
mally operate at a rate of 100 to 200 mgad. Shown in Figure 6-8 is a typical gravity
filter.
Filtration 243
Overflow trough

Effluent
pe: Grid to
retain
C sand
Fine (253:%

Strainer

? Sand 5
Effluent Influent
6-10 ft_ |
depth
4-6 ft
depth
Coarse

Influent Underdrain Underdrain

chamber chamber
(a) (b)

Influent Influent

Coarse media Coarse media ‘Anthrafilee

Anthrafilt SER
SEATED
PPEIN
Intermix zone Intermix zone
30-40 in. Silica
Finer media Silica Finer media
sand
Finest media Finest media

Underdrain Underdrain
chamber Effluent chamber Effluent
(c) (d)

Figure 6-7 Various modes of filter operation: (a) upflow filter with surface
grid; (b) biflow filter; (c) dual-media, downflow filter; (d) triple media (mixed
media) filter.

Filter Medium Specification

The most important component of a filter is the medium. This medium must be of the
appropriate size and, ideally, must be uniform. Small grain sizes tend to have higher head
losses, while large grain sizes, although producing comparatively smaller head losses, are
not as effective in filtering. The actual grain sizes are determined from what experience
has found to be most effective. Since the actual medium is never uniform, grain sizes are
specified in terms of effective size and uniformity coefficient. Effective size is defined as
the size of sieve opening that passes the 10% finer of the medium sample. The effective
244 Conventional Water Treatment Chap. 6

\/

Water level A): i cs

during filtering cee.
Wash-water
trough 10 mA

Water level Y
during A Z
backwashing
500 mm GY
A

600 mm
freeboard

Influent 650 aoe

A
500 mm

Effluent

D Wash water
Controller Underdrain system

Figure 6-8 Typical gravity filter.

size is said to be the /Oth percentile size Pio. Uniformity coefficient is defined as the
ratio of the size of the sieve opening that passes 60% finer of the medium sample to
the size of the sieve opening that passes 10% finer of the medium sample. In other
words, the uniformity coefficient is the ratio of the 60th percentile size (P69) to the
10th percentile size (Pio). For slow-sand filters, the effective size ranges from 0.25 to
0.35 mm with uniformity coefficient ranging from 2 to 3. For rapid-sand filters, the
effective size ranges from 0.45 mm and higher with uniformity coefficient ranging from
1.5 and lower.

Preparation of filter medium. _ Plot of a sieve analysis of a sample of run-of-bank

sand is shown in Figure 6-9 by the segmented line labeled “stock sand... .” This sample
may or may not meet the required effective size and uniformity coefficient specifications.
To transform this sand into a usable sand, it must be given some treatment. The figure
shows the cumulative percentages (represented by the “normal probability scale” on the
ordinate) as a function of the increasing size of the sand (represented by the “size of
separation” on the abscissa).
Let p; be the percentage of the sample stock sand that is smaller than or equal
to the desired Pio of the final filter sand, and p> be the percentage of the sample stock
sand that is smaller than or equal to the desired Peo of the final filter sand. Since the
percentage difference of Peo and Pio represents half of the final filter sand, p» — p, of
the sample stock sand must represent half of the total sand in the final filter sand, also.
Filtration 245

ea
Ea ea a ea
Analysis of stock sand ok
Site of Cumulative wae
separation weight

Normal
scale
probability

Ae
=A
ao acet
Jf} 5+
10-2
a 3Bane 2 5 AS So Oma Smoul

Size of separation (cm)

Figure 6-9 Sieve analysis of a run-of-bank sand.

Letting p3 be the percentage of the stock sand that is transformed into the final usable
sand,

D3— 22 — Pi) (6-19)

Of this p3, by definition, 10% must be the Pio of the final sand. Therefore, if p4 is the
percentage of the stock sand that is too fine to be usable,

pa
= p; — 9.1p3
= pi — 0.1(2)(p2
— pr) (6-20)
Since the plot in the figure shows an increasing percentage as the size of separation
increases, the sum of p4 and p3 must represent the percentage of the sample stock sand
above which the sand is too coarse to be usable. Letting ps be this percentage, we have

Ps = pat P3 (6-21)
Now, to convert run-of-bank stock sand into a usable sand, an experimental curve
such as Figure 6-9 is entered to determine the size of separation corresponding to p4 and
ps. Having determined these sizes, the stock sand is washed in a sand washer that rejects
the unwanted sand. The washer is essentially an upflow settling tank. By varying the
upflow velocity of the water in the washer, the sand particles introduced into the tank
are separated by virtue of the difference of their settling velocities. The lighter ones are
246 Conventional Water Treatment Chap. 6

carried into the effluent while the heavier ones settle at the bottom. The straight line
in the figure represents the size distribution in the final filter sand when the p4 and ps
fractions have been removed.

Example 6-7
If the effective size and uniformity coefficient of a proposed filter are to be 5(10~*) cm and
1.5, respectively, perform a sieve analysis to transform the run-of-bank sand of Figure 6-9
into a usable sand.

Solution From Figure 6-9, for a size of separation of 5(10-) cm, the percent p, is
30. Also, the P6o size is 5(10-2)(1.5) = 7.5(10~2) cm. From the figure, the percent p2
corresponding to the P6q size of the final sand is 53. Then

p3 = 2(p2 — p1) = 2(53 — 30) = 46%

pa = pi — 0.1(p3) = 30 — 0.1(46)

= 25.4%; from the figure, the corresponding size of separation = AS(iGg) cm

ps = 464+ 25.4=71.4%; corresponding size of separation = 1.1007!) cm

Therefore, the sand washer must be operated so that the p4 sizes of 4.5(10~*) cm and
smaller and the ps sizes of 1.1(10~') cm and greater are rejected. |Answer

Filter Head Loss

The motion of water through sand beds is just like the motion of water through a run of
pipe. While the motion in the pipe is straightforward, however, the motion in the filter
bed is tortuous. Nevertheless, the form of the friction head loss expression should remain
the same. The motion of the water is either upward propelled by a pump or downward
through the action of gravity. In either case, the flow has to be turbulent. Therefore, the
head loss h is
ev?
has (6-22)
D.2g
where f is the friction factor, € the depth of the filter bed, V the insterstitial velocity, D
the “diameter” of the cross section of flow, and g the gravity.
Since the filter is not actually a pipe, the diameter D must be expressed in some
other form so that pertinent filter parameters may be used. One way to do this is to use
the hydraulic radius, which for circular pipes is D/4. The equation then becomes

ev?
h= (6-23)
Se AWRY:
With D expressed in terms of R, pertinent filter parameters may now be used, and
with the use of R, the equation has now become general. In other words, it can be
used for any shape, since R is simply defined as the area of flow divided by the wetted
perimeter. The expression area of flow divided by the wetted perimeter is the same as
Filtration 247

volume of flow divided by the wetted area, that is,

volume of flow
R = —— (6-24)
wetted area
Let N be the number of medium grains in the filter each of volume V,. If 7 is the
porosity, the volume of the filter is NV,/(1 — n). Therefore, the volume of flow is
NV,
volume of flow = 7 (6-25)
1—7
If A, is the surface area of the particle, the wetted surface area in the filter is NAp.
Therefore, the hydraulic radius, R, is

R
_ nlNV,/( — n)]
NA,
(6-26)
ee th Ay
T= Uy] Ap

But V, = Bd} and A, = ad>, where is the volume shape factor and a is the area
shape factor. Substituting yields

ie
i =) 6-27
Neyer ot \ )
The velocity V is the interstitial velocity of the fluid through the pores of the
bed. Compared to the superficial velocity V;, it must be faster due to the effect of the
porosity, 7. (The cross-sectional area of flow is much constricted, hence the velocity is
much faster.) In terms of 7 and V,,

Vs
= = (6-28)
uf]
Substituting equations (6-28) and (6-27) in equation (6-23) and simplifying gives us
fa l—n)V2
a
«8B ng,
, (6-29)
7 eae =).Vn
" ed,
The modified friction factor f’ = fa/(8B) is given by
—
peat (=)
Re
Heals (6-30)
The diameter in the definition of Re = dV,,,/j4 must be the equivalent spherical diam-
eter
Equation (6-29) has been derived for a bed of uniform size. However, in some
types of filtration plants such as those using rapid sand filters, the bed is backwashed
every so often. This means that after backwashing and the grain particles allowed to
settle, the grains deposit on the bed layer by layer of different “diameters.” The bed is
248 Conventional Water Treatment Chap. 6

said to be stratified. To find the head loss across a stratified medium, equation (6-29) is
applied layer by layer, each layer being converted to one single, average diameter. The
head losses across each layer are then summed to produce the head loss across the bed
as shown below.

ee iy
=
—n)V2 (6-31)

where the index i refers to the ith layer. If x; is the fraction of the d,; particles in the
ith layer, €; equals x;£. Assuming that the porosity 7 is the same throughout the bed,
equation (6-31) becomes, after substitution,

hes Cn V2
§ et
(ee
(6-32)
mg De dpi

Example 6-8
A sharp filter sand has the sieve analysis shown below. The porosity of the unstratified bed
is 0.39 and that of the stratified bed is 0.42. The lowest temperature anticipated of the water
to be filtered is 4°C. Find the head loss if the sand is to be used in (a) a slow-sand filter
30 in. deep operated at 10 mgad and (b) a rapid-sand filter 30 in. deep operated at 125 mgad.

Sieve Average size

s1ze (mm) ae

14-20 1.0 0.01

20-28 0.70 0.05
28-32 0.54 0.15
32-35 0.46 0.18
35-42 0.38 0.18
42-48 0.32 0.20
48-60 0.27 0.15
60-65 0.23 0.07
65-100 0.18 0.01

Solution

£9) V2
(a) h= fc eee
5 is
n- gdp

dpave = 1(0.01) + 0.7(0.05) + 0.54(0.15) + 0.46(0.18) + 0.38(0.18) + 0.32(0.20)

+ 0.27(0.15) + 0.23(0.07) + 0.18(0.01) = 0.40 mm

10(10°) % 4 Ole) emays

10 mgad = =O CEOS)ChO ia) ial cl
7.48(43, 560) (3.281) (24) (60) (60)
Filtration 249

dVs Pw
Re
[A

a 2p ds. B =0.77
Therefore,

d = 1.24(0.77°33)(0.40)(10~3) = 0.45(1073) m
ww = 15(10~*) kg/m-s
0.45(10~7)(1.08)(10~*)
(1000)
Re SO = 0.0324
15(10-4)
0539
= 150 |——— 1.75 = 2825.82
f (0.0324 +

30/[12(3.281)](1 — 0.39)[1.08(10~4)}?
h = 2825.82 = 0.0658 m Answer
0.393 (9.81)(0.4)(1073)

(b) 125 mgad = 125(1.08)(10~>) = 0.00135 m/s

A(t =)V2
cub § a
ee l
Si
h= (
1s dpi

pe djRh
(0.00135)(1000) —_1.24(0.77)°-773.d,,; (0.00135) (1000
ald a a EE
15(10-*) 15(10-4)

1= 0.42 0.085
150 (| Sd TS 1.75
f (asa} a pi >

Sieve Average size fix

size (mm) Xj ie ani

14-20 1.0 0.01 86.75 867.5

20-28 0.70 O05 123218 8,798.47
28-32 0.54 0.15 159.16 44,210.39
32-35 0.46 0.18 186.53 72,991.02
35-42 0.38 0.18 225.43 106,784.63
42-48 0.32 0.20 267.34 167,109.38
48-60 0.27 0.15 316.56 175,869.34
60-65 0.23 0.07 371.32 113,008.98
65-100 0.18 0.01 473.97 26,331.79
ye UNS SIN SMO
250 Conventional Water Treatment Chap. 6

h 30/[12(3.281)]a — 0.42)(0.001357)
(715,971.50)
0.423(9.81)
= (0.793 m Answer

Filter Head Loss Due to Deposited Materials

The head-loss expressions derived above pertain to head losses of clean filter beds. In
actual operations, however, head loss is also a function of the amount of materials
deposited in the pores of the filter. Letting g; represent the deposited material per unit
volume of bed in layer i, the corresponding head loss h; is modeled as

h; = a(qi)” (6-33)
where a and b are constants. Taking logarithms, we have

Inh; = Ina + bing; (6-34)

This equation shows that plotting In; against Inq; will produce a straight line. An actual
experiment performed by Tchobanoglous and Eliassen (1970) showed this to be so.°
In equation (6-33), when g; equals zero, h; equals zero—which is true. However,
due to the bed, when q; equals zero, a head loss must still exist. The total head loss of
the filter bed, h, is therefore

h=ho+ _a(qi)’
> (6-35)
where /o is the clean bed head loss.
Now, develop a method to determine g;. For simplicity, the index i will be dropped
in subsequent treatment. Applying the Reynolds transport theorem (see Appendix 24)
across a differential volume d¥ of the bed,

Dae df,qa¥
+f Cveida=0 (6-36)
Dew fai A
where M is the control mass, ¥ the control volume, C the concentration of solids in-
troduced into bed, v the velocity vector, n the unit normal vector, and A the bounding
surface area of control mass and control volume.
Over a differential length dé and cross-sectional area A of bed, we obtain
Res om
CvenndA=-m+(m+—det
A ae
(6-37)
am
= —dt
ae
where m = CQ and Q = flow, a constant through the bed. Therefore,
aC aC
fCvenndA
e fin = OO—
ry, dt = V,A—
oy) dé -
(6-38)

3G. Tchobanoglous and E. D. Schroeder (1985). Water Quality. Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass., p. 520.
Filtration 251

Also, over the same differential length dé and cross-sectional area A of the bed,

CE
0 dv da(gd
SCE Sec
0 0
ae, (6-39)
ot ot ot Ot
Substituting equations (6-39) and (6-38) in equation (6-36) gives us

Say A ao (6-40)
at els Oe
Considering that the flow is one-dimensional, the partial notations will revert to total
differential notation. Hence

dq
ddi
__y dC; (6-41)
dn ee
The numerical counterpart of equation (6-41), using n as the index for time and m
as the index for space, is

di,nt+1 — Wi,n Or ZY (Oo se

Aiea chal Abi ie

for the first time step. Solving for g;,,+1, we have
AtV;
intl = Gin — ae, (Cinmt — Cin,m) (6-43)

Across a given layer i, the gradient, (Cinm+1 — Ci.n,m)/A€;, practically does not
vary with time of filtration. Letting the gradient be AC;,,/A€;, the equation becomes

NE ie
intl = Yin — Snr (6-44)

The equation for the second time step is

Sy
Gin+2 = Ginti — AtVs Ag,
(6-45)
= in 2arv, ain
Ae;
Using equation (6-45) as the model, the equation for the kth time step is
IMO?
intk = Gin — aie (6-46)

The number of time steps k is given by

t
Kies IN: (6-47)

Therefore, the final equation becomes

ae
in+k = Yin — gy NC (6-48)
252 Conventional Water Treatment Chap. 6

The nature and sizes of particles introduced to the filter will vary depending on
how they are produced. Hence the influent to a filter coming from a softening plant
is different from the influent coming from a coagulated surface water. Also, the in-
fluent coming from a secondary-treated effluent is different from those of any of the
drinking water treatment influent. For these reasons, to use the foregoing equations
for determining head losses, a pilot plant study should be conducted for a given type of
influent.

Example 6-9
To determine the values of a and b of equation (6-34), experiments were performed on
uniform sands and anthracite media, yielding the following results:

Diameter Suspended solids Head loss

(mm) removed (mg/cm)? (m)

Uniform sand 0.5 1.08 0.06

0.5 V2 4.0
OW; 1.6 0.06
0.7 11.0 4.0
1.0 2.6 0.06
1.0 17.0 4.0
Anthracite 1.0 6.2 0.06
(uniform) 1.0 43 4.0
1.6 8.1 0.06
1.6 58 4.0
2.0 9.2 0.06
2.0 68 4.0

Calculate the a’s and b’s corresponding to the respective diameters.

Solution Uniform sand, diameter = 0.5 mm:

Inh; = Ina + bing;

In0.06 = Ina + b1n 1.08 (1)

In4.0 = Ina+ b1n7.2 (2)

Solving yields a = 0.50, b= 2.24. Answer

Uniform sand, diameter = 0.7 mm:

In 0.06 = Ina + b1n 1.60 (1)

In4.0=Ina+bln11 (2)

Solving yields a = 0.0216, b =2.18. Answer

Similar procedures are applied to the rest of the data. The following is the final
Filtration 253

tabulation of the answers:

Diameter
(mm) a b

Sand 0.5 0.5 Pepi

0.7 0.0216 2.18
1.0 0.0133 2.24
Anthracite 1.0 0.00114 DANY
1.6 0.00069 2313
PAO) 0.00057 2.01

From the results of Example 6-9, the following equations with the values of b
averaged are obtained.
0.50(q;)*** for uniform sand, 0.5 mm in diameter
0.0216(g;)** for uniform sand, 0.7 mm in diameter
Dayo)
0.0133(q;)~~ for uniform sand, 1.0 mm in diameter
ia (6-49)
0.00114(g;)*'° for uniform anthracite, 1.0 mm in diameter
0.00069(q;)*'!° for uniform anthracite, 1.6 mm in diameter
0.00057(q;)*!° for uniform anthracite, 2.0 mm in diameter
The h;’s and g;’s in the equations above are in meters and mg/cm’, respectively. Also, the
head losses for diameters not included in the equations may be interpolated or extrapolated
from the results obtained from the equations.
Example 6-10
The amount of suspended solids removed in a uniform anthracite medium 1.8 mm in diameter
is 40 mg/em>. Determine the head loss due to suspended solids.

Solution

i 0.00069(q;)*!° for uniform anthracite 1.6 mm in diameter

= (,00069(40)*!° = 1.59 m
fe — 0.00057(q;)*'° for uniform anthracite 2.0 mm in diameter

= 0.00057(40)2:!9 = 1.32 m
Interpolating, let x be the head loss corresponding to the 1.8-mm-diameter media.
Si 3% a 1.6 — 1.8 x = 1.46m Answer
Lae May h@
= 20

Example 6-11
According to a recent modeling evaluation of the Pine Hill Run sewage discharge permit, a
secondary-treated effluent of 20 mg/L can no longer be allowed into Pine Hill Run, an estuary
 254 Conventional Water Treatment Chap. 6

tributary to the Chesapeake Bay. To meet the new, more stringent discharge requirement,
the town decided to investigate filtering the effluent. A pilot study was conducted using a
dual-media filter composed of anthracite as the upper 30-cm part and sand as the next lower
30-cm part of the filter. The results are shown below, where Co is the concentration of
solids at the influent: ==

QO Depth C OQ Depth G
(L/m2-min) (cm) Gi Medium (L/m2-min) (cm) Co Medium

80 0 1 Anthracite 80 8 0.32 Anthracite

80 16 0.27 Anthracite 80 24 0.24 Anthracite
80 30 0.23 Anthracite 80 40 0.20 Sand
80 48 0.20 Sand 80 56 0.20 Sand
160 0 1 Anthracite 160 8 0.46 Anthracite
160 16 0.30 Anthracite 160 24 O27 Anthracite
160 30 0.25 Anthracite 160 40 0.22 Sand
160 48 0.22 Sand 160 56 0.22 Sand
240 0 I Anthracite 240 8 0.59 Anthracite
240 16 0.39 Anthracite 240 24 0.30 Anthracite
240 30 OPT Anthracite 240 AQ 0.23 Sand
240 48 0.23 Sand 240 56 0.23 Sand

If the respective sizes of the anthracite and sand layers are 1.6 mm and 0.5 mm, what is the
length of the filter run to a terminal head loss of 3 m at a filtration rate of 200 L/m?-min?
Assume that the clean water head loss is 0.793 m. Note: Terminal head loss is the loss when
the filter is about to be cleaned.

Solution Since 200 L/m?-min is between 160 and 240 L/m*-min, only the data for these
two flows will be analyzed. The length of the filter run for the 200-L/m?-min flow will be
interpolated between the 160 and the 240.

Filtration rate (L/em?-min)

160 240

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

Depth oF C NG; Cc C AC;
(cm) Co (mg/L) (mg/L) Co (mg/L) (mg/L)

0 | 20 —— | 20 _
8 0.46 Qe) =10.8 0.59 11.8 —8.2
16 0.30 6.0 =3.2 0.39 7.8 —4.0
24 ODF 5.4 —0.6 0.3 6.0 —1°8
30 0.25 5.0 —0.4 0.27 5.4 —0.6
40 0.22 4.4 —0.6 0.23 4.6 —0.8
48 On2 4.4 0 0.23 4.6 0
 Filtration 255

Col. (1): given.

Cols) w20iicolaa)i;
Col. (3): Ci,m+1 — Ci,m; for example, —10.8 = 9.2 — 20.

ACin
di,ntk = in — t Vs
Gr

_ 160(1000) em?
160 L/m?-min = = 16 cm/min
1002 cm2-min

240(1000) cm?
240 L/m2-min = Fa em i
100- cm*-min
|
1 mg/L wee a dt 10-3 mg/em>
=~ » 1000,cm2
Thus
INC? mall, = AC; (10-3) mg/cm?

Kew (Ome) CAG:

di,n+k aint User = dint Vs 0 Sane mg/em*

0.00069(q;)*! for uniform anthracite, 1.6 mm in diameter

—
0.50(q;)* 7" for uniform sand, 0.5 mm in diameter

For the 160 L/cm?-min:

Run length (min)

600 900 1200

Depth NG Agi AC; di h; di h; di log

(cm) (mg/L) (cm) Ae; (mg/cm?) (m) (mg/cm?) (m) (mg/cm?) (m)

——— = = —_ a = _ = =
8 —10.8 8 —1.35 12.96 0.15 19.44 OR MSS 0.64
16 —3.2 8 —().4 3.84 0.01 5.76 0.027 7.68 0.05
24 —0.6 8 —0.075 Ow 0.000 1.08 0.000 1.44 0.001
30 =——0.4 6 —0.07 0.64 0.000 0.96 0.000 1.28 0.001
40 —0.6 10 —().06 0.576 0.15 0.864 0.36 TIES 0.68
48 0 — — — = — — — —

48 0 yy 0.31 OWey) lsh

The terminal head loss of 3 m is composed of the clean water head loss of 0.793 m and the
head loss due to deposited solids of hs:

has — 0/93 — 2-21 m

x — 1200 2.21 — 1.37
eel ee eee
Hp ile se 1200-900 1.37 — 0.737
1200 sil
5 Dall x = 1598 min
 256 Conventional Water Treatment Chap. 6

For the 240 L/cm?-min:

Run length (min)

1500 2100 —

Depth AC; Ag; AG di hj di hj qi, hj

(cm) (mg/L) (cm) Ag; (mg/cm?) (m) (mg/cm?) (m) (mg/cm” ) (m)

0 — i —_ = =. = = = ~_
8 —8.2 8 —1.03 37.08 1.36 51.91 2.76 — —
16 —4.0 8 —0.5 18 0.3 DS 2 0.61 _— =
24 —1.8 8 —0.23 8.28 0.06 11.59 On — —
30 —0.6 6 —0.1 3.6 0.01 5.04 0.02 — —-
40 —0.8 10 —0.08 2.88 5225 4.03 HL@ — —
48 0 _ = = wes _ = = =
48 0 Ss 6.96 14.51

79] x — 1500 . 2.21 — 6.96

i 1500-2100 6.96— 14.51
1500 6.96
2100 14.5] SP= 2) eau

y— 1998 3200— 100

160 1598 =
1123-1598 240 — 160
200 y
240 I 23) y = 1360.5 min Answer

Filter Backwashing

In the early development of filters, units that had been clogged were renewed by scraping
the topmost layers of sand. This necessitated designing the filters to clog purposely near
the surface of the beds. The scraped sands were then cleaned by sand washers. In the
nineteenth century, development of methods to clean sand in place rather than taking it
out of the unit led to the development of the rapid-sand filter. This method of cleaning
is called backwashing.
In backwashing, clean water is introduced at the filter underdrains at such a velocity
as to expand the bed. The expansion frees the sand from clogging materials by causing
the grains to rub against each other, dislodging any materials that have been clinging
onto their surfaces. The dislodged materials are then discharged into washwater troughs.
To expand the bed, the excess of the weight of the grains over the buoyant forces
exerted on the grains must be supported by the force due to the backwashing velocity.
Per unit area of the filter, this backwashing force is simply equal to the pressure at the
bottom of the filter, which, in turn, is equal to the specific weight of water y, times
the head hy, needed to suspend the grains. hy» is also called the backwashing head
loss. Also, per unit area of the filter, the excess of the weight over the buoyant force is
Filtration 257

€(1—ne)(Yp — Yw), Where £ is the expanded depth of the bed, , is the expanded porosity
of the bed and y, is the specific weight of the grain particles. Equating the backwashing
force to the excess weight, we have

hyp = €.(1 = Ne)(Yp an Vw)

(6-50)
Vw

Calling Vg the backwashing velocity, the commonly used expression for . is*
0.22
Ne = (= (6-51)

For stratified beds, equation (6-50) must be applied layer by layer. The backwashing
head losses in each layer are then summed to produce the total head loss of the bed. Thus

Cen << Ney == n))

hry = > hens = Ds " dead (6-52)

where the index i refers to the ith layer. If x; is the fraction of the layer i, then £, ;
equals x;.. Hence equation (6-52) becomes

LelYp = Yo) Sexi

hyo= Yohyi =oa nes) (6-53)
)

The fractional expansion of the bed may be determined by considering that the total
mass of expanded grains and the total mass of unexpanded grains are equal. Per unit
surface area of the filter and assuming the porosity of the unexpanded bed to be constant
throughout the depth, the material balance for each layer is

£i(1 — 9) Pp = £c,iC1 — Ne, i) Pp (6-54)

where £, ; is the expansion per layer. Solving for ¢,; gives

Ca ee (6-55)

Summing the expansion per layer, noting that €; = x;¢, the fractional bed expansion is
obtained as

a
fo ee (6-56)
6-56

Example 6-12
A sharp filter sand has the sieve analysis shown below. The average porosity of the stratified
bed is 0.42. The lowest temperature anticipated of the water to be filtered is 4°C. Determine
the percentage bed expansion and the backwashing head loss if the filter is to be backwashed
at a rate of 0.4(10~*) m/s. pp = 2650 kg/m?. The bed depth is 0.7 m.

‘Tbid., p. 528.
258 Conventional Water Treatment Chap. 6

Sieve Average size

size (mm) Xj
14-20 1.0 0.01
20-28 0.70 0.05
28-352 0.54 0.15
32=35 0.46 0.18
35D 0.38 0.18
42-48 O32 0.20
48-60 0.27 0.15
60-65 0.23 0.07
65-100 0.18 0.01

Solution

7 =a- n)>- re = (1-042))° . a = (0.58)

)
ee Xj

Diag

Le(Vp — Vw) £.(9.81)(2650— 1000

hyp = PS — Nei) = = died = Hes)
Vw 9.81(1000)

=1652, eect — Ne,i)

Ve O22 O14(l0=2) 1°2" 080

Ne = | — =) = 0.22
Vv VU (Os

v= AOnRenyon
pecan= padi -/
a iti eg Soa
3
aes0=os 1000 We ee ie
Cp (1000) Gy

B0aT
d= 12489d, = 1.240077)
dp = 1.144,
Thus

4
Re for ReRe << 1)1
(for

Gre! 24 3
2 == = 0340 ford eRe = 100)
Re Re!/2
0.4 (for Re > 10*)
Filtration 259

dvp — 1.14dpv(1000)
Re= = 760,000vdp
kL iGOn)

Determine the settling velocities of the various fractions:

Sieve Average size, dpj Vj

size (mm) %; Gi, (m/s) Re;

14-20 i 0.01 0.4 0.248 188

= — — 0.69 0.189 143
aa — — 0.76 0.180 136
— — = Ong, 0.178 135
ae = = 0.76 0.180 136
20-28 0.70 0.05 1.05 0.13 69
28-32 0.54 0.15 Log 0.10 4]
32-35 0.46 0.18 hes 0.08 29
35-42 0.38 0.18 Dea 0.07 20
42-48 O22 0.20 3.02 0.05 13
48-60 O27 0.15 4.94 0.03 7
60-65 023 0.07 6.48 0.03 5
65-100 0.18 0.01 7.8 0.02 4

Sieve Average size, dpj Xj

size (mm) Xi vi Ne,i eiicg Vaan
14-20 | 0.01 0.18 0.44 0.56 0.020
20-28 0.70 0.05 0.13 0.47 0.53 0.09
28-32 0.54 0.15 0.10 0.50 0.50 0.30
32-35 0.46 0.18 0.08 0.52. 0.48 0.38
35-42 0.38 0.18 0.07 0.54 0.46 0.39
42-48 0.32 0.20 0.05 0.58 0.42 0.48
48-60 0.27 ONS 0.03 0.65 0.35 0.43
60-65 0.23 0.07 0.03 0.65 0.35 0.20
65-100 0.18 0.01 0.02 0.71 0.29 0.03

ye 2.32.

Thus

ibe Be
percentage bed expansion = “£7 (100)
(100) =
= ((0.58 (Xo ee )000

= 0.58(2.32)(100) = 134% Answer

Note: In practice, the bed is normally expanded to 150%.

 260 Conventional Water Treatment Chap. 6

Sieve Average size, dpj

size (mm) Xj Viet xj (1 — Ne,i)
14—20 1 0.01 0.56 0.0056
20-28 0.70 0.05 0.53 0.0265
28-32 0.54 Ons 0.50 0.075
32-35 0.46 0.18 0.48 0.0864
S9=42 0.38 0.18 0.46 0.0828
42-48 0.32 0.20 0.42 0.084
48-60 0.27 On Os) 0.0525
60-65 0.23 0.07 0.35 0.0245
65-100 0.18 0.01 0.29 0.0029

E 0.44

hry = 1.65£¢ aad — Ne,i) = 1.65(1.34)(0.7)(0.44) = 0.68 m Answer

COAGULATION

In water treatment particles to be removed are colloids and in suspended forms. To

remove them, colloids must be destabilized by coagulation. The degree of stability of
a colloid particle is the result of the interaction of two forces: the potential force of
repulsion and the van der Waals force. The van der Waals force is the natural attractive
force that measures the tendency of like particles to join to form a larger mass. The
joining of two colloidal particles is coagulation. Hence when the van der Waals force
of attraction exceeds the potential force of repulsion, coagulation of the colloid particles
results and the colloid is destabilized. There are four general ways of bringing about
coagulation: (1) double-layer compression, (2) charge neutralization, (3) entrapment in a
precipitate, and (4) intraparticle bridging.
Because the colloid is charged, opposite charges, called counterions, will surround
it. The opposite charges will, in turn, be surrounded by charges opposite to them (the co-
ions of the colloid charge), thus forming an electric double layer. When the concentration
of counterions in the dispersion medium is smaller, the thickness of the electric double
layer is larger. Since two approaching colloid particles cannot come closer to each other
because of the thicker electric double layer, the colloid is stable. When the concentration
is increased, more of the colloid charge will be neutralized, causing the double layer to
shrink. The layer is then said to be compressed. As the layer is compressed sufficiently,
a time will come when the van der Waals force exceeds the force of repulsion and
coagulation will result.
The charge of a colloid can also be neutralized directly by the addition of ions of
opposite charges that have the ability to adsorb directly to the colloid surface. For ex-
ample, the positively charged dodecylammoniun, Cj27H»sNH,~, tends to be hydrophobic
and, as such, penetrates directly to the colloid surface and neutralizes it, if it happens
 Coagulation 261

to be negative. This is said to be a direct charge neutralization. Another direct charge

neutralization method would be the use of a colloid of opposite charge.
A characteristic of some metal salt such as AI(III) and Fe(III) is that of forming a
precipitate when added to water. For this precipitation to occur, a colloidal particle may
provide the nucleation site, thus entrapping the colloid as the precipitate forms. Moreover,
if several of these particles are entrapped and are close to each other, coagulation can
result.
The last method of coagulation is intraparticle bridging. A bridging particle may
attach one colloid particle to one of its active sites and another colloid particle to another
site. An active site is a point in the molecule where particles may attach either by
chemical bonding or by mere physical attachment. If the two sites are close to each
other, coagulation of the colloids may occur; or the kinetic movement may loop the
“bridge” assembly around, causing the attached colloids to “touch” each other. This can
also bring coagulation.
Electrolytes and polyelectrolytes are used to coagulate colloids. Electrolytes are
materials which when placed in solution cause the solution to be conductive to elec-
tricity because of charges they possess. They coagulate and precipitate colloids. Poly-
electrolytes are polymers composed of more than one electrolytic site in the molecule,
and polymers are molecules joined together to form larger molecules. The coagulating
power of electrolytes is summed up in the Schulze—Hardy rule, which states: The coag-
ulation of a colloid is effected by that ion of an added electrolyte which has a charge
opposite in sign to that of the colloidal particle; the effect of such an ion increases
markedly with the number of charges carried. Thus, comparing the effect of AlCl;
and Als(SO,)3 in coagulating positive colloids, the latter is 30 times more effective than
the former, since sulfate has two negative charges while the chloride has only one. In
coagulating negative colloids, however, the two have about the same power of coagu-
lation. Some of the reactions of common chemicals used in water treatment are shown
below.

Aluminum sulfate (filter alum):

Alo (SO,)3 - 14.3H2O + 3Ca(HCO3)2 > 2AI(OH)3) + 3CaSO,4 + 14.3H2O + 6CO2

Alb (SO4)3 : 14.3H,O sr 3NarCO3 =P 3H,O ig 2Al(OH)3) ln 3Na2SOx4 se 14.3H,O ar 3CO>

Ferrous sulfate (copperas):

FeSO, - 7H20 + Ca(HCO3)2 > Fe(HCO3)2 + CaSO, + 7H20

Fe(HCO;)2 + 2Ca(OH), — Fe(OH)2J + 2CaCO3) + 2H2O
4Fe(OH)> + O27 + 2H2O — 4Fe(OH)3

Ferric salts:
2FeCl; + 3Ca(HCO3)2 — 2Fe(OH)3) + 3CaCl, + 6CO,
2FeCl; + 3Ca(OH), — 2Fe(OH)3) + 3CaCl2
262 Conventional Water Treatment Chap. 6

Lime:
Ca(OH), + H2CO3 — CaCO3 + 2H2O
Ca(OH), + Ca(HCO3)2 — 2CaCO3 + 2H20O
There are also other coagulants that have been used but, owing to high cost, their
use is restricted to small installations. Examples of these are sodium aluminate, NaAlOp;
ammonia alum, Al»(SO4)3- (NH4)2-24H2O; and potash alum, Alo(SO4)3-K2SO4-24H20.
The reactions of sodium aluminate with aluminum sulfate and carbon dioxide are shown
below.
6NaAlO> + Alo (SO,)3 - 14.3H2O — 8A1(OH)3 + 3Na2SO4 + 2.3H2O
2NaAlO> + CO, + 3H2O0 — 2A1(OH)3) + NazCO3

Coagulant Aids

Difficulties with sedimentation often occur because of flocs that are slow-settling and
easily fragmented by the hydraulic shear in the sedimentation basin. For these reasons,
coagulant aids are normally used. Acids and alkalis are used to adjust the pH to the
optimum range. Typical acids used to lower the pH are sulfuric and phosphoric acids.
Typical alkalis used to raise the pH are lime and soda ash. Polyelectrolytes are also
used as coagulant aids. Polyelectrolytes exist in three forms: cationic (positive), anionic
(negative), and nonionic (no charge) forms. The cationic form has been used success-
fully in some waters not only as a coagulant aid but also as the primary coagulant. In
comparison to alum sludges, which are gelatinous and voluminous, sludges produced by
using cationic polyelectrolytes are dense and easy to dewater for subsequent treatment
and disposal. Anionic and nonionic polyelectrolytes are often used with primary metal
coagulants to provide the particle bridging for effective coagulation. In general, the use
of polyelectrolyte coagulant aids produces tougher and better settling flocs. Although,
in theory, polyelectrolytes should be very effective as coagulants because of their many
electrolytic or active sites, their main applications are still as coagulant aids rather than
as the primary coagulants.
Activated silica and clays have also been used as coagulant aids. Activated silica is
sodium silicate that has been treated with sulfuric acid, aluminum sulfate, carbon dioxide,
or chlorine. When the activated silica is applied, a stable negative sol is produced. This
sol unites with the positively charged primary-metal coagulant to produce tougher, denser,
and faster-settling flocs.
Bentonite clays have been used as coagulant aids in conjunction with iron and
alum primary coagulants in treating waters containing high color, low turbidity, and low
mineral content. Low-turbidity waters are often hard to coagulate. Bentonite clay serves
as a weighting agent that improves the settleability of the resulting flocs.

Jar Test

In practice, irrespective of what coagulant or coagulant aid is used, the optimum dose and
pH are determined by a jar test. This consists of four to six beakers (such as 1000 mL
Coagulation 263

in volume) filled with the raw water into which varying doses are administered. Each
beaker is provided with a variable-speed stirrer capable of operating from 0 to 100 rpm.
Upon introduction of the dose, the contents are rapidly mixed at a speed of about 60 to
80 rpm for a period of 1 min and then allowed to flocculate at a speed of 30 rpm for
a period of 15 min. After the stirring is stopped, the nature and settling characteristics
of the flocs are observed and recorded qualitatively as poor, fair, good, or excellent. A
hazy sample denotes poor coagulation; a properly coagulated sample is manifested by
well-formed flocs that settle rapidly with clear water in-between flocs. The lowest dose
of chemicals and pH that produces the desired flocs and clarity represents the optimum.
This optimum is then used as the dose in the actual operation of the plant.

Example 6-13
Using copperas as a coagulant, 30 g/m? was added to the raw water. (a) Calculate the
minimum natural alkalinity required to react with the ferrous sulfate. (b) How much lime of
70% available CaO is required to convert the initial reaction product to Fe(OH)2? (c) What
concentration of dissolved O2 is required to convert the Fe(OH)» to the ferric form?

Solution
(a) FeSOq4 - 7H20 + Ca(HCO3)2 — Fe(HCO3)2 + CaSO4 + 7H20 (a)
FeSO4-7H2O 55.85 +32 + 16(4) + 7118
Ba eae ess TRO eae ee Rg Ge ane
2, Z Eq
Ca(HCO 40 + 2(1.008 + 12 + 48
SG aHCO. oe
2 2 Eq
Thus
equivalents of Ca(HCO3)2 = equivalents of FeSO, -7H20
30
= 138.93
(peam3-E ypeL-E
The interrelationship between Ca(HCO3)2 and CaCO3 is shown in the following reaction:

CaCO3 + CO2 + H20 > Ca(HCO3)2

Therefore,
CaCO3 mg
eq. wt. of CaCO; = = 50 =
: mg-Eq
Also,
Ca(HCO
eq. wt. of Ca(HCO3)2 = a as before

and
alkalinity required = 0.22(50) = 11 - as CaCO3 Answer

(b) Initial reaction product is Fe(HCO3)2; hence

Fe(HCO3)2 + 2Ca(OH) 2— Fe(OH)21) + 2CaCO3) + 2H20 (b)

From equation (a), equivalents of Fe(HCO3)2 for its equivalent weight of Fe(HCO3)2/2 =
0.22 mg-Eq/L.
264 Conventional Water Treatment Chap. 6

2CaO + 2H2O — 2Ca(OH)>

2CaO
equ wt. ot CaO — Oe AOE 16 56
mg-Eq
Thus
0.22(56)
amount of 70% lime needed = hEe 17.6 mg/L Answer

(c) 4Fe(OH)> + O2 + 2H20 — 4Fe(OH)3) (c)

From equation (b),

Fe(OH S85 se 2)
amount of Fe(OH), = 0.22 ba5 | ==). 22 = 9.88 mg/L
2
From equation (c), number of reference species = 2(2) = 4 mol of electrons. Thus
4Fe(OH
eq. wt. of Fe(OH), = — = 89.85 mg/mg-Eq

: 9.88
no. equiv. of Fe(OH), = no. equiv. of O, = 3085 — 0.11 mg-Eq/L

32
eq. wt. OUR et

Then

concentration of O2 = 8(0.11) = 0.88 mg/L, to be maintained. Answer

Example 6-14
50 mg/L of alum is added to 50,000 m?/day of raw water containing 60 mg/L of suspended
solids. (a) Assuming that sufficient natural alkalinity is present, how many kilograms of
sludge is produced per day? (b) Assuming that the specific gravity of the sludge is 1.04,
how many cubic meters of sludge is produced per day? Assume that the removal efficiency
of the settling basin is 65%.

Solution

(a) Alp(SO4)3 - 14.3H2O + 3Ca(HCO3)2 >

2Al(OH)3) + 3CaSO4 + 14.3H20O + 6CO2

Alo(SO4)3-14.3H20 =.2(26.98) + 3[32.1 + 4(16)] + 14.3(18)

Eq. wt. of alum = WJ — = —
6 6

599.66
= = 99,94—=
mg-Eq
equiv.quiv = quiv.equiv. ofof Al(OH);
of alum Al(OH), = 90.04
—— = 0.50 mg-Eq/
mg-Eq/L

2Al(OH 26.98 ro 17
eq. wt. of Al(OH); = es apes aba S18) = 25.99 mg/mg-Eq
6 3
 Rapid-Mix and Flocculation 265

amount of alum precipitate = 0.50(25.99) = 13.0 mg/L

Thus
total amount of precipitate plus suspended solids from raw water

= 13.0+ 60 = 73 mg/L = 73 g/m?

and

kg of sludge produced = 0.65(73)(50,000) (107) = 2373 kg/day Answer

(b) Density, = 1.04(1000) = 1040 kg/m? and

2373
cubic meters of sludge = falc DIRS m? /day Answer

RAPID-MIX AND FLOCCULATION

Coagulation is not sufficient to remove colloids. Coagulation must be followed by floc-

culation. Also, coagulation will not be as efficient if the chemicals are not dispersed
rapidly in the mixing tank. This process of rapidly mixing the coagulant in the vol-
ume of the tank is called rapid-mix. Figure 6-10 shows a rapid-mix device (a), various
impeller types for the rapid-mix (b), and rapid-mix and a flocculator unit together with
flocculating paddles (c).
If the reaction is simply allowed to take place in one portion of the tank, then all
four mechanisms of coagulation discussed previously will not be utilized. For exam-
ple, charge neutralization will not be utilized in all portions of the tank, since by the
time the coagulant arrives at the point in question, the reaction of charge neutralization
will already have taken place. Hence rapid mixing is used to distribute the chemicals
immediately.
The efficiency of a rapid-mix is measured in terms of the velocity gradient G. From
fluid mechanics, G = du/dy in the x-direction and Py = Yo, where uw is the velocity, y
the coordinate, P; the power given to fluid, Y the fluid torque, and @ the fluid angular
velocity. From its dimension, G is actually w. Hence
Au
(OG (6-57)
Ay

The torque Y is equal to the shear stress t times the area of shear A, times the moment
arm. Since the x-direction has been selected, the moment arm is Ay. From Newton’s
law of viscosity, tT= u(Au/Ay). After substituting, equation (6-57) becomes
Au Au
Pp
= — A, Ay—
eae ar = w¥G" (6-58)

where ¥ = A,(Ay), the volume of the fluid element.

Although equation (6-58) has been derived for the fluid element power in the x-dir-
ection, it can be used as the element power in all directions and to the entire tank of
266 Conventional Water Treatment Chap. 6

Se

Chemical addition

Chemical addition

Chemical addition

XPH Axial flow

Chemical feed line

(<— Flash mixer

Propeller
(b)

Fined wood battles

Rotating baffles
Turbine

Elevation
(c)

Figure 6-10 Rapid-mix and a flocculator unit: (a) rapid-mix; (b) basic im-
peller types; (c) rapid-mix, flocculator unit, and paddles.

volume content, V. Since Py is fluid power, the input power to the mixer should be
obtained by dividing Py by the blade efficiency 7 and the motor efficiency M. Solving
for the velocity gradient,

G= Pr (6-59)
LV
Rapid-Mix and Flocculation 267

The following G values with the corresponding rapid-mix detention time f have
been found to work in practice:

to (s) Giss))
0.5 4000
10-20 1500
20-30 950
30-40 850
40-130 750

For flocculators, equation (6-59) needs to be expressed in terms of flocculator

parameters. Calling fz the drag on the paddles having relative velocity with respect to
the water of v, and area perpendicular to the direction of motion of A,, Py may be
expressed as
ve vD
Ls 7 fap = CrApPw> Up— CrAphw > (6-60)

Express v, in terms of the absolute paddle velocity as v, = avUpa, where a is the

fractional part of the absolute value of the paddle velocity v,, that makes v,. The value
of a is about 0.75. In terms of the absolute paddle velocity, equation (6-60) becomes

au.
Pr zs CrAp hw Sil (6-61)

With this expression for Py, the equation of G becomes

CpAnpya vw,
fer oe Ose ea (6-62)
2V
Higher values of G produce smaller flocs, while low values of G produce larger
flocs. Although larger flocs are desirable, there is a time limit to which they are allowed
to form. If they are allowed to form much longer than some ideal time, they will
reach a critical size that due to shearing forces will simply break and crush to pieces.
Since floc sizes obtained are a function of G and time, the parameter normally used
as an index of flocculation is the product Gfy along with G. G values are normally
made larger at the head end of the flocculating tank and made smaller at the exit end
to allow for larger flocs. The following Gfp and G values have been found to work in
practice:

Type of raw water G (s~!) Gtg (dimensionless)

Low-turbidity, 20-70 50,000—250,000

color removal
High-turbidity, 70-150 80,000—190,000
solids removal
268 Conventional Water Treatment Chap. 6

The literature recommends a value of 1.8 for Cp applicable to flat blades without,
however, mentioning the corresponding value of the Reynolds number. For a Reynolds
number of 10°, the following equation for flat blades may be used:°
b
Cr 0008 spate (6-63)

where b is the length of the blade and D is the width. The Reynolds number is defined as
Re = avpqD/v, where v is the kinematic viscosity. The Cp predicted by equation (6-63)
applies only to a single blade attached to radial arms. Work needs to be done to determine
the value of Cp for multiple blades.
To prevent excessive velocity gradients between paddle tips, a minimum distance
of 0.3 m should be provided between them. Also, a minimum clearance of 0.3 m should
be provided between paddles and any structure inside the flocculator. As noted before,
excessive velocity gradients can simply break the flocs to pieces. Paddle blade velocity
should be less than 1.0 m/s.°
Example 6-15
A rapid-mix unit is to be designed for a 50,000-m3/day raw water. Using a detention time
of 30 s, determine the size of the tank and the motor horsepower of the mixer, assuming a
shaft and a motor efficiency of 75% and 90%, respectively. Assume a water temperature of
20°:
Solution
50,000 3
Volume, ¥ = ————— (30) = 17.36 m- Answer
24(60) (60)
Note: In an actual design, a second unit should be provided so that it can be put in service
while the first unit 1s scheduled for repairs or has simply broken down.

Pp=u¥G? G=800s! pw =10(10~4) kg/m-s

Thus

2 Pe 100 17.36) 6007) N-m

= 16,459.85 —— = 16,459.85 W
res 0.75(0.9) S
As | hp = 745.7 W,

16,459.85
i
easy
= 29.07 bpwA
Oe ee
Example 6-16
A flocculator tank has three compartments, with each compartment having one paddle wheel.
The flocculator is similar to the one shown in Figure 6-10c except for the number of paddle
blades per paddle wheel. The ratio of the length of the paddle blades of the largest com-
partment to that of the length of the paddle blades of the middle compartment is 2.6:2, and

5B. R. Munson, D. F. Young, and T. H. Okiishi (1994). Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics. Wiley, New
York.
°H. S. Peavy, D. R. Rowe, and G. Tchobanoglous (1985). Environmental Engineering. McGraw-Hill,
New York. Example problem pp. 147-151.
Rapid-Mix and Flocculation 269

the ratio of the length of the paddle blades of the middle compartment to that of the length
of the paddle blades of the smallest compartment is 2:1. The flocculator is to flocculate an
alum-treated raw water of 50,000 m?/day at an average temperature of 20°C. Design for
(a) the dimensions of the flocculator and flocculator compartments, (b) the power require-
ments assuming a M value of 90% and a 7 value of 75%, (c) the appropriate dimensions of
the paddle slats, and (d) the rpm of the paddle wheels. Assume two flocculators in parallel
and four paddle blades per paddle wheel.

Solution (a) Assume an average G of 30 s~! and a Gig of 80,000. Then to = 44.44 min.

50,000
Volume of flocculator = ( 5 )(44.44) |on|eso
60(24)
To produce uniform velocity gradient, depth must be equal to width. Hence, assuming a
depth of 5 m and letting L represent the length of tank, we obtain

5) ea less L = 30.86 m Answer

Thus
1 1
length of compartment | = ——————. (30.86) = —— (30.86) = 5.51 m Answer
1+2+42.6 5.6
width and depth of compartment 1 = width and depth of compartment 2

= width and depth of compartment 3 = 5 m, as assumed Answer

2
length of compartment 2 = aa) = 11.02 m Answer

length of compartment 3 = 30.86 — 5.51 — 11.02 = 14.33 m_ Answer

width of flocculator = depth of flocculator = 5 m, as assumed Answer

(b) Py =u ¥G*. Assume the following distribution of G:

Compartment 1: G = 40 s~!
Compartment 2: G = 30 s~!
Compartment 3: G = 20 s7!

uw = 10(10~!4) kg/m-s —- ¥ = (5)(5) (5.51) = 137.75 m?

Thus
10(10~4) (137.75) (40?
P; for compartment 1 = = oo = 326.52 N-m/s = 0.326 kW Answer

¥) = 25(11.02) = 275.50 m?
Thus
10(10~4) (275.50) (30?
P; for compartment 2 = a = (0.327 kW Answer

¥3 = 25(14.33) = 358.25 m?
270 Conventional Water Treatment Chap. 6

Thus

10(10~*) (358.25) (207

P; for compartment 3 = Se = (0.212 kW Answer

See) b
(c) Pp = CoApPu—— Cy = 0.008 +1.3
Thus

P O75 Byes)
v3, b ;
Pp = (0.008
+1.3)(nbD)(997)
—™ =[0.008+1.3}(nbD)(210.3)
up,

where n is the number of paddle blades per paddle wheel.

Dye!) 10°(v)
Re = 10° = — ott
3

b 10°(v) |
Prf = |
( 0.008—ape+ 1.3 Jo
| nbD)(210.3
)( | D

b Bick clays 3 b nb
— (0.008 + 13)(nbD) (210.3) [10 (10 )/D| = (o.008 _ 13)(=) (0.21)

For compartment 1:

De) (053) ee la

Pe =326(0.75)(0:9) = 220.05 N-mis

Thus

4.9] 4(4.91) 4.9] 4.12

22.00 a—s (
(10,008DaeSE les )| D2 Je.21) ) = { 0. 8
(0.0085— +13)
é ($F)

0.16 5.36
BS | pe
Let 0.16/D? + 5.36/D? = Y.

D Y

O22 WAS 1
0.15 285.63

2 =— 125.77
02 125.77 yie= 0.22 ws 220.05
0.15 — 0.22 285.63 — 125.77
y 220.05
0.15") 128563" =y=0.18
Thus D=0.18 m Answer
Rapid-Mix and Flocculation 271

For compartment 2:

b= 11.02 — 0.6 = 10.42 m

Pp =321(0,75)(0.9), = 220.73, N-m/s

10.42 4(10.42 10.42 5G

Ny ee (0.0% Bt 13) ;(0.21) = (o.008 0 ae 13)(SF)
D D2
073-138
vines TBE
Let 0.73/D? + 11.38/D? = Y.

D i

0.25 228.80
0.26 209.88

y—0.25 220.73 — 228.80

0.255 228-80
0.26 —0.25 209.88 — 228.80
y 220.73
0:26, 7209588 7 = .0125

Thus D=0.25 m Answer

For compartment 3:

p= 6.33} = Co = IBS) in

Pp = 212(0.75)(0.9) = 143.1 N-m/s

Thus

=e aeate 30) P|
(aa 2 01008 (21) 1 10082 4.13 |)
_ D a D2 ; Paar D a D2

1.27 14,99
= are
Let 1.27/D? + 14.99/D* = Y.

D y
0.30 213.59
0.36 142.88

0.30 213.59 Y= 030 143.1 1213.59

0.36 — 0.30 142.88 — 213.59
y| 143.1
0.36 142.88 y = 0.36

Thus

D=0.36 m Answer
272 Conventional Water Treatment Chap. 6

(d) For compartment 1:

10°) PelOa er ate!

Upa =TO Upa = D D 018 0.56 m/s

5 — 0.6
P= == I) ii

Thus
0.56 ;
o= a ae 0.25 rad/s = 15.17 rads/min = 2.43 rpm Answer

For compartment 2:

LO
Upa = 025 = 0.40 m/s

Thus

w= 1.74 rpm Answer

For compartment 3:

10
Upa = 0.36 = 0.28 m/s

Thus

@=1.22 rpm Answer

Example 6-17
Repeat Example 6-16 assuming a Cp: value of 1.8. Assume a Upq value of less than 1.0 m/s.

Solution
(a) The answers are the same as those in part (a) of Example 6-16.
(b) The answers are the same as those in part (b) of Example 6-16.

a 3

(c) Pp =CpApbw—— Cp = 18
075° U5, :
= (1.8)(4D)
697) ——— 241514 19bDo;,
For compartment |:

Pe = 3260(0-715)(0.9) = 220.03-N-m/s b=4.91 m

Thus

220.05 = 1514.19bDvu>, = 7434.67Dv5,

Assume that vpq = 0.9 m/s; then

220.05 = 5419.87D D = 0.04 m, too narrow!

Assume that vpq = 0.5 m/s; then

220105 = 929733) D=0.24 m Answer

 Water Softening 273

For compartment 2:

Ps = 327(0.75)(0.9)-—= 220.73 N-m/s b = 10.42 m

220.73 = 1514.19bDv}, = 15,777.86Dv5,

Assume that Upq = 0.5 m/s; then

DAVY = ISD PID D=0.11 m Answer

For compartment 3:

P¢ = 212(0.75)(0.9) = 143.1 N-m/s ip = NBT wa

3 3
143.1 = 1514.19bDv,, = 20,789.83 Dv,,

Assume that Upq = 0.3 m/s; then

WeASS)all = SKOIL BH) D=0.25 m_ Answer

(d) For compartment 1:

Upa = TW

5 — 0.6
i == 2) iit
2)
Thus
0.50 ;
o= aD = 0.23 rad/s = 13.64 rads/min = 2.2 rpm Answer

For compartment 2:

wo =2.0 rpm Answer

For compartment 3:
0.30
Os a5 vel 0.136 rad/s = 8.18 rads/min = 1.3 rpm Answer

WATER SOFTENING

Softening is the term given to the process of removing the hardness ions of water. This
hardness is due to the presence of multivalent cations, mostly calcium and magnesium.
Others that may be present but not in significant amounts are iron (Fe**), manganese
(Mn2*), strontium (Sr’+), and aluminum (Al?*).
In the process of cleansing using soap, lather is formed, causing the surface tension
of water to decrease. This decrease in surface tension makes water molecules partially
lose their mutual attraction toward each other, allowing them to wet “foreign” solids,
instead thereby suspending the solids in water. As the water is rinsed out, the solids are
removed from the soiled material.
In the presence of hardness ions, soap does not form lather immediately but reacts
with the ions, thereby preventing the formation of lather and forming scum. Lather will
274 Conventional Water Treatment Chap. 6

form only when all the hardness ions are consumed. This means that hard waters are
hard to lather. Hard waters may then be defined as those in which it is difficult to form
lathers when reacted with soap.

Types of Hardness

There are two basic types of hardness: carbonate and noncarbonate hardness. When
the hardness ions are associated with the COn a and HCO, ions in water, the hardness
is called carbonate hardness; otherwise, it is called noncarbonate hardness. In natural
waters, carbonate hardness is usually associated with the natural HCO, ions. An example
of carbonate hardness is Ca(HCO3)2, and an example of noncarbonate hardness is CaClb.
In practice, when one addresses hardness removal, removal of the calcium and
magnesium ions is usually meant. Our discussion of hardness removal will therefore
conveniently be divided into calcium and magnesium hardness removal. Corresponding
chemical reactions will be developed. If other specific hardness ions are also present
and to be removed, such as iron, manganese, strontium, and aluminum, corresponding
specific reactions would have to be developed for them.
Hardness removal is also called softening, since when hardness is removed, the
water becomes soft. In general, there are three ways to soften water: chemical precip-
itation, ion exchange, and reverse osmosis. Only the chemical precipitation method is
discussed in this chapter.

Softening of Carbonate Hardness of Calcium

Calcium carbonate hardness is present in the form of calcium bicarbonate. The calcium
ion is removed by precipitating it in the form of calcium carbonate. From Chapter 2, the
K;, value of calcium carbonate is 5(10-°) at 25°C. This low value of Ks, means that
calcium hardness can conveniently be removed. There is, however, always the solubility
consideration for calcium carbonate. At 0°C, its solubility is 15 mg/L and, at 25°C its
solubility is 14 mg/L. This solubility implies that no matter how much precipitant is
applied to the water, there will always remain some 14 to 15 mg/L of CaCO3.
There are three ways that carbonate hardness of calcium may be removed chemi-
cally: using lime (CaO), caustic soda (NaOH), and soda ash (NazCO3). The correspond-
ing reactions are depicted below. The downward-pointing arrows signify that CaCO; are
precipitated.

Ca(HCO3)2 + CaO + HO — 2CaCO3 + 2H2O (6-64)

Ca(HCO3)2 + 2NaOH — CaCO; + Na2CO;3 + 2H2O (6-65)

Ca(HCO3)2 + NazCO3 — CaCO3) + 2NaHCO3 (6-66)

The number of reference species in these reactions is 2 mol of positive or negative

charges. Hence the equivalent weight of any of the participating species will be obtained
by dividing the term of the affected species by 2.
Water Softening 275

Softening of Noncarbonate Hardness of Calcium

When calcium is paired with noncarbonate anion species such as Cl", SOAm and NO,,
the type of hardness is noncarbonate calcium hardness. This form of hardness can
conveniently be removed by using soda ash (Na2CO3). The reaction with CaCl, is

CaClz + NazCO3 — CaCO3 + 2NaCl (6-67)

The number of reference species of all these reactions is 2 mol of positive or negative
charges.

Softening of Carbonate Hardness of Magnesium

The carbonate hardness of magnesium is in the form of magnesium bicarbonate. From

Chapter 2, the K,, value of Mg(OH)» is a low value of 9(10~'”). Hence the hardness is re-
moved in the form of Mg(OH) . The solubility of Mg(OH), at 0°C is 17 mg/L as CaCO3;
its solubility at 18°C is 15.5 mg/L as CaCO3. As in the case of CaCO3, these amounts
will always remain in the treated effluent no matter how much precipitant is employed.
To remove the carbonate hardness of magnesium by chemical means, lime is used
followed by caustic soda. The chemical reactions are
Mg(HCO;)2 + 2CaO + 2H2O > Mg(OH),| + 2CaCO3) +2H.O0 (6-68)
Mg(HCO,)2 + 4NaOH — Mg(OH),J + 2NayCO3 + 2H,O (6-69)
The number of reference species in all these reactions is 2 mol of positive or negative
charges.

Softening of Noncarbonate Hardness of Magnesium

As in calcium, when the magnesium ion is paired with anions such as Cl’, SOE and
NO, , the type of magnesium hardness is called noncarbonate. The hardness can simply
be removed by the use of caustic soda or a combination of lime and soda ash. The use
of caustic soda will precipitate Mg** directly as Mg(OH)>, the desired product. Lime
will also precipitate Mg’? as the hydroxide but will, in addition, also produce calcium
noncarbonate hardness. This is the reason for the addition of soda ash to precipitate
the resulting calcium ion which was added with the lime. The process of adding both
lime and soda ash at the same time is called the lime-soda ash process. Representative
chemical reactions are
MgSO, + 2NaOH — Mg(OH), | + Na2SOq (6-70)

MgSO, + CaO + HzO — Mg(OH),) + CaSO, (6-71)

MgCl, + CaO + H2O — Mg(OH),J) + CaCly (6-72)

The number of reference species in the reactions above is 2 mol of positive or

negative charges. Hence the equivalent weight of all participating species should be
divided by 2.
276 Conventional Water Treatment Chap. 6

Order of Removal

Suppose that there are 4 gram-equivalents of Cat, 1 gram-equivalent of Mg**, and

2.5 gram-equivalents of HCO;. Suppose further that it has been decided to use lime.
The question is: Which reaction takes precedence, equation (6-64) or equation (6-68)?
Assuming that the former takes precedence, the amount of lime needed just to remove the
bicarbonate portion of the hardness is 2.5(CaO/2) = 70 g. Also, assuming that the latter
takes precedence followed by the former, the corresponding amount of lime needed is
1.0(2CaO/2)+1.5(CaO/2) = 98 g. Since these two simple calculations produce two very
different results, knowledge of the order of precedence of the reactions is very important.
The order of precedence can be judged from the solubility of the precipitates: namely,
CaCO; and Mg(OH)>2. Since Mg(OH), is more insoluble than CaCO3, the reaction
producing this precipitate should take precedence; hence equation (6-68) predominates
over equation (6-64). In the example above, the answer would be 98 g rather than 70 g.

Role of Natural CO, in Removal

In the removal of calcium and magnesium hardness, only three chemicals were used,
either singly or in combination: lime, caustic soda, and soda ash. However, since the
type of water treated comes from the ambient, CO» would be found dissolved. Therefore,
in addition to the chemical reactions portrayed above, the precipitant chemicals must also
react with carbon dioxide. This means that more chemicals than indicated in previous
reactions would be needed as follows:
CO; CaO = HyO — CaCO3| 4+ HO (6-73)
CO, + 2NaOH — NarCO3 + H20 (6-74)

CO, ar Naz»CO3 =F H,O ea 2NaHCO;3 (6-75)

Excess Treatment and Stabilization

The optimum pH for precipitation of CaCO3 is 10.3. This can normally be accomplished
by providing the stoichiometric amounts portrayed by the chemical reaction. The pre-
cipitation of Mg(OH)2, however, requires raising the pH to 11; this, in turn, requires
adding more lime if lime is the one used or more caustic if caustic is the one used. The
excess chemical required for either lime or caustic is usually 1.25 mEq/L more than the
stoichiometric amount.
The addition of excess lime causes the finished water to be scale forming. Also,
because of inefficiency due to physical limitations of mixing and contact, the practical
limit of softening can only bring down the concentration of hardness to 30 to 40 mg/L
of CaCO3 for the calcium hardness. Also, from its solubility, Mg(OH) can only be
removed down to 17 to 15.5 mg/L as CaCO3.
As long as the concentrations of CaCO3 and Mg(OH), exceed their solubilities,
continued precipitation can cause scale to form in distribution pipes. To prevent scale
formation, they must be stabilized. Stabilization may be accomplished using one of
Water Softening 277

several acids or using CO. When CO, is used, the process is called recarbonation.
Illustrative chemical reactions are

CaCO3 + CO, + H2O — Ca(HCO;). (6-76)

Mg(OH), + 2CO2 + 2H20 — Mg(HCO;)2 + 2H20 (6-77)

2CaCO3 + H»SO4 > Ca(HCO;)2 + CaSO, (6-78)

If the pH has been raised to facilitate the removal of magnesium, the carbon dioxide and
the acid used must first be expended to react with the hydroxide alkalinity before the
foregoing reactions can take place.
A very soft water has a slimy feel. For example, rainwater, which is exceedingly
soft, is slimy when used with soap. For this reason, hardness in water used for domestic
purposes is not removed completely but to the level of 75 to 120 mg/L as CaCO3.

Notes on Equivalent Weights

If all the softening reactions were reviewed, it would be observed that the equivalent
weights of the hardness species are obtained by dividing the molecular weights by the
respective total number of valences of the positive or negative ions, irrespective of the
coefficients in the reaction. For example, in equation (6-70), the equivalent weight
of MgSO, is obtained by dividing the molecular weight MgSO, by 2, the valence of
Mg?* or SO. Also, in equation (6-68), the equivalent weight of Mg(HCO3)> is
obtained by dividing the molecular weight Mg(HCO3)2 by 2, the valence of Mg’* or
the total number of valences of HCO, . These observations can be extended to all other
species associated with the hardness in solution. .The equivalent weight of the hardness
or associated species in solution is equal to the molecular weight divided by the total
number of valences of the positive or negative ions of the species, irrespective of the
coefficient.
The findings above, however, cannot be generalized to the precipitant species
or species other than the hardness and its associated species. For example, in equa-
tion (6-69), the valence of Na* and OH is 1. If the finding above is to be applied, the
equivalent weight of NaOH is NaOH/1. This is not, however, correct. From the reac-
tion the equivalent weight of NaOH is 4NaOH/2 or 2NaQH. Also, if the finding above
is to be applied, the equivalent weight of CaO in equation (6-68) is CaO/2. However,
the correct equivalent weight is 2CaO/2 or CaO. To conclude, the equivalent weight of
precipitant and species other than the hardness and its associated species cannot be gen-
eralized as molecular weight divided by the total number of valences of the species but
must be deduced from the chemical reaction. In fact, this statement holds for all other
species except the hardness and associated species in the original solution. For empha-
sis, we make the following summary: For the hardness ions and associated species, the
equivalent weight is obtained by dividing the molecular weight by the total number of
valences of the positive or negative charges of the species, irrespective of the coefficient;
for all other species, the equivalent weight must be deduced from the balanced chemical
reaction.
278 Conventional Water Treatment Chap. 6

Example 6-18
A raw water to be treated by the lime-soda process to the minimum hardness possible has the
following characteristics; CO7 = 22.0 mg/L, Ca*+ = 80 mg/L, Mg?* = 12.0 mg/L, Nat =
46.0 mg/L, HCO, = 152.5 mg/L, and SO-m = 216.0 mg/L. (a) Check if the number of
equivalents of positive and negative ions are balanced. (b) For a flow of 25,000 m?/day,
calculate the chemical requirements and the mass of solids and volume of sludge produced.
Assume that the lime used is 90% pure and the soda ash used is 85% pure. Also, assume
that the specific gravity of the sludge is 1.04.

Solution (a) Cations: Ca2+ = 80/(40/2) = 4.0 mEq/L; Mg?+ = 12/(24/2) = 1.0 mEq/L;
Nat = 46/23 = 2.0 mEq/L. So total cations = 4.0 + 1.0 + 2.0 = 7.0 mEq/L.

Anions: HCO, = pho eee ee =.) mEq/b

: 1.008
+ 12 + 16(3)
216.0
SOpm = 4.5 mEq/L
~ (32 + 4(16)]/2
Therefore, total anions = 2.5 + 4.5 = 7.0 mEq/L, so

the cations and anions are balanced. Answer

(b) Chemical requirements: By order of removal, molecules present are

Mg(HCO3)2 = 1.0 = HCO, remaining = 2.5 — 1 = 1.5

Ca(HCO3)2 = 1.5 > Ca** remaining = 4.0 — 1.5 = 2.5

CaSO4 = 2.5 > SO,°~ remaining = 4.5 — 2.5 = 2.0
Na2SO4 = 2.0
For COp:

CO, + CaO + H»O — CaCO3| + H2O0

22 (CaO
pure lime required = COs) 5 )= 28 mg/L

For Mg(HCO3)p:

Mg(HCO3)2 + 2CaO + 2H20 — Mg(OH),1 + 2CaCO3) + 2H20

pure lime required for removal = (1 + 1.25)(40 + 16) = 126 mg/L

For Ca(HCO3)o:

Ca(HCO3)2 + CaO + H2O — 2CaCO3) + 2H»O

1.5(40+ 16)
pure lime required for removal = = 42 mg/L
2
For CaSOq4:

CaSO4 + Na2CO3 — CaCO3 + Na2SO4

ZO 1Z23)- 12 166)
pure soda ash required for removal = 5 = IBS) ing,
Water Softening 279

total lime requirement = Beane 75 000) = 5444 kg/day Answer

0.9(1000)

total soda ash requirement = gee? 195-000) = 3897 kge/day Answer

0.85(1000)
Calculate sludge produced:
CO, + CaO + H2O — CaCO3 + H2O
: CaCO3
solids produced = (28) = 50 mg/L
CaO
Mg(HCO;)2 + 2CaO + 2H2O0 > Mg(OH),) + 2CaCO3| + 2H20
Mg(OH), | CaCO3
solids produced = (126) = 290 mg/L
2CaO CaO
Ca(HCO3)2 + CaO + H2O > 2CaCO3) + 2H20
2CaCO3
solids produced = (42) = 150 mg/L
CaO
CaSO4 + Na2CO3 — CaCO3 + Na2SO4
CaCO3
solids produced = = |](1325) = 25) mineyAL,
Naz2CO3

25,000
total solids deposited = [(50 + 290 + 150 + 125) — 35] oa S00 Cara
1000 ge
35 mg/L is allowance for limit of technology. Answer

14,500
Assuming 2% solids, volume of sludge produced =
0.02(1.04) (1000)

= OF m? /day. Answer

Example 6-19
In Example 6-18, (a) determine the amount of CO2 needed for recarbonation; (b) determine
the additional mass of solids produced after recarbonation; (c) determine the ionic compo-
sition of the finished water after the recarbonation; (d) show that the cations and anions are
balanced.

Solution (a) The amount of CO needed for recarbonation is equal to the amount needed
to transform CaCO3 (= 35 mgL) to Ca(HCO3)2, the amount needed to neutralize the ex-
cess lime of 1.25 mEq/L and the amount needed to transform Mg(OH)2 (= 16 mg/L) to
Mg(HCO3)p.
CaCO; + CO + H20 > Ca(HCO;3)o

35 CO?
COz needed = )(25,000) = 385,000 g/day = 385 kg/day
CaCO3 /2 2

Mg(HCO3)2 + 2CaO + 2H20 — Mg(OH),) + 2CaCO3) + 2H20

poem g/l CaO lh (56) 7 Onn g/18

CaO + CO7 + H20 + CaCO3) + H20

280 Conventional Water Treatment Chap. 6

9 25,000
CO2 needed ae
CaO (70) (
1000. )= 1375 kg/day

Mg(OH), + 2CO2 + 2H20 — Mg(HCO3)2 + 2H20

2CO> (a
COy 2 needed ee
aMe(ORDy seas
1000
)= 607 kg/day

Thus

total CO7 needed = 385 + 1375 + 607 = 2367 kg/day Answer

(b) Additional mass of solids = 0. Answer

(c) The finished water contains the cations Ca*+, Mg*+, and Nat and the anions
HCO,, and SO-= in addition to Ht and OH, which are negligible in comparison.

Ca: Ca(HCO3)2 > Ca*t + 2HCO,-

Ca(HCO3)2 56.7
Ca(HCOs ya) as GT rigee eee TED
a 3)2) eecacO, a eae CaCO,7 oa
[Ca?*] = 0.7 mEq/L = [HCO3]

Mg: Mg(HCO3)2 + 2CaO + 2H20 — Mg(OH),J/ + 2CaCO3) + 2H20

Mg(OH), + 2CO2 + 2H20 — Mg(HCO3)2 + 2H20

Mg(HCO3)2 > Mg** + 2HCO,

Mg(OH),__. /Mg(HCO3)> 146
2Mg(HCO,)9] = ecco. (Mg(OH),a )Vie~GIG
200)” ne

en- MEgviCODs Soci

2a enue
[Mg?*] = 0.16 mEq/L = [HCO3]

Na: from added soda ash = 2.5 mEq/L

Cations: Cat = 0.7

Mgt = 0.16
Na* = 2.5 + 2.0 =14,5
Total = 5.36

Anions: HCO3 = 0.7+ 0.16 = 0.86

SO; 45
Total = 5.36 Answer
Water Softening 281

(d) From part (c), the ions are balanced. Answer

The following are typical design criteria for softening systems:

Settling Solids-
Parameter Mixer Flocculator basin contact basin

Detention time 5 min 30-60 min 24h 24 h

Velocity gradient (s~!) 800 10-90 = ==
Flow-through velocity (fps) = 0.15-0.5 0.15-0.5 —
Overflow rate (gpm/ft*) = = 0.80-1.8 4.3

Split Treatment

Water with a high concentration of magnesium is often softened by a process called split
treatment. Water softening may be done in either a single- or a two-stage treatment, or,
theoretically, in more stages. In a single-stage treatment, all the chemicals are added in
just one basin, whereas in a two-stage treatment, chemicals are added in two stages. In
split treatment, the operation is in two stages. Part of the raw water is bypassed from the
first stage (split). Excess lime to facilitate the precipitation of magnesium hydroxide to
the limit of technology is added in the first stage, but instead of neutralizing this excess,
it is used in the second stage to react with the calcium hardness of the bypassed flow
that is introduced into the second stage.
Let Q be the rate of flow of water treated, Mgr be the concentration of magnesium
in the raw water, and Mgf be the concentration of magnesium in the finished water. The
amount of magnesium removed is then equal to OMgr — OM gf. If qp is the bypassed
flow, the amount of magnesium introduced to the second stage from the bypassed flow
is g,Mgr. The flow coming out of the first stage and flowing into the second stage is
Q — qp; the corresponding amount of magnesium introduced into the second stage is
(Q — q,)Mgl1, where Mg1 is the concentration of magnesium in the effluent of the first
stage. The total amount of magnesium introduced into the second stage is then the sum
of those coming from the bypassed flow and those coming from the first stage and is
equal to g,Mgr + (Q — q,)Mgrl1. Since no removal of magnesium is effected in the
second stage, this is equal to OMgf. Expressing this in terms of an equation, we have

OMegf = qvMgr + (Q — qv) Mg (6-79)

Solving for the fraction of bypassed flow Q, yields

One ce ey ES (6-80)
QO Mer — Meg\1
Example 6-20
For the raw water of Example 6-18, using the lime-soda process in the split-treatment mode
to remove the total hardness to 120 mg/L containing a magnesium hardness of 30 mg/L as
CaCO3, calculate (a) the chemical requirements assuming recarbonation is done and (b) the
ionic concentrations of the finished water. (c) Show that the ions are balanced.
282 Conventional Water Treatment Chap. 6

Solution As a basis of calculation, use 1.0 m? of raw water.

(a) From Example 6-18, molecules present are

Mg(HCO3)2 = 1.0 mEq/L

Ca(HCO3)2 = 1.5 mEq/L

Cas On= 25

NaCl = 2.0

Mg(HCO3)2 + 2CaO + 2H20 — Mg(OH),J + 2CaCO3) + 2H20

From the reaction,

1.5 mEq/L of Mg(HCO3)2 = (1.0) (es = 100 mg/L as CaCO,

The concentration of Mg in the effluent of the first stage is at the limit of technology
corresponding to the solubility of 16 mg/L Mg(OH)2 as CaCO3. Therefore,
ap MerMg ine 30 =s16 0.17
SOE Vigii ct ae 00 1G ae
First stage:
(= O17) (100 — 0) (707)
Lime used to remove Mg(HCO3)> in the first stage = 2100) 2 a5

= 5)(9

After this removal, 16 mg/L as CaCO3 of Mg(OH)z is liberated. Hardness in plant effluent
other than Mg = 120 — 30 = 90 mg/L as CaCO3. Considering the limit of technology for
CaCO3 (= 35 mg/L), hardness in the effluent other than CaCO3 and Mg = 90—35 = 55 mg/L
as CaCO3. Apportion the 55 mg/L as CaCO3 between Ca(HCO3)2 and CaSOq.

Ca(HCO3)2 + CaO + H2O > 2CaCO3 + 2H20

1.5 mEq/L Ca(HCO3)2 = 150 mg/L as CaCO;

CaSO4 + NazCO3 — CaCO3 J + Na2SO4

2.5 mEq/L CaSO, = 2.5(50) = 125 mg/L as CaCO,

150
Ca(HCO3)o in finished water = (55) = 30 mg/L as CaCO,
150=> 125
CaSO, in finished water = 55 — 30 = 25 mg/L as CaCO;

CO, + CaO + H2O — CaCO3! + H2O

total lime used to remove Mg hardness in first stage = lime for Mg(HCO3)2

+ lime for Ca(HCO3)2 + excess of 1.25 mEq/L + lime for CO>

25010-0171), CaO 2Ca0/2 22

: . \|C150=30) EACOs
eae (0.9) Unis: Tog COManer Gov) (a5)
es
524+ 121=173g
Note: Excess lime = 65 g; pure lime = 58.1 g.
Water Softening 283

Second stage: Chemicals needed in second stage = chemicals for bypassed

Mg(HCO3)2 + chemicals for bypassed Ca(HCO3)2 + chemicals for bypassed CaSO4
— excess lime of 65 g.

Bypassed Mg(HCQ3)o:

Mg(HCO;)2 + 2CaO + 2H2O > Mg(OH), |+ 2CaCO3| + 2H20

lime needed =
(0.17)(1)
[100~(30~16)] (2Ca02\ _
2(100) /2 ‘eo ee
Bypassed Ca(HCO3)o:

ee ene ie (0.17)(1)(150 — 30) / CaO/2 = 6348

2(100) /2 0.9

CaSO4 + Na2CO3 — CaCO3J + NarSO4

N 2
soda ash needed = (1)(2.5) (“ee = 156 &

Lime needed in second stage = 9.1 + 6.34 — 65 = —49.6 g; no additional lime required in
second stage. Excess lime remaining = 49.6 g after second stage = 44.64 g pure.

Total lime needed = 173(25,000) = 4,325,000 g/day = 4325 kg/day Answer

25,000
Total soda as needed = 156 {|———— )= 3900 kg/day Answer
1000

CO needed for recarbonation:

COz needed = CO needed to recarbonate Mg(OH), from the limit of technology of

16 mg/L as CaCO; + CO? needed to recarbonate CaCO3z from the limit of technology of

35 mg/L as CaCO3 + CO2 needed to recarbonate excess lime of 44.64 g pure.

Meg(OH)2:

Mg(HCO3)2 + 2CaO + 2H20 > Mg(OH), |+ 2CaCO3| + 2H20

Mg(OH),| + CO + H20 > Mg(HCO3)2
HUE Nl
16 Mg(OH) ,; 2) )1)) = 3.52
2 neede 2CaCO3/2 2 |sao |(2 g

CaCO3:

CO, + CaCO3, + 2H20 — Ca(HCO3)2 + H20

CO» needed = — eee

35) f2€O7
5 L154 pare
284 Conventional Water Treatment Chap. 6

Excess lime:
CO, + CaO + H20 — CaCO3) + H20

CO? + CaCO3) + 2H20 — Ca(HCO3)2 + H20

2CO7 + CaO + H2O — Ca(HCO3)2

GOs 2 eed
needed = 4. a eee
CaO = 10 g

25,000
CO required = (3.52 + 15.4 + 70) (Fe) = 2223 kg/day Answer

(b) The finished water contains the cations Ca*+, Mg*+, and Na* and the anions,
HCO, ©and SO,=

Gi
The ions come from limit of technology + recarbonation of excess lime

: oe 35
ions come from limit of technology = 50 = 0.7 mEq/L

Ca’+ = 0.7 mEq/L HCO, = 0.7 mEq/L

2CO» + CaO + H»O > Ca(HCO3)o

a
Ca(HCO3) = ee = | SY) im mEq/L
1.59
57 C202 q
Ca** from recarbonation = 1.59 mEq/L, HCO, = 1.59 mEq/L

Mg?t:
Mg(HCO3)2 + 2CaO + 2H2O > Mg(OH),J + 2CaCO3) + 2H2O

Mg(OH)>J + CO + H20 > Mg(HCO;)>

Mg(HCO3), from the limit of technology

16 [Mg(OH),/2
= —~ = 0.16 mEq/L
100 Mg(OH
g
); /2
2

Mgt =0.16 HCO; = 0.16 mEq/L

Na’:

Ions come from original sodium + soda ash

CaSO4 + Na2CO3 + CaCO3) + Na2SO4

Water Softening 285

ISAS
pure soda ash needed = (1)(2.5)(Na2CO3/2) = 132.5 g = 106/2 == eral
i18

Nat = 2.5 mEq/L

Positive ions:

Cae =) a 502 29

Mg?* = 0.16

Natt =242.5=45

Total = 6.95 mEq/L Answer

Negatives:

HCO,” = 0.7 + 1.59 40.16 = 2.45

SO, =27 =4.5

Total = 6.95 mEq/L Answer

(c) From part (b) the ions are balanced. Answer

Example 6-21
A sample of finished water containing 0.4 mEq/L of CaCO3 is to be stabilized using H2SO4
or CO». What is the concentration of CaCO3 in mg/L?

Solution The respective stabilization reactions are:

2CaCO3 + H2SO4 — Ca(HCO3)2 + CaSO, (a)

CaCO3 + CO7z + H2O — Ca(HCO3), (b)

For stabilization using H2SOq, the equivalent weight of CaCO3 is 2CaCO3/2 = 100. There-
fore,

concentration of CaCO3 = 0.4(100) = 40 mg/L

For stabilization using COz, the equivalent weight of CaCO3 is CaCO3/2 = 50. Therefore,
concentration of CaCO3 = 0.4(50) = 20 mg/L

It is obvious that 40 mg/L #4 20 mg/L. Therefore, concentrations given in equivalents are

meaningless unless accompanied by the corresponding chemical reactions. |Answer

Example 6-22
If the 0.4 mEq/L of CaCO3 referred to in Example 6-21 is equivalent to 35 mg/L of CaCO3,
(a) determine the amount of H2SO 4 needed to stabilize the water. (b) What is the amount
if COz is used?
 286 Conventional Water Treatment Chap. 6

Solution As in Example 6-21, the respective stabilization reactions are:

2CaCO3 + H2SO4 — Ca(HCO3)2 + CaSO4 (a)

CaCO3 + CO) + H20 > Ca(HCO3)2 (b)

(a) For stabilization using H2SO4, the equivalent weight of CaCO3 is 2CaCO3/2 =
100. Equivalent weight of H2SO4 = H2SO4/2 = 49. Therefore,
35
H2SO4 needed = Te = 17.15 mg/L Answer

(b) For stabilization using COz, the equivalent weight of CaCO3 is CaCO3/2 = 50.
Equivalent weight of COz = CO 2/2 = 22. Therefore,
85
CO? needed = 50 2 = 15.4 mg/L Answer

DISINFECTION

Disinfection refers to the rendering of pathogenic organisms harmless. A companion

term is sterilization. Sterilization refers to the killing of all organisms. Sterilization is
not normally practiced in water treatment. The effluent after disinfection must meet the
SWTR and the coliform rule.

Disinfectants

Historically, the disinfectant widely used is chlorine. Chlorine may be applied as a gas
(Clz) or as the salts of hypochlorite [Ca(OCl)2 and NaOCl]. The gas is supplied from
liquid chlorine that is shipped in pressurized steel cylinders ranging in size from 100 Ib to
1 ton. Calcium hypochlorite is available commercially in granular and powdered forms
that contain 70% available chlorine. Sodium hypochlorite is handled in liquid form that
contains from 5 to 15% available chlorine. (The term available chlorine will be defined
later.) Other disinfectants that have been used are ozone, chlorine dioxide, and ultraviolet
light (UV).
Ozone is produced on site by passing pure oxygen or dry, clean air in a high-strength
electric field. The oxygen molecule first dissociates and the resulting nascent oxygen
reacts with molecular O2 to form ozone. The typical ozone dosage is 1.0 to 5.3 kg per
1000 m3 of water with a power consumption of 10 to 20 kW/kg of ozone. The resulting
ozone-treated water is environmentally safe but does not produce the residual disinfectant
that is necessary in distribution systems to guard against after-treatment contamination.
Ozone has been reported to be more effective than chlorine in inactivating resistant strains
of bacteria and viruses.
As a strong oxidant, ClO» is similar to ozone. It does not form trihalomethanes,
suspected carcinogens. Trihalomethanes are disinfection by-products of the use of chlo-
rine. ClO2 is particularly effective in destroying phenolic compounds. Like the use of
chlorine, it produces measurable residual disinfectants. ClO, is a gas and its contact with
light causes it to photooxidize, however. Hence it must be generated on-site. Although
Disinfection 287

its principal application has been in wastewater disinfection, chlorine dioxide has been
used in potable water treatment for oxidizing manganese and iron and for the removal of
taste and odor. Its probable conversion to chlorate, a substance toxic to humans, makes
its use for potable water treatment questionable.
Irradiation with ultraviolet light (UV) has also been used for disinfection. Although
it provides no residual disinfectant, UV is effective in inactivating bacteria and viruses.
UV is in the wavelength range 2000 to 3900 angstroms (A) of the energy spectrum. The
most effective band for disinfection, however, is from 2000 to 3000 A. It can be generated
with low-pressure mercury vapor lamps. A power input of 30 ;4.W/cm? applied to thin
sheets turbidity-free water would be sufficient. Being turbidity-free is to be stressed,
since, if turbidity particles are present, bacteria, viruses and other pathogens can simply
be hidden and be shielded against the UV irradiation.
Although very unlikely to be used for large-scale water treatment purposes, other
disinfection products have been used. These include the halogens bromine and iodine,
the metals copper and silver, and KMnO,. Sonification, electric current, and heat have
also been used. The use of electron beam as a method of disinfection is now under active
research in the United States.’ Gamma-ray irradiation is used in Germany and, along
with the electron beam, is in active research in Japan.®°
The chemical reactions of chlorine disinfectants are as follows:

Cl, + H,O > H++ Cl + HOC! (6-81)

Ca(OCl)s s'Cae 20619 (6-82)
NaOCl > Na* + Cl7 (6-83)
H*, OCI-, and HOCI in reactions (6-81) to (6-83) relate to each other according
to the following ionization reaction, which depends primarily on the pH of the solution:

HOCL == Hy 4OCl- (6-84)

From this reaction, adding H* on the right pushes the reaction to the left. This means
that at lower pH values, more HOC! exists. It has been found that HOCI is a stronger
disinfectant than OCI~. Hence to be more effective, the pH of the solution should be
lowered. At pH 5.5 and below and at temperatures of 0 to 20°C, the concentration
of HOCI is practically 100%. At the same range of temperature, its percent composi-
tion is practically zero at pH 9 and above. The sum of the concentrations of chlorine,
hypochlorous acid, and hypochlorite ion is collectively called free chlorine.

7B. H. Bryan (1990). “The National Science Foundation’s Support of Research on Uses of Ionizing
Radiation in Treatment of Water and Wastes.” Environmental Engineering, Proceedings of the 1990 Specialty
Conference, ASCE, Arlington, Va., pp. 47-54.
8W. Kawakami, S. Hashimoto, K. Nishimura, T. Miyata, and N. Suzuki (1978). “Electron-Beam
Oxidation Treatment of a Commercial Dye by Use of a Dual-Tube Bubbling Column Reactor.” Environmental
Science and Technology, 12, pp. 189-194.
°S. Hashimoto, T. Miyata, and W. Kawakami (1980). “Radiation-Induced Decomposition of Phenol in
Flow System.” Radiation and Physical Chemistry, 16, pp. 59-65.
288 Conventional Water Treatment Chap. 6

Reactions of chlorine with natural organics such as fulvic and humic acids pro-
duce undesirable disinfection by-products (DBPs) such as trihalomethanes (THM), the
most predominant of which are chloroform and bromochloromethane. These THMs are
suspected carcinogens, for which the Primary Drinking Water standard is 0.10 mg/L.
Minute quantities of phenolic compounds react with chlorine to create DBPs with
severe taste and odor. To prevent the formation of DBPs, the organics in the raw water
must be removed before disinfection, or if the DBPs have already been produced, they
must be removed after formation. One way that this may be done is through the use
of activated-carbon adsorption. The other way is to prevent the formation by avoiding
the use of chlorine and substituting chloramines as the disinfectant. Chloramines do not
react with phenols or phenolic compounds, hence avoiding the formation of DBPs of
disagreeable taste and odor. Whether to substitute or not, would depend, however, on
the actual operational situation.
Chloramines are substitution products of ammonia with chlorine. It can be formed
by either direct reaction of chlorine and ammonia or by reaction of chlorine with amines,
which are organic substances that contain nitrogen—carbon bonds. In the amine reaction,
the ammonia is liberated from the amine compound to form the chloramines. In direct
reaction with ammonia, chloramines can be produced by adding a quantity of ammonia
followed by chlorine. The reactions are as follows:

NH3 + HOCI — NH>ClI (monochloramine) + HO (6-85)

NH>Cl + HOC! — NHCl, (dichloramine) + HO (6-86)

NHCl, + HOC! — NCI, (nitrogen trichloride) + H2O (6-87)

The amount of each species of chloramines produced in these reactions depends on

the pH, temperature, and the concentration of HOCI used. The sum of the concentration
of monochloramine and dichloramine is called combined available chlorine. These are
the predominant species that exist during disinfection. Nitrogen trichloride is formed
simply as a decomposition product as more HOC] is added. Hence reactions (6-85) and
(6-86) are the ones effective in disinfection.
As chlorine is added to water, it reacts with constituents until residuals are produced.
The residuals composed of the Cl, HOCI, and OCI species are called free chlorine resid-
uals; the residuals composed of the chloramines are called combined available chlorine
residuals. The sum of the residuals is simply called total residual chlorine (TRC).
Figure 6-1 1a shows the status of the residual as a function of the dosage of chlorine.
From zero chlorine applied at the beginning of the abscissa to point A, the applied chlorine
is immediately consumed by reducing such species as Fe*+, Mn?*, HS, and nitrites. As
shown, no chlorine residual is produced. From A to B, chlorine reacts with organic
compounds, ammonia, and amines to produce chloro-organic species and chloramines.
Free chlorine is not formed. At this range of applied dosage, reactions (6-85) and
(6-86) control the production of mono- and dichloramines. The distribution of these two
forms depends on the pH and temperature. From B to the minimum, designated as the
breakpoint, dichloramine is decomposed to nitrogen trichloride, reaction (6-87). In this
range of chlorine dosage, the chloramines may also decompose to Ny and N>O. Possible
 Disinfection 289

Destruction of |Formation of free chlorine and

Destruction of chloramines and presence of chloro-organic
chlorine residual chloro-organic compounds not destroyed
0.5 | by reducing | compounds |
\ ‘compounds
4 1 (OS

oa ea | | :
Formation of chloro-organic
03 ; compounds and chloramines Preeresidual

0.2 | ee
(mg/L)
residual
Chlorine
0.1 Combined residual

0 |
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 IED, 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Chlorine added (mg/L)

(a)

Chlorine Residual
feeder analyzer—controller

Residual trim control signal

Pacing control signal

; Chlorine
|<
gas
Injector
water
supply

Chlorine Chlorinated
feed effluent

es
Flow solution sample
transmitter

Treated effluent

(b)

Figure 6-11 (a) Chlorine residual versus chlorine applied. (b) Automatic residual chlo-
rine control of chlorine feeder.
290 Conventional Water Treatment Chap. 6

reactions for these decompositions are

NH)Cl + NHCl, + HOC! — N20 + 4HCI (6-88)

2NH>Cl + HOC] + N2 + H20 + 3HCI (6-89)

The point in the chlorine-dose-residual curve at which all destructible chloramines

and chloro-organic compounds are decomposed and in which free chlorine residual be-
gins to appear is called the breakpoint. Beyond the breakpoint, the residual chlorine is
composed of free and combined residual.
Equations (6-88) and (6-89) show that hydrochloric acid is produced. This will
require neutralizing this acid to the desired pH range. However, it is not possible to
predict the amount of acid produced in an actual application, since the reaction transpiring
is a combination of the two reactions. The practical way is to perform a test to determine
the amount of base needed. By this method it has been found that 15.0 mg/L of alkalinity
measured as CaCO3 is required in normal situations.

Available Chlorine

The strength of a chlorine disinfectant is measured in terms of available chlorine. The

available chlorine of a disinfectant is defined as the ratio of the mass of chlorine to the
mass of the disinfectant that has the same unit of oxidizing power as chlorine. The unit
of disinfecting power of chlorine may be found as follows in terms of | mol of electrons:

Che Jes —— ZC (6-90)

From this equation, the unit of oxidizing power of Clz is Cl2/2 = 35.5. Consider
another chlorine disinfectant such as NaOCl. To find its available chlorine, its unit of
disinfecting power must also, first, be determined.

NaOCler 2ee-- 2H" — Cle oNa’ ILO (6-91)

From this equation, the unit of disinfecting power of NaOCl is NaOCl/2 = 37.24. There-
fore, the available chlorine of NaOCl is the ratio of the mass of chlorine to the mass of
NaOCl that has the same unit of oxidizing power as chlorine, or

355)
available chlorine of NaOCl = 3704 = 0)}95 on 95%

In other words, NaOCl is 95% effective compared to chlorine.

Example 6-23
What is the available chlorine in dichloramine?

Solution When dichloramine oxidizes a substance, its chlorine atom is reduced to chloride.
And, as gleaned from its formula, the nitrogen must be converted to the NH,* ion. Hence,
the oxidation-reduction reaction using only half the reaction is

NHC + 4e5 3H = 2Cig 2 NH ©

Glossary 291

Thus
: bee NHCI
unit of oxidizing power of dichloramine = a As
Bor
available chlorine = —— = 1.65 or 165% Answer
21.48

GLOSSARY

Aerosol. A colloid of solids and liquids dispersed in a gas.

Available chlorine. Of a given disinfectant, the mass of chlorine divided by the mass of
the disinfectant having the same disinfecting power as the chlorine.
Breakpoint chlorination. The unit process of applying chlorine to the point where all
the destructible chloramines and organic compounds are destroyed and where free
chlorine residual begins to appear.
Carbonate hardness. Hardness associated with the carbonate and bicarbonate ions.
Coagulation. A unit process that destroys the mutual repulsive forces between particles.
Colloids. Particles so small that they are affected by the bombardment of atoms and
molecules but not by the pull of gravity.
Combined available chlorine. The sum of the concentrations of monochloramine and
dichloramine.
Copperas. Ferrous sulfate.
Counterions. The layer of opposite-charged ions surrounding the primary charge of a
colloid.
Detention time, retention time, or residence time. The length of time that a particle
of water is held up in a basin.
Discrete settling. Also called type | settling; a type of settling where the particles behave
independently of each other.
Disinfection. The rendering of pathogenic organisms harmless.
Effective size. The sieve-size opening that passes the smaller 10% of a given sample.
Electrolyte. A material that when placed in solution will cause the solution to be con-
ductive to electricity.
Flocculation. A unit operation that induces particles to coalesce and form bigger aggre-
gate of particles.
Flocculent settling. Also called type 2 settling, the type of settling where the particles
aggregate into flocs while settling.
Foam. A colloid of gas dispersed in a liquid.
Free chlorine. The sum of the concentrations of chlorine, hypochlorous acid, and the
hypochlorite ion.
Hard water. Water that is difficult to lather when reacted with soap.
Hydrophilic colloid. Water-loving colloid.
Hydrophobic colloid. Water-hating colloid.
Inlet zone. That portion of a sedimentation basin where the inflow is allowed to position
for proper entry into the settling zone.
292 Conventional Water Treatment Chap. 6

Lime. Calcium oxide.

Lime-soda process. The softening of hardness using lime and sodium hydroxide.
Noncarbonate hardness. Hardness associated with ions other than the carbonate and
bicarbonate ions.
Outlet zone. That portion of the sedimentation basin provided for proper takeoff of the
effluent.
Overflow velocity or overflow rate. The flow to a tank divided by its surficial area.
Polyelectrolyte. Polymers with more than one electrolytic site in the molecule.
Polymer. A large molecule formed joining together smaller molecules of the same
substance.
Potable water. Water that does not have substances in harmful concentrations.
Prototype. A scale-up from a physical model.
Rapid-mix. A process of rapidly distributing a coagulant throughout the volume of a
tank.
Rapid-sand filter. A water filter operating at a rate of 100 to 200 mgad.
Recarbonation. The stabilization of a softened water by the use of carbon dioxide.
Settling zone. That portion in a sedimentation basin provided for the settling of particles.
Slow-sand filter. A water filter operating at a rate of 1 to 10 mgad.
Sludge zone. That portion of the sedimentation basin provided for the collection of
settled sludge.
Split treatment. For waters high in magnesium concentration, a process where the
raw water is split into two streams, the first stream is softened, and the second is
bypassed and remixed with the softened first stream.
Sterilization. The killing of all organisms.
Turbidity. A measure of the extent to which suspended matter either absorbs or scatters
light impinging on the suspension.
Uniformity coefficient. The ratio of the sieve-size opening that passes the smaller 60%
of a given sample to the sieve-size opening that passes the smaller 10% of the
sample.
Unit operation. An operation that, because of the application of the same physical
principles, is used in similar ways in different types of plants and factories.
Unit process. A process that, because of the application of the same chemical or bio-
logical principles, is used in similar ways in different types of plants and factories.
van der Waals force. The natural mutual attractive force between two particles.
Water softening. A unit process of removing hardness ions from water.

SYMBOLS

a fraction of absolute paddle velocity that makes v,

A flow-through cross-sectional area
Ap projected area of particle; surface area of each grain of filter
medium
As overflow area; area of shear
Symbols 293

length of paddle blade

concentration of particles remaining in the settling column
at any time; concentration of materials in the flow to
filter bed
coefficient of drag
concentration of particles in column at initial time
diameter of settling particle
diameter of a grain of filter medium
width of paddle blade
friction factor
modified friction factor
bouyant force on a discrete particle
drag force on a discrete particle
body force on a discrete particle
acceleration due to gravity
du/dy = velocity gradient
head loss across filter sand
backwashing head loss
head loss across layer, i, of sand bed
kilogram per day
depth of bed
expanded depth of bed
length of tank
inflow of material into bed
milligram equivalent
milligram equivalent per liter
motor efficiency
number of grains in filter bed
percentage of a sample of stock sand that is equal to or less
than the desired Pj9 in the final filter sand
percentage of a sample of stock sand that is equal to or less
than the desired Po in the final filter sand
percentage of stock sand that is transformed into final usable
sand
percentage of stock sand that is too fine to be usable
percentage of stock sand above the size of which the sand
is too coarse to be usable
10th percentile size of a sample of sand or grains
60th percentile size of a sample of sand or grains
power given to fluid
material deposited per unit volume of sand bed
material deposited per unit volume of sand bed in layer i
rate of flow
fraction of total particles removed; hydraulic radius
 294 Conventional Water Treatment Chap. 6

Reynolds number
time
time of settling of particle from surface of settling column
to sampling port; detention time of a settling tank
velocity in y-coordinate direction
terminal settling velocity of particle
flow-through velocity
velocities of particles comprised in x; it is less than vo;
paddle velocity relative to fluid
absolute paddle velocity
Zo/to
interstitial velocity through sand bed
volume of flocculation tank
backwashing velocity
volume of each grain of filter medium
superficial velocity
width of tank
fraction of particles not removed at any time
fraction of particles with velocities less than vp
vertical distance from any point on the settling column to
sampling port; vertical distance from any point of the
tank to its bottom
vertical distance from surface of a settling column to sam-
pling port; depth of settling basin
area shape factor
volume shape factor
specific of particle
specific weight of water
porosity; brake efficiency
expanded bed porosity
mass density of particle and water, respectively
fluid torque

PROBLEMS

6-1. Two spherical particles A and B have diameters of 0.6 mm and 0.9 mm, respectively. The
particles have the same specific gravities of 2.65. Assume that the settling is type 1 and the
temperature of water is 22°C. Determine the ratio of their terminal settling velocities.
6-2. Repeat Problem 6-1 for particles of sharp sand.
6-3. What is the impact of suspended solids on water treatment? How is it measured?
6-4. Determine the quantity of filterable residue on a sample if 200 mL of its filtrate is evaporated
in an evaporating dish whose tare mass is 325.46 g. The total mass of the evaporating dish
and residue after drying to constant weight is 325.57 g.
Problems 295

6-5. A sample of Tanjay River in Negros Oriental, the Philippines, is evaporated to dryness and
sieve analysis performed on the residue. The result of the analysis is as follows:

Particle size (mm) | 0.104 0.088 0.074 0.061 0.053 0.043

Weight fraction < stated size |90 85 60 30 if 1

(a) For sedimentation analysis, convert this result to the percent remaining versus particle
size and the percent remaining versus terminal settling velocity. (b) Compute the would-be
percent removal in a sedimentation basin if the overflow rate is 25.0 m/day. Assume that
the specific gravity of the particles is 2.0 and the temperature is 20°C.
6-6. What is type | suspension?
6-7. Determine the terminal settling velocity of a 100-jm particle in water at 22°C. The specific
gravity of the particle is 2.5. Assume that 8 = 0.9. What is the velocity if the particle is
settling in air at the same temperature?
6-8. Using any settling chart for flocculent particles, (a) determine the theoretical efficiency of
a sedimentation basin with a depth of 3.5 m, a volume of 1500 m>, and an inflow of
12,0003/day. (b) What are the corresponding model detention time and model overflow rate,
respectively?
. For the particle in Problem 6-7, how long will it take for it to settle in a 2-m settling tank?
Solve for both water and air.
. A particle with a diameter of 1.1 mm and a specific gravity of 2.5 is released in water at a
temperature of 20°C. How far will it travel in 3 s?
. Particle A has a diameter of 0.4 mm and particle B has a diameter of 10 mm. If particle B
is removed 100% in 9 s, what is the percent removal of particle A?
. Name the types of settling basins employed in removing solids in water treatment.
. Using a settling chart for flocculent particles, design a rectangular basin for an inflow of
30,000 m3/day and a removal efficiency of 69.63%.
. Design a rectangular settling basin to remove a type 2 suspension settling at a rate of 0.8 m/h.
The flow rate is to be 20,000 m?/day.
. Repeat Problem 6-13 for a circular clarifier.
. Repeat Problem 6-14 for a circular clarifier.
. A consultant decided to recommend using an effective size of 0.55 mm and a uniformity
coefficient of 1.65 for a proposed filter bed. Perform a sieve analysis to transform a run-of-
bank sand you provide into a usable sand.
. For the usable sand percentage distribution of Problem 6-17, what is the 50th percentile
size?
. For the sharp filter sand whose sieve analysis is shown in the following table, find the head
loss if the sand is to be used in (a) a slow-sand filter 30 in. deep operated at 10 mgad and
(b) a rapid-sand filter 30 in. deep operated at 125 mgad. The porosity of the unstratified bed
is 0.39 and that of the stratified bed is 0.42. The lowest temperature anticipated of the water
to be filtered is 20°C.
296 Conventional Water Treatment Chap. 6

Sieve Average size

size (mm) Xi
14-20 1.0 0.01
20-28 0.70 0.05
28-32 0.54 Oss
32-35 0.46 0.18
35-42 0.38 0.18
42-48 ORS?) 0.20
48-60 0.27 0.15
60-65 Oya? 0.07
65—100 0.18 0.01

6-20. The amount of suspended solids removed in a uniform sand 0.8 mm in diameter is 2.0 mg/cm?.
Determine the total head loss due to suspended solids removed and the bed if the clean bed
head loss is 0.793 m.
6-21. A 0.65-m-deep filter bed has a uniformly sized sand with a diameter of 0.45 mm, specific
gravity of 2.65, and a volumetric shape factor of 0.87. If a hydrostatic head of 2.3 m is
maintained over the bed, determine the flow rate at 20°C. Assume that the porosity is 0.4.
6-22. Determine the backwash rate at which the bed in Problem 6-21 will just begin to fluidize.
6-23. A sand filter is 0.65 m deep. It has a uniformly sized sand with a diameter of 0.45 mm,
specific gravity of 2.65, and volumetric shape factor of 0.87. The bed porosity is 0.4.
Determine the head required to maintain a flow rate of 10 m/h at 15°C.
6-24. A pilot study was conducted using a dual-media filter composed of anthracite as the upper
30-cm part and sand as the next lower 30-cm part of the filter. The results are shown below,
where Co is the concentration of solids at the influent:

O Depth C Depth ©
(L/m2-min) (cm) Co Medium (L/m?-min) (cm) Co Medium

80 0 1 Anthracite 80 8 OB2 Anthracite

80 16 ODT Anthracite 80 24 0.24 Anthracite
80 30 0.23 Sand 80 40 0.20 Sand
80 48 0.20 Sand 80 56 0.20 Sand
160 0 | Anthracite 160 8 0.46 Anthracite
160 16 0.30 Anthracite 160 24 O27 Anthracite
160 30 0.25 Sand 160 40 0.22 Sand
160 48 0.22 Sand 160 56 Om? Sand
240 0 1 Anthracite 240 8 0.59 Anthracite
240 16 0.39 Anthracite 240 24 0.30 Anthracite
240 30 ODF Sand 240 40 0.23 Sand
240 48 0.23 Sand 240 56 (O38 Sand

If the respective sizes of the anthracite and sand layers are 1.6 mm and 0.5 mm, what is the
length of the filter run to a terminal head loss of 3 m at a filtration rate of 120 L/m?-min?
Assume that the clean water head loss is 0.793 m. Note: The terminal head loss is the loss
when the filter is about to be cleaned.
Problems 297

6-25. The porosity of the unstratified bed composed of sharp filter sand is 0.39 and that of the
stratified bed is 0.42. The lowest temperature anticipated of the water to be filtered is 20°C.
Find the head loss if the sand is to be used in (a) a slow-sand filter 30 in. deep operated at
10 mgad and (b) a rapid-sand filter 30 in. deep operated at 125 mgad. The sieve analysis is
as follows:

Sieve Average size

size (mm) ie

14-20 1.0 0.01

20-28 0.70 0.05
28-32 0.54 0.15
32-35 0.46 0.18
35-42 0.38 0.18
42-48 0.32 0.20
48-60 O27 0.15
60-65 0.23 0.07
65-100 0.18 0.01

6-26. Pilot plant analysis on a mixed-media filter shows that a filtration rate of 15 m*/m2-h is
acceptable. If a surface configuration of 5 m by 8 m is appropriate, how many filter units
will be required to process 100,000 m?/day of raw water?
. To solve this problem do not use equivalent weights. Using copperas as a coagulant, 30 g/m?
was added to the raw water. (a) Calculate the minimum natural alkalinity required to react
with the ferrous sulfate. (b) How much lime of 70% available CaO is required to convert
the initial reaction product to Fe(OH)? (c) What concentration of dissolved O2 is required
to convert the Fe(OH)> to the ferric form?
6-28. Determine the basin dimensions, power applied, and paddle configuration and rotational
speed for a flocculator that processes 17,000 m?/day of raw water. By jar test, the optimum
Gt value was found to be 4.5(10*).
6-29. A rapid mix tank blends 35 mg/L of alum with a raw water flow rate of 40,000 m3/day.
The detention time is to be 2 min. Determine the kilograms per day of alum added, the
dimensions of the tank, and the power input necessary for a G value of 900 s~!. The water
temperature is 20°C.
6-30. The quantity 50 mg/L of alum is added to 50,000 m3/day of raw water containing 60 mg/L
of suspended solids, 80 mg/L of Ca*+, 12 mg/L of Mg?*, and 152.5 mg/L of HCO,. (a) Is
there sufficient alkalinity in the raw water? (b) If not, how much should be added? (c) What
is the daily consumption of alum and the daily production of sludge?
6-31. For a water temperature of 4°C, design a rapid-mix unit to treat 50,000 m3/day raw water.
Use the following assumptions: detention time = 30 s, shaft and motor efficiency = 75%
and 90%, respectively.
6-32. Describe how a jar test is performed and describe its importance in plant operation.
6-33. A 20,000-m3/day flow at 20°C is flocculated in a flow-through flocculator whose paddles
are arranged longitudinally. The optimum yalue of Gt determined by a jar test is 5.0(10*).
Determine (a) the basin dimensions, (b) the fluid power developed, and (c) assuming two
cross-arms with one blade attached at the ends of the arms, determine the blade dimensions
and the rotational speed.
 298 Conventional Water Treatment Chap. 6

6-34. Repeat Problem 6-33 using Cp = 1.8.

6-35. A raw water has the following constituents expressed in mEq/L: Ca2+ = 4.6, Mg?+ = 1.0,
Nav HCO, = 2.4, SOP =.) 1Clee— 4 wands CO rn—a 0.0m (a) Checkeiumte
ions are balanced. (b) What is the total hardness expressed as CaCO3? (c) For a flow of
25,000 m3/day, calculate the chemical requirements and the mass of solids and volume of
sludge produced if the raw water is to be treated by the lime-soda process to a total hardness
of 80 mg/L as CaCO3, of which 50 mg/L as CaCO3 is due to calcium. Assume that the
lime used is 90% pure and the soda ash used is 85% pure. Also, assume that the specific
gravity of the sludge is 1.04.
6-36. In Problem 6-35: (a) Determine the amount of CO? needed for recarbonation. (b) Determine
the additional mass of solids produced after recarbonation.
6-37. In Problem 6-35: (a) Determine the ionic composition of the finished water after recarbon-
ation. (b) Show that the ions are balanced.
6-38. As a rule of thumb, what hardness level indicates the need to soften water at the treatment
plant?
6-39. A raw water containing the following constituent (in mEq/L) is to be treated by split treatment
and the lime-soda process: CO2 = 0.5, Ca*+ = 3.8, Mg?+ = 3.0, Nat = 1.8, HCO js
DS), SO = 3.3, and Cl_ = 2.8. (a) Calculate the chemical requirements assuming
recarbonation. (b) Calculate the ionic concentrations of the finished water.
6-40. In Problem 6-39, show that the ions are balanced.
6-41. What is split treatment?
6-42. What is the percent available chlorine of the following: (a) Ca(OCl)2, (b) NaOCl, (¢) HOCI,
and (d) NH2Cl?

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BRYAN, E. H. (1990). “The National Science Foundation’s Support of Research on Uses of Ionizing
Radiation in Treatment of Water and Wastes.” Environmental Engineering, Proceedings of the
1990 Specialty Conference, ASCE, Arlington, Va., pp. 47-54.
ECKENFELDER, W. W. (1980). Principles of Water Quality Management. CBI, Boston.
Hasuimoto, S., T. Miyata, and W. KAWAKAMI (1980). “Radiation-Induced Decomposition of
Phenol in Flow System.” Radiation and Physical Chemistry, 16, pp. 59-65.
KAWAKAMI, W., S. HAsHimoro, K. NISHIMURA, T. Miyata, and N. Suzuki (1978). “Electron-
Beam Oxidation Treatment of a Commercial Dye by Use of a Dual-Tube Bubbling Column
Reactor.” Environmental Science and Technology, 12, pp. 189-194.
METCALF & Eppy, INc. (1991). Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, Disposal, Reuse. McGraw-
Hill, New York.
Munson, B. R., D. F. YounG, and T. H. Oxusui (1994). Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics. Wiley,
New York.
Peavy, H. S., D. R. Rowe, and G. TCcHOBANOGLOUS (1985). Environmental Engineering. McGraw-
Hill, New York.
TCHOBANOGLOUS, G., and E. D. SCHROEDER (1985). Water Quality. Addison-Wesley, Reading,
Mass.
 CHAPTER 7

Conventional Wastewater
Treatment

In most developed countries, city residents used to put “night soil” in buckets along
the streets where workers emptied the waste into “honey wagon” tanks. The waste
was transported for disposal over agricultural lands. For rural communities in many
underdeveloped countries, this method of disposal is still in use.
In the history of the developed nations of the world, the honey-wagon method of
disposal was adequate since the volume of waste generated was relatively small. How-
ever, the development of the flush toilet, which produced large volumes of wastewater in
the nineteenth century, overtaxed agricultural lands as a final receptor of the waste. This
induced people to use natural channels to convey into the nearest watercourse the huge
volumes of liquids generated by the flush toilet. The natural consequence of the use of
natural channels was the construction of large sewers. Combined sewers came into being
in the latter half of the nineteenth century.
Combined sewers and separate sanitary sewers simply discharged directly into
streams, rivers, lakes, and estuaries. This practice resulted in the gross pollution of
these receiving bodies of water. During the nineteenth century, for example, the River
Thames was so grossly polluted that the House of Commons had to have rags wetted in
lye stuffed into cracks in the windows of the Parliament buildings to reduce the stench.
The practice of direct discharge without treatment is no longer allowed in the United
States.
In this chapter we discuss conventional wastewater treatment, both primary and
secondary. Discharge of effluent through diffusers is also discussed. For the overall
effect of the effluent on surface waters, see Chapter 5.

299
 300 Conventional Wastewater Treatment Chap. 7

EFFLUENT STANDARDS

The degree to which a wastewater is treated must meet the water quality standards of the
receiving body of water into which the effluent is discharged. In the United States, under
the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES), the Clean Water Act has
mandated that the treatment must, at least, be to the level of secondary for the case
of publicly owned treatment works (POTWs) of municipalities and to the level of best
available treatment technology (BAT) for the case of industries. Before any wastewater
treatment plant can operate, a discharge permit must be obtained from the permitting
agency, which is normally the state where the plant is located. The numbers written in
the permit, which are supposed to meet the water quality standards of the stream, become
the effluent standards of operation of the plant, or, in short, the effluent standards. The
operator of the plant must ensure that the effluent meet these standards.
COMAR (Code of Maryland Regulations) 26.08.01.01B(80), which conforms to
the USEPA definition, defines secondary treatment as

(a) Five-day biochemical oxygen demand

(i) 30 mg/L—average for a 30-day period
(ii) 45 mg/L—average for a 7-day period
(b) Total suspended solids
(i) 30 mg/L—average for a 30-day period
(ii) 45 mg/L—average for a 7-day period
(c) Bacterial control: as required to meet water quality standards

COMAR 26.08.01.01B(10) also defines BAT, which conforms to the USEPA def-
inition, as the best existing wastewater treatment technology economically achievable
within an industrial category. BAT is also called BCT (best conventional pollutant con-
trol technology).
For municipal discharge permits, the secondary level of treatment is normally speci-
fied in terms of four parameters: BODs, total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), suspended solids,
and pH. As stated above, secondary standards for BODs are 30 mg/L on a monthly av-
erage basis and 45 mg/L on an average weekly basis. The secondary standards for
suspended solids are the same as those for BODs. For TKN, although not included in
the definition of secondary standard, several authorities consider 20 to 25 mg/L as the
secondary level of treatment. The federal standard for pH ranges from 6.0 to 9.0. In
Maryland, the pH standard is stricter, 6.5 to 8.5.
The other effluent standard that must be met is coliform. The coliform standard
is normally given in terms of total coliform and fecal coliform and set on the basis
of stream classification. For example, the coliform standard for discharges to shellfish
waters is different and more stringent from the standard for discharges to normal fresh
free-flowing streams. In Maryland, the shellfish water standard is 14 fecal coliform per
100 mL as a median value, and the standard for fresh free-flowing stream is 200 fecal
coliform per 100 mL as a logarithmic mean value. Along with the coliform standard is
the total residual chlorine (TRC) standard. Chlorine is used to kill off the coliforms and
 Primary Treatment 301

pathogens, and must be limited, for it can damage the biota of the receiving stream if it
is discharged in excessive amounts. The Red Book criterion and the Maryland standard
for trout streams is 0.02 mg/L of TRC. (The Red Book is a book of water quality criteria
published by the USEPA.)
In addition, municipal permits may include standards for toxic inorganic and or-
ganic substances. The toxic inorganic substances may include arsenic, barium, cadmium,
chromium, copper, cyanide, lead, mercury, nickel, selenium, silver, and zinc; and, the
toxic organic substances may include aldrin, benzidine, 1,1-DCE, DDT, dieldrin, endrin,
lindane, PCP, PCE, 1,1,1-TCA, toxaphene, TCE, tributylin, and dioxin.
The permits for industrial discharges follow patterns similar to those for municipal
permits, except that the two permits may also vary in several places. For example, if
the industry is manufacturing a purely inorganic material, the permit may contain no
limitation on BODs. In addition, the permit may also not contain limits on coliforms,
nor may it contain limits on TKN.
A special requirement that is included in discharge permits for municipal treatment
plants or POTWSs is the pretreatment program. In its basic form, this program mandates
that the POTW must require all industries that discharge to its collection system to pretreat
to such a level that the discharged pollutants will not cause any upset in operation of the
municipal treatment plant, will not simply pass through the plant without treatment, and
will not contaminate the sludge.
Waters into which the discharge of secondary- or BAT-treated effluents will not
cause violation of the water quality standards of the stream are called effluent limited
waters; while those waters where secondary- or BAT-treated effluents will cause the
violation of the standard are called water quality limited waters. For discharge into wa-
ter quality limited waters, the effluent must be treated to a level more advanced than
secondary. For BODs removals, a treatment higher than secondary is called advanced
secondary treatment (AST), normally considered as a level of treatment on the order
of 10 to 15 mg/L of BODs in the effluent. In general, treatment that produces efflu-
ent quality that is not attainable by ordinary secondary or BAT technology is called ad-
vanced wastewater treatment. In this chapter we discuss only secondary or BAT treatment
levels.

PRIMARY TREATMENT

A schematic of typical primary treatment systems is shown in Figure 7-la. In general,

the removal of organic pollutants in wastewater may be divided into two stages. The
first stage, which involves the removal of the wastewater solids, is called primary treat-
ment; the second stage, which involves the removal of the colloids and dissolved organic
matter, in wastewater, is called secondary treatment. In the primary treatment stage, the
comminutor, screens, grit channel, and flowmeter constitute what are called the prelim-
inary primary treatment, or simply, preliminary treatment, units. Preliminary treatment
is composed of unit operations designed to remove large objects and grit materials. The
top and middle portions of Figure 7-2 show drawings of bar screens and detritus tank.
302 Conventional Wastewater Treatment Chap. 7

Primary
ens Ae:
Sore clarifier
om Effluent to
C) secondary
Raw ; treatment
Grit Flow \
wastewater
channel mete

Comminuter
(grinding) Underflow to
sludge treatment
(a)

F Effluent to
From primary erator a cee further treatment
treatment ialistele or to stream

Part of
Settling Oesludge
sludge returned --->
pecans eo ore

Le
To sludge treatment
(b)

Packing
55250505

From primary BSerene : Secondary oes

ecient sseserereserreeesereees tees further treatment
eas setesesonenateceooneneees! or to stream
SS
Trickling
filter

Effluent recycle Y
To sludge
treatment
(c)

Figure 7-1 Primary and secondary treatment systems: (a) typical primary
treatment system; (b) activated sludge secondary treatment system; (c) trickling
filter secondary treatment system.

Screened solids are coated with organic matter, which makes them offensive-
smelling, so they must be disposed of promptly. Although some treatment plants practice
shredding the screenings for return to the main sewage flow for subsequent settlement
in downstream units, this practice is not advisable. Since these solids have already
been removed, they should not be returned to the stream flow only to be removed again
later.
Bar screens are screens constructed of large bars. They can be cleaned either
manually or automatically. The detritus tank is where grit is allowed to settle, along with
some organic matter. Detritus is a mixture of grit and organic matter. The organic matter
Primary Treatment 303

Rake can reach

to bottom of

Penstocks
Section A-A

Figure 7-2 Top and middle portions: screens and detritus tanks; bottom por-
tion: typical quantities of screenings.

is subsequently removed from the detritus by washing and the washings returned to the
main stream. Grit particles are hard fragments of rock, sand, stone, bone chips, seeds,
and coffee and tea grounds or similar particles. A long channel designed mainly to settle
grit 1s called a grit chamber. Grit particles settle as a discrete entity. The mechanics of
settling have been discussed in Chapter 6 and are not repeated here.
The design of grit tanks must be such that only the grit particle settles, leaving
organic matter suspended and separated from the grit. To ensure this separation, the
flow-through velocity in the channel must be carefully controlled at a specified value of
approximately 0.3 m/s by grit-channel outlet flow-control devices such as proportional-
flow weirs or critical-flow flumes. The cross-sectional shape of the grit channel will
depend on the type of outlet flow-control device used. Figure 7-3b is a sectional view
of a parabolic-sectioned grit channel controlled by a critical-flow flume. Figure 7-3a is a
 304 Conventional Wastewater Treatment Chap. 7

' Theoretical
——<—<$<=— .
; ' section

‘ i
8 Ls Practical
i s
.
’
if dS
section

YaLee ey Z
ATTRITION TTTTIL
Area replacing area cut
off between dotted lines
(a) (b)

Bypass bar screen

Ag
f=

reds

Figure 7-3 Velocity control sections of horizontal grit channels: (a) proportional flow
weir; (b) section of a parabolic-sectioned grit channel; (c) aerated grit chamber.

proportional-flow weir that can be installed at the end of grit channels. This weir is
simply a plate with the opening cut through it and the plate bolted or somehow attached
to the downstream end of the channel.
Grit chambers may also be designed as aerated tanks, the airflow being adjusted
so as to separate putrescible organic matters from grit. Figure 7-3c is an aerated grit
chamber. A design criterion for airflow requirement ranges from 0.15 to 0.45 m?/min
per meter of tank length. A typical length/width ratio for the aerated grit chamber is 3:1.
Primary Treatment
305

Figure 7-4 shows devices used to shred screenings to pieces. The words Griductor
and Comminutor are proprietary names. The basic parts of these devices are the screens
and cutting teeth. Solids are cut by the teeth and are returned to the flow after passing
through the holes or slots of the screens. To protect pumps, shredding devices should be
put ahead of them. Grit removal should be done ahead of shredders to protect the cutting
teeth, as well as ahead of pumps. In some situations, however, pumps are put ahead
of grit-removal devices. Such is the case, for example, for grit chambers located at or
above the ground with pumps required to elevate the sewage to them. In these situations,
shredders are still put ahead of pumps but with no protection against grit, since the grit
chambers are located after the pumps and thus after the shredders.

Grit Chamber Cross-Sections

As shown in Figure 7-3, the flow area of the proportional-flow weir is an orifice. From
fluid mechanics, the flow Q through an orifice is given by

QO = Ky)tH?”* (7-1)
where Ko is the orifice constant, £ the width of flow over the weir, and H the head over
the weir crest. The parameter / is any height above the crest and @ is the corresponding
width. There are several ways that the orifice can be cut through the plate; one way is
to do it such that the flow Q will be linearly proportional to H. To fulfill this scheme,
equation (7-1) will be revised by changing Ko to Kj and making H*” a combination of
H and h. The revised equation is

On a G2)
Hence, to be linearly proportional, Kj¢h’/~ 1/2 must be a constant; or

Kesh” = K)bohs! = constant > ¢h'/* = constant (7-3)

Equation (7-3) is the equation of the orifice opening of the proportional-flow weir
in Figure 7-3. If the equation is followed strictly, however, the orifice opening will create
two pointed corners that will probably clog. For this reason, for values of h less than
1 in., the side curves are terminated vertically to the weir crest. The area of flow lost by
terminating at this point is of no practical significance; however, if terminated at an h
value greater than | in., the area lost should be compensated for by lowering the actual
crest below the design crest. This is indicated in the figure.
Since the height of the orifice crest from the bottom of the channel is small, H may
be considered equal to the depth in the tank. Hence the general cross-sectional area of
the tank may be represented by kwH, where k is a constant, w the width at a particular
level, and H the depth in the tank. Now the flow through the tank is 0 = u,(kwH),
where vy, is the flow-through velocity to be made constant. This flow is also equal to the
flow that passes through the control device at the end of the tank. From the equation of
continuity,

un (kwH) = Ki(th'/?)H = constant(H) (7-4)

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306
Primary Treatment 307

Solving for w gives us

constant
w = ——— = constant (7-5)
u_k

Therefore, for grit chambers controlled by a proportional-flow weir, the width of the tank
must be constant, which means that the cross section should be rectangular.
For grit chambers controlled by another critical-flow device, such as a Parshall flume
(the proportional flow weir is also a critical-flow device), the flow through the device is
also given by Q = Ky£H*?. Hence the following equation may also be obtained:
un (kwH) = KotH?” (7-6)
Solving for H yields
H = constant(w~) (7-7)
which is the equation of a parabola. Thus for grit chambers controlled by Parshall flumes,
the cross section of flow should be shaped like a parabola. For ease in construction, the
parabola is not strictly followed but approximated. This is indicated in Figure 7-3b.
Example 7-1
Design the cross section of a grit removal unit consisting of four identical channels to remove
grit for a peak flow of 80,000 m3/day, an average flow of 50,000 m?/day and a minimum
flow of 20,000 m3/day. There should be a minimum of three channels operating at any time.
Assume a flow-through velocity of 0.3 m/s and that the channels are to be controlled by
Parshall flumes.

Solution Four baseline cross-sectional areas must be considered, computed as follows:

80,000 4
Apeak, three channels — 3(0.3)(24)(60)(60) = 1108) iar

80, 000 4
Apeak, four channels = 4(0.3)(24) (60) (60) = (O77 mr

A 50, 000 eurunt

5 = =U. m
“ve ~~ 4(0.3)(24)(60)
(60)
20, 000
Amin = 0.19 m2
4(0.3)(24)(60)(60)
Since the channels are to be controlled by Parshall flumes, the cross sections are parabolic.
Hence
H =constant(w7), or using the depth Zo

Zo = constant(w*)2 = Cw 2

Area of parabola = SwZo: assume top width at Apeak, three chambers = 1.5 m. Thus

2
1.03. 7 ERA ZAi—s03em

1.03
Co 4.0
2
308 Conventional Wastewater Treatment Chap. 7

and equation of parabola: Zp = 0.46w2. Determine the coordinates at the corresponding

areas.
For Apeak, four chambers = 0.77 m 2: 0.77 = $w(0.46w*); w = 1.36 mand Zp =
0.46(1.367) = 0.85 m.
For Aave = 0.48 m2: 0.48 = 2w(0.46w?); w = 1.16 mand Zo = 0.46(1.167) =
0.62 m.
For Amin = 0.19 m?: 0.19 = 3w(0.46w?); w = 0.85 m and Zp = 0.46(0.857) =
(O33) ial,

Area(m)* w(m) Zo (m) OQ (m?/day)

1.03 LS 1.03 80,000 in three channels

Oma 1.36 0.85 80,000 in four channels
0.48 LEG 0.62 50,000 in four channels Answer
0.19 0.85 0.33 20,000 in four channels
0 0 0

Note: In practice, the coordinates above should be checked against the flow conditions of
the chosen dimensions of the Parshall flumes. If the flumes are shown to be submerged,
forcing them not to be at critical flows, other coordinates of the parabolic cross sections
must be tried until the flumes will show critical flow conditions or be unsubmerged.

Example 7-2
Repeat Example 7-1 for grit channels controlled by proportional flow weirs.

Solution For grit channels controlled by proportional weirs, the cross sections should be
rectangular. Hence
constant
i = constant assume that w = 1.5 m
unk

Hence the depths, Zo, and other parameters for various flow conditions are as follows (for
a constant flow-through velocity of 0.30 m/s):

Area (m)* w(m) Zo (m) Q (m/day)

1.03 les) 0.69 80,000 in three channels

0.77 es OLS 80,000 in four channels
0.48 HES} 0.32 50,000 in four channels Answer
0.19 LS 0.13 20,000 in four channels
0 1.5 0

Primary Sedimentation

Referring to Figure 7-1, the primary clarifier or primary sedimentation tank is the last
unit in primary treatment. The effluent from primary sedimentation then becomes the
influent for secondary treatment. Primary sedimentation in present-day practice may
Primary Treatment 309

involve simple or plain sedimentation or addition of chemicals. The same quality of

effluent produced by primary sedimentation may also be obtained by using fine screens.
Using screens this way qualifies the treatment to be a primary treatment.
The nature of the solids removed in primary sedimentation is flocculent. Hence
the theory involved is that of type 2 or flocculent settling. Since this theory has been
discussed in Chapter 6, it is not repeated here. The settling units in the wastewater and
water systems are also similar (i.e., either a flow-through or a circular tank is used);
hence, again, the discussion is not repeated. A major difference between sedimentation
in water and wastewater treatment, however, is the amount of scum produced. Whereas
in water treatment there is practically no scum, in wastewater treatment, such a large
amount of scum is produced that an elaborate scum-skimming device is used at the outlet
end of the clarifier. Some design criteria for primary sedimentation tanks are shown in
Table 7-1. Figure 7-5a shows a diagram of an outlet weir and scum removal arrange-
ment.

TABLE 7-1 DESIGN CRITERIA FOR PRIMARY

SEDIMENTATION TANKS

Value

Parameter Range Typical

Detention time (h) 1.5-2.5 2.0

Overflow rate (m/day)
Average flow 30-50
Peak flow 80-120 90
Weir loading (m*/m?-day) 120-450 = 200
Dimensions (m)
Rectangular
Depth 2-6 3.5)
Length 15-100 30
Width 3-30 10
Sludge scraper speed (m/min) 0.5=1.5 1.0
Circular
Depth 3-5 4.5
Diameter 3.0-60 30
Bottom slope (mm/m) 60-160 80
Sludge scraper speed (rpm) 0).02—0.05 0.03

Figure 7-5b shows typical BODs and suspended solids removal efficiency curves
for sedimentation basins as functions of overflow rate. A smaller overflow rate produces
a longer detention time. Although longer detention times tend to effect more solids
removal in water treatment, in primary sedimentation a longer detention time causes
septic conditions. Because of the formation of gases, septicity makes solids rise, resulting
in inefficiency of the basin. Hence, in practice, there is a practical range of values of 1.5
to 2.5 h for primary settling detention times wastewater treatment.
 Skimmer

Effluent
launder

Replaceable
urethane strip Weir plate

removal
Percent

0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Overflow rate (m/day)
(b)

Figure 7-5 (a) Outlet weir and scum skimming arrangements (Infilco Degremont, Inc.).
(b) Suspended solids and BODs removal as a function of overflow rate.

310
Primary Treatment 311

Example 7-3
To meet effluent limits, it has been determined that the design of a primary sedimentation
basin must remove 65% of the influent suspended solids. The average influent flow is
6000 m3/day, the peak daily flow is 13,000 m?/day, and the minimum daily flow is two-
thirds of the average flow. Using Figure 7-5 and other pertinent information, design a circular
basin to meet the effluent requirement at any cost.

Solution From Figure 7-5, the overflow rate corresponding to 65% efficiency = 28 m/day.
Therefore,
6000
overflow area at average flow = ir aes 214.29 m? diameter D = 16.52 m

13,000 :
overflow area at peak flow = IK 464.29 diameter D = 24.31 m

2/3)6000
overflow area at minimum flow = ae = 142.86 diameter D = 13.49 m

To meet effluent limits at any cost, the basin must be designed on the basis of the peak flow.
Then, using a detention time of 1.5 h (refer to Table 7-1),

13,000
settling zone of tank = aye ed = 812.50 m?

height
eight of settli
of settling
: = Jae
. zone ———
464.29 = las
1.75 m= ae
—(l. S))
24
and

diameter of tank = settling zone diameter + inlet zone (= settling zone depth)

+ outlet zone (= settling zone depth)

= 24.31 +2(1.75) = 27.81 m, say 28m Answer

depth of tank = settling zone depth + free board (= 0.5 m) + sludge zone (= 0.5 m)

= 1.75 +2(0.5) =2.75 m, say3m Answer

Check for detention times for average and minimum flows:

f : 5 812.50
detention time for average flow = ——— = 3.25 h
6000/24
j : ae 812.50
detention time for minimum flow = ————————— = 4.87 h
(2/3) (6000/24)
From Table 7-1, all the detention times above will exceed the practical limit of 2.5 h if
the respective flow durations exceed this time. Hence provision must be made in design to
recycle primary effluent to reduce the detention time, if needed, to practical limits.
Check the weir overflow rates:
: 13,000 3
weir overflow rate at peak flow = (28) = 147.8 m-/m-day « 250
1
However, since the overriding consideration is meeting the effluent limit at any cost, this
will be acceptable. Answer
 312 Conventional Wastewater Treatment Chap. 7

SECONDARY TREATMENT

Primary treatment of wastewaters merely removes the solids originally suspended in the
waste. Before the environmental revolution, which started in 1970, most municipalities
in the United States were merely treating waste to the primary stage. However, starting
in the 1970s, dischargers were required to meet water quality standards. Meeting water
quality standards necessitated performing mathematical water quality modeling of receiv-
ing streams. Using the model of Streeter and Phelps developed in 1927, the results often
showed that more stringent limits than primary were required. In fact, in many cases,
more stringent limits than secondary were even often stipulated in the permits as a result
of the use of these models. Moreover, the Clean Water Act now requires the minimum
effluent standards of secondary to be set in discharge permits.
The secondary treatment of waste involves removing the “leftovers” from primary
treatment. These leftovers are composed of colloidal and dissolved organic matters.
Since their forms are colloidal and dissolved, they can no longer be removed by simple
sedimentation. They must be transformed into solids that can then easily be settled.
This transformation involves feeding them to microorganisms, mostly bacteria. As the
bacteria feed on the colloidal and dissolved organic matters, they grow and multiply, thus
converting those which were once colloidal and dissolved into solids that are capable of
settling.

Kinetics of Growth and Food Utilization

The kinetics of the microbial process may conveniently be divided into kinetics of growth
and kinetics of food (or substrate) utilization. Let X be the mixed population of microor-
ganisms utilizing the organic waste. The rate of increase of the [X] is normally modeled
as a first-order process as follows:

aia ==, [X] (7-8)

=
dt
where yu is the specific growth rate of the mixed population in units of per unit time and
t is the time.
When an organism is surrounded by an abundance of food, the growth rate repre-
sented by equation (7-9) is at its maximum. This growth rate is said to be logarithmic.
When the food is in short supply or depleted, the organisms will cannibalize each other.
The growth rate at these conditions is said to be endogenous.
Monod! discovered that in pure cultures jz is a function of or is limited by the
concentration [S] of a limiting substrate or nutrient and formulated the following equation:

[ Umax K, se 1S] ( Fy )

where [max 18 the maximum ju. In equation (7-9), if jw is made equal to one-half of jumax
and K; solved, K, will be found equal to [S]. Therefore, K, is equal to the concentration

'J. Monod (1949). “The Growth of Bacterial Cultures.” Annual Review Microbiology III.
Secondary Treatment 313

of the substrate that will make the specific growth rate equal to one-half the maximum
growth rate and hence is called the half-velocity constant. Although the equation applies
only to pure cultures, if average population values of {4max are used, it can be applied to
the kinetics of mixed population as well.
In the dynamics of any population, some members are born, some members die, and
some members simply grow in mass. In addition, in the absence of food, the population
may cannibalize each other. The dynamics or kinetics of death and cannibalization
may simply be represented mathematically as a decay of the population kg[X], where
ka is the rate of decay. Incorporating Monod’s concept and the kinetics of death into
equation (7-9), the model for the rate of increase of [X] now becomes

abs jen BL — ka[X] (7-10)

dt K, + [S]
Substrate kinetics may be established by noting that as organisms grow, substrates
are consumed. Therefore, the rate of decrease of the concentration of the substrate is
proportional to the rate of increase of the concentration of the organisms. The first term
on the right-hand side of equation (7-10) is the rate of increase of microorganisms that
corresponds to the rate of decrease of the substrate. Hence the rate of decrease of the
substrate, —dS/dt, is

d(S] [S] [S]

ee = U Minax epg] I == y imax rae [S] [X] (7-11)

U is a proportionality constant called the specific substrate utilization rate; it is the

reciprocal of Y, the specific yield of organisms. Specific yield simply means the mass of
organisms produced per unit mass of substrate consumed, and specific substrate utilization
rate simply means the mass of substrate consumed per unit mass of organisms produced.
For more discussions on kinetics and the chemistry of biological oxidation, see
Chapter 2.

Culture Systems in Practical Applications

In the practical application of the foregoing kinetics, microorganisms are either sus-
pended or attached. The activated sludge system and ponds and lagoons are examples
of a suspended-culture system, while trickling filters, biotowers, and rotating biological
contactors are examples of an attached-culture system. Figure 7-6a shows an activated
sludge unit. The three units in Figure 7-6b are an aerobic pond, trickling filter, and aerated
contact plates. The pond is a suspended-culture system, while the trickling filter and con-
tact plates are attached-culture systems. The bottom portion shows a rotating biological
contactor (RBC), which is also an attached-culture system. The term suspended-culture
system means that the microorganisms are intermixed with, and hence convected by, the
flow field. The term attached-culture system, on the other hand, means that the mi-
croorganisms are attached to a stratum or solid object, such as rocks and stones and
disks.
 Air Air

Influent

ET es
—_—__C Effluent

i Clarifier
ae Diffused
aeration basin,
\T7 Air-lift pump

Sunlight ia Die

( Z
oe
Dissolved
ae ie BBD. Wind

=
= == = Onidizing= — —— —
“aerobic” —_;—>- Algae SC
eee
gears — — CO), NH;, PO ge H,O0 O,
ae Sey maa == Reducing meq Bacteria <~ Settleable
—— — -“anaerobic”-CH, +CO,+NH;—___ solids

4
Mg

y
1
gi
Fy
4
ITI
4
ZIZL
LLL LLLELL L
LLLELELA

to diffusers

Rotating biological contactors

Influent Effluent

Figure 7-6 (a) Activated sludge unit. (b) Pond, trickling filter, and aerated contact
plates. (c) Rotating biological contactor plant system.

314
Secondary Treatment 315

The Activated Sludge System

Figure 7-7 shows schematics of the activated sludge system. Primary effluent is intro-
duced into the reactor, where air is supplied for consumption by the aerobic microorgan-
isms. In the reactor, the solubles and colloids are transformed into microbial masses. The
effluent of the reactor then goes to the secondary clarifier, where the microbial masses
are settled and separated from the clarified water. The clarified water is then discharged
as effluent to a receiving stream. The settled microbial masses form the sludge. Some
of the settled sludges are wasted and some are returned to the reactor. When once again
exposed to the air in the reactor, the organisms become reinvigorated or activated—hence
the term activated sludge. The wasting of the sludge is necessary so as not to cause a
buildup of mass in the reactor.
In general, there are two extreme types of activated sludge processes: completely
mixed and plug-flow. The schematics of these processes are shown in Figure 7-7. The
two schematic diagrams are the same except for the concentrations of the parameters in
the respective reactors. In the completely mixed system, there is only one concentration
value in the reactor for a given parameter. For example, [X] at the influent end is equal
to the [X] at the effluent end. The reason for this is that the process is completely mixed.
On the other hand, in the plug flow reactor, there is no forward and backward intermixing
of the flow field in the longitudinal direction, but every parcel of flow marches uniformly
forward, in sequence, from the influent end toward the effluent end. The concentration
in a plug-flow reactor is therefore not uniform.

Completely mixed process. Develop the mathematics of the activated sludge proc-
ess by performing a material balance on the completely mixed process, first. Let the
symbols depicted in Figure 7-7 hold true where only Qo and V have not been defined
before. Qo represents the rate of flow to the plant and V the volume of the reactor. The
meanings of the various subscripts should be obvious.
The material balance is to be performed inside the domain surrounded by the
dashed lines. This domain is the control volume and the control mass. (Note that
from the Reynolds transport theorem, the boundaries of the control mass and the control
volume are indentical; see Appendix 21.) Since the efficiency of the reactor is tied to
the performance of the clarifier, the material balance is normally performed considering
the reactor and clarifier together. Now, start with the material balance on X.
From fluid mechanics (or see Appendix 21) the Reynolds transport theorem is
D fy ped¥ “ a fy po d¥
7 fdovedA (7-12)
Dt ot A

where ¢ is the property per unit mass, p the mass per unit volume of space of the control
mass, M the control mass representation, ¥ the control volume, and v the velocity vector.
In the present case, pp = [X]. Also, since the reaction occurs only in the reactor, ¥= V.
Hence
316 Conventional Wastewater Treatment Chap. 7

ffluent
friseas

Secondary Ona Ds Xe S

clarifier

Or, Sludge | Sludge

X,,; return ' underflow
'

Sludge H OW xy
~<
waste

------------------------

Reactor Secondary
variable X and S clarifier

Qp, 1 Sludge
XM, return Sludge
' underflow
waste ‘ r Qw XuEEE, AAO Soy el
OF 2G,

Figure 7-7 Schematics of the two general types of activated sludge systems:
(a) completely mixed; (b) plug flow.

d Jy eed¥ _ dX),
7-13
dt dt ( )

Equation (7-13) expresses the Lagrangian rate of increase of [X] in the reactor volume;
it is a total derivative. The total derivative of [X] was found previously; combining it
with equation (7-13) produces

dfyded¥ — d[X], _ [S]

a gg = Pee eel (7-14)
Secondary Treatment 317

a)le pod¥/dt is equal to (0[X]/dt)V; it is a local rate of change of [X]—a partial

derivative. By definition, at steady state, the partial derivative (not total derivative) of
any parameter with respect to time is zero. Hence, assuming steady state, the local rate
of change of [X] is zero.
The convective rate of change of [X] is

fgov edA = (—Qo[Xo] + (Qo — Ow) [Ke] + Qu[Xu]) 7-15)

A
Now, substituting everything into equation (7-12), we have

ra
max Re 2
as [S] [X]V —kg[X]V = Le
C at O)+{(—QolXol + (Qo — Ow) WwW Z Xe) Onl
WwW u Xz]
(7-16)
After some algebraic manipulation, considering that V(d[X]/dt) = 0,

noe [S]
S bs QwlXu]
w DS + (Qo as— Qw)[Ke]
w a, — QolXo]
in Xx. due, (7-17)
K, + [S] VEX]
The same mathematical operations may be applied to the substrate. These will not
be repeated but the result will be written at once, which is

AS = [X]V
penny Roe S|

ots (Fv (= 0 at steady state) + {—Qo[So] + (Qo — Qw)[S] + out)

(7-18)
Equation (7-18) may be manipulated to produce

Lmax
[S]__ Qo¥ ([So] [S]) C19)
KS) EX]
Equating the right-hand sides of equations (7-17) and (7-19) and rearranging gives us
Qw[Xu] + (Qo — Qu)[Xe] — QolXo] _ Qo¥
([So] — [S]) — ka (7-20)
V[X] VEX]
The ratio V[X]/ {O[X,] + (Qo — Qw)[X-] — Qo[Xo]} is the biomass (or mixed-
liquor volatile suspended solids, MLVSS—the numerator) in the reactor divided by the
net rate of biomass wasting (the denominator). This ratio 6. represents the average time
that the biomass is in residence in the reactor. It is called by various names, such as mean
cell residence time (MCRT), sludge retention time (SRT), and sludge age. The ratio
V/Qo =8@ is called the nominal hydraulic retention time (NHRT). The word nominal is
used here, since 6 is not the actual detention time of the tank. The actual detention time
is V/(Qo + Or), where Qp is the recirculated flow. Using 6, and @ in equation (7-20)
and solving for [X] gives

_ GY (So) = [SD (22)

A(1 + kage)
318 Conventional Wastewater Treatment Chap. 7

Equation (7-21) may also be solved for [S], producing

[X]O(1 + ka@.)
[S]==[So]= rae (7-22)

Equation (7-21) may also be transformed as follows:

[So] = [8] _ Qo(lSo] —[S}) _ b+ kab. _ = (7-23)

O[X] V[X] Geis
Unet is the net specific substrate utilization rate. A term related to U is the food/microor-
ganism ratio, F/M, defined as Qo[So]/V [X].
Another important parameter in the design and operation of an activated sludge
plant is the recirculation ratio R = Qr/Qo. R may be obtained by performing a material
balance around the secondary clarifier. Since the clarifier is not aerated, d[X]/dt = 0.
Also, at steady state, d[X]/dt = 0. Adopting these facts and performing the material
balance produces

(Qo + Qr)[X] = (Qo — Qw)[Xe] + (Qr + Qw)[Xu] (7-24)

Solving for the ratio gives

Or _ p — QollX)~[Xel) = Ow (Xul = (Xe) aps

Q Qo([X.] — [X])

Plug flow process. As indicated in Figure 7-7b, [X] and [S] are variable along the
length of a plug flow reactor. Analyzing equation (7-21), however, in conjunction with
Figure 7-7 shows that [So] and [S] are concentrations crossing the control boundary. To
repeat, [S] is the concentration of S that has already crossed the control surface and must
not be confused with the concentration of S in the bioreactor, which may be designated
as [S], representing an average concentration. Hence since they are outside the control
surface, [So] and [S] are insensitive to the form of the [X] inside the control volume.
What they do is simply give the value of [X] inside the control volume and nothing
more. Hence any form of [X] may be specified. Although [X] can have several values
throughout the length of the reactor, a single value can surely represent these several
values. This single value is nothing but the average. Hence designate [X] as the average
and use the symbol [X]. Therefore, for the plug flow process, equation (7-21) becomes

SOUS
x=
es)
Accordingly, for plug-flow processes,

SiS
[X]OC.
+ kaGe) ))
[S] = [So] a.Y (7-27)

Or _ pz— QoKX] =[Xel) =Qw(lXid

(X a Xe —s w Xu — XD
in Xe hs
Qo Oo([X.]
— [X})
 Secondary Treatment 319

Generalization of formulations. From the foregoing discussions of the completely

mixed and plug flow processes, the forms of the equations are similar. For this reason,
equations for plug flow or completely mixed processes and for any variation of these proc-
esses (as discussed below) can be used generally to apply to the general activated sludge
process. Also, unless otherwise specified, effluent [S] is always the soluble fraction. For
example, effluent BODs is always soluble BODs.

Variations of the activated sludge process. |The completely mixed and plug flow
processes are the extremes of the activated sludge process. In between these two extremes,
however, are several variations: step aeration, tapered aeration, contact stabilization,
pure-oxygen activated sludge, oxidation ditch, high rate, and extended aeration. In step
aeration, the influent is introduced at intermediate points to provide more uniform BOD
loading along the reactor tank. In tapered aeration, the amount of air is introduced
proportionally to the amount of BOD still needed to be stabilized. This means adding
more air at the influent end of the tank and progressively decreasing toward the effluent
end. In the contact stabilization or biosorption process, the biomass adsorbs organics
in a contact basin for a very short time of 15 to 60 min, the sludge settled out in a
secondary clarifier, the settled sludge reaerated for approximately 90 min, and returned
to the contact basin, where the biomass again adsorbs organics. The oxidation ditch
variation is a closed-loop open channel shaped primarily like an ellipse. The wastewater
is propelled around the loop by surface brush aerators called Kessener aerators. The
high-rate variation is characterized by a short detention time and a high F/M ratio
designed to operate at the logarithmic growth rate. The extended-aeration variation is
the opposite of the high rate designed to operate at long detention times, low F/M
ratios, and under the endogenous phase of growth. Figure 7-8 is a photograph of an
activated sludge reactor at Back River sewage treatment plant in Baltimore, Maryland.
Table 7-2 shows some design criteria for the several variations of the activated sludge
process.

TABLE 7-2 SOME DESIGN PARAMETERS FOR VARIATIONS OF THE ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS

F/M
Type of (kg BODs MLSS BOD? Air supplied
process 8. (days) tokg MLSS) @ (h) (mg/L) efficiency (m3/kg BODs)

Tapered aeration 4-15 0.3 5 1500-3000 90 a0)

Conventional 4-15 0.3 5) 1500-3000 90 50
Step aeration 4-15 0.3 4 2000-3500 90 50
Completely mixed 4-15 0.3 4 3000-6000 90 50
Biosorption — 0.5 0.3. 1000-3000 85 —
High rate 4-15 0.5 | 4000—10,000 80 30
Pure oxygen 820 0.5 2 6000-8000 90 —
Extended aeration 20-30 0.1 20 3000-6000 85 100
320 Conventional Wastewater Treatment Chap. 7

Figure 7-8 Activated sludge reactor at Back River sewage treatment plant,
Baltimore, Maryland.

Example 7-4
An activated sludge process is set to operate at an MCRT of 10 days and at a NHRT of
4h. The volume of the bioreactor is 1600 m?, and the underflow concentration X,, is
10,000 mg/L. If the MCRT and NHRT are to be maintained, at what rate should the sludge
be wasted to maintain the [X] at 4000 mg/L of MLVSS? Neglect the influent and effluent
biomass concentrations.

Solution

ae V[X]
“~ OwlXul + (Qo — Qw)Xel — GolXol
V(X] 1600(4000) : de Nea
(OS ee esa
6. = ——_
QO» (10,000) Qu m” /day wer
© OwlXul

Example 7-5
Pilot-plant kinetic studies have established the following values: Y = 0.5 kg MLVSS/kg
BODs, kg = 0.05 per day. Qo is equal to 10,000 m?3/day, [X,,] is equal to 10,000 mg/L,
and Q,, is equal to 64 m?/day. The plant is to be operated at a mean cell residence time
of 10 days and a NHRT of 4 h. (a) If the influent to the bioreactor is 150 mg/L of BODs,
what MLVSS should be maintained in the bioreactor to meet an effluent limit of 5 mg/L of
BODs? (b) At what recirculation ratio is the plant to be operated?
Secondary Treatment 321

Solution

ae A-¥ ([So] —[S]) _ 10(0.05)(0.15 — 0.005)

~ O(L+kgG) ~~ (4/24)[C1 + 0.05(10)]
= 0.29 kg/m? = 2900 mg/L Answer

(b) QR _ p _ QollX] = [Xel) = Qw((Xul = [Xel)

Qo Qo([Xu] — [X])
Neglecting [X.] as small in comparison to [X] and [X,,] gives

__ 10,000(2900) — 64(10,000)
=0.40 A
10,000(10,000 — 2900) rare
Resolve this problem assuming that [X-,] is not negligible.

Example 7-6
(a) In Example 7-5, if the recirculation ratio is set at 10, what will be the resulting MLVSS?
(b) What will be the resulting BODs at the effluent? (c) What is the least amount of [X]
that will make the effluent BODs = 0?

Solution

Or Oo({X] — [Xe]) — Ow((Xu] — [Xe})

(a) = R=
Qo Qo([Xu] — [X])
__ 10,000[X] — 64(10,000)
[X] = 99,964 mg/L
~ 10,000(10,000
— [X])
This number is theoretically possible if the dissolution of oxygen is unlimited. Answer

[X]O(1 + kaGc) _ 150 22204424 + 0.05(10)]

(b) [S] = [So] OcY im 10(0.5)
= 150 — 4998 = —4848 ~ 0 Answer

X](4/24)(1.5 i
(c) Oe=150 cas e ee) [X] = 3000 mg/L Answer

Example 7-7
The influent of 10,000 m?/day to a secondary reactor has a BODs of 150 mg/L. It is
desired to have an effluent BODs of 5 mg/L, an MLVSS of 3000 mg/L, and an underflow
concentration of 10,000 mg/L. Using the kinetic constants given in Example 7-5, design
for the volume of the reactor. What are the volume and mass flows of sludge wasted per
day?
322 Conventional Wastewater Treatment Chap. 7

Solution Assume that 6. = 10 days. Therefore,

=,= %Y(So]—[S]) _= Qo%&Y¥ So] — IS)

Pe| Gro V+ ka.)
Me 10,000(10)(0.5)(0.15 — 0.005) ion Gea ew ee
VIC. + 0.05(10)]
V(X] aes : ;
===. neglecting influent and effluent biomass concentrations
OwlXu)

1611(3)
10 = ——_; 0,,,[X,] = 483.3 kg/day Answer
OwlXu) ~*~“ ‘
483.3
Ow = Te 48.33 m>/day Answer

Example 7-8
For the reactor in Example 7-9, what recirculation ratio is required to produce an effluent
BODs of zero?

Solution [X] to produce a zero [S] = 3,000 mg/L, so

pak Qo ((X] — [Xe]) — Qw(%ul — [Xe]) ReelecPa

Qo ([Xu] = [X])

ue 10,000(3000) — 64(10,000)
=0.42 Answer
10,000(10,000 — 3000)

Determination of kinetic constants. |The following equation has been derived:

=[So] [X]OC.ae+ kaGe)

[S]Sis (7-29)
7-29

Although this equation was derived for the plug flow process, it nevertheless represents
any activated sludge process. It may be rearranged to produce

[Sol-[S]_ 1 | ka (7-30)
[X]6 OY ox:
Equation (7-30) is an equation of a straight line. 1/Y is the slope and ka/Y is the y-in-
tercept. Hence two pairs of values of ({So] — [S])/[ X]@ and 1/6, are all that are needed
to obtain the parameters Y and kg of this equation.
The following equation below has also been derived:

lingmax K, i (S] eee)

VX] 0 (7-31)
The parameters K, and [4ma, may be obtained from this equation, since this equation
may be rearranged to give

O[X] VK Y
(7-32)
[So] a [S] . Lmax(S] i LMimax
Secondary Treatment 323

which is also an equation of a straight line. K,/{tmax is the slope and Y/{tmax is the
y-intercept. Also, from this equation only two pairs of values of 6[X]/({So] — [S]) and
Y/[S] are needed to obtain the values of K, and [max.

Ponds and lagoons. Ponds and lagoons are earthen basins in which wastew-
aters are introduced and retained for a period of time to effect the necessary degree
of treatment. They are generally called waste stabilization basins. Although the terms
are used interchangeably in practice, ponds are basins in which the supply of oxygen
is provided through photosynthesis, whereas /agoons are basins in which the supply of
oxygen is provided by artificial means. Ponds may be classified as aerobic and faculta-
tive. Aerobic ponds are shallow of depths usually less than | m, thereby assuring that
dissolved oxygen is always present throughout the depths. In contrast, facultative ponds
are deeper, normally measuring from | to 2.5 m. In this design three depth zones exist:
the top fully aerobic zone, the bottom fully anaerobic zone, and the intermediate zone,
which can be aerobic or anaerobic, depending on the degree of activity of biological de-
composition and photosynthesis. Accordingly, in facultative ponds, facultative bacteria
exist.
Lagoons may be classified as aerobic, facultative, and anaerobic lagoons. Aerobic
lagoons are those in which artificial aeration is used to provide oxygen at all depths at all
times. Facultative lagoons, also provided with artificial aeration, are similar to facultative
ponds in that dissolved oxygen cannot be found at the deeper portion of the basin, where
anaerobic conditions exist. However, as in facultative ponds, aerobic zones exit at the
upper portions. Owing to the high loading of organic matter received, anaerobic lagoons
are simply basins that are devoid of oxygen at all depths. Naturally, there is no need to
provide artificial aeration. The principles of aeration are discussed later in this chapter.
A symbiotic relationship exists between algae and bacteria in a pond. By virtue of
photosynthesis, algae produce oxygen which bacteria then utilize in the degradation of
waste. As bacteria decompose the waste, nutrients are liberated which algae can use—a
symbiotic relationship.
Theoretically, all formulas derived for the activated sludge process should apply to
ponds and lagoons—were it not that the MLVSS in the basin is composed of, in addition
to the normal BOD-degrading bacteria, a large concentration of algae. The MLVSS in the
formulas derived are only for microorganisms directly responsible for waste stabilization.
The algae in the basin are not directly responsible; hence the MLVSS from algae cannot
be substituted into the formulas. In theory, to apply the formula, the MLVSS due to the
bacteria must be separated from the MLVSS due to algae. This, of course, is a formidable
undertaking.
Because of the drawback noted above and because the operation of the waste stabi-
lization basin is largely controlled by the weather, designs are normally based on loading
factors. Depending on the type of stabilization basin, one can find design criteria and
factors tabulated in the literature. These are based on actual field experiences. Table 7-3
shows some design parameters for facultative ponds and lagoons. Another drawback is
the high concentration of suspended solids in the effluent of stabilization basins. The
effluent suspended solids of 35 to 100 mg/L will surely not meet the secondary standard
324 Conventional Wastewater Treatment Chap. 7

requirement of the Clean Water Act. Some means must be applied to remove the algae
in the effluent. Algae are responsible for the high suspended solids. When discharged
into a receiving stream, these algae decompose, resulting in a high dissolved oxygen
demand.

TABLE 7-3 SOME DESIGN PARAMETERS FOR FACULTATIVE

PONDS AND LAGOONS

Parameter Facultative pond Facultative lagoon

Pond size (ha) 0.5-5 0S=5

Operation Series of parallel Series or parallel
Detention time (days) 30 30
Depth (m) is) 1.5
pH 6.5—9.0 6.5—9.0
BODs specific loading 15-100 50-200
rate (kg/ha-day)
BODs destruction 90% 90%
Algal concentration 15-90 20
(mg/L)
Effluent suspended 33-100 30-100
solids (mg/L)

Example 7-9
Design an oxidation pond to treat 5000 m3/day of municipal wastewater. The average
influent BODs is 150 mg/L and it is desired to have an average effluent BODs of 5.0 mg/L.

Solution From Table 7-3 assume a detention time of 30 days; then

volume of pond = 30(5000) = 150,000 m?

Assuming a depth of 1 m, surface area = 150,000 m2 = 15 ha.

1 mg/L = 10° kg/m? 150 mg/L BODs = 0.15 kg/m? BODs

BODs load = 0.15(5000) = 750 kg/day

So BODs loading rate = 750/15 = 50 kg/ha-day. From Table 7-3, the BODs loading rate =
15 to 90 kg/ha-day. Since the range is so wide, there is no guarantee that this design will
work. One alternative would be to perform a pilot study in the given area. The results may
then be used as the loading factor for your design.

Pond area = 15 ha Answer

Pond depth = 1m Answer

Trickling Filters, Biotowers, and RBCs

These three types of systems have similar principles of treatment, and for simplicity, let
us call them attached-growth processes. They rely on microorganisms attached and living
on some medium to extract the nutrient contained in a wastewater flow passing by them.
Secondary Treatment 325

Since the [X] in the formulation for the activated sludge process is admixed in the liquid,
while the [X] in the attached-growth process is not but is attached on a growth medium,
a new derivation is needed. Again, this derivation will apply the Reynolds transport
theorem (see Appendix 21).
Figure 7-9 shows an element of filter (or attached-growth) medium, microbial, and
liquid films. w is the width of microbial and liquid films considered, h the thickness of
the flow film passing by the microbial film, and dz the differential length of the films in
the direction of flow. These dimensions define the volume and boundary of the control
mass.
Consider the rate of decrease of the nutrients inside the control mass. There are
two ways that this change can occur: by diffusion of the nutrients out of the control
mass and by decay. Since this change occurs in the control mass, it is the Lagrangian
derivative: D[S]/Dt. The consumption of the substrate, however, does not take place in
the liquid film but in the microbial film. Hence this decay may be considered zero.
On the other hand, the nutrients in the liquid film will diffuse toward the microbial
film as long as they are consumed by the microorganisms. This rate of diffusion dM, /dt
is proportional to the microbial activity in the film and to the concentration of substrate
[S] in the liquid film, where M, is the mass of substrate diffusing. For a diffusion area
of w dz, dM,/dt is given by
dM,
a a K[X,][S]w dz (7-33)

where K is a proportionality constant.

Once the microbial film is established, [X;] remains constant, and equation (7-33)
can be revised to
dM,
~ =k folwiaz (7234)
dt
The Lagrangian derivative becomes
D{S] dM, é
whdz )= — AES are (7-35)
Dt dt
Now, consider the Eulerian derivative. The local derivative is 0({S]wh dz)/dt, and
the convective derivative is —Q,[S] + Qa([S] + (0[S]/dz)dz). The Eulerian derivative
is equal to the local derivative plus the convective derivative. Hence by the Reynolds
transport theorem (Lagrangian derivative = Eulerian derivative),
; 0 d[S]
—K'[S]w dz = mean da) 494 O51) aes | 13] ar reper (7-36)

At steady state, the partial derivative with respect to time is equal to zero. Also,
the flow process may be considered one-dimensional in the direction of z, where z is the
flow direction not necessarily straight but may be curvilinear. Thus all partial derivatives
become total derivatives. Simplifying equation (7-36) and integrating, the result is
K'wz K’A, Ka
eo eae ema (37)
[Sa] Ou Ou Oa/As
326 Conventional Wastewater Treatment Chap. 7

Microbial

Ee
film

Nutrients

Oxygen =«<— Air

Filter
medium End
products

|Movement of
wastewater

4 ats],dz
[S] Se —
&

_ Anaerobic - Aerobic

Figure 7-9 Schematic representation of exchanges taking place along surfaces

of biological slimes in trickling filters and rotating biological contactors.
 Secondary Treatment 327

As = wz is the total surface of the microbial film. The ratio Q,/A, is called the
actual specific hydraulic loading rate (ASHLR). ASHLR is different from the nominal
specific hydraulic loading rate (NSHLR), which is the plant hydraulic loading Qo divided
by the surficial area. When the hydraulic loading or specific hydraulic loading rate is
mentioned, the nominal is usually what is meant. The organic loading corresponding to
ASHLR is the actual specific organic loading rate (ASOLR), while that for NSHLR is
the nominal specific organic loading rate (NSOLR). [S,] is the influent substrate concen-
tration resulting from the mixing of the plant influent flow Qo and the recycle flow Qr.
If a material balance is performed on [S] between Qo and Qpr, [S,] will be found to be
equal to [Sz] = (So] + R[S])/( + R). Qo + Qe is equal to Q,.
As opposed to suspended-growth processes, recirculation in attached-growth proc-
esses does not improved efficiency. In addition, the settled sludge cannot be recirculated,
since the solids can clog the filter. Recirculation of the effluent is, however, used to pro-
vide a more uniform hydraulic loading and to effect a more thorough removal of the BOD.
The rate of diffusion into the microbial film is a function of the film activity. Since
microbial activity is a function of temperature, it follows that K’ is also a function of
temperature. In addition, K’ must also be a function of the diffusional characteristics
of the particular waste molecules. The temperature dependency of K’ is given by the
Arrhehius equation,
Ua KOS 5) (7-38)
The value of K’ can vary over a wide range, depending on the type of waste. For this
reason, for a given specific design, it is advisable to perform a pilot-plant study.
Table 7-4 shows some design parameters for trickling filters. Of course, biotowers
are trickling filters that are tall, and would have similar characteristics as the conventional

TABLE 7-4 TYPICAL DESIGN CRITERIA FOR TRICKLING FILTERS

Item Low-rate Intermediate High-rate Super-rate

NSHLR? (m/m?-day) =4 4-10 10-40 40-200

NSOLR?®, (kg BODs per m?/day) 0.01-0.1 0.2-0.5 0.3-1.0 1-6
Depth (m) 1-3 |-3 1.0—2.0 5-10
Recirculation ratio 0 0-1 1-3 1-4
Filter media Rock, slag, etc. | Rock, slag, etc. Rock, slag, Synthetics
synthetics
Power (kW/10° m?) 2-5 2-5 5-10 10-20
Filter flies Many Intermediate Few, larvae Few or none
are washed
away
Sloughing Intermittent Intermittent Continuous Continuous
Dosing intervals Not more 10-50 s -<lops Continuous
than 5 min
Effluent Usually fully Partially Nitrified Nitrified
nitrified nitrified at low at low
loadings loadings

4Based on surficial areas.

328 Conventional Wastewater Treatment Chap. 7

trickling filters. As indicated in the table, trickling filters are classified as low-rate,
intermediate, high rate, and super-rate (roughing) filters. Table 7-5 shows some properties
of filter media that have been used. Finally, Table 7-6 shows performance characteristics
of an RBC from a chart of Autotrol Corporation. It must be emphasized that the final
design of RBCs should be based on results of pilot plant studies for a particular waste
rather than using generalized values such as those in Table 7-6.
RBC is a unique adaptation of the attached-growth process. The solid objects upon
which the microbial films are attached are flat disks that range in diameter from 2 to 4 m
and up to | cm in thickness. The disks are mounted at spacings of about 30 to 40 mm
on a common shaft that rotates at approximately | to 2 rpm. One shaftful of media is
called a module.
For computation of the specific hydraulic loading rate, the surficial area and the
actual surface area are equal and given by the microbial surface area. This area corre-
sponds to the sum of the areas of the two circular surfaces on the two sides of the disk
multiplied by the total number of disks mounted on the shaft. The holes cut off by the

TABLE 7-5 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF TRICKLING FILTER MEDIA

Specific
Nominal size Mass/unit bulk surface area Void space
Medium (mm) volume (kg/m?) (m?/m?) (%)

River rock
Small 30-50 1200-1500 55-70 40-50
Large 100-130 800-1000 40-50 50-60
Blast furnace slag
Small 40-80 800-1000 50-80 45-55
Large 80-130 800-1000 50-65 55-65
Plastic
Conventional 600x 600x 1200 30-100 80-100 95-97
High specific 600x 600 x 1200 30-100 100-200 95-97
surface
Redwood 1200 x 1200x500 150-175 40-50 75-80

TABLE 7-6 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF A ROTATING BIOLOGICAL

CONTACTOR FOR TEMPERATURES GREATER THAN 55°C

[So] [S] NSHLR [So] [S] NSHLR

(mg/L) (mg/L) [S]/[So] (L/day-m7) (mg/L) (mg/L) [S]/[So] (L/day-m7)

150 20 Onis V2 150 15 0.10 61

150 5 0.03 32 100 20 0.20 108
100 15 ONES 94 100 5 0.05 48
60 20 0.33 179 60 iS 0.25 156
60 5 0.08 83 40 20 0.50 268
40 5 0.38 240 40 5 Onis 126
30 20 0.67 360 30 15 0.50 324
Secondary Treatment 329

shaft through the mounted disks and the area on the rim edges may be neglected. A
module 3.7 m in diameter and 7.6 m long can contain some 10,000 m? of microbial film
surface. For the trickling filter, the microbial surface area may be computed with the aid
of Table 7-5, which gives the specific surface area for a particular medium.

Example 7-10
(a) A trickling filter bed composed of small river rocks is 3 m deep and 6 m in diameter. If
the plant inflow Qo is 10,000 m?/day and the recirculation ratio is 2, what are the NSHLR
and the ASHLR? (b) Using the same data as in part (a), what are the NSHLR and the
ASHLR if an RBC is used? There are 40 modules used with disks measuring 3.7 m in
diameter, 5 mm in thickness, and spaced on the shaft at 30 mm apart. The length of the
module is 7.6 m.

Solution (a) From Table 7-5, the specific surface area = 55 to 70 m2/m?, say 60.

62 62
As = (60) E q(3) = 5089.38 m* surficial area = _ = D827)

10,000 m?
NSHLR = = 353.73 Answer
28.27 m2-da
10,000 + 2(10,000 3
SHIR eee ee 5g enter
5089.38 m2-da

7600 — 2 (3)
(b) Number of disks per module = sae +1

255] = le Say 254,

A, = 40(254) (2ES32
: ‘))= 218,482.69 m?

10,000 m
NSHLR = ————— = 0. —— Answer
218,482.69 m?-day

10,000 + 2(10,000) m?
ASHLR = = 0,137 Answer
218,482.69 m?-day

Example 7-11
A biotower composed of conventional plastic medium is used to treat the effluent of a
primary clarifier with a BODs of 150 mg/L. The flow from the clarifier is 20,000 m?3/day.
From a pilot-plant study, K’ was determined to be 0.117 m/day. Two towers are to be
used, each with a square surface and separated by a common wall and a depth of 7.0 m. A
recirculation ratio of 2 is to be used. Calculate the dimensions of the units that will produce
an effluent of 10 mg/L of soluble BODs.
330 Conventional Wastewater Treatment Chap. 7

Solution

[S] Ke
In =
[Sa] Qa/As
Og = 20,000 + 2(20,000) = 60,000 m? /day
[Sa] =
[So] + RIS] _ 150 + 2(10) = SOO) gil
1+R 3
10 eee Olle A, = 889,569.17 m7
]
"56.67 60,000/A,
From Table 7-5, specific surface area = 80 to 100 m?/m?, say 90. Then

889,569.17
total bed volume = noone — 9884.10 m?

9884.10
volume per tower = = 4942.05 m>

4,942.05
surface area = ————- = 706.0 m”

length = width = 26.57 m_ Answer

Example 7-12
From the data for the RBC in Table 7-6, determine K’.

Solution

Sel oe __ Qa, IS)

tL © ORE Ajeoisal
Assume that NSHLR = ASHLR = Q,/As.

[S] In 0.133 + In0.033 +---+1n0.125+In0.50 —24.6

AverageIn—— == = as 172
Sol 14 14
T2432 +..-+ 1264 324 9
Average ASHLR = Oe Te eee an en
14 14
K’ = —153.64(—1.72) = 264.04 5 = 0.264 — Answer
m+-day

Example 7-13
Determine the surface area of an RBC required to treat the wastewater in Example 7-11.
Use the K’ value obtained in Example 7-12. If the surface area A, per module is 10,000 m?,
determine the number of modules to be used.

Solution

[S] ke
In —
[Sa] Qa/As
 Principles of Aeration 331

ce
56.67eee
60,000/A, As = 394,240.88
pepe a ete m2 cae
A
ys
394,240.88
Number of modules = =
ODOL
10 kc 39.42, say 40 modules Answer

PRINCIPLES OF AERATION

Oxygen is a necessary nutrient. In attached-growth processes, air is easily absorbed into

the wastewater that flows by the microbial film. In trickling processes, for example,
due to the heat of reaction, air in the bed becomes lighter than the surrounding ambient
air and thus is convected upward through the filter. This upward convection is met
with the countercurrent downward flow of the wastewater, which due to the turbulence
caused in flowing through the “rocks,” induces aeration. In the RBC, a similar process
occurs; as the shaft rotates a falling thin film of water glides along the faces of the disks,
which due to the turbulence of the flow and a sufficiently thin film of water, induces
aeration.
In suspended-growth processes, however, air must literally be forced into the liquid.
In wastewater treatment practice, three types of aeration units are used: the bubble diffuser
type, the turbine aerator type, and the surface aerator type. These types of units are shown
in Figure 7-10.
Small-bubble diffusion units such as porous media, plates, or tubes are made of
silicon dioxide (SiOz) or aluminum oxide (Al,O3) grains fused together by a ceramic
binder to form a porous mass. Compressed air is blown through the small orifice open-
ings in the units, creating fine bubbles that, owing to the high surface area created in
the bubbles, provide oxygen transfer from the gaseous phase to the liquid phase. The
bubbles may also be created by large orifices, creating larger bubbles. Large-bubble
diffusers, however, are not as efficient as small-bubble diffusers. The turbine-type aer-
ator has an air sparger below the turbine agitator. As the air is sparged, bubbles rise
toward the turbine impeller, the blades shearing the larger bubbles into smaller ones
for more effective oxygen transfer. The surface aerator has a propeller that draws wa-
ter from just beneath the surface of the water. The water is then sprayed into the air,
aerating it.
The basic mathematical treatment of oxygen mass transfer from air to water 1s
based on the concept of a driving force. As in any other situation, mass will always tend
to fill a void space. If water is void of oxygen, oxygen will “flow” into it; the greater the
void, the faster will be the rate. This void is the driving force. The greatest void 1s when
the dissolved oxygen is zero, and the smallest void is when the water is almost saturated
with oxygen. In between these two extremes of voidness is the difference between the
saturation value of the dissolved oxygen [C;] and the actual concentration of dissolved
oxygen [C]. This difference, [C,] — [C], is a void; it is the driving force for oxygen
mass transfer to water at any time. The rate at which the concentration of oxygen will
332 Conventional Wastewater Treatment Chap. 7

Porous ceramic diffuser units (tubes)

Compressed
air

Figure 7-10 Types of aerators used in wastewater treatment: (a) bubble dif-
fusers; (b) turbine aerator; (c) surface aerator.
Principles of Aeration 333

increase is (d[C]/dt). Similar to reaeration in streams encountered in Chapter 5, this

total differential increase is also equal to k2([C,] — [C]). In equation form,
d[C]
—— = ky((C;] — [C]) (7-39)
dt
where k> is the reaeration coefficient. kz is the reaeration coefficient used in modeling
streams. In wastewater treatment, however, k is changed to K,a. Equation (7-39) may
also be written for point values. These are indicated by putting a caret above the symbols.
Using K_a for kz, the equation becomes

d[C] 2
eer K,a((Cs] —[C]) (7-40)
For the volume of the reactor, the concentration to be used should be the average.
Hence the equation becomes

d{C] =
re Kya([Cs] — [C]) 41)
where the overbars designate average values.

Equipment Specification

The rating of aeration equipment is reported at standard conditions defined as 20°C, | atm
pressure, and 0 mg/L of dissolved oxygen concentration in tap water (or distilled water).
Under these conditions, equation (7-41) becomes

d(C]
ar = (K14)¢ 201Cs,20, sp] (7-42)

(K,da)¢,29 = the K;a at standard conditions and C, 2,,, = the saturation DO at 20°C
and standard pressure. Equation (7-42) is the standard oxygen rate (SOR). Equipment
are specified in terms of SOR. Since testing is not normally done at standard conditions,
(K,.a)e29 must be obtained from the K,a at the condition of testing by the Arrhenius
temperature relation,

Kia = (K1a)22(6"
°°) (7-43)
where @ is the temperature correction factor and 7’ is the temperature in degrees Celsius at
testing conditions. This equation assumes that the effect of pressure on K_a 1s negligible.
The ability of an aeration equipment to transfer oxygen at field conditions is, using
equation (7-41),

a“ = OSD WEscnl = [C]) (7-44)

where (K,a), and [C,.,] are the K,a and [C,] of the wastewater at field conditions,
respectively. Equation (7-44) represents the actual oxygenation rate (AOR). (K,a), may
also be expressed in terms of its value at 20°C, (K,@)w,¢,20, by the temperature relation

(Ka) w = (Kia) w,2,20(0" ”) (7-45)

334 Conventional Wastewater Treatment Chap. 7

From equations (7-42), (7-44), (7-45), we find that

SOR = eae - (7-46)

a[(BLCs] — [C])/Cs,20,sp 187
where @ = (K14)w,¢,20/(Ki@)¢,20-
The method of determining AOR is discussed later. Once AOR is obtained, SOR
can be calculated using equation (7-46); thus the size of the equipment can be speci-
fied.

Determination of Aeration Parameters

The environmental engineer specifies aeration equipment based on standard laboratory

tests performed by equipment manufacturers. In other words, although the engineer
can easily determine the AOR, AOR must still be converted to SOR to match with the
standard manufacturer’s value. As shown in equation (7-46), to perform this conversion,
the a and f parameters must be determined.

Determination of (3. The determination of 6 is very simple. Take a liter jar

and fill it halfway with the sample. The jar is then vigorously shaken to saturate the
sample with air or oxygen and the dissolved oxygen concentration measured. Table 7-7
shows the saturated concentrations of dissolved oxygen in clean water at | atm at several
temperatures. From this table, at the temperature corresponding to the temperature of the
experiment, the saturation DO for clean water can be obtained. From this, along with the
saturated DO of the sample determined in the experiment C,.,, 6 may be calculated as

SiGe (7-47)
4 [Cs]

TABLE 7-7 SATURATION DO IN CLEAN WATER AT 1 ATM PRESSURE

Saturation dissolved Saturation dissolved

Temperature (°C) oxygen (mg/L) Temperature (°C) oxygen (mg/L)

0 14.60 18 9.45
5 12S 19 9.26
6 12.43 20 9.07
i ae D| 8.90
8 11.83 22 8.72
9 ESS v3) 8.56
10 lee 24 8.40
11 MEO 25 8.24
12 10.76 26 8.09
13 LOZ OF, WQS
14 10.29 28 7.81
15 10.07 29 7.67
16 9.85 30 7.54
7 9.65
Principles of Aeration 335

If the test is being conducted at elevation other than zero or 1 atm of barometric
pressure, the [C,] obtained from Table 7-7 must be corrected for the pressure of the test.
From fluid mechanics, the variation of atmospheric pressure P, with altitude z in the
trophosphere is
Bz g/RB

Pr, = Pro (:= =) (7-48)

To
where Pyo is the barometric pressure at z = 0; B (the temperature lapse rate) = 0.00650
K/m for standard atmosphere; 7p is the temperature in K at z = 0; g = 9.81 m/s’;
and R (the gas constant for air) = 286.9 N-m/kg-K. This equation assumes that the
temperature varies linearly with altitude. Therefore, if the elevation where the test is
conducted is known, the corresponding barometric pressure can be found. Since [C,]
varies directly as the pressure and if the condition of test is at barometric pressure, the
[C,] at test conditions will be

[Cs] = —ICs, sp] (7-49)

where [C, ;,] is the [C,;] from Table 7-7 at the standard pressure of P;(= 760 mmHg).

Pressures corresponding to [C,]. _ In sizing aerators, what pressure to use when

determining [C,] corresponds to the type of aeration device used. For surface aerators,
the corresponding pressure should be taken at the surface of the tank. For the case of
bubble-diffusion and turbine-type aerators, however, since the point of release of the air
is submerged, the pressure must correspond to the average depth of submergence. If the
submergence depth is Z,, the corresponding average pressure P is
Z
P=P,t+—y (7-50)
where y is the specific weight of the mixed liquor.

Determination of a. To determine a, equations (7-41) and (7-44) are used, with

equation (7-44) modified for aerobic respiration. From these equations a method can be
devised to determine the K;a values. The parameter a may then be calculated. First,
determine (Ka) 29. Integrating equation (7-41), we have

peed se) ears Fa (7-51)

[Cs]
This equation is an equation of a straight line between the logarithmic function and
t. To determine Ka, assume that there are n pairs of experimental values of [C] and .
The equation may then be summed for these pairs of values to obtain
m=n Ke a [C] m=n

= ( =ae )—— GE G52)

-52
m=1 m=|

From this equation, K,a may be evaluated, which can then be corrected to obtain
(K,.a)¢.29 using the temperature relation.
336 Conventional Wastewater Treatment Chap. 7

Since the organisms in wastewater respire, oxygen utilization must be incorporated.

Calling the respiration rate 7, equation (7-44) is modified to

d{C i
_ = (Kia) w([Cs,w] —[C) —7 (7-53)

Equation (7-53) may be rewritten as

d[C] — (Kral Ce wl = [C]) =f (Ke ae i(Ce ol = [C]) (7-54)

dt
where (Kja), is an apparent overall mass transfer coefficient. It encompasses both
(K,.a), the true overall mass transfer coefficient, and r.
The second part of equation (7-54) is similar in form to equation (7-41). It can
therefore be manipulated to obtain an equation similar to equation (7-52) only using to
(K,4)w,

+ (»nl EI) = coe (7-55)

m=1 m i!

(K;@)a may now be solved.

For n values of [C], equation (7-54) may be written as
m=n m=n m=n

Kina (Gal = (CIR 9) ie (Kaan) Ot(Gowen GI) (7-56)

m=! m=1 m=1

from which (K,a), may be solved once r is determined in a separate test and once
(K;a)» has been calculated using equation (7-55). (K,a), may now be corrected to
obtain (K7d@)w,¢,29 using the temperature relation. Once (K,a)¢.29 and (K,@)w,¢,29 are
known, @ can be computed.
The actual laboratory experimentation involves deaerating the sample. This is done
by purging nitrogen gas into the sample to drive off the dissolved oxygen or by consuming
the dissolved oxygen using sodium sulfite (Na2SO3) with cobalt chloride (CoCl,) added
as a catalyst. The sulfite converts to sulfate when reacted with the dissolved oxygen.
From the stoichiometry of the reaction, about 7.9 ppm of the sulfite is needed per ppm
of the dissolved oxygen. A 10 to 20% excess is normally used. Cobalt chloride has been
used in concentration of 1.5 ppm. As soon as the sample is completely deoxygenated,
reaeration is allowed to take place using the type of aeration system to be employed in
the prototype, such as bubble-diffusion, turbine, or surface-aeration type. The increase
in dissolved oxygen concentration with respect to time is monitored. The data obtained
are then used to calculate the aeration parameters.

Calculation of oxygen requirement, the AOR. Imagine a control mass laden

with dissolved oxygen and pollutants. The concentration of dissolved oxygen in this
mass will change according to the rate of aeration, (K;a),({C,| — [C]) = AOR, and
the rate of respiration by the organisms, 7, in consuming the pollutants. For this process,
Principles of Aeration 337

the following equation has been derived:

d[C] =. K
a => (Kr@elCs wl -t [C]) oui (7237)

As a Lagrangian derivative, equation (7-58) is

D{C]
Dt
=e) (Cw 1c) 7 = AOR? (7-58)
Now, derive the Eulerian derivative [counterpart toO equation (7-58)]. The local derivative
is o[C]]/dt and the convective derivative is —Qpo[Co]] + (Qo — Ow) [C.], where the O’s
had been defined before; [Co] is the inflow dissolved oxygen concentration to the reactor;
and [C,] is the outflow dissolved oxygen concentration from the secondary clarifier. By
the Reynolds transport theorem,

D[C] . afc] ii ee
0 bores =v (AOR) = OO — On Cola (Ooms On) Cel (7-59)

At steady state, the partial derivative is zero; also, [Co] and Kes are equal to zero. Hence

AOR = 7 (7-60)

The respiration rate, 7, is due to the consumption of BOD. BOD is composed of CBOD
and NBOD. Let 7,9 be the respiration due to CBOD and r,,9 be the respiration due to
NBOD. r is then

r= Tso a in0 (7-61)

Now, apply the Reynolds transport theorem to the fate of the CBOD. The La-
grangian rate of decrease of CBOD in the control mass, —D[S]/Dt, is due to its con-
sumption to produce energy by respiration, r;, and to its consumption in synthesis for
growth or to replace dead cells, syn;:

PIs]
Di = Poa Syl, 7-62
(7-62)

For the Eulerian derivative, the local derivative is d[S]/dt and the convective
derivative is —Qo[So] + Qol[S]. At steady state, the partial derivative is equal to zero.
Hence from the Reynolds transport theorem, the Lagrangian derivative is equal to the
Eulerian derivative:
DS ;
yo = (7, —syo,)V = —Opisole Qolol (7-63)

V Gy) — Collsol 1S) — V(syn) (7-64)

V(syn,) is the amount of CBOD in the waste sludge, Q,,[X,]. Let f; be the
factor for converting the CBOD in the waste sludge to the oxygen equivalent of V (syn, ).
Also, let the concentrations above be in terms of CBODs. If f is the reciprocal factor
for converting CBODs to CBOD, (ultimate CBOD), equation (7-64) may be written in
338 Conventional Wastewater Treatment Chap. 7

terms of its equivalent oxygen equation as

_ Qo(lSol — [S])
V (Fs0) ts Ow [X,,]) (7-65)
ip
7.q is the oxygen equivalent of 7,. f is normally taken as 0.68; however, to do an
accurate job for a given specific waste, it should be determined experimentally.
By analogy with equation (7-65), the respiration rate due NBOD, Fno 1s

V (Fno) — fn Qo([No] = [N]) =. tn OLX] (7-66)

where fy is the factor for converting nitrogen concentrations to oxygen equivalent, [No]
and [N] are the nitrogen concentrations in the influent and effluent, respectively, and f;,
is the factor for converting the nitrogen in the wasted sludge to the oxygen equivalent.
Having determined the expressions for 7,9 and 7,9, the equation for AOR is

Sol — LS
VON ns ae fsQw[Xul + fxQo(INo] — IN) — frQwlXu]
i
(7-67)

Determination of f;, fn, and f,. |The formula for microorganisms has been
given as CsH7NO).”. To find the oxygen equivalent of the mass synthesized, f,, react
this “molecule” with oxygen as follows:

C5H7NO) + 502 — 5CO, + 2H20 + NH3 (7-68)

From this equation, the oxygen equivalent of the mass synthesized is 1.42 mg of Op per
mg of C;sH;NO2. Therefore, f, = 1.42.
The reduction in the concentration of nitrogen is also brought about by reaction
with oxygen for energy and for the requirement for synthesis. NBOD is actually in the
form of NH3. Reaction with Oz yields

NH, + 20, — HNO; + HO (7-69)

From this reaction, the oxygen equivalent per mg of NH3-N is 4.57 mg. Hence fy is
equal to 4.57.
The nitrogen for synthesis goes with the sludge wasted, which can be expressed in
terms of the total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN). Bacteria (VSS) contain approximately 14% ni-
trogen. (Protein contains approximately 16% nitrogen.) Hence the equivalent of the nitro-
gen in the sludge wasted is 4.57(0.14)Q.,[X,,] = 0.64Q,,[X,] and the value of f,, is 0.64.
The total actual oxygen requirement (AOR) is therefore

[So] — [S]
V(AOR) = (00 — — ~ 1.420, [Xi] }+ 4.57Q0(INo] — [IND — 0.6404[X,])
iF
(7-70)
The AOR of equation (7-70) is used to find SOR in order to size the aerator needed.

2M. G. Mandt and B. A. Bell (1982). Oxidation Ditches in Wastewater Treatment Ann Arbor Science,
Ann Arbor, Mich., p. 48.
Principles of Aeration 339

Example 7-14
A sample of wastewater is tested for 6. The temperature is 25°C and the plant elevation is
1000 ft. The dissolved oxygen concentration after shaking the jar vigorously is 7.5 mg/L.
Calculate B.

Solution

B=
ICs, w]
[Cs]
[Cyl at2s°C and Datm= 8.24 me —=C,.,. P= Pol Ba/1p)e Py = 1 atm Be
0.0065 K/m; z = 1000/3.281 = 304.79 m. R = 286.9 N-m/kg-K; Ty = 25 + 273 = 298 K.
Thus

79) lo
0.0065G04 mmHg
= 0.97 atm = 737.2
298
euaciis
Liao "
P leat EE
760 m
g
(Gal
i P, (S.5)
} = ae ae =) /-
oS

eee
r

B Ll
n

SWe
:
= CO

7.99

Example 7-15
A settling column 4 m in height is used to determine the a of the same wastewater tested in
Example 7-14. The wastewater is to be aerated using a fine-bubble diffuser in the prototype
aeration tank. The laboratory diffuser releases air at the bottom of the tank. The result of
the unsteady-state aeration test is shown below. Assume that 6B= 0.94, r = 1.0 mg/L-h,
and the plant elevation is 1000 ft. For practical purposes, assume that the mass density of
water = 1000 kg/m?. Calculate a.

Tap water at 5.5°C Wastewater at 25°C

Time (min) [C] (mg/L) Time (min) [C] (mg/L)

3 0.5 3 0.9
6 Ley 6 1.8
9 all 9 2.4
12 4.4 12 Be)
15 5:5 15 4.0
18 6.1 18 4.7
21 vel 21 Bho)

Solution

hn (2a) =—Kya Setha

m=1 m1

Zd
Te ie grag
340 Conventional Wastewater Treatment Chap. 7

From Example 7-14, P, = 0.97 atm = 0.97(101,330) = 98,290.1 N/m?. Then

4
1D == OS WOO st 5 Ua) = 17S 0ll N/m?

[Ga leatoeon © rand alma tinny aOR 30) N/m?) == 12.59 me/Ie

5 EOS OH :
s and 117,913.01
[C,] at 5.5°C : N/m ~ — 12.59 (
|—————_
101.330 } = 14.65 mg mg/L

Tap water at 5.5°C:

aerae
Time (min)
™
[C] (mg/L) ht)
[Cs] — [C]
[Cs]

3 0.5 —0.0347
6 il —0.1233
9 3, —(0.2378
2 4.4 =O),
15 ie) —0.4707
18 6.1 =O 385
Pal Toll —0.6629
84 =2.4251 <=)

2.4251 F
Ki@ = = 0.0289 per minute

0.0289 :
(Kia)¢,20 = 1 02455=20 — 0.041 per minute = 2.46 per hour

[Cs] at 25°C and 1 atm(= 101,330 N/m?) = 6.24 me/l

ICOMS2011
[C,] at 25°C and 117,913.01 N/m? = 8.24 )= 9.59 mg/L
101,330

(Grrrl 0194 (O59) — 9) Oimne

se

Wastewater at 25°C:

Time (min) [C](mg/L) In [Es,w1= Te] [Exe]

ICs w]
3 0.9 —0.1052 8.11
6 (has —0.2229 VA
9 2.4 —0,.3098 6.61
1 Bes) —0.4561 Se lh
IS 4.0 —0.5869 5.01
18 4.7 —0.7374 4.31
21 Deo —0.8873 Beil

ee)SS | ee Uy)SSn (oy 40.67 =

Principles of Aeration 341

3.3056
(Ke) hi = 0.0394 per minute = 2.36 per hour

m=n m=>=n m=n

Cpe tI) 1Cle— Yat, = (Ka) (IC, ule).

m=1 m=1 oil

(Ka)
w(40.67) — 7(1.0) = 2.36(40.67)

(K,a)wy = 2.53 per hour

NaN) DD)
(KL@)w. 2,20 = 700425=20 — 75) per NOUL a = — =0.91 Answer

Example 7-16
The influent of 10,000 m3/day to a secondary reactor has a BODs of 150 mg/L. It is
desired to have an effluent BODs of 5 mg/L, an MLVSS of 3000 mg/L, and an underflow
concentration of 10,000 mg/L. The effluent suspended solids concentration is 7 mg/L at
71% volatile suspended solids content. The volume of the reactor is 1611 m? and 6. = 10
days. Calculate the SOR. Assume the aerator to be of the fine-bubble diffuser type with
an a = 0.55; depth of submergence equals 8 ft. Assume that the 6 of liquor is 0.90. The
influent TKN is 25 mg/L and the desired effluent NH3-N concentration is 5.0 mg/L. f = 0.7.
The average temperature of the reactor is 25°C and is operated at an average of 1.0 mg/L
of dissolved oxygen.

Solution

[So] — [S]
AOR(V) = peer eee — 1.42Q0y[Xy] } + (4.57Q0([No] — [N]) — 0.640u[%u))

V[X]
6210) =
Owl Xu] Ie (Qo an Ow) [Xe] < QolXol

1611(3)
~ 0.,[Xu] + (10,000 — Q,,)(0.71)(0.007) — Qo(0)
neglecting Q,, compared to 10,000.

Ow(Xu] = 433.33 kg/day

01510005
AOR(V) = | 10,000 07 1.42(433.3)

+ [4.57(10,000) (0.025 — 0.005) — 0.64(433.3)]

ko
= 2092.8 kg/day AOR = 1.30— =
m°-day
AOR
SOR =
a{(BLCs] —[C])/[Cs,20sp]}07
—2
 342 Conventional Wastewater Treatment § Chap. 7

At 25°C, [Cs sp] = 8.24 mg/L; [Cs,20sp] = 9.07 mg/L. P = Py + (Za/2y); assume that the
plant is located at sea level; then

VEO
P = 101,330+ / [997(9.81)} = 113,253.89 N/m?
P 113,253.89
= —Cysp =——— (8.24) = 9.21 mg/L
Cs pe 101,330 Cay
1.30
SOR = 2.6 kg/day-m?> Answer
~ 0.55{[0.9(9.21) — 1.0]/9.07}(1.02425—20)

EFFLUENT DISPOSAL

As mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, effluents before discharge must meet
effluent standards. One of these standards is that for coliforms. Effluents must therefore
be disinfected. The disinfectant commonly used is chlorine, although others, such as UV,
ozone, and bromine chloride, have been used. Disinfection was discussed in Chapter 6
and will not be repeated here. As a result of disinfection, residual chlorine can have a
detrimental effect on stream biota. Limits on total residual chlorine (TRC) are therefore
included in the discharge permit. To meet these limits, effluents are dechlorinated using
SO> and sulfites.
The treated wastewater is disposed of through an effluent disposal conduit called
an outfall. In shallow, free-flowing streams, this is simply a pipe that protrudes on
the side of the streambank. For discharges into deeper receiving waters, the effluent
may be dispersed through an elaborate diffuser system to ensure complete mixing with
the stream. In estuarine tidal and coastal systems, in addition to the diffuser-system
calculations, a hydraulic profile calculation must be made to ensure that the tide will not
flood downstream units of the treatment plant. In fact, the hydraulic profile of the entire
treatment plant should be calculated to ascertain the elevations of the hydraulic gradient
through the plant corresponding to the desired design flow. Changing river stages also
affect the hydraulic profile of the treatment plant.

Diffuser Calculations

Figure 7-11 shows schematics of diffuser systems and an outfall. At the bottom figure is
the outfall with diffuser manifold attached at the terminus. If a cross section is cut through
the manifold, the sections shown Figure 7-11a will result. These figures are either jets or
plumes. If the configurations have been formed by pure jet action from the jet at the exit
branch pipe or port, the configurations are jets. However, if the configurations have been
formed by the difference in density between the ambient water and the wastewater that
exits from the branch pipe or port, the configurations are plumes. In practical situations,
the effect of most of the jet action is diminished a short distance after the jet emerges from
the exit opening. The reason for this is the tremendous resistance that the surrounding
Effluent Disposal 343

ambient water exerts on the jet. Without the density difference that forms the plume, the
configuration will simply disappear just as soon as it is created. Hence, in applications,
the configuration is assumed to be a plume. Our discussion will therefore consider only
the plume.
There are two types of plumes: the solitary plume and the plane plume. A solitary
plume is the configuration that forms from a single discharge pipe or port, while a plane
plume is the configuration that forms from a discharge from a slot exit. Figure 7-11b
shows solitary plumes arranged in a line, a distance L apart along the diffuser manifold.
If the distance L is made shorter, the plumes generated will merge together, forming a
compound plume as if the source were coming from a slot. Therefore, treat an arrangement
of solitary plumes in a straight line forming a compound plume as a plane plume. The
top schematics of the figure can be viewed as the cross section of either a solitary plume
or a plane plume. Discharge pipes and ports usually vary in diameter from 2 to 10 in. and
are spaced 5 to 50 ft apart.
The right-hand side of Figure 7-1la is a plume formed in receiving waters hav-
ing a density gradient dp,/dz, where pg is the density of the ambient water. The
plume rises until it reaches a maximum height zx, where the ambient density is equal
to the density of the mixture of wastewater and ambient water. From this height the
plume spreads out laterally. The most important parameter in the discussion of plumes
is the average dilution S that the wastewater receives. At a height z above the port
exit, S is given empirically for solitary plumes and for plane plumes, respectively, as
follows:*

0.15 (e820)
~ 25/
Tye
vl II (7-71)
Q
1/3
0.38 (sq)
p z
Ss II Get2)
q
where g is the acceleration due to gravity, p the density of wastewater, Q the rate of
flow coming out of the port, and q the discharge per unit length of plane plume.
For the plumes discharged into waters having a density gradient, Zmax 18 given
empirically by*
io 3a ey 21/2
Zmax = 3.6 (e@—*4)
p
(Pa,av: a
AZ
(7-73)
where /q ay is the average ambient fluid density.
The formulas derived for plumes above are for wastewaters discharged straight up
from the discharge pipe or port. In practice, however, the discharge direction is also

33. A. Roberson, J. J. Cassidy, and M. H. Chaudry (1988). Hydraulic Engineering. Houghton Mifflin,
Boston, p. 418.
4R. B. Wallace and S. J. Wright (1984). “Spreading Layer of Two-Dimensional Buoyant Jet.” Journal
of the Hydraulic Division, ASCE, 110(6).
 344 Conventional Wastewater Treatment Chap. 7

Water surface

@
¢ Diffuser
Ocean or
lake bottom

(a)

Energy grade line for supply pipe and diffuser

Hydraulic grade line for supply pipe and diffuser
Chlorination
tank

|
t
We
&
We
&
We
&
We| >
Supply pipe ‘ — — — a=

Diffuser | :
(b)

Figure 7-11 Schematics of diffuser systems and outfall pipe. (a) Left-hand side, cross-
sectional view of diffuser-pipe manifold and rising jet or plume in uniform-density re-
ceiving water; right-hand side, cross-sectional view of diffuser-pipe manifold and rising
jet or plume in a receiving water with density gradient. (b) Outfall or supply pipe with
diffuser system connected at terminus.

made at an angle. When discharge is made at an angle more dilution is received by the
wastewater, since more time will be spent in diluting the wastewater. Hence the formulas
derived above incorporate some factor of safety.
Effluent Disposal 345

Example 7-17
(a) 10,000 m/day of treated effluent is to be discharged through a single diffuser. What
depth of water is required to effect a dilution of 200? (b) If the treated effluent is to be
discharged through a manifold having 10 diffuser pipes and of a length of 12 m, what is the
depth required to effect the same degree of dilution? Assume (pg — p)/p = 0.025.

Solution

= 9)sey.
0.15 (¢=2 ae
(a) S=
Q
0.15 [9.81(0.025)(10,000/24(60)(60))]!/3 25/3
200 =
10,000/{24(60)(60)]
z=41.92 m Answer

q
10,000
q= = 0.0096 m>/m-s
24(60)(60)(12)

0.38 [9.81(0.025)(0.0096) ]9:33333z

200 eB 2B DOS NOLOO iyANd z=37.92 m Answer
0.0096

Example 7-18
Determine the height zmax that the plume will rise for a discharge of 0.02 m?/s-m. The density
at the bottom of the ocean floor is 1025.00 kg/m? and at a point 60 m from the ocean floor,
the density is 1024.28 kg/m?. Assume that (~g@ — p)/p = 0.025. Also determine S at this
height.

Solution
1/3 —1/2
Pa — P : (—g dpa f
hee = ohO|| $= =
p Pa,av aZ

1 dpx I 1024.28 — 1025.00

60 )= —0,0000117 kg/m?-m
Pa.av dz (1024.28+ 1025.00)/2
Zmax = 3-6 [9.81(0.025)
(0.02) ]°->333 |—9.81(—0.0000117)]~°> = 57.08 m Answer
1/3
0.38 [eq | Zz
S=
q
__ 0.38 (9.810.025) (0,02) ]9*3 (57.08) = 184.27 Answer
3 0.02
346 Conventional Wastewater Treatment Chap. 7

Hydraulic Profile Calculations

Since it is the receiving water elevation that profoundly affects the hydraulic profile,
calculation is best started from the terminus of the discharge port. The profile calcula-
tion then works its way up through the diffuser manifolds, the supply pipe, the effluent
chlorinator discharge channel, the chlorinator, the discharge conduit from the secondary
clarifier to the chlorinator, the secondary effluent discharge channel, and so on, up the
flowsheet of the treatment plant. Calculations involve the application of the energy equa-
tion and the calculation of head losses along the path of wastewater flow through straight
runs of pipes, bends, fittings, transitions, and the like. Open-channel-flow calculations
for discharge troughs and weirs may also be used. The principles of calculations of head
losses and the application of the energy equation are discussed in any book on fluid me-
chanics and will not be repeated here. The hydraulic profile that will be addressed in this
section will involve the outfall pipe and the diffuser system. The remaining hydraulic
profile calculations above and beyond the outfall are similar in principles in that the basic
task is simply the calculations of head losses and the application of the energy equation
to determine the various heads. Once all the heads are calculated, the profile can be
drawn.
Referring to Figure 7-11b, call g, the flow through any diffuser port n. Thus,
starting from the lower end of the diffuser manifold, the first port has a g, of qi; the
second port, a g, of g2; and so on. Let hp; be the head loss at port 1 as the wastewater
exits into the ambient fluid. In terms of /,; and the orifice equation g; = Ka,,/2ghpi,
which, in general, for any port g,, is

qn = Ka, 2ghon (7-74)

where a, is the cross-sectional area of port n with head loss h,,, and K is given empirically
by?

K = 0.675,/1 — —~ (7-75)

V,, is the velocity in the manifold pipe at port n. V,, is

VA a Vini—1 =f
; Vane Teal (7-76)

where V,,,-1 is the velocity before port n and V,,,41 is the velocity after it. Equa-
tions (7-74) and (7-75) may be combined to yield

Gn = 0.6754,,/ 2ghp, — V2 Cla)

Let H be the available head loss from the surface of the last unit in the treatment
plant (e.g., chlorinator) to the level of the receiving water below. Also, let h; be the
combined head loss in the supply pipe and the manifold pipe up to port 1. Applying the

°K. Subramanya and S. C. Awasthy (1970). “Discussion of the Paper by Vigander.” Journal of the
Hydraulics Division, ASCE, 102(HY5).
Effluent Disposal 347

energy equation from the surface of the last unit to the surface of the receiving water,
hp, = H —h, — hg, where hg is the head loss due to the depth of water from the port
to the surface of the receiving water. For any one port n, the general head loss, hp, is

pe ell (7-78)
where h,, is the head loss up to port n.
Example 7-19
Secondary-treated wastewater at 15°C is to be discharged into an estuary. Design a manifold
diffuser system to discharge 0.11 m?/s. Assume that the head available between the last unit
in the treatment plant and the first diffuser port is 9.62 m and hg = 2 m. Also, assume that
the length of the supply pipe is 122 m. Construct the hydraulic profile.

Solution To ensure a self-cleaning action in the diffuser manifold, assume a velocity of

0.76 m/s in the spacing L before the first port (see Figure 7-11). Assuming four diffuser
ports spaced 3 m apart, g = 0.11/4 = 0.0275 m3/s. Therefore, the manifold pipe cross-
sectional area at port 1 = 0.0275/0.76 = 0.036 m* and D = 0.214 m = 0.70 ft. Use this as
the diameter of the supply pipe and the whole manifold pipe and assume a PVC pipe. Since
the pipe is made of PVC, assume it to be smooth.
Compute the head loss at the outfall supply pipe:
DV
Re galt 8 kg/m? i i100) kg/m-s

Ve ON O086)—3300mmi/s

0.214(3.06)(998
Re = ee
ES 5.93(10°)
11(10-4)
From the Moody chart (Appendix 17), f = 0.013; thus

HE LAEVIS Ye (122 3.067

Cal pee el 0214) |2O81
= 3.54m loss in supply pipe length of 122 m

Compute the entrance loss, he, to supply pipe from last unit of treatment plant:
ia= K-(V7/2g). Assuming that the entrance is well rounded, K. = 0.04, from any book
on fluid mechanics. Then
3.067
Hoa OLO4: = 0.019 m
2(9.81)

total loss in supply pipe = 3.54 + 0.019 = 3.56 m

Compute head loss in manifold pipe:

length of diffuser manifold pipe = (4 — 1)(3) + 0.5 = 9.5 m

For hp:

a DVp
Re 0p =998 kg/m? =z = 11(10*) kg/m-s
hee v6
348 Conventional Wastewater Treatment Chap. 7

ee 0.11/0.036 + 0.0275 /0.036 .

1.91 m/s
2)
0.214(1.91) (998)
a 7110)
S atte6
From the Moody chart (Appendix 17), f = 0.0138.

t y2
A= f=—-— =O)ia
ID) Bye

9 1.912
Oise on
Y 38( Sa) Foot “a
Thus 4; =3.56 0.11 = 3°67 m and hpi — 9.62 —3 67, — 2 — 3.95 m- Repeat for hp2.
Compute the head loss in the manifold pipe:
For ho:

7 CLLRS
IOES LCA
0.11/0.036 + 2(0.0275)/0.036
a
0.214(2.29
Re = eS SO}
tao)
From the Moody chart (Appendix 17), f = 0.0134.

(ih Wife
i == (0 i
D 2g

6 2.292
= 0.0134 {|—— =0.10m
0.214 } | 2(9.81)
Thus fg = 3.56+ 010 = 3.66 m and hp = 9.62 — 3.66 — 2: = 3.96 m. Assume that
hp3 = 3.97 m and hpq = 3.98 m.

qi = 0.675a1,/2ghp1 — V;
y, — 0:0275/0.036 +0 = 0.38 m/s
. D)a

0.0275 = 0.675a, /2(9.81) (3.95) — 0.38? a, = 0.0046 m?

dp (= port diameter) = 0.077 m = 7.7 cm
ae 2(0.0275) /0.036 + (0.0275) /0.036
= 1.15 m/s
7 2

0.0275 = 0.675a, /2(9.81)(3.96)

—1.152 a = 0.0047 m2
dp (= port diameter) = 0.077 m = 7.7 cm

ie 3(0.0275) /0.036 + 2(0.0275) /0.036

= IO ins
a 2
0.0275 = 0.675a, J2(9.81)(3.97) = weOe a3 = 0.0047 mm

dp (= port diameter) = 0.077 m = 7.7 cm

Glossary 349

__ 4(0.0275)/0.036 + 3(0.0275)/0.036
V4 = 2.67 m/s
oo 2
0.0275 = 0.6754 V/ 2(9.81) (3.98) — 2.672 a4 = 0.0048 m?

dp (= port diameter) = 0.078 m = 7.8 cm

Let all d,’s be = 7.77 cm. Answer

Diameter of manifold pipe = 0.214 m; if not available, calculation must be redone to conform
to pipe available. Answer
Diffuser spacing = 3.0m. Answer
The hydraulic gradient is plotted in Figure 7-11.

GLOSSARY

Activated sludge. The reinvigorated microorganisms sludge.

Activated sludge process. A process of treating waste where activated sludge is recir-
culated to the aeration tank for treatment of the waste.
Actual oxygenation rate (AOR). The rate of transfer of oxygen as is actually occurring
in an operating unit; it is equal to the respiration rate.
Actual specific hydraulic loading rate (ASHLR). The ratio of the actual flow to the
actual surface area of microbial film.
Actual specific organic loading rate (ASOLR). The ratio of the organic loading to the
actual surface area of microbial film.
Alpha. The ratio of the K,a of the waste at 20°C to the K;a of tap water at 20°C.
Best available technology economically achievable (BAT). Also called best conven-
tional pollutional control technology (BCT); equivalent to secondary
treatment.
Beta. The ratio of the dissolved oxygen saturation of a given wastewater to
the dissolved
oxygen saturation of tap water which is at the same temperature and pressure as
that of the wastewater.
Biochemical oxygen demand. A measure of the strength of an organic substance indi-
cated by the amount of equivalent oxygen the substance consumed in its biological
decomposition utilizing oxygen as a reactant.
Carbonaceous biochemical oxygen demand (CBOD). The biological oxygen demand
corresponding to the carbon content of a substance; CBODs, CBOD after 5 days;
CBOD,,, ultimate CBOD.
Chemical oxygen demand. A measure of the total ability of a substance to consume
oxygen, determination normally done using chemical oxidizers such as potassium
dichromate.
Compound plume. Plume formed from the merging of two or more plumes.
Contact stabilization or biosorption process. A variation of the activated process
where an aerated sludge is allowed to contact the influent for a short period of 15
to 60 min.
350 Conventional Wastewater Treatment Chap. 7

Detritus. A mixture of grit and organic matter.

Dissolved or filtrable solids. The fraction of total solids that passes through a filter.
Effluent limited waters. Waters where discharge of effluent meeting the secondary or
BAT standards does not violate water quality standards.
Effluent standard. The values of parameters that a plant must meet at its discharge
effluent.
Extended-aeration process. A variation of the activated sludge process characterized
by long detention times and low F/M ratio and operated at the endogenous phase
of growth.
Filter yield. In cake filtration, the amount of cake formed per unit area of filter cloth
per unit time.
Five-day biochemical oxygen demand (BODs). A biochemical oxygen demand exerted
in 5 days.
Fixed solids. The solids that remain after the sample is decomposed at 600°C.
Free ammonia. Hydrolysis product of organic nitrogen.
Grit. Rough and hard particles of detritus.
Half-velocity constant. The concentration of the limiting nutrient that will make the
specific growth rate equal to half the maximum specific growth rate.
High-rate activated sludge process. A variation characterized by short detention time
and a high F/M ratio and operated at the logarithmic growth phase.
Jet. The configuration formed as fluid exits from an opening into another or the same
fluid through the effect of its momentum.
Kinetics. The rate of change of the concentration of a substance with respect to time.
Kjeldahl nitrogen. The sum of the concentrations of ammonia and organic nitrogen.
Lagoon. A basin used to hold waste.
Mean cell residence time (MCRT), sludge retention time (SRT), or sludge age. The
average time that microorganisms are in residence in a reactor.
Nitrogenous biochemical oxygen demand (NBOD). The biochemical oxygen demand
corresponding to the nitrogen content of a substance.
Nominal specific hydraulic loading rate (NSHLR). The plant influent flow divided by
the surficial microbial area of the treatment unit.
Nominal specific organic loading rate (NSOLR). The ratio of the organic loading to
the surficial microbial area of the treatment unit.
Organic nitrogen. Nitrogen content of an organic substance.
Plain plume. The plume formed from a slot exit.
Plain sedimentation. A simple, unaided sedimentation of particles.
Plume. The configuration formed due to the difference in densities when a fluid exits
into another or the same fluid.
Pond. A basin where stabilization of the waste is effected through the use of oxygen
supplied by photosynthesis.
Preliminary treatment. The treatment of sewage without the use of the primary settling
tank.
Primary treatment. The treatment of sewage where the major method of removing the
pollutant is by settling.
Symbols 351

Secondary effluent standard. An effluent standard that requires meeting a BODs of

30 mg/L monthly and 45 mg/L weekly and meeting suspended solids of 30 mg/L
monthly and 45 mg/L weekly.
Secondary treatment. Treatment that meets secondary standards.
Settleable solids. The volume of solids that settles after a predetermined period of time.
Solitary plume. The plume formed from a single discharge port.
Specific growth rate. The proportionality constant in the kinetic growth expression for
organisms.
Specific substrate utilization rate. The reciprocal of the specific yield.
Specific yield. The amount of organisms produced per unit amount of substrate con-
sumed.
Stabilization basin. Ponds and lagoons used to stabilize waste.
Standard oxygenation rate (SOR). The rate of oxygenation of tap (or distilled) water
by an equipment at 20°C, 1 atm pressure, and zero concentration of oxygen.
Step aeration. A variation of the activated sludge where the influent is introduced at
various points along the aeration tank to provide a more uniform BOD loading to
the reactor.
Suspended or nonfiltrable solids. The fraction of total solids that does not pass through
a filter.
Tapered aeration. A variation of the activated sludge process where the air is intro-
duced along the length of the tank in amounts proportional to the amount of BOD
remaining to be stabilized.
Total nitrogen. The sum of the concentrations of organic, free ammonia, nitrite, and
nitrate nitrogens.
Total organic carbon. The total carbon content of a substance.
Total solids. The material left after water has been evaporated from the sample.
Ultimate biochemical oxygen demand (BOD, ). A biochemical oxygen demand exerted
after an infinite time.
Underflow concentration. The concentration in the underflow of a sedimentation basin
or thickener.
Volatile solids. The solids that disappear after the sample is decomposed at 600°C.
Water quality limited waters. Waters of which the discharge of secondary or BAT-
treated effluents will cause the violation of water quality standards.
Water quality standards. Stream values of parameters that must not be violated by any
discharge.

SYMBOLS

cross-sectional area of a manifold port

total surface area of attached-growth microbial process
temperature lapse rate
QwpS$ concentration of dissolved oxygen
352 Conventional Wastewater Treatment Chap. 7

@ point concentration of dissolved oxygen

G average dissolved oxygen concentration
Cs saturation dissolved oxygen concentration
Cs, sp C, at standard pressure of P, (1 atm)
A energy loss through a manifold port
‘i fraction of BOD; in CBOD
F/M food to microorganisms ratio
g acceleration due to gravity
K orifice coefficient of a manifold port
K,a oxygen overall mass transfer coefficient
(K7.a)¢,20 K_a at standard conditions of 20°C
(Ka) » K_,a of wastewater
(Ka) w.¢,20 (Ka), at standard conditions of 20°C
K, half-velocity constant
M, mass of substrate diffusing to the microbial film from an
element of flowing wastewater in a trickling filter
N concentration of NH3-N of TKN
No influent N
Ee standard pressure
Po atmospheric pressure at elevation, z, equals zero
q discharge per unit length of plane plume
dn discharge in a manifold port
OQ rate of flow; discharge in a diffuser port
OF the sum of QO, and Op
OF. effluent discharge
Or recirculation flow
OF volumetric rate of sludge wasting
Oo plant inflow
r wastewater respiration rate
R gas constant
iS average dilution
[S] concentration of substrate
[So] inflow concentration of substrate
t time
lu! specific substrate utilization rate; specific crop utilization
rate for a particular fertilizer constituent
Vj flow-through velocity
V volume of reactor
Vi, velocity in the manifold cross section directly opposite the
manifold port n
w width of grit chamber; overall characteristic width of an
attached-growth microbial film
[X] concentration of microorganisms
[X] average concentration of microorganisms
 Problems 353

[Xe] effluent concentration of microorganisms

[X}] concentration of microbial film in a trickling filter
sedimentation tank underflow concentration of microorgan-
isms
aie influent concentration of microorganisms
specific yield of microorganisms
overall characteristic depth of an attached-growth microbial
film; elevation in atmosphere; distance above a diffuser
port
submergence depth
depth of flow
(K1a)w,¢,20
(K1a)¢,20
ratio of the saturated dissolved oxygen concentration of
wastewater at wastewater conditions of temperature and
pressure to that of tap water at the same wastewater con-
ditions of temperature and pressure
porosity
nominal hydraulic retention time; temperature correction
factor
mean cell residence time
specific growth rate; dynamic viscosity
maximum /L
mass density; density of discharged effluent
ambient water density
average (iq
property per unit mass

PROBLEMS

7-1. A 10-mL sample is pipetted directly into a 300-mL incubation bottle. The initial DO of the
diluted sample is 9.0 mg/L and its final DO is 2.0 mg/L. The dilution water is incubated in
a 200-mL bottle, and the initial and final DOs are, respectively, 9.0 and 8.0 mg/L. If the
sample and the dilution water are incubated at 20°C for 5 days, what is the BODs of the
sample at this temperature?
7-2. A suspended solids analysis is run on a sample. The tare mass of the crucible and filter is
55.3520 g. A sample of 260 mL is then filtered and the residue dried to constant mass at
103°C. The constant mass of the crucible, filter, and the residue is 55.3890 g. The residue
is then decomposed at 600°C to drive off the volatile matter. Assume that the filter does
not decompose at this temperature. After decomposition, the constant weight of the crucible
and the residue was again determined and was found to be equal to 30.3415 g. What is the
percent volatile matter in the sample?
7-3. What is an effluent-limited stream? A water-quality limited stream?
354 Conventional Wastewater Treatment Chap. 7

7-4. What is unit operation? Unit process?

7-5. If there should be a minimum of one channel operating at any time, design the cross section
of a grit-removal unit consisting of four identical channels to remove grit for a peak flow of
80,000 m3/day, an average flow of 50,000 m?/day and a minimum flow of 20,000 m°/day.
Assume a flow-through velocity of 0.3 m/s and that the channels are to be controlled by
Parshall flumes.
7-6. Solve Problem 7-5 for grit channels controlled by proportional flow weirs.
7-7. A grit chamber is designed for a flow-through velocity of 0.30 m/s, a depth of 0.9 m, and a
length of 10.5 m. If inorganic particles have a specific gravity of 2.65, estimate the diameter
of the largest particle that can be removed 100% at 20°C.
. Calculate the total airflow for an aerated grit chamber processing 25,000 m°?/day of municipal
wastewater. Also calculate the appropriate dimensions.
. What are the common devices used to measure flows in wastewater treatment plants?
. The treatment plant flows are as follows: average influent flow = 6000 m®3/day, the peak daily
flow = 13,000 m?/day, and the minimum daily flow is two-thirds of the average flow. To
meet effluent limits, it has been determined that the design of a primary sedimentation basin
must remove 65% of the influent suspended solids. Using any chart having the relationship of
percent removal and overflow rate, design a sedimentation basin that should meet detention
time requirement, as well as effluent limits.
7-11. Determine the following for a primary clarifier with a 30-m diameter: surface overflow
rate and the approximate removal rate for BODs and suspended solids at average flow and
peak flow. The other information are as follows: wastewater flow = 15,000 m°/day, and
peak flow is 1.80 times average. The wastewater contains 190 BODs and 212 mg/L of
suspended solids at average flow and 230 mg/L BODs and 370 mg/L suspended solids at
peak flow.
7-12. In Problem 7-11, calculate the kilograms per day of sludge for the average and peak flows.
7-13. The design criteria for overflow rates for sedimentation basins has been set as 40 m°/m?-day
for average conditions and 110 m3/m?-day for peak flow conditions. The average flow to
the plant is 25,000 m?/day and the peak flow is 40,000 m3/day. Determine the dimensions
of the primary clarifier if it is (a) a circular basin and (b) a rectangular basin.
. In Problem 7-13, determine the dimensions of the primary clarifier if it is a square cross-flow
tank.
. An activated sludge process is operated at an MCRT of 10 days and an NHRT of 4 h. The
volume of the reactor is 1600 m? and the rate of sludge wasting is 64 m3/day. If the MCRT
and the NHRT are maintained, what is the sludge underflow concentration corresponding to
an MLVSS of 4000 mg/L?
7-16. What are the two extremes of the activated sludge process?
7-17. The following kinetic parameters have been determined by pilot-plant studies: Y = 0.57 and
kq = 0.06 per day. Using these parameters, a tapered aeration plant is to be designed to
treat 13,000 m/day of primary settled sewage. The effluent from the primary settling tank
has a BODs of 150 mg/L and a suspended solids of 130 mg/L. The effluent is to contain
5.0 mg/L of BODs and 30 mg/L of suspended solids. The plant is to operate at a MLVSS
of 2500 mg/L at a MCRT of 10 days. The ratio of BODs to suspended solids in the effluent
is 0.65. If the reactor is 5.5 m wide and 5.5 m deep, determine its length.
7-18. In Problem 7-17, determine the total BODs in the effluent.
Problems 355

7-19. The total BODs in the effluent is composed of the BOD of the residual substrate and the BOD
of the microbial cells. Analysis of the effluent shows that the total BODs is 30 mg/L and
the BODs corresponding to the microbial cells is 13.8 mg/L. Qo is equal to 10,000 m?/day;
[X,,] is equal to 10,000 mg/L; and Q,, is equal to 64 m?/day. The plant is to be operated at
an MCRT and NHRT of 10 days and 4 h, respectively. (a) If the influent to the bioreactor is
150 mg/L of BODs, what MLVSS should be maintained in the bioreactor to meet a BODs
value of 30 mg/L? (b) At what recirculation ratio is the plant to be operated? Use the kinetic
parameters of Problem 7-17.
7-20. A completely mixed activated sludge process is to be designed to treat 15,000° per day of
industrial waste containing 1250 mg/L of BODs. The permitting agency of the state requires
that the effluent be treated to a level of 30 mg/L. A treatability analysis found that a mean
cell residence time of 25 days is sufficient and that the unit could operate at a MLVSS of
6000 mg/L. Y = 0.07 g/g and the value of kg = 0.04 per day. The underflow concentration
is 10,000 mg/L. Calculate the volume of the reactor and the mass and volume of solids
wasted per day.
7-21. In Problem 7-20, what is the recirculation ratio?
7-22. (a) In Problem 7-20, if the recirculation ratio is set at 1.0, what will be the resulting MLVSS?
(b) What will be the resulting BODs at the effluent?
7-23. In Problem 7-20, what is the recirculation ratio that will make the effluent BODs = 0?
7-24. Describe three aerating devices used in wastewater treatment. Can the MLVSS be increased
without limit? Why?
7-25. The influent of 10,000 m3/day to a secondary reactor has a BODs of 150 mg/L. It is desired
to have an effluent total BODs of 30 mg/L with a BODs for the microbial cells of 13.8 mg/L,
an MLVSS of 3000 mg/L, and an underflow concentration of 10,000 mg/L. Using the kinetic
parameters used in Problem 7-17, calculate the volume of the reactor. What are the volume
and mass flows of sludge wasted per day?
7-26. A sewage flow of 6000 m*/day is to be treated using a facultative pond having a depth of
2 m and a surface area of 25 ha. The waste contains a soluble BODs of 160 mg/L and a
decay rate of 0.35 per day. What is the soluble BODs in the effluent?
7-27. For the reactor in Problem 7-25, what recirculation ratio is required to produce an effluent
BODs of zero?
7-28. The kinetic parameters Ks, (max, Y, and kg are determined using a bench-scale activated-
sludge reactor without recycle. The results are shown below. Determine the parame-
ters.

[So] [S] 0 [X]

Run (mg/L BODs) (mg/L BODs) (days) (mg VSS/L)

| 300 7 hall 127

2 300 12 Dell 126
3 300 19 hod 135
4 300 Sil Le 130

7-29. It is required to design an oxidation pond to treat 5000 m?/day of municipal sewage. Develop
design criteria. Using these criteria, size the pond.
356 Conventional Wastewater Treatment Chap. 7

7-30. A trickling filter 6 m in diameter and 3 m high is to be packed with filter medium high. If
the plant inflow Qo is 10,000 m>/day and the recirculation ratio is 1, which is more efficient,
a trickling filter with plastic packing or one with rock packing?
7-31. How much error is introduced by neglecting microbial film area at the edges of the disks
of an RBC? There are 40 modules used with disks measuring 3.7 m in diameter, 5 mm in
thickness, and spaced on the shaft at 30 mm apart. The length of the module is 7.6 m.
7-32. Examine the effect of recirculation ratios varying from 0 to 5 on a trickling filter process.
Assume that K’ = 0.25 m/day. When the recirculation ratio is zero, Qg/As = 7.0 m/day.
7-33. Calculate the dimensions of biotower units that will produce an effluent of 10 mg/L of soluble
BODs. The tower is to be composed of high-specific surface plastic medium and is to treat
the effluent of a primary clarifier with a BODs of 150 mg/L. The flow from the clarifier
is 20,000 m3/day. From a pilot-plant study, K’ was determined to be 0.117 m/day. Two
towers are to be used, each with a square surface and separated by a common wall and a
depth of 7.0 m. A recirculation ratio of 2 is to be used.
7-34. Design a biofilter to treat an average domestic flow rate of 9000 m°/day from a small
community in which is located a small vegetable cannery. The seasonal flow from the
cannery is 6000 m?/day which occurs from May to October. The average domestic BODs
is 215 mg/L and the combined domestic and cannery BODs is 560 mg/L. The average
low temperature from May to October is 22°C and the average low temperature during
the lowest-temperature month of January is 0O°C. The BODs removal constant at 25°C is
0.09 m/day with a temperature correction factor, 6, of 1.08. The specific filter area of the
packing material is 87.2 m?/m*. The effluent BOD; requirement is 30 mg/L. The height of
the tower is restricted to 11 m.
7-35. Determine the surface area of an RBC required to treat the wastewater of Problem 7-34. Use
the value K’ = 0.264 m/day. If the surface area A, per module is 10,000 m?, determine the
number of modules to be used.
7-36. The 6 value of a sample of wastewater tested at 25°C and at an elevation of 5000 ft is 0.94.
What would be its dissolved oxygen concentration at mean sea level at a temperature of
20°C?
7-37. A laboratory diffuser in an unsteady-state reaeration test releases air at the bottom of a tank
having a 4-m depth of water column. The results are shown below. Assume that 6B = 0.94,
r = 1.0 mg/L-h, and the plant elevation is 1000 ft. For practical purposes, assume that the
mass density of water is 1000 kg/m?. Calculate a.

Tap water at 5.5°C Wastewater at 25°C

Time (min) [C] (mg/L) Time (mg/L) [C] (mg/L)

3 0.5 3 0.9
9 Holl 9 2.4
15 Sa) 15 4.0
21 Poll 21 3:3)

7-38. Calculate the SOR for a fine-bubble diffuser aerator with w = 0.55. The depth of submer-
gence is to be 5 ft. The influent flow is 10,000 m*/day and has a BODs of 150 mg/L. It is
desired to have an effluent BODs of 5 mg/L, an MLVSS of 3000 mg/L, and an underflow
 Bibliography 357

concentration of 10,000 mg/L. The volume of the reactor is 1611 m? and 6 = 10 days.
Assume a f value of liquor of 0.90. The influent TKN is 25 mg/L and the desired effluent
NH3-N concentration is 5.0 mg/L. f = 0.7. The average temperature of the reactor is 25°C
and is operated at an average of 1.0 mg/L of dissolved oxygen.
7-39. (a) 10,000 m3/day of treated effluent is to be discharged through two separate diffuser pipes.
What depth of water is required to effect a dilution of 200? (b) If the treated effluent is to be
discharged through a manifold having 20 diffusers and a length of 12 m, what is the depth
required to effect the same degree of dilution? Assume that (pg — p)/p = 0.025. Draw
conclusions.
7-40. Determine the height zmax that the plume will rise to for a discharge of 0.02 m?/s-m.
The
density at the bottom of the ocean floor is 1024.28 kg/m?, and at a point 60 m from the
ocean floor, the density is 1025 kg/m. Assume that (pq — p)/p = 0.025. Also determine
S at this height.
7-41. Secondary-treated wastewater at 15°C is to be discharged into an estuary. Design a manifold
diffuser system using two ports to discharge 0.11 m*/s. Assume that the head available
between the last unit in the treatment plant and the first diffuser port is 7.62 m. Also,
assume that the length of the supply pipe is 122 m. Construct the hydraulic profile.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

APHA, AWWA, and WEF (1992). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater.
American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C.
Manopt, M. G., and B. A. BELL (1982). Oxidation Ditches in Wastewater Treatment. Ann Arbor
Science, Ann Arbor, Mich.
METCALF & Eppy, INc. (1991). Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, Disposal, Reuse. McGraw-
Hill, New York.
Monop, J. (1949). “The Growth of Bacterial Cultures.” Annual Review ofMicrobiology III.
RoBeRSON, J. A., J. J. Cassipy, and M. H. CHAuprRy (1988). Hydraulic Engineering. Houghton
Mifflin, Boston.
SawyYeEr, C. N. and P. L. McCarty (1978). Chemistry
for Environmental Engineers. McGraw-Hill,
New York.
SUBRAMANYA, K., and S. C. AwastHy (1970). “Discussion of the Paper by Vigander.” Journal of
the Hydraulics Division, ASCE, 102(HY5).
WALLACE, R. B., and S. J. WriGHT (1984). “Spreading Layer of Two-Dimensional Buoyant Jet.”
Journal of Hydraulic Division, ASCE, 110(6).
 CHAPTER 8

Sludge Treatment
and Disposal

A by-product in the treatment of wastewater is the huge volume of sludge that must
be disposed of. The problem of disposing sludge is complex because (1) it is largely
composed of the substances that make wastewater objectionable, (2) it is composed of
organic matter that can decompose making it objectionable, and (3) the sludge solid itself
is only a small portion of the total sludge, resulting in a large sludge volume with only
little solids to dispose of. Sludge contains only from 0.25 to 16% solids. To dispose
sludge economically, its volume must therefore be reduced. In this chapter we discuss
sludge treatment methods aimed at reducing its volume. For discussions on the chemistry
of aerobic and anaerobic decomposition, see Chapter 2.

OVERVIEW OF SLUDGE TREATMENT

Strictly, sludge treatment starts when water is settled in the sedimentation basin. There
are two methods of clarification: the first is the normal settling of solids as discussed in
Chapters 6 and 7 and the second is the process called flotation. After these clarification
steps, the sludge is withdrawn for further treatment.
Figure 8-la shows a generalized flow sheet for the various sludge treatment meth-
ods. At the bottom, flotation is indicated. Flotation is the reverse of settling. Instead of
settling down, solids settle up, so to speak. In this process, pressurized air is introduced
into the flotation tank, forming air bubbles. These bubbles make the solids adhere to them,
causing the solids to rise to the surface along with the air bubbles to form the floats. The

358
 sequence ‘| Solid—liquid Aerobie or
of processes | separation anaerobic Thickening Dewatering
processes digestion

Solid
concentration | ppm 6,000-60,000

Typical (1) Sedimentation (1) Gravity thickening (1) Vacuum filtration

processes |! (2) Flotation (2) Flotation thickening (2) Centrifugation
(3) Pressure filtration
(4) Bed drying

Pre-dewatering treatment:
(1) Chemical coagulation
(2) Heat treatment
(Porteus, Zimpro, and
Nichols processes)

(a)

(Qo + Or). X o,

OSeee
AJ
SZ SH Bex

Ks
25
<x
BS
<5<$<$
SHS
[KAZ
SOOS
x
=SS
ax
= RxYes%RSSoSNesMes
<

Solids conc., X

Thickened
sludge

Pressure
release
valve Ae
Effluent
injection

Air Recycle Effluent

saturation receiver
tank
Pressurizing
pump
(c)

Figure 8-1 Schematics of (a) flowsheet for various methods of sludge treatment; (b) grav-
ity thickener; (c) flotation plant.
360 Sludge Treatment and Disposal Chap. 8

floats are then skimmed off for further treatment. Sludges produced by clarification using
sedimentation and flotation are approximately 0.5 to 5% solids.
Next to sedimentation and flotation are the processes of thickening. The aim of
thickening is to expel additional water to increase the percent solids content of the sludge,
hence thickening it. The production of so much percent solids in normal sedimentation
or flotation for clarifying water is, in fact, due to the thickening at the bottom of the
sedimentation basin or surface of the flotation tank. In general, there are two methods
of thickening: gravity and flotation thickening. Flotation thickening is the same flotation
process discussed above, only this time, the aim is solely thickening, without regard to
clarification. Gravity thickening relies on gravity to pull down the solids. As the sludge
settles, the percent solids content is increased by expulsion of water from the sludge
matrix due to compression and consolidation. Water expulsion is also aided by vertical
studs mounted on a revolving bottom scraper. The studs cause agitation in the sludge,
helping to release the water the sludge traps due to its flocculent structure.
Figure 8-1b may be considered as a schematic section of a gravity thickener or
secondary clarifier. Gravity thickeners operate in much the same way as the secondary
clarifier used to settle sludge from the biological reactor. The major difference between
the two is that the aim of the secondary clarifier is to clarify the effluent liquor from
the reactor, while the aim of the gravity thickener is to thicken the sludge. Thickening
that can occur at the bottom of the clarifier is only of secondary importance, although it
generally controls the design. Thickeners are normally deeper than secondary clarifiers,
providing more volume to accommodate sludge. As indicated in the drawing, the solids
concentration increases from top to bottom of the thickener. Thickening can increase the
percent solids 2 to 15%. After thickening, or in some cases, before thickening, the sludge
may be subjected to either aerobic or anaerobic digestion. In aerobic digestion, a large
portion of the VSS is converted to CO2, NH3, and H», while in anaerobic digestion, a
large portion of this VSS is converted to CO2, CH4, and small quantities of H2S and Ho.
Hence, in digestion, the sludge is largely reduced in volume, this in addition to effecting
stabilization, making the sludge less offensive.
Figure 8-2a shows the schematic section of a conventional anaerobic digester. The
section is divided into several zones: the gas dome, where the product gas is collected
for withdrawal; the scum layer, where the undigested portions float to the top, forming
the scum; the supernatant, which is the water from the sludge introduced and the water
from the reaction; the active layer, where the anaerobic reaction takes place; and the
stabilized solids zone, where the digested sludge is stored temporarily.
A high-rate anaerobic digester is depicted in Figure 8-2b. This digester is char-
acterized by a level of sludge loading higher than that of a conventional digestor, with
the incorporation of mixing. Since mixing is incorporated, the zones of the conventional
digester are not established. The gas dome, however, is still present. Anaerobic digesters
may be designed to operate in two stages. The first stage would be the high-rate stage;
the second would be similar to that in the conventional digester in that separation of the
supernatant and digested sludge takes place here.
Thickening tay be done before or after digestion. Which one precedes the other
would depend on specific circumstances and should be investigated. However, since
 Gas withdrawal Gas withdrawal

Gas
dome

Scum layer

Supernatant

Active layer

QO
ne Qes

Solids removal Outlet

(a) (b)

» Form time, ty

Slurry tank == Dry time a,

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Underdrain
piping
(d)

Figure 8-2 (a) Conventional digester; (b) high-rate digester (c); vacuum filter;
(d) sludge-drying bed.

361
362 Sludge Treatment and Disposal Chap. 8

digestion takes longer than the detention time of a thickener, the volume of the digester
would be much, much smaller when put after the thickener than when put before it.
Although this arrangement is more economical, there are installations in which digesters
are put ahead of thickeners! (see Figure 8-1).
Thickened and digested sludges may be further reduced in volume by dewatering.
Various dewatering operations are used, including vacuum filtration, centrifugation, pres-
sure filtration, belt filters, and bed drying. In vacuum filtration, a drum wrapped in filter
cloth rotates slowly while the lower portion is submerged in a sludge tank (Figure 8-2).
A vacuum applied to the underside of the drum sucks the sludge into the filter cloth, sep-
arating the filtrate and thus dewatering the sludge. In centrifugation, centrifugal action
is used to force the solids toward the sides of a rotating bowl, thus separating them from
the supernate, which stays at the center of the bowl (Figure 8-3). A rotating mechanism
scrapes the solids from the side of the bowl for discharge through an outlet port, while
the supernate at the center discharges through another port. In pressure filtration, which
operates in a cycle, the sludge is pumped through the unit, forcing its way into filter
plates wrapped in filter cloths (Figure 8-3). The plates are held in place by filter frames.
As the sludge is forced through the plates, the filtrate passes through the filter cloth, leav-
ing the solids on the cloth to accumulate in the recess of the frames. As determined by
the cycle, the press is opened to remove the accumulated and dewatered sludge. In belt
filter operation, sludges are put on belts, where they are allowed to dewater by gravity,
application of pressure, or by capillary action. In the application of pressure, the sludge
is sandwiched between two belts (Figure 8-3), which apply pressure. In capillary action,
the sludge on a screen belt is placed over a second belt capable of delivering a capillary
action on the sludge (Figure 8-3). The second belt is actually made of a spongy material
that sucks water from the sludge, thereby dewatering it. Bed drying is an operation where
the sludge is put on sand beds (Figure 8-2). The filtrate is then allowed to drain through
the bed and be collected in underdrain pipings. To avoid the effects of the elements, it
is best to enclose the beds in some housing. Both enclosed and open sludge-drying beds
are used in practice.
Frequently, dewatering of sludges is difficult, especially when gelatinous. For ex-
ample, it is extremely difficult to dewater gelatinous sludges using vacuum filtration.
Pre-dewatering treatment is therefore recommended. Figure 8-1 indicates two methods
of pre-dewatering: chemical coagulation and heat treatment using the Porteus, Zimpro,
and Nichols processes. The coagulants normally used are FeCl3, lime, and polyelec-
trolytes. Coagulation treatment may be preceded by elutriation, which removes much
of the alkalinity, thus reducing the amount of chemicals needed. The Porteus process
involves wet oxidation of sludge by dissolved oxygen under a steam pressure of 180 to
210 psig and a temperature of 290 to 390°F. With a detention time in the reactor of about
30 min, an 80 to 90% oxidation of organic matter is accomplished in this process. The
Zimpro process is similar to the Porteus process but air (rather than steam) is injected
at a pressure of 150 to 300 psig at a maximum operating temperature of 300 to 600°F.

'W. Viessman, Jr., and M. J. Hammer (1993). Water Supply and Pollution Control. Harper & Row, New
York, p. 647.
 |
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 364 Sludge Treatment and Disposal Chap. 8

This process can also accomplish 80 to 90% oxidation of organic matter. The Nichols
process is a simple thermomechanical system whereby no air or steam is added but the
sludge is simply heated to temperatures of 395°F for a period of 30 min. This is enough
to destroy the gelatinous nature of the sludge, making it amenable to dewatering. Of
course, oxidation of the sludge is negligible, if it occurs.
Tables 8-1 to 8-8 relate to the various parameters of sludge.

TABLE 8-1 SPECIFIC GRAVITIES OF SLUDGE SOLIDS AND

SLUDGES FROM VARIOUS PROCESSES

Treatment processes Sludge solids Sludge

Activated sludge (waste sludge) 3} 1.00

Aerated lagoon (waste sludge) te 1.01
Chemical addition to primary clarifiers
for phosphorus removal
Low lime (350-500 mg/L) 2.0 1.04
High lime (800-1600 mg/L) 2.0 1.05
Extended aeration (waste sludge) ihe) 1.02
Primary sedimentation 1.4 1.02
Trickling filter (waste sludge) IES 1.03
Algae removal ee 1.01
Suspended-growth denitrification 2 1.01
Roughing filters 3 1.02

MASS-VOLUME RELATIONSHIPS

As shown in the preceding tables, the mass and volume of sludge depend largely on the
water content. Letting P, be the fraction of solids, 1 — P, will be the fraction of water.
The relationship of the two fractions to the mass of the sludge My, is

Mse P;Mse el a P)Mse

= + (8-1)
S;e(1000) S; (1000) 1000
Solving for S; gives

- Ps Sse 8 2

Sag = ee
where S,¢ is the specific gravity of the sludge and S, is the specific gravity of the sludge
solids. If M, is the mass of solids, the volume of sludge ¥,, is

M, Ms
Ve =
1000S,¢ P,
=
1000S,¢
(8-3)
During the sludge digestion, volatile solids are those acted upon and hence the
ones that disappear. The fixed solids are inert to the reaction, and for a given amount of
original sludge, they remain after digestion.
Mass—Volume Relationships 365

TABLE 8-2 EXPECTED SLUDGE SOLIDS PERCENT CONCENTRATIONS FROM

VARIOUS PROCESSES

Process Range Typical

Secondary settling tank

Waste activated sludge with primary settling 0.5-1.5 0.7
Waste activated sludge without primary settling 0.8-2.5 3
Pure-oxygen activated sludge with primary settling 1.3-3 2
Pure-oxygen activated sludge without primary settling 1.4-4 3
Trickling filter humus sludge 1-3 2
Primary settling tank
Primary sludge 4—10 6
Primary sludge to a cyclone 0.5-3 2
Primary and waste activated sludge 3-10 4
Primary and trickling filter humus 4-10 5
Primary sludge with iron addition for phos- 5-15 8
phorus removal
Primary sludge with low lime addition for 2-8 5
phosphorus removal
Primary sludge with high lime addition for 4-16 10
phosphorus removal
Scum 3-12 6
Gravity thickener
Primary sludge 6-12 8
Primary and waste activated sludge 3-12 5)
Primary and trickling filter humus 4-10 5
Flotation thickener
Waste activated sludge 3-6 4
Anaerobic digester
Primary sludge 5-12 6
Primary and waste activated sludge 3-8 +
Primary and trickling filter humus 3-8 4
Aerobic digester
Primary sludge 3-7 4
Waste activated sludge 1-3 |
Waste activated and primary sludge 20-4 3

TABLE 8-3 COMPARISON OF THICKENED AND UNTHICKENED SLUDGES AND

SPECIFIC SOLIDS LOADING RATE TO GRAVITY THICKENERS

Specific solids
Solids concentration (%)
loading rate
Type of sludge Unthickened Thickened (kg/m?-day)

Separate
Activated sludge 1-3 1-4 20-45
Pure-oxygen sludge 1-4 2-5 30-50
Primary sludge 4-12 7-12 120-150
Trickling filter sludge 1-3 4—10 45-50
Combined
Primary and trickling filter sludge 4-12 4—] D) 70-100
Primary and air-activated sludge 3-10 3-12 50-90
366 Sludge Treatment and Disposal Chap. 8

TABLE 8-4 SPECIFIC SOLIDS LOADING RATE FOR

DISSOLVED-AIR FLOTATION UNITS

Type of sludge Loading (kg/m?-day)

Air activated sludge (mixed-liquor) 30-80

Air activated sludge (settled) 60-100
Pure-oxygen activated sludge (settled) 50-170
50% primary + 50% activated sludge 100—200
(settled)
Primary to 270

TABLE 8-5 DESIGN CRITERIA FOR AEROBIC DIGESTERS

Parameter Value

Hydraulic detention time (days at 20°C)

Waste activated sludge 10-15
Activated sludge without primary 10-15
settling
Primary plus activated or trickling 15-20
filter sludge
Specific solids loading rate (kg VS/m?-day) 1.5-4.5
Oxygen requirement (kg/kg BODs destroyed) 1.5—20
Energy requirements for SL
Mechanical aerators (kW/10°m3) 20—40
Air mixing (m?/10°m?-min) 20—40
Dissolved oxygen level in liquid (mg/L) 1-2

TABLE 8-6 EXPECTED PERFORMANCE OF VACUUM FILTERS

Yield Cake
Type of sludge (kg/m*-h) solids (%)

Fresh solids
Primary 20-50 30
Primary and trickling filter 25-35 2S)
Primary and air activated 20-25 20
Primary and oxygen activated 20-30 2D
Air activated 15—20 20
Pure-oxygen activated 15-20 20
Digested sludge (with or without elutriation)
Primary 25-35 2)
Primary and trickling filter 20-25 20
Primary and air activated 20-25 15
Primary and oxygen activated 25-30 20
Mass—Volume Relationships 367

TABLE 8-7 EXPECTED PERFORMANCE OF

SOLID-BOWL CENTRIFUGES

Type of sludge Cake solids (%)

Untreated
Primary 30
Primary and trickling filter 20
Primary and air activated IS
Trickling filter IS
Air activated 10
Pure-oxygen activated 15
Digested
Primary 30
Primary and trickling filter 20
Primary and air activated I)

TABLE 8-8 TYPICAL AREA REQUIREMENTS FOR OPEN SLUDGE-DRYING

BEDS

Specific sludge
Area loading rate
Type of sludge (m?/10°) persons (kg solids/m?-yr)

Primary digested 100-140 130-210

Primary and humus digested 100-170 110-150
Primary and activated digested 150-280 50-100
Primary and chemically precipitated 180-240 110-150

Example 8-1
Determine the volume of sludge before and after digestion and the percent reduction for
600 kg of primary sludge solids with the characteristics shown in the following table. As-
suming that the digested sludge can be further dewatered to 30% solids, how much more
percent reduction in volume will be realized?

Primary Digested

Solids (%) 5 10
VS (%) 3) 90% of original
VS destroyed
Sp. gravity 1.01 1.04
 368 Sludge Treatment and Disposal Chap. 8

Solution
: M, 600 — 11.88 m> Answer
© 1000S,eP, 1000(1.01)(0.05)
Fixed solids = 600(1.0 — 0.55) = 270 kg

Total solids in digested sludge = 270 + 600(0.55)(0.1) = 303 kg

303 3
ig
Volume of digested sludge
sludge = 1000(1.04)(0.1) =2.91m° Answer

; 11.88 — 2.91
% reduction = en = 75.51% Answer

Po Site 0.1(1.04)
Ss = 1.625
Si=sya= eb) T1040)
Mse Ps Mse d ap Ps)Mse
apply this to the dewatered digested sludge
Sse(1000) — S,(1000) | 1000
1 0.3
— = —— + (1 — 0.3): Sse of the dewatered sludge = 1.13
Sse 1.625
Assuming the contents of the solids filtrate to be negligible, the volume of dewatered sludge is
303
= 0Seane
1000(1.13)(0.3)
Thus
11.88 — 0.88
% reduction 71.88 (100) = 92.6%

additional % reduction = 92.6 — 75.51 = 17.09 Answer

SECONDARY CLARIFICATION AND GRAVITY THICKENING

As mentioned earlier, thickening starts in the settling tank (and in the flotation tank). For
this reason, secondary clarification was not discussed in Chapter 7 but was postponed until
this chapter. Sludges resulting from trickling filters and other attached-growth processes
are very different from those obtained from the activated sludge reactor. Trickling filter
sludges behave more like primary sludges; the design of the secondary clarifier for
trickling filter solids is therefore similar to primary sedimentation design. This design
has already been discussed; in this chapter we discuss only design of secondary clarifiers
for the activated sludge process.
The sole purpose of secondary clarification is to remove the biological flocs. How-
ever, coincident with the process is the inevitable thickening that occurs at the bottom of
the tank. Hence the secondary clarifier performs two important functions: clarification
and thickening. Figure 8-1b may be considered a schematic section of either a secondary
clarifier or a thickener. As shown, there are four zones: A, B, C, and D. Zone A is the
clarification zone. In zone B the concentration of the solids is constant, as indicated by
X, the biosolids coming out of the bioreactor [X]. Since the concentration is constant
Secondary Clarification and Gravity Thickening 369

throughout, settling in this zone is called zone settling. In zone C the concentration varies
from low to high in going from the upper to the lower part of the zone. This is where
thickening occurs. In zone D, the concentration is constant, again; the concentration in
this zone is called the underflow concentration and is the concentration that is withdrawn
from the bottom of the tank.
In sizing a secondary clarifier, the clarifier and the thickener functions are addressed.
In the gravity thickener, although there is also some clarification, the thickening function
is the major design parameter. In designing the clarifier portion of the clarifier, the
subsidence velocity of zone B must be determined. This is modeled by allowing a
sample to settle in a cylinder and following the movement of the interface between zones
A and B over time. This subsidence velocity is equated to the overflow velocity to size
the clarifier area A,.
The design of the thickener area considers zone C. As indicated, the concentration
of solids in this zone is variable. Hence the behavior of the solids is modeled by
making several dilutions of the sludge to conform to the several concentrations in the
zone. The ultimate aim of the experiment is to be able to determine the solids loading
into the thickener zone. The experiment is similar to that of the clarifier design except
that several concentrations are modeled in this instance, and it is the relation between
subsidence velocity and concentration that is sought. When the velocity is multiplied by
the concentration, the result is the solids loading called the solids flux, the parameter that
sizes the thickener portion.
Performing a material balance at any elevation section of the thickener area, two
solid fluxes must be accounted for: the flux due to the gravity settling of the solids and
the flux due to the conveyance effect of the withdrawal of the sludge in the underflow
of the tank. Calling the total flux G,, the gravity flux V.[X.], and the conveyance flux
V,,[X.-], the material balance equation is

G, = Ve[Xe] + VulXe] (8-4)

where V, is the subsidence velocity at the section of the thickening zone, [X,] the solids
concentration at the section, and V, is the underflow velocity computed at the section
as Q,,/A,, where Q, is the underflow rate of flow and A, is the thickener area at the
elevation section considered. Some value of this flux G;, is the one that will be used to
design the thickener area and therefore must be determined.
Because the solids concentration in the thickening zone is variable, G, in the zone
is also variable. Of these several values of G,, there is only one value that would
make the solids loading at the corresponding elevation section equal to the rate of with-
drawal of sludge in the underflow. This particular G; value is called the limiting flux
G.,, since it is the one flux that corresponds to the underflow withdrawal rate. Since
G,« corresponds to the rate of sludge withdrawal, the thickener area determined by it
will be the thickener area for design. At the limiting flux condition, equation (8-4) is
revised to

GieA; = QulXu] = VelXce]Ar + VulXcelAi (8-5)

370 Sludge Treatment and Disposal Chap. 8

where € is added as an index to emphasize the limiting condition. Dividing all throughout
by A; gives

Gre = V, [X,,] — Ve[Xce] + Vy [Xe] (8-6)

In equation (8-6), several values of V,[X,] will result, corresponding to the various
combinations of the values of V., X,c, and V,. The smallest of these values is the one
chosen for design. Solving for V,,, we obtain

peace (8-7)
[X,,] = [Xce]

Having determined G,,;, the thickener area A, can be determined as follows:

A;
— (Qo + Ox)[XI (8-8)
Gx
where Qo is the effluent flow from the primary clarifier to the reactor and Q, is the
recirculation flow. Qo + Re is also the total flow to the clarifier or thickener. A, is then
compared with the clarifier area A. and the larger of the two chosen for the design. For
gravity thickeners, A; is used automatically.
Example 8-2
The activated sludge bioreactor facility of a certain plant is to be expanded. The results of
a settling cylinder test of the existing bioreactor suspension are as follows:

MLSS (mg/L) LATOR 221055 3000 35005 4500 5210) 6510 8210

V. (m/h) PROS, 1.81 E20 O79 046 Ss 026 OD 01084

Qo + Op is 10,000 m>?/day and the influent MLSS is 3500 mg/L. Determine the size of the
clarifier that will thicken the sludge to 10,000 mg/L of underflow concentration.

Solution
evr
js [Xi] = [Xce]

MLSS (mg/L) [AOR 2210 S000 So 00 45 00M 2 OMe GonOme tO

V.. (m/h) PROS 1.81 1.20 0.79 0.46 0.26 0.12 0.084

V,, (m/h) 0.48 0.51 Oro 0.43 0.38 0.28 022557039

Vi [Xu] 4809 5100 5100 4300 3800 2800 2200 3900

(m/h)-(mg/L)

The smallest V,[X,] is 2200 (m/h)-(mg/L); Thus G;¢ = 2200 (m/h)-(mg/L) (Note: To be
more accurate, V,,[X,] may be plotted against MLSS and the minimum V,,[X,,] obtained
Secondary Clarification and Gravity Thickening 371

from the curve. The other way to have more accurate results is to make the MLSS values
much closer to each other.)

_ (Qo + Or)[X]} _ (10,000/24)(3500)

At = 662.88 m2
ic Gre a 2200
For an MLSS of 3500, 0.79 m/h. Assuming that the solids content in the effluent is negligible,
the solids content in the underflow is

10,000(3.5) = 35,000 kg/day = 1458.33 kg/h

Thus
1458.33
O,= = 145.83 m°/h
10
10,000 4
One — 145.83 = 270.84 m>/h
270.84 2 )
c= = 342.83 m? < 662.88 m*
0.79
Thus the thickening function controls and the area of the thickener is 662.88 m2. Answer

Flotation

As mentioned before, flotation may be used in lieu of the normal clarification by solids-
downward-flow sedimentation basins. It can also be used for thickening. The mathe-
matical treatments for both flotation clarification and flotation thickening are the same.
Referring to Figure 8-Ic, the dissolved air concentration Cay,; of the wastewater in the
air saturation tank is
1& P
Caw,t = PCasw.t.sp- 5 = PP Cast.spp (8-9)

where f is the fraction of saturation achieved (0.5 to 0.8), Casw,t,sp 18 the dissolved
air saturation value of wastewater in the air saturation tank (at temperature equal to the
wastewater temperature in the tank and at standard barometric pressure P,), and P is the
pressure in the tank. Cy,;.;, 18 the dissolved air saturation value of tap water or distilled
water (at the temperature of the wastewater in the saturation tank and pressure P,). Cast,sp
can be obtained from the corresponding value for oxygen (C;;,.») by multiplying C,;,5) by
(28.84)/[0.21(32)], where 28.84 is the molecular weight of air, 0.21 is the mole fraction
of oxygen in air, and 32 is the molecular weight of oxygen. Hence

Cast,sp =F 4.29Cst,sp (8-10)

The total amount of air introduced into the flotation tank comes from the air sat-
uration tank and from the influent feed (sludge feed in Figure 8-1). The air from the
influent feed is QoCasw,o,spPa/P;, where P, is the barometric pressure of operation of
the flotation unit and Cgsw,0,sp 18 the dissolved air saturation value of the wastewater in
Qo (at the temperature of Qo and standard barometric pressure P;). Qo0Casw,o,spPa/Ps
is also equal to Op BCaso,spPa/Ps, where Caso,sp 1s the dissolved air saturation value of
372 Sludge Treatment and Disposal Chap. 8

tap water at the temperature of Qo and P,. Hence the total air Ain is
Ve bey
Aan —= ROP B Cast. sp =f QoPCaso. sr (8-1 1)

where R is the recycle ratio. Substituting equation (8-10) into equation (8-11),
4,29
Ain = AAP (RF Coney? el Cso,sp Pa) (8-12)

where C,,_;, is the tap water oxygen saturation value at standard condition pressure of P;
and temperature of the air saturation tank, and C,,.,, 1s the tap water oxygen saturation
value at standard condition pressure of P, and temperature of the influent feed. P, is
equal to 760 mmHg, | atm of pressure, 101,330 N/m’, and so on, depending on the
system of units used.
As the pressurized flow from the air saturation tank is released into the flotation
unit, the pressure reduces to atmospheric, P,. It would be accurate to assume that the
condition at this point in the flotation unit is saturation at the prevailing temperature and
pressure. Hence, after pressure release, the remaining dissolved air Ao is
_ 4.290ob
Ao P (RCoo, sp he = Cs0,sp-Pa) (8-13)

and the air utilized for flotation is Aj; — Ap = Aysea; OF

4.29
Aused — AAEOE RUF Car apP os Cso,sp Pa) (8-14)

The solids in the influent is Q9Co, where Co is the suspended solids influent con-
centration. The air used/solids ratio A/S is then
Aused mal 4.29BRUf Cst,.spP a Gso.sp Pa)
A/S = (8215)
QoCo PsCo
For operations without recycle, QoR is simply Qo. From this, equation (8-15) becomes

Aused hy 4.29B(f Cst,spP ry Cso,sp P,)

1a i (8-16)
QoCo P.Co

Laboratory determination of design parameters. To design a flotation unit, the

overflow area, the pressure in the air saturation tank, and the recirculation ratio must
be determined. The overflow velocity needed to estimate the overflow area may be
determined in the laboratory. Figure 8-4a shows a laboratory flotation device. A sample
of the sludge is put in the pressure tank and pressurized. The tank is then shaken to ensure
that the sludge is saturated with air under the corresponding pressure. The pressure and
temperature readings in the tank are noted. A valve leading to the flotation cylinder is
then opened to allow the pressurized sludge to flow into the cylinder. The rate of rise of
the sludge interface in the flotation cylinder is followed with respect to time; this gives
the rise velocity. This is equated to the overflow velocity to compute the overflow area.
The value of the air saturation tank pressure and the recirculation ratio may be
designed depending on the A/S ratio to be employed in the operation of the plant. This
 Secondary Clarification and Gravity Thickening 373

Feed tube and gas sampling cock

Withdrawal tube !

Mixer Gas collection tube

Digester
TUTE
Compressed
iat
a aul Aspirator
bottle

Rubber tubing —>-

Flotation Pressure
cylinder tank
(a) (b)

Vacuum gage
Biichner funnel >|
ae
Filter paper ——>— vacuum pump Direction
Vacuum gage ~<— of flow of
slurry

To —<— Rubber Gi
vacuum pump
Clamp 1000

face
Upstream
cake
of
Graduated Leaf test
cylinder

Sludge Flask

(Cc) (d) (e)

Figure 8-4 (a) Laboratory flotation device. (b) Laboratory anaerobic digester setup.
(c) Btichner funnel filtration assembly. (d) Leaf filter assembly. (e) Mechanics of cake
filtration.

A/S ratio, in turn, is determined by the laboratory flotation experiment just described. A
sample of subnatant is taken from the bottom of the flotation cylinder and the clarity or
turbidity determined. Hence, by performing several runs for different values of A/S, cor-
responding values of clarity will be obtained, thereby producing a relationship between
374 Sludge Treatment and Disposal Chap. 8

A/S and clarity. The A/S corresponding to the desired clarity is then chosen for the
design calculations.
In performing the laboratory float experiment, no recirculation is used. Hence the
formula to be used to compute the A/S ratio is equation (8-16). Ensuring during the
experiment that the pressure tank is fully saturated, f can be considered unity.
Example 8-3
A laboratory experiment is performed to obtain the air to solids ratio A/S to be used in the
design of a flotation unit. The pressure gage reads 40 psig and the temperature of the sludge
and the subnatant in the flotation cylinder is 20°C. The prevailing barometric pressure is
14.6 psi. The total solids in the sludge is 10,000 mg/L and f was originally determined to
be 0.95. Determine the A/S ratio.

Solution

alg = 429B AFCstispP = CsorspPa)

/ i P;Co

Cst,sp at 20°C = 9.08 mg/L

Cso,sp at 0G 9108 mg/L

Nig 4.29(0.95) [( [(1)(9.08)(40

4.29(0.95) )(9.08)(40 ++ 14.6) ) — 9.08(14.6
( )] Bry O1OMRATEN TS
14.7(10,000)

Example 8-4
It is desired to thicken an activated sludge liquor from 3000 mg/L to 4% using a flotation
thickener. A laboratory study indicated that an A/S ratio of 0.010 is optimal for this design.
The subnatant flow rate was determined to be 8 L/m?-min. The barometric pressure is
assumed to be the standard of 14.7 psi and the design temperature is to be 20°C. Assume
that f = 0.5 and B = 0.95. The sludge flow rate is 400 m?/day. Design the thickener with
and without recycle.

Solution (a) Without recycle:

4.296 (Coie? a. Coote ra)

ALS =
PsrCo

4.29(0.95)[(0.5)9.08P — 9.08(14.7)] ,
0.010 = ASA 14.7(3,000) P ==29.429.4 psia
ps Answer

Assuming that the solids content in the subnatant is negligible, the solids constant in the
float is

3.0(400) = 1200 kg/day

4% solids = 40,000 mg/L = 40 kg/m?
1200
float rate of flow, O, = an ==) m>/day

subnatant flow, Q. = 400 — 30 = 370 m3/day

subnatant flow area, A; =

370
=3212m A
8 (10-3) (60) (24) eae Sen
 Aerobic Digestion 375

(b) With recycle: Use the same operating pressure of 38.53 psia.

i AOE RAC seep E a Corer ra)

ALS =
Pst Co

4.29(0.95)(R)(0.5) [9.08(38.53) — 9.08(14.

0.010 = : MO) ( sa R=1 Answer
14.7(3000)

2(400) — 30
Subnatant flow area, Ay = = 66.84 m* Answer
8(10-4)(60)(24)
Note: This example shows that recycling is of no use. It increases the overflow area and it
needs additional piping for the recycling.

AEROBIC DIGESTION

The principles involved in aerobic digestion are very similar to that in the activated sludge
process; the only difference is that the microorganisms in the digestion process are being
starved and, in fact, cannibalizing each other, while in the activated sludge process, they
are being fed. Hence since no food is being “served,” Mmax{[S]/Ks + [S]}[X]V is equal
to zero and the conservation equation is simply (see Chapter 7).

a a[xX]
—kg[X]V = an) Wears {—Qo| Xo] as (Qo a Ow) [Xe] a7 Q~[X,]} (B=il7))

At steady state, equation (8-17) may be solved for ky, obtaining

aes [X]V
(8-18)
ka Ool Xo] vz (Qo a Ow) [Xe] - Ov[Xo)

(Qo — Ow)[X-] is equal to Q.[X.], where Q, is the effluent discharge flow and
Q,,[X,,] is equal to zero (no sludge wasting in the recycle flow, since there is no recycle).
Thus equation (8-18) becomes

yo =, [X]V e
Aq (8-19)
ka OolXol — O-[Xe])
By analogy with 6,., which is called the mean cell retention time (MCRT), call 6, the
mean cell destruction time (MCDT), which is the time it takes to digest the cell in the
digester. For a given sample of wastewater, MCDT may be obtained by performing an
aerobic digestion experiment.
The oxygen requirement may be determined by performing an oxygen uptake rate
along with the digestion experiment. This will involve putting the sample in a bottle,
aerating it, and following the decrease in the concentration of the dissolved oxygen in
the bottle with time.
376 Sludge Treatment and Disposal Chap. 8

Example 8-5
Aerobic digestion and oxygen uptake experiments are performed producing the results below.
Estimate the MCDT for a 90% destruction of the VSS and the average oxygen requirement.

Time of VSS remaining

aeration (days) (mg/L) r (mg/L-hr)

0 5550 —
1 5190 34.0
2 4940 OTA0)
5) 4410 18
8 4159 15
10 3861 11.8
15 3490 7.8
20 3250 Sod
DS 3190 4.0

Solution
20 3250 52 x — 3190 a 0 — 4.0
a Bd 3190
= 3250) 8 4.0252
US 3190 4.0
2 x 0 x = 2990 mg/L — nonbiodegradable VSS

Hence revise the table to show the biodegradable VSS by subtracting 2990 from the respec-
tive VSS.

Biodegradable
Time of aeration (days) | VSS remaining (mg/L) —_r (mg/L-hr)

0 2560 =
| 2200 34.0
2 1950 AAW)
5 1420 18
8 1169 15
10 871 11.8
15 500 7.8
20 260 a2
25 200 4.0

For 90% destruction, biodegradable VSS remaining = 0.1(2560) = 256 mg/L. Hence
ip == BY 256 — 260
20 260 na
25—20 200 — 260
eee) ©)
aS KYO) x = 20.33 days =MCDT Answer
Aerobic Digestion 377

Time of aeration (days) 7 (mg/L-hr) At Page (NRxe

0 =
| 34.0
2 27.0 1 B80 30.5
> 18 3 Doe dS
8 15 3) 16.5 49.5
10 11.8 2 13.4 26.8
15 7.8 5 9.8 49.0
20.33 Se D3) 6.5 34.65

a. 1933 ZSVED

Thus
: YTD
oxygen requirement = = 13.34 mg/L-h Answer
19333
Example 8-6
Using the values obtained in Example 8-5, calculate the volume of the digester and the
oxygen requirement to digest 6000 Ib/day of volatile sludge solids. Assume that 3500 mg/L
of average MLVSS is to be maintained in the digester.
Solution =
[X]V
= Od
Qo([Xo] ae Qe[Xe]

6000 Ib/day = 6000(454) = 2,724,000 g/day = 2724 kg/day

From the data of Example 8-5, fraction biodegradable VSS = | — 2990/5550 = 0.46. For
90% destruction,
Oo({Xo] — Oe[Xe] = 2724(0.46)(0.9) = 1127.74 kg/day
Thus
3.5V
= 20.33 V = 6550.56 m> Answer
1127.74
Determine average laboratory VSS:

Time of aeration (days) VSS (mg/L) At Wows AWOAS Same)

0 = = = =
| 500) — — —
2 4,940 | 5,065 5,065
5 4,410 3) 4.675 14,025
8 4,159 3} 4,284.5 WAS) 3h55
10 3,861 4,010 8,020
15 3,490 5 3NOUD5) Is SH
20.33 3,250 S33} Ae) 17,962.1

y 19.33 76,303.
 378 Sludge Treatment and Disposal Chap. 8

Thus
7653031
average VSS = ———
19.33 = 3947.39 mg/L
g

13.34
specific oxygen utilization rate = (3500) = 11.83 mg/L-h
3947.39
oxygen requirement = 11.83(6550.56)(1000) = 1.86(10”) mg/day

= 1859.53 kg/day Answer

ANAEROBIC DIGESTION

In the design of the anaerobic digester, equation (8-18) may be modified as follows:
Referring to Figure 8-2 for the conventional anaerobic digester, Q,, may be considered
as the rate of flow of the digested sludge from the active layer zone toward the stabilized
solids zone. Designating Q, as Qs, and [X,,] and [X,,], the MCDT for the anaerobic
digester may then be written as

A4
“i [XIV (8-20)
[Oreo aA
The MCDT 6, may be determined, experimentally, by performing an anaerobic
digestion experiment using a setup similar to that shown in Figure 8-4b. As indicated
by the gas collection tube, the stopping of the gas production signals the end of the
digestion period. Data similar to those collected for the aerobic digester may be gath-
ered and the size of the digester determined (see examples of aerobic digester calcula-
tions).
In the design of the conventional anaerobic digester (also called the standard-rate
digester), provision can be made to store digested sludge temporarily at the bottom of
the tank. This is not the same as the aerobic digester, or the high-rate anaerobic digester,
where no storage can be made since the tank contents are mixed. The total volume of
the active layer and the stabilized solids zone of the standard-rate digester V,; may be
estimated as
aie OKs
V, = fora, +> Oset3 (8-21)

=V+ Ositr

V can also be calculated from equation (8-20) and f is the digested sludge storage
detention time.
In a two-stage high-rate digester, the first stage is where the reaction takes place and
the volume may be calculated using equation (8-20) with Q,, equals zero. The second
stage is used for dewatering and storage and the volume may be calculated using the first
of equations (8-21). Of course, in this instance, Q,, is not equal to zero. A digester is
shown in Figure 8-5.
Anaerobic Digestion 379

Figure 8-5 Digesters at Back River sewage treatment plant, Baltimore, Mary-
land.

Example 8-7
A total of 6000 Ib/day of VSS at a flow rate of 80 m°/day is to be anaerobically digested.
The results of a laboratory digestion study show an MCDT of 10 days. The biodegradable
fraction of the VSS is 46%, of which it is desired to destroy 90%. The VSS is 70% of the
total solids. The digested sludge is 5% solids at a specific gravity of 1.02. Using a two-stage
high-rate digester system, compute the total volume required, excluding gas, supernatant, and
scum volume storage. Assume a mean MLVSS of 3500 mg/L, a dewatering time of 3 days,
and a sludge storage detention time of 90 days.

Solution Calculate the first-stage volume:

Og
[XIV
~ QolXo] = QelXe] — Osi[Xse]
6000 Ib/day = 2724 kg/day

QolXo] — Qe[XKe] — Osr [X57] = 2724(0.46) (0.9) = 1127.74 kg/day

Sly 3
MQ) = Vie
22 2a em:
1127.74
Calculate the second-stage volume:

— Qo+ Ost
V, Og + O 5/12
a )
 380 Sludge Treatment and Disposal Chap. 8

2724
digested sludge solids = 2724(1 — 0.46) + 2724(0.46)(0.1) + hehe 2724

= 2763.69 kg/day

Os = es
eA 54.19 m3/day
*
1.02(1000) (0.05)
4,
ee= 1 (3)+ 54,19(90) = 5078.39 m?
3
total volume = 3222.11 + 5078.39 = 8300.50 m” Answer

Example 8-8
Solve Example 8-7 using a standard-rate anaerobic digester. Assume that MCDT = 30 days
to produce the same quality of digested sludge.

Solution
[X]V
4. = ———
Qo[Xo] — QelXe] — Osr[Xsr]
IV
= V = 9666.34 m>
1127.74

Vi = V + Qsrt2

= 9666.34 + 54.19(90) = 14, 543.44 m*

or
80 + 54.19
Vv; = 20+-Ost
Ost Ce On ee (30) + 54.19(90) = 6889.95 m?

The larger volume controls; therefore, V; = 14,543.44 m>. |Answer

CAKE FILTRATION
In dewatering using vacuum filtration or the plate-and-frame press, a cake is formed on
the surface of the filter cloth. Hence these processes of dewatering may be called cake
filtration. In cake filtration, the flow of the filtrate in its most elementary form may be
considered as through a tightly packed bank of small crooked tubes across the cake. The
rightmost bottom drawing of Figure 8-5 is a schematic section of a filter cake and filter
cloth. Because of pressure, the solids are tightly packed and the flow is laminar. From
fluid mechanics, the Hagen—Poiseuille equation may be written as
32ueV
jyees (8-22)
RK).
where jz is the dynamic viscosity, ¢ the thickness of the cake, V the superficial velocity
of filtration, and R the hydraulic radius. But R = [n/(1 — n)\(V,p/Ap), where 7 is the
Cake Filtration 381

porosity of cake, V, the volume of cake particles, and A, the surface area of particles.
Hence substituting gives us

p= 81 =a) 242
Al,
lV (8-23)
1"? Ve
Applying to a differential thickness of cake yields

dP at
BCL 9)? A2
a ee uVde (8-24)
es
If p, is the density of solids, the mass dm in the differential thickness of cake dé is
dm = A dt(1—n)pp, where A is the superficial area of filtration. Solving this for d@ and
substituting, equation (8-24) becomes

8(1 — n)A2uV EV
dP = 2 : : Cit = oe ete (8-25)
nV; PpA

where @ is called the specific cake resistance. Equation (8-25) may be integrated from
the filter cloth (P = P;) to the surface of the cake (P = P;). Using an average value of
a and integrating gives
V
-AP =a—_—m, (8-26)
where @ is the average a over the cake thickness and m, is the total mass of cake collected
on the cloth. Including the resistance of the filter cloth R,,, the total pressure drop may
be written as
aM-¢

Determination of a

Calling ¥ the volume of the filtrate collected at any time rf, V is (dV/dt)/A; also,
expressing m, as cV (where c is the mass of cake collected per unit volume of filtrate),
substituting in equation (8-27), and integrating yields
t [Lcd Laine
(8-28)
¥ 2(-AP)A?— (—AP)A
which is an equation of a straight line between ¢/V and V. The value of juca@/2(—A P) A?
can be determined, hence, also, a.
The laboratory experiment involves using a Biichner funnel using the setup shown
in Figure 8-5. For a given pressure difference (AP), the amount of filtrate collected
is recorded with time. The data collected gives the relationship between t/V and ¥ as
called for by equation (8-28). The cake collected is also weighed to determine c; ju is
determined from the temperature of the filtrate.
382 Sludge Treatment and Disposal Chap. 8

Example 8-9
A Biichner funnel experiment to determine the specific cake resistance of a certain sludge is
performed. The results are as follows:

Volume of filtrate (mL) Time (sec) t/V

25 48 EOD
50 150 3.0
WS 308 4.12
100 520 Do)

=/NIP == 9X0) iim, lel, iilliee aie = SK em’, 4 = 15(10-+) kg/m-s, and c = 0.25 g/em?.
Determine @.

Solution

oe [cae Le Rn
Y 2(—AP)A- (SAVal

=m¥+b

ee
: .0)/2
ee Pie)
— (4.12
(25 + 50)/2 — (75 + 100)
/2
ee
(mL)-Ome Om) ze

= 4.4(10!) —
m

N
=P = LOIES3.0) ov /25:965
29.92 m2

filter area = 550( (i 2e = 0.055 m?

10-° kg
c = 0.25 |——~ | = 250—=
=): m-

—— 5 == 4,4(10!°) @ = 4.8(10!3) Answer

2(—AP) A kg-m

Design Cake Filtration Equation

In an actual filtration installation, be it a vacuum filter or a plate-and-frame press, the

resistance of the filter medium is practically negligible; it may therefore be neglected.
Considering this fact, equation (8-28) may be written as
t ca
sey
Ve 22Py Aa
(8-29)
Since it is important to be able to calculate the amount of dewatered sludge that is
finally to be disposed of, it is convenient to express equation (8-29) in a form that will
give this amount directly without considering the filtrate. In practice, this is usually done
Cake Filtration 383

by utilizing the specific loading rate, also called the filter yield Ly, defined as

age
eer 8-30
(8-30)
From this definition, Ly is the amount of cake formed per unit area of filter cloth per
unit of time. In vacuum filtration (see Figure 8-2), the only time that the cake is formed
is when the drum is submerged in the tank. In pressure filtration, the only time that the
cake is formed is when the sludge is pumped into the plates. Hence, ft in the equation
above is called the form time ty. Also, both the vacuum filter and the plate-and-frame
press operate on a cycle. Calling the cycle time ¢,, ty may be expressed as a fraction f
of t.. Hence t = ty = ft, may be substituted in equation (8-30), and if this equation is
substituted in equation (8-29) and the result simplified and rearranged, we have

i= 2(—AP Je (8-31)
LN rier
ffi
For incompressible cakes, equation (8-31) is the design cake filtration equation. In
vacuum filtration, f is equal to the fraction of submergence of the drum. Also, for the
pressure filter, f is the fraction that the sludge is pumped over the total cycle time. (In
the operation of a pressure filter, the sludge is first pumped into the filter plates, the filter
assembly is opened to remove the cake collected, the filter cloth is put back into the filter
plates, the assembly is closed and tightened, and the sludge is pumped again, completing
the cycle.)
For compressible cakes such as those of sewage sludges, @ is not constant. Equa-
tion (8-31) must therefore be modified for the expression of the specific cake resistance.
The usual form used is
@ = H(—AP)* (8-32)
where s is a measure of cake compressibility. If s is zero, the cake is incompressible
and @ equals @. Substituting equation (8-32) in equation (8-31), we have

2(-AP)!-%¢
Le =| (8-33)
[Lao
fte

Determination of Cake Filtration Parameters

To use equation (8-33) in design, Lr, —AP, f, and ft, are specified. ju is specified
from the temperature of filtration. The only parameters to be determined, then, are
c, @, and s. c can easily be determined by collecting the volume of the filtrate and
weighing the amount of cake retained on the filter. Taking the logarithms of both sides
of equation (8-32) gives
Ing = Ina + sin(—AP) (8-34)

Hence, from this equation, @ and s may be determined from two pairs of values of a
and —AP,
384 Sludge Treatment and Disposal Chap. 8

The experimental procedure may be performed using the leaf filter assembly of
Figure 8-4d, although the Biichner experiment may also be used. The leaf filter is
immersed in the sludge and a vacuum is applied to suck the filtrate during the duration of
the form time ty. For a given —AP, the volume of filtrate over the time fy is collected.
This will give one value of @. To satisfy the requirement of equation (8-34), at least two
runs are made at two different pressure drops. From these pairs, the parameters @ and
s may be calculated.
Example 8-10
A leaf-filter experiment is run to determine @ and s for a CaCO3 slurry in water producing
the results below. jz = 15(10~*) kg/m-s. The filter area is 440 cm”, the mass of solid per
unit volume of filtrate is 23.5 g/L, and the temperature is 25°C. Calculate @ and s.

Test number: I Il

A Pa(psi)e 6.7 16.2

¥ (L) Time (s)

0.5 17.3 6.8

1.0 Ales 19.0
LS V2 34.6
2.0 108.3 53.4
DS S21 76.0
3.0 210.7 102.0

Solution For —AP = 6.7 psi:

Volume of filtrate (L) Time (s) t/¥

0.5 N73} 34.6

1.0 41.3 41.3
IES) T2R0 48
2.0 108.3 54.15
DES) S25 60.84
3.0 ZOE 67.33

t [ca Rr,
_

¥ 2(—AP)A? (-AP)A

=mV¥+b

mn = O4O +413 + 48)/3 — (54.15 + 60.84 + 67.33)/3 s S

Of
12.97 ee5 = 1.30(10°)7 Z
(0.5 + 1.0 + 1.5)/3 — (2.0 +2.5 + 3.0)/3
—~AP= 6.7 59.99 || 01,330) — ey 690.88 —
an
N

filter area = 440(10~*)? = 0.044 m2

Cake Filtration 385

10 kg af
Cees 29.) pL = 8.9(10-*) kg/m-s

[coe
———— = 1.30(10
7 = = 5.46(10°~ 10 )——
2(—AP)A2 te 5 ures
For —AP = 16.2 psi:

Volume of filtrate (L) Time (s) t/V

0.5 6.8 13.6

1.0 19.0 19.0
eS 34.6 23.07
2.0 Sa AO.)
ph) 76.0 30.4
3.0 102.0 34

va (13.6 + 19.0 + 23.07)/3 — (26.7 + 30.4 + 34)/3 SR STA

(05-2102 15) O.0 4 2.5 23.0)/3 L2 m®
16.2 N
INP = (101,330) = 54,864.51 —
29,92 m-
filter area = 440(107)? = 0.044 m?

C= BS
Lg
(a) = oF ase)
kg =4 *) kg/m-s
fe = 8.9(10

@
ese SSS iy eRe =|
2(—AP) A? kg-m
lng, = Ines (A)

In5.46(10!°) = Ind@& +5 In22,690.88 (a)

In7.99(10!°) = In@ + 5 1n 54,864.51 (b)

Solving, @ = 7.29(108) in MKS units Answer

s =0.43 Answer

Example 8-11
A CaCO3 sludge with cake filtration parameters determined in Example 8-10 is to be dewa-
tered in a vacuum filter under a vacuum of 630 mmHg. The mass of filtered solids per unit
volume of filtrate is to be 60 kg/m?. The filtration temperature is determined to be 25°C
and the cycle time, half of which is form time, is 5 min. Calculate the filter yield.

Solution

2(—AP)!-Se
[afte
 386 Sludge Treatment and Disposal Chap. 8

630
—AP = zap (101,330) — §3,997.24N/m2 c=60kg/m 5 =0.43

w = 8.9(10*) kg/m-s = 0.0534 kg/m-min; 1/kg-m

@ = 7.29(10°)
0 fe = >) Taauiil

9 94)1—0.43
y= pares) (09) _ 9.028 kg/m*-min Answer
0.0534(7.29)(108)(0.5)(5)

COMPOSTING

Another method of sludge treatment is composting. Composting is an accelerated process

of oxidizing with oxygen a solid organic material. There are two general methods of
composting: the windrow and the static-pile method. The windrow method is done by
piling the waste in a row or windrows and turning the piles once or twice per week for
a more effective aeration and for releasing excess heat. Composting is an exothermic
process producing temperatures of 140 to 160°F or higher. The static-pile method in-
volves piling the waste in individual locations and sucking air through the pile by means
of a suction blower to aerate it. Since the sludge is too wet, means must be employed
to increase the porosity of the mass for effective aeration in both composting methods.
This is normally done by mixing the sludge with wood chips.
The ratio of dewatered sludge cake to wood chips on a volumetric basis is between
1 and 2 sludge cake to 2 to 3 wood chips; the mixing should reduce the moisture content
to about 60%. This produces the desired porosity. Composting takes approximately
6 weeks with additional 2 or more weeks for curing and complete stabilization. After
stabilization, the wood chips are separated for reuse and the compost bagged and sold as
a low-grade fertilizer, soil conditioner, or used for land reclamation. For a discussion on
the chemistry of composting, see Chapter 2.

SLUDGE DISPOSAL

In the treatment of wastewaters, there are two streams that must be disposed of prop-
erly: the treated effluent and the sludge. The disposal of treated effluent to deep and
shallow waters has already been discussed in this book. Now turn to the disposal of
sludge. In general, the following may be regarded as methods of sludge disposal: incin-
eration, lagooning, dumping, landfilling, and land spreading for use as fertilizer or soil
conditioner. /ncineration is simply the combustion of sludge converting the material into
gases and residues. Incineration involves a heat balance, and the calculation considers the
heat needed to evaporate the water, heat loss due to radiation and combustion residues,
the sensible heat of the combustion gases, and the heating value of the sludge solids.
The principle of heat balance calculation is discussed in Chapter 11. Material balance
calculations for incineration or combustion are discussed in Chapter 10.
Sludge Disposal 387

Strictly, incineration is not an ultimate disposal. It is only a disposal in the sense

that some of the materials are disposed of into the air as gases. However, the process
leaves some residue that must still be disposed of. In addition, because of the carbon
dioxide and sulfur dioxide constituents in the discharged gases, incineration should be
avoided if other methods are available. CO» is an agent of the greenhouse effect and
SO) is a precursor of acid rain.
The Jagoon is an earthen basin. If untreated and digested sludges are deposited
here, the basin becomes a place of disposal or treatment, as the case may be, in a method
called Jagooning. The processes of thickening and dewatering discussed previously occur
in the lagoon. If the sludge is untreated, digestion also occurs in the basin. The sludge
may be stored indefinitely in the lagoon, which in this case becomes an ultimate point of
disposal. However, another place must be found for the additional sludges that remain
to be disposed of, or the sludge may be emptied from the lagoon for draining and drying
from time to time. In this instance the lagoon becomes a part of the treatment flow sheet,
and the sludge removed must be disposed of somewhere else. Lagoons should be lined
to prevent contaminating the groundwater.
Dumping of sludge by barging into the sea was considered an acceptable method
of disposal in the past. At present, however, it is being discouraged because of its effect
on the environment surrounding the discharge point. For example, marine scientists have
discovered that the practice of York City of dumping sludge into the sea created a deposit
of “black mayonnaise” at the seafloor, with obvious consequences to bottom dwellers.
However, dumping of sludge not into the sea but in other places may be acceptable,
depending on the particular situation. For example, if an abandoned mine quarry is
available, it may be a good place simply to dump the sludge. Of course, the site must be
far from residential areas and highways to avoid the problem of odors, and hydrogeologic
investigation must be performed to ascertain that groundwaters will not be polluted. If
these conditions are not met, dumping should not be allowed.
Where municipal solid wastes are landfilled, sludges may be deposited in the same
manner as the solid waste in the sanitary landfill. In a sanitary landfill, wastes are
deposited in a designated area, compacted with a roller or a tractor, and covered with soil
at the end of a day’s operation. If done according to the textbook, the operation should
be clean. However, in practice, a landfill looks just like a landfill with trash scattered all
around. This is due mainly to mismanagement. (Landfilling of solid wastes is discussed
further in Chapter 11.)
Land spreading is distributing or scattering the sludge on the ground. The idea
is for the sludge ultimately to be incorporated in the soil to act as fertilizer or soil
conditioner. Soil conditioning means the making of a more porous soil, one that retains
more moisture and enables plants to grow better. Dewatered and composted sludges may
be distributed in thin layers over the ground by a truck spreader and plowed under after
they have dried. The truck spreader is also a common method of distributing liquid sludge
over the ground, although modified for pumping liquids. The liquid sludge may also be
distributed over the ground by spraying, just as in spray irrigation. Finally, the liquid
sludge may also be distributed by the ridge-and-furrow method. In this method, the sludge
flows in the furrows in between ridges of crops. In the foregoing methods, the rate of
388 Sludge Treatment and Disposal Chap. 8

TABLE 8-9 NITROGEN AND PHOSPHORUS REQUIREMENTS

FOR SOME TYPES OF CROPS

Type of crop Nitrogen (kg/ha-yr) | Phosphorus (kg/ha-yr)

Forage
Alfalfa 504 39
Bromegrass 190 30
Coastal bermuda 540 70
Reed canary 360 AQ
Ryegrass 240 70
Sweet clover 180 20
Tall fescue 130 25
Field
Barley 70 20
Corn 170 20
Cotton 70 15
Milomaize 95 20
Soybeans 100 15

application that the soil can assimilate must be determined properly; otherwise, ponding
problems may occur. Examples of application rates are 2.0 to 6.0 cm/yr.

Fertilizing Value of Sludge

The fertilizer value of a material is determined by its nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium
content. Typical values of these nutrients as percentages of total solids in a typical
digested sludge are nitrogen, 3.0; phosphorus as P2Os, 2.5; and potassium as KO, 0.5.
These analyses are referred to as the NPK values of the fertilizer. Thus the NPK values
of a typical digested sludge are 3.0, 2.5, and 0.5. The NPK values of Milorganite, a
heat-dried sludge of an activated-sludge plant in Milwaukee, Wisconsin are 6.0, 2.0, and
0.0. A typical analysis of a Hechinger? lawn fertilizer is 28, 3, 3. The phosphorus content
of sludge is comparable to that of a regular fertilizer; however, for the case of nitrogen, a
comparison is nowhere to be found. The comparison between the potash contents is not
as bad as the comparison between the nitrogen contents. This “imbalance” in the ratio
of nitrogen to phosphorus in digested sludges is a major drawback in their use.
The nitrogen and phosphorus requirements for some types of forage and field crops
are shown in Table 8-9. Fertilizer applications must not exceed a great percentage over
the values given in this table, especially for nitrogen. Excessive applications of nitrogen
fertilizer will result in the conversion by some processes of the excess nitrogen to nitrate.
The nitrate may, then, contaminate groundwaters. For sludge fertilizers, the organic
nitrogen portion must first degrade to ammonia to be usable to the plants. Hence not all
of the nitrogen in the sludge will be consumed at a single setting, but only a fraction at
a time. Some example of degradation rates are 20 to 35% in the first year, 5 to 15% in
the second year, and | to 5% in the succeeding years.

Hechinger, a lumber distributor in the United States, also sells fertilizers.

 Sludge Disposal 389

Let N be the specific yearly application rate of sludge, D the fraction of a particular
fertilizer constituent in the sludge, U the specific yearly requirement of the crop for
a particular fertilizer constituent, and rj, ro, ..., rn, be the fractions of the particular
fertilizer constituent that are being used by the crop in the first, second, ..., and nth
years of application. U for the first, second, third, ..., and nth years are, respectively,
Uy Use. 2 2-, and) U2 N sforstherairst,.second, third, ... 7 and mth, year are.salso,
respectively, N;, No, N3, ..., and N,. The corresponding equations are

Uy NinD (8-35)

Ux = Ni, D1 —1r))ro2 + Nor; D (8-36)

Gg =O rd rare Ne DO rpre- Nar D (8-37)

Uz => Ni DU—47) 1-12) 173) rae No Dr) Ura )r3--N3 DU = 91) ra Nar D
(8-38)
Knowing that Nj = Nz = N3 = Na, equation (8-38) may be solved just for N4, producing
(Ul:
Ng : (8-39)
Shia a) ate tee) Para try ont rg |
For
n years,

U,
Nn =
D{[Q—r)@=n)--- 0 — rn Rp 0 Srp) Fo+ rn |
(8-40)

wiereu\y,) i Neandal a We

Example 8-12
A farmer is growing alfalfa for forage in a 5-ha farm. Considering only the nitrogen and
phosphorus requirements, determine (a) the yearly application rate if Milorganite is used and
(b) the yearly application rate if Hechinger’s fertilizer is used. (c) If Milorganite costs $6.99
for a bag of 18.4 kg and Hechinger’s fertilizer costs $10.99 for a bag of 15.52 lb, compare
the cost of fertilizing the farm using separate fertilizers. Assume that for Milorganite 35%
of the applied nitrogen is consumed in the first year, 15% in the second year, 5% in the third
and fourth years, and negligible percentages in years thereafter. The nitrogen in Hechinger’s
fertilizer may be assumed to be utilizable by the crop immediately. (Note: The cost figures
cited above are actual prices as of this writing, January 13, 1992.)

Solution (a) From Table 8-9, alfalfa needs 504 kg/ha-yr of nitrogen and 39 kg/ha-yr of
phosphorus.
Un

D{a Ser yee anyrice (leer

|ee Ltr
ea ey one | —r)ro +r]
Nitrogen requirement:

n=4 Os) To) lis) OS) DE 0106

 390 Sludge Treatment and Disposal Chap. 8

504
N4
— 0.06{G — 0.35)(1 — 0.15) — 0.05) (0.05) + ( — 0.35)(1 — 0.15)(0.05) + (1 — 0.35) (0.15) + 0.35]
= 16,755.10 kg/ha-yr> 16,755.10(5) = 83,775.48 kg/yr
Phosphorus requirement:
OP.
2% as P2O5 = (OQ) = 0442) = 0.87% as 12 => ID
‘ P7205

Assuming that all P is used: rj = 1.0, n = 1.0. Thus

39
Ny, = ————— _ = 4482.76 kg/ha-yr — 22,413.79 kg/yr < 83,775.48 kg/yr
' = 0.0087(1.0) ae a :
milorganite to be used = 83,775.48 kg/yr Answer

(b) For the Hechinger fertilizer, the nitrogen content is utilized immediately by the
plant. Hence

N, for nitrogen = eee = 1800 kg/ha-yr — 9000 kg/yr

0.28(1.0)
Bo
N, for phosphorus = 2954.55 kg/ha-yr — 14,772.73 kg/yr > 9000
~ 0.44(0.03)(1.0)
fertilizer requirement = 14,772.73 kg/yr Answer

6.99
(c) For Milorganite, cost = a = Will sco) AME

10.99
For Hechinger’s fertilizer, cost = is a = $23,013.86 /yr

Thus
31,825.58 — 23,013.86
milorganite 1s (100)
23,013.86
= 38.29% more expensive than the regular fertilizer. Answer
Note: This example illustrates that for sludge fertilizers to be competitive with regular
fertilizers, they have to be amended by adding more nitrogen constituent, perhaps using
ammonium nitrate.

Objections to the Use of Sludge

There are two major components that make the use of sludge and sludge products objec-
tionable: the heavy metal and toxic elements content and pathogens. Heavy metals are
characterized by their high specific gravities. For example, Cd, Pb, and Hg are heavy met-
als; they have specific gravities of 8.657979, 11.33779/?9, and 13.54629/29, respectively.
(The numerators of the exponents refer to the temperature in degrees Celsius at which
the density of the material is obtained; the denominators of the exponents refer to the
temperature in degrees Celsius at which the density of the reference water is obtained.)
Heavy metals at certain concentrations are toxic and can bioaccumulate. The aforemen-
tioned heavy metals are toxic and can bioaccumulate, for example, and be assimilated
Sludge Disposal 391

into the food chain. The metalloid arsenic has these properties. Typical concentrations
for some of the other heavy metals and toxic elements found in sludges are shown in
Table 8-10. There may be no other way to eliminate these metals from the sludge but
by the success of the pretreatment program.

TABLE 8-10 TYPICAL CONCENTRATIONS OF HEAVY METALS AND

TOXIC ELEMENTS IN SLUDGES

Concentration (mg/L)

Metal or element Specific gravity* Range Mean Median

Silver 10.520/20 2-950 230 95

Arsenic 5727 4i4 10-20 10 10
Boron 2.32 200-1500 420 340
Barium 3.5 23000 1500 1250
Beryllium 1.816 4 ¥ ?
Cadmium 8:6520/20 21000 90 20
Cobalt 8.920/20 P2250) 360 110
Chromium fal 20-30,000 1700 700
Copper 8.92 50-17,000 1300 700
Mercury 13546-° 0.5-90 10 5
Manganese 27 28 100-9000 2000 450
Nickel 9020/20 23000 400 100
Lead 11.33720/20 80-30,000 2000 500
Strontium 2.6 22000 450 200
Selenium 4.2629/25 10-200 30 20
Vanadium 5.96 22000 500. 500
Zinc 7.14 50-30,000 4000 2000
“Referred to room temperature when no exponent is affixed (15 to 20°C).

Wastewaters generally contain four major types of pathogens: bacteria, protozoa,

viruses, and helminths. The concentrations of these pathogenic organisms in wastewater
depend on the health condition of the community. In times of epidemics, the concentra-
tions will be high. The community would be very fortunate if it can have no inhabitant
sick at a given time. It will therefore be expected that pathogens will be present in the
wastewater at all times. Since these pathogens come from a relatively large volume of
wastewater, when ending up in the sludge, they, in general, become concentrated and
be very infectious. Some disease-producing protozoa and helminths in wastewaters and
sludges are shown in Table 8-11. Table 8-12 shows survival times of various pathogens
in soil and on plant surfaces.
Helminth ova are definitely a big problem. Bacteria and viruses can also survive for
months; protozoan cysts die off in a matter of days. For as long as these pathogens are
not inactivated, promotion in the use of sludge for crops intended for human consumption
is not a logical decision and would be a hypocrisy.
Aerobic digestion can reduce viral and bacterial pathogens by 90%. Helminth
ova are reduced to varying degrees. Anaerobic digestion can also reduce bacterial and
392 Sludge Treatment and Disposal Chap. 8

TABLE 8-11 SOME DISEASE-PRODUCING PROTOZOA AND HELMINTHS CONTAINED IN

WASTEWATERS AND SLUDGES

Organism Disease/symptoms

Protozoa
Cryposporidium Gastroenteritis
Entamoeba histolytica Acute enteritis
Giardia lamblia Giardiasis (including diarrhea, abdominal cramps, weight loss)
Balantidium coli Diarrhea and dysentery
Toxoplasma gondii Toxoplasmosis
Helminths
Ascaris lumbricoides Digestive and nutritional disturbances, abdominal pain, vomiting,
restlessness
Ascaris suum May produce symptoms such as coughing, chest pain, and fever
Trichuris trichiura Abdominal pain, diarrhea, anemia, weight loss
Toxocara canis Fever, abdominal discomfort, muscle aches, neurological
symptoms
Taenia saginata Nervousness, insomnia, anorexia, abdominal pain, digestive
disturbances
Taenia solium Nervousness, insomnia, anorexia, abdominal pain, digestive
disturbances
Necatur americanus Hookworm disease
Hymenolepis nana Taeniasis

TABLE 8-12 SURVIVAL TIMES OF PATHOGENS IN SOIL AND ON PLANT

SURFACES

Soil Plants

Absolute Common Absolute Common

Pathogen maximum maximum maximum maximum

Bacteria 1 year 2 months 6 months 1 month

Viruses 6 months 3 months 2 months 1 month
Protozoan cysts 10 days 2 days 5 days 2 days
Helminth ova 7 years 2 years 5 months 1 month

viral pathogens by 90%. Helminth ova are not substantially reduced even at mesophilic
digestion but may be substantially reduced by thermophilic digestion. Stabilization of the
sludge by lime can reduce viral and bacterial pathogens by well over 90%. Some helminth
ova may be destroyed by this treatment, but some species are not affected substantially.
Air drying may also reduce bacterial and viral pathogens by 90%, but, again, helminth
ova remain substantially unaffected. Composting can also reduce bacterial and viral
pathogens by at least 90%. Helminth ova populations are diminished but not necessarily
eliminated. Heat drying and use of the electron beam and gamma-ray irradiation can
reduce bacterial and viral pathogens and helminth ova to below detectable levels. Heat
Glossary 393

treatments such as the Porteus and Zimpro processes, if carried out properly, effectively
destroy pathogenic viruses, bacteria, and helminth ova.

GLOSSARY

Activated sludge. The reinvigorated microorganisms sludge.

Aerobic sludge digestion. A process of reducing volume of sludge by allowing the
microorganisms in the sludge to undergo endogenous respiration in the presence
of air.
Air-to-solids ratio (A/S). In flotation thickening the ratio of the amount of flotation air
used to the inflow total solids.
Anaerobic sludge digestion. A process of reducing volume of sludge by allowing the
microorganisms in the sludge to undergo endogenous respiration in the absence
of air.
Biodegradable VSS. The biodegradable portion of the volatile suspended solids (VSS).
Cake filtration. The dewatering of sludge where water is removed through passing
across a cake formed during the process.
Composting. An accelerated process oxidizing a solid organic material using atmospheric
oxygen.
Filter yield. In cake filtration, the amount of cake formed per unit area of filter cloth
per unit time.
Flotation thickening. A method of removing solids where the solids float to the top of
the unit.
Heavy metals. Metals of high specific gravity.
Lagoon. A basin used to hold waste.
Limiting flux. The solids flux that determines the area of a thickener.
Mean cell destruction time (MCDT). The average time it takes to destroy the cells in a
digester.
Nichols process. A thermomechanical process of treating where sludge is subjected to
heating at high temperature.
Porteus process. A wet oxidation of sludge using steam to dissolve oxygen at high
pressure and temperature.
Solids flux. At a given point in a settling tank, the settling velocity of the solids multiplied
by the concentration is called the solids flux.
Static-pile composting. A method of composting where the materials are piled in sepa-
rate locations and air is sucked through the piles.
Underflow concentration. The concentration in the underflow of a sedimentation basin
or thickener.
Vacuum filtration. A form of filtration where water is removed by the application of a
vacuum.
Volatile solids. The solids that disappear after the sample is decomposed at 600°C.
394 Sludge Treatment and Disposal Chap. 8

Windrow composting. A composting method where the materials are piled in rows or
windrows.
Zimpro process. A wet oxidation of sludge similar to the Porteus process but using air
at high pressure to dissolve oxygen at high temperature.
Zone settling. That portion in a settling basin where solids settle under one contiguous,
constant concentration.

SYMBOLS

A area of filter cloth

Ag area required for clarification
Js surface area of a particle
A; area required for thickening
(s mass of filter cake collected per unit volume of filtrate
C concentration of dissolved oxygen
Cue average air concentration of waste
Case sp saturation dissolved air concentration of tap water at stand-
ard pressure and the temperature influent flow
Carre saturation dissolved air concentration of tap water at stand-
ard pressure and temperature of the saturation tank
Casw,t,sp saturation dissolved air concentration of the waste at stand-
ard pressure and temperature of the saturation tank
(Ce saturation dissolved oxygen concentration
Coyote saturation dissolved oxygen concentration of tap water at
standard pressure and temperature of the influent
Csi sp saturation dissolved oxygen concentration of tap water at
standard pressure and temperature of the air saturation
tank
D fraction of a particular fertilizer constituent in sludge
ff fraction of air saturation achieved; fraction that the form
time, ty, is compared to the cycle time, ¢,
G; total solids flux in a thickening process
Gre limiting total solids flux
Ly specific filter loading rate or filter yield
Me mass of deposited filter cake
Me mass of sludge
BP atmospheric pressure
ie fraction of solids in sludge
Je standard pressure
QO; effluent discharge
Or recirculation flow
 Problems 395

Ost rate of flow of sludge into storage at bottom of digestion

tank
On volumetric rate of sludge wasting
Oo plant inflow
r fraction of a particular fertilizer constituent in sludge used
by the crop in the first year, r;; in the second year, ro;
in the third year, r3; etc.
Ike resistance of filter medium
S exponent of cake compressibility
Ss specific gravity of sludge solids
Sse specific gravity of sludge
t cycle time of cake filtration
ty cake form time
U specific substrate utilization rate; specific crop utilization
rate for a particular fertilizer constituent
V volume of reactor; superficial velocity in cake filtration
V volume of filtrate
VS volume of a particle
Vi, velocity at a section of the thickener due to sludge with-
drawal in the underflow
[X] average concentration of microorganisms
[Xcel solids concentration at a section of a thickener
[X.] effluent concentration of microorganisms
LX se] microbial concentration in digested sludge
GM sedimentation tank underflow concentration of microorgan-
isms
[Xo] influent concentration of microorganisms
Y specific yield of microorganisms
64 mean cell destruction time

PROBLEMS

8-1. A sample of sludge containing 1.0% solids is put in a 1-L graduated cylinder up to the
1-L mark. It is then allowed to settle until the percent solids increases to twice the orig-
inal. The supernatant is decanted in the process. Calculate the percentage reduction in
volume.
8-2. In Problem 8-1, if the specific gravity of the solid particles is 2.1, what is the porosity of
the mixture?
8-3. Calculate the volume of water in Problem 8-1.
8-4. A sludge contains 99% moisture and is run onto a sludge drying bed to a depth of 14 in. Cal-
culate the approximate percentage moisture when the moisture has evaporated down to 7 in.
8-5. In Problem 8-4, what will be the depth of sludge on the bed when the percentage moisture
is 92%?
396 Sludge Treatment and Disposal Chap. 8

8-6. The results of a settling cylinder test of a bioreactor suspension are as follows:

MLSS (mg/L) | 1410 2210 3000 3500 4500 5210 6510 8210

V. (m/h) | 2B Ileal 1207 "O79" 2046-7 0:26" "0.12 0,084

Qo + Op is 10,000 m?/day and the underflow concentration is 10,000 mg/L. Determine the
MLVSS needed to operate the bioreactor efficiently.
8-7. In Problem 8-6, why is the minimum of the products of MLVSS and V, chosen as the design
solid flux?
8-8. What is the maximum solid flux in Problem 8-6?
8-9. What are the basic dimensions of solid fluxes?
8-10. A laboratory experiment found the A/S ratio to be equal to 0.010. The temperature of
the sludge and the subnatant in the flotation cylinder is 20°C. The prevailing barometric
pressure is 14.6 psi. The total solids in the sludge is 10,000 mg/L, and f was previously
determined to be equal to 0.95. What is the gage pressure under which the flotation cylinder
is Operated?
8-11. Solve Problem 8-10 if the plant is located at an elevation of 2000 ft above mean sea level.
8-12. Aerobic digestion and oxygen uptake experiments are performed, producing the results shown
below, expressed in terms of total suspended solids (TSS). For a VSS of 70%, estimate the
MCDT for a 90% destruction of the VSS.

Time of VSS remaining

aeration (days) (mg/L) r (mg/L-hr)

0 5550 —
] 5190 34.0
2 4940 PAO)
5 4410 18
8 4159 15
10 3861 11.8
15 3490 7.8
20 3250 or
PBS 3190 4.0

8-13. Using the values obtained in Problem 8-12, calculate the volume of the digester required to
digest 6000 Ib/day of sludge total solids containing 70% volatile matter. Assume 3500 mg/L
of average MLVSS is to be maintained in the digester operated at a recirculation ratio of 1.
8-14. In Problem 8-12, estimate the average oxygen requirement.
8-15. In Problem 8-2, calculate the oxygen requirement.
8-16. A digested sludge is 1.5% solids at a specific gravity of 1.01. A total of 6000 lb/day of VSS
at a flow rate of 80 m?/d is to be anaerobically digested. The results of a laboratory digestion
study show an MCDT of 10 days. The biodegradable fraction of the VSS is 46%, of which
it is desired to destroy 90%. The VSS is 70% of the total solids. Using a two-stage high-rate
digester system, compute the total volume required, excluding gas, supernatant, and scum
volume storage. Assume a mean MLVSS of 3,500 mg/L, a dewatering time of 3 days, and
a sludge storage detention time of 90 days.
Problems 397

8-17. Solve Problem 8-16 using a standard-rate anaerobic digester. Assume that MCDT = 30 days
to produce the same quality of digested sludge.
8-18. Is it possible to solve Problem 8-16 for an MLVSS of 6000 mg/L? Why?
8-19. Is it possible to solve Problem 8-17 for an MLVSS of 6000 mg/L? Why?
8-20. Calculate the volume of a semispherical gas holder to make available 1500 m? of gas at
24°C and 5 cm of water above atmospheric. The holder is to be constructed as a dome over
an anaerobic digester.
8-21. The sludge entering a digestion chamber contains 76% volatile matter; the resulting digested
sludge contains 55% volatile matter. Calculate the percent reduction in volatile matter during
digestion.
8-22. Given the following information: population = 10,000; per capita daily dry solids in sludge
= 0.077 kg; percent dry solids in raw sludge = 3; sludge specific gravity = 1.02; sludge
added daily = 2% by volume. Calculate the required digester volume assuming that the tank
is kept full.
8-23. The results of a Biichner funnel experiment to determine the specific cake resistance of a
certain sludge are as follows:

Volume of filtrate (mL) Time (s) t/¥

25 48 1:92
100 520 Sy?

—AP = 20 in. Hg, filter area = 550 cm’, yw = 15(10~*) kg/m-s, and c = 0.25 g/cm?.
Determine @.
8-24. What is the resistance of the filter medium, R,,, in Problem 8-23?
8-25. In Problem 8-23, what is the volume of filtrate expected in 308 s?
8-26. In cake filtration, how does viscosity affect the volume of filtrate?
8-27. For the results of a leaf-filter experiment on a CaCO3 slurry, tabulated below, calculate a
and s. 4 = 15(10~*) kg/m-s. The filter area is 440 cm?, the mass of solid per unit volume
of filtrate is 23.5 g/L, and the temperature is 25°C.

Test number: I II

—AP (psi): 6.7 16.2

¥ (L) Time (s)

1.0 41.3 19.0

ILS) WV 34.6
Des) Ise. 76.0
3.0 Oe 102.0

8-28. Calculate the filter yield for a CaCO3 sludge with cake filtration parameters determined
in Problem 8-27. The cake is to be dewatered in a vacuum filter under a vacuum of
 398 Sludge Treatment and Disposal Chap. 8

630 mmHg. The mass of filtered solids per unit volume of filtrate is to be 60 kg/m>. The
filtration temperature is determined to be 25°C and the cycle time, one-fourth of which is
form time, is five min.
8-29. What is the resistance of the filter medium, R,,, in Problem 8-27?
8-30. In Problem 8-27, what is the volume of filtrate expected in 308 s for test I?
8-31. Filtered sludge containing 20% moisture and weighing 15 kg was analyzed obtaining the
following ultimate analysis on a dry basis: C = 52.2%, O = 38.0%, H = 2.5%, and the rest
nitrogen. How many kilograms of oxygen will be required for combustion?
8-32. In Problem 8-31, how many kilograms of air is required?
8-33. On the basis of satisfying the nitrogen requirement, determine the rate of application of dry
sludge to ryegrass. Assume that the soil has an initial nitrogen content of zero and that the
sludge has 3% nitrogen by weight. The decay rate of nitrogen is as follows: 30% for the
first year, 15% the second year, and 5% for the third and subsequent years.
8-34. Solve Problem 8-33 on the basis of satisfying the phosphorus requirement.
8-35. From the results of Problems 8-33 and 8-34, recommend the rate of application of dry sludge.
8-36. Considering only the nitrogen and phosphorus requirement, determine the yearly application
rate if Milorganite is used. If Milorganite costs $6.99 for a bag of 18.4 kg and Hechinger’s
fertilizer costs $10.99 for a bag of 15.52 lb, compare the cost of fertilizing the farm using
separate fertilizers. Assume that for Milorganite 35% of the applied nitrogen is consumed
in the first year, 15% in the second year, 5% in the third and fourth years, and negligible
percentages in years thereafter. The nitrogen in Hechinger’s fertilizer may be assumed to be
utilizable by the crop immediately. The farmer is growing barley for forage in a 5-ha farm.
8-37. In Problem 8-36, determine the yearly application rate if a Hechinger fertilizer is used.
8-38. Assuming the limiting application of cadmium to the soil is to be 9 kg/ha, what is the
application rate for a sludge containing 40 ppm of cadmium?
8-39. The size of the farm in Problem 8-36 is 100 ha. Design the number of tank vehicles and the
sizes of the vehicles and the pumps to deliver the sludge. Assume that the application is to
be completed in one week.
8-40. If carried out properly, what processes can destroy helminth ova?
8-41. What can you say about the future of the application of electron-beam irradiation as a method
of disinfecting sludge?

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BasTIAN, R. K. (1977). “Municipal Sludge Management,” in R. C. Loehr (ed.), Land as a Waste

Management Alternative. Ann Arbor Science, Ann Arbor, Mich., pp. 673-689.
LILey, P. E., and W. R. GAMBILL (1973). “Physical and Chemical Data,” in R. H. Perry and C. H.
Chilton (eds.), Chemical Engineers’ Handbook. McGraw-Hill, New York, pp. 3-1 to 3-44.
MetTcaLF & Eppy, INc. (1991). Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, Disposal, Reuse. McGraw-
Hill, New York.
Peavy, H. S., D. R. Rowe, and G. TCHOBANOGLOUs (1985). Environmental Engineering. McGraw-
Hill, New York.
Bibliography 399
RAMALHO, R. S. (1977). Introduction to Wastewater Treatment Processes. Academic Press, New
York.
USEPA (1985). Health Effects of Land Application of Municipal Sludge. EPA/600/1-85/015. USEPA
Health Effects Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, N.C.
USEPA (1989). Control of Pathogens in Municipal Wastewater Sludge. EPA/625/10-89/006. Center
for Environmental Research Information, Cincinnati, Ohio.
VESILIND, P. A. (1974). Treatment and Disposal of Wastewater Sludges. Ann Arbor Science, Ann
Arbor, Mich.
VIESSMAN, W., JR., and M. J. HAMMER (1993). Water Supply and Pollution Control. Harper & Row,
New York.
 CHAPTER 9

Advanced Wastewater and

Water Treatment and Land
Treatment Systems

As population increases, so does the quantity of wastewater produced. However, the

capacity of the stream to assimilate the waste is finite. For this reason, whereas before
a given stream may be effluent limited, now it has become water quality limited, thus
requiring more stringent treatment. Advanced wastewater treatment systems and the
related land treatment systems are discussed in this chapter. Additionally, some of the
advanced treatment methods discussed may be applied to the treatment of water for
drinking purposes. These include carbon adsorption, ion exchange, and the membrane
processes, such as reverse osmosis, ultrafiltration, and electrodialysis. Whenever these
units are discussed in this chapter, wastewater would also mean water, and vice versa.
Biological nutrient processes for advanced methods of wastewater treatment are discussed.
For discussions on the chemistry of biological processes, read Chapter 2.
Sand filtration is also an advanced method of wastewater treatment. Since this was
discussed in Chapter 6, it is not repeated here. Suffice it to say that sand filtration is used
to produce 15 mg/L of BODs and 10 mg/L of TKN in a process called advanced sec-
ondary treatment (AST). Figure 9-1 shows drawings of units used in advanced wastewater
treatment and water treatment systems.

CARBON ADSORPTION

Solids are formed because of the attraction of the component atoms within the solid
toward each other. In the interior of a solid, attractive forces are balanced among the
various atoms making up the lattice. At the surface, however, the atoms are subjected

400
Carbon Adsorption 401

to unbalanced forces—those toward the interior are attracted, but those at the surface are
not. Because of this unbalanced nature, any particle that lands on the surface may be
attracted by the solid. This is the phenomenon of adsorption. Adsorption is the process
of concentrating solute at the surface of a solid by virtue of this attraction.
Adsorption may be physical or chemical. Physical adsorption is also called van der
Waals adsorption, and chemical adsorption is also called chemisorption. Adsorption is a
surface-active phenomenon, which means that larger surface areas exposed to the solutes
result in higher adsorption. The solute is called the adsorbate; the solid that adsorbs it
is called the adsorbent. The adsorbate is said to be sorbed onto the adsorbent when it is
adsorbed, and it is said to be desorbed when it passes into solution.
Adsorption capacity is enhanced by activating the surfaces. The process of acti-
vation is accomplished by subjecting a prepared char of carbon material such as wood
or coal to an oxidizing steam at high temperatures of about 1700°F, resulting in the
water gas reaction, C + HxO0 — H,+ CO. The gases released develop a very porous
structure in the char. This high porosity increases the area for adsorption. One gram
of char can produce about 1000 m? of adsorption area. After activation, the char is
then further processed into two types of finished product: a powdered form called PAC
(powdered activated carbon) and a granular form called GAC (granular activated car-
bon). PAC is normally less than 200 mesh, and GAC is normally greater than 0.1 mm in
diameter.

Adsorption Capacity

The adsorption capacity of activated carbon may be determined by the use of an ad-
sorption isotherm. The adsorption isotherm is an equation relating the amount of solute
adsorbed onto the solid and the equilibrium concentration of the solute in solution at a
given temperature. The following are isotherms that have been developed: Freundlich;
Langmuir; and Brunauer, Emmet, and Teller (BET isotherm). The most commonly
used isotherms for the application of activated carbon in wastewater treatment are the
Freundlich and Langmuir isotherms, written, respectively, as

oo
M
ktcy'” (9-1)

ey ae
M Sle DIC)
(9-2)
where X is the mass of adsorbate adsorbed onto the mass of adsorbent M; [C] is the
concentration of adsorbate in solution in equilibrium with the adsorbate adsorbed; k, a,
and b are constants.
The rate r, at which solute is adsorbed onto an adsorbent is proportional to its
concentration and the amount of solute-adsorbing capacity remaining in the adsorbent
(X/M)y — X/M, where “ult” stands for ultimate. Also, the rate ry at which the sorbed
materials are desorbed is proportional to the amount of material already sorbed, X/M. At
equilibrium, r, is equal to rg. Calling k, and kg the sorption and desorption proportionality
402 Advanced Wastewater, Water Treatment and Land Treatment Systems Chap. 9

Mobile cation
Diluting compartment
Cathode Concentrating Anode
= compartment 2s

Water

Insoluble
matrix

Legend: A\ — Cation
© — Anion
A — Anion-permeable membrane
C —Cation-permeable membrane
(a)

Figure 9-1 Advanced wastewater treatment systems: (a) electrodialysis unit.

constants, respectively, we have

X x X
scl Gi). 7) = (ar) sen
Solving for X/M produces equation (9-2), where a = (X/M) and b = ky/ka.
The straight-line forms of the Freundlich and Langmuir isotherms are, respectively,

| ——
s iphone!
MG — in (9-4)
‘=
"MM n

ED See
X/M aba ef) (9-5)
:
Since the equations are for straight lines, only two pairs of values of the respective
parameters are required to solve for the constants. In equation (9-4), the required pairs of
values are for the parameters In(X/M) and In[C]; in equations (9-5), the required pairs
are for the parameters [C]/(X/M) and [C].
To use equation (9-4) or (9-5), constants are empirically determined by running an
experiment. This is done by adding increasing amounts of the adsorbent to a sample of
adsorbate solution in a container. For each amount of adsorbent, the equilibrium con-
centration [C] is determined. The pairs of experimental values can then be manipulated
Carbon Adsorption 403
Feedwater Filter High-pressure
pump j pump
Wastewater

Pretreatment

Product
pump

Membrane

Waste discharge
Product water
(b)

Glass tube

Dilute solution A=P

of sucrose
Pressure at
Bag made of AN=P+2
semipermeable Passage of
membrane solvent
(water)

Figure 9-1 (continued) Advanced wastewater treatment systems: (b) reverse

osmosis system; (Cc) OSMosis process.

to obtain the desired parameter values from which the constants are determined. Once
the constants are determined, the resulting model is used to determine M, the amount of
adsorbent (activated carbon) that is needed. From the equation, the adsorption capacity of
activated carbon, (X /M )y, may also be determined. The absorption capacity of activated
carbon is the X/M that produces the lowest residual concentration of the adsorbate
possible. This is illustrated in Example 9-1.
Example 9-1
A wastewater containing 25 mg/L of phenol is to be treated using PAC to produce an
effluent concentration of 0.10 mg/L. The PAC is simply added to the stream and the mixture
subsequently settled in the following sedimentation tank. The constants of the Langmuir
equation are determined by running a jar test producing the results shown bel6w. The
volume of waste subjected to each test is | L. If the flow rate Qo is 0.11 m?/s, calculate
the quantity of PAC needed for the operation. What is the adsorption capacity of the PAC?
404 Advanced Wastewater, Water Treatment and Land Treatment Systems Chap. 9

Calculate the quantity of PAC needed to treat the influent phenol to the ultimate residual
concentration.

PAC Equilibrium concentration

Test added (g) of phenol (mg/L)

| 0.25 6.0
2) 0.32 LG
2 0.5 O25
+ RO) 0.09
5 16S) 0.06
6 2.0 0.06
7 DAS) 0.06

Solution
[C] 1 |
X/M Sane
Neglect tests 5 to 7, since the 0.06 values represent the ultimate residual concentrations and
would not conform to the Langmuir equation.

[C]
PAC Equilibrium concentration xX/M
Test added (g) of phenol (mg/L) (mg/L)

1 O25 6.0 78.95

D O82 1.0 8
3 0.5 O25 5.05
4 1.0 0.09 Sr6il

SOs) == (CSEXOTONT/UPEIELCCONIG other values in the column are

computed similarly.

OAD se 10 WSS 4b 3.33

= 35 2 = 46.14
D 2

0254-009ig nimwncsO eS.

0.25 + 0.09 SAU se 26h

1 46.14
—4.33
o- B52
1
— = 46.14 — (12.56)(3.5) = 2.20
ab

Equation of isotherm: J = 2.20 + 12.56[C]

Carbon Adsorption 405

When [C] = 0.10 mg/L,

0.10 kg phenol
SS SS NS IDO AIG X/M = 0.0289 ——_—
X/M / kg C
Total phenol to be removed = 0.11(0.025 — 0.0001) = 0.00274 kg/s
4 0.00274
PAC required = (60)(60)(24) = 8181.60 ke/day Answer
0.0289
The lowest concentration of phenol is 0.06 mg/L. Thus when [C] = 0.06 mg/L,

sr 2.20 + 12.56(0.06)
(X/M)ut iG ipad
kg phenol s :
(0.97 8na— Nr Fr = adsorption capacity Answer
g

Total phenol to be removed to the ultimate residual concentration = 0.11(0.025 — 0.00006)

= 0.00274 kg/s
0.00274
PAC required = (60)(60)(24) = 11,837 kg/d Answer
0.020

Bed Adsorption

In bed adsorption, the water to be treated is passed through a bed of activated carbon.
The method of introduction of the influent may be made similar to sand filtration. In
addition, the bed may be moving countercurrent or co-current to the flow of influent.
Figure 9-2a shows a schematic of an adsorption bed of depth L. Although the
influent feed is shown introduced at the top, the following analysis applies to other modes
of introduction, as well, including moving beds. Hence the figure should be viewed as a
relative motion of the feed and the bed. The curve lines represent the configuration of the
variation of the concentration of the adsorbate at various times as the adsorbate passes
through the column. Thus the curve labeled ¢; is the configuration at time f;. The lower
end of the curve is indicated by a zero concentration (or any concentration that represents
the limit of removal) and the upper end is indicated by the influent concentration [Co].
Hence. the volume of bed above curve f; is an exhausted bed. Below the curve, the bed is
clean (i.e., no adsorption is taking place, since all adsorbables had already been removed
by the portion of the bed at curve ft; and above). The zone of bed encompassed by the
curve represents a bed partially exhausted.
The curve ft; then advances to form the curve f at time f>. The curve shows a
breakthrough of concentration of some fraction of [Co]. This breakthrough concentration
appears in the effluent. Finally, t2 advances to f; at time 4. At this time the bed is
almost exhausted. The profile concentration represented by curve f is called an active
zone. This zone keeps on advancing until the entire bed becomes totally exhausted.
Figure 9-2b shows the movement of the active zone represented by the length 4
as it advances through the bed at various times. At the beginning of breakthrough, at
which the lower end of 6 barely touches the bottom of the column, the total volume
406 Advanced Wastewater, Water Treatment and Land Treatment Systems Chap. 9

Feed

Effluent
(a)

Clean water

Effluent
concentration
solute

Vp V,a
Volume of water treated, V

(b)

Figure 9-2 (a) Active zone of an adsorption or ion-exchange column. (b) Break-
through curve.
Carbon Adsorption 407

of treated water is represented by V,. The shaded portion in the curve represents the
total breakthrough mass of adsorbate before exhaustion. The total volume of wastewater
treated at exhaustion is designated by V,.
Perform a mass balance on the active zone during breakthrough. The total mass of
pollutant that escaped removal from the beginning to the completion of breakthrough is

DEC — Ve)
yy nN
Ie
ai Gi
(9-6)
where the indices n and n + | refer to the volume or concentration that broke through 6
at a time step of Ar from f, to ¢,,;. Also, at the completion of breakthrough, the total
mass of pollutant introduced into the influent of 5 is (V, — V,)[Co]. Hence the mass of
pollutants retained in the active zone M, is

Fee a ICN) eVat Vg)

Kee 1] ai [Cr]
(9-7)
M, is also given by A,dp,(X/M)ur, where A, is the superficial area of the bed, p, the
packed density of the carbon bed, and the others are as defined before. Combining with
equation (9-7) and solving for 6 gives

(Vy aE Vp)L Gols > Vn+i — Vatdere in EO:

= (9-8)
As Pp (X/M ut

Example 9-2
A breakthrough experiment is conducted for phenol, producing the results shown below.
Determine the length 6 of the active zone. The diameter of the column used is | in. and the
packed density of the bed is 45 Ib/ft?. [Co] is equal to 25 mg/L. Use the (X/M)ur value
from Example 9-1.

C (mg/L) V (L)

0.06 1.0
1.0 1.24
6.0 1.31
10 1.43
15 1.48
18 1.58
20 Li
23 1.83
DD 2.00

Solution

(Vx a Vp)I — Wry — Vnd{ (Gilet [Cr ])/2}

As Pp(X/M ute
408 Advanced Wastewater, Water Treatment and Land Treatment Systems Chap. 9

Vel is Vn (Green = Gal Vat! a Ve pei ar Leal

~ 1000 2(1000) 1000 2(1000)

C (mg/L) V (L) (m3) (kg/m?) (kg)
0.06 1.0 a — -_
1.0 24 0.00024 0.00053 0.00000013
6.0 13) 0.00007 0.0035 0.00000025
10 1.43 0.00012 0.008 (0.00000096
15 1.48 0.00005 0.0125 0.00000063
18 158 0.0001 0.0165 0.0000017
20 172 0.00014 0.019 0.0000027
23 1.83 0.00011 0.0215 0.0000024
25 2.00 0.00017 0.024 0.000004 1

> 0.0000128

A
_ w{1/123.281)/? — 0.00051 m?
4
45(0.454 ko
Pp = sa = 721.58
—
(1/3.281): m:
_ (0,002 — 0.001)(0.025) — 0.0000128
= 0.0017 m= 1.7 mm Answer
ra 0.0005 1(721.58) (0.020)

As soon as the bed is exhausted, as determined by the breakthrough of concentra-

tions, the carbon may be replaced. The replaced carbon may be reactivated again for
reuse. Up to 30 or more reactivations may be made without appreciable loss of adsorptive
power of the reactivated carbon.
Example 9-3
A wastewater containing 25 mg/L of phenol and having the characteristic breakthrough of
Example 9-2 is to be treated by adsorption onto an activated carbon bed. The (X/M)uit
value of the bed for the desired effluent of 0.06 mg/L is 0.02 kg solute per kilogram of
carbon. If the flow rate is 0.11 m/s, design the absorption column. Assume that the
influent is introduced at the top of the bed. The packed density of the carbon bed is
721.58 kg/m?.

Solution The design will include the determination of the amount of activated carbon
needed, the dimensions of the column, and the interval of activated carbon replacement.

Amount of phenol to be removed = 0.11(0.025 — 0.00006)

(60) (60)(24) = 237 kg/day

Amount of activated carbon needed = ate RS

0.029 ” day
Answer

From Example 9-2, adsorbate retained in 5 length of test column at exhaustion = (0.002 —
0.001)(0.025) — 0.0000128 = 0.0000122 kg. For A, of the test column = 0.0005 m2 and
6 = 0.0017 m, adsorbate retained per unit volume in 6 = 14.35 kg.
Carbon Adsorption 409

Assume that the diameter of the actual column = 4 m.

nm(4*) ea 2
Ay = = 2.57) ia

Adsorbate retained in 5 length of two actual columns in parallel

= 2(12.57)(0.0017) (14.35) = 0.62 kg

Assuming carbon replacement is to be done during every week of operation, the amount of
adsorbate retained in a column length of length L — 6 is

PTC) 02 — MOS Sake

; 1658
carbon required for 1658 kg of adsorbate = aan = 82,919 kg = 41,460 kg/column

Thus
41,460/721.58
SS FOOT SLT,
svi 1
say 4.8 m, including freeboard and other allowances Answer

Diameter = 4m Answer

Interval of carbon replacement = once every week Answer

Example 9-4
Design the column of Example 9-3 if the feed is introduced at the bottom and the carbon
is removed continuously at the bottom and added continuously at the top. Due to the
countercurrent operation, assume that the bed expands by 40%.

Solution The design will include, in addition to those in Example 9-3, the determination
of the carbon removal and addition rates at the bottom and top of the column, respectively.
These rates are determined from the length of the column and the interval of replacement
of Example 9-3.

4.57
Removal rate = addition rate = (12.57)(721.58) = 247 kg/h Answer
7(24)
The superficial velocity, from Example 9-3 = 0.11/12.57 = 0.0088 m/s, velocity relative to
the stationary bed. In the countercurrent operation, this relative velocity must be maintained
if the breakthrough curve is to be applicable. Hence in the present design, considering the
40% expansion,

4.57(1.4
: ee = 0.0088 V; = 0.0088 m/s
7(24)(60)(60)
1
*= 50088 > 12.5 m? => diameter = 4 m

L = 1.4(4.57) = 6.38 m, say 4.6 m, including freeboard and other allowances Answer
D=4.0m Answer
 410 Advanced Wastewater, Water Treatment and Land Treatment Systems Chap. 9

ION EXCHANGE

Ion exchange is the displacement of one ion by another. The displaced ion is originally
a part of an insoluble material, and the displacing ion is originally in solution. At the
completion of the process, the two ions are in reversed places: the displaced ion moves
into solution and the displacing ion becomes a part of the insoluble material.
There are two types of ion-exchange materials: the cation-exchange material and
the anion-exchange material. The cation-exchange material exchanges cations, while the
anion-exchange material exchanges anions. The insoluble part of the exchange material
is called the host. If R~” represents the host part and C*” the exchangeable cation, the
cation-exchange material may be represented by (R”),(C*”)-, where r is the number of
active sites in the insoluble material and c is the number of charged exchangeable particles
attached to the host material. (Note that rn must equal cm.) On the other hand, if R*?
represents the host part of the anion-exchange material and A” its exchangeable anion,
the exchange material may be represented by (R*°),(A ?)a, where the subscripts are
defined similar to those for the cation-exchange material. Letting cr be the displacing
cation from solution, the cation-exchange reaction is
(Re )\s(G7ey. ee Cou = (Ro )( Cray 4k corm (9-9)

where c, is the moles per liter of C, in solution. Also, letting A,‘ be the displacing
anion from solution, the anion-exchange reaction may be represented by

CS) CAS ecole a CAR asa Ae (9-10)

where a, is also the moles of A, in solution per liter. As shown by the equations above,
ion-exchange reactions are governed by equilibrium. For this reason, effluents from
ion-exchange processes never yield pure water.
Table 9-1 shows the displacement series for ion-exchange materials. When an ion
species high in the table is in solution, it can displace ion species in the insoluble material
below it in the table and thus be removed from solution.
Originally, natural and synthetic aluminosilicates called zeolites were the only ones
used as exchange materials. They have now largely been replaced by synthetic resins.
Synthetic resins are insoluble polymers to which are added, by certain chemical reactions,
acidic and basic groups called functional groups. These groups are capable of performing
reversible exchange reactions with ions in solution. The total number of these groups
determine the exchange capacity of the exchange material, while the type of functional
group determines ion selectivity. When the exchange capacity of the exchange material
is exhausted, the exchanger may be regenerated by the reverse reactions above. The
principles of regeneration are discussed next.

Sodium and Hydrogen Cycle

As shown in Table 9-1, sodium, lithium, and hydrogen are the logical choices for the
exchangeable ions. In practice, however, sodium and hydrogen are the ions of choice.
The cation-exchange resin using sodium may be represented by (R~"),.(Na‘),,. Its
lon Exchange 411

TABLE 9-1
DISPLACEMENT
SERIES FOR AN
ION-EXCHANGE
MATERIAL

Cations Anions

EP eee Na hes
ar Crm
Bat® NO,”
Ser ASO, ©
nO. se
Mg?+ MoO,
Cst iow
Rb* Cie
Kr la=
Nat OH —
i
Ht

exchange reaction with Ca** and similar ions is

rn 5
(R"), (Nat) en + zo = (R™), (Ca) pnp + rnNat (9-11)

As shown, Ca**+ has become embedded in the resin, thus, removed from solution, and
Na* has become solubilized. Similar reactions may be formulated for the rest of the ions
in Table 9-1.
As soon as the resin is exhausted, it may be regenerated. As shown in equa-
tion (9-11), by the law of mass action, the reaction may be driven to the left by increasing
the concentration of the sodium ion on the right. In practice, this is what is actually done.
The resin is regenerated by using a concentration of NaCl of about 5 to 10%, thus driving
the reaction to the left. Operations where regeneration is done using NaCl are said to
run on the sodium cycle. Regeneration may also be made using acids, such as H2SO4.
Where regeneration is through the use of acids, the cycle is called the hydrogen cycle
(from the proton or hydrogen ion content of acids).
Table 9-2 shows approximate exchange capacities and regeneration requirements
for ion exchangers. As shown, the values have great ranges. Hence, in practice, one must
have to perform an actual experiment or obtain data from the manufacturer for a particular
ion exchanger to determine the exchange capacity and regeneration requirement. The
capacity of an ion exchanger varies with the nature and concentration of ions in solution.
This is much the same as the characteristics of activated carbon. Hence the experiment
procedure is practically the same as that of the activated carbon discussed previously.
412 Advanced Wastewater, Water Treatment and Land Treatment Systems Chap. 9

TABLE 9-2 APPROXIMATE EXCHANGE CAPACITIES AND

REGENERATION REQUIREMENTS OF ION EXCHANGERS

Exchange Regenerant
capacit dumement
Exchanger and cycle (gEq/ft° ) Regenerant (gEq/ft? )

Cation exchangers
Natural zeolite, Na 5-10 NaCl 4-7
Synthetic zeolite, Na 10-20 NaCl 23}
Resin, Na 10-50 NaCl 24
Resin, H 10-50 H2SO4 24
Anion exchanger
Resin, OH 20-30 NaOH 5-8

Production of Pure Water

Theoretically, it would seem possible to produce pure water by combining the cation
exchanger operating on the hydrogen cycle and the anion exchanger operating on the OH
cycle. This is shown in the sequence of reactions below using Ca** as the displacing
cation and Cl~ as the displacing anion:

(RR), rn + ee (Rh Ca yarn (9-12)

(Reo) (OH oar 1 OCla—(Ri)s( Clap caroOHs (9-13)

Equation (9-12) would be the reaction in a first unit producing effluent H* ions and
all anions not removed by the cation exchanger. All cations represented by Ca** are, of
course, removed by the exchanger. The effluent from the first unit is now introduced and
used as the influent to the second unit, whose reaction is represented by equation (9-13),
producing OH~. All the anions are removed by this second unit; the H* is, of course,
not removed. The H* and OH™ then combine to produce HO.
On the surface, one may conclude that, indeed, pure water has been produced.
However, because of the restraint imposed by equilibrium, pure water is never produced.
In addition, the H* produced in equation (9-12) and the OH~ produced in equation (9-13)
do not altogether disappear to produce HO but that some H* or OH™ are left unreacted.
The explanation is in equation (9-14), which shows (rn — ro) moles of H* or OH™
remaining unreacted.

rnH’ +roOH” =roH.O+(rn—ro)H' or

i f (9-14)
rnH* +roOH” = rnH,0 + (ro — rn)OH™

Design of Bed Exchangers

The principle of design of the bed exchanger is exactly the same as that of the activated
carbon bed. In fact, the top and bottom drawings of Figure 9-2 can represent an ion-
 Membrane Processes 413

exchange bed and breakthrough curve, respectively, as they can with the activated carbon
bed. All parameters are similar: active zone, exchange capacity, 5, breakthrough curve,
and the like. The treatment will therefore no longer be discussed here.
Example 9-5
Using a bed exchanger, 20,000 gallons of water is to be treated for hardness removal between
regenerations having intervals of 8 h. The raw water contains 400 mg/L of hardness as
CaCO3. The exchanger is a resin of exchange capacity of 40 gEq/ft® based on 50 as the
equivalent weight of CaCO3. By a breakthrough experiment, 6 is determined to be about
| ft. Determine the dimensions of the exchanger. Assume that the equilibrium concentration
of hardness in the effluent is negligible.

Solution
400
Equivalents of hardness = = 0.008 gEq/L = 8 gEq/m*
50(1000)
20,000
Total exchange required = (8) = 605.61 gEq
7.48(3.281)3
Let the diameter of the bed be equal to 2 ft. Then

(27) 1 m (27)
iy ae! 404
i (5) 7 (L — 1)(40) == 605.6
)(40) 605.61

L = 5.32 ft; including freeboard and other allowances. Let L =7 ft. Answer
Diameter = 2 ft Answer

MEMBRANE PROCESSES

In general, there are two types of membrane processes used to treat water: electrodialysis
membrane and pressure membrane processes. The electrodialysis membrane process is
discussed first.

Electrodialysis Membrane Process

Figure 9-la (left), shows a cut section of an electrodialysis membrane. Electrodialysis

membranes are sheetlike barriers made out of high-capacity, highly cross-linked ion-
exchange resins that allow passage of ions but not of water. There are two types: cation
membranes, which transmit only cations, and anion membranes, which allow passage of
only anions. The cut section in the figure is a cation membrane composed of an insoluble
matrix and water in the pore spaces. Negative charges are fixed into the insoluble matrix,
and mobile cations reside in the pore spaces occupied by water. It is the residence of these
mobile cations that gives the membrane the property of allowing cations to pass through
it. These cations will go out of the structure if they are replaced by other cations that
enter the structure. If the entering cations came from water external to the membrane, the
cations are removed from the water. In anion membranes, the mechanics just described
are reversed. The mobile ions in the pores are the anions; the ions fixed to the insoluble
414 Advanced Wastewater, Water Treatment and Land Treatment Systems Chap. 9

matrix are the cations. The entering and replacing ions are anions from the water external
to the membrane.
The process of removal of the ions is portrayed in Figure 9-la (right). Inside the
tank, cation and anion membranes are installed alternate to each other. Two electrodes are
put on each side of the tank. By impressing electricity on these electrodes, the positive
anode attracts negative ions in solution, while the negative cathode attracts positive ions
in the solution. This impression of electricity is the reason why the respective ions
replace their like ions in the membranes. As shown in the figure, two compartments
become “cleaned” of ions and one compartment (in the middle) becomes “dirty” with
ions. The two compartments are diluting compartments and the middle compartment is
a concentrating compartment. The water in the diluting compartment is then withdrawn
as the product water. The concentrated solution in the concentrating compartment is
discharged to waste.

Power Requirement of Electrodialysis Units

From Figure 9-la, the membranes are arranged C A C A from left to right. In compart-
ments C A, the water is deionized, while in compartment A C, the water is not deionized.
The number of deionizing: compartments is two. Also, note that the membranes are al-
ways arranged in pairs; that is, cation membrane C is always paired with anion membrane
A. Hence the number of membranes in a unit is always even. If the number of mem-
branes is increased from four to six, the number of deionizing compartments will increase
from two to three; if increased from six to eight, the number of deionizing membranes
will increase from three to four; and so on. Hence if m is the number of membranes
in a unit, the number of deionizing compartments is equal to m/2, and the number of
deionizing-concentrating compartment pairs is also equal to m/2.
Since 1 equivalent of a substance is equal to 1 equivalent of electricity, in elec-
trodialysis calculations, concentrations are conveniently expressed in terms of equiva-
lents per unit volume. Let the flow to the electrodialysis unit be Qo. The flow per
deionizing-concentrating compartment or cell is then equal to Qo/(m/2). If the influent
ion concentration (positive or negative) is [Co] equivalents per unit volume, the total
rate of inflow of ions is [Co]Qo/(m/2) equivalents per unit time. One equivalent is also
equal to | faraday. Since a faraday or equivalent is equal to 96,494 coulombs, assuming
a coulomb efficiency of 7, the amount of electricity needed to remove the ions in one
cell is equal to 96,494[Co]Qon/(m/2) coulombs per unit time. If time is expressed in
seconds, coulomb per second is ampere. Therefore, 96,494[Co]Qon/(m/2) amperes of
current must be impressed on the membranes of the cell to effect the removal of the ions.
The same amount of current also passes through all the cells of the unit.
In electrodialysis calculations, a term called current density (CD) is often used.
Current density is the current in milliamperes that flows through a square centimeter
of membrane perpendicular to the current direction. A ratio called current density to
normality (CD/N) is also normally used, where N is the normality. A high value of
this ratio means that there is insufficient charge to carry the current. When this occurs,
a localized deficiency of ions on the membrane surfaces may occur. This occurrence
Membrane Processes 415

is called polarization. In commercial electrodialysis units CD/N of up to 1000 are

utilized.
The electric current / that is impressed at the electrodes is not necessarily the same
current that passes through the cells or deionizing compartments. The actual current that
passes through successfully is a function of the current efficiency, which varies with the
nature of the electrolyte, its concentration in solution, and the membrane system. Call M
the current efficiency. The amperes passing through the solution is equal to the amperes
required to remove the ions, that is,
IM = 96,494[Co]Qon (9-15)

m/2
The emf EF across the electrodes is given by Ohm’s law as shown below, where R
is the resistance across the unit.

E=IR (9-16)
If J is in amperes and R is in ohms, E£ is in volts. From basic electricity and using
equations (9-15) and (9-16), the power P is

PST 9)
Sea (See) R
Gg 6 2
(9-17)
mM
If / is in amperes, E is in volts, and R is in ohms, P in equation (9-17) is in watts. Of
course, the combined units of N and Qo must be in corresponding consistent units.
Example 9-6
A brackish water of 100,000 gallons per day containing 4000 mg/L of ions expressed as
NaCl is to be deionized using an electrodialysis unit. There are 400 membranes in the unit,
each measuring 18 by 20 in. Resistance across the unit is 6 &2 and the current efficiency is
90%. CD/N to avoid polarization is 700. Estimate the impressed current and voltage, the
Coulomb efficiency, and the power requirement.

Solution
4.0 tee
aot 4 el 06S E te 6g=gE al ONS 0.068
[Co] = [NaCl] =
NaCl 23+ 35.45 L m3
CD = 700(0.068) = 47.6 mA/cm?
47.6(18)(20) (2.547)
= 122.84 A Answer
1000(0.9)
E = IR = 122.84(6) = 737.04 V_ Answer
_ 96,494[
Co] Qon
m/2

96,494(68){100,000/[7.48(3.28
1) (24)(60)(60)]}}n
122.84(0.9) =
400/2
n =0.77 Answer

P = EI = /°R = 122.847(6) = 90,534 W_ Answer

416 Advanced Wastewater, Water Treatment and Land Treatment Systems Chap. 9

Pressure Membrane Processes

According to Jacangelo,' there are three allied pressure-membrane processes: ultrafil-

tration (UF), nanofiltration (NF), and reverse osmosis (RO). He states that UF removes
particles ranging in size from 0.001 to 10 zm and RO can remove particles ranging in
sizes from 0.0001 to 0.001 ym. As far as size removals are concerned, NF stays in
between UF and RO, being able to remove particles in the approximate size range of
0.001 zm. UF is normally operated in the range 15 to 75 psig; NF, in the range 75 to
250 psig; and RO, in the range 200 to 1200 psig. Microfiltration (MF) may be added to
this list. MF retains larger particles than UF and operates at a lesser pressure (10 psig).
While the nature of membrane retention of particles in UF is molecular screening, that
in MF is solid screening. UF screens salts, while MF screens dissolved solids. On the
other hand, comparing RO and UF, RO presents a diffusive transport barrier and possi-
ble molecular screening. Diffusive transport refers to the diffusion of solute across the
membrane. RO creates a barrier to this diffusion.
The basics of a normal osmosis process are shown in Figure 9-Ic. A bag of
semipermeable membrane is shown placed inside a bigger container full of pure water.
Inside the membrane bag is a solution of solute, sucrose. Because sucrose has osmotic
pressure, it “sucks” water from outside the bag, causing the water to pass through the
membrane. Introduction of the water into the membrane bag, in turn, causes the solution
level to rise as indicated by the height z in the figure. The height 7 is the measure of
the osmotic pressure. It follows that if sufficient pressure is applied to the tip of the tube
in excess of that of the osmotic pressure the height z will be suppressed and the flow
of water through the membrane will be reversed (i.e., it would be from inside the bag
toward the outside into the bigger container). Sucrose in a concentration of 1000 mg/L
has an osmotic pressure of 1.05 psia. Hence the reverse pressure to be applied must be,
theoretically, in excess of 1.05 psia for a sucrose concentration of 1000 mg/L. For NaCl,
its osmotic pressure in a concentration of 35,000 mg/L is 398 psia. Hence, to reverse the
flow in a NaCl concentration of 35,000 mg/L, a reverse pressure in excess of 398 psia
should be applied. The operation just described (i.e., applying sufficient pressure to the
tip of the tube to reverse the flow of water) is the fundamental description of the basic
reverse osmosis process. UF, NF, MF, and RO are all reverse osmosis processes. The
middle drawing of Figure 9-1 is a schematic of an RO plant. Figure 9-3 is a photograph
of a bank of modules in the Sanibel—Captiva reverse osmosis plant in Florida. This plant
treats water for drinking purposes.
Over the course of development of the membrane technology, RO modular designs
as shown in Figure 9-4 evolved. They are tubular, plate-and-frame, spiral wound, and
hollow fine-fiber modules. In the tubular design, the membrane is lined inside the tube,
which is made of ordinary tubular material. Water is allowed to pass through the inside
of the tube under excess pressure, causing the water to permeate the membrane and
to collect at the outside of the tube as the product or permeate. The portion of the
influent that did not permeate becomes concentrated. This is called the concentrate or

'J. C. Jacangelo (1989). “Membranes in Water Filtration.” Civil Engineering, 59(5), pp. 68-71.
 Membrane Processes 417

Figure 9-3 Bank of modules at the

Sanibel—Captiva reverse osmosis plant,
Florida.

Perforated Cellulose
<e aS ‘ PVC baffle acetate
Membrane membrane
OSS — >
i Ne Se
e Feed flow
*y.oNS&eeS

on Co / i \\ Grooved phenolic
6<—— Permeate Paper support plate
substrate
Large tube Plate and frame

Roll to
assemble -~~ =
Feed side ‘je Feed flow
spacer \ ee ee

Feed Hollow fibers

water

=i
Permeate flow (after
passage through
membrane) ———T

|
Brine

terial with membrane

each side and glued .- Product
und edges and to center tube water

Spiral wound Hollow fine fibers

Figure 9-4 Reverse osmosis module designs.

418 Advanced Wastewater, Water Treatment and Land Treatment Systems Chap. 9

reject. The plate-and-frame design is similar to the plate-and-frame press. In the case
of RO, the semipermeable membrane replaces the filter cloth. The spiral-wound design
consists of two flat sheets of membranes separated by porous spacers. The two sheets
are sealed on the three sides; the fourth side is attached to a central collector pipe;
and the entire sealed sheets are rolled around the central pipe. As the sheets are rolled
around the pipe, a second spacer, called an influent spacer, is provided between the sealed
sheets. In the final configuration, the spiral-wound sealed membrane looks like a cylinder.
Water is introduced into the influent spacer, thereby allowing it to permeate through the
membrane into the spacer between the sealed membrane. The permeate, now inside the
sealed membrane, flows toward the central pipe and exits through the fourth unsealed
side into the pipe. The permeate is collected as the product water. The concentrate or
reject continues to flow along the influent spacer and be discharged as the effluent reject
or effluent concentrate. This concentrate, which may contain hazardous molecules, poses
a problem for disposal.
In the hollow fine-fiber design, the hollow fibers are a bundle of thousands of par-
allel, self-supporting, hairlike fibers enclosed in a fiberglass or epoxy-coated steel vessel.
Water is introduced into the hollow bores of the fibers under pressure. The permeate
water exits through one or more module ports. The concentrate also exits in a one or
more separate module ports, depending on the design. All these module designs may be
combined into banks of modules and may be connected in parallel or in series. In addi-
tion, since the efficiency of rejection is not 100%, solutes break through the membrane
to contaminate the permeate.
As mentioned above, the reason the product or the permeate contains solute (that
ought to be removed) is that the solute has broken through the membrane surface along
with the water. It may be said that as long as the solute stays away from the membrane
surface, only water will pass through into the product side and the permeate will be solute-
free. However, it is not possible to exclude the solute from contacting the membrane
surface; hence it is always liable to breakthrough. The efficiency at which solute is
rejected is therefore a function of the interaction of the solute and the membrane surface.
As far as solute rejection and breakthrough are concerned, a review of literature revealed
the following conclusions:

1. Percentage removal is a function of functional groups present in the membrane.

2. Percentage removal is a function of the nature of the membrane surface. For ex-
ample, solute and membrane may have the tendency to bond by hydrogen bonding.
If such is the case, the solute would easily permeate to the product side.
3. Ina homologous series of compounds, percentage removal increases with the molec-
ular weight of the solute.
4. Percentage removal is a function of the size of the solute molecule.

2A. P. Sincero (1989). Reverse Osmosis Removal of Organic Compounds: A Preliminary Review of
Literature. Contract DAALO-86-D-0001. U.S. Army Biomedical Research and Development Laboratory, Fort
Detrick, Frederick, Md. pp. 6-40.
Membrane Processes 419

5. Percentage removal increases as the percent dissociation of the solute molecule

increases. Since the degree of dissociation of a molecule is a function of pH,
percentage removal is therefore also a function of pH.

This review also found that the percentage removal of a solute is affected by the
presence of other solutes. For example, methyl formate experienced a drastic change
in percentage removal when mixed with ethyl formate, methyl propionate, and ethyl
propionate. When alone, it was removed by only 14%, but when mixed with the others,
the removal increased to 66%. Therefore, design of RO processes should be done by
obtaining criteria utilizing laboratory or pilot-plant testing on the given influent.

Solute—water separation theory. The sole purpose of using the membrane is to

separate the solute from the water molecules. While MF, UF, and NF may be viewed
as normal filtration processes, only done on high-pressure modes compared to regular
filtration, the RO process is thought to proceed in a somewhat different way. Several
theories have been advanced as to how the separation in RO is effected. Of these
theories, the one suggested by Sourirajan with schematics shown in Figure 9-5a is the
most plausible.
Sourirajan’s theory is called the preferential sorption—capillary flow theory. This
theory asserts that there is a competition between the solute and the water molecules
for the surface of the membrane. Since the membrane is an organic substance, several
hydrogen bonding sites exist on its surface which preferentially bond water molecules
to them. (The hydrogen end of water molecules bonds by hydrogen bonding to other
molecules.) As shown on the left of Figure 9-5a, H2O molecules are shown layering over
the membrane surface, excluding the solute ions of Nat and Cl~. Hence this exclusion
brings about an initial separation.
On the right-hand side, a pore through the membrane is postulated, accommodating
two diameters of water molecules. This pore size designated as 2t, where f is the diameter
of the water molecule, is called the critical pore diameter. From this conception the final
separation of the water molecules and the solutes is materialized by applying pressure,
thus, pushing HO through the pores.
As the process progresses, solutes build and line up on the membrane surface,
creating a concentration boundary layer. This layer concentration is much larger than
in the bulk solution and, also much larger, of course, than the concentration in the
permeate side. This concentration difference creates a pressure for diffusive transport.
The membrane, however, creates a barrier to this diffusion, thus retaining the solute and
not allowing it to pass through. Eventually, the solute will diffuse out and leak to the
permeate side.

Types of membranes. Probably, the first membrane put to practical use was
the cellulose acetate (CA) membrane. The technique of preparation was developed by
Sourirajan and Loeb and consisted of casting step, evaporation step, gelation step, and
shrinkage step. The casting step involves casting a solution of cellulose acetate in acetone
containing an additive into flat or tubular surfaces. The additive (such as magnesium
 Bulk of the
solution + Demineralized water at the interface

Pure water x BTL rit

interface Porous film Pevultnnsitan Porous film
Ab Ute

Porous film surface Porous film surface

of appropriate of appropriate or kK
chemical nature chemical nature Critical pore diameter

Porous film Pore of critical size on the area ofthe film at the interface

1.6
R,
2) 1.4
6
2 12
a

q
Flux a Le
3
6 0.8
Periodic cleaning O
of membrane 0.6

0 10 20 30
Time Feedwater temperature (“C)
(b)

A
100 -

an SO,?- Divalent
5 ce rejection ions
5 OS-
—
2
eS
3
& Cl
Re
90
Nat

Monovalent rejection ions

85 ae ee
1000 3000 5000 7000
Operating time (h)
(c)

Figure 9-5 (a) Schematic representation of preferential sorption—capillary flow theory

(left); critical pore diameter for separation (right), (b) Flux decline with time (left);
correction factor for surface area of cellulose acetate membranes (right). (c) Solute
rejection as a function of operating time. (a) Reprinted with permission from Sourizajan,
S. and Agrawal, J.P. (1969) Industrial Eng. Chem, 61 by the American Chemical Society.

420
Membrane Processes 421

perchlorate) must be soluble in water, so that it will easily leach out in the gelation step,
creating a porous film. After casting, the solvent acetone is evaporated. The material
is then subjected to the gelation step, where it is immersed in cold water. The film
material sets to a gel and the additive leaches out. Finally, the film is subjected to the
shrinkage step which determines the size of the pores, depending on the temperature used
in shrinking. High temperatures create smaller pores.
After this first development of the CA membrane, different types of membranes
followed: CAB, CTA, PBIL, and PA membranes. CAB is membrane of cellulose acetate
butyrate; CTA is cellulose triacetate. The PBIL membrane is a polybenzimidazolone
polymer (Figure 9-6). Polyethylene amine reacted with tolylene diisocyanate produces
the NS-100 membrane (NS stands for “nonpolysaccharide”); when reacted with iso-
phthaloyl chloride, the membrane is called the PA-/00 membrane. Epiamine (a polyether
amine) reacted with isophthaloyl chloride produces the PA-300 membrane. The PAs
in the foregoing prefixes stand for “polyamide.” Hence the membranes referred to are
polyamide membranes. meta-Phenylenediamine reacted with trimesoyl chloride produces
the FilmTec FT-30 membrane. The formula for the NS-100 and 300 membranes and
the FT-30 membranes also contains the amide group; hence they are also polyamide
membranes. 2-Hydroxymethyl furan when dehydrated using H2SO,4 produces the NS-200.
Another membrane formed from 2-hydroxymethyl furan is Toray PEC-1000. NS-200 is
not a polyamide membrane.
Possible reactions for the synthesis of these membranes are shown in Figure 9-6.
For example, in the reaction of polyethylene amine with tolylene diisocyanate forming
NS-100, the H of the n repeating units of polyethylene amine moves to the N of tolylene
diisocyanate, destroying the double bonding between N and C. The C of the carboxyl
group of tolylene diisocyanate then bonds with the N of the amine. The sketch shown in
the figure is just one unit of the structure of the product. The final structure would be a
“mesh” of cross-linked assembly, thus creating molecular “pores.” The ethylene repeating
units form the backbone of the membrane, and the benzene rings form the cross-linking
mechanism that tie together the ethylene backbones. The reader should further scrutinize
the remainder of the synthesis reactions.
The ethylene units and the benzene rings are nonpolar regions, while the peptide
bonds and the amines are polar regions of the NS-100 membrane. In the NS-100, nonpolar
regions exceed polar regions; hence this membrane is said to be apolar. On the hand, CA
is more polar, since the OH” region exceeds the acetyl regions. The OH” of CA are the
polar regions, while the acetyl groups are the nonpolar regions. The polarity or apolarity
of any membrane is very important in characterizing its property to reject solutes.

Membrane Performance Characterization

The performance of a given membrane may be characterized according to its product

flux and purity of product. Flux, which is a rate of flow per unit area of membrane, is a
function of membrane thickness, chemical composition of feed, membrane porosity, time
of operation, pressure across membrane, and feedwater temperature. Product purity, in
turn, is a function of the rejection ability of the particular membrane.
 a
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422
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s O=)0=N
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Kl ee Ge \ COS Pa | 0=)
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Membrane Processes 423

Flux decline. The left-hand drawing in Figure 9-5b shows the decline in flux
with time of operation for a given membrane and membrane pressure differential. The
lower solid curve is the actual decline without the effect of cleaning. The sawtoothed
configuration is the effect of periodic cleaning. Although the relationship is shown as
a curve line, experience has shown that if the data are plotted in a log-log paper, the
relationship will be a straight line. Hence, empirically, the following equation may be
obtained:

InF =mint+ K (9-18)

where F is the flux, ¢ the time, m the slope of the line, and K is a constant. Equation (9-18)
may be used to estimate the ultimate flux of a given membrane at the end of its life (which
could be | to 2 years).

Example 9-7
A long-term experiment for a CA membrane module operated at 400 psi using a feed of
2000 mg/L of NaCl at 25°C produces the results shown below. What is the expected flux
at the end of | year of operation? What is the expected flux at the end of 2 years?

Time (h) | 1 10,000 25,000

Flux (gal/ft?-day) | 16 12 11

Solution

InF =mlint+ K
1 + 10,000 . 164+ 12
menses =a) ()()08s) i = (4
2D)

10, 5, 12+ 11
NS Retr ee tl =) 177500 zi == || le}
2 ?)
In 14 —In 11.5
m = —().157
~ In 5000.5 —1n 17,500 —
In 14 = —0.1571n 5000.5 + K Ke 398

equation isIn F = —0.157 Int + 3.98

In Fiyear = —0.157 In[365(24)] + 3.98 Fiyear = 12.87 gal/ft? -day Answer

In Foyear = —0.157 In[2(365)(24)] + 3.98 Foyear = 11.54 gal/ft? -day Answer

Flux through membrane. The flow of permeate through a membrane may be

considered as a “microscopic” form of cake filtration, where the solute that polarizes at
the feed side of the membrane may be considered as the cake. From Chapter 8, the
volume of filtrate ¥ that passes through the cake in time ¢ is given by
t [Lca ison
pee eee (9-19)
¥ ) 22AP)A? ” EAP)A
424 Advanced Wastewater, Water Treatment and Land Treatment Systems Chap. 9

where jz is the absolute viscosity of filtrate, c the mass of cake per unit volume of filtrate
collected, @ the specific cake resistance, —AP, the pressure drop across the cake and
filter, A, the filter area, and R,,,, the filter resistance. In RO, c corresponds to the solute
collected per unit volume of permeate at the layer adjacent to the membrane (called the
concentration boundary layer) and R,, to the resistance of the membrane. All the other
parameters have meanings similar to those provided in Chapter 8.
The volume flux F is ¥/tA. Using this and solving equation (9-19) for F, we have
VY

—
a = F ( AP)A
2 9-20
(9-20)
= pucad + 2AUR»,

Initially neglecting the resistance of the solute in the concentration boundary layer gives

GAP) (9-21)

As in cake compressibility, incorporate the compressibility of the membrane as

the applied pressure is increased. Considering the resistance of the solute, designate the
combined effect of compressibility, membrane resistance R,,, and solute resistance as
@»- Analogous to cake filtration, call the specific membrane resistance @,,. Hence

— = f = ——__( AP) (9-22)

where @,, iS given by

Am = Ono AP). (9-23)

where s is a measure of membrane compressibility. When s is equal to zero, @, is

equal to @,., the constant of proportionality of the equation. The straight-line form of
equation (9-23) is

In @» = IN Amo + 5 In(—AP) (9-24)

Calling the pressure in the feed side Py, the net pressure Py, acting on the membrane
in the feed side is

Pry = Py = IU f (9-25)

where sry is the osmotic pressure in the feed side. Also, calling P, the pressure in the
permeate side, the net pressure P,,, acting on the membrane in the permeate side is

Po, =P, — Tp (9-26)

where zr, is the osmotic pressure in the permeate side. Hence

—-AP= Prn = Pon = (Py a Tr) = (P, = Tp) = (Pr > Py) ng (yf = Tp) (9-27)
Membrane Processes 425

and the flux F is

FH Pp SPS tp tp) |
m

l 1 -
= ee a — Py) — (af — Xp) = ee — Py) — (az — 1,)]'

n= | Nee

HL&mo

(9-28)
Table 9-3 shows osmotic pressures of various solutes.

TABLE 9-3. TYPICAL OSMOTIC PRESSURES AT 25°C

Compound Concentration (mg/L) Osmotic pressure (psi)

NaCl 35,000 400

NaCl 1,000 11
NaHCO3 1,000 1S
Na2SO4 1,000 6
MgSO4 1,000 4
MegClo 1,000 10
CaCl2 1,000 8
Sucrose 1,000 1
Dextrose 1,000 2

Referring to Table 9-3, some generalizations may be made. For example, comparing
the osmotic pressures of 1000 mg/L of NaCl and 1000 mg/L of NazSO4, NaCl has about
1.9 that of the osmotic pressure of NazSOy,. In solution for the same masses, NaCl yields
about 1.6 times more particles than NazSO,4. From this it may be concluded that osmotic
pressure is a function of the number of particles in solution. Comparing the 1000 mg/L
concentrations of NazSO4, and MgSOq,, the osmotic pressure of Na2SOq4 is about 1.7
times that of MgSOy,. In solution NazSO,4 yields about 1.3 more particles than MgSO,.
The same conclusions will be arrived at if other comparisons are made; hence osmotic
pressure depends on the number of particles in solution. From this finding, osmotic
pressure is, therefore, additive.

Example 9-8
The feedwater to an RO unit contains 3000 mg/L of NaCl, 300 mg/L of CaCl2, and
400 mg/L of MgSO4. The membrane used is cellulose acetate and the results of a cer-
tain study are shown below. Determine the specific membrane resistance as a function of
pressure drop. What will be the flux rate if the pressure applied is increased to 700 psig?
Assume that for the given concentrations the osmotic pressures are NaCl = 34.2 psi, CaCl
= 2.49 psi, and MgSO, = 1.44 psi. Also assume that the temperature during the experiment
1Sp2 mC:
426 Advanced Wastewater, Water Treatment and Land Treatment Systems Chap. 9

Applied pressure (psig) Flux (gal/ft?-day)

250 3.0
600 4.6

Solution
i
F= Py —
at, [Pp — P Pp) = tz : = Mp)

yw = 9.0(10~+) kg/m-s = 77.76 kg/m-day

101,330
mp = 34.2 + 2.49 + 1.44 = 38.13 psi = (38.13) = 262,837.62 N/m?
14.7
P, = 14.7 psi= 101,330 N/m* sz» =0, —_assumed
101,330
250 psig = me (250 + 14.7) = 1,824,629.3 N/m

101,330
600 psig = (600 + 14.7) = 4,237,248.4 N/m?
14.7
3
3.0 gal/ft”-day = _————— = 0.122 m? /m”-d
Bo EA (3081) aa Gay
4.6
4.6 gal/ft”-day = ee = 00m ym day
7.48(3.281)
1 1,460,461.9
O22 SS [C1029 = NOLS NO) = (O23 ILO® = O)]| = =
Te 1 606 OC,
18,781.66
-— @m = 153,948 m—!
Am

3,873,081 49,808.14
Oi —— [(4,237,248.8 — 101,330) — (262,837.62 — 0)] = ———_ = ———_ ;
77.16Gm 77.760 m Am

@m = 292,989.1 m7!
In @m = In @mo + 5 In(—AP)

In 153,948 = In @mo + 5 In 1,460,461.9 (a)

In 292,989.1 = In @mo + 5 1n3,873,081 (b)

Solving yields s = 0.66; @mo = 13.142

@m = 13.142(-AP)°°> Answer
Fe W101830 ;
700 psig = —7—— (700 + 14.7) = 4,926,568.1 N/m?

p=UGmo GAP a se ee (nol

77.76(13.142) 101/330) = 262,837.62
se —0)]'- "°°

= O18 m? /m?-day = 4.42 gal/ft”-day Answer

Membrane Processes 427

Effect of temperature on permeation rate. As shown in equation (9-28), the flux

is a function of the dynamic viscosity jw. Since jz is a function of temperature, the flux
or permeation rate is therefore also a function of temperature. As temperature increases,
the viscosity of water decreases. Hence, from equation (9-28), the flux is expected to
increase with increase in temperature. Correspondingly, it is also expected that the flux
would decrease as the temperature decreases. The middle graph of Figure 9-5 shows
the correction factor Cy for membrane surface area (for CA membranes) as a function
of temperature relative to 25°C. As shown, lower temperatures have larger correction
factors. This is due to the increase of jz as the temperature decreases. The opposite is
true for the higher temperatures. These correction factors are applied to the membrane
surface area to produce the same flux relative to 25°C.

Percent solute rejection or removal. ‘The other parameter important in the design
and operation of RO units is the percent rejection or removal of solutes. Let Qo be the
feed inflow, [Co] be the feed concentration of solutes, Q, be the permeate outflow, C,
be the permeate concentration of solutes, Q, be the concentrate outflow, and C, be the
concentrate concentration of solutes. By mass balance of solutes, the percent rejection
R is

= De Cp Cum 2 On cn (100) = SF O.Gs (100) (9-29)

R
» Qo€oi d QoCoi
where the index 7 refers to the solute species 7.
Figure 9-5c shows the effect of operating time on percent rejection. As shown,
this particular membrane rejects divalent ions better than it does the monovalent ions. In
general, percent rejection increases with value of charge of ion.

Example 9-9
A laboratory RO unit 60 in. in length and 12 in. in diameter has an active surface area of
1100 ft?. It is used to treat a feedwater with the following composition: NaCl = 3000 mg/L,
CaCl> = 300 mg/L, and MgSOq = 400 mg/L. The product flow is 15 gal/ft?-day and contains
90 mg/L NaCl, 6 mg/L CaClo, and 8 mg/L MgSOq4. The feedwater inflow is 27,500 gallons
per day. (a) What is the percent rejection of NaCl? (b) What is the overall percent rejection
of ions?

Solution

( ~ QOoCoi — pie OpCpi __ 27,500(3000) — 15(1 100) (90)

Ae (100) = ————-—_________——— (100)
>> QoCoi 27,500(3000)
= 98.2% for NaCl Answer

‘ 7 27,500(3000 + 300 + 400) — 15(1100)(90 + 6 + 8) Gon

= 27,500(3000 + 300 + 400)
= 98.3% for all ions Answer
 428 Advanced Wastewater, Water Treatment and Land Treatment Systems Chap. 9

NUTRIENT REMOVAL

One of the reasons for removing nutrients is the prevention of eutrophication of receiving
streams. Of concern are the nutrients phosphorus and nitrogen. The absence of any one
of these nutrients in the water column will prevent eutrophication. Thus to control
the process of eutrophication, only one of them may be removed from the effluent of
treatment plants. The question is which one. In most cases, since treatment to remove
phosphorus is much cheaper than treatment to remove nitrogen, removal of phosphorus 1s
implemented. To control the eutrophication problem of the Chesapeake Bay in Maryland,
the total phosphorus limit for all discharges exceeding a certain flow to the upper reaches
of the bay is 2.0 mg/L. More recently, however, pressure has been building up to include
the control of nitrogen. In situations where the natural concentration ratio of phosphorus
to nitrogen in the environment is much, much higher than normally occurs in algal cells,
phosphorus removal may not be effective. Hence nitrogen removal may be warranted.
However, there is always the possibility that nitrogen fixers may simply manufacture the
nitrogen nutrient from the nitrogen contained in the air and dissolved in water, nullifying
the effort of removing nitrogen. Nonetheless, the technology for the removal of nitrogen
exists and the removal of nitrogen is being practiced. In this discussion of nutrient
removal, we discuss nitrogen removal first, followed by phosphorus removal.

Nitrogen Removal

There are two general methods of removing nitrogen: a physical method utilizing strip-
ping columns to remove ammonia and a biological method utilizing the processes of
nitrification and denitrification—biological nitrogen removal (BNR). Nitrification is the
process of oxidizing nitrogen to nitrate, and denitrification is the process of converting
the nitrate to nitrogen gas, thus removing nitrogen.

Removal of ammonia by stripping. The reaction of NH3 with water may be

represented by

NH; + H.O = NH,* + OH- (9-30)

From this reaction, increasing the pH will drive the reaction to the left, increasing the
concentration of NH3. This makes ammonia more easily removed by stripping. In prac-
tice, the pH is increased to about 10 to 11 by using lime. Stripping is done by introducing
the wastewater at the top of the column and allowing it to flow down countercurrent to
the flow of air introduced at the bottom. The stripping medium inside the column may be
composed of packings or fillings such as Raschig rings and Berl saddles, or sieve trays
and bubble caps. The liquid flows in thin sheets around the medium, thereby allowing
more intimate contact between liquid and the stripping air.
Let G be the moles of ammonia-free air, L the moles of ammonia-free water, Y, the
moles of ammonia per mole of ammonia-free air at the bottom, Y> the moles of ammonia
per mole of ammonia-free air at the top, X; the moles of ammonia per mole ammonia-
free water at the bottom, and X> the moles of ammonia per mole of ammonia-free water
Nutrient Removal 429

at the top. At any section between the bottom and the top of the column, the X’s and
Y’s are simply X and Y. By mass balance, the ammonia stripped from the wastewater is
equal to the ammonia absorbed by the air. Hence

Gia Vy LX 1) (9-31)
From the equilibrium between ammonia in water and ammonia in air, the following
equations for the relationships between X and Y at various temperatures and | atm of
total pressure may be derived (read literature).*

At 10°C: Y =0.469X (9-32)

AL20°C3 Y= Oe7
8 X (9-33)

At 30°C. eY =1025x (9-34)

At40°C: -Y =2.059X (9-35)

Ats0lG = = 2.692X (9-36)

The coefficients of X in these equations plot a straight line with the temperatures T (in
degrees Celsius). Letting these coefficients be C produces the regression equation,

Cr) 538578 338 (9-37)

Therefore, in general, the relationship between X and Y is

Y= (005857 0338) x (9-38)

In equation (9-31), L, X;, X2, and Y; are known values. Assuming that the
ammonia in the air leaving the top of the tower is in equilibrium with the ammonia
content of the entering wastewater and using equation (9-38), Y2 may be written as

Ys = (0.03857 — 0.338)X> (9-39)

Hence substituting equation (9-39) in equation (9-31) and solving for G/L, the moles of
air per mole of wastewater needed for stripping 1s
Ca XoeoG
(9-40)
TF (0.058579 = 0333)o
G in equation (9-40) is the theoretical amount of air needed to strip ammonia in
the wastewater from a concentration of Xz to a concentration of X;. In practice, the
theoretical G is often multiplied by a factor of 1.5 to 2.0 to account for nonideality or
nonequilibrium conditions. Once G has been established, the cross-sectional area of the
tower may be computed using the equation of continuity. The superficial velocity through
the tower should be less than the velocity that will cause flooding or boiling up of the
incoming wastewater. The method for estimating the tower height will be deferred until
Chapter 12.

3Metcalf & Eddy, Inc. (1991). Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, Disposal, Reuse. McGraw-Hill,
New York.
430 Advanced Wastewater, Water Treatment and Land Treatment Systems Chap. 9

Example 9-10
A treated wastewater containing 25 mg/L of NH3-N is to be completely stripped. The
temperature of operation is 15°C and the flow is 0.3 mgd. Determine the amount of air
needed assuming a multiplying factor of 1.5 for the theoretical G. Calculate the cross-
sectional area of the tower. Assume a superficial velocity of 1 fps.

Solution
0.00179 mol NH3-NA eee
se3.22(10-5) bona 2OQUNHE
X27 = 25 mg/L = 0.00179 smol/L =
(1000 — 0.025) /18 gmol ammonia-free water
XG =O ioe)

Assuming equilibrium at the top of the tower, we have

G Xo —X " 3.22(10°)
—0
= 1)205)
L ~~ (0.0585T — 0.338)X2 —¥, —_ (0.0585(15) — 0.338](3.22)(10-5) — 0
ActualiG)/a— ws (1E5) = 2278

0.3(10°)
hirer
0.3 med are 1135.54 m3 /day = 1.135(10”) g/day = 6.30(10’) gmol/day

air needed = 2.78(6.30)(10’) = 1.75(10°) gmol/day

IS 275 1a c
Bes 1.75(10°) 8) (22.4)
(99 ( )(
ae
1000 )= 4.14(10°) m?/day at 15°C Answer
LY)

1
ips meray NEON) = 26,333.44 m/day

tional of
ee es oft tower
ross-sectional = pases
—————.
26,333.44 = 157.2)
oP) iil

5 = 15 2 2)
Using three towers, cross-sectional area = mara 52.41 m°. Answer

Biological nitrogen removal. _ In BNR two steps are required: oxidation of ni-
trogen to nitrate and subsequent reduction of the nitrate to gaseous nitrogen, N>, called
denitrification. In the oxidation step, nitrogen is first oxidized to the nitrite form by Nitro-
somonas, followed by the oxidation of the nitrite to nitrate by Nitrobacter. This process
is called nitrification. In the denitrification step, the process occurs under anaerobic con-
ditions utilizing the normal heterotrophic organisms. Next we derive the biochemical
equations that represent these steps.
Nitrification: Nitrosomonas Stage. | From Chapter 2, the generalized donor reac-
tion, acceptor reaction, and synthesis reaction mediated by Nitrosomonas are, respectively,
shown by the following half-cell reactions.

5NH,* + $H20 > iNO, +4H*++e- —_—_ donor reaction (9-41)

50> +H*+e > 4HO acceptor reaction (9-42)
Nutrient Removal 431

3CO)
l
+5,HCO, =
+ 3,NH,” + Ht +e =
>
9-43
55 CsH702N + 3,H20 synthesis reaction ( )

In the discussion that follows, equivalents will be used. It must be remembered that
the number of equivalents of a substance varies depending on the reaction to which the
substance is referred.
If the equations above are simply added without modification, there will remain
electrons free to roam in solution; this is not possible. In actual reactions, the foregoing
equations must be modified to make the electrons given up by equation (9-41) balanced
by the electrons accepted by equations (9-42) and (9-43). Starting with 1 gram-equivalent
of NH4-N referred to equation (9-43), assume m equivalent is incorporated into the cell of
Nitrosomonas, Cs;H7NO2. Hence the NH4-N equivalent remaining for the donor reaction
of equation (9-41) is | —m, equals (1 — m)[(1/20)N/1JQ1/N) = 55(1 —m) moles. [The
+ came from equation (9-43), used to compute the equivalent weight of NH4-N.] Hence
only 5 (1 —m) moles of NH,-N is available for the donor reaction to donate electrons.
By equation (9-41), the modified donor reaction is then

1/6 (1 oa WEY
; (9-44)
ee
(5) « m)NO, Por glog (ls AV pe r
+ 1/6 (55)° m)H* recon + tmead (ued Va pean
76 (55) mye

From equation (9-43), the m equivalent of NH4-N is m[(1/20)N/1J(1/N) = m/20

moles. Hence the synthesis reaction becomes

1/5 1/20 De 20 |
a al Ora ie HCO, + 755 tal NH,t + an (a Ht
(9-45)
er 20 9/20
* 1720 (55)arte 20 Ca Sat 0 a 0
From equations (9-44) and (9-45), the electron-mole left for the acceptor reaction is

Bee)
|
1/6 \ 20
|
coer ee neue P/208620
m 3 — 13m
10

Hence the acceptor reaction, equation (9-42), modifies to

(=) Shel OTe ee LOTT (ae

e EE SEEN) (0) ue eee = )mo (9-46)
4 10 10 Theea 10
Adding equations (9-44), (9-45), and (9-46) produces the overall reaction for the Nitro-
somonas reaction shown below. Note that after addition, the electrons e~ are gone. The
432 Advanced Wastewater, Water Treatment and Land Treatment Systems Chap. 9

overall reaction should indicate no electrons in the equation, since electrons cannot just
roam around in the solution but must be taken up by some atom.
1 m BB
NE fo == enOy <= — (CO) =* moe a
20 20 ji

Area
20a
tes
~
oo Gh
20
arp Ope‘ tap
:
ity:
10
ee
Nitrification: Nitrobacter Stage. Now derive the Nitrobacter reaction. Again,
from Chapter 2, the generalized donor reaction, acceptor reaction, and synthesis reaction
mediated by Nitrobacter are, respectively, shown by the half-cell reactions below. For the
case of Nitrobacter, there are two competing synthesis reactions: the one that involves
the nitrate ion and the one that involves the ammonium ion. When these two ions are
present, the organism prefers to use the ammonium to the nitrate ion. Only when the
ammonium is reduced to low levels will the organism use the nitrate ion. Since the
process involved is nitrification, there is an abundance of the ammonium ion in solution.
Hence, as shown below, the synthesis reaction involves the NH en

‘NO, + 4H)O > NO, +Ht +e7 donor reaction (9-48)

Op dh jer de> Ss 5H2O acceptor reaction (9-49)

3CO2 + 5,5HCO, + 3,NH,;' +Ht+e7 >

59 UsH7O2N + 35H20 synthesis reaction

In the BNR process, the Nitrobacter reaction follows the Nitrosomonas reaction.
From equation (9-47), 35(1 —m) moles of NO,-N has been produced. These nitrite ions
serve as the elector donor for Nitrobacter. Hence the donor reaction of equation (9-48)
becomes

telag provee +36 ptt 3

Wl aye Pe
(9-51)
baie Peay i eyes ee |e Ea aan ee| ~m)]e=
92 0 ae | ero ae |e
Let n, based on equation (9-50), be the equivalents of Nitrobacter cells produced.
This quantity, n equivalents, is equal to n(Cs;H7O2N/20)/CsH7O.2N = n/20 moles.
Modifying, the synthesis reaction becomes

1/5 (ee Con. si al HCOn ’ = ah (Ga NH,* + “s, ca H*

TaD
(9-52)
* 7/20 Cie i (<5) CsHrO2N + i (<5) #20
Subtracting the electrons used in equation (9-52), (1/35) (n/20), from the electrons do-
nated in equation (9-51), (1/5) [35(1 — m)], produces the amount of electrons available
Nutrient Removal 433

for the acceptor (energy) reaction, (1 — m — 10n)/10. Modifying the acceptor reaction
gives us

1 f/1—m-—10n 1 —m-— 10n 1 —m—10n

— |——— ] 0,5 eee He ——__—— Je
4( 10 ) at ( 10 ) a ( 10 Je
(9-53)

Adding equations (9-51), (9-52), and (9-53) produces the overall reaction for Nitrobacter,

l—m n n n 1—m-—10n
NOs —_ NH _ CO —HCO,~
iy ee ae Cl,Garam ieneer 40.22
(9-54)
n l—m n
—C;H7;NO ——NO, + —H,0O
ieek yy
Overall nitrification. The Nitrosomonas reaction, equation (9-47), and the Ni-
trobacter reaction, equation (9-54), may now be added to produce the overall nitrification
reaction.

l+n Cam — nvntm 2—7m—5n

50 NEA? = yy + CO, + ras ane =
9-55)
n+m l1—m l—m l1+n—2m (
C;H7NO> H* NO, + ————H20
Ga a! antes aa bimoee t 80 :
The literature reports cell yields for Nitrosomonas of 0.04 to 0.29 mg/mg NH4-N.
To convert these values to number of equivalents, the equivalent weight to be used for
the cells should be C5H702N/20 and that for nitrogen should be N/20. This will enable
m to be solved, as will be shown in Example 9-11. The literature also reports cell yields
of Nitrobacter of 0.02 to 0.084 mg/mg NO)-N.* From the Nitrobacter reaction, moles of
cells per mole of NO2-N is n/(1 —m). Also, for nitrification to be the dominant reaction,
the BOD;/ TKN ratios should be less than 3. At these ratios, the nitrifier population is
about 10% and higher. For BOD;/TKN ratios of greater than 5.0, the process may be
considered a combined carbonaceous—nitrification reaction. At these ratios, the nitrifier
population is less than 4%. In addition, to ensure complete nitrification, the dissolved
oxygen concentration should be at least about 2.0 mg/L.

Example 9-11
A wastewater containing 60 mg/L of TKN is to be treated to a level of 20 mg/L of TKN.
If the flow is 3.0 mgd, determine the amount of alkalinity needed per day to buffer the
reactor to a pH of 7.0. Assume cell yields of 0.15 mg VSS/mg NH3-N for Nitrosomonas
and 0.02 mg VSS/mg NO2-N for Nitrobacter.

4M. G. Mandt and B. A. Bell (1982). Oxidation Ditches in Wastewater Treatment. Ann Arbor Science,
Ann Arbor, Mich., p. 48.
434 Advanced Wastewater, Water Treatment and Land Treatment Systems Chap. 9

Solution

tCENOM ne pepe
iheSse
On: ere Seen Onan e 20

0.15/(CsH7NO>/20) —_0.15/(113/20) Eq VSS

; V NH3-N = __———- = = ().01858————_
Ost ens ee ne 1/(N/20) 1/(14/20) Eq NH3-N
Eq NH;-N converted to cells _
= 0.01858
Eq original NH3-N

0 02/C2HsNOp2 ~ 0.00248 mo 1 VSS a n

0.02 mg VSS/mg NO,-N =
1/N mol NO2-N 1l—m
n = 0.00243
l= 779 1 — 0.01858
coefficient of HT = Te 7 = 0.0981

Hence from the reaction, } + n/20 = 0.050 mol of NH4-N (or TKN) produces 0.0981 mol
of Ht, or 1 mol of TKN produces 1.96 mole of H*.

3.0(10°) ]
Mol of TKN destroyed = [1000](0.060 — Ce aa = 32,443.89 mol/day
7.48(3.281)3
Ht produced = 32,443.89(1.96) = 63,590.024 mol/day

63,590.024
[H*] = = 5.60 mol/m? = 5.60(10°) mol/L pH = 2.25
3.0(10°) /7.48(3.281)3

H* + CaCO3 > Ca?+ + HCO,

moles H* to be destroyed to raise pH to 7.0

= 5.60(10-*) — 1077 = 5.60(10~7)/L = moles alkalinity needed = 560 mg/L as CaCO;

3.0(10°) 1000
= 560 |—————_ | | —— ] = 6359 ke/day Answer
7.48(3.281)3 10°

Denitrification: Heterotrophic Side Reaction. Aside from the normal anoxic

reaction of denitrification, there are two side reactions that can occur: continued ox-
idation using the leftover dissolved atmospheric oxygen from the nitrification reaction
(heterotrophic stage) and nitrite reduction. Immediately after nitrification, a large con-
centration of dissolved oxygen still exists in the reactor. Since the heterotrophic bacteria
are fast growers compared to Nitrosomonas and Nitrobactera, they overwhelm the reac-
tion, and the overall chemical process is the normal heterotrophic carbonaceous reaction
in this last stage of oxidation. (The heterotrophic bacteria are present continually during
Nutrient Removal 435

nitrification.) By control of the process, it is possible to balance the growth rates of the
nitrifiers and the heterotrophs such that they can be growing together. However, as soon
as the oxygen supply is cut off, the nitrifiers cannot compete against the heterotrophs in
the ever-decreasing concentration of dissolved oxygen. Hence the activities of the nitri-
fiers “fade away” and the heterotrophs predominate in the last stage of oxidation after
aeration is cut off.
The other side reaction is the reduction of nitrite to the nitrogen gas. Although
the process is aimed at oxidizing nitrogen to the nitrate stage, some nitrite can still be
found. In the absence of oxygen, the nitrite ion is reduced to the nitrogen gas. This will
be discussed further after we discuss the regular denitrification reaction.
Now, derive the chemical reaction for the heterotrophic stage. Let r be the equiva-
lents of Oz, based on the oxygen acceptor reaction, used after the end of the nitrification
step. Using sewage (C;gHj9NO3) as the electron donor for the denitrification reaction,
the ammonium ion is produced (Chapter 2). As mentioned before, given NO, and
NH,” in solution, organisms prefer to use NH,", first, before using NO, . Therefore,
from the two competing synthesis reactions, the one using the ammonium is favored.
Letting g be the equivalents of cells, based on the synthesis reaction, produced dur-
ing the last stage of the aerobic reaction, the synthesis reaction may be modified as
follows:

q
zs CUNO 2q
400,
Z Zl
+ AHco,- + NH +
=i HA HOM O56
Se eaeOT)Ge 2 ae 0, Sl 0c as)
From the r equivalents of O2, the acceptor reaction is
r r
42 Here eae (9-57)

From these equations the total electron moles needed from the donor is r + gq. Hence
the donor reaction using sewage (CjjH j9NO3) as the electron donor is modified as fol-
lows:

A CigHiyNO Se “0tP H0 > on

<P co;I nn," *s a! HCO, +7 + Qo" + CF qje” as

Adding equations (9-56), (9-57), and (9-58), the overall aerobic reaction is

: oC ioHiwNOs + 50) > = CsH;NO;

baal 5. cee —<t NH,* a nCOmen eee Ho ae
From equation (9-59), if Y, is the cell yield in moles per mole of sewage, (q/20)/[r + q/50],
then
Dip,
9-60
aS NG
436 Advanced Wastewater, Water Treatment and Land Treatment Systems Chap. 9

Normal Anoxic Denitrification. Let s, based on the synthesis reaction, be the

equivalents of cells produced for the regular anoxic denitrification reaction. Again, since
there is an abundance of NH,", the synthesis reaction will involve this ion; thus
Ky S s s Os
—CO,
+ —HCO, + —NH,* + sHt +se7 — —Cs5H;NO, + —H2O (9-61
S070. 100 ee a eT a ao"
Also, let p, based on the NO, acceptor reaction, be the equivalents of NO, utilized in
the anoxic reaction. The revised acceptor reaction is

OR
oe == rere
eae
r pe
ee >
eee
Tithe T
6)
5 HO (9-62)

From equations (9-61) and (9-62), the total e~ needed from the donor reaction is s + p.
Hence, the donor reaction using sewage is
Ooes 9(p
+ 5)
—
aa C,9H;>NO Sas ———H,0
75 20" ss
(9-63)
O( DisicS) aoa p+ s & if
5 CO, 4 a NH,” + 5 -HCO, +(p+s)H* +(p+t+s)e

Adding equations (9-61), (9-62), and (9-63), the overall reaction for denitrification is
produced,
jel,
—NO
Pi—H neane eyo G
5 eS 5 =I —C,)H;oNO
50 10f119INO3 >

S Dp 2p e135 ae 2 Dis _
—C;5H,NO, + —N> + NH, HCO :
OMe (0) MAM00e S100 3 (9-64)
9p—s 24p + 9s
CO, + ————H,0
= 50 2+ 100 ‘
From equation (9-64), if Y,, is the cell yield in moles per mole of nitrate, (s/20)/(p/5),
then

s=4pY, (9-65)

Denitrification: NOz,— Reduction Side Reaction. Now, derive the overall re-
action for the reduction of nitrite. Based on NO, as the electron acceptor, let ¢ be the
equivalents of NO,” utiliized. The acceptor reaction is

ENO.5
=EMD) 1.3 Hieetie
€ een
Eee
=aINo Pe 2 (9-66
= )

Because of the abundance of the nitrate ion, the synthesis reaction will be based on nitrate
as the nitrogen source. Let u, based on the synthesis reaction, be the equivalents of cells
formed. The synthesis reaction then becomes
Su 29u Llu
ou
78 CO, + “No-
Te ae Sar + +ue ~ iM
—> AG 5 age (9-67)

From equations (9-66) and (9-67), the total moles of e~ needed from the electron donor
Nutrient Removal 437

is t + u. Hence, the donor reaction using sewage is

ele O(t+ u)
—C,gHj>NO
a ee 3+ ———H,
75 H,0 —
9-68)
O(t +u) t+u t+u (
—— 50 CO, Dae 50 NH;en te +:——_HCO,-
50 t
aur (er u) Ht se W ae WE a

Adding equations (9-66), (9-67), and (9-68) produces the overall reaction for the
nitrite reduction,
t - u 28t + 3u t+u Uu
—NO, —NO,” Ht C,9H;oNO —C;H,NO
Se ST Se ha Geert UNI ENS cd coepeaN?
lg a ye a ee Me (9-69)
je ese 700 EE 3 2 100m wa
If Yz, is the cell yield in moles per mole of sewage, (u/20)/[(t + u)/50], then

Diver
u= ———_ (9-70)
5 — 2Ya,

Table 9-4 shows some values of Y., Y,, and Yy, that may be used to compute first
approximations to qg, s, and u.

Total Carbon Source Requirement. From the derivations above, pertinent re-
actions using domestic sewage as the source for the heterotrophic side reaction, nor-
mal anoxic denitrification reaction, and the nitrite-reduction side reaction are rewritten,
respectively, below.

r+q r qd Tp = Gy 2r — 3q a
GUHENOs HO) EE CLENOS CO; NH
SM i oe 0 SU TOD ae
or —3¢ _ 14r +.9¢ (9-71)
eee TCG Geter LITG
100 Amari Bade

TABLE 9-4 VALUES OF Yo, Yw, AND Yor

Carbon source Me We Vie

Domestic waste (mg VSS/mg BODs) 0).50-0.7

Domestic waste (mg VSS/mg COD) 0.7
Soft-drink waste (mg VSS/mg COD) 0.4
Skim milk (mg VSS/mg BODs) 0.5
Pulp and paper (mg VSS/mg BODs) 0.5
Shrimp processing (mg VSS/mg BODs) 0.5
Methanol (mg VSS/mg NO3-N) 0.7-1.5
Domestic sludge (mg VSS/mg BODs) 0.04-0.1
Fatty acid (mg VSS/mg BODs) 0).04—0.07
Carbohydrate (mg VSS/ mg BODs) 0.02—0.04
Protein (mg VSS/mg BODs 0.05—0.09
438 Advanced Wastewater, Water Treatment and Land Treatment Systems Chap. 9

P P Pans
SNOse
5 3 ee
Ts Hac
=F 50 AH
1014119 eNO 3 eee

NOMa ee ee 9-72
Tore oo ale (9-72)
2p — 3s eps 24p
+ 9s
EEE EGO er
cat OCA SO aaa ae
t Uu 28t + 3u t+u
SNOw eNO. soeeae ee ChtleNOs
Be or me es ea a
Uu t t+u
59 CHINO? + aN + nro (9-73)
126¢ +u t+u _ 644t
+ 69u
pores Tee Gg), HCO ES
EEE SS)
+ 3099 ae a
From these equations the amount of carbon needed in terms of moles of total sewage
SEW is
4(r +q) (DO) + SDs 5) NO,-N] Pa3(¢ + u)
SEW = [NO2-N] (9-74)
50r Dp
where the dissolved oxygen DO and NO3-N and NO»-N are all expressed in moles.
They are the amounts actually consumed during the entire denitrification process, which
involves the side reactions and the normal anoxic reaction. SEW may be expressed in
terms of the equivalent oxygen demand.
Consider the following overall oxidation reaction for sewage that represents the
biochemical reaction in a BOD bottle:
2Ci9Hj9NO3 + 402 > 18CO; + 2NH,* + 2HCO, + 14H20 (9-75)
From this equation, moles of O2 per mole of sewage = (4)/2. Or, using f, the conversion
factor from ultimate BOD to BODs (CBOD, to CBODs), moles of CBODs per mole of
sewage = f (4)/2 = f/8. In terms of BODs, moles BODs of sewage required is
_ f(SEW) n i (“ +q) 5(p+s) 3(t + u) [NO»-N1)
Boos Dol == INOEN
; 8 imi Ain Mae 501
(9-76)
Net Effluent Nitrogen and Use of Alternative Carbon Source. Although the
entire denitrification process indicates that nitrates have been denitrified, some ammonia
has also been produced. These are shown in equations (9-71), (9-72), and (9-73), from
which
A(Qr — 3q) 527 5) 1s)
NH4-N = ———— [DO] + ————WY[NO3-N NO2-N -7
: c oo Whee a ee
This nitrogen will appear in the effluent of the denitrification unit.
For the ammonium to be removed it must be nitrified and denitrified using an alter-
native carbon source that does not contain nitrogen. An example is methanol. Methanol
Nutrient Removal 439

was the carbon source used early in the study of denitrification. To compute the carbon
requirement, reactions parallel to the ones above should be derived for the alternative
carbon source. Equation (9-76) may, however, be used as a very crude approximation.
Example 9-12
After cutting off the aeration to a nitrification plant, the dissolved oxygen concentration is
2.0 mg/L. How much sewage is still needed for the carbonaceous reaction in this last stage
of aerobic reaction before denitrification sets in? How much NH,-N is produced?

Solution
ip ae @) r q or —q Lip = 30) i
CighigNOs ste-Ome ——CoHNO, CO NH,
50M dk. uni aloe 20a SOM GOO tee
geetee100 ACO 14r +9
iG
100
From Table 9-4, assume that Y. = 0.60 mg VSS/mg BODs; assuming that f = 0.68, moles
of BODs per mole of sewage = 0.68/8 = 0.085, or moles of sewage per mole of BODs =
11.76. Also note that BODs is oxygen and a mole of BODs is 32 mass units of oxygen.

C5H7NO2 = 5(12) + 7(1.008) + 14+ 2(16) = 113

CioHigNO3 = 10(12) + 19(1.008) + 14+ 3(16) = 201.2

2 0.00/13 78 Ay mol CsH7NO>
HA j/B2)0.1-76) ~ mole CjpH;gNO3
DN
Tage
From energy reaction, the equivalent weight of O2 = O2/4 = 8. Thus
2,
— 3 = 0.25 mEq/L => 0.0625 mmol/L of O2

_ 2(0.25)(0.014)
= 0.0014 mEq/L
5 — 2(0.014)

(r +.4)/50 _ (0.25 +.0.0014)/30

mole of sewage needed = r/4 = 0.25/4 = 0.080 mmol/L

= 16.20 mg/L Answer

(2r — 3q)/100 [2(0.25) — 3(0.0014)]/100

NHgq-N produced = ———————_ (0.080) = 0.080
ee po Fe GUE ane (0.25+40.0014/50.°
= (1.079 mmol/L = 1.1 mg/L Answer

Example 9-13
A domestic wastewater with a flow of 20,000 m?/day is to be denitrified. The effluent
from the nitrification tank contains 30 mg/L of NO3-N, 2.0 mg/L of dissolved oxygen, and
0.5 mg/L of NO2-N. Assume that an effluent total nitrogen not to exceed 3.0 mg/L is required
440 Advanced Wastewater, Water Treatment and Land Treatment Systems Chap. 9

by the permitting agency. (a) Calculate the quantity of domestic sewage to be provided to
satisfy the carbon requirement. (b) What is the corresponding BODs to be provided?

Solution
A4(r; + q) DO + 5 OFS GN + 3(t(t+u)
+
(a) SEW = NO2-N
50r S0p 50t

NHg-N
4(2r —3 2) DO + pers
= tae
Cp =s SO NO eNe (iets
( ut)NO2-N
100r 100 p 50t

ae 0.5
= 0.11 mEq/L
~ NO»-N/3
From Table 9-4, use Yg, = 0.5 mg VSS/mg BODs; assume that f = 0.68. Then

0/11 mol
Yar =
(1/32)(11.76) —-~ s moi sewage
» 12t¥ar, -2(011)0.012)
u = 0.0005 mEq/L
~ 5 =2Y¥a, = 5 — 20.012)
a0)
r= =i). 25) meEg/E
32/4
From Table 9-4, use Y. = 0.6 mg VSS/mg BODs. Then

= 2.0) Hoa mol

iG
~ 11.76/32” —s mol sewage
Berrie F 2025) @.014)
q = 0.0014 mEq/L
5 Oye O04)
Referring to Table 9-4, use
mgViS5 — 080/113) — mol VSS
030) = = ——————
mgNO3-N 1/14 mol N
Then

s =4pY, = 4(0.10)p = 0.40p

p mEq/L of NO3-N = p(N/5)(1/N) = p/5 mmol of NO3-N

4 30 Pp
NO3-N in effluent = — — ca (2.14 —0.2p) mmol/L
—

NEL Nee 4[2(0.25)

eHiuent
—
sae
3(0.
(=) 5[2p ~
acon 2,
100(0.25) 32, 100p 5

3(0.11 + 0.0005) (3
50(0.11) a] = 0.0048 + 0.008p + 0.002 = 0.0068 + 0.008p

3
Te (2.14 — 0.2p) + (0.0068 + 0.008p) = 2.15 — 0.192p
Nutrient Removal 441

p = 10.1 = 2.02 mmol/L of NO3-N. Note that the equivalent mmoles of p cannot exceed
30/14 = 2.14 mmol/L. Thus

s = 0.40(10.1) = 4.04

SEW = 4(0.25 + 0.0014) / 2 5(10.1 + 4.04) / 10.1 3(0.11 + 0.0005) / 0.5

a 50(0.25) 32 50(10.1) 5 50(0.11) 14

= 0.005 + 0.28 + 0.002 = 0.287 mmol/L = 58 mg/L

= 58(10~*)(20,000) = 1155 kg/day Answer

(b) Molecular weight of BODs = molecular weight of CBOD = (O2) = 32.

BOD; = f(SEW) _ 0.68(0.287) (32) = 0.78 mg/L

8 Pa 8
= 0.078(10~*)(20,000) = 16 kg/day Answer

Nitrification kinetics. The kinetics of nitrification is a function of several factors

the most important of which include pH, temperature, and the concentrations of ammonia
and dissolved oxygen. Experience has shown that the optimum pH of nitrification les
between 7.2 and 8.8. Outside this range, the rate becomes limited. As shown in the
nitrification reaction, acidity is produced. However, carbonaceous reactions produce al-
kalinity that serves to neutralize this acidity produced. Design calculations must therefore
be made such that alkalinity production of the carbonaceous reaction balances the acidity
production of the nitrification reaction. Temperature affects the half-velocity constant K,,
of the Monod equation. It also affects maximum growth rates. Growth rates for Nitro-
somonas and Nitrobacter are affected differently by change in temperature. At elevated
temperatures Nitrosomonas growth rates are accelerated while those of Nitrobacter are
depressed. Nitrosomonas is, however, so slow growing compared to Nitrobacter that
the kinetics is controlled by Nitrosomonas. Expressing the effects of these predominant
factors on the specific growth rate j,, the following Monod equation is obtained:

[N] [O2]
Mn = Enmax Ge (9-78)
K, + [N] Koz + [O02]
where [dnmax 1S the maximum jZ,,, [N] is the concentration of NH4-N (note: since TKN
hydrolyzes to produce NH, [N] may also represent TKN), [O2] is the concentration of
dissolved oxygen, and Kop is the half-velocity constant for oxygen. Ky, [nmax, and Cpy
have been determined experimentally and are given, respectively, by”
K = 190-0517 -1.158 (9-79)

Hapeties OATS
tres aD (9-80)
Col = 0.83302 pH) (9-81)

Ti GL, ja. Sill,

442 Advanced Wastewater, Water Treatment and Land Treatment Systems Chap. 9

The values of Kop range from 0.25 to 2.46 mg/L. T is in degrees Celsius, K,, is in mg/L,
and [nmax is per day. Cpy is a fractional correction factor.
For nitrification to be successful, the mean cell retention time (MCRT) of the
nitrifiers must control the design over that of the carbonaceous organisms. Naturally,
since the nitrifiers are slow growing, their MCRTs are longer; hence if they are not made
to control the design, they will simply be washed out of the reactor without ever being
given the chance to multiply.
In the operation of the nitrification unit, the dissolved oxygen concentration, pH,
and temperature are maintained at practically constant levels. Hence equation (9-78) may
be written as
[N]
Hn = Hnmax
4 [N] O-82)
where

ue =U ipanicolae H = a constant
Kor Oe
The equation for the kinetics of the activated sludge reactor under steady state
derived in Chapter 7 is
[S]} Qu [Xu] + (Qo — Qw)[Xe] — QolXo] |,
Umax ae T ka (9-83)
te (ESS V[X]
where [S] is the concentration of substrate, jJmax the maximum specific growth rate
cofficient, K, the half-saturation of the substrate, Q,, the sludge wasting flow rate, [X,,]
the underflow concentration of sludge, Qo the flow to the reactor, [X,] the effluent
concentration of microorganisms, Xo the inflow concentration of microorganisms, V the
volume of reactor, [X] the concentration of microorganisms in the reactor (MLVSS), and
kq the death rate coefficient.
But
ia OwlXu] + (Qo — Qw) [Xe] — QolXol l
ie
S= = ee [M and a
K, + [S] V(X] 6.
where 6, is the mean cell retention time (MCRT). Hence the equation becomes
l
Hao tka (9-84)
Using equation (9-84) as the model, the corresponding equation for the nitrifiers is
i
Ln >= oh + an (9-85)

In equation (9-85), ka» is the coefficient of decay, jz, the specific growth rate, and
6, is the MCRT. A typical range of values for kg, is 0.04 to 0.08 per day. Since 6, is
the larger, in design, 6, must be made equal to 6,,. Also, a safety factor SF is applied to
the minimum 6, (= 6'") to obtain the design 6, (= 62), In equation form this is written

SF ae
ra oe = oe
(9-86)
Nutrient Removal 443

In equation (9-85), the theoretical limit of 44, may be approached when 6, ap-
proaches infinity. At this limiting condition, /,, is equal to kg,. Combining this condition
with equation (9-82) and solving for [N], the limit concentration [Njim] is

[Nim] = ee (9-87)
nmax as Kan

Once the MCRT has been determined, the volume of the reactor may be determined.
From Chapter 7, the formula is reproduced below, where the cell yield Y has been changed
to Y.. Note that as mentioned before, 6. is made equal to 6,, or, more specifically, @, is
made equal to 67.
Qo([So] —[S]) — L+ka6&
(9-88)
V[X] Saroyy:
In nitrification, heterotrophs and nitrifiers are coexisting. The process is still the
activated sludge process, where the major objective is the satisfaction of the carbona-
ceous demand and nitrification considered incidental. Hence, to size the volume of the
reactor using equation (9-88), [So] and [S] must be for carbonaceous concentrations. The
proportion of the respective population varies with the ratio of BODs to TKN as shown
in Table 9-5.

Example 9-14
Design an activated sludge process to nitrify an influent with the following characteristics
to 2.0 mg/L ammonia: Qo = 1 mgd, BODs = 200 mg/L, TKN = 60 mg/L, and minimum
operating temperature = 10°C. The effluent is to have a BODs of 5.0 mg/L. The DO is to
be maintained at 2.0 mg/L. Apply an SF of 2.0 and assume that Kg2 = 1.3 mg/L. Calculate
the MCRT needed to nitrify to the limiting concentration of ammonia.

Solution
i
Ln = an + Kan

Ky = 100-0517 -1.158 _ 490.05100)-1.158 _ 9.995 me/L

/ [Oz]
Unmax = /nmax pH
Ko2 + [O02]
Teper 0.47 e9:098(7 —15) a 0.47¢9:09800-15) 120 per day

TABLE 9-5 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE FRACTION OF NITRIFYING

ORGANISMS AND THE BODs/TKN RATIO

BOD; /TKN Nitrifier fraction BODs/TKN Nitrifier fraction

0.5 0.40 5) 0.05

| 0.20 6 0.04
2 0.15 7 0.04
3 0.08 8 0.03
4 0.06 Y) 0.03
444 Advanced Wastewater, Water Treatment and Land Treatment Systems Chap. 9

220
Lnmae = Ooo (=) (it "0.83372 — 7.2) = 0.176 per day

Assume that kg, = 0.06 per day.

pe [N] )= (0.16 per day

Ln Mamax K, + [N] = 0,10 | ===
Ge =+2.0

|
ONG — ms + 0.06; 6, = 10.0 days
n

9/4 — 64 = 2(10) = 20 days

BOP ya aa
TKN 60
From Table 9-5, nitrifier population:

a UL083 i 3,33 = 3 + —0.077

0.064 — 0.083 4—3

Assume that MLVSS = 2500 mg/L. Then

heterotrophs = (1 — 0.077)(2500) = 2307 mg/L

Assume that kg = 0.05 per day at 10°C and Y. = 0.60 mg VSS/ mg BODs.

Qo([So] —[S]) _ 1+ kaGe

V[X] Pee
1(10°)/7.48(3.281)7](0.20 — 0.005) _ 1 +0.05(20
Mews ( ek = eee)
a) V = 1920 m*> Answer
V (2.307) 20(0.60)

Kan K,
[Nim] = ———~—
LMnmax — kan

0.06(0.225)
= = 012 mol,
0.176 — 0.06

: LN] 0.176
an
Ly = a
NG 0.225Eee+ 0.12 =U.0.061217
z
ne d tage
1
0.061217 = — + 0.06 6, = 822 days Answer
n

Denitrification kinetics. In denitrification, the parameters that can limit the

kinetics are the carbon source and the nitrate ions. The Monod equation may be
written as

[N]
N [S]
S (9-89)
ame IE, BLING eeeTT
di nina)
Nutrient Removal 445

where /Lgn is the specific growth rate, gpmax the maximum jg,, [N] the concentration
of the nitrate ion, Kz, the half-velocity constant for denitrification, [S] the concentration
of the carbon source, and K, the half-velocity constant for the carbon source. Values for
HLdnmax Tange from 0.3 to 0.9 per day, those for Kg, range from 0.06 to 0.14 mg/L, and
those for K, range from 25 to 100 mg/L as BODs.°:’
By analogy with nitrification kinetics, the expressions for jug, and [Njim] are written,
respectively, below.

]
Ldn = —— + Kaan (9-90)

Kaar Is
[Nim] = ——————_ (9-91)
Manmax Kadn

WETS elder 11) (hae (Ste Can = eICRI tom the, demitritiers, 77 = kai ron
denitrifiers.
Now size the reactor volume. Since the overriding consideration in denitrification
is the reduction of the nitrogen concentration, the [S]’s must be changed to the nitrogen
concentration [N]. Hence the equation is

Qo([No] Se [N]) ~ I + KadnOan

(9-92)
V [Xan] Ban Ne

Values for kgan range from 0.04 to 0.08 per day.

There are two possible calculations for the volume of the denitrification reactor:
calculation where denitrification is allowed to occur in the tank where nitrification is
occurring, and calculation where denitrification is done in a separate tank or in a separate
portion of the same tank, as in the oxidation ditch. Where denitrification and nitrification
occur in the same tank, the process is a batch process, an example of which is the SBR
(sequencing batch reactor). In this instance, the larger of the two volume requirements
(denitrification or nitrification) will control the design. Where denitrification and nitrifi-
cation are done in separate tanks or in a separate portion of the same tank, each process
will require its own reactor volume.

Example 9-15
A domestic wastewater with a flow of 20,000 m>/day is nitrified. The effluent from the
nitrification tank contains 30 mg/L of NO3-N, 2.0 mg/L of dissolved oxygen, and 0.5 mg/L
of NO2-N. (a) Assuming that an effluent total nitrogen not to exceed 3.0 mg/L and an effluent
BODs not to exceed 10 mg/L are required by the permitting agency, calculate the reactor
volume required for denitrification. (b) How long does it take to attain the limiting nitrate
ion concentration?

© Metcalf & Eddy, Wastewater Engineering.

7Mandt and Bell, Oxidation Ditches in Wastewater Treatment, p. 64.
446 Advanced Wastewater, Water Treatment and Land Treatment Systems Chap. 9

Solution

(a) Ldn
LL =F om ain Kadn

Required NO3-N concentration = 3.0 —0.5 = 2.5 mg/L

m [N] [S]
[Ldn = dnmax Kan
+ (N) KLIS]

Assume that (anmax = 0.6 per day, Ks = 25 mg/L of BODs, kadn = 0.07 per day and Kay,
= 0.1 mg/L. Then

0.6 ete, a = Oslos peraa

aie SAG Ta map ware toe
OMos— pe + 0.07 O77 = 1025 = saye2 days usiness kt— 2
dn

Qo([No] — [N]) ay 1+ Kadn®dn

V[Xanl Aan Yn

Assume that [Xq,] = 2500 mg/L and Y, = 0.8 mg VSS/mg NO3-N. Then

20,000(0.03 =— 0.0025) — 2
1+ OVE) Pde een ee
V(2.5) pelo.

(b) [Nin] = a
dnmax — “ddn

eee Manmes S = 0.6 (5~3) = 0.17 per day

[Nim] = ae = 0.07 mayfL

Cir = OG (an) (3-5) = (1.070588 per day

Thus

0.070588 = + 0.07 Gan = 1700 days Answer

dn

Phosphorus Removal

As mentioned before, to control eutrophication of receiving streams, the amounts of

nutrients to be discharged are controlled. In most cases, only phosphorus is targeted
to be removed; in some very unusual circumstances, both nutrients, phosphorus and
nitrogen, are required to be removed. The latter case is usually dictated by politics,
although in some situations, some authorities claim that the requirement can be defended
Nutrient Removal 447

scientifically.’ Federal and state authorities have required total phosphorus limits ranging
from 0.1 to 2.0 mg/L.
There are two general ways to remove phosphorus: by biological uptake and
by chemical precipitation. Assume that the percent phosphorus content of biological
sludge is known. If the rate of sludge wasting is given, the rate of phosphorus re-
moval can be calculated. From knowledge of the flow rate and the influent phosphorus
concentration, the effluent phosphorus concentration can then be estimated. The for-
mula of bacterial cells in the wasted sludge, including phosphorus, has been written as
CsH7NO> Po.074.”
The other method of biological removal of phosphorus is by /uxury uptake. In this
process, after the sludge is removed by sedimentation, it is subjected to an anaerobic
condition. This condition causes the organism to release its phosphorus content, thereby
producing a sludge that is highly deficient in phosphorus. As the sludge is returned to the
reactor, the organisms, because of having experienced a deficiency, tend to assimilate an
extraordinarily large amount of phosphorus. Hence the term /uxury uptake. Authorities
claim that an effluent concentration of 1.0 mg/L can be achieved without further treatment,
such as chemical addition.'? However, it would very dangerous simply to rely on this
information. Due to unforeseen variables that can creep into the process, it would be best
that a pilot study be conducted for a particular waste. Numerous times, values claimed
by the literature and by so-called authorities are nowhere near the values obtained in
practice.
Chemical precipitation is normally accomplished by the use of lime and salts of
iron and aluminum. Iron is usually in the form of ferric chloride or sulfate. Depending
on the pH values, phosphorus in wastewater is present in the various forms of the dis-
sociation products of phosphoric acid and in the forms of polyphosphate or condensed
phosphate and organic phosphorus. In the condition of pH prevailing in wastewaters, the
predominant form of the acid dissociation product (collectively called orthophosphate) is
HPO g. Since the phosphorus can be present in various forms, it makes no sense to write
the chemical reactions involved when determining the amount of chemicals needed for
precipitation. Suffice it to say that the precipitates formed are metal phosphates, except
for the use of lime where the precipitate formed is hydroxyapatite, Cas(OH)(PO,)3.
The iron and aluminum precipitants produce acids, while lime produces a basic
condition. These are indicated by the reactions below. Alum and iron reactions are
buffered between pH 5.5 and 7.0. The use of lime is normally carried out at pH above 11.

Fe*+ + HPO,?- > FePO,+Ht (9-93)

5Ca(OH)2 + 3HPO,” — Cas(OH)(PO4)3 + 60H” + 3H2O (9-94)
A+ + HPO, > AIPO,+ Ht (9-95)

8C. D’Elia of the University of Maryland Chesapeake Bay Laboratory, personal communication.
°R. S. Ramalho (1977). Introduction to Wastewater Treatment Processes. Academic Press, New York,
p. 171.
107 J. McGhee (1991). Water Supply and Sewerage. McGraw-Hill, New York, p. 531.
448 Advanced Wastewater, Water Treatment and Land Treatment Systems Chap. 9

Points of addition of the precipitants can be ahead of the primary tank, in the re-
actor, or after secondary treatment. As shown in the previous equations, however, for
the chemical reactions to occur, the phosphorus must be in the form of orthophosphorus.
Hence since phosphorus can also be in the condensed and organic forms, additions other
than after secondary treatment will effect a lesser degree of removal. After secondary
treatment, the condensed and organic forms will have been hydrolyzed to the ortho form,
hence precipitation reaction can be carried out effectively. In addition, lime cannot be
added in the bioreactor, since the pH can rise to undesirable levels to inhibit biological
activity. Also, in addition to the precipitation reactions, removal of phosphorus may be
effected by adsorption of the condensed and organic species to precipitate flocs. Rep-
resentative doses of the aluminum and iron salts are shown in Table 9-6. Actual doses
should be determined by on-site testing.

TABLE 9-6 REPRESENTATIVE DOSES OF

ALUMINUM AND IRON SALTS

Percent P Al:P mole ratio Fe:P mole ratio

95 2) ¥5| 7 On
90 —- _— 1.30:1
85 ell oe
80 — 0.90:1
> Seu —
70 0.65:1

Example 9-16
A domestic wastewater with a flow of 20,000 m3/day contains 15 mg/L of total phosphorus.
(a) If 6000 Ib/day of sludge solids containing 75% VSS is wasted, calculate the concentration
of total phosphorus in the effluent. Assume that the sludge contains 2.0% solids and that
the water density is 997 kg/m?. (b) If the process train takes advantage of the luxury uptake
(1.0 mg/L total P in effluent), how much total P is wasted in the sludge?

Solution

(a) Total input of total phosphorus = (0.015)(20,000) = 300 kg/day

CsH7NO2Po.074 = 5(12) + 711.008) + 14 + 2(16) + 0.074(31) = 115.35

0.074(31)
Total P in wasted sludge = 6000(0.75) = 89.49 kg/day
ilSe35

(6000/0.02) — 6000
H20 in sludge wasted = = 294.88 m? /day
DoF

Effluent total P= Sie 2 ONDISa eave =

0, 000204568 Bae g/m> = 10.6 mg/L Answer
 Land Treatment Systems 449

(b) Total P in effluent = 0.001(20,000 — 294.88) = 19.71 kg/day

Total P in wasted sludge = 300 — 19.71 = 280.29 kg/day Answer

Example 9-17
How much aluminum salt is needed to reduce the total P in Example 9-16 to a level of
2.0 mg/L in the effluent?

Solution

Total P to be removed = 300 — (20,000 — 294.88)(0.002) = 260.59 kg/day = 8.41 mol/day

260.59
% removal = (100) = 86.96
300
From Table 9-6, aluminum salt needed:

ee eile) = 86.96 — 85
x = 1.82 mol/mol total P
232517 | oes
Thus total moles required = 1.82(8.41) = 15.29 mol/day = 15.29(27) = 412.72 kg/d
of Al Answer

LAND TREATMENT SYSTEMS

In general, the following may be considered as land treatment systems: irrigation or

slow-rate treatment system, rapid infiltration, overland flow, wetlands, and septic tank-
leaching field treatment system. The use of aquaculture and leaching cesspools may also
be added to this list. Figures 9-7 and 9-8 show the schematics of these land treatment
systems.

Irrigation, Rapid Infiltration, and Overland Flow Systems

The irrigation or slow-rate land treatment system involves the use of wastewater to irrigate
three classes of water-tolerant plants: forage and field crops, landscape vegetation, and
serviculture (the growing of woodlands). Examples of forage crops are reed canary grass,
brome grass, tall fescue, perennial rye grass, and coastal bermuda grass. Examples offield
crops are barley, sorghum, corn, and milo. Application to landscape vegetation includes
highway median and border strips, airport strips, golf courses, parks and recreational
areas, and wildlife areas. Plants utilize nutrients from the waste for their growing needs.
Thus, depending on the type of plant, nitrogen and phosphorus are removed.
Uptake of various plants was considered in Chapter 8 in connection with the discus-
sion on sludge used as fertilizer. Wastewaters are applied either by sprinklers or sprays or
by surface-applicator arrangements such as gated pipes distributing sewage to ridge-and-
furrow systems. Figure 9-9 is a photograph of a spray irrigation system using reclaimed
wastewater in a highway.
 Surface : , Crop {
application

Root zone

ai >~Deep
Subsoil (a) percolation

Evapotranspiration
isaac’ application

Zone of aeration A peaereraresfe

and Weatment = Fitration }ek noe
Old water table

EAVeGEG ep wO SURNAME a aSeis lakiuppagy api OfaT

Surface
application Crane Runoff
vegetative litter °
collection

Cattail Bulrush

_ Water Water
. hyacinth | primrose
‘ ey)
See
Y 5 fo) Ss
SE :

( th
Wn ag! Aerobic zone

ine Anoxic zone

NWT = Organicer : \

Barth =e .

Figure 9-7 Four land treatment systems: (a) irrigation; (b) rapid infiltration;
(c) overland flow; (d) wetland.
 Land Treatment Systems 451
300 mm
1 Perforated 4
Septictank Tightline each line minimum Manhole cover

ee a Oo

Soe maeissicien,= sere

w= 2222-2 2-2-2 ------ o.!
Sete ee Boe See ei

Distribution valve . aie Swratee ove)

: S
Lae ead S E < Scum layer fs
eh m| 2 Inlet tee S
ae eee ee ees Se sll | he)
xs Ps 700 mm oOutlet tee S
PU ae | so Sludge—__ s

eee eee ee ee em ee ee ee eee ~O

See cgig = aC oe -O 1900 mm 950 mm

Leaching field Septic tank

300mm
{ | Silt and soil
barrier
Vertical cA ie }

slide Perforated
gates leach line

50
mm Drain rock
900
mm

Valves and venting

Drain cross-section

Figure 9-8 Septic tank—leaching field system.

Rapid-infiltration systems involve applying wastewater at rates much faster than the
irrigation system. The method does not rely on the ability of plants to remove nutrients
but is designed to hasten the rate of infiltration into the ground. Systems objective
can include groundwater recharge and recovery of the treated wastewater after natural
treatment by the process. In this system, nitrogen is removed by denitrification.
The overland flow method essentially applies biological treatment to the waste as it
is applied over the upper reaches of sloped, vegetated terraces and allowed to flow across
to runoff collection ditches. Water-tolerant grasses such as bermuda, tall fescue, and red
canary are planted to minimize channeling and erosion. Bacteria growing in thatches that
accumulate on the soil surface carry out oxidation, nitrification, and denitrification.
The mechanisms of treatment of the three land treatment systems discussed above
are infiltration and percolation, evaporation, and biological and physical treatment. For
infiltration and percolation, the role of sodium merits consideration. High sodium con-
centrations in clay-bearing soils disperse soil particles, decreasing soil permeability. A
452 Advanced Wastewater, Water Treatment and Land Treatment Systems Chap. 9

Figure 9-9 Spray irrigation system using reclaimed wastewater in a highway.

permeability characterization of soil may be made by using the sodium absorption ratio
(SAR) developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture Salinity Laboratory:

SAR
5 [Na] (9-96)
~ JCal + [Mg)/2
where the concentrations are all expressed in mEq/L. A SAR value above 9 may adversely
affect the permeability of fine-textured soils.

Wetland Treatment System

A wetland treatment system (Figure 9-7d) consists of natural or artificial wetlands to

which wastewater is applied for the purpose of treatment. To avoid nuisance conditions,
the system is normally shallow, typically less than 0.6 m in depth. Water hyacinth,
water primrose, cattail, and bulrushes are grown. Wetlands are effective for treatment
of wastewaters for a number of reasons. Bacteria attached to the submerged roots and
stems of aquatic plants remove soluble and colloidal BOD from the waste. The adsorption
and filtration ability of the roots and stems, the ion exchange and absorption ability of
the wetland sediment, and the submerged condition of plants that reduce the perturbing
effects of climate contribute to the effectiveness of wetland treatment systems.
A problem in the use of wetlands, however, is the potential proliferation of mos-
quitoes. The wastewater marsh containing polluted water under stagnant conditions,
combined with submerged, floating, and emergent vegetation, creates an ideal habitat for
mosquito breeding. To solve this problem, system design should allow natural predators
of mosquito larvae to thrive, such as mosquito fish, dragonfly and damselfly nymphs; and
a variety of water beetles. In addition, the system should not be overloaded.
Land Treatment Systems 453

Septic Tank—Leaching Field System

This system is an on-site method of disposing wastewater, where dwellings, commercial

establishments, and the like are located in unsewered areas. As shown in Figure 9-8, the
system is composed of septic tank and drain or leaching fields (top two figures). The
design and installation of the tank is indicated in the third figure from the top. The tank
is buried underground. Settleable solids from the wastewater settle and form solids at
the bottom of the tank. Lighter solids such as grease float to the top to form scums.
Partially treated wastewater flows through the space between the scum and the sludge at
the bottom into the effluent outlet.
The purpose of the leaching field is to disperse the effluent from the septic tank
and to allow it to percolate through the ground in such a manner as not to clog the
soil. The field is composed of perforated drain pipes buried in trenches as indicated
at the bottom. The trench is filled with sand and gravel so as to permit unobstructed
passage of water into the soil. For efficient operation of the leaching field, two paral-
lel fields are desirable. While one field is used, the other could be rested. The mid-
dle drawing shows the valve that is used to alternate wastewater flow between two
drain-field systems. Also indicated on the right-hand side are the vent and inspection
port.
Current design practice makes use of the results of percolation (perc or perk) tests.
In the perc test, holes varying in diameter from 150 to 300 mm and in depths varying
from 0.6 to 1.0 m or to the bottom of the proposed trench are dug in the ground and
soaked for a period of 24 h. After this period, the percolation rate is determined by
measuring the time it takes the water surface in the hole to lower to a predetermined
level, or the depth that the water surface will fall over a specified period of time. From
the results of the test, the allowable hydraulic loading rate is then determined by using
some table prepared for the purpose (may be obtained from a county department of public
works).
However, the method described above is not accurate. For one thing, soaking
for 24 h before percolation, which would be true in actual operation, is far from a
state of equilibrium conditions. Also, wastewaters tend to build up solids and mats
on the surface of the trench, thus blocking infiltration; in the test, water is used. A
better method would be to determine the equilibrium rate and to use this value for de-
sign. A study conducted on loam and sandy loam soils yielded an equilibrium value of
20 mm/day after about 253 days.'' This study also indicated that for a given wastew-
ater, equilibrium values are the same regardless of the initial permeabilities of the soil.
Others!” have also found the following “equilibrium” values: 0.3 in./h for water after
120 days and 0.3 ft/day for sewage after 70 days. In mm/day, these values are, re-
spectively, 183 and 91. This shows a large discrepancy between the use of water and
sewage.

OQ. B. Kaplan (1991). Septic Systems Handbook. Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, Mich., p. 67.
21 W. Canter and R. C. Knox (1985). System Tank Effects on Ground Water Quality. Lewis Publishers,
Chelsea, Mich., p. 34.
454 Advanced Wastewater, Water Treatment and Land Treatment Systems Chap. 9

The maximum limit of percolation is that of the hydraulic conductivity of the soil
formation. From Darcy’s law,

V=K— (9-97)

Initially, the length of percolating water @, called the advancing front, is zero, and the
velocity of percolation V is infinite. After a time, ¢ increases and V decreases. After an
infinitely long time, h and @ will become equal, making the derivative equal to 1; hence
the velocity of percolation or percolation rate becomes equal to the hydraulic conductivity.
Normally, a period of greater than 250 days may be considered as “the infinitely long
time,

Design and Operating Parameters

The following criteria, which are found to work in practice, are critical to the successful
design of land treatment systems. These criteria, among which are hydraulic and organic
loading rates, should not be exceeded. Table 9-7 shows design and operating parameters
of land treatment systems.
To determine the hydraulic loading rate that a system can accept, a water balance
must be performed. The sum of the wastewater applied and the design precipitation
must equal the sum of evaporation and percolation. The values of precipitation and
evaporation to use must be obtained from a probability distribution analysis of the highest
precipitaion and lowest evaporation. A wet year in a return interval of 10 years may be
used. Probability distribution analysis was discussed in Chapter 3 and is not repeated
here.
The organic loading consideration includes BOD as well as nutrient balance. The
key principle in nutrient balance is that sufficient amounts of nutrients must be provided
for the needs of the plant. As far as BOD loading is concerned, the key point is that
critical loading rates must not be exceeded, to ensure effective operation of the system.
In an actual design, an extensive search of the literature and/or a pilot study must be
made to ascertain the appropriate loading rates to be used. An example problem on
nutrient balance was given in Chapter 8. The same technique may be used.

Example 9-18
An investigation into the capability of a certain piece of land for land treatment yielded the
results shown in the table on page 456. If a flow of 1.0 mgd with a BODs of 40 mg/L
is to be applied, what are the land requirements for (a) irrigation, (b) rapid infiltration, (c)
overland flow, and (d) wetland methods of treatment?

Solution (a) /rrigation: Assume that irrigation is possible only from May to October.

Total evapotranspiration and percolation

= (13.2 + 16.5 + 17.8 + 16.5 + 11.2 + 9.9) + (25.4)(6) = 237.5 cm = 0.2375 m

Total precipitation = 1.0+ 0.5 + 0.3 +0.5 + 1.5 = 3.8 cm = 0.0038 m
 J1SVL
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456 Advanced Wastewater, Water Treatment and Land Treatment Systems Chap. 9

Month Evapotranspiration Percolation (cm) Precipitation (cm)

January 1.8 25.4 5.8

February 3.8 25.4 5.8
March LS 25.4 So)
April gS 25.4 4.1
May 13:2 25.4 1.0
June 16.5 25.4 OLS
July 17.8 25.4 0.3
August 16.5 25.4 Trace
September 2 25.4 0.5
October 9.9 25.4 IS
November 3.8 25.4 2.6
December 2.0 25.4 5.6

Wastewater that can be applied = 0.2375 — 0.0038 = 0.2337 m in 6 months. This must be
equal to the total wastewater in | year.

1(10°)
Total wastewater flow = ————— (365) = 1,381,569 m?/yr, to be applied in 6 months
7.48 (3.281)?
Thus,

1,381,569 5
area requirement = Wee Oe ZOO) m? = 591 ha, based on hydraulics

Total BODs loading = (0.040)(1,381,569) = 55,262.76 kg/yr, to be applied in 6 months

From Table 9-7 use a BODs loading rate of 10 g/m?-wk = (0.010)(4)(6) = 0.24 kg/m? in
6 months. Then
é SDL2 IO 5 ; ,
area requirement = setae te 230,261.5 m* = 23.26 ha, based on organic loading

Hence the recommendation would be based on hydraulics; area requirement = 591 ha.
Answer
(b) Rapid infiltration: Sewage will be assumed applied year-round. Adding the yearly
evapotranspiration, percolation, and precipitation, the following are obtained:

Yearly evapotranspiration = 114.3 cm = 0.1143 m

Yearly percolation = 304.8 cm = 0.3048 m

Yearly precipitation = 33.0 cm = 0.033 m

Thus the total sewage that can be applied = (0.1143 + 0.3048) — 0.033 = 0.3861 m/yr, too
low for rapid infiltration. Compare with Table 9-7.
1,381,569 *
Area requirement = ones 3,578,267.30 m* = 357 ha, based on hydraulics

From Table 9-7 use a BODs loading rate of 300 g/m?-week = (0:30) 4)G2) = 1474 kg/m?-yr.
DADO 5
Area requirement = ——_—— = 3837.69 m° = 0.38 ha, based on organic loading
14.4
Land Treatment Systems 457

Hence the recommendation would be based on hydraulics; area requirement = 357 ha.
Answer
(c) Overland flow: Since overflow treatment depends on microbial activity, assume
that operation is limited to the months of May to October as in the case of irrigation system.
From hydraulic balance, the amount of wastewater that can be applied by normal irrigation is
0.2337 min 6 months. This figure will be modified in overland flow design. From Table 9-7
use a hydraulic loading rate of 0.20 m3/m?-week = 0.20(4)(6) = 4.8 m in 6 months. Then
1,381,569
area requirement = = 287,826.88 m? = 28.78 ha, based on hydraulics
4.8
From Table 9-7 use a BODs loading rate of 40 g/m*-week = (0.040)(4)(6) = 0.96 kg/m in
6 months. Then
55,262.76 5 ‘ :
area requirement = GoM 57,563.38 m* = 5.76 ha, based on organic loading

Hence the recommendation would be based on hydraulics; area requirement = 28.78 ha.
Answer
(d) Wetland: Sewage will be assumed applied year-round. If the land is to be con-
verted into a wetland, assume that the data on percolation will no longer apply. Hence
the total sewage that can be applied to satisfy hydraulic balance of evapotranspiration and
precipitation only is 0.1143 — 0.033 = 0.0813 m/yr. From Table 9-7, use hydraulic loading
rate of 20 m/yr. Then

1,381,569
area requirement = = 68,798.78 m* = 6.88 ha, based on hydraulics
20 + 0.0813

From Table 9-7 use a BODs loading rate of 70 g/m?-week = (0.070)(4)(12) = 3.36 kg/m?-yr.
Then
55,262.76 2 . ‘
area requirement = BEATS 16,447.25 m° = 1.65 ha, based on organic loading

Hence the recommendation would be based on hydraulics; area requirement = 6.88 ha.
Answer

Example 9-19
Design an on-site septic tank system for a residential home in an unsewered area. Assume
an occupancy of 8 persons with a sewage production of 380 L-capita/day. Also, assume an
equilibrium percolation rate of 0.02 mm/day.

Solution

Sewage production = 0.38(8) = 3.04 m? /day

Assuming a detention time of 4 days, volume of tank = 12.16, say 12 m> Answer
: 3.04 >
iTrenchyarea required —"=—— = 52 ms
0.02
Assuming a width of 1.0 m, trench length = 152/1(1) = 152 m. Use a dual system of
trenches, as shown in Figure 9-7. Also, construct trenches on 2-m centers. |Answer
458 Advanced Wastewater, Water Treatment and Land Treatment Systems Chap. 9

GLOSSARY

Activated carbon. Carbon whose adsorbing surfaces are increased by a process called
activation.
Active zone. That region of an adsorption bed that is actually absorbing at a given
instant of time.
Adsorbate. The solute that is adsorbed onto the surface of a solid.
Adsorbent. The solid that adsorbs the adsorbate.
Adsorption. The concentration of solute on the surface of a solid due to the unequal
attractive forces of lattice atoms at the surface compared to that at the interior of
the solid.
Adsorption capacity. The ratio of the mass of the adsorbate to the mass of the adsorbent
that produces the lowest possible concentration of the adsorbate in the equilibrium
solution.
Adsorption isotherm. The equation relating the equilibrium concentration of the adsorb-
ate to the ratio of the adsorbate to the adsorbent at a given temperature.
Advanced secondary treatment (AST). An advanced treatment producing 15 mg/L
BODs and 10 mg/L TKN.
Advanced tertiary treatment. Treatment above the secondary level.
Anion exchanger. Ion exchanger that exchanges anions between the exchanger bed and
the water.
Anion membrane. Electrolytic membrane that allows only the passage of anions.
Cation exchanger. Ion exchanger that exchanges cations between the exchanger bed
and the water.
Cation membrane. Electrolytic membrane that allows only the passage of cations.
Cell yield. Mass of organisms produced per unit mass of substrate utilized.
Chemical adsorption. Also called chemisorption, the type of adsorption that is due to
a chemical reaction between the solute and the solid surface.
Concentrate. The high-concentration effluent that did not pass through the membrane
in a reverse OSMOSIS process.
Current density. The current in milliamperes that flows through a square centimeter of
electrolytic membrane perpendicular to the current direction.
Denitrification. The process of converting nitrate to nitrogen gas.
Electrolytic membrane. Sheetlike barrier, made out of high-capacity, highly cross-
linked ion-exchange resins that allow the passage of ions but not water under the
influence of electricity.
Granular activated carbon (GAC). Activated carbon in granular form.
Host. The insoluble portion in an ion-exchange material.
Hydrogen cycle. The ion-exchange process that uses the hydrogen ion as the exchange-
able cation.
Ion exchange. The displacement of one ion by another.
Ion exchanger. A unit that treats water by the exchange of ions.
Irrigation or slow-rate land treatment system. A method of waste treatment where
wastewater is used to irrigate water-tolerant plants for forage and field crops, land-
scape vegetation, or serviculture.
Symbols 459

Luxury uptake. The extraordinary large assimilation of nutrient after subjecting the
organism to a deficiency of the nutrient.
Microfiltration. A reverse osmosis process operated at a pressure of less than 10 psig.
Nanofiltration (NF). A reverse osmosis process operated at a pressure of 75 to 250 psig.
Nitrification. The process of oxidizing nitrogen to nitrate.
Osmotic pressure. The pressure exerted by a solvent in passing through a semipermeable
membrane toward the solute.
Overland flow. A method of waste treatment where wastewater is allowed to run off
over the surface of the ground.
Permeate. The product that passes through the membrane in a reverse osmosis process.
Physical adsorption. Also called van der Waals adsorption, a type of adsorption that is
due to the van der Waals force.
Polarization. A localized deficiency of ions on an electrolytic membrane surface due to
a low current density/normality ratio.
Powdered activated carbon (PAC). Activated carbon in powdered form.
Rapid infiltration. A method of waste treatment where wastewater is applied to land at
rates faster than irrigation.
Reverse osmosis. A process of treating water by applying pressure greater than the
osmotic pressure of the solute on one side of a membrane.
Sodium cycle. The ion-exchange process that uses sodium as the exchangeable cation.
Synthetic resin. Polymers to which are added certain functional groups that make the
polymer an ion exchange material.
Ultrafiltration (UF). A reverse osmosis process operated at a pressure of 15 to 75 psig.
Wetland treatment system. Natural or artificial wetlands used for treatment of waste-
water.
Zeolite. Natural or synthetic aluminosilicates used as ion-exchange material.

SYMBOLS

c solute collected per unit volume of permeate

[e] equilibrium concentration of adsorbate in solution
eel concentration of wastewater treated at time n during break-
through
[Cr+] concentration of wastewater treated at time, n + 1, during
breakthrough
Cou pH correction factor for [nmax
us factor to convert CBOD to BODs
Jia flux in reverse Osmosis process
G moles of ammonia-free air
Kan decay constant for nitrifiers
Ker half-saturation constant for nitrogen in denitrification
Ke half-saturation constant for nitrogen in nitrification
Koo half-saturation constant for oxygen
460 Advanced Wastewater, Water Treatment and Land Treatment Systems Chap. 9

half-saturation constant of carbonaceous nutrient

moles of ammonia-free water
equivalent of NHq-N incorporated to Nitrosomonas per equiv-
alent of original NH4-N
mass of adsorbent
equivalents of Nitrobacter synthesized per equivalent of
original NH4-N
equivalents of NO3-N used in the anoxic reaction
pressure in feed side of RO
net pressure in feed side of RO
pressure in permeate side of RO
net pressure in permeate side of RO
equivalents of cells synthesized during last stage of aerobic
reaction
equivalents of oxygen remaining after nitrification
percent solute rejection
membrane resistance
equivalent cells produced during regular anoxic reaction
coefficient of membrane compressibility
total moles of sewage requirements
equivalents of NO2-N reduced during denitrification
equivalents of cells synthesized during NO4-N reduction in
denitrification
volume of wastewater treated at breakthrough
volume of wastewater treated at time n during breakthrough
volume of wastewater treated at time n + | during break-
through
volume of wastewater treated at exhaustion of bed
mass of adsorbate; moles of ammonia per mole of ammonia-
free water, L
moles of ammonia per mole of ammonia-free air, G
aerobic cell yield in moles per mole of sewage
nitrite reduction cell yield in moles per mole of sewage
cell yield in denitrification in moles per mole of nitrate-N
specific membrane resistance
length of active zone
MCRT for nitrifiers
permeate absolute viscosity
Mdn specific growth rate for denitrification
Ldnmax maximum [Lgn
Mn specific growth rate for nitrification
Lnmax maximum [L,
Ma osmotic pressure in feed side of RO
Tp osmotic pressure in permeate side of RO
 Problems 461

PROBLEMS

9-1. Solve this problem by using the Freundlich isotherm. A wastewater containing 25 mg/L of
phenol is to be treated using PAC to produce an effluent concentration of 0.10 mg/L. The
PAC is simply added to the stream and the mixture subsequently settled in the following
sedimentation tank. The results of the test are shown below. The volume of waste subjected
to each test is one liter. If the flow rate Qo is 0.11 m°/s, calculate the quantity of PAC
needed for the operation. What is the adsorption capacity of the PAC?

PAC Equilibrium concentration of

Test added (g) phenol (mg/L)

025 6.0
2 0.32 1.0
3 0.5 0.25
a 1.0 0.09
5 1S) 0.06
6 2.0 0.06
r 2.6 0.06

9-2. Solve this problem using the (X/M)yi valued obtained in Problem 9-20. A breakthrough
experiment is conducted for phenol, producing the results shown below. Determine the
length 6 of the active zone. The diameter of the column used is 1 in., and the packed
density of the bed is 45 Ib/ft?. [Co] is equal to 25 mg/L.

Gime) ava)

0.06 1.0
1.0 1.24
6.0 Il33ih
10 1.43
15 1.48
18 1.58
20 ey2
23 1.83
DS 2.00

9-3. In Problem 9-1, calculate the quantity of PAC needed to treat the influent phenol to the
ultimate residual concentration.
9-4, A waste containing 50 mg/L of phenol was subjected to an equilibrium test to determine the
constants in the Langmuir isotherm. One-liter samples were dosed with powdered activated
carbon in four jars, and when equilibrium was reached the equilibrium concentrations of
phenol were analyzed. From the results shown below, determine the constants.
462 Advanced Wastewater, Water Treatment and Land Treatment Systems Chap. 9

Jar Carbon added (g) Equilibrium concentration (mg/L)

1 0.52 6.2
2 0.62 iol
3 I 0.30
4 Beg) 0.79

9-5. In Problem 9-4, calculate the dosage required to produce an effluent concentration of
0.15 mg/L.
9-6. By performing a breakthrough experiment, 5 was found to be equal to 10 cm. The X/M
value of the bed, corresponding to 1.0 mg/L phenol, was found to be 0.061 kg solute per
kilogram of carbon. The influent phenol concentration is 35 mg/L and is to be reduced to
1.0 mg/L. If the influent flow is 0.11 m>/s and regeneration is to be done every week, design
the carbon bed. Assume that the packed density of the bed is 721.58 kg/m?.
9-7. Verify if the carbon adsorption data shown below follow the Langmuir and Freundlich
isotherms.

C (mg/L) X/M (g/g)

10 0.21
20 0.26
30 0.35

9-8. What kinds of pollutants are removed by activated carbon columns? How are they regener-
ated?
. A wastewater containing 25 mg/L of phenol and having the characteristic breakthrough
of Problem 9-2 is to be treated by adsorption onto an activated carbon bed. The X/M
value of the bed for the desired effluent of 0.1 mg/L is 0.029 kg of solute per kilogram
of carbon. If the flow rate is 0.11 m/s, design the absorption column. Assume that the
influent is introduced at the middle of the column. The packed density of the carbon bed is
721.58 kg/m?.
9-10. What percent of the total surface area of activated carbon is the internal surface?
9-11. A water softener tank is 2.0 m high and 0.5 m in diameter. The tank is filled with ion-
exchange resin with an exchange capacity of 57 kg/m* as CaCO3, allowing 0.5 ft of free-
board. The occupants use 2500 L/day. If the influent water has a hardness of 280 mg/L
as CaCO3 and is to be softened to 80 mg/L, how much should be bypassed? What is the
regeneration cycle? Assume that 6 is 0.5 ft and that the effluent from the softener before
mixing with the bypass flow is virtually free of hardness.
9-12. A sample of water has the following analysis: carbon dioxide = 0.41 mEg/L, total alkalinity
= 2.0 mEg/L, total hardness = 4.3 mEg/L, and Mg hardness = 1.0 mEg/L. Calculate the
amount of lime and soda ash required to soften the water.
9-13. A brackish water of 100,000 gal/day containing 4000 mg/L of ions expressed as NaCl is to
be deionized using an electrodialysis unit. A membrane size of 18 by 20 in. is available. The
Problems 463

CD/N value to be used to avoid polarization is 700. Assuming that the coulomb and current
efficiencies are, respectively, 69% and 90%, design the unit. Assume that the resistance
through the unit is 6 Q.
9-14. An electrodialysis unit consists of 300 membranes measuring 20 by 24 in. The ion concen-
tration measured in terms of NaCl in 50,000 gal of brackish water to be demineralized is
3500 mg/L. The resistance through the unit is 6 Q and the current efficiency is 90%. The
CD/N value to be used to avoid polarization is 700. Estimate the removal efficiency and the
power consumption.
9-15. A city of 400,000 population plans to use a brackish raw water supply containing 20,000 mg/L
as sodium chloride at a rate of 150 gal/capita-day. If the proposed process will result in
30% recovery, what is the annual volume of waste brine? What is the weight of equivalent
sodium chloride in this annual volume of waste brine?
9-16. A long-term experiment for a CA membrane module operated at 400 psi using a feed of
2000 mg/L of NaCl at 25°C produces the results below. Assuming that the membrane does
not deteriorate, how long will it take to reduce the flux to zero?

Time (h) l 10,000 25,000

Flux (gal/ft?-day) 16 12 11

8 We The feedwater to an RO unit contains 3000 mg/L of NaCl, 300 mg/L of CaCl2, and 400 mg/L
of MgSO. What is the flux rate if the pressure applied is 1400 psig? Assume that for the
given concentrations the osmotic pressures are NaCl = 34.2 psi, CaClo = 2.49 psi, and
MgSO, = 1.44 psi. Also, assume that the temperature during the experiment is 25°C.
9-18. For the particular location of the city in Problem 9-15, the annual evaporation rate of the
waste brine is 10 in. If solar evaporation is to be used to dispose of this liquid waste, what
is the surface area of the evaporation pond required for this purpose?
9-19. Calculate the ion concentrations in the concentrate of a laboratory RO unit 60 in. in length
and 12 in. in diameter. The RO has an active surface area of 1100 ft* and is used to treat
a feedwater with the following composition: NaCl = 3000 mg/L, CaClz = 300 mg/L, and
MgSO, = 400 mg/L. The product flow is 15 gal/ft?-day and contains 90 mg/L of NaCl,
6 mg/L of CaCl2, and 8 mg/L of MgSO,4. The feedwater inflow is 27,500 g/day.
9-20. Determine the amount of air needed to strip completely a wastewater containing 25 mg/L
of NH3-N. The temperature of operation is 22°C and the flow is 0.3 mgd. Assume a
multiplying factor of 1.5 for the theoretical G. Also, calculate the cross-sectional area of the
tower. Assume a superficial velocity of | fps.
9-21. An RO system is designed to treat 120,000 gal/day of brackish water. Records in a nearby
plant indicates that the lowest temperature is 65°F. The membrane to be used is cellulose
acetate with an expected average flux of 15 gal/day-ft* over an estimated life of 2 years
operating at 600 psig. If the average flux was determined at a base temperature of 80°F,
determine the required membrane area for the operating temperature of 65°F.
9-22. A wastewater containing 60 mg/L of TKN is to be treated to a level of 20 mg/L. Each
day, 66,170 mol of sewage are consumed. The influent contains 100 mg/L of alkalinity
as CaCO3. If the flow is 3.0 mgd, determine the amount of alkalinity needed to buffer the
reactor to a pH of 7.0. Assume cell yields of 0.15 mg VSS/mg NHq4-N for Nitrosomonas
and 0.02 mg VSS/mg NOj-N for Nitrobacter.
464 Advanced Wastewater, Water Treatment and Land Treatment Systems Chap. 9

9-23. The effluent requirement of an oxidation ditch system is 15 mg/L of BODs and 15 mg/L
of suspended solids. If the effluent suspended solids is 65% volatile, determine the soluble
effluent BODs concentration used for design.
9-24. If, after nitrification in Problem 9-22 and after the aeration has been cut off, the dissolved
oxygen concentration remaining is 2.0 mg/L, what will be the resulting alkalinity after
completion of this final stage of the aerobic reaction?
9-25. A total of 1 mgd of wastewater having a BODs of 200 mg/L is to be treated. The state
permitting agency requires that the effluent be treated to 10 mg/L. Kinetic studies yielded
the following values: Y = 0.65 mg VSS/mg BODs and kg = 0.55 per day. 6. = 6 days. If
the MLSS containing 70% volatile is 3000 mg/L, calculate the volume of the reactor.
9-26. Calculate the quantity of methanol and the corresponding BODs to be provided to denitrify
a domestic wastewater with a flow of 20,000 m°/day. The effluent from the nitrification
tank contains 30 mg/L of NO3-N, 2.0 mg/L of dissolved oxygen, and 0.5 mg/L of NOj-N.
Assume that an effluent total nitrogen not to exceed 3.0 mg/L is required by the permitting
agency.
9-27. A domestic sewage has the following characteristics: BODs = 200 mg/L, suspended solids
= 200 mg/L, TKN = 25 mg/L, alkalinity = 370 mg/L, and minimum temperature = 10°C.
Design a reactor to treat 1.5 mgd of this waste. Assume the dissolved oxygen to be 2.0 mg/L,
that the discharge permit requires the BODs to be not more than 5.0 mg/L, and that the
TKN is all used for synthesis.
9-28. An activated sludge process to nitrify an influent with the following characteristics to
2.0 mg/L ammonia is to be designed: Qo = | mgd, BODs = 200 mg/L, TKN = 60 mg/L, and
minimum operating temperature = 20°C. The effluent is to have a BODs of 5.0 mg/L. The
DO is to be maintained at 2.0 mg/L. Apply an SF of 2.0 and assume Ko2 =
1.3 mg/L. Calculate the MCRT needed to nitrify to the limiting concentration of am-
monia.
9-29. The effluent from a reactor nitrifying 20,000 m?/day of domestic wastewater contains
30 mg/L of NO3-N, 2.0 mg/L of dissolved oxygen, and 0.5 mg/L of NO>-N. (a) As-
suming an effluent total nitrogen not to exceed 2.0 mg/L and an effluent BODs not to
exceed 4 mg/L are required by the permitting agency, calculate the reactor volume required
for denitrification. (b) How long does it take to attain the limiting nitrate ion concentra-
tion?
9-30. If in Problem 9-29 the reactor is an oxidation ditch, design the anoxic section to reduce the
NO3-N concentration to 5 mg/L. Assume that all influent TKN is converted to NO3-N.
9-31. The total phosphorus content of a domestic wastewater with a flow of 20,000 m?/day is
7 mg/L. (a) If 6000 lb/day of sludge solids containing 75% VSS is wasted, calculate
the concentration of total phosphorus in the effluent. Assume that the sludge contains
2.0% solids and water density is 997 kg/m>. (b) If the process train takes advantage of
the luxury uptake (1.0 mg/L of total P in effluent), how much total P is wasted in the
sludge?
9-32. A wastewater of 12,000 m*/day contains 10 mg/L of ammonia nitrogen and no organic
nitrogen. Estimate the methanol requirement and cell production for complete assimilation
of the ammonia.
9-33. A nitrified effluent contains 15 mg/L of nitrate nitrogen, 1.6 mg/L of nitrite nitrogen, and
2.0 mg/L of dissolved oxygen. Compute the methanol requirement for denitrification. How
will the effluent BODs affect the methanol requirement?
Problems 465

9-34, How much iron salt as a coagulant is needed to reduce the total P of Problem 9-31 to
2.0 mg/L?
9-35. The effluent limit for total phosphorus has been set at 1.0 mg/L. If the soluble phosphorus
in the effluent is 10 mg/L, calculate the alum requirement that will be required to meet the
effluent limit. What is the volume of sludge to be disposed of per day if the percent solids
of the alum sludge is 6%, the specific gravity is 1.05, and plant flow rate is 50,000 m3/day?
9-36. A treated wastewater contains 25 mg/L of ammonia. This ammonia is to be stripped using
5550 m° of air per cubic meter of wastewater. If the temperature of operation is 17°C,
evaluate the efficiency of the operation in terms of the air/liquid ratio.
9-37. Nitrate ions are to be removed using an anionic resin ion exchanger. The exchange capacity
of the resin is 55 kg expressed as CaCO3 per cubic meter. Determine the design volume of
resin to be used to treat 1500 m?/day of wastewater containing 25 mg/L of nitrate nitrogen.
9-38. A 20,000-gal/day sonozone plant is treating domestic waste containing 9.19 mol/L of BODs.
How many kWh of electricity is required by the ozone generator to destroy the BOD com-
pletely? Assume 20 kWh/kg of ozone.
9-39. As a result of the following study, what treatment will you recommend? The investigation
is about the capability of a certain piece of land for land treatment. The flow is 1.0 mgd
with a BODs of 40 mg/L.

Month Evapotranspiration Percolation (cm) Precipitation (cm)

January 1.8 25.4 543

February 3.8 25.4 5.8
March 79 25.4 Spo)
April 9.9 Do.4 4.1
May 32 25.4 1.0
June 16.5 25.4 0.5
July 17.8 25.4 0.3
August eS) 25.4 Trace
September 2 25.4 (O39
October 99 25.4 Ile)
November 3.8 25.4 2.6
December 2.0 25.4 5.6

9-40). Assuming a four-person occupancy, design an on-site septic tank system for a wealthy
residential home in an unsewered area. The sewage production is 380 L-capita/day. Assume
an equilibrium percolation rate of 0.02 mm/day.
9-41. An irrigation system is used to accept 35 L/s of effluent for an application rate of 6 cm/week.
For a year-round operation, calculate the field area. If the system is designed for only a
36-week/yr operation, calculate the field area.
9-42. A sprinkler system is used for irrigation using wastewater. The sprinkler is arranged in a
rectangular grid of 15 m by 20 m. If each nozzle discharges 2 L/s, what is the application
rate in cm/h? How many hours must the system be operated in a single area of application
to satisfy the requirement of 6 cm/week?
 466 Advanced Wastewater, Water Treatment and Land Treatment Systems Chap. 9

BIBLIOGRAPHY

CANTER, L. W., and R. C. KNox (1985). System Tank Effects on Ground Water Quality. Lewis
Publishers, Chelsea, Mich.
JACANGELO, J. C. (1989). “Membranes in Water Filtration.” Civil Engineering, 59(5), pp. 68-71.
Kaplan, O. B. (1991). Septic Systems Handbook. Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, Mich.
MAnprtT, M. G., and B. A. BELL (1982). Oxidation Ditches in Wastewater Treatment. Ann Arbor
Science, Ann Arbor, Mich.
McGue_E, T. J. (1991). Water Supply and Sewerage. McGraw-Hill, New York.
METCALF & Eppy, INc. (1991). Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, Disposal, Reuse. McGraw-
Hill, New York.
RAMALHO, R. S. (1977). Introduction to Wastewater Treatment Processes. Academic Press, New
York.
SINCERO, A. P. (1989). Reverse Osmosis Removal of Organic Compounds: A Preliminary Review of
Literature. Contract DAALO#-86-D-0001. U.S. Army Biomedical Research and Development
Laboratory, Fort Detrick, Frederick, Md.
TCHOBANOGLOUS, G., and E. D. SCHROEDER (1985). Water Quality. Addison-Wesley, Reading,
Mass.
 CHAPTER 10

Pollution from Combustion

and Atmospheric Pollution

The term combustion refers to any chemical reaction with oxygen that generates energy.
The energy may manifest in the form of heat or light or as energy stored in the bonds
of ATP. There are two types of combustion: rapid and slow or biological combustion.
Rapid combustion releases the energy in the form of intense heat and light; slow or
biological combustion releases the energy in the form stored in ATP. In the process of
metabolism, organisms mediate biological combustion. The role of rapid combustion in
producing pollutants is discussed in this chapter. In addition, automotive emission control,
atmospheric pollution resulting from photochemical smog, acid rain, the destruction of
the ozone layer, and the greenhouse effect are also discussed.

RAPID COMBUSTION

Rapid combustions that generate pollutants are of interest to the environmental engineer.
These pollutants include CO, CO2, SO,, and NO,.
Products of combustion of any fuel reflect its constituents and the degree of com-
pletion of the combustion. The incomplete combustion of a hydrocarbon fuel produces
carbon monoxide and water. C,H, may represent any hydrocarbon and the following
equation may represent its incomplete combustion:
2
Greet . Hey se
felayse 50 (10-1)

467
468 Pollution from Combustion and Atmospheric Pollution Chap. 10

On the other hand, the complete combustion of hydrocarbons produces CO, the desirable
aspect of rapid combustion, although CO, is also an agent of global warming. The
following equation shows the reaction:

4x+y
Give 07 COME 5120 (10-2)
Equation (10-1) not only represents production of the pollutant CO but also a loss
of energy that the molecule of CO still contains. From a practical standpoint, discounting
the disastrous effect of CO2 on global warming, equation (10-2) is the desirable reaction.
This reaction liberates all the heats of reaction of the hydrocarbon.
The study of combustion frequently uses the terms percent excess air, stoichiometric
ratio, and equivalence ratio. Percent excess air is the difference between the actual mass
of air used and the theoretical divided by the theoretical times 100. The stoichiometric
ratio is the ratio of the theoretical fuel/air mass ratio to the actual fuel/air mass ratio. The
equivalence ratio is the reciprocal of the stoichiometric ratio. Air is 21% Oz and 79% No.

Example 10-1
A solid-waste-to-energy recovery plant fires solid waste represented by C59Hj99O49N. The
plant burns 100 tonnes/day of solid waste, producing 20 tonnes/day of residue containing
5% C. (a) If the solid waste burns under conditions of insufficient air, how much CO is
produced per day? (b) If the solid waste burns at 20% excess, how much CO is produced
per day? (c) What are the stoichiometric and equivalence ratios? Assume that fuel nitrogen
converts to NO.

Solution (a) Since the ratio of H to O in H2O is 2:1, the H in H2O of the solid waste is
2(40) = 80, from the formula of Cs9Hi09O040N. Therefore, the H of the hydrocarbon portion
of the solid waste is 100 — 80 = 20. Hence, C,Hy = CsoH9.

CsqH29 + 3002 — 50CO + 10H20O

The oxidation state of O has been changed from 0 to —2, involving a total of 30(2)(2) = 120
mol of electrons. Hence the number of reference species = 120 mol of electrons.

SOC
Weight fraction of C in solid waste =
Cs0H100040N
50(12)
50(12) + 100(1.008) + 40(16) + 14

Carbon burned to gases = 100(0.44) — 20(0.05) = 43 tonnes/day (i.e., the carbon burned
to gases in the Cs of C5 9H209).

; Cso 50(12) tonnes

Eq. wt. of C59 in CsgHoy = —— = = 5.0——_
: a eta TPT 120 tonne-Eq
Rapid Combustion 469

Thus,
43° /°5 tf
tonnes of CO/day = ——
50 | = 100.3 Answer
m7 = a

(b) Cs59H29 + 5502 — SOCO2 + 10H20

References species = 55(2)(2) = 220 mol of electrons

Cs0 ~ 50(12) 973 tonnes

Eq.
wt. of Cs in CsgH29= iM
: abasic 220 220 tonne-Eq

43 [ 50(CO>) 43 [ 50(12 + 32)

Tonnes of CO2/day = 773 790 = 70 = 157.51 Answer
OTS

111
(c) Cs59Hi09O40N + ae (= 55.5)O2 — 50CO2z + 50H20 + NO

an). j : ¢ C50 Hi 99 O40N 1354.8

Stoichiometric fuel/air ratio = =
55.502 + (79/21)(55.5)No 55.5(32) + (79/21)(55.5)
(28)
1354.8
= = (IR
7622
; ‘ 1354.8
Actual fuel/air ratio = ————— = 0.15
7622(1.2)
0.18
Stoichiometric ratio = 015 =1.2 Answer

1 1
Equivalence ratio = = (0.83 Answer
stoichiometric ratio 1.2

C,H,S or, more generally, R-S may represent fuels containing sulfur, where R
stands for any organic group that may contain not only C and H but also other elements
as well. Considering fuel as simply C,H,S, the following equation may represent the
complete combustion of fuels:
4x+y+4
Giss yh
Oz + xCOz + 5H,0 + SO; (10-3)
The other sulfur combustion product produced along with SO is a small amount
of SO3, sulfur trioxide. In addition, SO2, when released to the atmosphere, converts to
SO3 as follows:
SO, + OH- — HOSOQ)- (10-4)

HOSO)- + O, — SO3 + HO,- (10-5)

A group of atoms that retains its identity in the course of a reaction is called
a radical. When an electron bond is broken during the formation of the radical, an
electron becomes unpaired. When the radical formed contains one or more of these
470 Pollution from Combustion and Atmospheric Pollution Chap. 10

unpaired electrons or when an atomic species is formed containing one or more of these
unpaired electrons, the radical or the atomic species is called a free radical. When the
radical or the atomic species contains only one unpaired electron, it is a monoradical;
when it contains two, it is a biradical; and so on.
The OH-, HOSO;-, and HO;- are species containing unpaired electrons; they are
therefore free radicals. The unpaired electron is designated by a center dot (-). In this
designation no attempt is made to identify the atom that contains the unpaired electron,
nor is it attempted to identify the number of unpaired electrons. The dot simply signifies
that the species is a free radical (whether mono, bi, etc., is immaterial). The presence of
these unpaired electrons makes the free radicals very reactive.
The trioxide in the presence of H2O produces sulfuric acid, an important agent in
the production of acid rain. The following equation shows the acid production:
SO3 + H,O — H»SO4 (10-6)

SO, also reacts with H2O to produce sulfurous acid,

SO, + H2O — H2SO3 (10-7)

Reduction with hydrogen may desulfurize fuels as indicated in the following equa-
tion:
R-S +H, > H.S+R
Example 10-2
A power plant burns 6.0 tonnes of coal per hour. The coal contains 4.0% sulfur. Assuming
that all the sulfur converts to SO3 and that enough moisture is present in the atmosphere to
react with the trioxide, calculate the amount of acid produced per hour.

Solution
» + O77 — SO>

Reference species = 4 mol of electrons (deduced from reduction of O>)

6(0.04
CaS — = = 0.03 tonne-Eq/h = eq. SO2

SO> 2+3
Mass SO2 produced per hour = 0.03 (S) = ().03 (; :*) = 0.48 tonne

SO2 + OH- + HOSO>: (a)

HOSO2: + O2 > SO3 + HO>- (b)

SO3 + H20 > H2SO4 (c)
From equations (a) and (b), SO) and SO3 interact through 1 mol of O». Hence
reference species are the four mol of electrons involved in the reduction of Oo.

BGaaWiaotns Onr— a

Mass SO3 produced per hour = 0.03 (=) = (0,03 (2-=) = 0.6 tonne
Rapid Combustion 471

Since equation (c) is not an oxidation-reduction reaction, equivalent weights will be

based on the number of moles of positive or negative charges. For SO3, S has an oxidation
state of +6. So, on this basis, the number of reference species equals 6 mol of positive
charges. Also on the same molecule, O has a total oxidation state of —6. Therefore, on this
basis, the number of reference species equals 6 mol of negative charges. Considering H20,
O has a total oxidation state of —2; hence the number of reference species equals 2 mol of
negative charges. For the case of hydrogen in HzO, the number of reference species equals
2 mol of positive charges. By convention, adopt the smaller and the number of reference
species = 2 mol of positive or negative charges. From equation (c),

amount of acid mist = uo H2SO4

SO3/2 2
06
(2(1) + 32 + 4(16)] = 0.735 tonne/h Answer
32+ 48
Using the balanced chemical reactions, this may also be solved simply as follows:

H2SO4 ( SOr
amount of acid = )[0.04(6)] = 0.735 tonne/h Answer
SO? S

The oxides of sulfur are collectively called SO,. There are six gaseous oxides of S:
sulfur monoxide (SO), sulfur dioxide (SO>), sulfur trioxide (SO3), sulfur tetroxide (SOxq),
sulfur sesquioxide (S203), and sulfur heptoxide (S207). SO, is mainly SO, and SO3.
Rapid combustion also produces oxides of nitrogen, collectively called NO,. There
are also six known gaseous oxides of nitrogen: nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO>),
nitrous oxide (NO), nitrogen sesquioxide (N2O3), nitrogen tetroxide (N2O,), and nitrogen
pentoxide (N2Os). The oxides of primary importance in environmental engineering are
NO and NO).
There are two types of NO,: thermal and fuel NO,. Air is 79 mol % No. In
combustion, N> oxidizes to NO,. On the other hand, the fuel itself may contain nitrogen.
The nitrogen in the fuel when burnt also converts to NO,. The NO, formed from the
combustion of atmospheric nitrogen is called thermal NO,; the NO, formed from the
combustion of fuel nitrogen is called fuel NO,.
The formation of free radicals is important in combustion. In 1946, Zeldovich
proposed the free-radical chain formation of thermal NO in air at high combustion tem-
peratures. The representation of the reaction chain follows:

O, +M = 20-4+M (10-8)

O-+ Nz = NO- +N. (10-9)

N- -- O7 = NO: + O: (10-10)

In equation (10-8), oxygen, under the influence of a third body, M, dissociates

into the free radical, O-. This radical is then available to react with molecular N> in
accordance with equation (10-9), producing thermal NO- and another free radical, N-.
This newly formed N: reacts further with molecular Oz, producing another thermal NO-
as shown in equation (10-10).
472 Pollution from Combustion and Atmospheric Pollution Chap. 10

Notice that the bullet designations for free radicals are not always used. Thus NO
is NO-. Other free radicals that can use the bullet designation are NO2- and ClO2-. These
bullets may be removed with the understanding that the species are free radicals. Thus
NO. is NO; NO2- is NOz; ClO2- is ClO2; N- is N.
Another possible species formed during combustion is the NO2. Its concentration
relative to NO is, however, small. The equilibrium constants of these two species will
easily confirm this fact, as will be shown shortly.
Adding reactions (10-9) and (10-10) produces the following overall reaction:
No
+ On = 2NO (10-11)
The equilibrium expression for this reaction is
YNO a)
Kno =). oe (10-12)
‘° On2)!?Q0,)!? : ( RT
where R is the universal gas constant, equal to 1.987 cal/mol-K and T is the temperature
in kelvin. The y’s are the mole fractions of the species.
As shown in equation (10-12), the equilibrium constant is a function of temperature.
The equation also shows a very high energy of activation (21,600 cal/mol). Energy of
activation is the amount of energy that must be put into the reaction before the reaction
can start. It should be noted that the exponential function, e (or exp, the base of natural
logarithms), is large when its exponent is negatively small. In equation (10-12) the
exponent will be negatively small when 7 is large. Since the activation energy is large,
the value of 7 must be very large to make the exponent negatively small. At large
temperatures, the equilibrium constant, then, is large. The expression for the equilibrium
constant places yno at the numerator, indicating that it would be high for large equilibrium
constants. Therefore, it is concluded that high combustion temperatures produce large
concentrations of thermal NO. (Flame-zone temperatures range from 1600 to 1900°C.)!
Now, examine the case of thermal NO». NO may react with molecular O>, pro-
ducing NO» as shown in the equation
il
NO + 5 02 NO? (10-13)

The expression for the equilibrium constant is

Kyo, = ae =i5r< 1052 exp(13,720/RT ) (10-14)

yno(yo,)!/?
All symbols are similar to those defined before.
In equation (10-14) the sign of the exponent of e (or exp) is positive. This means
that at high temperatures, Kyo, is small. Since the equilibrium expression locates yyo,
in the numerator, at high temperatures the concentration of NO» is also small. The
coefficient, 2.5 x 10~4, is already very small. This, coupled with a high temperature inside
the exponential function, will produce a negligibly small value of the equilibrium constant,

'C. D. Cooper and F. C. Alley (1986). Air Pollution Control: A Design Approach. Waveland Press,
Prospect Heights, Ill.
Rapid Combustion 473

Kyo,- Conclude, then, that at combustion temperatures, thermal NO) is negligibly small
and that the major NO, formed during combustion is NO.
Nitrogen bound in the fuel also converts to NO,. Fuel-bound nitrogen can account
for over 50% of the total NO, produced in combustion. Not all of the fuel-bound nitrogen,
however, converts to NO,. Depending on the fuel equivalence ratio, percent conversion
could range from 5% for equivalence ratios greater than 2.5 to approximately 60% for
an equivalence ratio of 0.2. The other possible end product of fuel nitrogen combustion
is molecular N>.

Basic Elements Affecting Rapid Combustion

There are four basic elements that must be set to the optimum for an efficient combustion
to occur: oxygen concentration, turbulence, time, and temperature. There should be
sufficient oxygen to combust carbon to its highest oxidation state of CO). More oxygen,
however, will burn nitrogen and sulfur to their oxides, which is undesirable in the first
place. To determine up to what degree air should be added would therefore need a
careful balance among production of CO2, SO,, and NO,. Complete mixing of oxygen
and fuel to ensure efficient combustion requires turbulence. Turbulence causes rapid
contact between oxygen and fuel, thus ensuring efficient combustion. Combustion should
also provide enough residence time to complete the reaction, although as in the case of
oxygen, more time would also produce large quantities of NO, and SO,.
The fourth element, temperature, is rather unique. Before it can have a pronounced
effect, the energy of activation must first reach some high threshold value. Take the case
of CO that results from the incomplete combustion of C. The equilibrium expression for
CO at | atm pressure is *
CO, = CO + 50, (10-15)
The equilibrium expression is

Kes ,
yco(Vo,) le = 3 x 10%e—67,000/RT
; (10-16)
YCO»
Again, R is the universal gas constant (equals 1.987 cal/mol-K), and T is the temperature
in kelvin. Because of the high activation energy, equation (10-16) states that a certain
high temperature must be reached before obtaining CO. Deducing from this equation,
high temperatures favor the production of CO.

Kinetics of NO Formation and Ideal Combustion

Temperature

The equilibrium expressions for NO and NO above do not really accurately predict the
combustion concentrations of NO. The mixture of fuel and air resides at the combustion
zone for a mere split second (on the order of milliseconds in the combustion cylinder of

2. H. Seinfield (1986). Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics of Air Pollution. Wiley, New York.
474 Pollution from Combustion and Atmospheric Pollution Chap. 10

internal combustion engines and about 0.5 s in normal furnaces), giving the species no
time to attain equilibrium. For this reason, equilibrium expressions are not sufficient to
predict the combustion concentrations of thermal NO, at the flame zone.
Kinetic theory has been used to explain the discrepancy when using equilibrium to
predict thermal NO, concentrations. According to Ammann and Timmins,’ the forward
reaction velocity coefficient for reaction (10-9), which is responsible for the production
of NO, is
cm?
kyo 16 x 105 exp 75,000/ki)— (10-17)
molecule-s

and the corresponding backward reaction velocity coefficient is

cm-
3

kyo = 2.57 x 10-1!) ————— (10-18)

molecule-s
The corresponding forward and backward reaction velocity coefficients for reaction (10-10)
are, respectively,
cm
kpio = 2.21 x 107 (T) exp(—7080/RT )—————— (10-19)
molecule-s
e cm?
kyo = 5.3 x 107 '°(T) exp(—39,100/RT )————— (10-20)
molecule-s

Again, as in the equilibrium constant, before a reaction can take place, the tempera-
ture must reach a threshold value for those expressions containing the activity coefficient.
Once reached, reactions (10-9) and (10-10) can proceed to produce NO. However, as
noted before, the residence time in the combustion zone is only on the order of seconds.
In the immediate surroundings of the zone of combustion are cooler temperatures. This
means that the very short residence time subjects the reaction species immediately to
decreasing temperatures as soon as they leave the combustion zone (i.e., to a quenching
process).
Referring to reaction (10-9) and the reaction velocity coefficients given above, as
the quenching process proceeds, the forward reaction progressively decreases until it
stops when the temperature reaches the threshold corresponding to the activation energy.
The backward reaction, however, since it is independent of temperature, continues to
operate. This means that the NO reserve concentration formed during the combustion
zone reaction decreases. Reaction (10-9) produces NO only when the temperature is
high (at the combustion zone) but uses NO at a point in time during the quenching
process.
Meanwhile, as the NO concentration decreases, some of the free-radical N reacts
with O> according to reaction (10-10). Since the forward activation energy of this reaction
is very low (7080 cal/mol), its forward reaction to produce NO continues even down to a
relatively low temperature value. On the other hand, considering the backward reaction,
the activation energy is very large. This means that the backward reaction speed is high

3p. R. Ammann and R. S. Timmins (1966). “Chemical Reactions during Thermal Quenching of Oxygen—
Nitrogen Mixtures from Very High Temperatures.” AIChE Journal, 12, pp. 956-963.
Rapid Combustion 475

only at elevated temperatures, and practically zero at low temperatures when the forward
reaction still continues to be effective. Hence the backward reaction does not impede
the production of NO during the quenching process. To summarize, at low temperatures,
the forward reaction of reaction (10-10) continues to produce NO while its backward
reaction practically stops. Hence, in the quenching process, as the species depart from
the combustion zone, reaction (10-10) continuously produces NO while reaction (10-9)
depletes it. Overall, at the combustion exit, a substantial amount of the NO originally
produced at the combustion zone remains.
The qualitative description above of the rate of thermal NO formation using Zel-
dovich’s equations may be written mathematically as
d{NO}
= Rpo + Rpio — Roo — Roio (10-21)
dt
where Ryo, Ryo, Keio, and Rpio are the forward and backward reactions of equations (10-9)
and (10-10), respectively. Subscripts f and b refer to “forward” and “backward,” respec-
tively, and rf is time. In words, equation (10-21) states: The rate of formation of NO is
equal to the forward reaction rates of equations (10-9) and (10-10) minus their respective
backward reaction rates.
The rate of formation of N is
d{N}
arr Reg — Roo + Roio — Reio (10-22)

The forward reaction velocity of equation (10-9), which contains a high activation energy
and is a function of temperature, restricts Ryo to satisfying both the activation energy
requirement and the attainment of the proper threshold temperature. On the other hand,
the backward reaction velocity coefficient is neither a function of temperature nor does it
contain an activation energy. This means that Ryo operates at every instant. Furthermore,
equation (10-10) consumes N as soon as equation (10-9) produces it.
Overall, as soon as the temperature attains the proper value, Ryo and Rio imme-
diately consume whatever N Ryo produces. N attains a pseudo-steady-state condition.
Hence, equating equation (10-22) to zero and substituting the result in equation (10-21)
produces
d{NO}
= 2(Rpio — Roio) (10-23)
dt
The concentration of O is a function of equations (10-8) to (10-10). Although O2
broke up because of the influence of the high temperature in the combustion flame, its
tendency to recombine is stronger than its tendency to react with molecular Nz. Atmo-
spheric N> has a high bond energy (225,000 cal/mol) that O would prefer to recombine
than to break the N—N bond to form NO. Hence although O is a function of the three
equations, assume that only the equilibrium of equation (10-8) controls its concentration.
The forward and backward reaction velocity coefficients for this equation are, respec-
tively,’ kg = 1.876(10-°)7-'/? exp(—18,000/RT) and k,g = 2.6(10~*7), with units of

4Seinfield, Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics of Air Pollution.

476 Pollution from Combustion and Atmospheric Pollution Chap. 10

cm?/molecule-s. Proceeding with the assumption, we have

~~ = 2Rrg — 2Rpg = 0 (10-24)

t

Substituting pertinent expressions for the R’s and simplifying yields

k 06
Oro
i kyo6 Ke (10-25)

= VK {02}
where

_ 1.876(10~°)T~'/* exp(—118,000/RT)
2.6(10-33) (10-26)
= 7.2(10°°)T~'/? exp(—118,000/RT)
Also, from equating d{N}/dt to zero,

Keo Kp = eto ae 10 (10-27)

Substituting the respective reaction rates in equation (10-27) and simplifying for N, we
have

N _ VK {Ox}(kpo{No} +ko1ofNO}) (10-28)

i Kp10{O2} + kyo {NO}
Combining equations (10-23), (10-9), and (10-28), we obtain

g{NO} 2k posk roa K (x/{Oa})>

{No} — 2knogkno7V
K V{O2}{NO}? (10-29)
dt k p9g{O2} + kpo7 {NO}
The first term in the numerator on the right-hand side of equation (10-29) repre-
sents a rate of NO formation, while the second term represents a rate of NO destruc-
tion. If the rate of formation balances against the rate of destruction, there will be
no increase in NO concentration above that produced from the fuel nitrogen. Since
this represents an ideal situation, it is instructive to find the corresponding temperature.
The temperature at which this occurs can be found by equating the numerator to zero.
Hence

kposk por K (/{O2})>

{No} — knosknor/K V/{Oz} {NO}? = 0 (10-30)
Substituting the expressions for the coefficients and solving for T produces the equation
below. Call this temperature the ideal temperature of combustion.

(1/R) (43,480)
‘a 2.93 = In((NOP/{O2}(N2D
Tideal =
me -
Rapid Combustion 477

NO, Equilibrium Away from Combustion Zone

No matter what happened in the combustion zone, the laws of equilibrium eventually
control the characteristics of the combustion gases away from the flames. Now summarize
the equilibrium expressions for the phenomenon of NO, formation that takes place outside
the flame of combustion. The reaction for NO formation is

Nz + O2 = NO, (10-32)

The equilibrium expression for this reaction was given before. The reaction for the
formation of NO» from the NO and O; is

NO + 502 = NO) (10-33)

Also, the equilibrium expression for this reaction was given before. Adding these two
equations produces

No + 202 = 2NO2 (10-34)

Adding the two equations is equivalent to multiplying their respective equilibrium

constants. This produces the overall constant

YNO>
Kno, (overall) — re 310s exp 7830) Ra) (10-35)
(yn, )!/? yo
Equation (10-35) represents the equilibrium for NO. For completeness, reproduce
the expression for the equilibrium constant for the formation of NO,
YNO
K Omari aE OS = 4.69 exp(—21,600/RT) (10-36)
‘ (yn, )1/* (yo, )!7

For the combustion gases away from the combustion zone, equations (10-35) and (10-36)
apply.

Example 10-3
Analysis of flue gas at a temperature of 200°C and 1 atm pressure found 75% No, 4%
Ox, 9% COz and the rest H2O. Calculate the equilibrium concentrations of CO, NO, and
NO3.

Solution

Kea yeo(yo,)'/* ~ 3 x 104¢—67,000/RT

: YCO,
oe we
67,000
= os exo] ae
3(10° E10 | x 10) 07
)= 09

3.3(10~27)(0.09)
y = = 1,48(10-2’) or 1.48(107-7°)% Answer
see J0.04
478 Pollution from Combustion and Atmospheric Pollution Chap. 10

Kno = —YNO
= = 4.69 exp(—21,600/RT)
~~ On) '?2G0,)!? 4 ;
= 169esp|
4, =| 21,600 = =14.90(105")
tf
a |4,69[1.0405!%)
Sk eke
yno = 4.90107!) (/0.75)(/0.04)
= 8.48(107!!) or 8.48(10-7)% Answer

Kos overat = —pa—

y
= 11.7300) = exp(—7880/RT)
CN, vo,

— 11730.)
: X — ES ee
<P |~ 1987(200 + 273)
I 11.73(10~*) (0.000228) = 0.00267(10~*)

yno, = 0.00267(10~*)0.75(0.04)
= 9.25(10-”) or 9.25(10~’)% Answer
Or,

YNO> =
Kno, = 2.5 x 107+ exp(13,720/RT)
yno (yo, )!/?
13,720
So)
oe a 1.987(200 + 273) = 2.5(10~*)(2,187,037.90) = 546.76

yno, = 546.76(8.48)(107 |!) 0.04 = 9.27(10~°) = 9.27(1077)% Answer

Example 10-4
A flue gas in equilibrium at a temperature of 1900°C and | atm pressure contains 75% No, 4%
Oz, 9% COz and the rest H2O. Calculate the equilibrium concentrations of CO, NO, and NOp.

Solution

yco(yo,)!/?
Keo. = 104, cn-67,000/RT
YCO?
67,000
= 3(10°) exp |—-————______ = 3(10*)(1.82)(10~”) = 5.46(107°)
1.987(1900+ 273)

__ 5.46(10~7)(0.09)
YCOo = 0.00246 or 0.246% Answer
/0.04
YNO
Kno NO = ———.—,
eC nuE p(
= 4.69exp(—21, /RT)
600/RT

21,600
= 4.69 exp - = 4.69(0.0067) = 0.031
1.987(1900 + 273)

yno = 0.031(V0.75)(V0.04) = 0.0054 or 0.54% Answer

Rapid Combustion 479

YNO> am
KNO, (overall)= —T7Z— = 11.7310) exp(—7880/RT)
(yn, ) /“Yoo
7,880
=
yee
11.73(10~+ ee
1.987(1900 + |
11.73(10~*)(0.16) = 0.000189

No, = 0.000189/0.75(0.04) = 3.27(10->) = 3.27(1073)% Answer

The results of Examples 10-3 and 10-4 exemplify the importance of flue gas tem-
perature. Whereas when the stack temperature was only 200°C, the NO concentration
was 8.48(10~°)%, when the temperature was 1900°C, the NO concentration increased to
0.54%. Similar conclusions may be drawn for the other species.

Generalized Fate of Fuel Components in Rapid Combustion

C,H,O-N,S, may represent the generalized form of a fuel formula including nitrogen
and sulfur. The conditions of combustion determine the fate of the constituent elements.
Hydrogen, of course, converts to HO. The H2O resulting from the mere combination of
H and O contained in the fuel is called combined water.
The nitrogen atom in fuel is, for the most part, bonded to hydrogen. In incomplete
combustion, it is reasonable to assume that it would remain bonded; the compound that
satisfies this is ammonia. In complete combustion, nitrogen converts to NO and No, as
mentioned before. Incomplete combustion of S will be assumed to produce H2S. The
complete combustion produces SOz. Combustion also forms NO, and SO; but since they
are negligibly small in amount, they will be neglected in the formulation of the chemical
reaction below. The respective chemical reactions follow.
2x + y — 2b —3a —2z
C,H50O-N.Sp air Oo > xCO
4
AGTH SS
poe
SPST oNH bus = incomplete) 1110-37)
4 2c + 4b — 2z
C,HyO,NaSp a MAA, ar xCO>

+ 5120 +cNO +
Osa
N>o + bSO> complete (10-38)

The fuel formula shown above can be determined by performing elemental analysis.
(Elemental analysis is called ultimate analysis.) Hence, in equation (10-37), once x, y, z,
a, and b are known, all the terms of the equation can be determined. In equation (10-38),
however, simple knowledge of the fuel formula cannot determine all the terms of the
equation. The coefficient c of NO on the right-hand side is unknown. Knowledge of the
percent conversion to NO of the fuel nitrogen is necessary before c can be determined.
Figure 10-1 shows the percent conversion of fuel nitrogen to NO,. In general, this figure
 480 Pollution from Combustion and Atmospheric Pollution Chap. 10

Wall temperature 1500 K |

80 F Flame temperature 1600 K 5

oxides
nitrogen
conversion
Percent
to

1 2 3 4 5 6
Fuel equivalence ratio, @
(inverse of stoichiometric ratio)

Figure 10-1 Conversion of fuel nitrogen to NO, (for certain pulverized coals).

states that as more fuel is used relative to air, the percent conversion of fuel nitrogen to
NO, decreases.

Example 10-5
Ultimate analysis of a solid waste used to fire a solid-waste-to-energy recovery plant shows
the following results: x = 50, y = 100, z = 40, and a = 1. The plant burns 100 tonnes/day
of solid waste, producing 20 tonnes/day of residue containing 5% C. Calculate the combustion
products for incomplete combustion. The humidity of the air is 0.016 mole of H2O per mol
of dry air.

Solution From the results of the ultimate analysis, the fuel formula is Cs5jgH)g9OQ40N.

CHO NS yb
eae : 0) oa > xCO + eobes
“=== "1,0 + aNH + BEDS
2x ty db = dae 1260) 4 100 20) =3) 240)
4 4
eg.
ae =O Se 2a
a a

CsoHi99O49N + 29.2502 — 50CO + 48.5H20O + NH3

Reference species = 29.25(4) = 117 tonne-mol of electrons

Equivalent weights:

CaHimOnN = C50H ee
199O040N (50) + 1.008(100
12(50) (100) + 16(40
16(40) + 14 1354. 8
Gy Ig) LY
tonnes
tonne-Eq
Rapid Combustion 481

One 29.2502 _ 29.25(32) _ tonnes

Saal
Ay W eeu Te i sietonne-Eq
CO
50CO, 50021
ee 50 + 16) _
U2 7 tonnes.
117 WEY tonne-Eq

By eee 2) LO) spec TOnnENA

a pms LUsilBD
117 9 tonne-Eq

args ee a Ou
Lily ANY tonne-Eq

50C 502
weight fraction of C in fuel = 0.44
CsoHi90040N 1354.8
C gasified = 100(0.44) — 20(0.05) = 43 tonnes/day
12(50) 2 tonnes
eq. wt. of C59 =
117‘ tonne-Eq
43
eq. Cs gasified = Par 8.38 tonne-Eq/day

100319 5 100-31
tonnes/day
s/day CO = 8.38(11.97)
( ) = 100.31 => CO = 124 16

= 3.58 tonne-mol/day

62.43
tonnes/day H,O = 8.38(7.45) = 62.43 = = 3.47 tonne-mol/day

l22
tonnes/day NH; = 8.38(0.145) = 1.22 > 7 = 0.072 tonne-mol/day

8.38(8) / 100
moles of air used in combustion = 8) ( )= 9.98 tonne-mol/day
Oo 21

moisture from air = 0.016(9.98) = 0.16 tonne-mol/day

No from air = 0.79(9.98) = 7.88 tonne-mol/day

Constituent Tonne-mol/day Percent

C@ 3.58 23.61
H20 3.63 23.94
NH3 0.07 0.46 newer
No 7.88 51.98

De 15.16 100.0

Example 10-6
Ultimate analysis of a solid waste used to fire a solid-waste-to-energy recovery plant shows
the following results: x = 50, y = 100, z = 40, and a = 1. The plant burns 100 tonnes/day
482 Pollution from Combustion and Atmospheric Pollution Chap. 10

of solid waste producing 20 tonnes/day of residue containing 5% C. Calculate the combustion

products at the combustion zone for a complete combustion using 20% excess air and
neglecting thermal NO. Assume that Figure 10-1 applies and an incoming air humidity of
0.016 mol of H2O per mol of dry air.

Solution From the results of the ultimate analysis, the fuel formula is Cs9Hj99O40N.

4x +y+2c+ 4b —2z aeaG

C,H, O-NUSHEe 4
Oe COn 5H20 +cNO+ N2 + bSO2

To find the value of c, we use Figure 10-1.

100 wo |
Mol air used per mole of fuel = or ji

_ 100 |= + 100 + 2c
+ 4(0) — aad
"eas 4
iP lO@20EF 2G)

21(32) + 79(28)
Molecular weight of air = = 28.84
100
Cs0Hi100040N 39.48
Stoichiometric fuel/air ratio =
1.19(220 + 2c)(28.84) 220
+2c
Cs9H 99 O40N 39.48 32.9
Actual fuel/air ratio =
1.19(220 + 2c)(28.84)(1.2) (220
+2c)(1.2) (220
4 20)
Stoichiometric ratio = SO Oe 20 Eee =1.2
32.9/(220 + 2c)
: F l 1
Equivalence ratio = ——— = —— O58
stoichiometric ratio 2

From Figure 10-1, for equivalence ratio = 0.83, percent fuel nitrogen conversion to NO, =
ZS eluSaG/ Ge 10 2oeandic—1 05 da (i) eM omen

4x +y+2c+4b—2z _ 460) + 100 + 2(0.25) + 4(0) — 2(40)

== S55
4 a 4
CsoHi00040N + 55.12502 — 50CO2 + 50H20 + 0.25NO + 0.375N>

Reference species = 55.125(4) = 220.5 tonne-mol of electrons

Equivalent weights:

C50 Hi 0990O49N 12(50) + 1.008(100) + 16(40) + 14 1354.8

Cs50H
19009 049N = ——————. = =
22.055 ZXOS 2205
tonnes

tonne-Eq
Rapid Combustion 483

3221250 = Dome o(G2)) tag tonnes

0 ee SSS
220.5 2205 tonne-Eq

Oe 50CO2 tad 50(12+ 32) S tonnes

| 1022050 na 220.5 ~ tonhe-bq
Oe 50H20 1.008(2
20 _ 50[1.008(2) + 16] ays tonnes
220.5 220 tonne-Eq
®, 0.25NO = 0.25(14 + 16) - 4 tonne
SET = 220.5 ~ —"~“ tonne-Eq
0.375N2 0.375(28) tonne
220.5 220.5 tonne-Eq
50C 50(12
weight fraction of C in fuel = Dee 0.44
Cs5oHi90040N 1354.8

C gasified = 100(0.44) — 20(0.05) = 43tonnes/day

12(50) =a tonnes
eq. wt. of C59 =>
220.5 ~ tonne-Eq
: 43
eq. of Csq gasified = 77 15.80 tonne-Eq/day

157.68 157.68
tonnes/day, CO. 152800 .93)=—=15 7/638 =
CO2 V2 se Sy

= 3.58 tonne-mol/day

64 VOL
tonnes/day H,O = 15.80(4.09) = 64.62 => aa ta 3.59 tonne-mol/day

0.54
tonnes/day NO = 15.80(0.034) = 0.54 => Zia 0.018 tonne-mol/day

0.76
tonnes/day N> = 15.80(0.048) = 0.76 => 8 0.027 tonne-mol/day

3 4 : 4 15.80(8.0) / 100
theoretical moles of air used in combustion = 5 1
» es

= 18.81 tonne-mol/day

moisture from air = 0.016(18.81)(1.2) = 0.36 tonne-mol/day

N> from air = 0.79(18.81)(1.2) = 17.83 tonne-mol/day

21 15.80(8
O2 not combusted = 18.81 (was)UD) ee = (0.79 tonne-mol/day
100
484 Pollution from Combustion and Atmospheric Pollution Chap. 10

To summarize:
CO, = 3.58 tonne-mol/day

HO = 3.59 + 0.36 = 3.95 tonne-mol/day

NO = 0.018 tonne-mol/day

No = 0.027 + 17.83 = 17.86 tonne-mol/day

O> = 0.79 tonne-mol/day

Constituent Tonne-mol/day Percent

CO2 3.58 13.66

H20 385) 15.08
NO 0.018 0.07 Answer
No 17.86 68.18
On 0.79 3.01

S> 26.198 100.0

Example 10-7
Ultimate analysis of a solid waste used to fire a solid-waste-to-energy Ultimate analysis of a
solid waste used to fire a solid-waste-to-energy recovery plant shows the following results:
x = 50, y = 100, z = 40, and a = 1. The plant burns 100 tonnes/day of solid waste
producing 20 tonnes/day of residue containing 5% C. Calculate the ideal temperature of
combustion using the same combustion conditions as in Example 10-6.
Solution
1 43, 480
Tideal =
R 2.93 — In({NO}2/{O2}{N>})
From Example 10-6:

17-86 / 10° SO. :

{No} = = (10°) ppm = 0.68(10") ppm
= DEDLN\ A08 26.2

{Oo}es= ue
yer 10°) ) == 0.03(10°
0.03(10°) ppm

0.018
(NO} = =, (10°) = 687.02 ppm
26
ep i 43,480
deal ~ 1.987 | 2.93 — In(687.02)2/[0.03(10%)(0.68)
(109)
= 0.503(3196.10) = 1607.64K Answer

Note: This neglects thermal NO. A two-stage combustion, which affords a lower first-stage
temperature, may minimize NO formation, hence result in lower NO production.
 Automotive Emission Control 485

AUTOMOTIVE EMISSION CONTROL

Basically, CO, NO,, and hydrocarbons are the emissions that need to be controlled
in automobiles or other internal combustion engines. As atmospheric pollutants, these
emissions are precursors of photochemical smog. CO also combines with hemoglobin,
precluding the formation of oxyhemoglobin, thus suffocating a person. Although NO,
has been linked to increased incidence of bronchitis, the major reason for its control is
the role it plays in disturbing the NO> photolytic cycle (to be discussed later).
To begin the study of automotive emission control, it is best to discuss how the
engine performs. Figure 10-2 shows the sequence of operation of a four-cycle engine (a)
and a longitudinal section of an engine (b). Locate the piston in the engine longitudinal
section and see that there are four cylinders in this engine. Note that in the rightmost
cylinder, the piston is at the top of its travel (top dead center, TDC) and that in the second
cylinder from the left, the piston is at the bottom of its travel (bottom dead center, BDC).
Figure 10-2a illustrates the performance of each of these four cylinders.
At the start of the intake stroke, the inlet valve opens, allowing a mixture of air
and fuel from an intake manifold to enter the cylinder. As soon as the intake stroke
completes, the compression stroke starts, the piston compressing the air—fuel mixture
against the closed intake and exhaust valves. At the top of the piston travel, the spark
plug fires, igniting the compressed mixture. This creates the downward power stroke.
At the end of the power stroke, the exhaust valve opens and the exhaust stroke begins
expelling the combustion gases into the exhaust manifold. (See the schematics of intake,
compression, power, and exhaust.)
The expanding gases in the power stroke transmit the force created to the face of the
piston, to the connecting rod, and then to the crankshaft. Locate the connecting rod and
crankshaft at the bottom of the figure; the crankshaft is indicated by the curved arrows
at the top, with the connecting rod wobbling about it. The crankshaft then relays the
force to the flywheel. The flywheel serves to stabilize the rotation. The flywheel, in turn,
transmits the force to the transmission assembly (see Figure 10-3b). Transmission is the
place where speed and power are interconverted through gearings or torque conversion.
For example, the first gear has high power but low speed, while the fourth gear has low
power but high speed.
From the transmission, the force goes through a drive line composed of universal
joints, differentials, and driving and driven shafts. From here the force continues to be
submitted to the driving axle, which, ultimately, turns the wheels.
To transmit force to the axle, driving and driven shafts are used. Because of
gearings the driving shaft turns, but because the engine body bounces up and down, the
force does not transmit directly to the axle. Rather, the force goes from the driving
shaft to the driven shaft through a universal joint. This joint stabilizes or harmonizes the
transmission of force as it accommodates the bouncing of the engine. From the driven
shaft, the force goes to the differential before reaching the axle. The differential permits
one drive wheel to turn at different speeds from the other, which is important when the
car is negotiating a curve.
 Le‘lhe

Connecting rod

a Flywheel

Crankshaft

Figure 10-2 (a) Sequence of operation of four-cycle engine. (b) Section of engine.
(Reprinted by permission of Chrysler Corporation.)
Automotive Emission Control 487

Vent tube

Idle air bleed

Needle FI eae aie as a
valve seat Cat y Idle tube
Needle valve

Idle tube
metering orifice

Secondary idle
air bleed

Throttle valve
(closed)

Idle discharge holes

ines DIN X< \\

SSR) 2

on
O eS
4H RS)
‘G; a

Axle components
* Front P
y

(b)

Figure 10-3 (a) Section of carburetor. (b) View of engine with transmission
and axle components. (Reprinted by permission of Chrysler Corporation.)
488 Pollution from Combustion and Atmospheric Pollution Chap. 10

Control of Hydrocarbon Emissions

Potential emissions of hydrocarbons are at the crankcase (Figure 10-4), at the carburetor
float chamber (Figure 10-3), at the gasoline tank, at the tailpipe (Figure 10-4), the engine
timing, and the general state of tune-up of the engine.*° As the piston moves up and
down the cylinder, leakage occurs between the piston rings and the walls of the cylinder.
This leakage, called blowby, escapes into the crankcase of the crankshaft. To prevent
escape to the atmosphere, the crankcase vents into the intake manifold through a PCV
(positive crankcase ventilation) valve. This valve acts like a check valve that allows
flow in one direction only. It adjusts the rate of removal of blowby gases to match the
changing air intake requirements of the engine. Blowby gases may also contain NO, and
CO but mostly hydrocarbons.
Refer to Figure 10-3a. The right portion of this drawing is the carburetor barrel.
Locate the throttle valve; this is shown closed. Stepping on the gas pedal makes this valve
open, and because the cylinder piston is an effective positive-displacement pump, air is
sucked through the carburetor barrel. At the middle of the barrel is a venturi element;
this element speeds up the air velocity, decreasing the pressure at the point. The low
pressure causes the gasoline to be sucked up from the float chamber, mixing with the air
at the throat. This intense mixing causes the gasoline to be atomized with the air: This
process is called carburetion; hence the entire unit assembly is called a carburetor.
For the engine to run smoothly, control of the ratio of air to fuel must be precise;
otherwise, the engine will stall. To get the ratio, the carburetor must be calibrated, which
means that the flow of gasoline from the float chamber into the venturi throat must be
precise, hence installation of the float in the chamber. This float functions in exactly the
same way as the float in the ordinary tank used to flush the toilet bowl. This element
maintains the fuel head in the chamber, ensuring precise delivery of gasoline. However,
to maintain the head, the chamber must be vented. Figure 10-4a shows the venting of
the chamber to a carbon canister.
Since evaporation is very dependent on temperature, emission from the float cham-
ber is especially severe right after the engine turns off. Emissions during this period
are called hot soak emissions. As the engine turns off, the activated carbon adsorbs the
vapors. On restarting, a flow of filtered air through the canister purges these vapors. The
vapor mixture then goes through one or more tubes feeding into the carburetor and/or
carburetor air filter.
One way to control carburetor hydrocarbon emissions is to replace the carburetor
with a fuel injection system. Figure 10-4b shows one version of this system. A pump
conveys the fuel from the gasoline tank, through the fuel filter, and into the fuel rail. The
figure shows the fuel rail distributing gasoline into six fuel injector valves. These valves
inject the gasoline directly into the intake manifold. Excess gasoline then flows back into

> W. K. Toboldt and L. Johnson (1983). Automotive Encyclopedia. Goodheart—Willcox, South Holland,
Ill., p. 784.
© Pp. A. Vesilind, J. J. Peirce, and R. F. Weiner (1988). Environmental Engineering. Butterworth, Boston,
p. 446.
 Vapor
: Activated carbon canister
~~
: Purge air
Vapor + air

oo Vapor
Fuel
Fuel + air

Fuel tank

Exhaust fey
Crankcase Tailpipe
vent Muffler
Catalytic
reactor
(a)

Fuel pressure
regulator Injector valves (8)
In-tank
boost pump

(b)

CO. Stoichiometric

Fuel
a0 iB
consumption

Relative
concentrations

2 NS i J

10 15 20 25
Air/fuel ratio (Ib/lb, kg/kg)
(Cc)

Figure 10-4 (a) Control points of pollutants in automobile. (b) Schematic of

fuel injection system. (c) Effect of air/fuel ratio on emissions, power, and fuel
economy.
490 Pollution from Combustion and Atmospheric Pollution Chap. 10

the gasoline tank through a fuel pressure regulator valve, which reduces the fuel pressure
from the injector to a pressure slightly above that prevailing in the gasoline tank. In the
case of the carburetor, the mixture of air and gasoline is carbureted through the venturi
before going to the intake manifold. In the fuel injection system, on the other hand, the
mixture is carbureted right at the intake manifold by an injector atomizing system. The
design is such that right after contact between the atomized gasoline and air, the mixture
becomes carbureted. Hence the design effectively eliminates the evaporative emission at
the float chamber. There is no float chamber in the fuel injection system.
Other potential hydrocarbon emissions come from the fuel tank. As shown in
Figure 10-4, a carbon canister adsorbs the vapors through a vent line installed from the
tank to the canister. The air then purges these vapors from the canister and the mixture
ultimately introduced into the engine for combustion.
The third emission source of hydrocarbons is the tailpipe. Combustion happens so
fast that there is no time to burn the fuel completely. Unburned gases therefore end up
as tailpipe emissions. Two possible methods of control are the use of thermal reactors
and catalytic reactors.
The thermal reactor is essentially an afterburner. Upon exit from the exhaust man-
ifold, a pump conveys the gases to the unit, where excess air is introduced to burn
hydrocarbons and CO completely to carbon dioxide and water (around 1100°C). The
other method is the use of a catalytic reactor, specifically, the three-way catalytic con-
verter (operating at around 800°C). The three-way catalyst is composed of platinum and
rhodium. The unit oxidizes hydrocarbons and CO simultaneously to carbon dioxide and
water while reducing NO, to N2 at the same time. The equation that follows represents
the unbalanced reaction:
catalyst
HC + CO + NO, —— > H,O+ CO, + N> (10-39)

Improper ignition timing is also an important source of hydrocarbon emission.

When the engine is running but the car is not, the engine is idling. At idling, the
throttle valve (see Figure 10-3) opens only partially, thus admitting less air. The air—fuel
mixture becomes richer (i.e., more fuel than air). With rich mixtures, not all the fuel will
burn, and more emissions will result at the exhaust pipe. To produce fewer emissions,
opening the throttle valve wider makes the mixture Jeaner (more air than fuel); however,
the presence of more mixture than required also makes the engine idle faster. Retarding
the spark plug firing will correct this idling. Since retarded ignition means late firing, it
also means less power; hence the engine will not idle as fast.
Refer to Figure 10-2. Right at the top of a cylinder (cylinder head) is the spark
plug. This plug connects to the spark plug wire, which, in turn, connects to the distribu-
tor. In the figure the distributor projects at the top of the engine (bottom drawing). This
distributor controls the sequence or timing of firing. Hence, during tune-up, the mechanic
rotates the distributor to adjust the sequence to a retarded firing at idle, if needed. Tight-
ening an adjustment screw will then ensure that the adjustment will not change. Also,
for idling conditions, the mechanic opens the throttle valve wider, introducing more air
and providing a leaner mixture. This is done by adjusting a separate screw.
Automotive Emission Control 491

The idle mixture screw or valve shown at the bottom of the top drawing of Fig-
ure 10-3 adjusts the idle mixture. So as not to change the mixture proportion no matter
how much the screw is rotated, the factory presets the idle mixture screw needle.
During acceleration and cruising, since the throttle is fully open, admitting more
air, the mixture is naturally lean for the driving condition; emission is at a minimum.
During deceleration, however, the sudden low demand for power causes the mixture to
become suddenly rich for the driving condition, thereby, increasing hydrocarbon emis-
sions. Maintaining the distributor at the retarded firing condition will provide little time
to burn the fuel in the cylinder. Hence, advancing the spark provides increased burning
time. Retarded during idle and advanced during deceleration is then the ignition timing.
Also, the throttle opens wide during acceleration and cruising, drawing in more fuel
and requiring more burning time. Therefore, the spark also advances during this driving
condition. To summarize, retarded at idle, gradually increasing to top dead center as the
speed increases, then to advanced timing when accelerating, cruising, and decelerating
is, finally, the ignition timing.
In engine design, the anticipated driving conditions set the degree of advance.
There are several methods of advancing the spark. The centrifugal governor facilitates
the advance, corresponding to the normal increase in speed. As the speed changes, the
centrifugal force on the governor also changes proportionately, which, in turn, by some
mechanism, makes adjustments to the distributor timing. The other is through the use of
a vacuum advance during deceleration. The distributor connects directly through tubing
to a port on the underside of the throttle valve. On decelerating, the valve partially closes
and, due to the continued suction by the piston, a vacuum is created at the point. The
tubing transmits this vacuum to the distributor to make adjustments on the distributor
timing for advancing the spark.
The final potential source of hydrocarbon emission is the untuned engine. For
example, if the spark plug misfires or simply does not fire, hydrocarbons will simply
go out of the tailpipe unburned. A dirty air filter will decrease the amount of air that
would normally enter the engine. This causes the mixture to be rich, producing larger
emissions. Engine oil not changed regularly results in an increase in the internal friction
of engine parts. The engine will become a generally untuned engine and will run poorly,
thus producing more emissions. Finally, a malfunctioning PCV valve will not be able to
apportion correctly the recirculated blowby gases with the normal fuel feed. The engine
becomes out of tune and will emit more emissions.

Control of CO

Incomplete combustion of fuel also results in emissions of carbon monoxide. CO can be

found in the blowby but is mostly in the exhaust pipe. As in the case of hydrocarbons,
the tailpipe may be controlled by the thermal reactor and the three-way catalyst. The
emission of CO also runs parallel to those of hydrocarbons as far as idle and deceleration
are concerned. Whenever the mixture is rich, the combustion becomes far from complete
and more CO will be emitted at the tailpipe unless the timing is advanced.
 492 Pollution from Combustion and Atmospheric Pollution Chap. 10

Control of NO, Emissions

Since high temperatures favor the production of NO,, the emission may be controlled by
lowering the combustion temperature through recirculating exhaust gases. Exhaust gases
will no longer burn, hence it will no longer produce any heat and, if recirculated, will help
to quench the combustion gases. This method is called exhaust gas recirculation (EGR).
In the cylinder, the temperature can range from 500°C at the end of the compression
stroke (before ignition) to approximately 3000°C right after firing. This temperature value
is really a sure way to produce NO,. To reduce NO, formation, combustion temperatures
must be kept below 1300°C. Thus exhaust gas recirculation may be used.
Another method of lowering temperature is by retarding spark. Peak combustion
temperature relates directly to spark timing. If the spark occurs at exactly the right instant,
the maximum amount of pressure and heat is obtained and the engine puts out maximum
power. Retarding spark slightly more than normally for maximum power would cause
the power to fall off but lower the combustion temperature, thus reducing NO, emissions.
As noted under hydrocarbon control above, the three-way catalytic converter may also
be used for NO, control. The chemical reaction was written earlier.
Table 10-1 shows the composition of gasoline along with the boiling points of
components, and Figure 10-4c shows the effect of the air/fuel ratio on emissions, power,
and economy. In general, emissions are small when the mixture is lean. For NO,,
however, the emission is a maximum at a slightly leaner mixture than stoichiometric and
drastically falls off. At a slightly richer mixture than stoichiometric, the power is at a
maximum, while at the slightly leaner mixture than stoichiometric, the fuel consumption
is at a minimum but the power drops. Beyond a certain value of a lean mixture, the
hydrocarbon emissions increase. The reason for this is that beyond this point, because
of too much dilution, which results in a much cooler combustion temperature, more
hydrocarbon molecules no longer burn.

ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION

Atmospheric pollution is basically photochemical smog. Photochemical smog is a des-

ignation given to a mixture of reactants and products that result from the interaction
between organics and the oxides of nitrogen. The primary pollutants in smog are ni-
tric oxide and hydrocarbons. These primary pollutants convert rapidly to the secondary
pollutants ozone, organic nitrates, oxidized hydrocarbons, and photochemical aerosols.
Although ozone is a major component of photochemical smog, it performs an impor-
tant function in the stratosphere by absorbing potentially damaging shortwave ultraviolet
radiation that can reach the surface of the earth.

Photochemical Smog

The origin of photochemical smog is the photolytic decomposition of nitrogen dioxide.

Although NO is the predominant form of NO, emissions, it can react with O> to form
Atmospheric Pollution 493

TABLE 10-1 COMPOSITION

OF GASOLINE AND BOILING
POINTS OF COMPONENTS

Component — Boiling point (°F)

Undecane 400
Decane —
Nonane 300
Octane —
Heptane 200
Hexane —
Pentane 100

NO>. This small amount of NO can trigger subsequent reactions through its decompo-
sition, forming what is called the NO» photolytic cycle. The cycle starts as follows:

NO, +hv > NO+0 (10-40)

hv represents a photon of energy absorbed by nitrogen dioxide, causing its decom-

position to NO and O. (Note that the free-radical dot is not used.) The atomic oxygen
liberated then reacts with molecular O2, producing ozone as follows:

0+0.+M—>0;+M (10-41)
M is a third molecule (usually, O2 or No, since they are abundant) that absorbs the
excess energy from the reaction. Without M, O3 will possess too much energy for it to
be stable and will simply dissociate back to O and Oz. Ozone subsequently reacts with
NO from either reaction (10-40) or from the original atmospheric NO to regenerate NO>
and molecular O2, thus completing the cycle.

O3 + NO — NO» + Oo (10-42)

NO is relatively inert and only moderately toxic. Although, like CO, it can impair
the blood oxygen-carrying capacity when it combines with hemoglobin, its concentration
in the atmosphere is generally less than 1 ppm, which is considered harmless. On the other
hand, NO; irritates the alveoli of the lungs and O3 has many undesirable properties. These
properties include causing chest constriction, irritation of the human mucous membrane,
cracking of rubber products, and damage to vegetation. Prolonged exposures to even
relatively low concentrations of NO,, characteristics of polluted environments, have been
linked to increased bronchitis in children.
Deducing from equations (10-40) to (10-42), the NO» cycle does not produce
a net increase in NO, or O3. Hence if not disturbed and provided that the starting
concentrations of the species are low, there will be no undesirable effects. However,
human activities emit not only NO, to the atmosphere but also carbon monoxide, the
carbonyl compounds, and hydrocarbons. Carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons, by their
reactions with the hydroxyl radical, disturb the normal NO» photolytic cycle through
the formation of peroxyl radicals. These peroxyls prevent the reaction of O3 with
NO, thus terminating the cycle and causing the O3 to accumulate. In addition, the
494 Pollution from Combustion and Atmospheric Pollution Chap. 10

photolytic decomposition of carbonyl compounds also disturbs this cycle. This is dis-
cussed later.

Reactions of the hydroxyl radical, OH-. Reaction with NO to produce NO2

and QO) is the normal path followed by O3. In some situations, however, because of the
presence of HO in the atmosphere, OH- appears. Its production proceeds according to
the following sequence of reactions:
O3 + hv > O('D) +0, (10-43)
O('D) + HO > 20H. (10-44)
When QO; absorbs solar photons having wavelengths between 315 and 1200 nm, it
dissociates, producing the ground electronic state of atomic oxygen, the normal oxygen
atom, O. However, when it absorbs photons in wavelengths of less than 315 nm near
the ultraviolet range, O3 dissociates, producing O('D). The latter product is called the
electronically excited oxygen atom. O('D) cannot transform directly into its ground-
state form but needs another species to react with to release its energy’—hence reaction
(10-44), producing 2 mol of OH..
The formation of OH- is the beginning of a complex series of reactions in the
atmosphere. These reactions disturb the normal NO, photolytic cycle, leading to the for-
mation of the components of the more complex photochemical smog. OH-, once formed,
can react with the three compounds: CO, hydrocarbons, and carbonyl compounds. Thus
if only these three compounds are not present, the photolytic cycle will not be disturbed
and there will be an absence of photochemical smog. This, however, is not the case
when the atmosphere is polluted. As far as the phenomenon of photochemical smog is
concerned, the end products of the reaction of OH-, namely, the peroxyl radicals, are the
most important. These radicals, rather than O3, are the ones that react with NO to regen-
erate NO», thus terminating the normal NO» cycle, leaving O3 undisturbed and allowing
it to accumulate. The following reactions of OH- with CO, the carbonyl compounds, and
hydrocarbons explain the chemical basis of this phenomenon.
1. Reaction with carbon monoxide. The incomplete combustion of the carbon in
fuels results in the formation of CO. In the presence of the hydroxyl radical, CO reacts
according to the reaction below, producing carbon dioxide and a reactive hydrogen free
radical H-. The hydrogen radical then quickly reacts with atmospheric O, to produce the
hydroperoxyl radical, HO>-.

CO + OH: > CO, +H: (10-45)

H: + O27 +M — HO): +M (10-46)

Again, the third species, M, absorbs some of the energy released in the reaction.
HO): then reacts with NO to regenerate NO> and, to regenerate OH: , as well. This is
shown as

HO): + NO — NO, + OH: (10-47)

7Seinfield, Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics of Air Pollution.

Atmospheric Pollution 495

Now OH.: can hunt for another CO and do its pernicious job again. In turn, NO» absorbs
energy from sunlight, repeating the cycle but in another way.
The reaction sequence of the disturbance under the influence of CO may now
be summarized as follows: NO» photolyzes, producing photolysis NO and O; the O
produced reacts with molecular O2, producing O3. Photolysis NO reacts with the HO)-
produced from CO, producing back NO. NO» photolizes again, producing NO and
O and, subsequently, the O03. Hence OH- and CO keeps on recovering NO. without
destroying O3 but, instead, producing it. The sequence therefore has become a “mill” for
producing O3. Theoretically, it can go on forever to build up the concentration of ozone.
Fortunately, the buildup of O3 cannot go on forever. The disturbed and undisturbed
photolytic cycle described above is a function of cloud shading and the position of the
sun in the sky. It is also a function of whether it is nighttime or daytime. Heavy clouds
and rain impede sunlight from reaching the surface of the earth, suppressing the photon
absorption by NO2. The position of the sun also affects the photolysis of NO2. The
farther away it is from the earth, the less hv will be absorbed by nitrogen dioxide.
In addition to producing more O3, OH: may also form HNO 3 when it reacts with
NO>:

OH: + NO. > HNO3 (10-48)

Now, upon considering all the reactions above, the inventory of the composition of
photochemical smog up to this point is CO, NOz, NO, O03, and HNO3. O3 and HNOs,
which are secondary pollutants formed from the primary pollutants, CO, NO, and NOz,
are called photochemical oxidants. Also, HNO; is a precursor of acid rain.
2. Reactions with carbonyl compounds. ‘The presence of the functional group
|
—C=O, called the carbonyl group, characterizes the carbonyl compounds. There are
two types of carbonyl compounds: aldehydes and ketones. Aldehydes are oxidation
products of primary alcohols; ketones are oxidation products of secondary alcohols. The
general formulas RCHO and RCOR’, respectively, represent these compounds, where R
and R’ are hydrocarbon portions of the respective molecules.
OH.- reacts with aldehydes, abstracting the H atom from the carbonyl group forming
water:
RCHO + OH- > RC(O)- + H2,0 (10-49)

The parent aldehyde from where the H was abstracted forms an aldocarbonyl radical,
RC(O)-, and becomes very reactive. RC(O)- is also called an acyl radical. The radical,
produced rapidly, reacts with atmospheric O2, forming the peroxyl radical, RC(O)O>-.
RC(O)O>;: is an aldocarbonylperoxyl or acylperoxyl radical. The reaction for its formation
is
RC(O)- + O2 > RC(O)O;- (10-50)

As in CO, the peroxyl radical disturbs the normal photolytic NO2 cycle. The
following reaction shows this disturbance:
RC(O)O,- + NO > NO, + RC(O)O- (10-51)
496 Pollution from Combustion and Atmospheric Pollution Chap. 10

As indicated, the reaction regenerates the NO not by the normal reaction with O3
but by the aldocarbonylperoxyl radical. Hence, as in CO, ozone will again be allowed to
accumulate. In addition, the reaction generates another radical, RC(O)O-. This radical
is called an aldocarbonyloxy or acyloxy radical. Since RC(O)O: is a radical, it is very
reactive; in fact, it rapidly reacts with molecular O2 forming yet another peroxyl radical,
RO;-, an alkylperoxyl radical, and carbon dioxide:
RC(O)O- + On > RO: + CO? (10-52)
The reactions of RC(O)- and RC(O)O- with O2 may be compared. Whereas O2
simply attaches to RC(O)-, forming RC(O)O>-, in the case of RC(O)O-, COO splits off
from the radical. One important point to remember in these reactions is that since the
makeup of RC(O)O- already contains COz, CO2 has the tendency to separate out as a
molecule. It is equally logical to think that CO could have separated from RC(O)- also.
However, this chemical property is clearly absent; CO bonds strongly to R and remains
there when the RC(O)O, peroxyl radical forms.
As with the other peroxyl radicals, RO2- now disturbs the normal NO» photolytic
cycle, producing NO) and yet another radical RO., an alkyloxy or alkoxy radical:
RO: + NO — NO; + RO. (10-53)
Again, the reaction regenerates the NO> not by the normal reaction with ozone but
by an entirely different route. This bypassing allows O3 to accumulate still further. This
is now the second time that a peroxyl has disturbed the cycle starting from one molecule
of RCHO. As will now be shown, there will be a third, a fourth, and a fifth up to the
nth, depending on the length of the R radical. RO- reacts further with O> as follows:
RO- + O2 — R’CHO + HO;: (10-54)
In reaction (10-54) R’ is an alkyl or some hydrocarbon radical one carbon shorter
than R. Also, here again, is the hydroperoxyl! radical encountered in connection with the
discussion on CO. From this reaction, deduce, then, that when an alkoxy radical reacts
with Oo, the hydroperoxyl free radical is produced accompanied by the production of a
carbonyl. Clearly, HO>- will go on to react, disturbing the cycle again. R’CHO will also
proceed to react as an aldehyde. It will follow the same steps that RCHO followed until
it becomes R’CHO. R”’CHO will become R”CHO and R’”CHO will become R””CHO
until the simplest aldehyde is reached, HCHO. Assuming that the R’s are alkyl radicals,
in each step decrease (R to R’, or R’ to R”, and so on) the NO; cycle is disturbed three
times. Hence if the alkyl radical is originally n carbons long, the normal cycle will be
disturbed 3(n — 1) times before reaching HCHO.
HCHO further reacts with OH: as follows:
HCHO + OH: — HC(O)- + HO (10-55)
Further reaction of HC(O)- with O> results in

HC(O)- + Op + CO + HO): (10-56)

Here, instead of forming HC(QO)QO;- as it would be with the longer-chain molecules,
HC(O)O>: splits up, forming CO and the hydroperoxyl radical, HO2-. This newly formed
Atmospheric Pollution 497

HO): will, once again, disturb the cycle regenerating NO, in a different way and, also,
again regenerating OH-. This regenerated OH: will now, once again, attack yet another
aldehyde molecule. All in all, the total disturbance up to HCHO is 3n — 2. Since every
disturbance spares one O3, the total number of O3 spared per molecule of RCHO is
3n — 2.
If OH- cannot repeat the cycle with another molecule of RCHO, it goes through
a terminating reaction forming nitric acid, HNO3. The aldocarbonylperoxyl radical may
also undergo a terminating reaction with NO> producing a nitrate,

RG(O)O,- NO; — RG(O)O,NO; (10-57)

If R is a methyl radical, RC(O)O2NO>2 is CH3C(O)O2NO>) and is called acetylperoxylni-
trate or peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN). PAN is an eye irritant and is ubiquitous throughout
the troposphere.
From the discussions above, two more general constituents of photochemical smog
can be added: the aldocarbonylperoxylnitrates and the various photochemical oxidants
produced in the foregoing reactions. Up to this point, the inventory of the constituents
of photochemical smog constituents is CO, NO NO:, O03, HNO3, aldocarbonylperoxyl-
nitrates, and the various photochemical oxidants.
The reactions of ketones are very similar to those of aldehydes. The following
reactions show the sequence (R” is R’ with one H removed):

RC(O)R’ + OH- > RC(O)CH(-)R”: +H2O (10-58)

ketocarbonyl
radical

RC(O)CH(-)R” + O27 RC(O)CH(O3-)R” (10-59)

ketocarbonylperoxy!|
radical

RC(O)CH(O,-)R”: + NO + RC(O)CH(O-)R”: +NO> (10-60)

ketocarbonyloxy
radical

O WY
RC(O)CH(O-)R” + O2 + RC(O)O2-+R"C H (10-61)
alkylperoxy
radical

RC(O)O,: + NO — NO, + RC(O)O. (10-62)

3. Reactions with hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons are compounds of hydrogen and

carbon. Hydrocarbons may be saturated or unsaturated. The saturated hydrocarbons
are those in which the carbon atoms are joined by a single bond. They are called
alkanes. Those hydrocarbons in which the carbons are joined by a double bond or a
triple bond are said to be unsaturated. If there is only one double bond in the molecule,
498 Pollution from Combustion and Atmospheric Pollution Chap. 10

the hydrocarbon is called an alkene; if two double bonds are present, it is called an
alkadiene; if there are three present, it is called an alkatriene; and so on. Similar
naming conventions apply to hydrocarbons with triple bonds except that the -ene is
changed to -yne. Thus, for a one triple bond, it is called an alkyne; for two triple
bonds, it is called an alkadiyne; for three triple bonds, it is called an alkatriyne; and
so on.
Examples of an alkane, alkene, and an alkyne are shown in the following structural
formulas:

> feet
Tog eeeaig ae
jab G5 Hoe jp Cee
Ethane Ethene Ethyne

As shown above, a single bond joins two carbons of ethane; hence ethane is saturated. In
ethene and ethyne, on the other hand, double bonds and triple bonds, respectively, join
the carbons; they are said to be unsaturated.
Now use the symbol RH for an alkane. As in the case of the aldehydes and ketones,
the hydroxyl free radical grabs a hydrogen atom when it reacts with an alkane to form
H20 and a new free radical (an alkyl radical),

RH + OH: > R- + HO (10-63)

R- then reacts with molecular Oz to form the alkylperoxyl free radical,

R- +O) > RO>: (10-64)

RO)- then proceeds to react as a peroxyl does, disturbing the normal NO, photolytic
cycle. Subsequent reactions are exactly the same as before.
In the case of the unsaturated hydrocarbon, instead of OH- abstracting a hydrogen to
form water, the free radical adds into the unsaturation, a normal characteristic reaction of
unsaturated hydrocarbons. The symbols for the unsaturated double-bond and unsaturated
triple-bond hydrocarbons are, respectively, RHC=CHR’ and RC=CR’. The reaction of
RHC=CHR’ with OH: is
RHC=CHR’ + OH: + RHCOH-—CHR’:
hydroxyalkyl (10-65)
radical

The reaction of RC=CR’ will be similar.

If RHC=CHR ’ is ethene, OH: adds to the unsaturation producing a saturated species:

faa ty
H
tees
H
Ty
Hee (10-66)
hydroxyethyl
radical
Atmospheric Pollution 499

Subsequent reactions follow:

RHC(OH)CHR’: + O02 — RC(OH)CHO,R’: (10-67)

hydroxyalkylperoxy
radical

RHC(OH)CHO,R’- + NO — RHC(OH)CHOR’: +NO> (10-68)

hydroxyalkyloxy
radical

RHC(OH)CHOR’: + O27 — RHC(OH)C(O)R’ + HO3- (10-69)

HO): proceeds to disturb the normal NO» photolytic cycle; RHC(OH)C(O)R’ proceeds
according to the reactions of a ketone,

RHC(OH)C(O)R’ + OH: + RHC(O-)C(O)R” + HO (10-70)

and so on.

Disturbance by photolysis products of carbonyl compounds. — The discussions

above addressed the reactions of carbonyl compounds with the hydroperoxyl radical. The
discussion below focuses on a special reaction of the carbonyl compounds by photolysis
and its effect on the NO2 cycle. The photolysis of aldehydes is

RCHO
+ hv — R: + HC(O)- (10-71)

As shown, the reaction produces a hydrocarbon photochemical oxidant product R-, as

well as an oxidant product of the photochemical reaction of HCHO. Henceforth, reactions
similar to those discussed before will follow. Further reactions will ultimately lead to
the disturbance of the normal NO» cycle and more formation of ozone.
The photolysis of ketones may be represented as

RC(O)R' + hv > R-+R’C(O): (10-72)

The reactions of R- and R’C(O). have already been discussed.

The peroxyls (alkyl and acy! peroxyls) formed during a photochemical reaction may
not disturb the normal NO photolytic cycle. They may end up, instead, in a terminal
reaction with NO and NOs, respectively, producing organic nitrates. Letting RO»: and
RC(O)O>: represent the general formula for the peroxyls, the termination reaction may
be shown as
RO». + NO > RNO; (10-73)
RC(O)O,- + NO, > RC(O)O,NO> (10-74)
The products in these reactions are organic nitrates.
Up to this point, observe that the species in photochemical smog are composed of
NO, NO>, HNO3, CO, organic nitrates, ozone, and photochemical oxidants. In addition,
given the right conditions, the species participating in the photochemical smog formation
may nucleate, forming aerosols. The last component of a photochemical smog may
therefore be called photochemical aerosol.
500 Pollution from Combustion and Atmospheric Pollution Chap. 10

Important photochemical smog reactions to remember. _ For future reference, it

is helpful to summarize all pertinent photochemical reactions. They are
Normal NO, photolytic cycle:
+ hv ~
NO, NO+O0O

0+0,+M—>03;+M

O; + NO > NO,
Chain and disturbance reactions:
O3 +hv > O('D) +O»
O('D) + H,O > 20H.
OH: + CO > CO, + H:-
H- + O2 > HO):
HO,- + NO — NO), + OH-
RGCHO + OH-— RC(O)--- 30
RC(O): + O27 > RC(O)O,-

RC(O)O,- + NO > NO) + RC(O)O.

RE(O)O=-O7— kO7 CO;
RO -+ NO — NO; + RO.
RO- + O) > R’CHO + HO3-
RH + OH: > R- + H20
R- + O2 — RO>-
Terminating reactions:
OH: + NO, > HNO;
RO): + NO + RNO3;
RC(O)O,- + NO — RC(O)O,NO>
Example 10-8
Assuming the NO? photolytic cycle is in progress, write all the chemical reactions that ethane
and its reaction products will have in the formation of photochemical smog.
Solution

CoH¢ + OH: > CoHs:- + H2O

C2H5- + O2 > CoHs5QO2-

CoHs5O02- + NO + NO» + CoHs0O-

 Acid Rain 501

CoHOe nOn On. CH. CHO

HO: + NO > NO» + OH:
GH CHO a: OF Hs -- CH, G0):
CH3C(O): + 02 > CH3C(0)0)-
CH3C(0)07: + NO > NO» + CH3C(0)0.
CHE
O) Oe Or CHO. 2CO,
CH30: + NO > NO» + CH30.
PEROS 0h = TO FI eee)
HO»: + NO > NO> + OH.
HCHO-- OH. IDO =HCO):
HC(O)2207— HO 2CO
HO>- + NO > NO» + OH.
CO=- OH CO7--H

H- + Oo — HOd-

HO2- + NO — NO> + OH:

Terminating reactions:

OH: + NO2 > HNO3 => nitric acid

CH302-: + NO — CH3NO3 => methyl nitrate

CH3C(O)O>- + NOz — CH3C(O)O,NO2 = peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN)

CoHs502- + NO > CrHsNO3 => ethyl! nitrate Answer

ACID RAIN

The basic components of acid rain are nitric acid and sulfuric acid. Nitric acid is a com-
ponent product of the NO2 photolytic cycle. Sulfuric acid results when SO, discharged
from combustion processes converts to SO3, which, in turn, reacts with the moisture in
the air, producing the acid.
The fundamental question is: When is precipitation acid rain? To answer this
question, let us investigate the normal environmental pH. Absolutely neutral precipitation
would have a pH of 7 at 25°C. But one would not expect to observe this value because of
other species that can depress the pH below 7. A major naturally occurring species that
502 Pollution from Combustion and Atmospheric Pollution Chap. 10

can depress the pH below neutral value is carbon dioxide. From Henry’s law, CO) may
dissolve in atmospheric moisture or on surface waters. Now, find the corresponding pH
for this naturally occurring CO. Assume that the temperature and atmospheric pressure
are 25°C and | atm, respectively. The equilibrium expressions are

Ky = {OH }{H*} = (10-) (10-75)

{Hi} {Con} ill
K HCO; = ————
(HCO;} = 4.69(10
( ) (10-76 )

fH HCO, 3} me
Ku, {COs} — = 4,45(10
HCO; = ——__— ( ) (10-77 )

4 ; .
fe Patm
Kco, = ———. = 0.164(10") atm/mol fraction (10-78)
4 {CO2(aq) }

where the K symbols represent the equilibrium constant for the substances used as sub-
scripts, and {-} is read as “the activity of.”
The partial pressure of CO, at normal atmospheric conditions is approximately
10-3 atm, and the fugacity coefficient, f,, may be assumed equal to 1. Solving for the
unknowns, the resulting equation for the hydrogen ion is
{H+}? — 4.76(10-'"){H*} — 4.46(10°*) = 0 (10-79)
Solving this equation produces the {H*} and the corresponding pH,
{Ht} = 10>" mol/L > pH =5.7 (10-80)
Thus, from the result above and applying some factor of safety, it may be concluded
that when the environmental pH of a stream water falls below 5.0 (< 5.7), anthropogenic
contributions of acidity may be the reason.
The following equations summarize the reactions for sulfuric acid formation:
SO, + OH: — HOSO>- (10-81)
HOSO2: + O2 — SO3 + HO)- (10-82)
SO3 + H20 — H2SO4 (10-83)
HO, + NO — NO, + OH- (10-84)
Referring to the equations above, SO2 emitted by various processes, notably com-
bustion processes, reacts with the hydroxyl free radical, forming the hydrosulfurdioxide
free radical, HOSO2-. HOSO)- then reacts with molecular O2, producing SO3 and the
hydroperoxyl free radical, HOz. SO3 finally reacts with moisture, producing H2SOu4, the
agent of acid rain. The hydroperoxy free radical may also react with NO, emitted from
pollution sources or from the NO produced in the NO, photolytic cycle, again liberating
the hydroxyl radical. The latter reaction is the disturbance of the normal NO, photolytic
cycle.
The HNO; is formed from the reaction of the hydroxyl radical with nitrogen dioxide:
OH: + NO, — HNO; (10-85)
 Destruction of the Ozone Layer 503

Once the acid-rain precursors are formed, essentially two mechanisms transport
them toward the surface of the earth: dry deposition and wet deposition. Dry deposition
is a simple transport of the precursors toward the earth’s surface through settling and
other physical means without the benefit of dissolving into the water in precipitation. In
wet deposition, on the other hand, rain scrubs out the acids from the atmosphere, thus
dissolving them into water. As the precursors reach the earth, they acidify natural waters:
streams, rivers, lakes, and reservoirs. Some occurrences of acidification are believed to
have already taken place in the Adirondack Mountains of New York State and portions
of Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland in Canada.

DESTRUCTION OF THE OZONE LAYER

As illustrated in Figure 10-5, the earth’s atmosphere may be divided into four layers:
the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. The figure shows that the
troposphere occupies the layer closest to the surface starting from zero to about 16 km
above the ground. This thickness, however, is not constant throughout the globe. In the
midlatitudes, it can range from 10 to 12 km (about the altitude of a typical airplane flight).

140,

120

Thermosphere

Temperature
100 F

E sot

z Mesosphere
60

40
Stratosphere

20+
Loe ee ee ee eH Qa a a a a a aw ow He He ee ee ee eee eee

Troposphere
H a 1 J: y
0

100 200 300 400 500. Figure 10-5 Four major layers of
Temperature (K) atmospheric temperature profile.
 504 Pollution from Combustion and Atmospheric Pollution Chap. 10

In the poles, due to a heavier density, it can range from 5 to 6 km, and in the equator
due to lighter density, the thickness of the troposphere layer may go as high as 18 km.
The troposphere has a dry adiabatic lapse rate of —9.57°C/km.
The troposphere is the layer where clouds form. It is normally turbulent, due to
the presence of a favorable lapse rate, enabling the pollutant to mix relatively fast. In
contrast, above the troposphere is a calm, stable layer called the stratosphere. From the
figure, the layer stretches from an altitude of approximately 16 km to about 49 km above
the surface of the earth. The reason for the stability of the stratosphere is the inverted
lapse rate that occurs in this layer. The temperature increases as the altitude increases.
Figure 10-6b shows the atmospheric absorption of radiation on a clear day. As
indicated ozone and molecular O2 effectively absorbs the sun’s ultraviolet radiation in
the range below 0.30 xm. This absorption causes a series of photochemical reaction to
occur, liberating heat. This heat liberation is the cause of the temperature rise in the
stratosphere layer.

cs)
o
as
oS
E
a 290 K
2 (Earth)
aoO
5

Pe aa eS en he aS So
ORION SO OS 0.5 kites) 2 3 5 LOD Ss 20530 50 100
Wavelength (jzm)
(a)

100
80
60
40
(%) 20
Absorption
) SSS
k- (pt oF 2 eeH,0 o, | | H,O (rotation)
CO,

(b)

Figure 10-6 (a) Normalized blackbody radiation curves for the sun and earth. (b) At-
mospheric absorption on a clear day.
Destruction of the Ozone Layer 505

Because of the temperature inversion, the stratosphere is very stable. Pollutants

that come into this layer from the troposphere may become trapped here for years. There
is no mechanism for scavenging any pollutant by rain since this layer is very dry and the
limit of cloud formation is the troposphere. The only way that a pollutant may decay is
through photolytic decomposition and by a chance-drifting back to the troposphere. Once
returned to the troposphere, it can be removed by rainfall scavenging and dissolution. The
troposphere and the stratosphere comprise about 99.9% of the mass of the atmosphere.
Above the stratosphere is the mesosphere which extends from approximately 49 km
to about 86 km above the surface of the earth. With respect to temperature variation, it
is similar to the troposphere. As the air expands, it cools. If as the air expands, however,
a reaction releases heat, the air may heat up or stay cool, depending on the amount
of heat released. In the stratosphere, the heat from the photochemical reaction exceeds
the heat required for expansion; hence the layer heats up. In the mesophere, however,
the situation is different: The heat requirement for expansion exceeds the heat released
by reaction and the air cools. Hence the temperature decreases with altitude, as in the
troposphere.
Above the mesosphere is the thermosphere. Figure 10-5 shows a temperature rise.
The reason for this rise is the absorption of solar energy by atomic oxygen. The heating
effect caused by this absorption exceeds the heat requirement for expansion, heating the
atmosphere. (Within the thermosphere is a relatively dense layer of charged particles.
This layer is called the ionosphere.)
As learned in the photolytic NO» cycle, ozone is an undesirable species; however,
referring to Figure 10-6, ozone effectively absorbs the short-wavelength ultraviolet (UV)
spectrum of less than 0.30 wm. This process occurs in the stratosphere. There is good
evidence that a UV-induced alteration of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) causes skin cancer.
The most useful function of ozone is therefore in the stratosphere.
The reactions below illustrate the formation of ozone in the stratosphere. As shown
in Figure 10-6, O absorbs the sun’s short-UV wavelength of 0.24 um and below;

Oo +hv > 0+0 (10-86)

The atomic oxygen, in turn, rapidly reacts with molecular O2 to form ozone.

Os, O07 Mi O73 MM (10-87)

Radiation on the order of 0.30 ym (0.300 to 0.315 jm) has been linked to skin
cancer: nonmelanoma and the more life-threatening malignant melanoma. Absorption in
this range of wavelength therefore protects life on earth from the damaging biological
effects of radiation. The damaging effect of radiation includes, in addition to skin cancer,
eye cataracts and retinal degeneration and immune system suppression. A milder form
of biological damage is human sunburn. The equation below portrays the absorption of
UV radiation in the range 0.300 to 0.315 ym.

O3+hv > 0.+0 (10-88)

Scientists first expressed concern over the possible destruction of the ozone layer
506 Pollution from Combustion and Atmospheric Pollution Chap. 10

in the 1970s.8 They found that species such as Cl, Br, OH-, and NO react with ozone,
destroying it. Then, in 1985, an announcement was made of the creation of a hole in
the ozone layer over Antarctica the size of the United States.? This aroused the world to
begin acknowledging the seriousness of the problem. Using X to represent the species
Cl, Br, OH-, and NO, following are the reactions of ozone destruction:

X + O03 > O2 + XO (10-89)

XO+0—-> X+ QO, (10-90)
As seen from these reactions, the species X has been regenerated. Hence this
catalyst can go on destroying thousands more O3 molecules. The only way that the
destruction can cease is when a species appears that is capable of undergoing a terminating
reaction with X, or for X to return to the troposphere, where it may be removed by rain. It
must also be remembered that X is composed of Cl, Br, OH-, and NO; thus the reactions
above can be compounded several times over.
The dominant sources of the chlorine atom are CH3Cl, the chlorofluorocarbons
CFC-11 and CFC-12, and carbon tetrachloride. The CH3Cl is mostly of natural origin,
whereas the chlorofluorocarbons are man-made. Carbon tetrachloride is both of natural
and man-made origin. Anthropogenic sources of less importance are the cleaning solvents
trichloroethylene (CClh= CHCl), methyl chloroform, and CFC-113. CFC-113 is used in
the electronic industry in various critical cleaning and degreasing operations. The key
chlorine species for ozone destruction are CFC-11 and CFC-12. A source of bromine
atoms are Halons, fluorocarbons that contain bromine atoms and used in fire extinguishers.
The sources of OH- and NO have already been discussed. Although they are in the
troposphere, they can diffuse into the stratosphere to cause ozone damage.
CFCs are molecules that contain chlorine, fluorine, and carbon. They are very
important commercially. Although banned by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
since 1979, they have been used extensively in the past. CFC-11 and CFC-12 are believed
to have lifetimes of 60 and 110 years, respectively; hence, they do not just disappear
from the atmosphere.
To determine the chemical formula for a CFC, simply add 90 to its suffix number
and interpret the resulting three-digit number as follows: the leftmost digit is the number
of C atoms, the middle digit is the number of hydrogen atoms, and the rightmost digit
is the number of fluorine atoms. To determine the number of chlorine atoms, subtract
the number of hydrogen and fluorine atoms plus the number of single carbon-to-carbon
bonds from the total possible number of single bonds that the carbon atoms can have.
Thus, for CFC-12: 90+ 12 = 102. Therefore, there are one C, zero H, and two F atoms.
The H and F are two, and since there is only one C, there are no carbon-to-carbon bonds.
The total possible number of single bonds of C is four. Therefore, the total number of
chlorine atoms is 4 — (2+ 0) = 2. Hence the formula is CCI)F>.

8M. J. Molina and F. S. Rowland (1974). “Stratospheric Sink for Chlorofluoromethanes: Chlorine Atom
Catalyzed Destruction of Ozone.” Nature, 249, pp. 810-812.
°G. M. Masters (1991). Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science. Prentice Hall, Engle-
wood Cliffs, N.J.
Destruction of the Ozone Layer 507

Example 10-9
What is the chemical composition of CFC-113?

Solution 90+ 113 = 203. Therefore, C = 2, H = 0, and F= 3. H+ F=0 +43 =3.

Since there are two C, total C-to-C bonds = 1, and the total possible single C bonds = 7.
Thus the number of Cl atoms = 7 — (3 + 1) = 3, and the formula is CoCI13F3. Answer

CFCs are used as aerosol propellants, refrigerants, and solvents. They are also
used in foamed plastics. After CFCs were banned in 1979, replacement propellants such
as carbon dioxide, isobutane, and propane were used. However, CO» is an important
agent of the greenhouse effect. The hydrocarbons isobutane and propane are constituent
species in photochemical smog reactions. Daily use of these aerosols in the home may
also result in substantial problems of indoor air pollution. Presently, simple pumps have
been used to propel contents instead of aerosols.
Foamed plastics are of two types: the rigid and flexible. Rigid sheets of foamed
urethane plastics are used as insulation in the construction industry and in refrigeration
equipment. The CFC trapped in the holes of the foam serves as an insulator and blocks
heat transfer. Nonurethane foams such as extruded polystyrene (such as Dow’s Styro-
foam) are used extensively for egg cartons and food service trays. Expanded polystyrene
foams are also used for drinking cups. Flexible foams are used in furnitures and auto-
mobile seats.
In the past, ammonia, carbon dioxide, isobutane, methyl chloride, methylene chlo-
ride, and sulfur dioxide had been used as refrigerants. These refrigerants are either toxic,
noxious, highly flammable, or require high operating pressure that necessitates the use of
heavy equipment. CFCs have replaced all these refrigerants with the attendant potential
harmful effects to the environment. Hydrogenated CFCs (HCFCs) have, however, been
found to be less damaging than the fully halogenated CFCs and may therefore be suit-
able replacements. In addition, HCFCs, because of the hydrogen bonds, are less stable
than CFCs in the environment. They are therefore less likely to reach the stratosphere.
Also, its ozone-depleting potential is only 10 to 15% of the regular fully halogenated
CFCs”
The creation of the ozone hole over Antarctica may be explained as follows: CFCs
are very stable molecules that are not normally degraded in the usual processes taking
place in the troposphere. When found in the stratosphere, however, they are broken down
by UV, releasing the chlorine atom. Using CFC-12, the reaction is

CCl,F, + hv > Cl+ CCIF, (10-91)

Cl then reacts according to reaction (10-89) destroying ozone and producing ClO. The
product ClO reacts further with NO», forming chlorine nitrate:

ClO + NO, — CIONO> (10-92)

l0Tbid.
 508 Pollution from Combustion and Atmospheric Pollution Chap. 10

At this stage Cl is effectively trapped in CIONO:, an inert compound that can

do no damage to the ozone. Over Antarctica, however, a phenomenon of atmospheric
circulation called the circumpolar or polar vortex forms.'! The formation of the polar
vortex blocks the warmer midlatitude air from mixing with the air above the pole. Thus
the polar air is trapped with no connections to the outside warmer air. This condition cools
the air in the stratosphere, which can go down to —90°C. Even though stratospheric air is
very dry, ice crystals can form at this very low temperature, providing reaction surfaces
for chlorine nitrate to react with water to form HOC] and HNOs3:

CIONO, + H2O0 — HOC! + HNO; (10-93)

As long as the polar vortex exists, reaction (10-93) continues to operate, accumulating
HOCI, this accumulation is simply waiting for the Antarctic spring.
As the sun first rises in the Antarctic spring of August or September, HOC] pho-
tolyzes, forming Cl and the hydroxyperoxyl radical, which destroys the ozone. The
sequence of reactions are as follows:

HOCL + hv — Cl + OH: (10-94)

Cle Oa ClO 207 (10-95)
OH- + 0; — 0O7-- HO>- (10-96)
ClO= HO; HOG O> (10-97)

With this formation of HOCI, the cycle starts all over again. It is clear that even one
molecule of CFC-12 can destroy thousands of molecules of ozone.

GREENHOUSE EFFECT

The sun emits solar radiation in all directions equal to 1372 W/m?. This is called the
solar constant S. Designating R as the radius of the earth, 2 R* is its projected area. The
amount of energy that the earth absorbs is therefore equal to S(1 — a)m R*, where a is
the earth’s albedo. This absorption of energy heats the earth.
The Stefan—Boltzmann law of blackbody radiation is given by

W, =o AT* (10-98)
where W, is the total blackbody radiation rate, W; o is the Stefan—Boltzmann constant,
5.67(10-*)W/m?-K*; A the surface area of the object, m?; and T temperature of the
radiating surface, K. As the earth is heated, its temperature rises. This makes the earth
capable of reradiating back energy into space according to the Stefan—Boltzmann law.
At steady state, equating the rate of absorption of the energy coming from the sun to the
rate of reradiation of energy by the earth into space and assuming an albedo of 30%, the
predicted overall, global annual mean temperature of the air close to the ground is around

TH, J. Lugt (1983). Vortex Flow in Nature and Technology. Wiley, New York.
Greenhouse Effect 509

255 K.'? However, 288 K is normally considered as the average value. The difference
of 33 K would therefore represent a perturbation due to some factors. This factor is
considered to be that of what is called the greenhouse effect.
From Figure 10-6, radiations from the sun range from a wavelength of about
0.15 jm to about 4.8 4m. The radiations from the earth, on the other hand, range
from about 2.8 to about 85 zm. Hence since those coming from the sun are shorter, they
are called shortwave radiations; those coming from the earth are called long-wavelength
radiations. The value of 290 K for the earth’s radiation curve shown in the figure was
produced by adding 2 degrees to 288, to obtain the surface temperature of the earth (288
K is the average temperature of the air, not of the ground). The distributions in the figure
may be derived using Planck’s law,

Cie
Why — Pon ea (10-99)

where W,,, is the monochromatic radiating power of a blackbody, Btu/ft?(h)\(um); T =

absolute temperature, °R; C; = 1.187(10°) Btu/ft?(h)(2m*); C2 = 2.590(10*) zm°R; and
y = wavelength of radiation, zm.
The phenomenon of the greenhouse effect may be explained as follows: The short-
wave radiation of the sun is absorbed by the earth, heating it to a temperature of about
255°C. Because of the heat it absorbs, the earth reradiates energy back into space in
the form of long-wave radiation. In the atmosphere, however, are molecules that can
absorb this reradiated energy, converting it to heat. Being heated, the molecules can now
also reradiate the heat they absorb back into earth, producing the perturbation differen-
tial temperature of 33 K. This temperature differential is due to the greenhouse effect.
The aforementioned molecules that produce this effect are called greenhouse gases. As
indicated in Figure 10-6, these gases are CO2, H2O, N2O, and CHag.
It is fortunate that because of the greenhouse effect, the overall average annual
temperature has been raised to 15°C (288K — 273 = 15°C). The temperature would have
been —18°C only (255 K — 273 = —18°C), a temperature that can make living uncom-
fortable. On the other extreme, the temperature should not be so high. Scientists have
discovered that the CO, concentration in the atmosphere has been steadily increasing, as
shown in Figure 10-7. From this figure the concentration of CO at the beginning of the
nineteenth century was about 280 ppm. Presently, it is about 350 ppm. This is alarming,
since continued rise of the concentration may increase global temperatures, which can
upset the balance of nature.
It is known that carbon dioxide is a product of complete combustion, and society
is very much dependent on fossil fuels. Argument has even been made as to which
one to use: coal or natural gas. Advocates say that natural gas is preferrable to coal.
But either way, CO) is still produced. In addition, burning of forests has compounded
the problem. In underdeveloped countries, forest burning is the easiest way to make
farms, and this is done every day. One way to solve this problem is to use sources of
energy that do not produce CO: wind power, hydroelectric, solar, and nuclear. It is

!2Masters, Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science.

 510 Pollution from Combustion and Atmospheric Pollution Chap. 10

Rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide

355)

350

345

340

B35

330

325
Fluctuations reflect seasonal variation.
concentration
(ppm)
dioxide
Carbon Summertime low is caused by uptake of
320
CO, by plants. Data were collected at
the Mauna Loa Laboratory in Hawaii.
SIS)

310
1958 1960 1962 1964 1966 1968 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990
Year
(a)

340

320
(ppm)

300

concentration
CO,
280

1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

Year i
(b)

Figure 10-7 (a) Concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide at Mauna Loa Labora-
tory, Hawaii. (b) Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations inferred from measurements
of glacial ice formed during the last 200 years. (Reprinted with permission from Nature,
Macmillan Magazine.)
Greenhouse Effect 511

probably more desirable to perfect the method of disposal of nuclear wastes and improve
the safety of nuclear plants and use them rather than to continue reliance on fossil
fuels.
Added to the list of greenhouse gases are CFC-11 and CFC-12. Emprical equations
have been derived to predict the equilibrium-incremental increase in temperature AT
caused by these pollutants. The formula is!*
ATy In
, {COz} + 0.057({N2O
AT = — }°> — {N20}25) + 0.019({CH4}°> — {CH4}2°5)
In2 {CO>}o

+ 0.14({CFC-11} — {CFC-11}o) + 0.16({CFC-12} — {CFC-12}o) (10-100)

where A7jz is the equilibrium-incremental change in temperature for a doubling in CO,

concentration and the zero subscripts refer to the initial value of the parameter affected.
The temperature is in degrees Celsius and the concentrations are in ppb.

Example 10-10
In 1850 the concentrations of the greenhouse gases were as follows: CO2 = 280 ppm, CH4y =
1150 ppb, N2O = 285 ppb, CFC-11 = 0, and CFC-12 = 0. In 1985 they were CO2 = 345
ppm, CH4 = 1790 ppb, N2O = 305 ppb, CFC-11 = 0.24 ppb, and CFC-12 = 0.4 ppb. By
2075!4 they are estimated to be CO2 = 576 ppm, CH4 = 4402 ppb, N2O = 478 ppb, CFC-11
= 2.28 ppb, and CFC-12 = 3.80 ppb. (a) Calculate the equilibrium-incremental increase
in temperature from 1850 to 2075. (b) Calculate the equilibrium-incremental increase in
temperature from 1985 to 2075. Assume that ATy = 3°C.

Solution

(Gael
AL, {CO2}
+ 0.057({N2O}°° — {N2O}}°) + 0.019 ({CH4}°° — {CH4}}°)
In2 {CO2}o

Oe {CRC — al aa {CrC i a )ia0.

16 CFC a 12} {CFC — 1210)

CRO YLS
AT 850-2075 = =~ In = + 0.057 ({478}°° — {285}°°) + 0.019 ({4402}°° — {1150}°°)

+ 0.14(2.28 — 0) + 0.16(3.80 — 0)

= 3.12+ 0.2844 0.62 + 0.32 + 0.61 =4.95°C Answer

500) 576
AT\935—2075 = 5 In 345 + 0.057 ({478}°° — {305}°°) + 0.019 ({4402}°° — {1790}°°)
n

+ 0.14(2.28 — 0.24) + 0.16(3.80 — 0.40)

= 2.22 + 0.25 + 0.46 + 0.29 + 0.54 = 3.76°C Answer

13 Tid.
I4Tbid.
512 Pollution from Combustion and Atmospheric Pollution Chap. 10

GLOSSARY

Acid rain. The type of precipitation that results when oxides of nitrogen and sulfur are
emitted into the atmosphere.
Bottom dead center. The limit of travel of the piston in the power and intake strokes.
Carburetion. The mixing of atomized gasoline and air.
Carburetor. The unit above an engine of the automobile where carburetion is carried
out.
Catalytic incineration. A method of incineration that employs a catalyst.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Molecules containing chlorine, fluorine, and carbon.
Combustion. Reaction of a substance with molecular oxygen to produce energy.
Compression stroke. The piston movement where the mixture of fuel and air is com-
pressed before firing.
Equilibrium reaction. When the rate of forward reaction is equal to the rate of backward
reaction, the reaction is in equilibrium.
Equivalence ratio. The reciprocal of the stoichiometric ratio.
Equivalent weight (or equivalent mass). The mass of a substance participating in a
chemical reaction per unit mole of the reference species.
Exhaust gas recirculation. A process of controlling NO, where exhaust gases are
recirculated to lower the temperature of the combustion gases.
Exhaust manifold. The manifold that accepts combustion gases from an engine.
Free radical. A radical that contains one or more unpaired electrons or an atomic species
formed containing one or more such unpaired electrons.
Greenhouse effect. The absorption of long-wave radiation from the earth, reradiating
heat back to earth, causing an increase in temperature.
Hot soak. Emissions after the engine is shut off.
Hydroxyl free radical. The free radical formed from water when an electron bond is
broken in the water molecule forming unpaired electrons.
Idling. The condition exemplified by an engine running without movement of a vehicle.
Intake manifold. The manifold that accepts the supply of fuel and air in an engine.
Intake stroke. The suction stroke of a piston.
Ionosphere. A layer of atmosphere in the thermosphere.
Lapse rate. The rate of change of temperature in the atmosphere.
Mesosphere. The atmosphere above the stratosphere; it extends from an altitude of
approximately 49 km to approximately 86 km.
NO) photolytic cycle. The cycle of NO decomposition and reformation in the atmo-
sphere using ozone for the reformation.
Oxidation. The loss of electrons from a substance.
Peroxyl radicals. Free radicals formed from peroxides.
Photochemical smog. A mixture of reactants and products resulting from the interaction
of organics and the oxides of nitrogen.
Power stroke. The movement of a piston where power is abstracted from the rapidly
expanding combustion gases after firing.
Primary pollutants. Pollutants formed directly at the source.
 Problems 513

Rapid combustion. Combustion accompanied by intense heat and light.

Reference species. Moles of electrons or the moles of positive (or alternatively, negative)
oxidation states participating in a given chemical reaction.
Slow or biological combustion. Combustion mediated by organisms in which the release
of heat is inconsequential compared to that of rapid combustion.
Stoichiometric ratio. The ratio of the theoretical fuel/air ratio to the actual fuel/air ratio.
Stratosphere. The limit of cloud formation; it extends from an altitude of approximately
16 km to approximately 49 km. This is where the protective ozone layer exists.
Thermosphere. The atmosphere above the mesosphere.
Three-way catalytic converter. A catalytic reactor that converts HC, CO, and NO, to
H20, CO2, and N> using the catalysts platinum and rhodium.
Top dead center. The limit of travel of the piston in the compression and exhaust strokes.
Trophosphere. That region of the atmosphere where cloud formation occurs; it extends
from the surface of the earth up to an altitude of approximately 16 km.

SYMBOLS

CFC chlorofluorocarbon
hv a photon of energy
ky backward rate coefficient
kr forward rate coefficient
K equilibrium constant
Ky Henry’s law constant
R universal gas constant

PROBLEMS

10-1. Ultimate analysis of a municipal solid waste yields the following results: H = 8.2%, C =
27.2%, N = 0.7%, O = 56.8%, S = 0.1%, ash = 7.0%, and moisture = 43.3%. This solid
waste is used to fire a plant that burns 100 tonnes/day of refuse and produces 20 tonnes/day
of residue. If the burning is under insufficient air, how much CO is produced per day?
10-2. In Problem 10-1, if the solid waste burns at 20% excess air, how much CO; is produced
per day assuming negligible NO formation?
10-3. In Problem 10-1, if the solid waste burns at 20% excess air, what are the stoichiometric
and equivalence ratios?
10-4. A local village in the Middle East uses cattle manure for fuel. Ultimate analysis of the
dried manure shows that the percent S is approximately 0.3%. Assuming all the sulfur is
converted to SO3 and assuming that enough moisture is present in the atmosphere to react
with the trioxide, calculate the amount of acid produced per ton of manure.
19-5. Calculate the amount of moisture needed to react with the SO3 in Problem 10-4.
514 Pollution from Combustion and Atmospheric Pollution Chap. 10

10-6. Assume in Problem 10-4 that the inhabitants of the village cook food three times a day
using 2 kg of manure per cooking. If there are 60 houses in the village, how much sulfuric
acid is produced in | year?
10-7. A small stream discharging 0.002 cfs runs through the village in Problem 10-4: The stream
empties into a lake 5 ha in surface area and 7 m in average depth. The annual precipitation
averages 127 cm. Can you predict the resulting pH in the lake as a result of the acid pollution
coming from the cooking? If so, what is the resulting pH? Assume the topography of the
village is such that all precipitations drain into the lake and that the headwaters of the
stream are within the village boundary.
10-8. How will you confirm the accuracy of the prediction of pH in Problem 10-7?
10-9. A flue gas at a temperature of 200°C and 1 atm pressure is analyzed and found to contain
85% No, 5% Or, and 10% CO> on the dry basis. If the humidity of the gas is 0.016 mol
H20 per mol of gas, calculate the equilibrium concentrations of CO, NO, and NOp.
10-10. Recalculate Problem 10-9 assuming that the flue gas temperature is 1600°C.
10-11. Ultimate analysis of a municipal refuse used to fire a solid-waste-to-energy recovery plant
shows the following results: H = 7.2%, C 47.6%, N = 2.0%, O = 35.7%, S = 0.3%,
ash = 7.2%, and moisture = 4.9%. The plant burns 100 tonnes/day of refuse, produc-
ing 20 tonnes/day of residue containing 5% C. Calculate the combustion products for an
incomplete combustion. The humidity of the air is 0.016 mol of H2O per mole of dry air.
10-12. Calculate the percent carbon in the refuse that is gasified in Problem 10-11.
10-13. How much atmospheric oxygen and air were used in Problem 10-11?
10-14. Ultimate analysis of a municipal refuse used to fire a solid-waste-to-energy recovery plant
shows the following results: H = 7.2%, C 47.6%, N = 2.0%, O = 35.7%, S = 0.3%,
ash = 7.2%, and moisture = 4.9%. The plant burns 100 tonnes/day of refuse, producing
20 tonnes/day of residue containing 5% C. Calculate the combustion products at the com-
bustion zone for complete combustion using 20% excess air and neglecting thermal NO.
Use any chart that will give the percent conversion of fuel NO and assume an incoming
air humidity of 0.016 mol of H2O per mole of dry air.
10-15. Using the same data as in Problem 10-14, calculate the ideal temperature of combustion
and the corresponding products of combustion.
10-16. Calculate the percent carbon in the refuse that is gasified in Problem 10-14.
10-17. How much atmospheric oxygen and air were used in Problem 10-14?
10-18. What three important emissions can you expect from operation of an automobile?
10-19. How does acceleration of the car affect emission of CO and hydrocarbons? Why?
10-20. Does deceleration decrease emissions? Why?
10-21. Why is the carburetor float used in the carburetor? Does the float tank prevent emission?
Why?
10-22. If the throttle valve is closed, is it true that there is no vacuum on the underside?
10-23. Is it true that the engine piston and cylinder assembly does not create a vacuum? If it does
create a vacuum, explain why.
10-24. Does delaying the spark burn the fuel almost to completion? Explain. Answer this problem
if the spark is advanced.
10-25. Do emissions decrease right after engine is turned off? Why? What is the emission during
this time called?
Problems 515

10-26. Why is the three-way catalytic converter called a three-way catalytic converter?
10-27. Write the pertinent reactions for the NO» photclytic cycle. What are the general classes of
compounds that disturb the NO2 photolytic cycle?
10-28. What is O(!D)?
10-29. What is photochemical smog? Write the important photochemical smog reactions to re-
member.
10-30. Write the reactions that lead to formation of the hydroxyl radical.
10-31. What are the three compounds that react with the hydroxyl radical to initiate the complex
series of photochemical reactions?
10-32. Write the chemical reactions that illustrate the disturbance of the NO2 photolytic cycle by
CO!
10-33. How many moles of ozone is produced in Problem 10-32?
10-34. How many times is the cycle being disturbed in Problem 10-32?
10-35. Write the chemical reactions that illustrate the disturbance of the NO2 photolytic cycle by
acetaldehyde.
10-36. How many moles of ozone are produced in Problem 10-35?
10-37. How many times is the cycle being disturbed in Problem 10-35?
10-38. Write the chemical reactions that illustrate the disturbance of the NO2 photolytic cycle by
butane.
10-39. How many moles of ozone are produced in Problem 10-38?
10-40. How many times is the cycle being disturbed in Problem 10-38?
10-41. Starting with propionaldehyde, how many times will the normal NO» photolytic cycle
be disturbed before reaching formaldehyde if propionaldehyde undergoes photochemical
reactions starting with OH-?
10-42. Assuming that the NO2 photolytic cycle is in progress, write all the chemical reactions that
propane and its reaction products will have in the formation of photochemical smog.
10-43. What are the key chlorine species for ozone destruction?
10-44. Write the chemical reactions for ozone destruction in the stratosphere.
10-45. Explain the positive lapse rate in the stratosphere and the thermosphere.
10-46. Explain the negative lapse rate in the troposhere and the mesosphere.
10-47. What is the normal altitude for airplane flight?
10-48. Write the chemical reactions for acid rain formation.
10-49. What is the chemical formula of CFC-11?
10-50. Name five important compounds responsible for global warming.
10-51. In 1985 the concentrations of the greenhouse gases were as follows: CO2 = 280 ppm,
CH4 = 1150 ppb, N2O = 285 ppb, CFC-11 = 0, CFC-12 = 0. In 1985, they were CO2 =
345 ppm, CHy = 1790 ppb, N2O = 305 ppb, CFC-11 = 0.24 ppb, and CFC-12 = 0.40 ppb.
Assuming that ATy = 3°C, what was the average global temperature in 1985?
10-52. A Maryland coal is burned at the rate of 5.50 tonnes/h. If the coal contains 3.0% S, what
is the annual rate of emission of SO2?
 516 Pollution from Combustion and Atmospheric Pollution Chap. 10

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AMMANN, P. R., and R. S. TIMMINS (1966). “Chemical Reactions during Thermal Quenching of
Oxygen-Nitrogen Mixtures from Very High Temperatures.” AJChE Journal 12, pp. 956-963.
Cooper, C. D., and F. C. ALLEY (1986). Air Pollution Control: A Design Approach. Waveland
Press, Prospect Heights, III.
Luart, H. J. (1983). Vortex Flow in Nature and Technology. Wiley, New York.
Masters, G. M. (1991). Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science. Prentice Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
SEINFIELD, J. H. (1986). Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics of Air Pollution. Wiley, New York.
ToBoLpT, W. K. and L. JOHNSON (1983). Automotive Encyclopedia. Goodheart-Willcox, South
Holland, III.
VESILIND, P. A., J. J. PEIRCE, and R. F. WEINER (1988). Environmental Engineering. Butterworth,
Boston.
 CHAPTER 11

Solid Waste Management

Imagine garbage left uncollected at one corner of your home for 3 days. Imagine also
that the container is uncovered. Can you imagine the odor that results throughout your
house? Now assume that the community refuse collection crew is on strike. You put
your refuse out, along with your neighbors, at the curbside and it stays there for the
duration of the strike. How high can the waste build up, and can you imagine the stench
that results throughout the community? From this scenario you should be able to ap-
preciate the importance of and problems associated with solid waste management. Solid
waste management may be defined as the application of techniques that will ensure the
orderly execution of the functions of collection, processing, and disposal of solid waste.
These functions are called the three basic functional elements of solid waste management.
Collection refers to the gathering of solid wastes from places such as residences, com-
mercial, institutional and industrial establishments, and public places. Processing refers
to the activity applied to solid waste to prepare it for subsequent operation. Disposal
refers to the placing of solid waste in its ultimate resting place.

SOLID WASTE TERMINOLOGY

There are three states of matter: gas, liquid, and solid. As a result, there are also three
types of wastes. A gas that is wasted is a gas waste, such as polluted air from a process
that is vented into the atmosphere. A liquid that is wasted, is called such as the polluted
water of wastewater, a liquid waste. Finally, a solid that is wasted is a solid waste. To

517
 518 Solid Waste Management Chap. 11

become a waste, the material must be polluted. In some instances, however, a waste may
not be a waste. The effluent of the Back River Sewage Treatment Plant in Baltimore,
Maryland is a wastewater as far as the city is concerned. However, for Bethlehem Steel
Corporation, which uses some of this effluent in its coke oven plants at Sparrows Point,
Maryland, this effluent is a resource. Similarly with solid wastes—a sofa discarded by
one person may be fixed and used by another.
Solid waste is synonymous with the word refuse. Of course, anything rejected is
refuse, be it a liquid or a solid or a gas, but in solid waste jargon, refuse is solid waste.
There are two components of solid waste: garbage and rubbish. Garbage or food waste is
the animal and plant residue produced as a result of the handling, preparation, cooking,
and eating of foods. Rubbish is the combustible and noncombustible portion of solid
waste, excluding food waste. Trash is the combustible portion of rubbish. White goods
are the bulky portions of rubbish, such as refrigerators, air conditioners, and the like. Con-
struction and demolition debris, rock fragments, and the like are specifically called rubble.

SOLID WASTE CHARACTERISTICS

To effectively implement the three fundamental functions of collection, processing, and

disposal, solid wastes must be characterized. Solid wastes may be characterized as to
their rates of generation, as well as to their physical and chemical characteristics. Phys-
ical characterizations useful in solid waste management are itemization of individual
components, moisture content, and density. On the other hand, useful chemical char-
acterizations include proximate and ultimate analyses (chemical analysis of component
atomic elements) and heating value.

Generation Rates

The overall generation rates of solid waste for the entire community, generation rates of
residential as weil as industrial, commercial, and institutional establishments and public
places, and generation rates of individual solid waste components are required in the
design of a solid waste management system. Table 11-1 shows quantities and overall
generation rates of municipal solid wastes (MSW) in a study of 14 communities.
From this table, the average residential solid waste generation for rural areas is
0.97 kg/capita-day; and for suburbs, excluding Haddonfield, NJ, it is 1.67 kg/capita-day.
The average for Seattle, WA and Babylon, NY, which are large cities, is 1.50 kg/capita-
day. The only small city in this study is Cherry Hill, NJ with a solid waste generation of
1.80 kg/capita-day. Without going into so much statistical analysis, this study seems to
indicate that there is not much difference in waste production among suburbs and cities,
which averages 1.60 kg/capita-day, excluding Haddonfield, NJ. However, the rural areas
show much lower production rates, by comparison.
Generation rates of industrial solid wastes in the United States range from 0.4
to 1.60 kg/capita-day. Generation of demolition and construction wastes ranges from
0.05 to 0.40 kg/capita-day. Typical generation rates of some industrial and commercial
establishments are shown in Table 11-2.
Solid Waste Characteristics 519

TABLE 11-1 SAMPLE SOLID WASTES GENERATIONS

Per capita
residential
generation
Community Population (kg/day)

Seattle, WA (large city) 497,000 1.4

Cherry Hill, NJ (small city) 73,000 1.8
Babylon, NY (large city) 213,000 1.6
Park Ridge, NJ (suburb) 8,500 2.0
Fennimore, WI (rural) 2,400 0.9
Woodbury, NJ (suburb) 10,500 23}
Berlin, NJ (suburb) 5,600 23}
Longmeadow, MA (suburb) 16,300 1.4
Haddonfield, NJ (suburb) 12,000 Dai
Parkways, PA (suburb) 7,000 1.0
Roman, New York (rural) 850 1.0
Lincoln Park, NJ (suburb) 11,000 1.3
Hamburg, NY (suburb) 11,000 1.4
Wilson, WI (rural) 470 1.0

TABLE 11-2 TYPICAL COMMERCIAL AND

INDUSTRIAL SOLID WASTE GENERATION RATES

Source Rate

Canned and frozen foods (tonnes/tonne 0.05

of raw material)
Printing and publishing (tonnes/tonne 0.09
of raw paper)
Office buildings (kg/employee-day) 1
Restaurants (kg/customer-day ) 0.5
Automotive (tonnes/vehicle produced) 0.7
Petroleum refining (tonnes/employee-day) 0.05
Rubber (tonnes/tonne of raw rubber) 0.2

Solid Waste Components

The characterization of solid wastes as to physical components must incorporate those

items that are readily identifiable. Table 11-3 shows generations and percentages of the
various components identified from four solid waste sources.
Table 11-3 shows that the most abundant solid waste component is paper, which
ranges from 11% in the rural to 50% in a large city. Yard wastes and cardboard rank next
in abundance, ranging from 11% to 37% and 9% to 40% respectively. It is interesting
to note that food waste is among the lowest component. Glass ranks third in abundance
after yard wastes and cardboard.
520 Solid Waste Management Chap. 11

TABLE 11-3 GENERATION AND PERCENTAGES OF VARIOUS SOLID WASTE

COMPONENTS

Lincoln Park, Woodbury, Seattle, WA, Wilson, WI

Component NJ [tonnes (%)] NJ [tonnes (%)] [tonnes (%)] {tonnes (%)]

Yard wastes 725(16) 1,800(37) 36,280(16) 9(11)

Food wastes 73(1.6) 27(0.6) — —
Cardboard 1,800(40) 454(9) 45,350(21) 18(22)
Newspaper 635(14) — 45,350(21) 9(11)
Mixed papers — 907(19) — —
Other papers 907(20) — 63,490(29) —
Wood waste — 363(8) — —
Plastics 18(0.4) 8(0.2) 454(0.2) 14(17)
Glass 180(4) 363(8) 14,512(7) 18(22)
Aluminum 5(0.1) 5(0.1) — —
Ferrous cans — — —
and appliances 363(8)
Aluminum and — — 6,349(3) —
ferrous
Ferrous 45(1) = — 14(17)
Nonferrous 14(0.3) -- —
Appliances — — 272(0.1) —
Batteries 3(0.06) = — —
Tires 18(0.4) — — a
Motor oil 36(0.8) 5 (OM) 9,070(4) —
Misc. 10(0.2) 544(11) 27(0.01) oe

Additionally, Table 11-4 shows a further percentage breakdown of the various

components of solid waste. This table shows, again, that paper is the most abundant
component.

TABLE 11-4 RANGE OF COMPOSITIONS OF

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE

Component Range (%) Typical (%)

Yard wastes 0-10 10

Wood 1-3 2,
Food wastes 5-25 7
Paper 10-40 ge
Cardboard 3-10 8
Plastics 2-8 >)
Textiles 0-3 Dy
Rubber 0-1 0.5
Leather 0-2 0.5
Misc. organics 0-4 2
Glass 4-15 >
Tin cans ey 5
Nonferrous 0-1 i
Ferrous metals 1-3 1
Dirt, ashes, etc. 0-10 8
Solid Waste Characteristics 521

Moisture Content of Solid Waste

Knowledge of the moisture content of solid waste is important when it is used in boilers
to produce steam and electricity. It is also important when solid waste is composted
or subjected to anaerobic decomposition in sanitary landfills. To subject an organic
matter to composting and anaerobic digestion, the water content must be put at the
optimum.
Sanitary landfilling is an engineered burial of refuse. Essentially, it consists of
spreading waste on the ground, compacting it, and covering it with soil at the end of the
working day. Landfill as a method of disposal is discussed at the end of this chapter.
The moisture content is expressed in terms of two bases: wet and dry. The wet
percentage moisture of solid waste is equal to the mass of moisture divided by the total
wet mass of the solid, and the dry percentage moisture of solid waste is equal to the mass
of moisture divided by the dry mass of the solid. The wet and dry percentages P,, and
Py, respectively, are computed using the respective equations.
W
ues (11-1)
Pu=)
— (100) (11-2)
Sa
where W is the mass of moisture, S, the mass of wet solids, and Sy the mass of dry
solids. During analysis, the sample of solid waste is dried at 77°C to drive off the
moisture. W is obtained by difference of S,, and Sq.
Table 11-5 shows typical data on moisture content of municipal solid waste com-
ponents.

TABLE 11-5 TYPICAL DATA ON MOISTURE

CONTENT OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
COMPONENTS

Component Range (%) Typical (%)

Yard wastes 45-85 60

Wood 15—40 25
Food wastes 45-85 60
Paper 3-8 »)
Cardboard 3-8 5
Plastics 1-3 ?)
Textiles 5-15 10
Rubber 2-4 2
Leather 8-10 9
Misc. organics 10-60 aS
Glass 0.5-1 0.5
Tin cans 0.5-1 (ONS
Nonferrous 0.5-1 0.5
Ferrous metals 0.5—1 0.5
Dirt, ashes, etc. 6-12 8
522 Solid Waste Management Chap. 11

Example 11-1
Estimate the moisture content (wet and dry bases) of the following solid waste:

Component Mass (%) Moisture (%), from Table 11-5 Moisture (kg)

Newspaper 15 6 0.9
Other papers 24 6 1.44
Cardboard 33 > 1.65
Glass 42 0.5 0.021
Plastics 0.49 yp} 0.0098
Aluminum 0.13 0.5, assumed the same as ferrous 0.0007
Ferrous 1.18 0.5 0.006
Nonferrous 0.35 0.5 0.002
Yard wastes 17.97 60 10.78
Food wastes 1.67 60 1.0
Dirt 2.01 8 0.16

3 100.0 16.30

Solution Basis: 100 kg.

16.30
Pia (100) = 16.30% Answer
16.30
Ppa 2 = 2100) re 0A
4= 799-1630 1 cr deEE
Density of Solid Wastes

The most important use of the knowledge of the density of solid waste is the determination
of its compacted volume. Arguably, why measure density when volume can be measured?
Unfortunately or fortunately, for better control of operation, it is easier just to weigh things
than to measure volumes. For example, it is so easy to measure the weight of a truck full
of solid wastes that arrives at the landfill by driving it to the top of a scale. By knowledge
of the compacted density, the volume of landfill space requirement (a compacted volume)
can then be calculated easily. Compacted volume is also required to size vehicles used
to collect solid wastes.
Densities of solid wastes may be expressed on an as-compacted or as-discarded
basis. The ratio of the as-compacted density p, to the as-discarded density py is called
the compaction ratio r, or
r = [ee (11-3)
Pd
There are two compaction ratios: the final disposal compaction ratio, such as in landfills,
and the compactor machine compaction ratio. Compactor machines are used to reduce the
volume of the solid waste before final disposal. Compactor machines compaction ratios
can vary from 2 to 4. Landfill as-compacted densities can vary from 297 to 891 kg/m?.
Generally, 475 to 594 kg/m? can be achieved in landfills with a moderate compaction
Solid Waste Characteristics 523

TABLE 11-6 TYPICAL DENSITIES OF MUNICIPAL

SOLID WASTE COMPONENTS (as discarded)

Component Range kg/m? Typical kg/m?

Yard wastes 60-200 100

Wood 130-340 230
Food wastes 130-500 300
Paper 40-140 90
Cardboard 40-80 50
Plastics 40-130 60
Textiles 40-100 60
Rubber 80-200 130
Leather 100-260 150
Misc. organics 100-350 Hs)
Glass 150-500 200
Tin cans 50-160 90
Nonferrous 50-240 160
Ferrous metals 150-1200 350
Dirt, ashes, etc. 320-960 480

effort. A poorly compacted landfill can achieve only about 297 kg/m? of compacted
density. With the knowledge of the as-discarded density along with these figures, the
final disposal compaction ratio may be determined. Table 11-6 shows typical as-discarded
densities of solid waste components. Municipal solid waste as-discarded densities may
vary from 90 to 180 kg/m?*, with a typical value of 130 kg/m’.
Example 11-2
Estimate the as-discarded density of the following solid waste. If the compaction ratio is
2.5, what size collection vehicle is needed per 1000 kg of waste?
Solution Basis: 100 kg.

Density (kg/m?), from

Component Mass (%) Table 11-6 Volume (m?)

Newspaper 15 85 0.176
Other papers 24 85 0.28
Cardboard 33 50 0.66
Glass 4.2 195 0.022
Plastics 0.49 65 0.0075
Aluminum 0.13 160 0.0008
Ferrous 1.18 320 0.0037
Nonferrous 0.35 160 0.0022
Yard wastes 17.97 105 0.17
Food wastes 1.67 290 0.0058
Dirt 2.01 480 0.0042

Ss 100.0 1.332
524 Solid Waste Management Chap. 11

k
Pd = ———— = 75.08 —— Answer
m
kg
po =12:5(75.08) = 18768 =
m

1000 3
violume = ——
187.68 = 5.32 m Answer
Ww

Proximate and Ultimate Analyses and Energy Content

of Solid Wastes

Proximate analysis is a chemical characterization that determines the amounts of some

surrogate parameters in place of the true chemical content. Surrogate parameters nor-
mally determined in proximate analysis are moisture (loss at 105°C for 1 h), volatile
matter (ignition at 600 to 950°C), fixed carbon (the carbon not burned), and ash. Ulti-
mate analysis, on the other hand, is determination of the chemical elements that compose
the substance.
The energy content of solid wastes is the heat of combustion released when the
waste is burned. There are two types of heats of combustion: the higher heat of com-
bustion and the lower heat of combustion. The higher heat of combustion includes the
heat of vaporization of water, while the lower heat of combustion does not include the
heat of vaporization of water. In practical applications, the lower heat of combustion
represents the net heat available in the combustion reaction. Higher heats of combustion
are determined by the bomb calorimeter. If energy values are not available, values of the
higher heat of combustion may be obtained as follows: The heating values of carbon and
sulfur are 32,851.465 kJ/kg and 9263.37 kJ/kg, respectively. The higher heating value of
hydrogen is 141,989.04 kJ/kg. In any given fuel, only the net hydrogen has the heating
value. Hence to obtain the heating value due to hydrogen, the combined hydrogen must
be subtracted from the total hydrogen. Let H be the fraction of total hydrogen (excluding
moisture) and O be the fraction of oxygen in the fuel. Since in H2O, one unit mass of
hydrogen is equal to é of a unit mass of oxygen, the fraction of combined hydrogen
is then equal to O/8. Hence the fraction of net hydrogen is equal to H — O/8. Con-
sidering the heating values of carbon and sulfur, the higher heating value of the fuel is
then
O
Hype 32,0) 1 IA ose (1= 3)+ 92039 (11-4)

where H), is the higher heating value (kJ/kg), C the fraction of carbon, and S is the
fraction of sulfur. This equation is called Dulong’s formula.
Table 11-7 shows typical proximate and ultimate analyses of municipal solid wastes,
and Table 11-8 shows typical heats of combustion for components on an as-discarded
basis, as well as inert residues resulting from the combustion of these components. The
heat of combustion of municipal solid wastes ranges from 9300 to 12,800 kJ/kg, with a
typical value of 10,500 kJ/kg.
Solid Waste Characteristics 525

TABLE 11-7 PROXIMATE AND ULTIMATE ANALYSES OF MUNICIPAL SOLID

WASTES

Percent
Proximate
analysis Range (kg/m?) Typical (kg/m?)

Volatile matter 30-60 50

Fixed carbon 5-10 8
Moisture 10-45 25
Ash 10-30 25

Percent by mass (dry basis)

Ultimate
analysis € H O N S Ash

Yard wastes 48 6 38 3 0.3 4.7

Wood 50 6 43 0.2 0.1 0.7
Food wastes 50 6 38 3 0.4 DAG
Paper 44 6 44 0.3 0.2 5)
Cardboard 44 6 44 3 O2 55)
Plastics 60 i 2B — — 10
Textiles 56 7 30 5 Og 1.8
Rubber 76 10 — 2 — 1
Leather 60 9 12 10 0.4 8.6
Misc. organics 49 6 38 2 0.3 4.7
Dirt, ashes, etc. D5 3 | 0.5 0.2 70.3

TABLE 11-8 TYPICAL DATA ON INERT RESIDUES AND HEATS OF

COMBUSTIONS OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE COMPONENTS

Inerts (%) Heat of combustion (kJ/g)

Component Range Typical Range Typical

Yard wastes 2-5 4 2,000—19,0000 7,000

Wood 0.5—2 a) 17,000—20,000 19,000
Food wastes ly 6 3,000—6,000 5,000
Paper 3-8 6 12,000—19,000 17,000
Cardboard 3-8 6 12,000—19,000 17,000
Plastics 5-20 10 30,000—37,000 33,000
Textiles 24 3 15,000—19,000 17,000
Rubber 5-20 10 20,000—28,000 23,000
Leather 8-20 10 15,000—20,000 17,000
Misc. organics 2-8 6 1 1,000—26,000 18,000
Glass 96-99 98 100-250 150
Tin cans 96-99 98 250-1,200 700
Nonferrous 90-99 96 as —
Ferrous metals 94-99 98 250-1,200 700
Dirt, ashes, etc. 60-80 70 2,000-11,600 7,000
526 Solid Waste Management Chap. 11

Example 11-3
(a) Derive an empirical organic formula for the solid waste shown below. (b) Using the
data in Table 11-8, estimate the higher and lower heats of combustion of the organics on
as-discarded basis and on a dry basis and compare the result of the higher heating value on
a dry basis with the result using Dulong’s formula.

Component Mass %

Newspaper 15)
Other papers 24
Cardboard 33
Glass 4.2
Plastics 0.49
Aluminum Ons
Ferrous 1.18
Nonferrous 0.35
Yard wastes OT,
Food wastes 1.67
Dirt 2.01

Sy 100.0

Solution (a) Basis: 100 kg. Using the percentage compositions in Table 11-7 and the typ-
ical moisture contents of Table 11-5, the following tables are obtained:

Moisture (%),
Component Mass (%) from Table 11-5 Dry mass (kg)

Newspaper 15 6 14.1
Other papers 24 6 P2ESO
Cardboard 33 5 Si185'5
Glass AV?) 0.5 4.18
Plastics 0.49 D) 0.48
Aluminum 0.13 0.5, assumed the same 0.13
as ferrous
Ferrous 1.18 0.5 ILNY
Nonferrous 0.35 (OS) OBS
Yard wastes 17.97 60 INE
Food wastes 1.67 60 0.67
Dirt 2.01 8 1.85

ye 100.0 84.03
 Solid Waste Characteristics 527

Mass of respective elements

Component c H O N S Ash

Newspaper 6.2 0.80 6.20 0.04 0.028 0.78

Other papers BO} 135 E93} 0.068 0.045 1.24
Cardboard 1Be79 1.88 13.98 0.094 0.063 2
Plastics 0.288 0.034 0.109 — — 0.048
Yard wastes 3.45 0.43 Zee On2 0.02 0.34
Food wastes 0.34 0.04 0.188 0.02 0.003 0.017

>= mass 34.0 4.53 33.14 0.44 0.159 4.15 =O DAKS

% 44.57 5.94 43.51 0.58 0.21 5.43
>= moles 2.83 4.49 2.07 0.031 0.005 —
)- reduced moles 566 898 414 6.2 1 —

Empirical formula = Cs66Hg9gO0412N6.2S. Answer

(b) Basis: 100 kg.

Component Mass Heating value (kJ/kg) Total energy (kJ)

Newspaper 15 16,750 251,250

Other papers 24 16,750 402,000
Cardboard 33 16,300 537,900
Plastics 0.49 32,600 15,974
Yard wastes 17.97 6,500 116,805
Food wastes 1.67 4,650 7,766

Se 92.13 IES 312695

: : : E 13311695
Higher heating value on as-discarded basis = ee 14,454.52 kJ/kg Answer

H20
20 fifrom net t hyd
hydrogen =st { (4295
4.52 eeu
3 e
mneal = 3 o 45ik g

Latent heat of vaporization of water = 2420 kJ/kg

“ 1,331,695 — 3.45(2420)
Lower heating value on as discarded basis = eee = 14,364 kJ/kg Answer

1,331,695
Higher heating value on dry basis = —~—— = 17,456 kJ/kg Answer
76.29
 528 Solid Waste Management Chap. 11

1,331,695 — 3.45(2420
Lower heating value on dry basis = 76.29 \ = 17,346 kJ/kg Answer

O
leh, = 32 soll (C sp Abi ON) (1= ) APO)

0.433
= 32,851(0.45) + 141,989 (0.050 = “) + 9263(0.0021) = 15,551 kJ/kg

higher heating value on dry basis < 17,456 kJ/kg Answer

Note: The reason for the difference between the higher heating value obtained using Dulong’s
formula and the higher heating value obtained using the table is due to the uncertainty of the
typical heating value chosen from the table.

SOLID WASTE COLLECTION AND TRANSPORTATION

Collection is the first fundamental function of solid waste management. Solid waste col-
lection refers to the gathering of solid wastes from places such as residential, commer-
cial, institutional, and industrial areas, as well as public parks. There are, generally, two
methods of collection: hauled-container system and stationary-container system. In the
hauled-container system, the container is hauled from the collection point to the final point
of disposal, processing facility, or transfer station. In the stationary-container system, the
container is emptied into collection vehicles at the point of collection. Transportation
refers to the hauling of solid wastes to relatively far distances from the collection areas
or transfer station. The distance traveled may be to a final point of disposal or processing
facility.

Hauled-Container System

Figure 11-la shows the definition sketch of a hauled-container system. The truck (col-
lection vehicle) spends a time f, in driving from the dispatch station to the first collection
point, designated as a “container location.” In the hauled-container system, the container
is so large that it is not emptied at the collection point but is mounted into a collec-
tion vehicle and hauled to a transfer station, processing station, or disposal site, called
collectively a destination point. Let the time taken to mount the container into the col-
lection vehicle be m, and let s be the time spent to unload the cargo of solid waste
at the destination point. From the destination point, the vehicle then goes back to the
container location, and since the container is very large, it will also take time to unload
this container. Let the time for this unloading be u. Also, let h be the haul time, which
is the time it takes to drive from the collection point to the destination point and back. If
more than one collection point or container location is serviced, time will also be spent in
driving from one collection point to another. Let d; be the average between-collection-
point driving time per collection point. The activities involved—mounting the container,
driving to the destination point, unloading the cargo, driving back to the collection point,
Solid Waste Collection and Transportation 529

Pick up loaded Deposit empty

container container

Container Drive to next

location container
3

Truck from
dispatch station Truck to
dispatch station
Haul empty Haul, h
container to
original pickup
location Transfer station, processing station,
Haul loaded
<————or disposal site (contents of
container
container emptied)
(a)

Load contents from

container(s) at pickup location
; into collection vehicle
Solid wastes
pickup Drive to next pickup location
location 1 3 4

Collection vehicle
from dispatch
station
Collection route

Drive empty Drive loaded

collection vehicle collection vehicle
to beginning of to disposal site
next collection
route or return to Transfer station, processing
dispatch station station, or disposal site

(b)

Figure 11-1 Methods of collection system: (a) Hauled-container system; (b)

stationary-container system.

unloading the container, and driving between collection points—constitute a trip. If thet
is the on-the-job time used per trip, then
thet =mMtutd+s+t+h (11-5)

Let H be the total allotted time during a workday. Within this allotted time,
there will always be some time wasted for non-job-related activities such as taking an
unauthorized break on the job, going to stores, talking to friends, and all other off-job
activities. Also, include the unavoidable delay due to traffic congestion in this category.
Let W be the fraction of H spent on these non-job-related activities. At the end of the
working day, the vehicle will also have to spend time fy to drive from the last collection
point to the dispatch station. The net time spent for collection activities is then only
530 Solid Waste Management Chap. 11

(1 —W)H —t, —t). The number of trips, N;, possible during a collection day is therefore

yr a lar i elle (11-6)

Tet

An example length of time to mount and unload a container is 0.40 h, and an

example length of time to unload cargo at the site is 0.127 to 0.133 h. The haul time
would depend on the speed limit of the route taken; t; and %, as well as d;, will have to
be determined by an on-site study.
Example 11-4
A contractor agreed to haul the solid wastes from an industrial district of a city. The
industries agreed to store their wastes on large containers located at strategic points. Due to
the sizes of the containers, the hauled-container system of collection is to be used. Based
on a traffic study, t), fo, and dg were found to be 20, 25, and 8 minutes, respectively. If the
round-trip haul distance averaged 60 km at a speed limit of 55 mph, how many containers
can be serviced on a collection day of 8 h?

Solution

thet =mMmtutde+sth

ve (1—W)H
) -t, a -t
thet

Assume that W = 0.15, m + u = 0.4 h/trip and 5s = 0.133 h/trip. Then

8 60(0.62)
thetnet = 0.4 ae
+— + 0.133 ==+ ——
60 aie 55 =1.34h

1 — 0.15)(8) — 20/60
— 25/60
— eee = 4.5 or 4 trips Answer

: Dae YS
Note: Actual hours spent on collection day = 4(1.34) + + 0.15(8) = 7.31 h.

Stationary-Container System

In this system, containers are emptied at the collection point or container location. There
are, generally, two types: one in which the containers are large and must be emptied by
mechanical means, and one in which the containers are small and can simply be emptied
manually. Examples of the first case are those in which solid wastes are collected
from apartment buildings, large commercial establishments, and public parks. In these
instances, wastes are stored in large containers strategically located in the premises. The
second case refers to the collection in residential areas. Figure 11-1b shows the schematic
of a stationary-container system.
There are generally two methods of collecting solid wastes in residential areas: the
curbside or alley method and the backyard collection method. In the curbside or alley
method, residences are required to place the solid wastes in containers at the curb or
alley during designated collection days. The number of collection days per week varies
Solid Waste Collection and Transportation 531

with localities. In Annapolis, Maryland, for example, presently, regular collection is on

Mondays and Thursdays. Collection of bulk items is every other 3 months. There are
also regular intervals for collection of yard wastes and recyclable bottles and cans. In the
backyard method, no collection days need to be specified. The collection crew simply
enter residential backyards and empty the owner’s solid waste storage containers into tote
barrels for loading into the waiting collection vehicle on the street.
One major difference between the hauled-container system and the stationary-
container system is that in the former the collection trip empties just one container;
in the latter system, the collection trip empties more than just one container. In other
words, in the hauled-container system, the number of trips is equal to the number of con-
tainer locations. Let the number of container locations in the stationary-container system
be Cy. Also, there is no m or u in the stationary-container system; instead, there is the
time to pick up and load the solid wastes from a container location to the collection
vehicle. Call this time p. Using the same meaning for dy as in the hauled-container
system, fret iS

tret = (p+ de)Ce+s+h CLE?)

As mentioned, d, is the average between-container location driving time per con-
tainer location. Call the average driving time between container location dbc. If there
are Cy container locations, the number of driving distances in a collection route is Cz —1,
and the total amount of time spent driving (in a collection route) is dbc(C, — 1). Hence
de is

dbc(Cy— 1)
n a C, 11-8
(11-8)
The number of trips, N,, is then
1—W)H -t, -t
Nps [glecso Ee bre set (11-9)
thet

The values of p and dy would vary depending on whether the system is mechanically
or manually loaded. In mechanically loaded systems p and dy could be as much as 0.2 h
and 0.1 h, respectively. In manually loaded systems, on the other hand, p could be as
low as 30 s. dbc, the parameter used to calculate d;, is simply the driving time between
houses; hence it can be very low, on the order of half a minute. At any rate, on-site time
study must be performed to determine these durations. Also, if it takes 1 minute for one
person to empty a location, it does not follow that it will take only 0.5 minute for two
persons to empty the same location. Hence the rate of emptying for a two-man crew, is
unique for this size of crew much as the rate of emptying of a one-man crew is unique
for this one-man crew. Hence once the size of crew has been determined, a time study
should be performed in another collection system having the same size crew. Normally,
a two-man crew with one driver is utilized.
Another factor to be considered in a stationary-container system is the determination
of the size of the collection vehicle. Clearly, the size of the vehicle must be sufficient
to hold all the solid wastes in one trip. If Va is the volume of the refuse as discarded
in one trip or collection route and r is the compaction ratio, the required volume of the
532 Solid Waste Management Chap. 11

vehicle V;, is

Vv, = — (11-10)

If the total discarded volume of solid wastes on collection day is Vg-, the total
number of trips is also given by

ee Vac — Vae (i-11)

Va 7 Var
Figure 11-2 shows a vehicle of the type used for residential neighborhood collection.
This particular vehicle makes 250 stops per day.

Figure 11-2 Solid waste collection

vehicle in James Island, South
Carolina.

Example 11-5
In an on-site time study of a mechanically loaded stationary-container system, the time it
takes to empty all locations in a collection route is 2.32 h. The average driving time between
container locations is 0.1 h. If there are 11 container locations, calculate p and de.

Solution

232
a Tk 0.21 h Answer

d
_ dbe(Ce—1) _ 0.1(11— 1)
= 0.09 h Answer
: G 1

Example 11-6
In an on-site time study of a manually loaded stationary-container system, the time it takes
to empty all locations in a collection route is 2.32 h. The average driving time between
container locations is 15 s. If there are 270 residences serviced in one collection route,
calculate p and dy.
Solid Waste Collection and Transportation 533

Solution

Number of collection locations = number of residences

Dey
jpQ= 770 Or 00) =31s Answer

dbc(Ce — V 15270 —1
dg = sa ae = ied) = 14.94 s Answer
Ce 270

Example 11-7
A total of 11 apartment complexes and commercial establishments have entered into a
contract with a solid waste collection firm to collect their solid wastes. The discarded
volume of solid wastes to be collected is 96 m? per collection day. Determine the number
of trips required on collection day, the size of the collection vehicle, and the size of the
container to be provided. Assume that r = 2.5 and, for simplicity, assume that each of the
11 sources contributes the same amount of solid wastes. Make any additional assumptions
necessary.

Solution

N,= (1-—W)H—-t-t
) (= 2
Tnet

Met = (p+ de)Ce +s +h

is dbc(Ce — 1 1)
c(Cz —
Ce
Assumptions:

dbc =0.1h

0 en

9 =0,10n

Round-trip distance = 60 km at speed limit of 55 mph

W =0.15

lal 2133 In

t; = 20 min

to = 25 min
0.1¢11 — 1
dy = i —=1(),098n

0.62(60)
thet = (0.2
+ 0.09) 11 + 0.1 + a = 3M

e305) 820/005--125/60' F
Ne = 52
: 3.97
534 Solid Waste Management Chap. 11

If only one trip is planned, the crew will have to go home early. Hence let N; be equal to
2. Then, in this case, the crew size must be increased to decrease p. For N; = 2, solve for
Tnet-

(—W)H—-t,;-t (1 —0.15)8
— 20/60 — 25/60
tnet — N, = 5 == 3408) In

Solving for p yields

0.62(60
fot= (P +0.09)11 + 0.1+ = = 3.03

p = 0.12 h; hence the crew size must be increased to empty one container location in 0.12 h.

N;=2 Answer

96/2
Vie ie = 19.2 m°or next-larger available vehicle size Answer

96/2
Volume of container = ae = 436m? Answer

Layout of Collection Routes

To manage a solid waste collection system effectively, the community, industrial park,
and the like should be divided into collection districts (or boroughs) in which a number
of collection routes must be laid out. Laying out of routes should follow a minimum of
guidelines, among which could be the following:

- Routes should not overlap and should be continuous.

. On-the-job time, fret, of all collection routes should be made equal as possible.
. Congested areas should not be collected during rush hours.
=
NY
we. To service a dead-end street, collect it when it is on the right of a main street, to
avoid making a left turn.
. As practicable as possible, collect a street on both sides.
. As practicable as possible, select a consistent collection pattern.
. For collection on steep streets, it is best for the vehicle to be collecting while it
is moving downslope rather than upslope. This is safer and will save energy on
gasoline.

Laying of collection routes is a four-step process. First, a relatively large-scale

map for the area to be serviced should be prepared. On this map, indicate the collection
points. Second, estimate the total volume of waste to be collected in the entire collection
area and apportion equally to each collection point. Third, decide on the number of
routes to collected. This will determine the size of the collection vehicle. Fourth, taking
into consideration guidelines 1 to 7 above, layout the collection routes by trial and error
Solid Waste Collection and Transportation 535

such that, most important, each route should have about the same number of collection
points and about the same on-the-job time. Figure 11-3 shows a layout of collection
routes addressed in the next example.

Start
route |

Fal
aren
a

End
route |

ye

2, 6, 12 = number of residences
along each block Start
route 2 ‘ disposal
site

Figure 11-3 Layout of collection routes.

Example 11-8
Figure 11-3 shows blocks of residences. The numbers written on the blocks represent the
number of residences along the blocks. The average occupancy per residence is 3.5 and the
average solid waste production is 1.6 kg/capita-day. Assuming a collection frequency of
once per week, determine the number of trips to be made on a collection day and calculate
the volume of the collection vehicle needed. Assume that the compacted volume of solid
wastes in the collection vehicle is 325 kg/m*. Lay out the collection routes.

Solution
Let the number of trips, N;, be equal to 2 = number of collection routes. |Answer

Number of residences = 10(16) + 1(28) + 4(36) = 332

536 Solid Waste Management Chap. 11

332(3.5)(1.6)(7)
Compacted volume of solid wastes collected on collection day =
325

= 40.0 m?
40
Vi= oF —20m* Answer

To lay out the collection route, the number of residences along one collection route should
be determined. This is,

é 38)
number of residences per collection route = oa 166

Hence the route should be laid out such that 166 residences are collected per trip. The
laid-out routes are shown in Figure 11-3. Answer

Solid Waste Transfer Stations and Transportation

As the distance from the collection system to the processing facility or disposal site
(collectively called destination point) increases, the cost of hauling or transportation also
increases. There will eventually be a certain transport distance, where management must
decide whether or not a transfer station is to be built. A transfer station is a facility
where the wastes collected may be stored temporarily or transferred from the smaller
collection vehicles to bigger transport vehicles for transportation to the destination point.
There are two general types of transfer stations: direct-discharge transfer and storage
transfer station. In the former, collection vehicles dump their loads directly into the
larger transportation vehicles; in the latter, the solid wastes are emptied into storage pits
or platforms. The wastes are then later loaded into big transport vehicles for hauling to
the destination point.
Figure 11-4 shows the Western Acceptance Solid Waste Transfer Station in Balti-
more County, Maryland. This facility is a direct-discharge transfer station. Notice the
three transport trailers inserted into the bays located at the back of the building. In front
of this building are large hoppers through which collection vehicles dump their loads into
these trailers.

Break-even point analysis. Let the cost of direct hauling to the destination point
from the collection system be Kg dollars per unit mass of solid waste. If the unit cost
of this direct haul is k,q dollars per unit mass of solid waste per time f,

Ka = Kna(t) (11-12)
The costs involved when a transfer station is constructed are operating cost, amor-
tization cost, and hauling cost. Let the sum of the unit cost of operating and amortization
be Ky; dollars per unit mass of solid waste and the cost of hauling be k,, dollars per
unit mass of solid waste per unit time. If the hauling cost using a transfer station is K;
dollars per unit mass of solid waste, then

K, = Kf; + Kn; (t) (11-13)

Solid Waste Collection and Transportation 537

Figure 11-4 Western acceptance solid waste transfer station in Baltimore

County, Maryland.

Since using a transfer station will afford the operator the opportunity to utilize
a larger transport vehicle, k;,; is expected to be less than ky,g. Hence there will be a
length of haul time that the plot of equations (11-12) and (11-13) will intersect. This
point of intersection is called the break-even point. Beyond this point, direct haul to
the destination point will no longer be economical compared to when a transfer station
is constructed. Equating equation (11-12) to equation (11-13), the break-even time feven
may be solved; thus

Kr;
leven = ——— (11-14)
Kd — Ky

Example 11-9
The unit cost of amortization and operation of a transfer station is $3.00 per tonne of solid
waste. The cost of hauling solid waste from the transfer station to a sanitary landfill is
$0.020 per tonne-min, while the cost of direct haul from the collection system to the same
landfill is $0.050 per tonne-min. If the speed limit is 55 mph, compute the distance beyond
which direct haul is no longer economical.

Solution

leven = = = 100 min

eee 050 00. 020
F 100 ;
distance = 55 Tae = 91.7 miles Answer
 538 Solid Waste Management Chap. 11

SOLID WASTE PROCESSING AND RECOVERY

Processing is the second fundamental function of solid waste management. Processing
improves the efficiency of solid waste disposal and prepares solid waste for subsequent
recovery of materials and energy. In the not-too-distant past, disposal of solid wastes
included open dumps, sanitary landfills, and disposal at sea. Because of environmental
problems associated with open dumps and sea disposal, the only acceptable method of
solid waste disposal at present is sanitary landfilling. Some of the materials in solid
waste can also be recovered and recycled for manufacture of the same or new products.
For example, instead of mining silica for glass manufacture, recovered glass may be
remelted. Also, recovered paper can be reprocessed to produce new paper. The organics
from solid wastes can be processed biologically to produce compost. Electricity can also
be recovered from solid waste. Figure 11-5 shows a photograph of the processing facility
of the Phoenix Solid Waste Management Center.

Figure 11-5 Processing facility of

& =the Phoenix Solid Waste Management
Center.

Topics on processing to be discussed in this section include processing for recovery

of materials for recycling, processing for recovery of materials for direct manufacture
of solid waste products, and processing for recovery of energy and incineration. The
recovery for energy to be discussed pertains to the production of electrical energy from
municipal solid wastes. The process of incineration is discussed after energy recovery.
Recycling is discussed first.

Recycling

The recovery of solid waste components for possible use as raw materials is called re-
cycling or salvaging. The future of recycling is either certain or uncertain. Inasmuch as
Solid Waste Processing and Recovery 539

there is resistance on the part of industries to use recycled materials in product manufac-
ture, it is clear that processing virgin raw materials is more economical than processing
recycled materials. In a democracy, everything revolves around money. If a certain
venture is to be undertaken, the first question is: “How much profit do I get? If I am
required to use solid waste components for my raw material, I must ask you: ‘Can I
make a profit? How about my competitor?’” If recycling is to be successful, the gov-
ernment should listen to these questions. If the government can spend billions of dollars
for defense, it should, at least, be able to spend some few millions for recycling. Here
is why.
If Table 11-3 is analyzed, the percentage of paper plus cardboard collected are as
follows: Lincoln Park, 74%; Woodbury, 28%; Seattle, 71%; and Wilson, 33%. The
range is therefore from about 30 to 70%. From these limited data, a recycling rate of
50% is probably possible. But the question is: Now that all these papers have been
collected, is there any industry that will take them? If the answer is no, these papers and
cardboards will simply pile up and would simply become new solid wastes, themselves,
to be disposed of. The recycling program is then a failure. This is where the government
should come in and lead the way by providing funds for demonstrations that will show
that these recovered materials can be used. Of course, the recovered papers can be used
as raw materials!
Going down the list in Table 11-3, yard wastes, wood, and food wastes can all
be recovered. The corresponding percentages are Lincoln Park, 18%; Woodbury, 46%;
Seattle, 16%; and Wilson, 11%. Hence the range is about 10 to 40% and an average
would probably be 20%. Considering the paper and cardboard, the total rate now adds
up to 50 plus 20 = 70%. This looks high, but if it is, so be it. Therefore, assuming
that these figures are correct, the potential of recovering solid wastes in this country is
70%—just for the organic components alone. If this can be realized, our equivalent solid
waste production would indeed be very small. What is needed is government money
to fund demonstration projects to show that recycled solid waste components can be a
resource for needed raw materials. If this is done, the future of solid waste recycling is
not uncertain.

Processing for Recovery of Materials for Recycling

Processing to segregate solid waste components may be done at the point of generation
(on-site processing) or at a central processing facility. On-site processing needs the
cooperation of the waste producer: homes, commercial establishments, industries, and
the like. At this writing, news abounds that the citizens of this country are cooperating
in the nationwide effort of recycling (i.e., they are willing to do the processing that is
required in recycling or salvaging). In on-site processing, wastes are segregated into
types at the point of generation. For example, paper is put into one container, cans in
another, and so on. The collection crew would correspondingly have separate containers.
In Annapolis, Maryland, special days are set aside for coilection of segregated items.
If on-site processing is not done, segregation into components may be done at a
central facility. Unit operations in a central facility involve screening, air classifying,
540 Solid Waste Management Chap. 11

and magnetic separations. Size reduction using shredders, although not a segregation or
separation process, is also used to produce a more uniformly sized product. Magnetic
separation involves the use of electromagnets. This unit operation is used only to separate
ferrous materials from the rest of the solid waste. Shown in Figure 11-6 are (a) the
schematic of a trommel screen, (b) a hammermill shredder, and (c), a schematic flowsheet
of a typical solid waste separation facility.

Screening. Screening is a unit operation of separating a feed into oversize and

undersize products. Oversize products are those that do not pass the openings of the
screen; undersize products are those that do pass the openings of the screen. Screens
may be classified as primary, secondary, and tertiary screens, depending on where in the
flowsheet the unit is located. The screen with the largest size opening is the primary
screen. The trommel is a primary screen. They are put ahead of all separation units in a
separation facility.
Feed should not be allowed simply to cascade down the length of a trommel screen,
nor should it be allowed simply to centrifuge on the side. Cascading is due to a slow
rotation, while centrifuging is due to a fast rotation. The ideal operation would be to
allow the feed to climb up the sides of the screen and to drop when it reaches the summit
of the rotation. The ideal speed of rotation may be derived as follows: referring to
Figure 11-6. Let the screen be inclined at an angle y and let the tangential velocity of
rotation be v;. At the summit of rotation while the solid waste is on the verge of falling,
the component of the weight in the central direction is the cause of the centripetal motion
(of the solid). Hence applying Newton’s law at this instant gives

2
Mg cosy =M-—ae (11-15)
iff

where M is the mass of solid waste, g the acceleration due to gravity, and r is the radius
of the trommel screen. Solving for v;,

Vie) SE ECOS:V (11-16)

Converting equation (11-16) to angular speed w (in radians per unit time) using the
relation v; = ra, we obtain

cos
Pye | Sica (11-17)
le

The angular speed is called the critical speed. A speed below w but not so small that
the solids are simply cascading is called the cataracting speed.

Example 11-10
Calculate the critical speed of a 3-m-diameter trommel inclined at an angle of 2°. Express
this critical speed in rpm.
 (j uONPIOY

aponed
uonoR.yxo
-~.--f-----5- “— gplieg

uonooflar Jopporys
peed
IOAQAUOD

poe7 [eLioyeul
lo——9
<~ ys] uonoesy
pod anys

yy JouUUe sjoUsey]
UWNIp
ay yo
so1jisseAN]
SIOUIT poloy
snoue,
URI] Wey yoyood XH
ONC)
royeorg
aed asIeYyosiq ny
aye18
loo
uonepuno, SUdaI§
pom
Ieyosiq
as
oynyo J soo}
asIeYosIq, OL
JIOAIAUOS [esodsip
(q) (9)

eansiyq9-,]T (%)

541
JOWIWIOIL,“UdeIOS
(Q) [[TuAUTUeHY
“Japporys
(9) OVUOYOS JOOYSMOY
Joev [eordA}prfos ajsem uONeIedas“AyIoey
542 Solid Waste Management Chap. 11

Solution

19.81 Ue DKS
o= Bes & REINS i pp ye ID ee
r 1S 21

2S)
= = (60) = 24.45 rpm Answer
us

Shredding. The purpose of shredding is to produce a more uniform product.

Figure 11-6b is a sketch of a shredder.
An essential element in the design of shredders is the determination of the power
requirement W. This may be calculated by using an empirical equation developed by
Bond:!

W = I0W, (11-18)
Vp Vly
where W; is called the Bond work index, L, the size of the product (in jzm) that is 80%
finer (also called 80th centile finer) and Ly the size of the feed (in zm) that is also
80% finer. The units of W are kWh/ton. Table 11-9 shows values of Bond indices of
shredders located in various places.

TABLE 11-9 TYPICAL BOND WORK INDICES OF SHREDDERS

Location Material shredded W; (kWh/ton)

Charleston, SC MSW 400

St. Louis, MO MSW 400
Washington, DC Aluminum cans 650
Washington, DC Glass 8
Washington, DC MSW 470
Wilmington, DE MSW 450
Washington, DC Paper 200
Washington, DC Steel cans 260
Pompano Beach, FL MSW 400

Example 11-11

Determine the power requirement to shred 100 tonnes/day of solid waste having an 80th
percentile size of 30 cm to a product having an 80th percentile size of 1.7 cm. Assume that
W; = 434.
Solution

We=0We

'P. A. Vesilind, J. J. Peirce, and R. F. Weiner (1988). Environmental Engineering. Butterworth, Boston.
p. 284.
Solid Waste Processing and Recovery 543

100(10?) (2.2)
100 tonnes/day = Ti = 110 tons/day

l 1
W = 10(434) = 25.36 kWh/ton
/ 0.017(10°) —,/0.30(10°)

Power = 25.36(110) = 2789.6 kWh/day = 116.23 kW

= 116.23(1.341) = 155.86 hp Answer

Air classifying. Air classifying uses the same principle as sand filter backwash-
ing. Whereas sand is expanded or fluidized in sand filters, in air classifying, solid waste
is expanded or fluidized instead. Also, whereas water is used in filter backwashing, air
is used in air classifying. As shown in the schematic of Figure 11-6c, air is introduced
at the bottom of the unit. To separate a component, the air velocity must be adjusted
so that it is equal to or greater than the terminal settling velocity of the component.
Settling velocities of steel fractions could range from 280 to 500 cm/s, whereas settling
velocities of paper fractions could range from 10 to 180 cm/s. Hence paper can be sep-
arated easily from steel if the air velocity in the air classifier is maintained greater than
10 cm/s but less than 280 cm/s. On the other hand, settling velocities of plastics could
range from 30 to 280 cm/s, whereas settling velocities of aluminum fractions could range
from 140 to 290 cm/s. From this, a mix of larger size plastics and aluminum cannot be
separated.

Processing for Recovery of Materials for Direct Manufacture

of Solid Waste Products

After the components have been separated, the organic fractions may be further processed
to produce desired products. One of these is refuse-derived fuels (RDFs) and compost.
RDFs may be in powdered form produced by grinding using ball mills or they may be in
cubed form produced by pelletizing. Figure 11-7 shows a flowsheet for the manufacture
of RDFs.
Composting may also be applied to the organic fraction of solid waste. Compost-
ing is an enhanced process of rapidly oxidizing a solid organic material with oxygen.
Some important considerations in the design of composting facilities include particle size,
oxygen requirement, seeding, moisture content, carbon/nitrogen ratio, temperature, pH,
and odor control. The optimum size varies from 20 to 75 mm. Oxygen should reach all
points in the mass. In the windrow method, this will necessitate frequent turning of the
piles in 4- to 5-day intervals. To reduce composting time, seeding with partially decom-
posed solid waste is important. Moisture content should be controlled so as to allow free
passage of air to the mass and to provide the requisite amounts for biological reactions.
The optimum appears to be 55%. The carbon/nitrogen ratio should be maintained from
30 to 50% by mass. For other wastes, such as bark, phosphorus may also be added.
For best results the temperature should be maintained at 55 to 60°C. If the temperature
exceeds 66°C, the biological reaction is reduced significantly; if this happens, the heat
may be released by turning up the windrow or, in the case of the static-pile method, by
544 Solid Waste Management Chap. 11

Mainly organic
fraction

Secondary Secondary
trommel shedder

ty os

| Magnetic ’
. separator ,
‘ 2 '

Ny

,
Middle Air ' Moisture \
size classifier ts control;

Oversi
pees Pelletizer
material

<I mm
Powder Pelletized (cubed)
RDF RDF

(b)

Figure 11-7 (a) Flowsheets for manufacturing RDFs. (b) Densified RDF.
Solid Waste Processing and Recovery 545

adjusting the blower. The temperature of the pile can reach 80°C. The pH approaches
neutrality after an initial drop due to the production of acid intermediates. If the pH goes
above 8.5, there will be a loss of nitrogen, which can upset the carbon/nitrogen ratio.
In the profession, NIMBY (“not in my backyard’) is often quoted, especially for
siting of landfills. One of the major reasons for this is the production of odors. However,
a composting plant has been constructed in a 20-acre facility in Prairieland, Minnesota
utilizing a process called SILODA.” This process is all completely enclosed. The solid
waste simply goes to one entry point, is subjected to the composting process inside the to-
tally enclosed composting building, and goes out at the exit point already composted. This
could change the word NIMBY to YIMBY (“yes in my backyard”). Figure 11-8 shows
schematics of the two basic methods of composting: the static pile and windrow methods.

Electrical Energy Recovery

MSW (municipal solid wastes) has a heating value ranging from 9300 to 12,800 kJ/kg. It
is possible to recover this energy by using MSW to fire boilers in order to produce steam
that can be used to drive a steam turbine. The turbine then turns a generator producing
electricity. (See Figure 11-8c.)
Before electricity is produced, there are efficiencies and losses that must be ac-
counted for. Heat losses include heat losses due to the sensible heat content of the ash
and the unburned carbon remaining in the ash, heat loss due to radiation, and water losses.
Since the actual furnace combustion suspends all the combustion water in gaseous form,
energy of vaporization is needed for this suspension. This wasted energy is the water
loss. Water losses include loss due to the moisture content, loss due to combined water,
and loss due to the net hydrogen water. The latent heat of vaporization of water is equal
to 2420 kJ/kg.
For the sensible heat of the ash, the specific heat is normally taken as 1047 J/kg-C°.
The heating value of carbon is 32,851 kJ/kg. Radiation losses range from 0.003 to
0.005 kJ/kg of fuel. After all the losses are accounted for, these are subtracted from
the higher heating value of MSW to obtain the sensible heat content of the stack gases.
These gases are then passed through boiler tubes. As the gases travel through the tubes,
the sensible heat contents are given up heating the water in the boiler to steam. It is
this steam introduced to the steam turbine that drives the generator to produce electricity.
For steam-turbine generator systems of less than 12.5 MW capacity, thermal efficiencies
range from 24 to 40%, with a typical value of 29%, excluding the boiler, for systems
over 12.5 MW capacity, thermal efficiencies range from 28 to 32%, with a typical value
of 31.6%, also excluding the boiler. MSW boilers have thermal efficiencies of about
70%. The power plant itself uses electricity. Approximately 6% of gross plant electrical
output is allotted for this service. In addition, an unaccounted for plant loss of 5% is
also provided.? A schematic of an energy recovery plant is in Figure 11-8c.

2R. Woods (1991). “A French Revolution Comes to Minnesota.” Waste Age, 2(1), pp. 58-62.
3H. S. Peavy, D. R. Rowe, and G, Tchobanoglous (1985). Environmental Engineering. McGraw-Hill,
New York. p. 674.
 546 Solid Waste Management Chap. 11

Compost

Nonperforated
Porous base pipe

(a)

(b)

Steam

Steam Transmission
MSW turbine Electricity line

Generator
"
Gas to stack Exhaust

(c)

Figure 11-8 (a) Static pile composting method. (b) Windrow composting method. (c)
Electrical energy recovery.
Solid Waste Processing and Recovery 547

Example 11-12
MSW, at a rate of 100 tonnes/day with an empirical formula of C562Ho990414No6.6S, is used
to fire an MSW energy recovery plant. The MSW contains 20% moisture and 20% inert.
The ash contains 5% carbon and the higher heating value of the MSW is 12,000 kJ/kg. Also,
assume that the fuel enters at 25°C and that the ash is at 420°C. How much steam energy
is available from the boiler?

Solution Basis: 100 tonnes MSW/day.

Total heat input = 100(10°)(12,000) = 1.2(10°) kJ/day

Heat loss in the ash = loss due to sensible heat + heat of combustion of C

Inerts = 0.20(100)(10°) = 20,000 kg/day; lemma massroie

G
=0.05 x= 1053 kg/day
20,000 + x
Ash = 20,000 + 1053 = 21,053 kg/day

Heat loss in ash = 21,053(1.047)(420 — 25) + 1053(32,851) = 4.33(10’) kJ/day,

where 25°C is the temperature for sensible heat calculations.

Water losses = loss due to moisture + loss due to combined water

+ heat loss due to net hydrogen water

Moisture = 0.20(100)(10°) = 20,000 kg/day

C562H9990414No6,6S = 0.60(100)(10°) = 60,000 kg/day

C562H9990414No6.6S = 562(12) + 900(1.008) + 414(16) + 6.6(14) + 32 = 14,399.6

414(16) 18 18
bined water
Combined water = —————
14.3996 (60,000) (3) = 27,600 (3) = 31,051 kg/day

900(1.008) 2.016 18
Net hydrogen water
t << (60,000) — ES e7.600) (sta)
2.016
= 2,701 kg/day
14,399.6
Total water = 20,000 + 31,051 + 2710 = 53,761 kg/day

Water losses = 53,761 (2420) = 1.301(10%) kJ/day

Assume that radiation losses = 0.004 kJ/kg MSW; then

radiation losses = 0.004(100)(10*) = 400 kJ/day

total losses = 4.33(10’) + 1.301(108) + 400 = 1.734(108) kJ/day
sensible heat in stack gas = 1.2(10°) — 1.734(10°) = 1.0266(10”) kJ/day, based on 25°C.
(For simplicity of calculation, flue gas has been assumed to cool down to the base temperature
Of:25-C))
Assuming a boiler efficiency of 70%,

steam energy available = 0.7(1.0266}( 10°) = 7.18(10°) kJ/day Answer

 548 Solid Waste Management Chap. 11

Example 11-13
If the steam in Example 11-12 is used to drive a steam-turbine generator plant, calculate the
plant export of electrical energy. Calculate the overall efficiency of the plant.

Solution Assumptions: thermal efficiency = 31.6%; plant service allowance = 6%; unac-
counted for losses = 5%. Then
net electrical export = (0.316(7.18)(108)][1 — (0.06 + 0.05)]

2.02(108)
= 2,02(10°) kJ/day = —— = 2339 kW Answer
3600(24)
.02(10°
overall ll efficiency
effici SS1.21095 (100)= 16.8%
eel Answer

Incineration

The incineration plant is very similar to that of the energy recovery plant. They differ
only in purpose. While the energy recovery plant aims to recover electricity, the incin-
eration plant aims to reduce the volume of waste to be disposed of. Volume reduction is
approximately 90%. The heat balance calculation is the same as that for the energy re-
covery plant. Figure 11-9a shows the basic components of incinerator design; the bottom
part is a schematic of the Krefeld incinerator with energy recovery.

DISPOSAL OF SOLID WASTES

Disposal is the third fundamental function of solid waste management. In the not-too-
distant past, dumps and disposal at sea were practiced. At present, however, because
of inherent environmental problems associated with these methods, they are no longer
allowed. The only method of disposal currently allowed and permitted is the use of
sanitary landfill. The sanitary landfill method is an engineered burial of refuse. It consists
essentially of spreading waste on the ground, compacting it, and covering it with soil at
the end of the working day or other suitable intervals for wastes other than sanitary solid
wastes.

Landfilling Methods

There are generally two methods of sanitary landfilling: the area method and the trench
method. The area method is used when it is impossible to excavate, especially when
the groundwater is high. In this method, a berm is constructed and the solid wastes are
simply dumped on the ground, spread in layers of about 0.5 m, and compacted. Another
layer of 0.5 m is then placed on top of the previous layer and also compacted. Layering
and compacting are repeated until a height of 2 to 3 m is reached. At this point and at
the end of a working day a cover of 150 to 300 mm of earth is compacted on the top of
the height. This cover is called a daily cover.
Disposal of Solid Wastes 549
Charging hopper Breeching
Bridge crane Primary Secondary
Refuse and ash => | combustion combustion Stack
Flue gases ==> chamber chamber
Fly ash => Drying| Burning Spray
grates | grates chamber ==
ie a Induced
[- = draft fan
Tipping J}
floor =. (a Cyclone
=e dust collector
Scales | 7 o x pBDDE
Fly ash
Garage-storage settling
chamber

Forced
Storage bin (pit) draft fan Geel:
OOO:
(a)

Flue gas
: recirculating
Electrostatic pipe
filter Steam Refuse
Sludge generator feed hopper
feed pipe —— —
ee — Refuse
fae == crane
Feed water es y ‘
container as) [/
fy Unloading
Stack Ly beay
——) Ai]
Q
Nie a 7701 AWS 9 aa
U Is Lge Be LIP 4
=e
ered | ie, L
' 1
So —
L
ia ag Cc
|
Refuse
Machine- Sludge t bunker
house crane bunker Impact

Gas scrubber Centrifuges ml

Ash bunker
Turbo
generator Roller grate
“Diisseldorf system”
(b)

Figure 11-9 (a) Basic components of incinerator design. (b) Krefeld incin-
erator with energy recovery.

Locate the term “earthen levee or berm” in Figure 11-10a. To the right of this berm
is a completed unit of compacted solid waste or fill shown shaded. This unit is called
a cell. Another cell to the right of the previous cell is then filled and compacted in the
same way. The cell filling then proceeds to the right until the entire horizontal span is
filled. In the figure a total of five horizontal cells are filled in the span. Cells are then
further constructed on top of the previous cells to complete another horizontal span of
550 Solid Waste Management Chap. 11

oe Partially completed ———S_ -

Portable fence

oe
second lift

eee
to catch blowing
pemnouee

Earthen
levee or berm

Compacted solid wastes

in a completed cell

(a)

Original ground
KA
surface
LE a hs
Daily cover

To be excavated
for daily cover

Completed cell
(b)

Figure 11-10 Methods of landfilling: (a) area method; (b) trench method.
Disposal of Solid Wastes 551

cells. After a horizontal span is completely filled, another span of horizontal cells may
then be compacted on top of the previous span of horizontal cells. The span of cover
between the upper and lower span of cells is called the intermediate cover. The vertical
dimension of the entire span of a series of horizontal cells, including the intermediate
cover as indicated in the figure, is called a /ift. A partially filled second lift is shown in
the figure.
There is no limit to the number of lifts that can be filled as long as the side slope of
the resulting heap does not exceed a certain criterion. This slope is normally limited to
a maximum of | vertical to 4 horizontal. When the limit of the filling is reached, a final
compacted cover of about 0.6 m over the entire heap of fill is installed. A cap system is
then also installed on top of the final cover.
The area method is used when it is impossible to excavate, especially when the
groundwater is high. The cover materials, however, may have to be imported off site.
When it is possible to excavate, the trench method is used. This method has the benefit
of having the cover material right at the site from the earth excavated from the trench.
The method begins by excavating a trench as shown in Figure 11-10b. The width of the
trench must allow free and easy movement of the compacting equipment and vehicles.
Other than the addition of excavation, the method of filling, compacting, and covering
are exactly the same as in the area method.

Basic Aspects in Landfill Implementation

Implementing the landfill method of disposing of solid wastes should consider five basic
aspects: site selection, leachate control, gas control, operation plan, and permit applica-
tion. Although permit application is put last, it strongly influences the other four aspects.
It behooves the applicant for an operation of a landfill to involve the permit engineer of a
state or local permitting agency when considering these aspects. Leachate is the polluted
water that results from rain percolating through the mass of solid wastes (and leaching
out any pollutant that the waste may contain).

Site selection. Factors to be considered in selecting a site include location of

the site, haul distance, soil types and geology, surface hydrology, and hydrogeologic
conditions. For political reasons, site location is probably the most important factor
in selecting a site. The following two examples illustrate the importance of this fac-
tor: the first occurred on the western shore of Maryland and the second on the eastern
shore.
A hearing was held for the reissuance of an existing landfill permit for the one
on the western shore. The hearing room was full of people, including a state delegate.
Almost all these people, including the delegate, spoke against the reissuance of the permit
because big transportation vehicles and trailer trucks hauling solid wastes destined for
the landfill coming not only from Maryland but also from other states passed through the
main road of the community. The traffic not only caused dust to be generated but also
posed a great danger to the community. The applicant closed the landfill down.
552 Solid Waste Management Chap. 11

The second case also involved issuance of a permit. However, the operation plan
called for minimum disruption of the community, and a good public relations campaign
was launched explaining to the community how a landfill operates, and that if operated
properly, it not only would dispose of their solid waste but would also be a good neighbor.
Whether good neighbor or not, the fact is that the hearing was also full of people, but
this time, almost all of them spoke for issuance of the permit. Hence the location of the
landfill should not cause traffic to pass though neighborhoods; access to the site should
be on back roads. If this cannot be done, a landfill should not be located on the site.
Shorter haul distances to the landfill would obviously be preferred to longer haul
distances. This was illustrated in the previous example on break-even point analysis.
Soil types and geology are also very important factors. These determine whether or not
cover soil will be available at the site or be imported off site, making a big difference
in operational cost. Soil borings should be made at the site to determine the types of
soil available. A sample of soil may be characterized according to some form of general
description; for a more detailed characterization, some method of soil classification may
be used. To understand fully the factor of soil as it affects site selection or its use as a
fill, general soil description and classification are discussed briefly below.

General Soil Description. — The general description of soil may include its texture,
structure, and consistency. The texture of a sample refers to the grain size distribution
of the individual component sizes. Components may include the following:

Boulders: larger than 15 cm Cobbles: 5 to 15 cm

Gravel: 2mm to 5 cm Sand: 0.05 to 2 mm
Silt: 0.002 to 0.05 mm Clay: smaller than 2 wm

A soil composed of sand is coarse-textured; a soil composed of clay is fine-textured.

If the percentages of the components are evenly represented in the sample, the soil is
said to be well graded; if the sample is composed of practically the same size, the soil
is said to be poorly graded. Soil structure is a description of the shape and geometry of
clusters of individual soil particles making up the soil mass. These clusters are separated
from each other by surfaces of weakness. A “cluster” composed of a single grain such
as a grain of sand is said to be single-grain structured. Single-grain structured soils lack
cohesion. Soil consistency refers to the ability of soil to hold together when pressure
or stress is applied to the mass. Typical descriptions of consistency of soils are as
follows:

Loose noncoherent even when pressed

Friable soil material crushes easily under gentle to moderate pressure be-
tween thumb and forefinger
Firm soil material crushes under moderate pressure between thumb and
finger, but resistance is distinctly noticeable
Hard soil material cannot be crushed
Stiff soil material deforms without crushing under moderate pressure
Disposal of Solid Wastes 553

Plastic _ soil material behaves like modeling clay

Soft soil material is easily deformed
Sticky soil material sticks to the hand

Soil Classification. A number of systems has been used to classify soils, includ-
ing the CSSS (Comprehensive Soil Survey System), the AASHTO (American Association
of State Highway and Transportation Officials) system, the FAA (Federal Aviation Ad-
ministration) system, and the USCS (Unified Soil Classification System). The CSSS is
similar to the biological method of classifying living things, which is composed of king-
dom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. The corresponding classification in
the CSSS are order, suborder, great group, subgroup, family, and series. The AASHTO
and the FAA systems are geared toward the performance of soils on roads and runways.
During World War II, Casagrande developed the USCS for use in the construction of
airfields. His method became very popular and, along with the AASHTO classification,
is used in landfill technology.
Casagrande divided all soils into coarse- and fine-grained soils. If more than 50%
of the sample does not pass a 200-mesh screen (200 openings to the inch), the soil is
classified as coarse-grained; if 50% or more passes the screen, the soil is classified as
fine-grained. The coarse-grained soil is further subdivided into sand and gravel. If more
than 50% does not pass a 4-mesh screen (4 openings to the inch), the soil is classified
as gravel, G; if 50% or more passes the screen, the soil is classified as sand, S. G is
suffixed with W if it is well graded, and with P if its poorly graded. It is suffixed with
M if it is silty; and with C if it is clayey. The same suffixes are also used for sand (i.e.,
SW, SP, SM, and SC). Summarizing the classification for sand and gravel gives us

GW _ well-graded gravels or well-graded gravel-sand mixtures, with little

or no fines
GP __ poorly graded gravels or poorly graded gravel-sand mixtures with
little or no fines
GM _ silty gravels or silty gravel-sand mixtures
GC clayey gravels or clayey gravel—silt mixtures
SW __ well-graded sands or gravelly sands with little or no fines
SP poorly graded sands or poorly graded gravelly sands with little or
no fines
SM _ silty sands or silt-sand mixtures
SC clayey sands or clayey silt-sand mixtures

Fine-grained soils are classified as silt (M) or clay (C), modified by the Atterberg
limits for fine-grained or cohesive soils. The Atterberg limits are shrinkage limit, plastic
limit, liquid limit, and flocculating limit. A soil sample is at the shrinkage limit when it
is saturated and is at its smallest volume. The water content when the soil truly behaves
like a plastic material is called the plastic limit, the water content at which the soil losses
its plastic characteristics and starts to behave like water is called the liquid limit; and the
water content at which the soil behaves like true water is called the flocculation limit. The
554 Solid Waste Management Chap. 11

flocculation limit may also be considered as the point at which, because of the increasing
concentration of soil, the water departs from its true nature as water and starts to become
viscous. Hence the range between the flocculation limit and the liquid limit 1s called the
viscous liquid range. Going from the liquid limit to the plastic limit, the soil increases
its plasticity, hence this range is called the plastic range and the liquid content is called
the plasticity index. A material is a high plastic if the plasticity index is high; it is a low
plastic if the plasticity index is low. A soil with a liquid limit of less than 50 (mass of
water divided mass of dry soil times 100) is a low-plasticity soil (L); those with equal to
or greater than 50 is a high-plasticity soil (H). Also, going from the plastic limit to the
shrinkage limit, the soil increases its “hardness”; hence the range is called the semisolid
range.
In Casagrande’s USCS classification, M and C are suffixed by L and H. Also, if
the silt or clay is organic, M is replaced by O and suffixed by either L or H, as the case
may be. Following is a summary of the classification for silt and clay:

ML _low-plasticity silts, very fine sands, silty or clayey fine sands, and
clayey silts
CL _low- to medium-plasticity clays, gravelly clays, sandy clays, silty
clays, and lean clays
OL _ low-plasticity organic silts and organic clays
MH _high-plasticity silts, micaceous or diatomaceous fine sandy or silty
soils, and elastic silts
CH _ high-plasticity clays and fat clays
OH _high-plasticity organic clays and organic silts

The ratio of the solid waste volume to cover volume normally varies from 3:1 to 4:1.
Table 11-10 shows the suitability of general soil types as cover materials. Table 11-11
shows some characteristics of soils pertinent to sanitary landfills.

TABLE 11-10 SUITABILITY OF GENERAL SOIL TYPES AS COVER MATERIALS?

Clayey— Clayey—
silty silty
Function Gravel gravel Sand sand Silt Clay

Prevent rodents G F-G G Pe IP P

from burrowing
Keep flies from P F P G G E>
emerging
Minimize moisture 2 F-G iP G-E G-E ja
entering fill
Minimize gas venting 2 F-G Pp G-E G-E E>
through cover
Supports vegetation 2 G P-F igh G-E F-G

“BE, excellent; G, good; F, fair; P, poor.

>Except when cracks extends through cover.
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0} AIdA YSIS JUD[[IOX| = =O :pooyH 10198.
as UON
0} AIDA WSIS WUa]JOoXY = 01 :pooy J0}0R1])
WS YSIS
0} ysty sey0} ‘100d 9-01-<01 pooH YIM 3SO][d :[ONUOD -1aqqni
100d0) Ajjeonoeid pom pue Joojsdaays
Jg{[O1
snorAJoduit
OS 13S
0} ysty 100g
0) Ajqeonoe.id 9—01-5-01 :11e,7 jooysdaays
pue -laqqni
snorasodurt pam Ja]JO1
TW tuNnIpayy
0} AISA ysty ey0} Jood 600i pooH 0) “100d aso]d [ONUOS
:jenuasse polj-soqqni
pue
Joosdaays
Ja[[O1
ae) UMIpayy
0} ysiy ATTRONORIg SNOTAIOdUIT O50 ey0} :poos jooysdaays
pue
poinj-taqqni
Ja[[O1
10 WNIpayy
0} Ysty 100g 0 SA Wey0} :poos JooJsdsoys
Ja[JO1
HW UINIpPay
0} AIOA ysty ey0} Jood i =, oO 100g
0} A1aA :100d yooysdaays
JaT[OI
HO UUINIpayAy Ayjeonoeig snorAjoduit 9201 S01 ey0) :100d yoojsdaeys
Ja{[o1
HO uInIpsyy Ayjeonoeig snotAjoduit20 Oilao
PE 100g
0} A1aA :100d yooysdaoys
JaTJOI

eed, pur ATYSIY o1ueSi0s[losore jou popusuruodsal

10} “s[[ypue]

555
556 Solid Waste Management Chap. 11

The proposed site should be investigated for its hydrologic characteristics (@.g.,
its runoff potential). The impact of precipitation and the resulting infiltration into the
landfill may be minimized by installing suitable covers (to be discussed later). Sur-
face drainage from precipitation must be incorporated in a stormwater management
design. This will entail using runoff prediction formulas such as the rational method
or the curve number method of the Soil Conservation Service. No further examples
will be introduced, as prediction of runoff has been discussed elsewhere in this book.
The hydrogeologic condition of the site should also be investigated. Water table fluc-
tuations should be studied to determine the highest elevation of the groundwater sur-
face. There should be a safe distance between the highest water table elevation and
the bottom of the proposed landfill. Maryland regulations require a distance of about
900 mm.
Example 11-14
A town with a population of 10,000 produces solid wastes at a rate of S Ib/capita-day. If
the waste is compacted to 1000 lb/yd>, how many acre-feet of landfill is needed in a year?
Assuming that the ratio of solid waste to cover is 4:1, what volume of cover soil is needed
in a year, and what type of soil would you recommend as a cover?

Solution

5(10,000
Volume of landfill needed = 36527) (asx) = 11.31 acre-feet Answer

Si
Volume of cover = Pe = 2.83 acre-feet Answer

Normally, in practice, any soil available is used for cover. Answer

Leachate control. _ Leachate control is the second of the five basic aspects in im-
plementing the sanitary landfill method of solid waste disposal. Leachate is given special
consideration since it had been an important source of groundwater contamination in the
past, especially in connection with the use of open dumps. To control the production of
leachate, a cap system is installed above the final cover and a liner system is installed
at the bottom of the landfill. Basically, then, with the installation of the top cap and the
bottom liner, precipitation is practically excluded. This arrangement is desirable provided
that enough moisture is provided in the solid waste heap to effect the necessary biolog-
ical decomposition. (Read Chapter 2 for chemistry of water requirements in anaerobic
decomposition.)
The most important part of the cap system is the cap liner or, simply, the cap.
This cap may be made of synthetic material or 450 mm of compacted clay having a
permeability of about 10~° cm/s. Above the cap is a drainage layer about 150 mm thick,
preferably composed of sand or soil that has a permeability of 10~* cm/s or greater to
allow fast drainage. Above the drainage layer is a geotextile-filter membrane to protect
the drainage layer from being clogged. Finally, about 300 mm of soil suitable for plant
growth is put on top of the drainage layer. This soil is called the vegetative layer. The
purpose of the cap is to prevent rain from permeating the solid waste, hence the installa-
 Disposal of Solid Wastes 557

Runoff directed
Gas well-feed into to drainage
collection system structures on
slope Vegetated cover soil composed of
Bs material from existing cover

Geotextile-filter/separation/layer
Vegetated topsoil
Flow zone K $ 10-2 layer composed of
material from
existing cover

Compacted silty clay

loam (K # 10-5—10~7 cm/s)
Landfill waste —~ > Geotextile-gas
venting layer

Figure 11-11 Cap system equipped with gas wells.

tion of the drainage layer above the cap. Allowing rain will leach out a large amount of
pollutants from the solid waste, resulting in a very concentrated leach water or leachate.
The cap liner, drainage layer, and the vegetative cover are also collectively called simply
a cap.
Figure 11-11 shows a cap system used in one of the landfills in Maryland. This
particular system is equipped with gas wells used for collecting gases. Note that the
wells are located at the final cover and connected to the geotextile-gas venting layer.
Figure 11-12 shows the bottom lining of a sanitary landfill with leachate pipe.
In general, the bottom lining system is composed of the subgrade, subbase of the
liner, the liner, drainage layer, and a protective drainage cover. All subgrade soils
should be free of organics and other deleterious materials and should not contain par-
ticles larger than 15 cm or so in diameter. Soils classified as SC, SM, SW, SP,
ML, or CL as determined by ASTM D422-D421 for grain size determination are suit-
able for subgrade construction. Subgrades are constructed in lifts 12 in. thick and
compacted to at least 90% of the maximum attainable dry density and to a moisture
content of + 2% of optimum moisture content as determined by a suitable labora-
tory procedure. Normally, the modified Proctor compaction test (ASTM D-1557) is
used.
The subbase is normally 0.6 m in thickness. It is constructed in lifts of 20 cm
and compacted to at least 90% of the maximum attainable dry density, as in the case of
the subgrade. The moisture content should be approximately 2 to 3% wet of the soil’s
optimum moisture content. The permeability of the subbase should be equal to or less
than 10~° cm/s. In the determination of permeability (Triaxial or Falling Head Methods,
EPA 9100), the sample should first be compacted to 90% of the maximum dry density
 558 Solid Waste Management Chap. 11

Provide 2' lap of

geotextile (typ.)

Nonwoven geotextile

Leachate collection
zone
KS 1310-2 cm/s

60-mil HDPE
liner

Nonwoven
geotextile
2" min.—4" max.
Prepared subbase

8" dia. HDPE (perforated)

Structural fill leachate collection header
pipe, SDR 13.5

4" dia. HDPE (perforated)

leachate collection lateral
pipe, SDR 13.5

Figure 11-12 Bottom lining of sanitary landfill with leachate pipe.

at water content that is approximately 2% wet of the optimum. Soils classified as ML or

CL are suitable for subbase construction.
Above the subbase is installed the /iner. Immediately above and below the liner
[shown as 60-mil HDPE (high-density polyethylene)|, are geotextiles (geo means earth;
textile relates to clothing and is a misnomer for this material). The bottom and top
geotextiles are supposed to protect the liner from any sharp object in the subbase and
from the overlying drainage zone, respectively. Above the top geotextile is about 1.5 ft
minimum of drainage materials of permeability greater than 10-7 cm/s. Sand is an
excellent drainage material. Above this zone is a protective cover of gravel materi-
als of at least 0.5 ft. A geonet is sometimes used as a drainage channel in addi-
tion to the drainage zone of permeable materials. (Again, geo means earth and net
means net; that is, geonet is a plastic material constructed of a matrix of nets.) The
geonet is placed directly above the liner and serves as a channel toward the leachate
pipe.
A leachate pipe header is shown in the figure. This accepts all drainage leachate
from a number of leachate pipe laterals, as well as any leachate passing directly through
its perforations. Laterals collect leachate from the fill by allowing passage through their
perforations. As shown, the header is buried in a trench filled with granular materials
Disposal of Solid Wastes 559

(indicated as AASHTO No. 3). Completely wrapping the fill is a nonwoven geotextile.
The purpose of this wrapping is to filter out any fines in order to protect the granular fill
and the header from clogging.

Spacing of laterals. Referring to Figure 11-13, the spacing between laterals L

and the flow g to a unit length of lateral will now be derived as follows: Since vertical
percolation is larger than the horizontal percolation, the leachate over the liner will soon

rainage laye

Figure 11-13 Derivation of leachate pipe spacing, L.

build up. The bottom slope of a landfill is normally 2%. Since the slope is very small,
the hydraulic gradient will be practically horizontal; the hydraulic gradient can therefore
be approximated accurately by a straight line. This approximation is shown in the figure.
Two flow directions of leachate will result: qg,/, in the direction of the slope, and qp, in
the opposite direction, toward the upstream leachate pipe. gy and gq, have units of rate
of flow per unit length of leachate pipe. The average hydraulic gradient for g¢ is [(L/2)
tan a + yo — ye]/(L/2). Considering a unit width perpendicular to the direction of flow,
the average flow area is (3) Ov + y.). With the hydraulic conductivity K, gf is given,
using Darcy’s law, by
yo —- Ve K (L/2) tan & +- Yo = Ve
he ) L/2 (11-19)
560 Solid Waste Management Chap. 11

Using analysis similar to q, gives

db elierstay sa (L/2) tana — ye (11-20)

Te lig
The total flow g to a particular leachate pipe is the sum of gy and q,. Hence,
combining the equations above and simplifying yields

= ST
2K (yo + Ye
3-92) (11-21)
Equation (11-21) may be solved for L, producing

Ts _ 2K(% — Ye) (11-22)

q
This formula shows that the liner need not be sloped. This may be compared with
Moore’s formula, which reads
2nh
—
,/(e/K) + slope” — slope

where h is the depth of leachate, n the porosity, e the percolation rate, K the permeability,
and slope the slope of the liner. Moores’s formula requires that a slope to the liner be
provided.
At the start of rainfall, water begins to infiltrate the surface and to percolate down-
ward. This vertical percolation creates an advancing front. Initially, the head above this
front is equal to the thin sheet of rain over the surface of the ground plus the length of
the front. When the rain stops, the sheet of rain on the ground surface and over the front
disappears, and the head above the front simply reduces to the length of the front itself.
Since the thickness of the sheet of rain is much smaller than the length of the advancing
front, it can be assumed that the hydraulic gradient driving force for vertical percolation
is equal to unity. Therefore, considering dh/d£ to be equal to 1, the vertical percolation
velocity is K(1), and the vertical flow q, per unit of horizontal area is then equal to K.
If the flow is percolating downward across several layers, q, for the top layer may
be written as

qu = 1S (11-23)

where K;, is the vertical hydraulic conductivity of the top or first layer, Ah, the head loss
of the layer, and y; the thickness of the layer. The flows through each successive layer
are all equal to q,. Similar expressions can be written for all the other layers up to the
nth. With equal q,,’s, the head loss across each layer may be solved from the expressions
and the total head loss Ah across all the layers can then be added, obtaining

ana (Pe
y
Bee4 Ynta, (11-24)
where the subscripts denote the respective layers. The terms inside the parentheses may
be written as y/K, where y is the sum thickness of all layers and K is the overall
Disposal of Solid Wastes 561

hydraulic conductivity. Hence

y
(11-25)
yi/K1 + y2/Ko F- +> + Yn/Kn
Example 11-15
Design the spacing of laterals for an uncapped landfill for a required maximum leachate
head of 30.5 cm. Also, determine the flow g to each lateral and the diameter of the lateral,
assuming that its length is 100 m. Assume that the drainage layer is composed of gravel
with a hydraulic conductivity of 100 m/day and a drainage layer slope of 1%. Assume that
the overall vertical hydraulic conductivity through the solid wastes is 10~> cm/s.

Solution
2K (ye — y2)
La
q
Assume that y. = 0. qy = K = 10~3cm3/s-cm? = 10~>m?/s-m?. Since the length of
lateral is 100 m, downward percolating water = 10~>(L)(100) = 0.001L m/s. Thus, since
there are two laterals collecting a draining area,

2 ET 540-51 m>
ae 2(100) m-s

_ _2(100)(0.305 — 0°) _- 43.067

~ [5(10~8)L](60)(60)(24)
=6.56m Answer

g = 5(10~°)(6.56) = 3.28(10->)m?/m-s Answer

Assuming a self-cleaning velocity of 0.77 m/s,
3.28(10->) (100)
cross-sectional area at lower end of lateral = 077 = 0.0042 m2:

d =0.074 m=7.5 cm Answer

Example 11-16
Solve Example 11-15 assuming that the landfill is capped using the cap system shown in
Figure 11-11 and that the height of the solid waste mass is 25 m. Use the following K’s:
12-in. layer = 10-2 cm/s, 6-in. layer = 10-2 cm/s, 18-in. layer = 10~° cm/s, 24-in. layer
= 10-2 cm/s, and solid waste mass = 10~? cm/s. Assume that the geotextile-gas venting
layer does not contribute resistance to flow.

Solution
y

~ y1/Ky + yo/K2 +-+* + Yn/Kn

2.54(12 + 6 + 18 + 24) + 2500
~ 2,54(12)/10-2 + 2.54(6)/10-2 + 2.54(18)/10-© + 2.54(24)/10-2 + 2500/10-3

= 5.5(10~°) cm/s
562 Solid Waste Management Chap. 11

qu = K =5.5(10~> cm3/s-cm? = 5.5(107’) m?/s-m?

~ NC =) assume that y. = 0
q
Since the length of lateral is 100 m, downward percolating water = 5.5(10~7)(L)(100) =
5.5(10-5)L m3/s. Thus since there are two laterals collecting a draining area,
—5 3
} EE
2(100)
0 m-s

__2(100)(0.3057— 0?) _- 783.04

~ [2.75(10-7)L](60)(60)(24) L

= 27.98m Answer

q = 2.75(10~’)(27.98) = 7.69(10~°) m?/m-s Answer

7.69(10~°)(100
Cross-sectional area at lower end of lateral = ( 0 me ) = 70/000 tem

d = 0.038 m= 3.8 cm Answer

Example 11-17
Determine the spacing of the laterals of Example 11-16 if the liner grade is increased to 4%.

Solution L=27.98 m. Answer

Loads on Leachate Pipes. When a pipe is buried, it must be able to support

the weight of the fill and any superimposed load above the fill. The superimposed load
may be due to a static load on top of the fill or to any moving load. The method used to
compute the fill load on buried pipes has been, up to this point, empirical and is based
on the work done at Iowa State College under the direction of Dean Marston.*
There are two types of pipes: rigid and flexible. Rigid pipes are those whose every
element material making up the pipe does not yield under stress, while flexible pipes are
those whose element materials do yield under stress. For leachate pipes in landfills, PVC
and vitrified clay pipes are used. PVC is an example of a flexible pipe, and vitrified clay
pipe is an example of a rigid pipe.
For rigid pipes, Marston’s formula is

wilyB- (11-26)
and for flexible pipes his formula is

w = CyBD (11-27)

4M. G. Sprangler (1948). “Underground Conduits—an Appraisal of Modern Research.” Transactions of

ASCE, 113, pp. 316-374.
Disposal of Solid Wastes 563

where w is the force or load per unit length of pipe, y the specific weight of the fill, B
the trench width, and D the outside diameter of the pipe. Equations (11-26) and (11-27)
apply to pipes buried in trenches with undisturbed sides. For a given type of fill, the
value of C depends on the ratio of the depth of cover H, measured from the top of
the pipe in the trench to the surface of the trench, and the width of the trench B. As the
overburden settles to impose a load on the pipe, the undisturbed sides of the trench help
to support the load. Table 11-12 shows values of C to be used with equations (11-26)
and (11-27).

TABLE 11-12 VALUES OF C FOR USE IN EQUATIONS (11-26) AND (11-27)

Clay
Sand and gravel Saturated top soil (yy = 3 Saturated clay
H/B (y = 15.7 kN/m?) (y = 15.7 kN/m?) kN/m?) (y = 20.4 kN/m?)
1.0 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.90
2.0 1.45 1.50 IB) 1.62
3.0 1.90 2.00 2.10 2.20
4.0 Dae 235) 2.49 2.65
5.0 2.45 2.60 2.80 3.03
6.0 2.60 2.78 3.04 333
7.0 DiS 2.95 BS Jo)
8.0 2.80 3.03 33) 3.76
9.0 2.88 Saul 3.48 3.92
10.0 ZOD 3117) 3.56 4.04
12.0 2D 3.24 3.68 4.22
14.0 3.00 3.28 BaD) 4.34

The value of H used to determine C from Table 11-12 should be measured from
the top of the pipe to the top of the trench. Above the trench would be another load from
the compacted solid waste. To incorporate this additional load, y in equations (11-26)
and (11-27) should be computed as the volume average of the y of the solid waste and
the y of the trench fill.
For headers and lateral pipes that are simply laid on top of the liner, the loads
imposed on the pipes are under embankment or broad-fill load conditions and equa-
tions (11-26) and (11-27) do not apply. Under embankment conditions, the overburden
directly above the pipe is dragged downward by the overburden not directly above the
pipe. This condition causes the transmission of load to the pipe from the side overburden,
in addition to the load directly above the pipe. Embankment conditions therefore impose
more loads to the pipe compared to those under trench conditions. For embankment load
conditions, Marston’s formula is
ike Op D? (11-28)
Table 11-13 shows some values of C, for use with equation (11-28).
564 Solid Waste Management Chap. 11

TABLE 11-13 VALUES OF Cp, FOR

USE WITH EQUATION (11-28)

H/D Rigid pipe Flexible pipe

1.0 Ie is
2.0 2.8 2.6
3.0 ALT] 4.0
4.0 6.7 5.4
6.0 iLO) 8.2
8.0 16.0 Teo

Another load that must be considered for buried pipes is the superimposed loads
by machineries used to operate the landfill and the trucks used to unload the solid waste
into the fill. This load may be computed using Boussinesq’s equation:

™ 3d? P
P (11-29)
On ZS
where p is the variable pressure at any point in the fill, d the depth of the point below
the surface, and Z the slant distance of the point from the superimposed load P at the
surface.
The total force due to the superimposed load is calculated by subdividing the
horizontal projected area of the pipe into small subareas. The pressure p in each subarea
is then calculated using equation (11-29) and the corresponding force calculated. The
total force on the pipe is equal to the sum of the forces in each individual subarea. The
impact force can be twice the force calculated. Therefore, if the force is due to a moving
load such as a moving crawler that can drop into a cavity because of unevenness of the
fill, the calculated force should be multiplied by a factor such as 2. If the crawler drops
into a cavity and a leachate pipe happens to be underneath it, the impact force will be
transmitted to the pipe.
Another factor that must considered in design of buried pipes is the effect of the
load-carrying capacity of the pipes when subjected to different types of bedding. Bedding
improves the ability of the pipe to support loads. The crushing strength of a pipe is
normally determined by the three-edge bearing test (ASTM C14; see Figure 11-14). The
result of this test must be multiplied by a factor that depends on the type of bedding used
to determine the field supporting strength. The field supporting strength must then be
divided by a factor of safety to obtain the design strength. The factor of safety is usually
1.5 or greater. Figure 11-14 shows some types of bedding along with the corresponding
factors to be used to obtain the field supporting strength. Table 11-14 shows some values
of y.
Example 11-18
Calculate the load on the leachate header pipe in Figure 11-12. Assume that the height of
solid waste heap is 50 m and the compacted density is 600 kg/m?. Assume that a crawler
dozer weighing 50,000 Ib is used to compact the waste. The distance between wheels of the
crawler is 5.0 ft.
 Disposal of Solid Wastes 565

'/12D (1 in. min.)

Bearing strips

Hand-
12 in. (300 mm) Hand- 12 in. (300 mm)
placed minimum placed minimum
backfill backfill

; D/22 , D/6
Bedding D/8, 4 :in. Beddingg
=
material (100 mm) min material DiS

Load factor Load factor

1.9 3 three-edged bearing 1.5 3 three-edged bearing
Class B ClassiG

12 in. (300 mm)

oo
minimum
ei

Load factor
1.1 3 three-edged bearing
Class D
(b)

Figure 11-14 (a) Three-edge bearing test. (b) Types of beddings.

Solution In Figure 11-12, although the header is shown as buried in a trench, the sides
are disturbed; the condition shown is under an embankment condition. Depth of drainage
layer (composed of the regular layer, 1.5 ft + protective layer, 0.5 ft) = 2 ft. Based on
Table 11-14, assume that y of the layer = 130 lb/ft? = 2085 kg/m, dry. To compute
average y, moisture must be included. Assume 1% moisture.
566 Solid Waste Management Chap. 11

TABLE 11-14 VALUES OF y

GW 125-135 GP 115-125
GM 120-135 GE 115-130
SW 110-130 SP 100-120
SM 110-125 SC 105-125
ML 95-120 Cr 95-120

[2085(1.01)][.)
(1) (2/3.281)] + 600(1)(1) (50)
A verage density
densityof load load over pipe
ipe = ()()/3.281) + (1)(1)(50)

= 617.89kg/m? = 6061.46 N/m*

50+ [2 — (8/12)/3.281]
=C,yD* De me = 2480
verses / 0.8(2.54) (10-2)
Since the pipe is HDPE (a plastic pipe), C p must be for flexible pipes. In Table 11-13,
however, the highest H/D value is 8.0 < 2480. To use the table, assume an equivalent
depth of overburden of higher density. Letting H/D = 8, the equivalent depth is (8)(8) =
64 in (where 8 is the diameter of the pipe). Hence C, = 11.0.

_ 6,061.46 {50 + [2 — (8/12)]/3.281} (1)()

= 187,953 N/m?
red 64(2.54)(10-2)(1)()
w = 11.0(187,953)[8(2.54(107~7)]* = 85,367 N/m
ode
Pp
~ Wn ZS
Assume that the crawler is directly on top of a pipe. At this condition, compute the pressure
on the pipe midway between the wheels of crawler.

50,000(0.454
Load from each wheel = ee = 11 350 Nes

Z =| a0 = eh) eee5 eer we

mes 2.281) |

3[s0-+258¢2)]
3

= 20.94 N/m due to one wheel

CS Heer a)
The projected area of the pipe may be subdivided into small subareas to obtain the total force
per unit meter; however, since the pipe is very small, this procedure is not warranted. Assume
that total superimposed pressure, including impact pressure = 2p = 2(20.94) = 41.87 N/m”.
Disposal of Solid Wastes 567

Considering the other wheel,

total load per meter = 2(41.87[(8)(2.54)(10~*) ]f1] ==) / N/m

total load on pipe = 85.4 + 0.017 = 85.42 kN/m Answer

Example 11-19
In Example 11-18, compute the load on the pipe during initial filling of the landfill.
Solution Depth of drainage layer (composed of the regular layer, 1.5 ft + protective layer,
0.5 ft) = 2 ft. Assume that y of the layer = 130 Ib/ft®? = 2085 kg/m?. During initial filling,
depth of compacted fill = 0.

_ (2— (8/12)]/3.281
w= Coy.D* HD =O
pt / 8(2.54)(10-2)
From Table 11-13, C, = 2. Thus

i [2(2,085)(1.01)]19.81[(8)(2.54)(10~2)]? = 1706 N/m

mr3a°P
aa 2n Z
Assume that the crawler is directly on top of a pipe. At this condition, compute the pressure
on the pipe midway between the wheels of crawler.

50,000(0.454)
Load from each wheel = ees 11,350 kg

2 2
Z — eMC IS Gee
a SSS EE
(20 SSS = 0.86
p m
3.281 2(3.281)

2 — (0.8/12
a ee = 0.41 m
3.281
3(0.41°)(11, 350) (9.81)
= = 7789 N/m* due to one wheel
2() (0.86)
Assume total superimposed pressure including impact pressure = 2p = 2(7789) = 15,577
N/m?. Considering the other wheel, total load per meter = 2(15,577)[(8)(2.54)( 10-7)]) =
3,165 N/m. Thus
total load on pipe = 1.71 + 3.17 = 4.88 kKN/m Answer

Example 11-20
In Example 11-19, what three-edge bearing load would you specify if the bedding used were
class D? Assume a safety factor of 2.0.

Solution From the previous examples, the actual load equals 4.88 kN/m = design strength.
Hence field supporting strength = 4.88(2) = 9.76. From Figure 11-14, bedding factor =
(lait, “haviies
9.76
three-edge bearing load = as 8.87 KN/m Answer
568 Solid Waste Management Chap. 11

Gas control. — Gas control is the third of the five basic aspects in implementing the
sanitary landfill method of solid waste disposal. Landfill gases are composed of methane,
carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide, and ammonia. As discussed in Chapter 2,
these gases are produced by the anaerobic decomposition of the organic portions of
solid waste. The percentage composition of these gases can vary as the decomposition
progresses. For example, the following changes in composition may be observed: From
0 to 3 months, No = 5%, CO. = 90%, and CH, = 5%. However, at the end of 40 to
50 months, No = 0.5%, CO, = 50%, and CH, = 50%. The rest of the percentages are
for the other components. Landfill gases are composed mostly of carbon dioxide and
methane.
If not properly vented, methane can accumulate in enclosed spaces and develop
an explosive mixture with air. The range of flammability of methane in air is from
5 to 15% by volume of the gas. Concentrations at 40% for both carbon dioxide and
methane have been found at lateral distances of up to 120 m from the edges of landfills.
Hence control of lateral movement of landfill gases is very important. Buffer zones of
about 100 to 150 m from residences should therefore be provided to prevent the possible
accumulations of these gases at basements of homes.
Some methods of gas control are shown in Figure 11-15: cell vent, trench vent,
perforated-pipe vent, and barrier vent. The cell vent, composed of gravel, is put directly
above the daily cell cover. In the trench vent, a trench is dug as deep as the solid wastes
and filled with gravel. In the perforated-pipe vent, perforated pipes are used to collect
and convey the gases to riser pipes for gas venting. If gases are recovered for the heating
value of methane, the riser pipes may be connected to a main for pumping to a processing
plant. In the barrier method, an impermeable lining of clay is installed to intercept the
moving gases, as indicated at the bottom of the figure.

Operation plan. The operation plan is the fourth of the five basic aspects in
implementing the sanitary landfill method of solid waste disposal. The use of the landfill
from the initial filling to closure of the site is basically a construction operation. To
implement the various stages of construction, a good operation plan must be in place.
Factors considered in the design of a good operational plan may include access to the
site and to various points on the site, filling sequence, source of cover material, drainage,
equipment requirement and maintenance, provision for wetting the landfill heap, fire
prevention, litter control, communication and employee facilities, days and hours of
operation, and closure plan. Access to the site should not be through populated areas and
should be via back roads. If this cannot be done, a landfill should not be located at the
site. Access roads to the site may be lined with trees and the entire landfill site may be
surrounded with trees to keep it away from public sight and to serve as sound breaks
from the equipment noises used in the construction. Any construction is always noisy,
and no residence would want to be near it. Access to various points in the site must also
be carefully delineated in an operation map. This map will indicate at a glance where
the stage of construction or filling is at any point in time.
For proper control of the filling sequence, the entire landfill site should be sub-
divided into subareas called cells. The term cell is not to be confused with the same
Disposal of Solid Wastes 569

OKs
a0
0;
100 Oe
SSud
oU.
Q
0
Da.
AL
sdSox
Q)
0,

200)Vaya\i)
°)

trench
Gravel
0! 00 je

Vented gas Riser

Vegetation
BAABIEREE SERRA RR Ass as

Final cover material Perforated lateral

DAT SF Pe fe OIZFNSS
SOS GIRS AA TERR SOU aS O SRO CRS ING ASO
RSS eres Gravel SHA. ZA Geen

Cell“!

(c)

A
Clay barrier

Vented gas

Figure 11-15 Methods of gas control: (a) cell vent; (b) trench vent; (c) perforated-pipe
vent; (d) barrier vent.
570 Solid Waste Management Chap. 11

term used previously, which applies to the small compacted solid waste volumes. The
compacted single cell is a cell within the subdivision cell of the entire landfill site. This
use of the same term to mean two different things is unfortunate but reflects current
practice. The meaning of the word cell will be understood by its context. Figure 11-16
is an example of a landfill site subdivided into a number of subdivision cells or cells.
Also, notice the plan view schematic of the leachate collection system. The header is the
pipe running diagonally across the cells, and the laterals are the several pipes connecting
to the header. The headers are connected to the main located at the north end (top) of
the drawing.
The source of cover would have been determined in the planning stage of site
selection. Covers may be obtained at the site or imported off-site, but wherever the
source, the method of securing them so that cover will always be available should be
elaborated in the operation plan. The question of drainage is also a consideration in site
selection. As part of the operational plan, drainage ditches should be installed to divert
surface runoff from the site. The surface of the finished fill should be maintained at a
grade of | to 2% to prevent ponding. Equipment requirements and maintenance should
also be a part of the operational plan. Figure 11-17 shows some of the equipment used
in landfill operations.
During filling and compaction, heavy equipment could be standing directly on top
of the leachate pipe. As discussed before, the design of the pipe must consider this
situation; the pipe must be able to withstand the crushing strength imposed on the pipe
by such heavy equipment. Table 11-15 gives the weights of some equipment used in
sanitary landfills.

TABLE 11-15 WEIGHT OF SOME EQUIPMENT USED IN SANITARY

LANDFILLS

Equipment Flywheel Unequipped Equipped

type horsepower weight (Ib) weight (Ib)

Crawler dozer <80. <15,000 19,000

110-130 20,000—25,000 32,000
250-280 47,500—52,000 67,000
Crawler loader <70 <20,000 23,000
100-130 25,000-32,500 31,000-32,000
150-190 32,500-45,000 45,000—47,000
Rubber-tired loader <100 <20,000 17,000—18,000
120-150 22,500-27,500 23,000—26,000

As discussed in Chapter 2, water is needed for anaerobic decomposition to occur.

Although initially, there is air in the landfill, it will soon be consumed and the entire
process will become anaerobic. The amount of water needed can be determined by
following the steps discussed in Chapter 2.
Since the landfill would have been capped, only a theoretically small amount of
rain can get into the heap. Therefore, if the heap is organic, provisions for wetting the
Figure 11-16 Subdivision of landfill site into cells.
572 Solid Waste Management Chap. 11

Front end loader—tracked Earth mover

with bullclam

Landfill compactor

Figure 11-17 Sanitary landfill equipment.

landfill heap should be accounted for in the design of the operation plan. The wetting
can be accomplished by recycling leachate to the heap. This will entail calculations of
pump horsepower and piping size. These have been discussed elsewhere in the book
and are not repeated here. During decomposition, periodic sampling of the heap should
be made to ascertain that adequate moisture is present to effect the decomposition. The
result of moisture analysis will regulate the recirculation of leachate.
Since one of the products of decomposition is methane gas, it must be expected
that a fire will occur from time to time. In the design of the operational plan, firefighting
equipment should be included. There should be adequate water on site to fight fire; and
if the water is nonpotable, this should clearly be marked. In the design of subdivision
cells, proper separation by appropriate barriers should be provided to prevent continuous
burn-through in case of fire. Figure 11-16 shows how cells are separated.
At the beginning of this chapter it was noted that paper, which can easily be blown
away, is the most abundant component of solid waste. Good litter control must therefore
be provided in design of the operation plan. This may done by erecting fences around
an active cell.
Communication and employee facilities such as telephone installation, rest rooms,
and drinking water should be provided. The days and hours of operation should be posted
Glossary 573

at the landfill gate. This is good public relations. Finally, a very important part of an
operation plan is the closure plan.
Closure plan refers to the activities performed after a landfill cell is filled. The
activities involve the construction of the cap system and post-fill monitoring. Post-fill
monitoring is required to ascertain that the groundwater is not contaminated. This is done
by installing monitoring wells. Figure 11-18 shows cross sections of landfill heaps with
monitoring wells installed. The wells should be installed downgradient of groundwater
flow. Wells may also be installed upgradient to the direction of groundwater flow to
account for the uncertainty of the direction of groundwater and for a possible comparison
of contaminated and uncontaminated groundwater. As noted in the figure, a double liner
has been installed for the hazardous waste landfill.

Permit application. The application for a permit is the last of the five basic
aspects in implementing the sanitary landfill method of solid waste disposal. No landfill
can be operated legally without first obtaining a permit. States vary in requirements, but
in Maryland, the process is divided into four phases. Phase I is the permit application
itself. Applicants fill out a form. The second phase is submission of a hydrogeo-
logic and geologic report. This report is reviewed by the state, and after it is in an
acceptable form and content, the third phase can begin. The third phase involves the
submission of engineering designs and operation plan. Engineering designs pertain to
the design of the control of leachate and gases and the design of drainage for stormwater
control.
The last phase is the hearing. At the hearing, the applicant presents his side,
normally with the help of a consultant. Members of the public may also voice their
objection or approval. Based on this hearing, the permit may or may not be issued to the
applicant. Following an unfavorable decision, the applicant may request that the hearing
be adjudicated before a hearing officer, who is usually designated by the state. If, on
adjudication, the decision is still unfavorable, the applicant may move the case to the
courts. The public may do likewise if the decision is unfavorable to them.

GLOSSARY

Area method. A method of sanitary landfilling used when it is impossible to excavate.

Break-even point. The point where the cost of transporting solid waste directly to the
ultimate point of disposal is equal to the cost when transportation to the point of
disposal is facilitated using a transfer station.
Cap. A system of construction over a landfill heap provided to prevent precipitation
from leaching through the heap.
Cataracting speed. The speed of rotation of a rotating screen equal to or less than the
critical speed but not so fast that the solids are simply centrifuging and not so slow
that the solids are simply cascading.
 574 Solid Waste Management Chap. 11

Vegetative
soil Compacted clay me,
Groundwater Drainage
monitoring material Monitoring
well IN — well

Flexible
Native soil Bon Se A eae membrane
foundation liner
Low-permeability soil

i @ —— Suction lysimeter
(a)

100 m to residences aximum slope 100 m to residences

a ae = Impermeable cap system

pa
N\
SQ 0.6 m sand

Maximum C) O ©
slope paws
2 aa (come
Leachate eee ely, ss 0.6 m compacted clay
Fe Be 10_~ cm/s
collection |
Vere Original water table 2m to permanently lowered water table
may be rer { ae
required hee ge Sian
pee ae Groundwater flow See
SESS eae O pee ereS _—S Sb

7 SS——________________ Perimeter drain

ee
Monitor wells

(b)
Figure 11-18 Generalized cross sections of landfill heaps: (a) hazardous waste landfill;
(b) municipal landfill.
Glossary 575

Cell. Daily cell: a working compartment where the solid waste is compacted in the
course of a working day. Subdivision cell: a major subdivision of a landfill site.
Centrifuging. The mode of screening where the solids simply cling to the sides as the
screen is rotating.
Closure plan. The activities performed after a landfill subdivision cell is filled.
Coarse-textured soil. Soil the major components of which are large.
Collection. The gathering of solid wastes from places such as residences, commercial,
industrial and institutional establishments, and public places.
Compaction ratio. The ratio of the as-compacted density to the as-discarded density.
Critical speed. The rotational speed of a rotating screen where the solids would drop
off as they reach the summit of rotation.
Crushing strength. Force supported by a pipe before it fails.
Daily cover. Soil that is used to cover compacted solid waste at the end of an operat-
ing day.
Design strength. Field-supporting strength divided by the factor of safety.
Destination point. The processing facility, transfer station, or disposal site.
Disposal. The placing of solid waste in its final resting place.
Field-supporting strength. The three-edged bearing crushing strength of pipe multiplied
by a factor that depends on the type of bedding used to bury the pipe.
Fine-textured soil. Soil the major components of which are fine.
Garbage or food waste. The animal and plant residue produced as a result of the
handling, preparing, and eating of food.
Hauled-container system. A system of collecting solid waste where the container
containing the waste is hauled to a destination point.
Heat of combustion. The energy released when a substance is burned.
Higher heat of combustion. The heat of combustion, which includes the heat of
vaporization of water.
Intermediate cover. The horizontal layer of cover between cells in a landfill heap.
Leachate. Precipitation that has percolated through a landfill heap, leaching out any
contaminant.
Lift. The cell height plus the thickness of the intermediate cover.
Liner system. A construction at the bottom of a sanitary landfill provided to prevent
leachate to percolate toward the groundwater.
Lower heat of combustion. The net heat of combustion (1.e., excluding the heat of
vaporization of water).
Oversize products. Products that did not pass through the openings of the screen.
Poorly graded soil. Soil composed of components of practically the same size.
Processing. The activity applied to solid waste to prepare it for subsequent operation.
Proximate analysis. A chemical characterization that determines the concentrations of
surrogate parameters in place of the true chemical content.
Recycling or salvaging. The recovery of solid waste components for possible reuse.
Refuse. Solid waste.
Rubbish. Combustible and noncombustible portions of solid waste.
Rubble. Construction and demolition debris, rock fragments, and the like.
576 Solid Waste Management Chap. 11

Sanitary landfilling. Engineered burial of refuse.

Screening. The unit operation of separating a feed into oversize and undersize products.
Soil consistency. The ability of the soil to hold together when pressure is applied to it
and released.
Soil structure. The shape and geometry of clusters of particles that make up the soil
mass.
Solid waste management. The application of techniques that will ensure orderly exe-
cution of the functions of collection, processing, and disposal of solid waste.
Solid wastes. Solid objects being discarded.
Stationary-container system. A system of solid waste collection where the waste is
emptied directly into the collection vehicle at the point of collection.
Texture of soil. Refers to the predominant size fraction of components in soil.
Transfer station. A facility where collected solid wastes are transferred to a larger
transport vehicle or stored temporarily for transfer to the larger transport vehicle
for transportation to a destination point.
Trash. The combustible portion of rubbish.
Trench method. A method of sanitary landfilling where a trench is constructed to accept
the solid waste.
Ultimate analysis. Analysis of the elements composing the substance.
Undersize products. Products that pass through the openings of the screen.
Vegetative layer. A layer in the cap system provided for plants to grow.
Well-graded soil. Soil composed of different-size fractions.
White goods. The bulky portion of solid waste, such as refrigerators, air conditioners,
and the like.

SYMBOLS

Ce number of container locations

de between-collection-point driving time
dbc average driving time between container locations
D diameter of leachate drain pipe
h haul time; piezometric height
H total available time in a collection day
A, higher heating value
ket transfer station unit cost of operating and amortization per
unit mass of solid waste from transfer station to destina-
tion point
Kha cost of direct haul per unit mass of solid waste per unit time
from collection system to destination point
Knt transfer station hauling cost per unit mass of solid waste
per unit time from transfer station to destination point
Symbols 577

K hydraulic conductivity
Kg cost of direct haul per unit mass of solid waste from col-
lection system to destination point
transfer station cost per unit mass of solid waste
size of shredder feed which is 80% finer
size of shredder product which is 80% finer
time spent to mount container to collection vehicle
mass of solid waste in trommel screen
total number of trips in a collection day
time spent to pick up and load solid waste in a collection
point to collection vehicle
percent moisture in solid waste, dry basis
percent moisture in solid waste, wet basis
percolation per unit length of drain pipe upslope of liner
percolation per unit length of drain pipe downslope of liner
vertical percolation per unit of horizontal area
compaction ratio
time spent at site
mass of dry solid waste
mass of wet solid waste
driving time from dispatch station to first collection point
driving time from last collection point or destination point
to dispatch station
break-even time
on-the-job time used per trip
time spent to unload container from collection vehicle
as-discarded volume of solid waste per trip
as-discarded volume of solid waste in a collection day
volume of collection vehicle
load per unit length of buried pipe
percent of total time wasted in a collection day; shredder
power requirement
Bond index
depth of percolate at drain pipe
depth of percolate midway between drain pipes
liner slope
angle of inclination of trommel screen; specific weight of
soil
as-compacted density
as-discarded density
critical speed of trommel screen
 578 Solid Waste Management Chap. 11

PROBLEMS

11-1. Estimate the moisture content (wet and dry bases) of the following solid waste.

Component Mass (%)

Newspaper 15
Other papers 24
Cardboard 33
Glass 4.2
Plastics 0.49
Yard wastes 17.97
Food wastes 1.67
Dirt 2.01

11-2. Has recovery of materials been practiced in your community?

11-3. Estimate the as-discarded density of the following solid waste. If the solid waste is com-
pacted to a density of 600 kg/m? at the landfill, calculate the at-site compaction ratio.

Component Mass (%)

Newspaper 15
Other papers 24
Cardboard 33)
Glass 4.2
Plastics 0.49
Yard wastes 17.97
Food wastes 1.67
Dirt 2.01

11-4. What efforts, if any, have been made on your campus to reduce the volume of solid waste?
11-5. Derive an empirical organic formula for the solid waste shown in the table below.

Component Mass (%)

Newspaper lS)
Other papers 24
Cardboard 83
Glass 4.2
Plastics 0.49
Yard wastes OT
Food wastes 1.67
Dirt DAD
Problems 579

11-6. In Problem 11-5, estimate the higher and lower heats of combustion of the organics on
as-discarded basis and on dry basis and compare result of the higher heating value on dry
basis with the result using Dulong’s formula.
11-7. When you go home tonight, sort out the components in your solid waste bin.
11-8. A traffic study for an industrial district produced the following results: tf), f2, and de = 20,
25, and 8 min, respectively. The round-trip haul distance averaged 60 km at a speed limit
of 55 mph in the 50-km stretch of this distance and 25 mph in the rest of the distance.
A contractor agreed to haul the solid wastes from this district. The industries agreed to
store their wastes on large containers located at strategic points. Due to the sizes of the
containers, the hauled-container system of collection is to be used. How many containers
can be serviced on a collection day of 8 h?
11-9. Call the department of public works in your community and inquire as to the rate of solid
waste production.
11-10. The average between-container-location driving time per container location is 0.09 h. If
the average time to “clean up” a location is 0.21 h and the average driving time between
container locations is 0.1 h, there are how many container locations in this collection route?
How long does it take to collect all the solid wastes in the route?
11-11. How many times a week is domestic solid waste collected in your community? The yard
waste and recyclables?
11-12. The average between-container-location driving time per container location or residence is
14.94 s. If the average time to “clean up” a location is 31 s and the average driving time
between location or residence is 15 s, there are how many residences in this collection
route? How long does it take to collect all the solid wastes in the route?
11-13. Calculate the mass and volume of solid waste generated per week for a family of four.
11-14. If there are 166 residences in the collection route, what fraction of the volume of the
collection vehicle is occupied by the solid waste of the family in Problem 11-13 if collection
is done twice a week? Assume that the family of four is typical in your route.
11-15. A total of 11 apartment complexes and commercial establishments have entered into a
contract with a solid waste collection firm to collect their solid wastes. A 20-m? vehicle is
available for collection. The discarded volume of solid wastes to be collected is 96 m?/week.
If it is decided to have two collections per week, how many trips are to be made on
a collection day? Also, determine the size of the container to be provided. Assume that
r = 2.5 and, for simplicity, assume that each of the 11 sources contributes the same amount
of solid wastes. Make any additional assumptions necessary.
11-16. Lay out the collection route in your area for Problem 11-15.
11-17. In a collection route of your choice, assume that the average occupancy per residence is
3.5 and the average solid waste production is 1.6 kg/capita-day. Assuming a collection
frequency of two times per week, determine the number of trips to be made on collection
day and calculate the volume of the collection vehicle needed. Assume that the compacted
volume of solid wastes in the collection vehicle 1s 325 kg/m?,
11-18. What is the daily production of wastepaper in town of 200,000?
11-19. The cost of amortization and operation of a transfer station handling 1200 tonnes/day of
solid waste is $3600.00 per day. The cost of hauling solid waste from the transfer station
to a sanitary landfill is $24.00 per minute of driving time, while the cost of direct haul from
580 Solid Waste Management Chap. 11

the collection system to the same landfill is $60.00 per minute of driving time. If the speed
limit is 55 mph, compute the distance beyond which direct haul is no longer economical.
11-20. A plant burns 100 tonnes/h of solid waste represented by the following formula:
C562Ho090414N6S. How much air is needed if 50% excess air is used?
11-21. Calculate the critical speed of a horizontal trommel screen.
11-22. Estimate the heating value of the solid waste in Problem 11-1.
11-23. A municipal solid waste has the following empirical formula: C562H99900414No6.6S. What
is its heating value?
11-24. Compare the power requirements between the shredder in Wilmington and the shredder in
Charleston in shredding 100 tonnes/day of solid waste having an 80th percentile size of
30 cm to a product having an 80th percentile size of 1.7 cm.
11-25. A magnetic separator is used to separate ferrous materials from a municipal solid waste.
The feed rate to the unit is 1500 kg/h, and it contains 5.5% of ferrous materials. Of the
50 kg in the product stream, 40 kg is ferrous. What is the percent recovery?
11-26. If C is burned completely, what is the product of combustion? How much heat is liberated
per kilogram? If all the heat is utilized, how much steam can be produced?
11-27. MSW, at a rate of 100 tonnes/day, with an empirical formula of C562H9990414Ne6.6S, is
used to fire an MSW energy recovery plant. The MSW contains 20% moisture and 20%
inert. The ash contains 5% carbon. Also, assume that the fuel enters at 25°C and that the
ash is at 420°C. How much steam energy is available from the boiler? Hint: Use Dulong’s
formula.
11-28. A solid waste has the following formula: (CH20)06. How much heat will be available if
this solid waste is used for generating steam?
11-29. Repeat Problem 11-28 for the formula (CH4O) 96.
11-30. How much heat is available from the hydrogen portion of the solid waste in Problem 11-29?
11-31. If the steam in Problem 11-29 is used to drive a steam-turbine generator plant, calculate
the plant export of electrical energy. Calculate the overall efficiency of the plant.
11-32. A town having a population of 10,000 produces solid wastes at rate of 5 lb/capita-day. If
the waste is compacted to 1000 Ib/yard? and 6.0 acre of landfill space is available, how
high will the landfill be in a year using the area method of landfilling? Assume side slopes
of 4H to IV.
11-33. Do you know how much gold can be recovered from the solid waste of Problem 11-32?
11-34. The average precipitation in a landfill area is 12 in./month. Design the spacing of the laterals
for a required maximum leachate head of 30.5 cm if the landfill is uncapped. Assume that
the drainage layer is composed of gravel with a hydraulic conductivity of 100 m/day and a
drainage layer slope of 1%. Assume that the overall vertical hydraulic conductivity through
the solid wastes is 10~> cm/s.
11-35. Is the average drainage layer slope of 1% in Problem 11-34 necessary to the solution of
the problem? Why?
11-36. Solve Problem 11-34 assuming that the landfill is capped using the cap system discussed
in this chapter and that the height of the solid waste mass is 25 m. Use the following K’s:
12-in. layer = 107-7 cm/s, 6-in. layer = 107? cm/s, 18-in. layer = 10~° cm/s, 24-in. layer
= 10-7 cm/s, and solid waste mass = 1073 cm/s.
 Bibliography 581

11-37. In Problem 11-36, if the spacing of the laterals is 100 ft, will the system be able to drain
the percolate? If not, what depth of drainage layer should be provided to drain out the
percolate?
11-38. Calculate the load on a header laid in an undisturbed trench under a landfill. Assume that
the height of solid waste heap is 50 m and the compacted density is 600 kg/m?. The trench
is 2 ft deep and the diameter of the header is 8 in. Assume that a crawler dozer weighing
50,000 Ib is used to compact the waste. The distance between wheels of the crawler is
5.0 ft.
11-39. In Problem 11-38, compute the load on the pipe during initial filling of the landfill.
11-40. In Problem 11-39, what three-edge bearing load would you specify if the bedding used is
class D? Assume a safety factor of 2.0.
11-41. A 10-ft-diameter rigid concrete pipe rests on an unyielding ground. The trench is then
backfilled with sand with a specific weight of 100 lb/ft? to a depth of 8 ft. Directly above
the pipe is a concentrated load of 20,000 lb. Calculate the vertical load on the pipe.
11-42. Calculate the vertical load in Problem 11-41 if the pipe is flexible.
11-43. What is a closure plan?
11-44. Discuss the steps in obtaining a landfill permit.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BRUNNER, D. R., and D. J. KELLER (1972). Sanitary Landfill Design and Operation. SW-65ts. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
Connor, K. R., R. C. Brockway, and B. R. HENNING (1994). “Taking Trash Out of Hiding.”
Civil Engineering, February.
NELs, C. (1983). “Thermal Treatment of Household Wastes,” in G. Tharun, N. C. Thanh, and
R. Bidwell (eds.), Environmental Management
for Developing Countries. Asian Institute of Tech-
nology, Bangkok, Thailand.
Peavy, H. S., D. R. Rowe, and G. TCHOBANOGLOUS (1985). Environmental Engineering. McGraw-
Hill, New York.
Pratt, B., C. Donerty, A. C. BROUGHTON, and D. Morris (1991). Beyond 40 Percent. Island
Press, Washington, D.C.
SPRANGLER, M. G. (1948). “Underground Conduits—an Appraisal of Modern Research.” Transac-
tion of ASCE, 113, pp. 316-374.
STRATTON, F. E., and H. ALTER (1978). “An Application of Bond Theory to Solid Waste Shred-
ding.” Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division, ASCE, 104(EE1).
VESILIND, P. A., J. J. PerRcE, and R. F. WEINER (1988). Environmental Engineering. Butterworth,
Boston.
Woops, R. (1991). “A French Revolution Comes to Minnesota.” Waste Age, 2(1), pp. 58-62.
Woops, R. (1993). Public Works, 124(12).
 CHAPTER 12

Air Pollution Control

Air pollution may be defined as the presence of substances in concentrations that make
the air harmful or dangerous to breathe or to cause damage to plants, animals, and
properties. This problem is not a recent phenomenon. In 1881, Chicago and Cincinnati
passed antismoke ordinances to combat air pollution. In the Middle Ages, King Edward I
banned the burning of coal in lime kilns when in 1307 the smoke resulting from their
operation became a serious problem. The control of air pollution runs counter to industrial
development; hence despite the effect that pollution has on the population, little effort was
made to curb it, especially in the industrially developing world. However, after World
War II, two major air pollution episodes, in part, prompted the world to take action: one
was in Donora, Pennsylvania, and the other, in London, England. These episodes were
discussed in Chapter 1.

TYPES OF POLLUTANTS

In general, there are only two types of pollutants: particulates and gaseous. Particulates
are finely divided solids and liquids, such as dust, fumes, smoke, fly ash, mist, and spray.
Gaseous pollutants are, by definition, pollutants in gaseous form. Gaseous pollutants have
the property of filling any available space until their concentrations fall to equilibrium
by diffusion. If the space is large, the resulting concentration may be negligible; if the
space is small, the resulting concentration may not be negligible as in concentrations of

582
Types of Pollutants 583

carbon monoxide formed from the continuous running of a motor vehicle in a closed
garage. This concentration can cause asphyxiation.
Dusts (1.0 to 1000 zm) are small particles of solids created from the breakup of
larger particles by operations such as crushing, grinding, and blasting. Fumes (0.03 to
0.3 yum) are fine solid particles that condense from vapors of solid materials. Smoke (0.5
to 1.0 zm) is unburned carbon that results from the incomplete combustion of carbon-
containing substances. Fly ash (1.0 to 1000 jm) is the noncombustible particle admixed
with combustion gases in the burning of coal. Mists (0.07 to 10 zm) are particles formed
from the condensation of liquid vapors. Mists concentrate into fogs. Sprays (10 to
1000 jzm) are particles formed from the atomization of liquids.
All pollutants may be organic or inorganic. Organic pollutants are those of organic
origin. Gasoline is an organic pollutant. If a pollutant is not organic, it must be inor-
ganic. Carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide are examples of inorganic
pollutants. Organic pollutants, in turn, may be natural or synthetic. Natural organic
pollutants are those of biological origin. Forms of natural organic air pollutants that are
microscopic or “macro” microscopic such as pollens, microscopic algae, spores, bacte-
ria, viruses, and the like that are alive or have just recently died are specifically called
biological air pollutants. Synthetic organic pollutants are pollutants from manufactured
products of non-biological origin.
Pollutants may also be classified as primary or secondary. Primary pollutants are
those directly emitted from the source. Secondary pollutants are those formed in the
atmosphere after they have been emitted from the source. For example, ozone is formed
from the NO» photolytic cycle—not directly from a source, hence, it is a secondary pol-
lutant. On the other hand, NO that produces NO» is formed directly from the combustion
of fuels; it is a primary pollutant.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency established National Ambient Air Qual-
ity Standards (NAAQS) for two levels of pollutants. These also have the names of pri-
mary and secondary, not to be confused with the types of pollutants. Primary NAAQS
are designed to protect public health with an adequate margin of safety, while secondary
NAAQS are designed to protect public welfare (plants, animals, and properties). NAAQS
now exists for six pollutants. These pollutants are called criteria pollutants, and they in-
clude carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, sulfur dioxide, PM-10 (particulate) and
lead. PM-10 are particulates of equivalent spherical diameter of 10 42m or less. It has
been found that PM-10 are the ones that directly affect health and not the whole range
of sizes of particulates. Hence, sizes greater than 10 jm are not set ambient standards.
The National Ambient Air Quality Standards for the criteria pollutants are shown in Ta-
ble 12-1. It is important to note the health effect of carbon monoxide. The toxic effects
of this compound are mainly due to its reaction with hemoglobin in the blood.
When carbon monoxide and oxygen are introduced to the blood through the alveolar
sacs of the lungs, the former is absorbed 210 times in terms of the equilibrium absorption
coefficient of oxygen.! Thus, if [HbCO] is the concentration of carboxyhemoglobin and

'C. D. Cooper and F. C. Alley (1986). Air Pollution Control: A Design Approach. Waveland Press,
Prospect Heights, Ill., p. 38.
 584 Air Pollution Control Chap. 12

TABLE 12-1 NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS

Pollutant Average time Primary Secondary Objective

Carbon monoxide 8h 10 mg/m? (9 ppm) None To limit carboxy-

hemoglobin
lh 40 mg/m? (35 ppm) 23 mg/m?
Nitrogen dioxide Annual 100 g/m? (0.053 ppm) Same To prevent health risks
and improve visibility
Ozone lh 235 g/m? (0.12 ppm) Same To prevent eye irrita-
tion and breathing dif-
ficulties
Sulfur dioxide Annual 80 g/m? (0.03 ppm) None To prevent increase in
respiratory disease,
plant damage, and
damage to structures
24h 365 g/m? (0.14 ppm)
PM-10 Annual 50 wg/m?> Same To improve visibility
and to prevent health
effects
24h 150 g/m? Same
Lead 3 month 1.5 uwg/m?> Same To prevent health
problems

[HbO>] is the concentration of oxyhemoglobin, their equilibrium concentration ratio is

LHDCOr => 10 a (12-1)

[HbO>] Pe
where Pco and Po, are the partial pressures of carbon monoxide and oxygen in the
lungs, respectively. The concentration of carbon monoxide in the blood, however, is
expressed empirically in terms of the percent of saturation, % HbCO,?

%HbCO = 0.005[CO]"*> (ar)? (12-2)

where [CO] is the concentration of CO in ppm, a a physical activity level (1 for sedentary
activity up to 3 for heavy work), and ¢ the duration of activity in minutes. Table 12-2
shows the health effects of HbCO at various levels in the blood.

Example 12-1
The concentration of CO in a street intersection reaches the federal ambient standard of
35 ppm. Crewmen from the department of public works are repairing a break in the water
line. Estimate the CO concentration in their blood after 1 h of work and make conclusions
as to their work performance.

2G. M. Masters (1991). Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science. Prentice Hall, Engle-
wood Cliffs, N.J. p. 282.
 Sources of Pollutants 585

TABLE 12-2 HEALTH EFFECTS OF HbCO AT VARIOUS LEVELS IN THE BLOOD

HbCO level (%) Demonstrated effect

Less than 1.0 No apparent effect

1.0-1.5 Some evidence of effect on behavior is noticeable
1.54.5 Time interval discrimination, visual acuity, brightness determination,
and certain other psychomotor functions are impaired
> 4.5 Cardiac and pulmonary functional changes
4.5-80.0 Headache, fatigue, drowsiness, coma, respiratory failure, and death

Solution

%HbCO = 0.005(CO]?*> (ar)?

Let a = 2. Then % HbCO = 0.005[35]°-*°[2(60)])°° = 2.1%; hence, from Table 12-2
their work performance is impaired. Answer

SOURCES OF POLLUTANTS

All sources of pollutants may be categorized under the general headings of transporta-
tion, stationary source fuel combustion, industrial processes, solid waste disposal, and
miscellaneous. Miscellaneous sources include forest fires and agricultural burning, for
example. Table 12-3 shows percentage estimates of the criteria pollutants coming from
various sources.’ Volatile organic compounds (VOC) substitute for ozone. Since VOCs

TABLE 12-3 PERCENTAGE ESTIMATES OF CRITERIA POLLUTANTS FROM

VARIOUS SOURCES

Source PAriculatcumS Oj; mN Ome © Camm ©O) Lead

Transportation NAD 40 440 33.0 70.0 41.5

Stationary source fuel 26.0 ol S20 WO 2) 6.0
combustion
Industrial processes 37.0 15.0 3.0 41.0 Wk) 22Y
Solid waste disposal 4.0 0 0.5 3.0 340) Sle)
Miscellaneous 12.0 0 0.5 11.0 8.0 0.0

are a precursor of ozone, their estimate is a surrogate measure of the ozone concentration.
The particulates in the table include all the range of sizes, not only PM-10. SO,’s are
the oxides of sulfur but are composed mostly of SOj. NO,’s are the oxides of nitrogen.
As shown in the table, combustion is the major source of NO,, which accounts for
52% from stationary sources and 44% from transportation. The major source of NO,
in transportation is the combustion in internal combustion engines. NO is favored over

3USEPA (1988). National

Air Pollutant Emission Estimates, 1940-1986. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington, D.C.
 586 Air Pollution Control Chap. 12

NO) in high-temperature combustion, so that NO2 is negligibly small. In general, NO,

are formed at high temperatures of combustion. It is interesting to note that solid waste
disposal accounts for 31% of the lead emitted into the atmosphere. Lead in gasoline
mostly accounts for the 41% contribution of lead from transportation.

TYPES OF CONTROL

Air pollution control may be defined as the various measures taken to meet certain emis-
sion standards. Since the standards are met, the pollutants are said to be controlled. These
measures may include changes in processes or raw materials, modification of equipment,
and installation of devices at the end of process equipment to treat the ensuing effluent.
These devices are called air pollution control equipment. Another term related to control
is abatement. Whereas control is aimed at meeting a certain standard, abatement simply
refers to measures used to reduce the quantity of emissions regardless of the standard.
When the abatement measure succeeds in meeting the standard, abatement becomes a
control.
Corresponding to the two general types of pollutants are also two general types of
pollution control: particulate control and the control of gaseous pollutants. In this chapter
we discuss the various types of control equipment used in air pollution management. In
addition, special discussion is devoted to indoor air pollution. Indoor air pollution is a
concern because studies have shown that radon is emitted from rocky soils and eventually
seeps into houses. Radon causes lung cancer. Figure 12-1 shows an industrial facility
whose process equipment are controlled. The emissions coming out of the stacks are
harmless steam.

Particulate Control

There are three general types of particulate control equipment: force-field settlers, bag-
house filters, and scrubbers. Force-field settlers are those equipment that relies on a field
of force to pull down particulates to a collection point or surface. There are three types
of fields of force: gravitational, centrifugal, and electrical. The type of settling that relies
on gravitation is called gravitational settling. This is exemplified by the sedimentation
basins used in water and wastewater treatment. Gravitational settling is also used in
waste air treatment. Settlers that utilize centrifugal forces are cyclones or centrifugal
settlers. Settlers that utilize an electric field of force to collect particulates are called
electrostatic precipitators (ESPs). Filters operate in much the same way as the ordinary
vacuum cleaner. Waste air is introduced into the unit and the particulates are filtered out.
In scrubbers, particulates are scrubbed out from the waste air by using water droplets of
various sizes depending on the type of scrubber used. The particulates are removed by
impaction and interception. In impaction, the center of mass of the particulate collides
directly with the center of mass of the water droplet—a direct impact; in interception,
the center of masses of the particulate and the water droplet are not in direct collision,but
oblique to each other—an indirect impact. Upon impact, the particulate is wetted and
carried by the water droplet, thus, effecting removal.
Types of Control 587

Figure 12-1 Industrial facility: emissions from stacks are harmless steam.
(Used by permission of SCM Chemicals)

Gravitational settling. The practical limit of particulate size to be removed by

gravitational settling is 50 wm, the size of about one-half the diameter of a human hair.
Below this limit would require a large settling chamber and a long detention time. The
principles of design are similar to that in water and wastewater treatment, except that in
the present case, air is involved instead of water. As in grit chambers, the flow-through
velocity along the chamber should be maintained at less than 0.3 m/s. The terminal
velocity of a settling particle has been derived in Chapter 6. For convenience, it is
reproduced below.

(12-3)

where v is the terminal settling velocity, g the gravitational acceleration, p, the density
of the particulate, p, the density of air, d the diameter of the spherical particle, and
Cp the drag coefficient. Since the density of air is very much smaller than that of the
particulate, equation (12-3) may be written as

(12-4)
588 Air Pollution Control Chap. 12

With L equal to length, W to width, and Q to rate of flow, v is equal to O/WL.

Substituting in equation (12-4) and solving for d gives

_ 0.75 Cp Q* ha
d = — (12-5)
g L?W?,
d is now the diameter of the spherical particle that can be removed 100%. This diameter
corresponds to vo, the settling velocity for 100% removal. Particles of other diameters
less than d will be removed in the ratio of their terminal settling velocities. Expressing
Q in terms of the flow-through velocity v,, depth H, and W yield

_ 0.75 Cav,
H pa
d (1226)
& IE
From Chapter 6, the fractional removal of solids R is
x0 Uy
R=1 = 10+ | axe (1277)
0 vO
where xg is the fraction of particulates of settling velocity equal to or less than vg, and
Up is the settling velocity of the particle of diameter less than d. The formulas above
apply to spherical particles only. For nonspherical particles, the volume shape factor f
should be used.
A procedure for determining £ is detailed as follows: Soak a sample of particulates
to saturation with water and record the resulting volume and weight. Evaporate the water
to dryness and dry to constant weight. The loss in weight represents the volume of water
in the voids; hence the average volume of a particulate V, is equal to the volume of the
soaked sample minus the volume of water evaporated (represented by the loss in weight)
divided by the number of particles. The number of particles must have to be counted
under a microscope using a particulate counter. Since the volume of the particle is also
equal to the volume of the equivalent spherical particle,

getlaitle
Faye at
= See
= ad
Bd, ( 8-8)

where d is the average diameter of the equivalent spherical particle and d, is the average
“diameter” of the particle. From equation (12-8), 6 may be obtained.

Example 12-2
A sample of particulates of average diameter 60 jzm is soaked with water in a graduated
cylinder to the 1-mL mark. The loss in weight after evaporating to dryness is 0.01 g.
Determine f if the number of particles in the sample is 5.0(10°).

Solution

OO se = O.0iINce
eet. 0.0.08
= = 2.0(107’) cm?
© 55 06106) ( et
Types of Control 589

Se pa NCO rs = 0.93 Answer

~ [60(10-%)(102)]3
Example 12-3
Measurement of the dust distribution of a certain industrial operation yields the results shown
in the table below. These results are to be used to design a settling chamber. The horizontal
velocity is to be 0.3 m/s. The temperature is 77°C, the specific gravity of the particle is
2.0, and the chamber length and depth equal 7.5 m and 1.5 m, respectively. (a) What is the
terminal settling velocity of the particle that is removed 100%? (b) Determine the expected
percent removal of the particles. Assume that 6 is 0.90.

Particle size (um) Wt %

0-10 8
10-20 10
20-30 12
30-40 15
40-50 19
50-60 14
60-70 13
70-80 g

Solution
0.75 Cpu, H’p
(a) d = 1.246984, = —~—_4_—
& L* pp

i=
1 wah
DASNTEOp
eS
(Ors)
1:57) n2)
—____—____—— _| = 1.37(10
“
‘)C
P ~~ 1.24(0,909333) (S27) 7.52(2.0)(1000) : -
From Appendix 19, pg = 1.2 kg/m? and jz = 2.1(10~°) kg/m-s at 77°C.

2.0(1000) (1.24) (0.99:333)d,, Il al

= aS ppd = (9 fy a ar i ped a
3 Cpyae 3 Gy eZ) Cp

vo = 161.56 /1.37(10-7) = 0.060 m/s Answer

ae dvpg = _1.24(0.9°-393)d,v(1.2) — 6.84(10*)d

,v
(b) | 2.1(10-5) Be

24 (ion emails)
Re

Bae ee ()34= (fom Reis 10")

Re csRe!/2
0.4 (for Re > 10*)
590 Air Pollution Control Chap. 12

By trial and error:

Particle size (zm) Wt % dpi (10-° m) Gr v; (m/s) Re;

0-10 8 5.0 37,844 0.00186 0.00064

10-20 10 15 1,401 0.0167 0.0172
20-30 12 25 305 0.046 0.079
30-40 15 35 Hi 0.091 O22
40-50 19 45 SP Ons 0.46
50-60 14 5 29 0.22 0.84
60-70 13 65 te 0.32 1.40
70-80 9 i) 1] 0.42 Drales)

Solve for xo:

x; =8+ 10+ 12 = 30 x2 = 30+ 15 =45

x9 —30 0.060 — 0.046
Teta 45—30 0.091 — 0.046

xq = 0.060

45 = 0.091 x9 = 34.67%

Wt % v; (m/s) >> Wt %

8 0.00186 8
10 0.0167 18
12 0.046 30
0.060 X0
ils) 0.091 45
19 Ons 64
14 O22 78
13 0.32 91
9) 0.42 100

1
k= 1 — 013467 -- Goce — 0) + 0.0167(18 — 8) + 0.046(30 — 18)

1
+ 0.060(34.67 — 30)] (aa) = 0.6533 + 0.169 = 0.8223 or 82.23% Answer

_ Centrifugal settling. The dimensions of standard centrifugal settlers or cyclones

are shown in Figure 12-2. There are three general types of cyclones: high-throughput,
conventional, and high-efficiency. High-throughput cyclones are those that process high
 h

Dust hopper
(a)

se Clean gas out

Outlet tube

Spin vanes

|Collected
dust out
(b)

Figure 12-2 (a) Dimensions of standard cyclone. (b) Small cyclones arranged in par-
allel in housing.

591
592 Air Pollution Control Chap. 12

volumes of waste air input but are operating at low efficiencies. The conventional cy-
clones are in between high-throughput and high-efficiency cyclones. Cyclones can also be
arranged to operate in multiples to produce higher efficiencies. The efficiency of removal
is, of course, not only a function of the size of the particle but of other variables such as
the airflow. Table 12-4 shows the definition of various types of standard cyclones.

TABLE 12-4 STANDARD CYCLONE DESIGN DIMENSIONS

Dimensions Conventional High-throughput High efficiency

Cylinder diameter, D D D D
Cylinder length, Lj 2D ilS70: iLaD
Cone length, Lo 2D DID) 2.5D
Total height, L; + L2 4D 4 4D
Outlet length, h + L3 0.675 D 0.875D 0.5D
Inlet height, 0.5D 0.75D 0.5D
Inlet width, b 0.25D OID 0.2D
Outlet diameter, D, 0.5D 0.75D OSD
Dust exit diameter, Dy 0.25D O375 0.375

From Example 12-3, particulates of diameters up to 60 to 70 ym settle at Reynolds

numbers equal to or less than 1, the Stokes law range. In centrifugal settling, particulates
also settle at the Stokes law range, and Cp = 24/Re may be substituted into the equations
derived for the terminal settling velocity.
The g in the equations above should be substituted by the g in a centrifugal field.
In the centrifugal field, two forces are acting on a particle: the inertial force, which keeps
the particle moving in a straight line as soon as it enters the body of the cyclone, and the
sweeping force of the air, which tends to move the particle in the direction of flow. The
vector sum of these forces produces a curved trajectory for the particle, which eventually
bumps the side of the cyclone. The radial component of this “trajectory” force is the
centrifugal field of force, and the body force acting on the particle in radial motion is the
centrifugal force mg, where g is the centrifugal acceleration.
To find the value of the centrifugal acceleration, consider a particle and its compo-
nent motion in the radial direction. Since the particle is forced to undergo a radial motion,
by Newton’s law there is an unbalanced force in this direction. This unbalanced force is
the centripetal force that tends to force the particle toward the center of rotation and is sim-
ply v?/r multiplied by the mass m of the particle (mv? /r), where v, is the tangential veloc-
ity of the particle and r is the radius at the location of the particle. mv?/r is also equal to
mg. The g in this expression is the centrifugal acceleration. Hence solving for g, we have

a=
vp (12-9)
.
Assuming no slippage between particle and air, v; may be assumed equal to the velocity
of the waste air revolving around the cyclone interior.
As the airflow is introduced from the inlet into the cyclone chamber, it is sub-
jected to a sudden increase in the cross-sectional area of flow. As the air negotiates the
Types of Control 593

expanding cross section and, along with the curvature of the cyclone, an outer vortex
flow is formed. It is in this outer vortex that removal of particulates occurs. This vortex
acts as the settling chamber or the settling zone. The dimensions of this settling zone
are: depth = (D/2 — D,/2), length = [7(D + D,)/2], and width = (L; + L2/2). The
average cross-sectional area of flow A, as the air spirals through the outer vortex is

ANeH
NoeMege iigeere
a 12-10
(12-10)

Calling the inlet flow as Q, v, can therefore be calculated. Substituting the result in
equation (12-9) and simplifying yields

riesSS (12-11)
Since the air has to go out, an inner vortex is also formed. This vortex is the outlet zone
of this sedimentation basin.
The overflow area of the settling zone may be considered as the average of the
outside and the inside lateral areas of the outer-vortex settling chamber. This area is
IS Lo
As = ~—{L,+—](D+D.,) (12-12)
2 2
and hence the overflow velocity is

vo = g (12-13)
(10/2)(L1 + L2/2)(D + De)
Equating the overflow velocity to the terminal settling velocity [equation (12-4)], substi-
tuting Cp = 24/Re, and solving for d, we obtain

C20
a= (12-14)
T Pp (2Ly a L7)(D li Dz)

The other consideration in the design of cyclones is the pressure drop —AP across
the unit. One empirically derived formula is given below.* This pressure drop is used to
size the blower used for forcing the waste air into the unit.
0.00270 F I
Sa 3 (12-15)
CD2bh (L1/D)'"1B (L2/D)'”1B 0.01C; + 1
where —AP is the pressure drop in inches of water (-AP = P; — P2); Q the waste
air flow in cfm; F is 0.8 for high-throughput cyclones, 1.0 for conventional cyclones,
and 2.2 for high-efficiency cyclones; C = 0.5 with no guide vanes from the inlet to the
cyclone chamber, = 1.0 with guide vanes straight from the inlet to the chamber, and
= 2.0 with guide vanes from the inlet to the inner edge of the outer vortex; and C; is
the inlet dust loading in grains/ft’. The units of all dimensions are in feet.

44. E. Hesketh (1974). Understanding and Controlling Air Pollution. Ann Arbor Science, Ann Arbor,
Mich., p. 312.
594 Air Pollution Control Chap. 12

Example 12-4
Measurement of the dust distribution of a certain industrial operation yields the results shown
in the table below. These results are to be used to design a standard conventional cyclone.
The airstream is 21.0 m?/s and the diameter of the cyclone is 2.0 m. The temperature is
650°C and the specific gravity of the particle is 2.0. (a) What are the diameter and the
terminal settling velocity of the particle that is removed 100%? (b) Determine the expected
percent removal of the particles. Assume that 6 equals 0.90.

Particle size (um) Wt %

0-10 8
10-20 10
20-30 12
30-40 15
40-50 Ig)
50-60 14
60-70 13)
70-80 g

Solution

(a) d = 1.248933, = | ee
TR Pp(2L ali L2)(D ate De)

He
dp = 0.333
720u On
1.24(0.90¥-?"°) 8 p(2Ly + Lo)(D + De) = 4.0 8Op(2L, + L2)(D + Dz)

From Appendix 19, pg = 0.59 kg/m? and jz = 4.0(10~>) kg/m-s at 650°C. From Table 12-4,
fy =2D=20)=4m; lp =2D=4m, Do =05D= 10m r=05+0.0—05)2—]
OM/Sems

loaf)
(D=D,)QL\+L3)
ees,
20-10 2@+4]
= —————_ = 65.33 m/s”
a y 0.75
21(4.0)(10-5)
area eee: eee
—6

(DAI)
=
d
Pie
=n (1)
O00)
“OV 6553020)
a
“ (Dee). = Cl) Ceo)
aaa (r/2) (Le Ep) A
ae) ee0.74 lee m/seel

4 ppd 4 2.0(1000) (1.24) (0.99-333

3° Copa 3 Cp (0.59)
dp
= 594.58, |——
Cp
Types of Control 595

Ree dv ee 1.24(0.99933)d,,v(0.59)
ye wider oa
Ll 4.0(10-5)
24 24 13610)
Re —1.77(104)d,v dpv
Cp — OS ee OS !!:.:.. See SS .

v = 2.60(10°)d>
8) 72

Particle size (um) Wt % apn l0= >im) v; (m/s)

0-10 8 5.0 0.0065
10-20 10 15 0.06
20-30 12 25 0.16
30-40 15 35 0.32
40-50 19 45 0.53
50-60 14 So 0.79
60-70 13 65 1.10
70-80 9 75 1.46

Solve for xo:

x) =8+104+124+154+19=64 x =644+14=78
x9 —64 0.74—-0.53
64 = 0.53
78 264 9 0:790.53

xo => 0.74

oOo i) = 1), 0%

Wt % v; (m/s) >> Wt %

8 0.0065 8
10 0.06 18
1) 0.16 30
15 0.32 45
19 0.53 64
0.74 x0
14 0.12 78
13 0.17 9]
9 0.22 100
596 Air Pollution Control Chap. 12

1
IR = il = OL753 4b ae — 0) + (0.06)(18 — 8) + 0.16(30 — 18)

+ 0.32(45 — 30) + 0.53(64 — 45) + 0.74(75.3 — 64)] ( )= 0.247 + 0.348

100

= 0.595 or 59.5% Answer

Example 12-5
In Example 12-4, what is the pressure drop across the unit? Assume that C; = 1.0 grain/ft?
and that the cyclone has no vanes.

Solution
re 0.00270F 1

© CD2bh(L1/D)'3(L2/D)'3 0.01C; +1
1(3.281) = 3.281 ft;
QO = 21(3.2813)(60) = 44,503 cfm; F = 1.0;C = 0.5; De =
D = 23.281) = 6.562 ft b = 0.25(2)(3.281) = 1.64 ft; h = 0.5(2)(3.281) = 3.281 ft;
L = 4(3.281) = 13.124 ft; Lo = 13.124 ft. Substitution yields
0.0027(44,503)(1) oti he
—~AP = ||0.0111)+ 1)
0.5(3.2812) (1.64) (3.281) (13.124/6.562)9-333(13.124/6.562)9-333
= 2.59 in. of water Answer

Example 12-6
Solve Example 12-4 if a bank of 64 standard conventional cyclones with diameters of 24 cm
is used instead of a single large unit.

Solution

: / 72
(a)
8 Pp(2L + Lz)(D + De)

* 1 720k rere Ou
d
E 1.24(0.909-333) | ¥wgpp(2L1 + L2)(D+De) ~~” Y gpp(2L1 + L2)(D
+ De)
From Appendix 19, pg = 0.59 kg/m? and jz = 4.0(10~5) kg/m-s at 650°C. From Table 12-4
L, = 2D = 2(0.24) = 0.48 m; Lz = 2D = 0.48 m; D, = 0.5D = 0.12 m; O = 21/64 =
0.328 m?/s; r = De/2 + (1/2)(D/2 — De/2) = 0.12/2 + (1/2)(0.24/2 —0.12/2) = 0.09 m.

40 : 4((.328) .
(D—D,)(2L,+L3) (0.24—0.12)(2(0.48)-+0.48)
be Ls = 640.53 m/s?
ie 0.09

0.328(4.0)(10-5) =
Cn s0,/ = 17.800 °) m_ Answer
f 640.53(2.0)(1000)[2(0.48) + 0.48] (0.24 + 0.12)
Types of Control 597

Q 0.328
aa (7 /2)(L1 + L2/2)(D + De) ” (1 /2)(0.48 + 0.24)(0.24 + 0.12)

=(.81 m/s Answer

Jeena 4 2.0(1000)(1.24)(0.99-333)dep 1960. |SP

(i) ee fe ee ay el Ga 53) eee
d
Ve wie ANE Cp (0.59) Gp
_ dupa _ 1.24(0.9979)d,v(0.59)
Re = 1.77(10")dpv
yee 4.0(10-5)

24 24 1.36(1077)
Chet ee ee
Re 1.77(104)dpv dpv

v = 2.55(10")d>

Particle size(um) Wt% — dy (10~° m) vj (m/s)

0-10 8 5.0 0.064
10-20 10 15 0.57
20-30 2 25 ASS
30-40 15 35 Bal2
40-50 19 45 Dali6
50-60 14 55 Tos
60-70 13 65 10.77
70-80 9 75 14.34

Solve for xo:

Li cel 1s xp = 18+ 12 =30

13> O'S7
xy —18 _ 0.81 —0.57
ae SS
sf 30 — 18 SO OS)
xo = 0.81

3h) Se Ne) x0 = 20.82%

Wt % v; (m/s) >> Wt %

8 0.064 8
10 0.57 18
0.81 XO
12 1.59 30
598 Air Pollution Control Chap. 12

!
Rel ee ae — 0) + (0.57)(18 — 8)

l
+ 0.81(20.82 — 18)] (aa) =0.79+0.10=0.89 or 89% Answer

Electrostatic precipitators. ESPs are one of the force-field settlers. Whereas

the previous settlers discussed use gravitational and centrifugal fields, ESPs utilize the
electric field of force. The principles involved are the same except that the acceleration is
the electric field acceleration. There are generally two types of electrostatic precipitators:
plate and tube type. Figure 12-3 shows schematics of these types of precipitators.
Referring to the bottom of the figure, a high voltage (could be as high as 100,000 V)
is impressed between the two electrodes. The grounded positive electrode is called the
collector and the negative electrode is called the discharge electrode. The discharge
electrode creates a shower of electrons that glow in the dark called a corona discharge.
Because of their negative charges, the electrons migrate toward the positive collector
plate. In the process they bump into the constituent of air and particulate matter. The air
becomes negatively charged ions, and those electrons that are retained by the particulate
render the particulate negative. In addition, the negatively charged air ions attached
themselves to particulates. Having thus obtained a negative charge, the particulates travel
toward the positive electrode and become neutralized and are collected there. They are
removed from the collector electrode by gravitational forces, by rapping or by flushing
the plates with liquids. Actual ESPs may have hundreds of parallel plates and tube
collectors, with total collection areas measured in tens of thousands of square meters.
Derivation of the Electric Field Acceleration and Other Parameters. | From phy-
sics, the force of attraction F between two charged particles is given by Coulomb’s law,

—
leg ———E-
os (12-16)
An €) r2 ’

where q’ and q are the charges of the particles in coulombs (C), €9 the permittivity con-
stant [equals 885105 !2).C7 Nam], r the distance between the charges, and é, a unit
vector. Therefore, ;
Pe af (12-17)
Ameo r-
By definition, the electric field E is the force F divided by the charge. Hence, from
equation (12-16), the electric field at the location of g’, a distance r from q, is
| eae
E= ar, (12-18)
At €0 ew

Consider a sphere with a total charge of g,. If the radius of the sphere is R, using
equation (12-18), the electric field at its periphery is

By __! me (12-19)
Art €() R2

Now consider this charged particulate migrating from the discharge electrode toward
the collector plate. The voltage difference between the electrodes will create an electric
 Discharge
electrode (wire)
lean
gas out

Discharge
electrode
(wire)

Weights

High voltage

Charging field

Charged (—) particles

Collecting baffle

a
sr Grounded (+) collecting surface
|Particle

o 4 Discharge electrode tension weight

(c)

Figure 12-3 Schematics of electrostatic precipitators: (a) plate type; (b) tube type;
(c) detailed view of plate-type precipitator element.
599
600 Air Pollution Control Chap. 12

field, thus inducing the charge g, on the particulate. The electric field at the periphery of
this particulate is E. However, the charge g, has been induced by the potential difference
of the electrodes. Therefore, the electric field at the periphery due to g, from the particle
is equal to the electric field at the same point due to the potential difference of the
electrodes. Therefore, by equation (12-19), the charged induced by the voltage across
the electrodes on the particulate of diameter d is
gs = 1 Eeod” (12-20)
From Newton’s second law and from the definition of an electric field,

fd = bg. (12-21)

and
E*€d*
as phe eres (12-22)
m
Since m equals 1d? pp /6, substituting in equation (12-22) yields
6€9 E*
S22 ——_—— (12-23)
dPp
Equation (12-23) may be substituted in equation (12-4) to produce the terminal settling
velocity of the particulate. This velocity is also called the drift or electric wind velocity.
The volume of space from the discharge electrode to the collector electrode is a
sedimentation chamber. For the tube-type ESP, the overflow area of this chamber may
be considered as the average of the outside and the inside (equals zero) lateral areas of
the tube. If the tube diameter is D and the length is L, this area is
aqDL
A, = —— (12-24)
2
and the overflow velocity is

Q
= [2aWS)
mDL/2 )
Equating the overflow velocity to the drift velocity, substituting Cp = 24/Re, and solving
for d (the diameter of the particle that can be removed 100%), we have

ppg (12-26)
IT EQ) BEDE

For the plate-type ESP, the overflow area of the chamber is LW, where L is the
length and W is the width. Hence the overflow velocity is

v0 ne (12-27)
~ LW
As in the case of the tube type, equating the overflow velocity to the drift velocity,
substituting Cp = 24/Re, and solving for d gives us

eee €0 E2LW
(12-28)
Types of Control 601

E is force/charge. If the force is in newtons and the charge is in coulombs and

if both the numerator and denominator are multiplied by meters, the result would be
newton-meter per coulomb-meter or volt per meter. Hence E has also the unit of volts
per meter. Therefore, if the voltage drop between electrodes is V volts and the distance
between the discharge and the collector electrodes is Zp) meters, the average E between
electrodes is
V
E mi (12-29)
The other consideration in the design of ESPs is the power requirement. Power is
consumed whenever electric current is flowing through a wire; in the absence of current
flow, no power is consumed. In ESPs, current flow is required to produce the corona; the
greater the corona discharge, the greater is the current flow. In addition, the ac current
from the power plant is converted to dc by a rectifier. Hence, from electricity, the power
consumption P. is
| 8 BAY (12-30)

where /. is the corona current.

Example 12-7
Measurement of the dust distribution of a certain industrial operation yields the results in
the table below. These results are to be used to design a plate-type ESP. The airstream
is 330 m/s and the plates are spaced 30 cm apart. The voltage drop between discharge
and collector plates is 70,000 V. The aspect ratio, which is the ratio of the length of the
plate to its width, is 1.2. The plate width is 10 m and there are a total of 80 channels.
The temperature is 650°C and the specific gravity of the particles is 2.0. (a) What are the
diameter and terminal settling velocity of particles that are removed 100%? (b) Determine
the expected percent removal of the particles. (c) What is the power requirement assuming
that the corona current is 2.3 A? Assume that 6 is 0.90.

Particle size (44m) Wt %

0-10 8
10-20 10
20-30 12
30-40 15
40-50 19
50-60 14
60-70 13
70-80 9

Solution

d = 1.2489734, = =ai 4D)

(a) ER FW
| 3
ah (teeee ||] SE = 0.835 |—yu =O
. (aes) (2 aa) (2 E2LW
602 Air Pollution Control Chap. 12

From Appendix 19, 4. = 4.0(10~°) kg/m-s and pg = 0.59 kg/m? at 650°C.

Q S06
3002) mf
m°/s €0 =e 85CL0e
( ee NomeIN=ning) W=10m

70,000 fe
L =1.2(10) = 12 = = 4.67(10°) V/
oy tn 0.30/2 To ee
3 3(4)(10~>)(2.06
i035 (ees ee | ee eee
69 E*LW 8.85(10—!2)[4.67(109)]2(12)
(10)

— 8.91(10~’) m Answer

2.06
vO ae = = 0.017 m/s Answer
DW 120)

6egE* _ 6(8.85)(10~!*)[(4.67) (10°)? 4.83107)

(b) fe
dpp _1.24(0.99333)d,,(2.0)(1000) dp

4 ppd | 4.4.83(10-3) 2.0(1000)(1.24)(0.99333)d, 5.11

Vo ae Ve ae Cp (0.59) Tes
v= = = es

* dvpa — 124
UPa ds 1.240.9
(0.99-33
0" 3)d, v0.599)
)dpv (0.5
Re = 1.77(10*)dpv
mM 4.0(10-5)

24 24 1.36(1073)
Cp SS OWS ESO OO EES —_OO
OOS

Ret ii77 10%) d5u dpv

v = 1.92(10*)d,

Particle size (42m) Wt % dpi (10-° m) v; (m/s)

0-10 8 5.0 0.096

10-20 10 15 0.288
20-30 12 25 0.48
30-40 15 35 0.672
40-50 19 45 0.864
50-60 14 ao) 1.056
60-70 13 65 1.248
70-80 9 IB 1.44
Types of Control 603

Solve for xo:

am = 8 x. =8+10=18
x9—8 0.017 — 0.096
xo > 0.017 eer seabed
8—18 0.096 — 0.288
8 > 0.096

18 > 0.288 X= 30970

Particle size (um) Wt % dp (105 2am) v; (m/s) >= Wt %

0.017 3.89
0-10 8 5.0 0.096 8
10-20 10 1 0.288 18
20-30 12 D5 0.481 30
30-40 15 35 0.672
40-50 19 45 0.864
50-60 14 5 1.056
60-70 13 65 1.248
70-80 gy 75 1.44

Re 0.0389 I
10.
+ 9017 0?
89 0)
017(3.89 (=)
(es)1 1.0 or 100% Answer
0

(c) P. = 1-V = 2.3(70,000) = 161,000 W or 161 kW = Answer

Example 12-8
Measurement of the dust distribution of a certain industrial operation yields the results shown
in the table below. These results are to be used to design a tube-type ESP. The airstream
is 330 m/s and there are 36,000 collector tubes of 3 in. ID. The voltage drop between
discharge and collector tubes is 70,000 V. The tube is 10 m long. The temperature is 650°C
and the specific gravity of the particles is 2.0. (a) What are the diameter and terminal settling
velocity of particles that are removed 100%? (b) Determine the expected percent removal of
the particles. (c) What is the power requirement assuming that the corona current is 2.3 A?
Assume that 6 equals 0.90.

Particle size (j4m) Wt %

0-10 8
10-20 10
20-30 12
30-40 ils)
40-50 19
50-60 14
60-70 3)
70-80 9
604 Air Pollution Control Chap. 12

Solution

ye
(a) d= 1,248°°?? a
wey E2DL

= I ou QO = 0.835 (|—6 OQ
= ass |( a) (# E2DL

From Appendix 19, u = 4.0(10-°) kg/m-s and pg =0.59 kg/m? at 650°C.

]
330

3 70,000
D = —— = 0.0762 m iL, = NO ia eee — 1,.84(10°) V/m
12(3.281) 3/(2012)G.281)]

6u O 6(4)(10->)(0.00917)
dp = 0.835 |—— = 0.835 — :
meq E2DL mt(8.85)(10~!2)[1.84(10°) ]2(0.0762) (10)

= 25 (100°) m Answer

Q 0.00917
=().0077 m/sm/s A Answer
aDL/2 i [x (0.0762)(10)]/2
vo=

_ 6€9E* _ 6(8.85)(10~"7)[(1.84)(10%)? __7.5(10~7)

0 140
2) 0 1000) aa,

[4 Pek, _ |47500?) 2.001000)(1.24)(0.99933)dp 20.15

Sey a Cp (0.59) eG
_ dpa 1.24099"?)a5 (0.59)
Re eae ae Se ae ee
rf 4.0(10-5) ev olead
24 24 1.36(1073)
Re 1.77(10*)dpv dpv

v = 2.98(10°)d,

Particle size (jum) Wt % dpi (10-° m) v; (m/s)

0-10 8 5.0 1.49

10-20 10 15 4.47
20-30 12 25 T.A5
70-80 9 WD Pleas)
Types of Control 605

Solve for xo:

ty) =8 10'= 18

xo = 0.0077
x9 —8 =_ 0.0077 — 1.49
= lt 1.49
— 4.47
8 => 1.49

18 = 4.47 Xi) = BLDG

Particle size(um) Wt% dp, (10°m) (m/s) Yo Wt%

0.0077 3.03
0-10 8 5.0 1.49 8
10-20 10 15 4.47 18
20-30 12 DS 30

[x == 1) = O(O08) <= l
0.0077 -
0,00773.03(3.03 oy){—1 )
— oi( )= 1.01. or 100% Answer
100

(c) Pe = 1I-V = 2.3(70,000) = 161,000 W or 161 kW Answer

Baghouse filters. In fabric filtration, the dirty air is passed through a woven or
felted fabric that filters out the particulate matter. The initial process of removal when
the fabric is still clean is by direct interception, impaction, diffusion, and electrostatic
attraction. After a dust mat or cake has been formed, submicron particles are removed
by a sieving action. The principle of operation is similar to that of an ordinary vacuum
cleaner used in homes.
The filtering element is usually shaped in tubular form as shown in Figure 12-4,
called filter bags. Filter bags may range from 1.8 to 9 m in length and may have diameters
of around 20 cm. Several of these bags are grouped together and put into a compartment,
and several of these compartments are put together and assembled inside a structure called
a baghouse. The capacity of a compartment is determined by the area of the fabric filter.
Table 12-5 shows some design guidelines to size compartments.
Classified according to the methods of cleaning, there are three types of baghouses:
shaker, reverse-air, and pulse-jet baghouses. In the reverse-air and shaker baghouses, the
bags in each compartment are bundled in bag headers at the bottom and the individual
tube bags are suspended from the ends at the top. Dirty air is introduced at the bottom and
flows through the fabric from the inside of the tubes. The cakes are therefore collected at
the inside of the bags. When it is time for the filters to be cleaned, one compartment is
isolated from the rest. In the reverse-air system, air is blown through the bag in the reverse
 Mechanism for shaking,
rapping, or vibrating bags
Clean
air out
Tubular
T filter
“bags

Collected
dust out

(a)

Compressed air
manifold 100 psig
Venturi

Venturi

Screw
conveyor

Material
discharge
(b)

Figure 12-4 (a) Shaker baghouse. (b) Pulse-jet baghouse.

Types of Control 607

TABLE 12-5 FABRIC FILTER AREA VERSUS

NUMBER OF COMPARTMENTS

Filter area (m*) Number of compartments

1-200 1-2
201-600 3-4
601-1000 5-7
1001-1600 8-10
1601-2200 11-13
2201-3000 14-16
3001-4100 17-20
>4100 >20

direction from the outside toward the inside. In the shaker system, the bags are shaken.
In both systems, during cleaning, chunks of the previously collected dust fall down to
the bottom of the hopper below. As soon as the compartment has been cleaned, it is put
back to operation, and the next compartment in-line for cleaning is now, in turn, isolated,
and another compartment cleaning begins. The cleaning proceeds around a cycle.
In the pulse-jet baghouses, bags are suspended on tube-bag headers at the top and
the bags are mounted on cage supports. The cage is necessary to prevent bag collapse.
Dirty air is introduced so as to flow from the outside toward the inside of the bag, thus
the necessity of the cage support. Clean, filtered air then flows up through the tube
header, thence into the outlet. The bags are cleaned by pulsing a blast of high-pressure
air from a blow pipe at 90 to 100 psi at intervals of every few minutes. There is no need
to isolate a compartment, as cleaning is done at the same time that filtration is going on.
In fact, no compartment is needed.
Variables to be established in the design of baghouses are filtering area, cleaning
cycle, pressure drop, and compressor requirement for pulse-jet baghouses. Of course,
pumping station design for the system has already been discussed elsewhere in the book.
The filtering area is calculated using filtration velocities or air/cloth ratios that must be
determined experimentally for a particular type of dust. Table 12-6 shows some air to
cloth ratios for some types of dust, and Table 12-7 shows some types of filter fabric
that have been used along with recommendations for maximum operating temperatures,
as well as an indication of chemical resistances. Note that polypropylene and Teflon
have excellent chemical resistances to acids and alkalis. In addition, Teflon has a high
temperature of operation of 400°F. Glass has the highest temperature of operation (550°F)
but has a poor resistance toward alkali, although it has a high resistance toward acids.
Example 12-9
A baghouse is to be constructed to control emissions from a grain elevator. The filter bags
to be used measure 0.3 m in diameter and 6.0 m in length. The system is used to control
21 m?/s of waste-air flow. Determine the number of bags required.

Solution From Table 12-6, use an air/cloth ratio of 3.0 cfm/ft? = 0.0152 m/s. Then
Di
mo bags = = 244.3,say 245 bags Answer
BO: OF O2E* = 0.0152(7)(0.3)(6) y :
 608 Air Pollution Control Chap. 12

TABLE 12-6 AIR/CLOTH RATIOS FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF DUST

Maximum air/cloth ratio

Dust (cfm/ft2)

Leather, paper, tobacco, wood 8)

Alumina, clay, coke, charcoal, cocoa, lead oxide, mica, soap, sugar, talc 2)
Aluminum oxide, carbon, fertilizer, graphite, iron ore, lime, paint pigments 2
Asbestos, limestone, quartz, silica 2
Cork, feeds and grain, marble, oyster shell 3
Bauxite, ceramics, chrome ore, feldspar, flour, flint, glass, 2
gypsum, plastics

TABLE 12-7 BAGFILTER FABRICS

Chemical resistance
Recommended
Fabric maximum temperature (°F) Acid Alkali

Polypropylene 195 Excellent Excellent

Orlon DS Good Fair
Nomex 395 Fair Good
Teflon 395 Excellent Excellent
Glass 545 Excellent Poor
Dacron 270 Good Fair
Dynel 335) Good Good
Cotton 175 Poor Good
Wool 195 Good Poor
Nylon 195 Poor Good

Design of Cleaning Cycle. For the shaker and reverse-air baghouses, the com-
partments are cleaned around a cycle. Imagine that compartment | has just been cleaned
and immediately put back to service. Then a second compartment is now in line for
the next isolation and cleaning. Let 1,, the run time, be the time from when the first
compartment is put into service and the time when the second compartment is isolated
for cleaning. Also, let ¢. be the time it takes to clean a compartment. Call ¢, + t
the run—clean time of the cycle. If there are N compartments in a cleaning cycle, there
will be N of these times; and the total length of run—clean times is N(t, + ft.) [i.e.,
N(t, +t,) is the cycle time]. Let ty be the total filtration time of compartment | before it
is cleaned again. During the N(¢, + ¢.) run—clean times around the cycle, compartment
1 is running, except for its cleaning time. Therefore, its filtration time ty, which is equal
to the filtration time of any compartment, is

ty = NG, +t.) — te (12-31)

The value of f, can range from | to 5 min.
From the discussion above it can be deduced that the air/cloth ratio is highest during
cleaning. Hence, if the design value is not to be exceeded, the air/cloth ratio should be
based on N — | compartments running any time.
Types of Control 609

Example 12-10
In Example 12-9, determine the number of compartments and the number of bags in each
compartment to be used. Design the cleaning cycle.

Solution Total filter area = 245(7)(0.3)(6) = 1385 m2; hence, from Table 12-5, number
of compartments = 9. Answer
To maintain design conditions, when one compartment is isolated for cleaning, there
should be 245 bags in use. Hence
245
number of bags/compartment = eos 30.63, say 30 bags Answer

Assume that a study on a similar baghouse treating a similar waste has established the
following values: t- =9 min and t. = 2.5 min. Then

tp = N(t- + tc) — te = 919 + 2.5) —2.5=101 min Answer

Determination of Pressure Drop. _ As filtration proceeds, dust continues to build

up on the filter, forming a cake. This process forms two resistances in the path of airflow:
the filter cloth and the cake. The theory involved is the same as in the filtration through
a Sludge cake discussed in Chapter 8. The equation for the pressure drop —AP is as
follows: (—AP is P; — Po or AP is P> — Pj):

AP bcd 5 | Rn ¥ (12232)
2A7t oe; At
where jz is the dynamic viscosity of air, c the mass of cake collected per unit volume of
air filtered, a the average specific cake resistance, V the volume of air filtered, A the filter
cloth area, ¢ the filtration time, and R,, the resistance of the filter cloth. But ¥/At = V,
the filtration velocity or air/cloth ratio. Substituting in equation (12-32) and dividing all
throughout by V,
—AP ~ pucaVt
+ LRm (12-33)
KV ugar 2
But c = (L;Q0—L-Qo0)/Qo0 = Li — L-, where L; and L, are the inlet and exit dust con-
centrations, respectively, and Qo is the waste airflow. Substituting in equation (12-33),
yields
—AP [La
—_ = — V(L; — -L,)t
+ uRm (12-34)
V pi
In equation (12-34), the plot of V(L; —L,.)t and —AP/V is a straight line with a slope of
ya/2 and intercept of zR,,; the equation requires only two experimental points to deter-
mine the parameters. Also, from Chapter 8, @ is @(AP)*, where @ is a proportionality
constant and s is a compressibility coefficient.
Example 12-11
From the test results shown below, determine the resistance of the filter medium, the specific
cake resistance @, the compressibility coefficient s, and the pressure drop (in cm HO) after
101 min of operation. The air/cloth ratio is 0.9 m/min, the inlet dust concentration 1s 5.0 g/m,
and exit dust concentration is practically zero. Assume that the temperature is 45°C.
610 Air Pollution Control Chap. 12

Time (min) —AP(N/m?)

0 lpg!
5 379
10 506
20 611
30 694
60 992

Solution

Se
To iei So
e UKm

Time (min) —AP(N/m?) —AP/V (N-min/m*) V(L;— Let (kg/m?)

0 151 167.78 0
5 379 421.11 0.0225
10 506 562.22 0.045
20 611 678.89 0.09
30 694 Talent 0.135
60 992 1102.22 0.27

—AP 167.7 8242 i= 56222

— Bs a = B83). 70
V 1 3}

0+ 0.0225 + 0.045
Vile bie : ea — 0.0225

(=st))
Vals _oswmaty
—AP
3 im 5
678.89 + 771.11 TO222

0.09 + 0.135 + 0.27

[Vile EL ee 3
eee
From Appendix 19, jz of air at 45°C = 1.8(10->) kg/m-s = 1.08(10-3) kg/m-min. Thus

383.70. = + (0.0225) Sin opRE (a)

850.74 = = (0.165) oy Ret (b)

Solving, Rm = 298.18; & = average & = 6.07(10°). owater = 990 kg/m? at 45°C.

Resistance of filter medium = WR, V = 298.18(0.9) = 268.36 6. gone

m2 990(9.81)
= 0.0276 m H20 =2.76cm H2O Answer
Types of Control 611

—AP . -
V = SP V(Li — Le)t + uRm = V(L; — Le)t +298.81
2
Solving for & gives

2(—AP/V — 298.81)
a=
LVL; — Le)t
Hence

Time (min) —AP/V (N-min/m?) V(L; — Le)t (kg/m) a

0 167.78 0 _
5 421.11 0.0225 1.01(107)
10 562.22 0.045 1.08(107)
20 678.89 0.09 0.78(107)
30 TH 1 0.135 0.65(107)
60 1102.22 0.27 0.55(107)

@=a(-AP)’ In@=Ina+sIn(—AP)
a= (1.01 + ae 0.78) 107 _ p96d0)

ae 421.11+ se + 678.89 Seas

m= (0.78 + ue +0.55)107 _ 0,66(107)

Lye 678.89 + ue + 1102.22) i a

In 0.96(10’) = In@ +s 1n 498.67 (c)

In 0.66(10’) = In@ +51n850.74 (d)
Solving, @& = 7.53(108); s = —0.703 Answer

=
= = =@ Vb Nie @(—AP)S
OR ee Ey Sea

1 =:
rods we leBCLO=)(7. 53)(10%)8 298.18
y-AP) ER ese Se eg ue) LOL) Uae ITE

(—AP)!-73 = 3.08(10°) + 298.18(—A P)"3 = Y = (—AP)!-7 _ 298.18(—A P)°.

= 3.08(10°)
612 Air Pollution Control Chap. 12

(—AP)!.703
—AP(N/m*) 7 293 18 AR) iv

1500 2.85(10°) 5.10(10*) 2.33(10°)

2500 6.80(10°) 7.30(10*) 6.07(10°)

x — 1500 30S = 2,33)

a oeoa 9500 = 1500 6.07 — 2.33
ey = B08
2500 = @07 a — a0)
N 1700
—=AP = 1700—; H,0 = ———— = (0.176 = 17.6 cm water Answer
m2 — 9909.81)
Compressor Power. In addition to the power needed to force the waste air
through the baghouse, compressed air is also needed for pulse-jet baghouses. In pulse-jet
baghouses, the bags are cleaned by pulsing a blast of high-pressure air from a blow pipe at
90 to 100 psi at intervals of every few minutes. Typically, the flow rate of compressed air
is about 0.5 to 1.0% that of the filtered air when both are corrected to the same temperature
and pressure. This high-pressure air is provided by a compressor. The air is drawn from
the surroundings into the intake valves of the compressor, is compressed inside the unit,
and expelled at the discharge port at a much higher pressure into the blow pipe. In general,
as in the case of pumps, compressors can be of the centrifugal or positive-displacement
type. Figure 12-5 shows sectional views of a centrifugal compressor and two positive-
displacement compressors. Figure 12-5b and c are of the positive-displacement type. The
air is compressed by means of a piston.
The centrifugal compressor is shown in Figure 12-5a. Notice that there are four
impellers in the unit; hence this compressor is a four-stage compressor. The air flows
through the four stages in succession starting from the inlet and out in the discharge port.
Every time the air exits from a stage, its pressure is compressed to a higher pressure than
that at the inlet to the stage.
The other types of positive-displacement machines use a plunger, which is simply a
rod that moves back and forth inside a very narrow cylinder. The positive-displacement
compressor at the top of the drawing is a two-stage, single-acting unit. The bottom is
a two-stage, double-acting unit. Single acting means that only one side of the piston
compresses the gas, while double acting means both sides compress the gas.
Air compression is of three different types: isothermal, adiabatic, and polytropic.
In the process of compression, the air is heated and the resulting temperature may become
excessive. For this reason the compressed air is cooled by aftercoolers and intercoolers.
In the design of the machine, channels are provided in the body to enable coolant such as
water to be circulated. Units that provide coolant between stages are called intercoolers,
and those that provide coolant at the final discharge port are called aftercoolers. The
cooling process can become so effective that the air exit temperature may approach that
of the inlet. The air is then said to be subjected to an isothermal process.
 Types of Control 613

From intercooler To intercooler

at
G if
oO

ace DA

ae
Intake Discharge Discharge Intake
(a) (b)

Discharge Inlet

Intercooler

Figure 12-5 Sectional views of compressors: (a) centrifugal; (b) two-stage, single-
acting positive-displacement type; (c) two-stage, double-acting positive-displacement
type.

For a given parcel of air, the compression process happens so fast that heat exchange
with the surroundings may be neglected. Processes that do not exchange heat with
the surroundings are called adiabatic. By definition, since no heat is exchanged with
the surroundings, adiabatic processes are isentropic processes. For large compressors,
614 Air Pollution Control Chap. 12

however, isothermal and adiabatic processes are not maintained. Under these conditions,
the process is called polytropic. Polytropic processes may be viewed as general processes
between isothermal and adiabatic, where the adiabatic and isothermal processes may be
considered special cases. From fluid mechanics, applying the energy equation between the
inlet and the outlet of a given stage, the ideal work of compression per unit mass of air is

dP
Weomp = —— (for a unit mass of gas) (12-35)
a

where dP is the pressure drop and p, is the mass density of air. Again, from fluid
mechanics, the relationships of P and p, for isothermal and polytropic processes are,
respectively,

PREP
pe (12-36)
Pa Pal

ie
[2 12)
(12-37)
Pa Pat

where P is pressure, n the exponent for the polytropic process, and the subscript 1
designates inlet conditions. For adiabatic processes, n = y, the ratio of specific heat at
constant pressure to specific heat at constant volume, c,/c,. For air, y = 1.4.
Solving equations (12-36) and (12-37), respectively, for pz, substituting the results,
in turns, in equation (12-35), and integrating from inlet to outlet (points 1 to 2), the
compression work formulas for isothermal and polytropic processes per unit mass of air
per stage are, respectively,

ee (12-38)
Weomp =

os
EI (Po oa
Gi= Dp @) = 1 12-39
eee?
Assuming that ideal gas laws apply, pg; may be eliminated in favor of temperature 7;
and the equations above become, respectively,

Rilo EP
Se
a ape =
(12-40)
Weomp —

‘ She
(n—1)M|\P,
Bai i 12-41
Cee

where M is the molecular weight of air (= 28.84). P)/P; is called the compression ratio.
Weomp 18 a work per unit mass of gas. If a rate of flow Q of air is compressed,
multiplication of (¢1Q by Wcomp will produce the fluid power Pr, the power received by
the air. Dividing Py by the efficiency of the compressor 7 produces the brake power P,.
In turn, dividing P, by the electrical efficiency M produces the electrical power input P;.
Types of Control 615

In the design of multistage compressors, the work in each stage is made equal. To
find the compression ratio in each stage, write the following equation:

np
Py P3 P4 Posy
eee Se Parl
oe a= Pao
(12-42)
P; Po P3 Ie lige Pi

where the ratios in parentheses are the compression ratios in each stage and n, is the
number of stages. Equal work per stage means equal compression ratios in all stages.
Hence

ee)
i _
Bae le ,
(12-43)
P, Py

and the compression ratio in each stage is

P, P,. I/ns
pad ACS [feeeae (12-44)
Fy P,

Under polytropic conditions using the ideal gas laws, equation (12-37) may be
written in terms of temperatures as
je P (n—1/n)
| (12-45)
T P|
Example 12-12
Ambient air at 26°C at a barometric pressure of 29.90 in. Hg is to be compressed to 100 psig.
A three-stage reciprocating compressor is to be used. (a) What is the brake horsepower if the
mechanical efficiency is 80%? (b) What is the discharge temperature from the first stage?
(c) If intercoolers and aftercoolers are to be used and the temperature of the cooling water
is to rise by 20°F, how much water is needed for the compressed air to leave at 26°C?
Assume that 1.4 m?/s of ambient air is to be compressed. Cp for air is 0.25 Btu/Ib-°F for a
temperature range of 32 to 2550°F.

Solution

at eeey Pony cae

2 A ost i | Py
assuming that compression is adiabatic, n= y = 1.4. pg; = 1.3 kg/m?.
1/3
P. 100 + 14.7
ele |fees | eee cs
P\ 14.7

ea sEee em aag 3 DUNT

aes Mo ear
3 2 -—6
-cm- 101,330 N/ 10 :3 N-
(g-mol)(K) (10-3 kg-mol)(K) (kg-mol)(K)
8314.13(26 + 273.16)(1.4)
Pp = 3(1.3)(1.4) [(1.98)!~1/14 — 1] = 355,177.88 N-m/s
(1.4 — 1)(28.84)
= 355.18 kW = 355.18(1.341) = 476.30 hp

in 476.30
= 597.38 hp Answer
ND
616 Air Pollution Control Chap. 12

T P (n—1)/n

(b) 7 mes

T = (26 + 273.16)(1.98)'4-D/!4 — 363.63 K = 90.47°C Answer

0.25(252.2 cal/Btu)(4.184 N-m/cal) N-m

(c) 0.25 Btu/lb-°F = Lee Un = 1045.91
(0.454 kg)[§ (°C/°F)] k fac

1.4 m?/s of air = 1.40 = 1.4(1.3) = 1.82 kg/s

Heat load to each cooler = 1.82(1045.91)(90.47 — 26.0) = 122,722.27 N-m/s

— 9S SPS oncal//s

Total heat load = 29,331.33(3) = 87,993.98 cal/s

5
20 F=20 (5)SWhekye

87,993.98
H>5O needed = ————— = 7920.25 g/s = 7.92 kge/s Answer
savers TENG KO) He =

Scrubbers. Figure 12-6 shows various types of scrubbers. Parts (a) and (b) show
ordinary spray chambers. On the left of these drawings, dirty gas is introduced at the
bottom side of the unit and flows upward countercurrent to the settling of atomized liquid
droplets; on the right, the dirty gas flows cross-flow to the settling of the atomized spray
water droplets. Although two sets of sprays atomize the water in horizontal directions, the
settling of the resulting droplets is still downward, cross-flow to the direction of the gas.
The scrubber shown in Figure 12-6d is a venturi attached to the larger droplet
separator and mist eliminator. At the bottom right, the scrubber is a combination of an
ordinary spray and cyclone. Hence this is called a cyclone spray chamber. In this type
of spray chamber, the cyclonic driving force will not form a true vortex, since the path
that would have led to its formation will simply be broken by the sprayed liquid. What
the configuration does is delay the exit of the gas providing longer contact time with the
liquid droplets. Overall, however, the settling of droplets is downward, while the gas has
a net upward movement. Hence the mechanism is a countercurrent flow between droplets
and particulates, similar to the countercurrent spray chamber. Of the above-mentioned
scrubbers, the venturi can be designed to have efficiencies ranging from very low to very
high. Venturi efficiencies can go as high as 99%.
In scrubbers, particulates are scrubbed out from the waste air by using water droplets
of various sizes, depending on the type of scrubber used. The particulates are removed
 Clean gas

Entrainment
eliminator

Recirculated
i Spray nozzles

Recirculated Entrainment
: eliminator
a Dirty
gas
Clean
gas

==

Water to settling basin | | |

and recycle pump Water to settling and recirculation
(a) (b)

Clean gas out Cleaned gas

Straightening
2 a vanes
Mist eliminator ~

ey Uo VE
Dirty gas in é v ‘
| r)

Core buster disk

Liquid in
ee Separator
ae Spray manifold
Venturi
Tangential
gas inlet

ces i ag

Elbow
crossover

Liquid to settling Water Water

and recirculation outlet inlet

(c) (d)

Figure 12-6 Types of scrubbers: (a) countercurrent spray chamber; (b) cross-flow spray
chamber; (c) venturi scrubber; (d) cyclone spray chamber.

617
618 Air Pollution Control Chap. 12

by impaction and interception between droplets and particulates. Upon impact, the par-
ticulate is wetted and carried by the water droplet, thus effecting removal.
To provide impact on millions of particulates, millions of droplets must also be
formed. This means that the more droplets are formed, the more efficient the unit will
be, and conversely. Therefore, to be effective, the droplets must be small. Ideally, the
droplet should be large, in order for the particulate to hit it easily. However, large sizes
will produce few droplets—and more droplets are what is needed.
To produce small particles, energy must be expended. Smaller-diameter spray noz-
zles will produce smaller droplets but will also result in higher-pressure drops consuming
more energy. Since efficiency increases as the droplet size decreases, efficiency increases
with pressure drop.
Let a flow of dirty air with a concentration Co of particulate be scrubbed. Assume
that, initially, there is no pressure drop. At this initial condition, the concentration of
the particulate at the effluent of the unit will be also Co. Setting a pressure drop and
increasing it will cause a decrease of the particulate concentration at the effluent. This
means that the effluent concentration varies inversely as the pressure drop. This behavior
may be modeled as a first-order process. Calling C the effluent concentration and k the
first-order process coefficient, the model is

dCs:
ae (12-46)
d(=AP) ©
where a minus sign is prefixed to account for the inverse relationship. Integrating between
limits of C = Cp when) (AP) — 0 and C= Cawhen(— AP) —(— AP) yields

is —k(—AP)
12-47
Coke ( )
Therefore, the efficiency n of the unit is

n= eee (12-48)
For a countercurrent, vertical flow spray chamber, k(—AP) has been determined
empirically as°

an) ee (12-49)
2Q,da(va ee Ug)

where Q, is the volumetric liquid flow rate converted to droplets, vy the terminal settling
velocity of the droplet, Zo the length of the scrubber contact zone, 74 the fractional target
efficiency for a single droplet, Q, the volumetric gas flow rate, dy the diameter of the
droplet, and v, the superficial gas velocity. Not all of Q¢ is converted into droplets; how
much is converted should be estimated before equation (12-49) can be used.
Ug — Ug is the net settling velocity of the droplet in the countercurrent, vertical flow
chamber. In the cross-flow, v, is not acting in the direction opposite to vy, hence vg is

5S. Calvert (1977). “Scrubbing,” in A. C. Stern (ed.), Air Pollution, Vol. TV. Academic Press, New
York.
Types of Control 619

not diminished by v, and the net settling velocity is simply vg. Therefore, vg may be
neglected and k(—AP) becomes, for cross-flow chambers,

3Q¢Zona
(
Sl) 20,dy (12-50 )

Na has also been determined empirically as

2

Le (eee ees
4 \Cppd2vp/9uda +0.7
(12-51)
where C is called the dimensionless Cunningham correction factor, p, the density of
the particle, d, the diameter of the particle, v, the velocity of the particle (practically
equal to v,), 4 the absolute viscosity of the air, and d, is the diameter of the droplet.
Table 12-8 shows values of the Cunningham factor for several size particulates. dg for
spray chambers normally ranges from 500 to 1000 pm. However, in an actual design, the
manufacturer’s literature should be consulted for the correct droplet size for a particular
spray nozzle pressure drop.

TABLE 12-8 CUNNINGHAM

CORRECTION FACTOR, C,
AT 1 ATM AND 25°C

dp (um) Cc

10 1.0
2.0 lie
1.0 ee,
0.50 3
0.05 S40)
0.01 23.0

For venturi scrubbers, k(—AP) has been determined empirically as®

a aay Neto Eolas eniek Kf e107 0.7 tiTee

=0n9 _
Ha?) 550)
(12-52)
f is an empirical factor that is equal to 0.25 for hydrophobic particles and 0.50 for
hydrophylics. The empirical factor K, is

_ CPrdprp (12-53)
‘ 9udg

6S. Calvert, J. Goldschmid, D. Leith, and D. Mehta (1972). “Wet Scrubber System Study,” in Scrubber
Handbook, Vol. 1. NTIS, PB-213016. U. S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C.
620 Air Pollution Control Chap. 12

In venturis, gas is atomized at the throat. An empirical equation for dy (in wm) is?
0.5 0.45 1.5
ie (<*) 4597 [| (10005 ) (12-54)
Ug pe (orp) g

where oy is the liquid surface tension (dyn/cm), py the density of the liquid(g/cm?),
jie the absolute viscosity of the liquid (poise, dyn-s/cm* or g/cm-s), vg the gas veloc-
ity (cm/s), and the remaining symbols are as defined earlier. This equation is dimen-
sional and the units to be used must be as specified. Q, and Q, should have the same
units.
The other concern in the design of scrubbers is the pressure drop required for
atomization. For nozzles, the pressure drops from the inlet value to atmospheric pressure
in the chamber. There are usually several nozzles operated in parallel. For venturis, the
pressure drop has been determined empirically as®

= = 2p, (1— x? + Vx4— x?) (12255)

g
where the terms are as defined earlier and x is given by

_ 34:Cahg
(12-56)
16dape
Also, €; is the length of the venturi throat, Cp is the drag coefficient, pg = pg is the
density of the air, and all other symbols are as defined earlier.
The procedure for design is similar to that used in cyclones, gravitational settlers,
EXPs, and baghouses in that size distributions of the particulates must first be determined.
This is necessary since in applications the particulates are a mixture of sizes. Relevant
formulas derived above will then apply to each size fraction. As seen in previous ex-
amples, considering the distribution of sizes involves complicated calculations in design.
In an actual design, the formulas should be programmed into a computer. The following
examples will no longer consider size distribution but simply work on a single size of
particulate.

Example 12-13
Measurement of the dust distribution of a certain industrial operation yields the results in
the table below. These results are to be used to design a countercurrent spray chamber.
Q2/Q, = 0.02(10-%), Ug = 25 cm/s, and Zp = 3.5 m. The pressure is atmospheric and
the temperature is 77°C. (a) What is the efficiency of removal for the 0- to 10-~wm size
fraction? (b) If Q is 21 m?/s, what is the cross-sectional area of the chamber? (c) What
is the pressure drop through the spray nozzle if the pressure at the nozzle inlet is 20 in. of

7§. Nukiyama and Y. Tanasawa (1938). “An Experiment on the Atomization of Liquid by Means of an
Air Stream.” Transactions of the Society of Mechanical Engineers, 4(14), Japan, p. 86.
BGS Yung, H. F. Barbarika, and S. Calvert (1977). “Pressure Loss in Venturi Scrubbers.” Journal of
the Air Pollution Control Association, 27, pp. 348-351.
Types of Control 621

water? Assume that the pressure drop produces droplets of dg = 0.030 cm and that 20% of
the sprayed water is converted to suspended droplets. Also, assume that the specific gravity
of a particulate equals 2.0.

Particle size (44m) Wt. %

0-10 8
10-20 10
20-30 12
30-40 15
40-50 19
50-60 14
60-70 13
70-80 9

Solution

(a) asta
LEAP) = 3 Qeva Hi,Zona
2Qgda(va — vg)
2
Cppd5vp/9
da
Nd = sO

C ppdpvp/9da +0.7

dp = 5 uum; vp = 0.25 m/s. C = 1 from Table 12-8. From Appendix 19, pg = 1.2 kg/m?
and yp = 2.1(10~>) kg/m-s at 77°C.

a 1(2000)[(5)(10~®)]?,(0.25) /9(2.1) (10-5) (0.030) (10-7) :

ia {1(2000)[(5)(10~)}? (0.25) /9(2.1) (10-5) (0.030)(10-?) } + 0.7

02211 \7
ee en) 57
(2240.7
af pada = 4
* 9.81) 974) )( (0.030) )( (10-2 ) es | ih

3° Cp pa 3) Cp (1.2) Cp

_ dvapa _ (0.030)(10~*)uq
(1.2)
R =17.lv
ene 2.1(10-5) 2

an (for Re < 1)
Re
24 3
Cae ee
Re
346
Re!/2
(for fo Re = 10")

0.4 (for Re > 10*)

622 Air Pollution Control Chap. 12

By trial and error:

Cp vq (m/s) Re

Mell 22 20.90
2.14 122 20.80

[0.20(10~3)](1.22)(3.5)
(0.057)
(=A?) = : = (0%
2(0.03)(10-2) (1.22 — 0.25)

n=1—e "Yj —-¢ 9022 or 22% Answer

21
(b) Cross-sectional area = 025 = 84m’. Answer

(c) (-AP) = 20 — 0 = 20 in. of water. Answer

Example 12-14
Solve Example 12-13 for a cross-flow spray chamber.

Solution
(a) n= 1a e KAP)

eWay QeZona
302Z
2Qgda
2
Cppd5vp/9
Uda
Nd — ——————eeeeeeeeeoeeee

Cppdpvp/9da + 0.7

dp =5 yum; vp = 0.25 m/s. C = 1 from Table 12-8. From Appendix 19, og = 1.2 kg/m?
and jz = 2.1(10~*) kg/m-s at 77°C.

a 1(2000)[(5)(10~°)]* 0.25) /9(2.1)(10~>) (0.030) (10-7) ‘

“~~ \'{1(2000)[(5)(10-)20.25) /9(2.1) (10-5)(0.030)(10-2)} + 0.7

= e Ze = 0.057
0222300) eee
eI aT 3Q¢eZona
2Qeda

b(— AP) = 310.2000)1G.5)00.057)

.20(10~7)](3.5) (0. _ 4 44
2(0.03)(10-2)

n=1—e*CA4P) _ 1 ¢-920_ 018 or 18% Answer

(b) Cross-sectional area = a5 =84m?. Answer

Types of Control 623

(c) —AP = 20 — 0 = 20 in. water. Answer

Example 12-15
Measurement of the dust distribution of a certain industrial operation yields the results in
the table below. These results are to be used to design a venturi scrubber. Qe/O, = 10-3
and the throat length is 30 cm. The pressure is atmospheric and the temperature is 77°C.
(a) What is the velocity vg at the throat for a pressure drop of 55 in. water? (b) What is
the efficiency of removal for the 0- to 10-~wm size fraction? At | atm and 77°C, o equals
63 dyn/cm. Assume that f = 0.5.

Particle size (44m) Wt %

0-10 8
10-20 10
20-30 12
30-40 15
40-50 19
50-60 14
60-70 13
70-80 9

Solution

(a) —AP = 2; = (1 2+ Vx4— x2)

g
pg = 1.2 kg/m?, i 3.5(1074) kg/m-s = 3.5(1073) g/cm-s, LW = 2.1(107>) kg/m-s, and
pe = 0.974 kg/cm? at 77°C.
5) 2
55 in.
in. water = ————
123.281) |(974)(9.81)
)( ) = 13,347.6 N/m*
/m

3(0.30)Cp(1.2 Cc
os os CDPp tee eC Die) 4S 6.9310) el
16dq pe 16(dq)(974) dq

0.5 0.45 es

pe ee) so, (4) (10005)

Ug pe oe Pe QO,
0.5 33 0.45 5
_ 58,600 ( 6 3 ) sor | 3.5(10
(1073) ) 4.7(10
= ——— + 18.56
ve \0.974 [63(0.974)]- | ((1000(10~7)]!° Ve
4.7(10°)
+ 18.56
Ug
4.7(10°)
Se SKS (a)
0g
{Note that in equation (a) only, vg and dy have units of cm/s and pum, respectively. |
624 Air Pollution Control Chap. 12

4
24 (for Re < 1)
Re
Cp= 24 4
met peo (for 1 < Re < 10°) (b)

0.4 (for Re > 10*)

where Re = dgvgpg/U.
Cc
46.9300) (c)
dd

13,347.6 = 2(974)u, (10-°) (1— x? + /x4— x?)

6851.95 = ve (1=x se) xt =) = (d)

By trial and error of (a) to (d):

Ug (m/s) dq. (um) Re Cp 5 Ve

132.0 Selly 416.11 0.52 1.66 7734.24

120.0 58.73 402.70 0.55 1.65 6379.59

y — 132.0 6851.95 — 7734.24

132.0 1734.24 Ee
zt 120.0— 132.0 6379.59 — 7734.24
y => 6851.95
120.0 = 6379.59 y = vg = 124.18 m/s Answer

(b) (=P) =

Ue ped; K,f +0.7 4 1

AIEEE
55QOgul
(iepeg ei ike yiies ee
0.7
eee
0.7+Kp,f

K, _ Cpdpp
Cpdp Up _— 1.0(2)(1 10~°)]?(124.1 8) ay
1.0(2)(1000)[5(10°)1°¢
T9pdin 9(2.1)(10-5)(57)(10-°)
1073 (124.18)(974)(57)(10~©
k(-AP) = { es ) 0.7 — (576.35)(0.5)
552.) (1l0a2)

576.35(0.5) + 0.7 0.49 |

+1.4 In oan - = 2.90
0.7 0.7 + 576.35(0.5) |576.35 76.35

= 1.0 —e CAP) — 1 —¢- 2-9 _ 09.945 or 94.5% Answer

Summary of sizes removed. Table 12-9 shows the summary of particle sizes that
are removed by the various particulate control devices. It appears that bagfilters are
efficient in removing particulates less than 1.0 4m in diameter, although it cannot with-
Types of Control 625

TABLE 12-9 SUMMARY OF SIZES OF PARTICLES REMOVED BY

VARIOUS PARTICULATE CONTROL DEVICES

Device Minimum particle size (jm) Efficiency (%)

Venturi >0.5 a0)

ESP eal <9)
Bagfilter <l SOD
Spray chamber >10 <80
Cyclonic spray chamber =3 <80
Impingement scrubber >3 <80
Centrifugal settler es) <80
Gravitational settler >50 <50

stand much higher temperatures. For operation at high temperatures with the capability
to remove small particles, ESPs are the choice.

Control of Gaseous Pollutants

The principal gaseous pollutants of concern in air pollution are SO,, NO,, CO, the
hydrocarbons, and other organic and inorganic gases. In general, these emissions may
be controlled by absorption, adsorption, and incineration. For example, SO2 may be
absorbed using a solution of lime in water; hydrocarbons may be adsorbed in activated
carbon or incinerated; and CO may be completely burned to CO2. Before an absorption
or adsorption unit is designed there should be a match between the absorbent or adsorbent
material and the solute to be removed.
Some basic principles of adsorption and design techniques were discussed in Chap-
ter 9, and some fundamentals of incineration in Chapters 10 and 11. Absorption was also
discussed in Chapter 9 in connection with the removal of ammonia. Actually, the dis-
cussion was on stripping, the reverse of absorption. The discussion below will continue
on topics not covered before. Figure 12-7 shows a flowsheet for an activated carbon
fixed-bed adsorption, a packed tower absorber, and a thermal incinerator.

Pressure drop across fixed adsorption beds and expansion of fluidized beds.
Since dirty air has to be forced through the bed, pressure drop determines the size
and power requirement of the blower. To provide intimate contact between solute and
adsorbent, the bed may also be fluidized or expanded. These topics have been discussed
in Chapter 6. For convenience the formulas for head losses and the formula for bed
expansion are reproduced below.

h Me 5 as head loss on stratified bed (12-57)

PAS Api

hyp = —— y-xi(1—me) head loss on expanded bed (12-58)

 626 Air Pollution Control Chap. 12

Clean gases

Water out

Water in Pollutant
Steam (regeneration)
recovery
Particulate system
filter

Collected
Bion pollutant
Cooling coil
Gf required) Unit 2
é (being
Unit 1 regenerated)
(removing |.%.%
pollutants) |. °°”
activated Activated
carbon carbon

E> Clean air out

Low-pressure steam
for regeneration

(a)

Gas out

Liquid in > pas

distributer

Packing
restrainer Waste gas

Shell

2S NGM
Random [X%"5=:
packing
Clean
B
Packing eae gas
support
~<— Gas in :
or: Incinerator
Liquid
out Recuperator
(b) (c)

Figure 12-7 (a) Flowsheet for activated carbon adsorption. (b) Packed tower absorber.
(c) Thermal incinerator.
Types of Control 627

fos)
I bed expansion (12-59)
zt Shells Geer

/ Li 1)
I 150, ( ae )+ WS)
———

Ne I
ala
where / is the head loss in an unexpanded bed, hy» the head loss in bed expansion, ¢ the
length of unexpanded bed, 7 the porosity of unexpanded bed, V, the superficial velocity
of air, g the gravity constant, x; the mass fraction of particles of size d,; or of particles in
layer i, , the length of expanded bed, y, the specific weight of particle, y, the specific
weight of air, 7. the porosity of expanded bed, Vg the upflow superficial velocity of air,
and v the terminal settling velocity of particles.

Example 12-16
An activated carbon adsorber measuring 4 by 2 m in cross section and 0.7 m deep is used to
treat a polluted air containing 5000 ppm of CgHg¢ at 1 atm and 37°C. The X/M value of the
bed is 5.0 kg of CeHo per 50 kg of C. The bed has a bulk or packed density of 480 kg/m?,
n of 0.4, and a particle size of 4 by 10 mesh. Assuming that the unit absorbs 3.44 kg-mol
of CeHg6 per hour, determine the pressure drop. Assume that 6 = 0.52.

Solution

ae ESS
£(1—n)V2
Fixi
1385
1g dpi
(a7)
fi = 150 75
Re
10°
tal moles
Total moles ofof polluted air = 5000:
polluted air —— (3.44)) = 688 g-mo kg-mol/h

= 689(105)224) (Wy )(
/328
i )= 17,500 m3/h
103 272
17,500
5 = ——— = 0.61 m/s
2(4) (60) (60)
No. 4 mesh = 4.699 mm opening; no. 10 mesh = 1.651 mm opening.

4.699 + 1.651
4 by 10 mesh = BEELER Te Bs 3.175 mm = dp,

Vs Dc a
Re ee Oy ae eR OR OLeines
bb
d = 1.248°73d, = 1.24(0.52°73) (0.003175) = 0.0032 m
0.0032(0.61)(1.27)
= 13/72
1810)
628 Air Pollution Control Chap. 12

1—0.4 + 1.75 = 2.40

f= 150 (Saar)
ee eS 0.4)(0.61*) 2.40(1) | = 188.16 m of air
0.43(9.81) 0.003175

188.16(1.27)(9.81) = Awater(ewater at 37°C) (9-81) = hwater(994) (9.81)

hwater = 0.24 m = 24 cm = 9.44 in. Answer

Example 12-17
The dirty air in Example 12-16 is to be treated in a fluidized-bed activated carbon adsorber
using the same type of activated carbon. It is desired to expand the bed to 150% from an
initial depth of 0.7 m. Calculate the head loss. Also, determine the settling velocity of the
carbon particles. The specific gravity of activated carbon is 1.8 and the flow of dirty air is
17,500 m3/h.
Solution
Le(Vp — Ya)
hyp = ae > xi = ne)
a

i)
€
a
1 — Ne,i

[5=( =64)
l= Ne

Solving, ne = 0.6.

— LSC DITS (1000) 1 270-80)

hf (1 — 0.6) = 594.86 m of air
1.27(9.81)

= 0.76 m of water Answer

(Vp Va

ie = \\ ==
U

17,500
2(4)(60)(60)
0.22
0.61
CC —— v= 6.3 m/s Answer
Vv

Experimental determination of adsorption isotherms and design methods. As

in the case of wastewater treatment, adsorption isotherms need to be determined. The
procedure is very similar. In one procedure, a small bucket containing a few milligrams of
the adsorbent is suspended inside a cell containing the adsorbate.’ An inert gas (typically
helium) is used to dilute the adsorbate. The bucket containing the adsorbent is suspended

°E. D. Sloan (1974). “Nonideality of Binary Adsorbed Mixtures of Benzene and Freon on Graphitized
Carbon,” Ph.D thesis, Clemson University, Clemson, S.C.
 Types of Control 629

from a microbalance capable of reading in micrograms. As the adsorbate is adsorbed, the

increase in mass is recorded continuously until saturation is reached. The saturation value
gives the X/M corresponding to the diluted concentration of adsorbate. This procedure
is repeated for each adsorbate dilution. Once the the desired X /M has been determined,
the design procedure is similar to that already discussed in Chapter 9.
Table 12-10 shows some of the adsorbents used in both air and water pollution.
The term activated refers to the increased internal surface area of the adsorbent when
subjected to special processes. For example, one way to activate carbon is by using steam
to initiate the water gas reaction. This increases the surface area by removal of some
atoms on the surface in the form of carbon monoxide. Molecular sieves are different
from activated materials in that they are normally polymeric materials that form pores of
molecular dimensions on the order of angstrom units. For example, carbon sieves have
5-A pores. Molecular sieves perform by “sieving” the molecules.

TABLE 12-10 TYPICAL ADSORBENTS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

External Bulk density Surface area

Adsorbent Internal porosity (%) porosity, 7 (%) (kg/m?) (m?/kg x 1073)

Carbons 55-75 3540 160-480 600-1400

Fuller’s earth 50 40 470-630 120-240
Iron oxide 22 3M 1400 20
Magnesia Tp 45 400 200
Silica gel 70 40 400 320
Acid-treated clay 30 40 550-870 100-250
Activated alumina 35 45 700-870 200-250
and bauxite
Aluminosilicate 50 35 655-695 595-695
sieves
Bone char 50 18 640 100

Tower height of an absorber. Although the subject matter is absorption, the

subsequent formulas that will be derived apply equally well to stripping. Stripping is
simply the reverse of absorption.
Absorption units are normally constructed of towers with packings dumped ran-
domly or packings stacked by hand. These towers are called packed tower absorbers.
Packings that have been used consist of Berl saddles, Intalox saddles, Raschig rings, and
so on. For a given load of pollutants to be removed at a given condition, the design
of absorption towers involves the determination of the cross-sectional areas and heights.
The cross-sectional area is, of course, simply equal to the flow rate divided by the su-
perficial velocity. This superficial velocity must be less than the flooding velocity. The
design of the height is, however, a bit tricky. Let us now tackle the derivation of this
quantity for packed tower absorbers.
Between liquid and gaseous phases, the transfer of mass from one phase to the
other must pass through an interfacial boundary surface. Call the concentration of the
solute at this surface the y; mole fraction referred to the gas phase. The corresponding
630 Air Pollution Control Chap. 12

concentration referred to the liquid phase is x;. x; and y,; are in equilibrium. If y mole
fraction is the concentration in the bulk gas phase, the driving force toward the interfacial
boundary is y — y; and the rate of mass transfer is ky(y — y;), where ky is the coefficient
of mass transfer. For this rate of mass transfer to exist, it must be balanced by an equal
rate of mass transfer at the liquid phase. The liquid-phase mass transfer rate is k, (x; —x),
where k, is the coefficient of mass transfer based on the liquid side and x is the bulk
mole fraction concentration of the solute in the liquid phase. Hence

ky(y ai yi) = eee a x) (12-60)

In this equation the interfacial concentrations x; and y; are impossible to deter-

mine experimentally. Hence, instead of them, use x* and y*. x* is the equilibrium
concentration corresponding to x, and y* is the equilibrium concentration corresponding
to y. The corresponding driving forces are y — y* and x* — x and equating the gas-side
equations,

ky(y
= yi) = Ky= y") (12-61)
On the liquid side,

ky (x; —x) = K,(x* —x) (12-62)

K, and K, are called overall mass transfer coefficients for the gas and liquid sides, re-
spectively. To differentiate, k, and k, are called individual mass transfer coefficients for
the respective sides.
It is instructive to determine the equation relating the overall and the individual
mass transfer coefficients. Equation (12-61) may be rearranged to obtain

1
ee Vey
me Re eg(Veta
ee ar Jered
ene aete 12-63
me ie Ao a Reg Coe)
Replacing k,(y — yj) using equation (12-60),

sei
Kk
ile
Gi— x)
12-64
es?
Letting (vy; — y*)/(@; — x) equal m,

—=—+— (12-65)

SS] tS = si
K, LS NES aS 2708)

The coordinates x; and y; are the coordinates of the point (x;, y;) on the equilibrium
curve. On the other hand, the coordinates x and y are coordinates of point (x, y) along
the length of the tower. Since the tower operation is not in equilibrium, (x, y) is not on
the equilibrium curve. The various values of (x, y) along the height of the tower plot
Types of Control 631

a line called the operating line. Point (x*, y*) may or may not be on the equilibrium
curve. For the operating point (x, y), the corresponding points on the equilibrium curve
are (x, y*) and (x*, y). Point (x*, y*) can be on the equilibrium curve only if point (x, y)
is on the equilibrium curve; otherwise, point (x*, y*) does not exist.
As discussed, there are three points on the equilibrium curve: (x, y*), (x;, y;), and
(x*, y). The slope between (x, y*) and (x;, y;) is (y; — y*)/(x%; — x), which is equal to
m. Hence m is the slope of the equilibrium curve if it is a straight line.
From Chapter 9, the rate of mass transfer in the gas and the liquid phases are GdY
and L dX, respectively, where G is the mole flow rate of solute-free carrier gas, Y the
moles of solute per mole of solute-free carrier gas, L the mole flow rate of solute-free
carrier liquid, and X the moles of solute per mole of solute-free carrier liquid. GdY
is equal to ky(y — y;)dAl|= K,(y — y*) dA] and LdX is equal to k,(x; — x) dA[=
K,(x* — x) dA)], where A is the area of mass transfer or the interfacial area of contact
for mass transfer. Calling G’ the gas flow rate (mixture of carrier gas and solute), G
is equal to G’(1 — y); and calling L’ the liquid flow rate (mixture of carrier liquid and
solute), L is equal to L’(1 — x). Y and X are also, respectively, equal to y/(1 — y) and
x/(1 — x). Hence dY = dy/(1 — y)? and dX = dx/(1 — x)’.
Since the objective is to design the height of the tower, also express dA in terms of
height. Call the superficial area S, the height Z, and the interfacial contact area per unit
bulk volume of tower a. Hence dA = aS dZ. Performing the necessary substitutions,
the mass transfer expressions become, for the gas and liquid sides, respectively,
G' dy dy
KOC Vay)
0 Za = Vuy—— (12-67)
; S l—y “l-y

it’ ol d:
REA eet oe ery (12-68)
Sl—-x l—x
where Vy, is called the gas-side molar mass velocity and Vy, 1s called the liquid-side
molar mass velocity. Integrating the equations and simplifying produces the formulas for
tower height based on the gas and liquid, respectively:

dy id
( 12-69 )
us
i E T
Clty (ye ty*) MR
ine ) a
dx aku
x2

Wey 9 eea: 12-70 )

i
Pap en rerrems Bas OWi]
(I — x)(x* — x)
(

where Zr; is the tower height and the expressions with overbars are average values
between elevations | and 2, respectively.
If the Zr values of the equations above are solved, they will be expressed in terms
of the product of the reciprocal of the overbarred factors by the respective integrals.
Hence the tower height may be expressed as the product of two factors. Call the first the
height of a mass transfer unit H and the second the number of mass transfer units N,.
Therefore,

Jb = JEON: (12-71)
632 Air Pollution Control Chap. 12

H based on the gas side will be designated as H, and H on the liquid side will be
designated as H,. The corresponding designations for N, are N,y and Nx, respectively.
Hence
H, = ee (12-72)
i Kya/Vuy

K,a/Vux

y2 dy
N,, = eS a (12-74)
es [ (1 — y)(y
— y*)
“2 dx
Nix = ore RED ae See 12-75
i [ GG) Ol
Operating line. GdY and LdX are equal; thus
Gide AL aX (12-76)
But ,
y x
dY = ———~ and dx = ——_, (12-77)
G-ye ™ (—x)
Substituting equations (12-77) into equation (12-76) produces
dy dx

which can be integrated from x = x; to x = x and from y = y; to y = y to yield

1 1 ] 1
G | —— — — ]J=L _ (12-79)
l—y = i l—x 1—x
x, and y, are the concentrations at the bottom. Note that G and L are constant; G’ and
L’ are not. Equation (12-79) yields the concentration at any elevation in the tower: hence
it is called the equation of the operating line.
When plots of the operating line and the equilibrium line are far apart, the driving
force will be large and the rate of mass transfer will also be large. When the two lines
are close to each other, the driving force will be small, and accordingly, the rate of mass
transfer will also be small. The limiting condition is reached when the two lines touch or
intersect each other. The liquid flow rate corresponding to this condition is the minimum
flow rate.
Example 12-18
A packed absorption tower is designed to remove SO2 from a coke oven stack. The stack
gas flow rate measured at 1 atm and 30°C is 10 m/s, and the SO» content is 3.0%. Using
an initially pure water, 90% removal is desired. The equilibrium curve of SO> in water may
be approximated by y; = 30x;. Determine the water requirement if 150% of the minimum
flow rate is deemed adequate. Calculate the height of the tower. Assume that Kya =
5.35 Ib-mol/ft?-h-mole fraction and K,a = 117 lb-mol/ft?-h-mole fraction. Assume that the
total cross-sectional area of the tower is 11.0 m2.
Types of Control 633

Solution

1 I (
G = SL, =
Il=y I1—y; l—-x Il1-x,

Vie 0208
0.1(0.03)(1)
y2 = —— = 0.0031
1 — 0.03(1) + 0.1(0.03)(1)
xD yo — 0:0; 010031

Fil Mil = ae, OKOS

At the bottom of the tower, assume that the operating line is at equilibrium point; hence

io == BO 0:03 =80x; aXe OUIL

(el | aes Se"

I a eS
I
(,— 0.0031 aa) (;= mi)
jb,
es
G
273 ea fod =
G = 100.97) ( =) 107) (=) 00-039 Kkemol/
(sa) (sa) ee
295 A
L = (1.5)(28)(0.39)(18) = 295 kg/s = — = <= —030 m3/s_ Answer
Pwater 980

\ |
eekoay ae
web. oh,
a) lO
0.03 + 0.0031
Average y = 5 (007;

0.39
et ‘— ———_ = (0.40
ae 0017 Piekg-mol/ as
0.40
My = +, = 0.036 kg-mol/m?-s
5.35(0.454) kg-mol
Pe
Kya S
=5.35 lb-mol/ft’ 3_h- ion
-h-mol fraction = (1/3.281)3(60)(60) = ().0 24 ETRE SR

i
H, = ————__— = 1.5 m per transfer unit
” ~ 0.024 /0.036
I 1 Pay 40) 1 1 0.39
—>s = . ee EX ——————
Ss
Wee 1—y 1-—0.03 Deak 1—x 1 -—0.001 16.3835 15.99%)

From. y; =.30%;,y" = 30x.

634 Air Pollution Control Chap. 12

: | LN be i eeee
: ‘ : ove Ly é CS) Oy.)
0.0031 0.0000 0.0000 — == 2: —
0.0050 0.00012 —:0.0036 714.3 1.0050 0.002 1.44
0.0080 0.00019 ——:0.0057 429.19 1.0081 0.003 1.38
0.0110 0.00026 —-0.0078 309.9 1.0111 0.003 0.94
0.0130 0.00031 ~—-0.0092 261 1.0132 0.002 0.53
0.0160 0.00038 ~— 0.011 210.7 1.0163 0.003 0.64
0.0190 0.00044 0.013 172 1.0194 0.003 0.53
0.0210 0.00049 0.0147 159 1.0215 0.002 0.32
0.0240 0.00056 —0.0168 138 1.0245 0.003 0.28
0.0270 0.00063 0.0188 122 1.0277 —-0.003 0.38
0.03 0.00060 0.021 109 1.0309 0.003 0.34
6.78 10.20 » 6.78

Zr = 1.5(6.78) = 10.20 m Answer

Incineration. Combustible wastes may also be destroyed by incineration. In-

cineration connotes destruction of a material by burning or combustion. Incineration is
always combustion, but combustion may not always be incineration. (For example, bio-
logical combustion is not incineration.) Incineration is a rapid combustion process. Since
incineration of solid wastes has been discussed elsewhere in the book, the concern in this
section is incineration of gaseous wastes, such as volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
This class of wastes includes not only hydrocarbons but organic acids, aldehydes, and
ketones as well as organics containing chlorine, sulfur, and nitrogen.
Incineration may be direct-flame, thermal, or catalytic. In direct-flame incineration,
the contaminant stream has a high heating value that it will just burn by itself in a
combustor. By contrast, the contaminant stream in thermal incineration has such a low
heating value that it needs supplementary fuel for it to burn. Figure 12-7c shows a
thermal incinerator, so called because the influent waste stream is preheated (thermal)
by a heat exchanger or recuperator which gets its heat from the burning of the waste
stream itself. Because of the indirect nature of the combustion, thermal incinerators are
also called afterburners. Catalytic incineration employs the use of catalysts, which are
substances that speed up the reaction but are not themselves consumed. The catalyst
draws the reactants to its surface by diffusion and adsorption. At the surface, the reaction
occurs at a much faster rate than it would without the surface. Catalysts also assure that
the reaction occurs at a much lower temperature.
There are two types of catalysts: homogeneous and heterogeneous. Homoge-
neous catalysts function in the same phase as the reactants, while heterogeneous cat-
alysts are a separate phase from the reactants. For example, the third body, M, in
the formation of ozone is in the same phase as O and O); hence it is a homogeneous
catalyst. The catalysts used in incineration are the heterogeneous ones. Examples of
Types of Control 635

heterogeneous catalysts that have been used are Pd, Pt, Cr, Mn, Cu, Co, Au, W, Os,
and Mo.
Parameters of interest in the design of incinerators are residence time, temperature,
the amount of supplementary fuel, and air. There should be sufficient time to effect
the desired degree of completeness of combustion. The temperature must be such as to
minimize the formation of NO,. From experience, residence times are normally set at
0.3 to 1.0 s for thermal incinerators and 0.03 to 0.1 s for catalytic incinerators at flow
velocities of 6.0 to 12.0 m/s. This range of velocities is sufficient to provide turbulence.
The temperature is set in accordance with Arrhenius equation. How this is done is shown
in the following development.
If the rate of destruction of pollutants is modeled as a first-order process, dC /dt =
—kC, where C is the concentration of the pollutant, k the first-order decay rate or reaction
velocity constant, and f is the reaction time. Integration and simplification will ultimately
result in the equation for efficiency 7 written as follows:

n=1l-—e™ (12-80)

If the reaction order is other than first, the use of equation (12-80) for efficiency requires
that the reaction velocity be converted to a pseudo-first-order velocity rate by manipulating
with concentrations to have k in units of per time.
In design, the efficiency desired is known; hence, setting the residence time in
equation (12-80) will solve k, which is also given by the Arrhenius equation as

E
=P Alexp (-=) (12-81)

where A is called a preexponential factor, E the reaction activation energy, R the univer-
sal gas constant, and 7 the absolute temperature. To use equation (12-81), the constants
A and E must be determined experimentally. Once they are known, T can be calculated
using the k value obtained in equation (12-80).
The other design parameters that must be determined are the amount of supple-
mentary fuel and burner air needed for a given amount of waste or polluted air. Of
course, if the waste is self-burning, the amount of supplementary fuel in the equa-
tion that will be derived below can just be set equal to zero. The amount of burner
air can be established by stoichiometry. The quantity of supplementary fuel may be
calculated by performing material and enthalpy balances. An enthalpy balance is a
heat balance at constant pressure, which is the condition of operation in an incin-
erator.
Let Mg be the rate of supplementary fuel flow, Mpa the rate of waste or polluted
airflow, Mpa the rate of burner airflow, and Mr the rate of exhaust gases flow. By
material balance, the following equation is obtained:

Mo + Mpa t+ Mpa = Me (12-82)

636 Air Pollution Control Chap. 12

Designating enthalpies as / and the lower heating value as H;, the corresponding enthalpy
balance is

Mo Heo 1— fr) +MchcotMpahpatM

paywX Hepa(—fi)+Mepahpa = Mehe
(12-83)
where y,, is the weight fraction of burnable pollutant in polluted air, f; the fractional loss
of input heating value, and X the fractional destruction of the pollutant. The meanings
of the subscripts for h and He should be clear. Ae pa is the lower heating value of the
pollutant in the polluted air. Substituting the Mer in equation (12-82) for the Mg in
equation (12-83) and solving for Mc yields

ni, = Meathe =hea) + Mpalhe —hoa) ~ MpaywX Hera —fi) 1 gy

. Hyg lyr)
he iG)

The burner is often operated with a preset ratio R of burner air to gas, Mpa/MG. Using
this ratio gives

Vie a Me pA(he
ip — hes
PA) i= MeAvu
PAY Xd Hip
ep a ( ie) (12-85)
Aig — fr) —(R+Dihe)
+he + Rhea
In the equations above, if the waste gas is not admixed with air, y, is equal to 1.
Also, Mg should refer to the supplementary fuel that is completely burnable to carbon
dioxide and water. Moreover, since the quantities of pollutants in the polluted air are
parts per million or parts per billion in concentration, the h’s in the equations above,
except hg, may be considered equal to that of air. Obtaining the values from handbooks,
the enthalpy of air may be derived. The result, referred to 0°C as datum, is,

L=WOSG (12-86)

where / is in kJ/kg and C is in °C.

Example 12-19
The variation of the rate constant with temperature for the decomposition of HI(g) to H2(g)
and Ij(g) is shown in the following table. Calculate the preexponential factor and the
activation energy. How would k in the table be manipulated to have units of s~!?

T (K) k (L/gmol-s)

555 3.52(10-)
575 1.22(10-°)
645 8.59(10->)
700 1.16(10~3)
781 3.95(10~2)
Types of Control 637

Solution

E
Like ——————
RT

T (K) k (L/gmol-s) Ink >

555 3.52(107") -14.86 0.0018

575 1.22(10~°) -13.62 0.0017
645 8.59(10->) -9.36 0.0016
700 1.16(10-3) -6.76 0.0014
781 3.95(10~7) -3.23 0.0013

Pe —14.86 — 13.62 — 9.36

gee? 1M (| 0.0018 +0.0017 +0.0016 NTT
ee
3 Pp 3
OS —9.36 gee— 6.16eS — 3.23 7 aL ; Ss iy
3 ie 3
E
—12.61 = InA — (0.0017) (5) (a)
E
—6.45 = InA— (0.0014) (5) (b)
Solving simultaneously gives
E
q = 20,533,333; A = 4.82(10’)L/gmols-s Answer

Ee ,0'3952555((0.5 4) L700.) J/gmol Answer

For k to have units of s~!, the values of k in the table should be multiplied by the corre-
sponding average concentrations of HI in gmol/L. Answer

Example 12-20
(a) Estimate the temperature of combustion required to destroy 99.9% of an organic com-
pound using a residence time of 0.5 s. E and A were initially determined to be 45.2 kcal/gmol
and 9.0(10!°) per second, respectively. (b) Calculate the methane gas required in an after-
burner if the polluted air containing the organic compound at 0.003 weight fraction flows at
a rate of 228 m?/s at 95°C and | atm pressure. The burner air is estimated to be 6.0 m?/s en-
tering at 26°C. Methane enters at a temperature of 24°C. He for methane is 21,575 Btu/ Ibm
and that for the pollutant is 18,000 Btu/lb,. Assume that the overall heat loss of input
heating value equals 10%. c, for methane equals 0.55 cal/g-°C. (c) Calculate the volume
of the combustion chamber.
 638 Air Pollution Control Chap. 12

Solution

(a) qaoe

0.990 tee o>) = 13:62 5

E
Ink =InA —- —
RT

T= E 2 45,200 cal/gmol — 1007K

R In(A/k) 1.987 cal/gmol-K In[9.0(10!)s~! /13.82s—!]

= 734°C Answer

OL Ee Mpa(he —hpa) + Mpathe —hpa) — MpaywX Hepa — fL)

: lee (ll = jin) = Unis = ne)

h = 1.08C

Mpa = 228(ppa at 95°C) = 228(1.18) = 269.04 kg/s Mpa =6.0(pga at 26°C)

= 6.0(1.32) = 7.92 kg/s

he = 1.08(734) = 792.72 kI/kg Apa = 1.08(95) = 102.6 kJ/kg

hea = 1.08(26) = 20.08 kJ/kg hg = 0.55(1000)(24 — 0)(4.184)(10~4) = 55.23 kJ/kg

Yw = 0.003 xX =0.999

Btu 1.0 Ibm 252.2cal 4.184 J

Ho@= 21,575, BtollO c= 21, 505 SOB
mG ae Ibm 0.454 kg 1.0 Btu 1.0 cal ( )
J
= 5.02(10’) —
kg

Hepa = 18,000 Btu/lbm = 18,000(2322.57) = 4.18(10’) J/kg

Kg, — 269.04(792.72 — 102.6) + 7.92(792.72 — 20.08) — 269.04(0.003)

(0.999) (4.18)(104)(1 — 0.10)
ce 5 02104) dl= O19 2755 8)
= 3.63 Answer
 Indoor Air Pollution Control 639

(c) Mrz =Mo+Mpa+Mpa

= 3.63 + 269.04 + 7.92 = 280.59 kg/s

Assuming practically still air,

Dee s0,5oN250 50 heh

~ pier 3 Ieee oe
Thus

volume of combustion chamber = 510(0.5) = 255 m> Answer

INDOOR AIR POLLUTION CONTROL

In an underdeveloped country in Asia, most dwellings in the countryside are made of

tree branches with roofs and sides made of leaves and floors made of bamboo strips or
even twigs. These dwellings are excellent since there are no indoor air pollution and can
be comfortably cool all summer and comfortably warm all winter. In advanced countries
such as the United States, dwellings can also be made comfortably cool all summer and
comfortably warm all winter, but there is a price to pay. Unlike dwellings in Asia, where
there are free air interchanges between the inside of the thatch and ambient air through
large holes in the dwelling envelope, people in advanced countries make their houses as
airtight as possible, to conserve energy. This means that any pollutant released inside the
home stays inside the home, practically. People in Asia do not die so much of cancer;
in the United States, increasing numbers do. If not malnourished, people in Asia die of
old age, except those very, very few rich people who can afford homes like those in the
United States; they can also die of cancer.
Combustion occurs in homes daily to cook food and heat water, and in winter to
provide space heating. This produces carbon monoxide and NO,. Some photocopying
machines convert oxygen to ozone. Tobacco smoke contains numerous suspected car-
cinogens, including benzene, hydrazine, benzo[a]anthracene, benzo[a]pyrene, and nickel.
Tobacco smoke particles are on the order of 0.2 jzm; this size can easily get deep into
the lungs. Other indoor pollutants as a result of tobacco smoke are carbon monoxide,
nicotine, nitrosoamines, acrolein, and other aldehydes. If pets are kept at home, there
would likely be danders and asthmatic persons would be in danger. If the method of
heating is forced-air recirculation, feathers can accumulate to an inch thick in air clean-
ers. Asthma is aggravated by these kinds of houses. Practically, anything that gasifies
will accumulate if the house is airtight. For homes in advanced countries, Table 12-11
summarizes indoor air pollutants, their sources, and exposure guidelines. The guideline
concentration for radon is given in terms of working levels. The unit of working level is
defined as 100 pCi/L of radon-222 in equilibrium with its progeny.
A very important indoor air pollutant that has caused so much dreaded attention
is radon. Radon is a chemically inert gas that emits alpha radiation. Radon gas and its
daughter products such as polonium, lead, and bismuth can attach themselves to inhaled
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Indoor Air Pollution Control 641

particulates and can become lodged deep in the alveoli. Disease caused by continuous
lung irradiation is believed to be the reason for some 5000 to 20,000 lung cancer deaths
per year in the United States. Radon seeps out of the soil and can accumulate in houses.
It can exist in groundwaters and be released and inhaled in high concentrations when the
shower is used. It is one of the intermediate products when uranium decays naturally
to the stable lead isotope. Figure 12-8 shows the uranium-238 decay chain and the
major entry points of radon into the house. Aside from uranium-238, which decays to
the stable lead-206, three other chains that produce radon exist. They are uranium-235,
which ends with lead-207; thorium-232, which ends with lead-208; and plutonium-241,
which ends with bismuth-209. In Figure 12-8, entries of radon are identified by arrows;
for example, A denotes entry of radon into homes from the soil underneath the basement
slab and K denotes entry of radon from the groundwater through the shower. The EPA
suggests a radon guideline concentration of 4 pCi/L as a level at which residents might
consider remedial action and a concentration of 8 pCi/L as the level at which action is
recommended.
If the concentration can be diluted to below harmful levels, the problem is mitigated.
This is exactly one of the ways of radon control—dilution. Ambient air is blown in from
outside, thus diluting the concentration of any pollutant that happens to be inside the
house, including radon. Warm air tends to rise and this is exactly what happens in
homes. This is called the stack effect. As the warm air rises, it leaves a void at the
bottom. This void is a partial vacuum, causing radon to be sucked into the house from
the outside soil. One of the engineering controls is, therefore, to plug holes such as those
in the ceiling, electric fixture holes, openings around ducts, basement walls, and so on to
eliminate stack effects. A third method is subslab suction. This is done by penetrating the
basement slab with a pipe and installing a blower to suck the radon from under the slab.
Schematics of the dilution and subslab suction method are shown in Figure 12-9. The
plugging-point method to eliminate stack effect is shown in Figure 12-10. The dilution or
ventilation requirement can be specified in terms of air exchanges per hour, the number
of times that a volume of air equal to the volume of space in the house is exchanged
with the outside air per hour.
To estimate resulting concentrations, the Reynolds transport theorem (see Appen-
dix 21) may be applied to the volume of space in the house. The Lagrangian derivative is

Saye (12-87)

where S is the rate of generation from a source, k a decay parameter, C the concentration
in the space, and ¥ the volume of space. The rate of generation has been estimated to
range from 0.1 to 100 pCi/m?-s with a value of 1.0 pCi/m?-s as typical.
For the Eulerian derivative, the local derivative is

afoyCd¥ _ aC (12-88)
at at
 210Pg —-214Po

of
symbol
chemical
Number
and
protons

202 206 210 214 218 2p) 226 230 234 238 i)& i)

Mass number (protons + neutrons)

(a)

| A
TATTT
TTT
TTT
TTT
TTT

[TOOT

SyA HMSO
Ci eens
SCE MINLYOSS 4

By

Figure 12-8 (a) Uranium-238 decay chain. (b) Major points of entry.

642
 Fan forces
outdoor air
a into house

(a)

Outside fan
draws radon
or from house

c| Pipe could also exit through roof

C|

Pipes penetrate
beneath slab

om OSC) ~ UO
DOPYSO. O
ASG eraske) SOUPS
PAAISSA SOK
Open hole
(b)

Figure 12-9 Radon entry control: (a) dilution method; (b) subslab suction
method.

643
 644 Air Pollution Control Chap. 12

Seal around
attic access stairs

seal spaces around

flues and
chimneys

Avoid recessed
ceiling lights in
upper floors Tight-fitting
External air windows and
supply for weather
fireplace stripping to
reduce venturi
effect

Seal around Seal openings

fe] duct and flue around plumbing
Grade [=] chase openings penetrations
LJ between floors

a Seal around aL ES

a es Se el CT A zal
etween basement ae
CO and crawl space = Solid Ee
(i ! Vents to [a
Cl Furnace Seal around th ee code
access door 4!== 4 requirements
im
to crawl space
Crawl space

Figure 12-10 Plugging-point method to eliminate stack effect.

and the convective derivative is

f Cveidd=—CI¥+C1¥ (12-89)
A
where C, is the ambient air concentration and / is the air exchanges per hour. Finally,
the Reynolds transport theorem becomes

aC
>ica TAY aceasta (12-90)
Indoor Air Pollution Control 645

Solving for C yields

__ S/¥-E Cal
{1 —exp[—CU + k)t]} + Co exp[—CU + k)t] (12-91)
Set Re
Equation (12-91) may be used to calculate the number of air exchanges required
to dilute indoor air pollutant concentration to the safe level. Normally, the blower will
not be required to run all the time but is operated to cut in and out at regular intervals.
Table 12-12 shows some values of k for different types of indoor air pollutants.

TABLE 12-12 k VALUES FOR

INDOOR AIR POLLUTANTS

Pollutant k (h—')

SO> 0.20
Particles (< 0.5m) 0.5
Radon T5(10e)
CO 0.0
NO 0.0
NO, (as N) One
HCHO OSS

Example 12-21
The basement of a home measures 24 ft by 36 ft by 92 in. (a) Assuming that the soil emits
1.0 pCi/m*-s of radon, design for the number of air exchanges to reduce the concentration
to 0.5 pCi/L. (b) Size the blower required and design its automatic operation. Assume an
ambient air temperature of 27°C. Assume that 20% of emissions enters the house; also
assume that the available fan has a capacity of 180 cfm.

Solution

Seer!
(a) Ce oat {1 — exp[—U + k)t]} + Co exp[—CU + k)t]

Design should be based on the assumption that steady state has been attained. Hence

mS
Y taCal
ee

Pepe pel ool (9A ae

Nee soho Wee rnd ealg 3.38

meals = 165.72 m?*

Batt
__ 24(36)(92/12)
= tei. 54 m? Ca =
= Dee
C =0.5 pCi/L = 0.5(10°) pCi/m?
646 Air Pollution Control Chap. 12

5 = (1.0 pCi/m?-s)(165.72 m*)(3600 s/h) (0.20) = 119,320.45 pCi/-h

05(10°) = S220 se og I = 1.26 air exchange per hour Answer

I +7.6(10-3)

(b) Blower size = 1.26(187.54) = 236.30 m3/h = 3.94 m?/m

= 139.16 cfm capacity at 27°C
3Q1@
Number of fans = = = 0.77 use 2.0 fans Answer

Total volume of ambient air required per day = 139.16(60)(24) = 200,390.4 fe

200,390.4
Length of time required to fulfill requirement = (180) 60) == OS In, Saby WO Io

Therefore, operate fan for 10 h/day. Cut-in time = 6.00 P.M.; cutout time = 4:00 A.M.
Answer

GLOSSARY

Adiabatic compression. A compression process where heat is not allowed to escape to

the surroundings during compression.
Afterburner. A thermal incinerator.
Air pollution. The presence of substances in such concentrations that make the air
harmful or dangerous to breathe or causes damage to plants, animals, and properties.
Air pollution control. Measures taken to meet certain emission standards.
Air pollution control equipment. A device or system of devices constructed to meet
emission standards.
Baghouse. A structure housing bagfilters.
Biological pollutants. Forms of natural organic pollutants that are microscopic or
“macro” microscopic, such as pollens, microscopic algae, spores, bacteria, viruses,
and the like, that are alive or have just recently died.
Catalytic incineration. A method of incineration that employs a catalyst.
Compression ratio. The ratio of the exit absolute pressure to the inlet absolute pressure
in a stage of a compressor.
Corona discharge. A shower of electrons surrounding a discharge electrode.
Criteria pollutants. Pollutants of which primary and secondary standards have been
established.
Cyclone or centrifugal settler. A force-field settler that relies on centrifugal field.
Direct-flame incinerator. An incinerator that does not need an auxiliary fuel for firing.
Drift or electric wind velocity. Settling velocity of particles in an electric field.
Dust. Small particles of solids created from the breakup of larger particles.
Electrostatic precipitator (ESP). A force-field settler that relies on an electric field.
Emission standards. Values of parameters to be met at emission points.
Symbols 647

Fly ash. Noncombustible fine particles admixed with combustion gases in the burning
of coal.
Fog. Concentrated form of mist.
Force-field settlers. Equipment that rely on a field of force to pull down particles to a
point of collection.
Fumes. Fine solid particles formed from the condensation of vapors of solid materials.
Gravitational settling. A force-field settling that relies on gravitational field to settle
particles.
Heterogeneous catalyst. A catalyst that is not in the same phase as the reactants.
Homogeneous catalyst. A catalyst that exist in the same phase as the reactants.
Isothermal compression. A compression process where the temperature of the gas
compressed remains constant.
Mass transfer. The movement of mass due to concentration difference.
Mist. Particles formed from the condensation of liquid vapors.
Molecular sieve. A polymeric material possessing pores of molecular dimension capable
of sieving molecules.
Natural organic pollutant. Organic pollutant of biological origin.
Operating line. The locus of the vapor and liquid compositions in an absorber.
Organic pollutant. Pollutant of organic origin.
Particulates. Finely divided solids and liquids.
Polytropic compression. A general process of compression.
Primary NAAQS standards. Air quality standards established to protect health with an
adequate margin of safety.
Primary pollutants. Pollutants formed directly from the source.
Run-clean time. The run time plus the cleaning time.
Run time. The time between a first compartment is put into service and when a second
compartment is isolated for cleaning.
Scrubbers. Units used for removing particulates by using water droplets.
Secondary NAAQS standard. Air quality standards established to protect public welfare.
Secondary pollutants. Pollutants formed from primary pollutants.
Smoke. A colloid of solid particles dispersed in a gas.
Spray. Particles formed from the atomization of liquids.
Stack effect. The rising of warm air in a building.
Thermal incinerator. An incinerator that requires an auxiliary fuel and preheating of
the combustion air to fire.

SYMBOLS

A preexponential factor
As overflow area of settling zone
c mass of dust collected per unit volume of air filtered
Cri Cas specific heats at constant pressure and volume, respectively
648 Air Pollution Control Chap. 12

Cunningham correction factor; concentration of indoor air

pollutant
concentration of ambient air pollutant
drag coefficient
diameter of particle
diameter of droplet
diameter of particle 100% removed
diameter of cyclone; diameter of tube-type ESP
electric field; activation energy
electric field vector
LHmOSS8OO modified Fanning’s friction factor
force between two charged particles
force vector between two charged particles
acceleration in a force field
carrier gas molar gas flow
~
molar gas flow
@)
Sr)
5)
teal
el
Les!
]@)%9
5 head loss; enthalpy per unit mass
>! >
Ss
expansion head loss
depth of settling zone
mm = liquid- and gas-side height of a mass transfer unit, respec-
tively
air exchanges per hour
corona current
first order process constant; pollutant decay rate
individual mass transfer coefficients based on liquid and gas
sides, respectively
overall mass transfer coefficients based on liquid and gas
sides, respectively
length of bed
length of expanded bed
length of settling zone, carrier liquid molar flow
liquid molar flow
influent and effluent dust concentrations, respectively
molecular weight
mass flow rate of burner air
mass flow rate of exhaust gases
mass flow rate of supplementary fuel
mass flow rate of waste or polluted air
exponent for a polytropic process
number of compartments
liquid- and gas-side number of mass transfer units
pressure drop
Symbols 649

corona power
pressure at outlet of last compressor stage
pressure at outlet of any compressor stage
pressures at inlet and outlet of compressor, respectively
charges of two attracting particles
charge of sphere
flow rate
volumetric gas flow rate
volumetric liquid flow rate converted to droplets
radius of motion in a cyclone; distance between two charge
particles
fractional removal of particles; universal gas constant
resistance of filter cloth
Reynolds number
rate of generation of indoor air pollutant
time
time to clean a compartment
filtration time of a given compartment
run time from putting a compartment into service and shut-
ting down the next compartment in a cleaning cycle
temperatures to inlet and outlet of compressor, respectively
terminal settling velocity of particle
terminal settling velocity of droplet
flow-through velocity
velocity of particles of diameter d
tangential velocity of particle
velocity of particles removed 100%
filtration velocity of air/cloth ratio; volts; voltage drop be-
tween discharge and collector electrodes; volume of space
in a house
volume of air filtered
liquid- and gas-phase molar gas velocities
volume of a particle of equivalent diameter, d, or nominal
diameter, d,
superficial velocity
width of settling zone
mole of solute in liquid phase
mole fraction of solute in liquid phase in equilibrium with x
mole fraction of solute in liquid phase at interface
mass fraction of particles of settling velocity equal to or
less than vo
mole of solute in gas phase
mole fraction of solute in gas phase in equilibrium with y
 Air Pollution Control Chap. 12

mole fraction of solute in gas phase at interface

weight fraction of burnable pollutant in polluted air
tower height
distance between discharge and collector electrodes; length
of scrubber contact zone
specific cake resistances
volume shape factor
permittivity constant
porosity
fractional target efficiency of a single droplet
density of particle
liquid surface tension

PROBLEMS

12-1. The concentration of CO in a street intersection reaches the federal ambient standard of
35 ppm. Crewmen from the department of public works are repairing a break in the water
line. Calculate the length of time before their performance became impaired.
12-2. What are the two levels of pollutants for which the USEPA has national ambient air quality
standards?
12-3. What are the six criteria pollutants?
12-4. A sample of 1 m? of air was found to contain 35 ppm. What is the concentration in mg/m??
12-5. Compare | ppm by mass of CO> in air to | ppm by mass of COz in water.
12-6. A sample of particulates of average diameter of 60 wm is soaked with water in a graduated
cylinder to the 1-mL mark. The loss in weight after evaporating to dryness is 0.01 g. If 6
equals 0.93, calculate the number of particles in the sample.
12-7. A Maryland coal is burned at the rate of 5.50 tonnes/h. If the coal contains 3.0% S, what
is the annual rate of emission of SO2?
12-8. The following results are to be used to design a settling chamber. The horizontal velocity
is to be 0.3 m/s. Other pertinent information are temperature equals 650°C, specific gravity
of particle equals 2.0, and chamber length and depth equal 7.5 m and 1.5 m, respectively.
Assume that 6 equals 0.90. What is the terminal settling velocity of the particle that is
removed 100%?

Size (um) Wt %

0-10 8
10-20 10
20-30 12
30-40 15
40-50 19
50-60 14
60-70 ls
70-80 g
Problems 651

12-9. In Problem 12-8, determine the expected percent removal of the particles.
12-10. A quantity of 250 m?/m of polluted air containing particulates is settled using a settling
chamber measuring 14 m long, 2 m high, and 2 m wide. If the specific gravity of the
particulates is 2.0, calculate the maximum size that can be removed 100%. Assume that
the temperature is 80°C.
12-11. The results shown in the table below are to be used to design a standard conventional
cyclone. The airstream is 21.0 m?/s and the diameter of the cyclone is 2.0 m. The
temperature is 77°C and the specific gravity of the particles is 2.0. Assume that B equals
0.90. What are the diameter and the terminal settling velocity of the particles that are 100%
removed?

Particle size (um) Wt %

0-10 8
10-20 10
20-30 12
30-40 15
40-50 19
50-60 14
60-70 13
70-80 2)

12-12. In Problem 12-11, determine the expected percent removal of the particles.
12-13. Compare the removal efficiencies for a particulate having a diameter of 2.5 4m and a
density of 1200 kg/m? using cyclone diameters of 0.30 m and 0.60 m, respectively. The
gas flow rate is 3.0 m?/s and the temperature is 30°C.
12-14. In Problem 12-11, what is the pressure drop across the unit assuming that a vane guides
the flow toward the inner side of the outer vortex? Assume that C; = 1.0 grain/ft?.
12-15. Design a standard cyclone to remove 15-j.m particulate at 50% efficiency. The airflow is
7.0 m3/m at a temperature of 80°C. The specific gravity of the particulate is 2.0.
12-16. In Problem 12-11, determine the expected percent removal of the particles if a bank of 32
standard conventional cyclones with diameters of 24 cm is used instead of the single large
unit.
12-17. The drift velocity u in the electric field of an electrostatic precipitator is given by u =
2.0(10°)dp, where d, is the diameter of the particle. Determine the plate area required
to remove particles of diameter 0.8 zm at 95% efficiency. The polluted airflow rate is
6 m/s.
12-18. The data in Problem 12-11 are to be used to design a plate-type ESP. The plates are
spaced 30 cm apart and the airstream is 330 m/s. The voltage drop between discharge
and collector plates is 70,000 V. The aspect ratio, which is the ratio of the length of the
plate to its width, is 1.2. The plate width is 10 m and there are a total of 80 channels.
The temperature is 77°C and the specific gravity of the particles is 2.0. (a) What are the
diameter and terminal settling velocity of particles that are 100% removed? (b) Determine
the expected percent removal of the particles. (c) What is the power requirement assuming
that the corona current is 2.3 A? Assume that 6 equals 0.90.
652 Air Pollution Control Chap. 12

12-19 . A tube ESP is used to removed particulates that are 1.0 wm in diameter. The elec-
tric field intensity is 100,000 V/m and the flow rate is 0.2 m?/s. The particle charge
is 0.25 femtocoulomb (femto = 10~!°). Determine the collection efficiency of the ESP.
12-20. The data in Problem 12-11 are to be used to design a tube-type ESP. The airstream is
330 m?/s and there are 36,000 collector tubes of 3-in. ID. The voltage drop between the
discharge and collector tubes is 70,000 V. The tube is 10 m long. The temperature is 77°C
and the specific gravity of the particles is 2.0. (a) What are the diameter and terminal
settling velocity of the particles that are 100% removed? (b) Determine the expected
percent removal of the particles. (c) What is the power requirement assuming that the
corona current is 2.3 A? Assume that 6 equals 0.90.
12-21. Under what industrial plant conditions would you recommend the use of a baghouse?
12-22. Using an air/cloth ratio of 3.25 cfm/ft?, design a baghouse to control emissions from a
grain elevator. The filter bags to be used measure 0.3 m in diameter and 6.0 m in length.
The system is used to control 21 m?/s of waste-air flow.
12-23. Determine the number of bags necessary to treat 16 m?/s of polluted air laden with partic-
ulates. The baghouse is to be subdivided into eight compartments. The air/cloth ratio is
10 m/min. The bags are 0.25 m in diameter and 7.0 m in length.
12-24. Design the cleaning cycle of Problem 12-23.
12-25. In Problem 12-22, determine the number of compartments and the number of bags in each
compartment to be used. Design the cleaning cycle.
12-26. Ambient air at 26°C and at barometric pressure of 29.90 in. Hg is to be compressed to
100 psig. A four-stage compressor is to be used. If the pressure at the end of the third stage
is 51 psig, calculate the value of n. If the motor and brake efficiencies are respectively
90% and 80%, what is the power input to the compressor?
12-27. As far as dying of cancer is concerned, what factor of the homes in Asia makes them
fortunate? What types of people in Asia could also die of cancer?
12-28. From the test results shown below, determine the resistance of the filter medium, the specific
cake resistance ag, the compressibility coefficient s, and the pressure drop in cm HO after
200 minutes of operation. The air-to-cloth ratio is 0.9 m/min, the inlet dust concentration
is 5.0 g/m}, and exit dust concentration is practically zero. Assume that the temperature is
45°C,

Time (min) AP(N/m?)

0 151
5 aT)
10 506
20 611
30 694
60 QED

12-29 . A high-volume sampler draws air at a rate of 80 ft?/min for 24 h. How much residue on
the filter is collected if the concentration is 150 j4g/m??
Problems 653

12-30. Give an idea of how large 100 um is.

12-31. A three-stage compressor is used to compress ambient air at 30°C and a barometric pressure
of 29.90 in. Hg to 100 psig. (a) What is the brake horsepower if the mechanical efficiency
is 80%? (b) What is the discharge temperature from the first stage? (c) If intercoolers and
aftercoolers are to be used and the temperature of the cooling water is to rise by 20°F, how
much water is needed for the compressed air to leave at 26°C? Assume that 1.4 m3/s of
ambient air is to be compressed. cp for air is 0.25 Btu/lb-°F for a temperature range of 32
to) 2550°H:
12-32. Particles of fly ash with a density of 710 kg/m? and minimum size of 10 jm are to be
removed using a venturi scrubber. The scrubber has a throat area of 1.0 m* and a throat
length of 50 cm. The droplet diameter formed is 100 wm. If the liquid and gas fiow
rates are 0.15 m/s and 96.0 m?/s, respectively, what is the efficiency of removal of the
unit?
12-33. The data in Problem 12-11 are used to design a countercurrent spray chamber. Q¢/Q, =
0.02(10~7), Ug = 25 cm/s, and Zp = 3.5 m. The pressure is atmospheric and the tempera-
ture is 77°C. (a) What is the efficiency of removal for the O- to 10-jzm size fraction? (b) If
Q is 21 m°/s, what is the cross-sectional area of the chamber? (c) What is the pressure
drop through the spray nozzle if the pressure at the nozzle inlet is 20 in. water. Assume that
the pressure drop produces droplets of dg = 0.030 cm and that 20% of the sprayed water is
converted to suspended droplets. Also, assume that the specific gravity of the particulates
is 2.0.
12-34. Water at the rate of 0.15 m?/s is atomized in a venturi having a throat area of 1.0 m?. The
rate of flow of the polluted air through the throat is 100 m?/s. If the temperature of the
water is 25°C, calculate the droplet diameter. Assume that 20% of the water introduced at
the throat is converted to droplets.
12-35. Solve Problem 12-33 for a cross-flow spray chamber.
12-36. Solve Problem 12-35 by reducing Q¢/Q, to 10:
12-37. Polluted air containing to 3.44 kg-mol of CgHs6 per hour is treated by an activated carbon
adsorber measuring 4 m by 2 m in cross section and 0.7 m deep. The air contains 5000 ppm
of CeH6 at 1 atm and 37°C. The X/M of the bed is 5.0 kg of CeH6 per 50 kg of C. The
bed has a bulk or packed density of 480 kg/m?, n of 0.4, and a particle size of 4 by 10
mesh. Determine the pressure drop. Assume that 6B = 0.70.
12-38. The dirty air in Problem 12-37 is to be treated in a fluidized-bed activated carbon adsor-
ber using the same type of activated carbon. It is desired to expand the bed to 150%
from an initial depth of 0.7 m. Calculate the head loss and superficial area of bed
required. The specific gravity of activated carbon is 1.8 and the flow of dirty air is
17,500 m?/h
12-39. Differentiate between surface and contact condensers.
12-40. Polluted air containing 2.3% SOz is to be scrubbed using a packed absorption tower. The
stack gas flow rate measured at | atm and 30°C is 10 m/s, and the SO2 content is 3.0%.
Using an initially pure water, 90% removal is desired. The equilibrium curve of SO2 in
water may be approximated by y; = 30x;. Determine the water requirement if 150% of the
minimum flow rate is deemed adequate. Calculate the height of the tower. Assume that
Kea oS) mol/ft?-h-mole fraction and Kya = 117 Ib:mol/ft?-h-mole fraction. Assume
that the total cross-sectional area of tower equals 11.0 m?
 654 Air Pollution Control Chap. 12

12-41. The following data were obtained for the decomposition of HI(g) to H2(g) and In(g). If
the average concentration of HI during the test was 3.0 mol/L, convert the k values to their
pseudo-first-order counterparts.

T (K) k (L/gmol-s)

555 352105’)
SS 1 22010e2)
645 859105)
700 1.16(1073)
781 3.95(10~7)

12-42. Define adsorption. What is the difference between chemical and physical adsorption?
12-43. (a) For 99.99% destruction of an organic compound, estimate the temperature of combustion
using a residence time of 0.5 s. E and A were initially determined to be 45.2 kcal/gmol and
9.0(10!9) per second, respectively. (b) Calculate the methane gas required in an afterburner
if the polluted air containing the organic compound at 0.003 weight fraction flows at a rate
of 228 m?/s at 95°C and | atm pressure. The burner air is estimated to be 6.0 m°/s entering
at 26°C. Methane enters at a temperature of 24°C. He for methane is 21,575 Btu/lb,, and
that for the pollutant is 18,000 Btu/Ib,. Assume that the overall heat loss of input heating
value equals 10%. The cy value for methane is 0.55 cal/g-°C. (c) Calculate the volume of
the combustion chamber.
12-44. The basement of a home measures 24 ft by 36 ft by 92 in. (a) Assuming that the soil emits
100 pCi/m?-s of radon, design for the number of air exchanges to reduce concentration
to 0.5 pCi/L. (b) Size the blower required and design its automatic operation. Assume an
ambient air temperature of 27°C. Assume that 20% of the emissions enters the house; also,
assume that the available fan has a capacity of 180 cfm.
12-45. Name four types of adsorption units.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

CALVERT, S. (1977). “Scrubbing,” in A. C. Stern (ed.), Air Pollution, Vol. 1V. Academic Press,
New York.
CaLvert, S., J. GoLpscumip, D. LeirH, and D. MEHTA (1972). “Wet Scrubber System Study,”
in Scrubber Handbook, Vol. I. NTIS, PB-213016. U. S. Department of Commerce, Washington,
Dic
Cooper, C. D., and F. C. ALLEY (1986). Air Pollution Control: A Design Approach. Waveland
Press, Prospect Heights, Ill.
DANIELSON, J. A. (1973). Air Pollution Engineering Manual. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park, N.C.
HEsKETH, H. E. (1974). Understanding and Controlling Air Pollution. Ann Arbor Science, Ann
Arbor, Mich.
HoLtzciaw, H. F., Jr. and W. R. RoBINSON (1988). General Chemistry. D.C. Heath, Lexington,
Mass.
Bibliography 655

Masters, G. M. (1991). Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science. Prentice Hall,

Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
NUKIYAMA, S., and Y. TANASAWA (1938). “An Experiment on the Atomization of Liquid by Means
of an Air Stream.” Transactions of the Society of Mechanical Engineers, 4(14), Japan, p. 86.
SEINFELD, J. (1975). Air Pollution. McGraw-Hill, New York.
SLOAN, E. D. (1974). “Normality of Binary Adsorbed Mixtures of Benzene and Freon on Graphitized
Carbon.” Ph.D. Thesis. Clemson University, Clemson, S.C.
USEPA (1988). National Air Pollutant Emission Estimates, 1940-1986. U.S. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency, Washington, D.C.
YunG, C. S., H. F. BARBARIKA, and S. CALVERT (1977). “Pressure Loss in Venturi Scrubbers.”
Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association, 27, pp. 348-351.
 CHAPTER 13

Hazardous Waste Management

and Risk Assessment

In the United States, the systematic management of hazardous substances is essentially

prompted by three environmental laws: Toxic Substances Control Acts (TSCA), Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), and Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA). (See also Table in Appendix for list of
environmental legislations.) TSCA was enacted in 1976 in response to the Kepone
disaster of Hopewell, Virginia, which contaminated the James River and the Chesapeake
Bay portion close to the James River with a large concentration of Kepone in 1975.
TSCA controls the production and use of hazardous substances in commerce before they
become hazardous wastes. Prior to 1976 the laws and regulations in the United States,
such as the Resource Recovery Act of 1970, restricted the disposal of hazardous wastes
to the air and water. These restrictions greatly favored disposal into land, creating a large
environmental loophole. To close this loophole, RCRA was enacted in 1976 to protect,
among other things, the quality of the groundwater and the land from contamination of
solid waste. The scope of RCRA was subsequently broadened by the Hazardous and Solid
Waste Amendments of 1984 (HSWA). A major theme of this amendment is the added
protection to the groundwater by requiring more stringent controls, such as the installation
of double liners, leachate collection system, and groundwater monitoring. Aside from
the hazardous waste program, which is Subtitle C, RCRA also contains Subtitle D, which
relates to the solid waste program, and Subtitle I, which relates to control of underground
storage tanks (USTs). Through RCRA, the EPA is able to track hazardous wastes from
the point of generation to the ultimate disposal point—the cradle-to-grave concept.

656
 Types of Hazardous Wastes 657

| RCRA is only able to regulate hazardous wastes at active sites. Therefore, new
regulations were required for those wastes generated in the past and are simply danger-
ously scattered all over the country in abandoned sites contaminating the environment.
The new law was CERCLA, enacted in 1980. Because of the large sum of money alloted
for the cleanup of abandoned sites, CERCLA is also called the Superfund. The super-
fund of CERCLA was largely augmented, giving rise to the Superfund Amendment and
Reauthorization Act of 1986 (SARA).
In the United States, although undoubtedly hazardous, radioactive wastes are not
regulated under RCRA but by other laws. These include the Nuclear Waste Policy Act
of 1982, the Low-Level Radioactive Waste Policy Act Amendments of 1985, and the
Nuclear Waste Policy Act Amendments of 1987.

TYPES OF HAZARDOUS WASTES

Just what is a hazardous waste? Hazardous waste may be as any waste or combination of
wastes that poses substantial danger to human beings, plants, and animals. Specifically, a
waste is hazardous if it possesses one or more of the following characteristics: ignitability,
corrosivity, reactivity, toxicity, and radioactivity.

Ignitability

Ignitability is that characteristic of waste that could cause it to catch fire in the process
of transport, storage, treatment, and disposal. Examples of this type of waste are oil
and solvents and flammable gases such as methane. Specifically, if a representative
sample has any of the following properties, a waste is said to exhibit the characteristic
of ignitability: it is a liquid with a flash point below 60°C; it is not a liquid but under
standard temperature and pressure is capable of causing fire through friction, absorption
of moisture, or spontaneous chemical reaction; it is a flammable compressed gas; it is a
strong oxidizer capable of causing fire.

Corrosivity

The characteristic of corrosivity is given to a waste that has either a very high pH or a
very low pH. Substances and wastes of these pH levels are naturally corrosive, hazardous,
and dangerous. Specifically a waste of pH equal to or less than 2 or equal to or greater
than 12.5 has a hazardous characteristic of corrosivity.

Reactivity

With respect to rate of reaction, a reactive waste is synonymous with unstable waste. Due
to its extreme rate of reaction, an unstable waste can create an explosive condition at any
stage of the management cycle of transport, storage, treatment, and disposal. Hence a
reactive waste is a hazardous waste. Specifically, if a sample exhibits any of the following
658 Hazardous Waste Management and Risk Assessment Chap. 13

properties, a waste is said to have the characteristic of reactivity: it undergoes a violent

change with or without detonating; it reacts violently with water and forms potentially
dangerous mixtures with water, whether explosive or toxic; and it is a cyanide- or sulfide-
bearing waste capable of releasing toxic gases, vapors, or fumes at the pH range 2 to
12.5 in such a quantity as to cause harm to human health or the environment.

Toxicity

A toxic substance is a poisonous substance and a poisonous substance has to be hazardous.

Hence a waste that possesses the characteristic of toxicity is a hazardous waste.
To standardize the determination of toxicity, standard laboratory procedures have
been developed: the first procedure is called the extraction procedure (EP) toxicity test;
the second procedure is called the toxicity characteristics leaching procedure (TCLP).
There are two major differences between these two procedures: TCLP has more param-
eters than EP and the pH used in the digestion procedure for EP is lower (pH = 2)
than that for TCLP (about the pH of acid rain, which is approximately 4.0). TCLP is a
replacement for EP.
A list of toxic substances is chosen with their corresponding maximum regulatory
concentration for toxicity given. If a particular waste contains any one of the toxic
substances listed in concentrations greater than the regulatory maximum, the waste is
considered hazardous. Tables 13-1 and 13-2 list the maximum concentrations of contam-
inants for the EP toxicity test and the TCLP toxicity test, respectively. TCLP has more
toxic substances listed.
Example 13-1
A sample of waste is analyzed using the EP toxicity test. It contains the following con-
centrations: lindane 0.3 mg/L, toxaphene 0.2 mg/L, and 2,4-D 4 mg/L. All the other toxics
listed in Table 13-1 are absent. Is the waste a hazardous waste?

Solution No. Answer

Radioactivity

Radioactivity may be defined as the spontaneous breakup of the nucleus of an atom.

While the characteristic of reactivity of a hazardous waste refers to the instability of the
atom or the molecule, the characteristic of radioactivity, on the other hand, refers to the
nucleus—not the atom or the molecule. In the dimension of radioactivity, the nucleus of
a radioactive atom is too large, making it unstable, and an unstable nucleus breaks up
and the atom changes to another one lower in mass. In hazardous waste management,
three types of radioactivity or radiation are of concern: alpha particle, beta particle, and
gamma radiations.

Alpha radiation. The release of alpha radiation from the nucleus of a radioactive
element is equivalent to the release of a positively charged helium nucleus consisting of
two neutrons and two protons. This release causes the parent atom to lose four atomic
Types of Hazardous Wastes 659

TABLE 13-1 MAXIMUM CONCENTRATIONS OF CONTAMINANTS FOR THE EP

TOXICITY TEST

EPA
hazardous Maximum
waste concentration
number Contaminant (mg/L)

D004 Arsenic 5.0

D005 Barium 100
D006 Cadmium 1.0
D007 Chromium 5.0
D008 Lead 5.0
D009 Mercury ()
D010 Selenium 1.0
DO11 Silver 0)
D012 Endrin (1,2,3,4,10,10-hexachloro-1,7-epoxy- 0.02
1,4,4a,5,6,7,8,8a-octahydro-1,4,endo,endo-5,8-
dimethanonaphthalene)
D013 Lindane (1,2,3,4,5,6-hexachlorocyclohexane, 0.4
y isomer)
D014 Methoxychlor [1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis(p-methoxy- 10.0
phenyl)ethane]
DO15 Toxaphene (Cj9Hj9Clg, technical chlorinated Or
camphene, 67-69% chlorine)
D016 2,4-D (2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid) 10.0
DOI7 2,4,5-TP Silvex (2,4,5-trichlorophenoxypropionic 1.0
acid

mass numbers, which are the sum of the number of protons and the number of neutrons
in the nucleus. Alpha particle emission occurs mainly in radioisotopes whose atomic
number is greater than 82. (Atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus.)
In terms of absolute masses, the mass released from the nucleus may be cal-
culated in terms of the atomic mass unit (amu), which is defined as one-twelfth the
mass of the C-12 atom. Using this scale, the neutron has 1.0088665 amu, the pro-
ton has 1.0088925 amu, and the electron has 0.0005486 amu. The amu itself may be
calculated using Avogadro’s number of 6.022(1073) particles per gram-mole. Hence
amu = 4 [12/6.022(107?)] = 1.6606(10~**) g. In this calculation, 12 is the number of
grams in a gram-mole of C-12, which is also the atomic weight of C-12.
Since amu is one-twelfth the mass of the C-12 atom, multiplying amu by 12 will
give the mass of the C-12 atom: 1.6606(10~24)(12) = 1.9927(10-73) g, mass of C-12
atom. However, in this calculation, 12 is also the atomic weight of C-12. From this it
is concluded that the atomic weight of C-12 is the weight or mass of an atom of C-12
expressed in terms of the number of amu. This finding may be extended to any other
element. Therefore, the atomic weight of any element is the weight or mass of its atom
expressed in terms of the number of amu. In a similar manner, the molecular weight of
a compound is the weight or mass of the molecule of the compound expressed in terms
of the number of amu.
660 Hazardous Waste Management and Risk Assessment Chap. 13

TABLE 13-2 MAXIMUM CONCENTRATIONS OF CONTAMINANTS FOR THE TCLP

TOXICITY TEST

EPA
hazardous Maximum
waste concentration
number Contaminant (mg/L)

D004 Arsenic 5.0

DO0S Barium 100
D006 Cadmium 1.0
D007 Chromium 5.0
D008 Lead 5.0
D009 Mercury 0.2
D010 Selenium 1.0
DO11 Silver 5.0
D012 Endrin (1,2,3,4,10,10-hexachloro-1,7-epoxy- 0.02
1,4,4a,5,6,7,8,8a-octahydro-1,4,endo,endo-5,8-
dimethanonaphthalene)
D013 Lindane (1,2,3,4,5,6-hexachlorocyclohexane, 0.4
y isomer)
D014 Methoxychlor [1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis(p-methoxy- 10.0
phenyl)ethane]
D015 Toxaphene (C;9H;9Clg, technical chlorinated 0.5
camphene, 67-69% chlorine)
D016 2,4-D (2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid) 10.0
DO17 2,4,5-TP Silvex (2,4,5-trichlorophenoxypropionic 1.0
acid
D018 Benzene OES
D019 Carbon tetrachloride 0.5
D020 Chlordane 0.03
D021 Chlorobenzene 100.0
D022 Chloroform 6.0
D023 o-Cresol 200.0
D024 m-Cresol 200.0
D025 p-Cresol 200.0
D027 1,4-Dichlorobenzene >
D028 1,2-Dichloroethane 0.5
D029 1,1-Dichloroethylene 0.7
D030 2,4-Dinitrotolulene Ons
D031 Heptachlor (and its hydroxide) 0.008
D032 Hexachlorobenzene 0.13
D033 Hexachloro-1,3-butadiene 0.5
D034 Hexachloroethane 3.0
D035 Methyl ethyl ketone 200.0
D036 Nitrobenzene DAD)
D037 Pentachlorophenol 100.0
D038 Pyridine 5.0
D039 Tetrachloroethylene 0.7
D040 Trichloroethylene 0.5
D041 2,4,5-Trichlorophenol 400.0
D042 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol 2.0
D043 Vinyl chloride 0.2
Types of Hazardous Wastes 661

Example 13-2
What are the masses of the neutron, proton, and electron expressed in terms of grams and
pounds?

Solution

Mass of neutron = 1.6606(10~**)(1.0088665) = 1.67532(10~24)g

= 3.6901(10-7’) Ib Answer
Mass of proton = 1.6606(10~7*)(1.0088925) = 1.67537(10~*)g

= 3.6902(10-7’) Ib Answer
Mass of electron = 1.6606(10~ 7*)(0.0005486) = 9.1101(10~78)g
= 2.0066(10-2") Ib Answer

Example 13-3
What are the average masses of one atom of hydrogen and one molecule of water, respec-
tively?

Solution

H = 1.008; hence mass = 1.008(1.6606)(10~*4) = 1.6739(107-*4) g Answer

Hj9O = 10082) 16 = 18.016;

hence mass = 18.016(1.6606)(10~**) = 2.9917(10-73) g Answer

Example 13-4
U-238 decays, releasing the @ particle. Write the nuclear reaction.

Solution When U-238 releases the alpha particle, the atomic number and the atomic mass
number decrease by 2 and 4, respectively. The atomic number of uranium is 92. From the
periodic table, the atom with an atomic number of 90 is thorium. Hence
a ,
238 ys > SUNS shee He. Answer

In the reaction above, the preexponent is the atomic mass number and the subscript is the
atomic number.

Beta radiation. Beta radiations are electrons released from a radioactive nucleus
as a result of the breakup of a neutron into a proton and an electron. As a result of this
breakup, the nucleus gains a positive charge of one proton per neutron that is split. Since
the mass of the electron that is split away as the beta radiation is small, the reaction
does not change the atomic mass number of the parent atom. However, due to the gain
in charge, the parent atom changes to another atom of higher atomic number. Being an
electron, beta radiation has a negative charge.
662 Hazardous Waste Management and Risk Assessment Chap. 13

Example 13-5
Sr-90 decays to yttrium by the release of a 6 particle. Write the nuclear reaction.

Solution

S49 > Yo + 6 Answer

Gamma radiation. | Gamma radiation or gamma ray, as it is also called, has no

charge or mass, being simply an electromagnetic radiation that travels at the speed of
light. Being an electromagnetic radiation, gamma radiation may be thought of as a wave
or as a photon; it has a very short wavelength, in the range 10~° to 10~’ wm. When
the electron in an atom moves from a higher energy level (excited state) to the lower
level, energy is radiated. An analogous phenomenon, also, occurs in a nuclear reaction;
a nucleus in an excited state releases the gamma rays when it transforms to a more stable
form. Gamma radiation may accompany either alpha or beta radiation.

Units of radiation. There are a number of radiation units used. The curie (Ci),
the basic unit of decay rate, is defined as the disintegration of 3.7(10'°) atoms per second.
A unit called the becquerel (Bq) is related to the curie as follows: 1 Ci = 3.700) pha
The roentgen (R) is the dose of gamma or x radiation that produces 1 esu of static
electricity in 1 cubic centimeter of air at standard temperature and pressure (STP). The
energy absorbed by the air from a roentgen dose of radiation may be calculated as follows:
to form | esu of electricity in air at STP, 1.61(10!”) ion pairs are produced per gram of air.
To produce an ion pair in air, from empirical studies, 34 electron volts is needed. Thus
to produce 1 esu, the energy absorbed per gram of air is 34(1.61)(10!7) = 5.47(10!%) eV.
Using the relation, 1 eV = 1.602(10~!”) erg, we have 1 R = 5.47(10')(1.602)(1077) =
87.63 ergs/g of air.
The rad (radiation absorbed dose) is defined as the absorption of 100 ergs of energy
resulting from a radioactive radiation per gram of the absorbing substance. Thus, in air
a roentgen is equal to 87.63/100 = 0.88 rad. The ratio of the absorbed energy from
gamma radiation to the absorbed energy from a given radiation that produces the same
biological effect as the gamma radiation is called the relative biological effect (RBE) of
the given radiation. Thus if the absorbed dose of | rad of a gamma radiation produces
the same biological effect as 0.2 rad of a neutron radiation, the RBE of the neutron
radiation is 1/0.2 = 5. The product of the dose in rads and RBE is called the roentgen
equivalent man (rem). Although the rad is a convenient unit for expressing the amount of
energy absorbed, it does not indicate the relative injury the radiation causes to a biological
substance. Expressing it as a product with RBE (the rem) measures this relative biological
injury. Hence, in the example above, the neutron radiation causes five times more injury
than the simple gamma radiation.

Example 13-6
The rad value of radiation A is 10 rads and that of radiation B is 2 rads. If A has an RBE of
1 while B has an RBE of 7, which is the potentially more damaging of the two radiations?
 Health Effects 663

Solution To make comparisons, the two radiations must be converted into rems.

Number of rems = rad RBE

Number or rems of A = 10(1) = 10

Number or rems of B = 2(7) = 14

Thus B is potentially more damaging. |Answer

HEALTH EFFECTS

As mentioned before, in the United States, radioactive wastes are not regulated under
RCRA. For this reason, two types of hazardous wastes should be distinguished: RCRA
wastes (regulated by RCRA) and radioactive wastes. The effect of RCRA wastes on health
may be exemplified by the tragedy of Love Canal.'! This was discussed in Chapter 1.

Radioactive Wastes

Radioactive wastes contain remnants of nuclei that emit alpha, beta, and gamma radia-
tions. As an alpha particle passes through biological tissue, its positive charge attracts
orbital electrons. This interaction can knock out the electrons, causing ionization of tissue
substances.
Alpha particles are relatively massive and can easily be stopped. The skin is
sufficient protection from an external source; however, if the radiation is taken internally
it can cause great damage by direct internal bombardment.
As the negatively charged f particles approach an atom electron, Coulomb forces
can raise orbital electrons to higher levels, possibly knocking them off the orbit, producing
ionization. Although this type of ionization occurs less frequently than that caused
by alpha radiation, beta radiations can penetrate deeper into biological tissues. Alpha
particles travel less than 100 zm into tissue, while beta particles travel several centimeters.
Beta radiation can, however, be stopped by modest shielding; a 1-cm-thick aluminum,
for example, is sufficient.
The short wavelengths of gamma radiation means that they are effective at pro-
ducing ionization. They are thus biologically damaging. Possessing no mass, they are
very difficult to contain. They require several centimeters of lead for adequate shielding.
Depending on the source of the gamma radiation, thickness could go up to 30 cm of lead.
The source of radiation to a biological tissue may be external or internal. External
sources of radiation are those that come from outside the body; internal sources are those
that have been taken internally, such as the radon inhaled into the lungs. All these forms
of radiation are dangerous to living things. The electron excitations and ionizations cause
the molecules to become unstable and break up to form new ones that were nonexistent
before. Then the organism responds to the damage at such a slow rate that the effect

'C. A. Wentz (1989). Hazardous Waste Management. McGraw-Hill, New York, pp. 306-312.
 664 Hazardous Waste Management and Risk Assessment Chap. 13

may not become noticed even after several years (20 to 30 years or so). Low-level
radiation can cause somatic and/or genetic damage.” (Somatic cells are those that are
differentiated into different tissues, organs, etc.) Somatic effects include higher risk of
cancer, leukemia, sterility, cataracts, and a reduction in lifespan. By altering the DNA
in genes and chromosomes, genetic effects affect future generations.

NUCLEAR FISSION

In the case of orbital electrons, when an electron goes from a higher, unstable energy
level to a lower, stable energy level, energy is released. As a rough analogy, a given
nucleus fissions because it wants to transform to a lower, stable form. As in the orbital
electrons, energy is also released by this process. It is this released energy that is tapped
in nuclear reactions.
Fission is a breakup of the nucleus; hence at least two fission fragments result
from the process. Consider a fission reaction using U-235. In the process, the uranium
atom captures a neutron, making the nucleus unstable and thus causing breakup. Since
the atomic mass number of a neutron is 1, the sum of the atomic mass numbers of the
product species must be 135 + 1 = 136. An illustration of a fission reaction of U-235 is
on toe Nope ae e on (13-1)
Mo and La are the fission fragments. If the atomic mass numbers of the reactants
and products of reaction (13-1) are added, they would all be found to be equal to 136.
Since they are too small to emit alpha particles, fission fragments are beta or gamma
emitters only. Reaction (13-1) yields 204 MeV of energy.
About one fission reaction in 10,000 yields three fission fragments instead of two.
This third fragment is tritium (H-3). Since it is a chemical form of hydrogen, it ex-
changes freely with the nonradioactive form of hydrogen in the cooling water used in
nuclear reactors. Containment of this fragment is thus difficult. Tritium has a half-life
of 12.3 years.
Table 13-3 lists fission fragments that can be produced in a fission reactor. Cs-137
concentrates in muscles, Sr-90 concentrates in bones, and I-131 concentrates in the thyroid
gland.
For a nuclear reaction to proceed, at least one neutron must be able to strike
another nucleus for the reaction to continue. For this to happen there must be a minimum
amount of nuclear mass present at any time; this mass is called the critical mass. Thus
the presence of at least the critical mass ensures a continuous reaction called a fission
chain reaction. In practice, reactors are built to provide excess critical mass to ensure
sufficient neutrons. There then exists the potential for a runaway reaction. For this
reaction not to happen, excess neutrons are controlled by means of a moderator. This is
made of materials such as boron, cadmium, or hafnium that have a large cross section

2G. M. Masters (1991). Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science. Prentice Hall, Engle-
wood Cliffs, N.J., p. 58.
 Cradle-to-Grave Management 665

TABLE 13-3 REACTOR FISSION

FRAGMENTS

Type of
Isotope emission Half-life

Ag-111 Beta 8 days

Sn-125 Beta 9 days
Sb-125 Beta 2 yr
Te-127 Gamma 100 days
Te-129 Beta 33 days
1-129 Beta 2(10’) yr
1-131 Beta 8 days
Xe-131 Beta 10 days
Ce-141 Beta 32 days
Ce-144 Beta 285 days
Pr-143 Beta 13 days
Nd-147 Beta 11 days
Pm-147 Beta 3 yr
Pm-148 Gamma 40 days
Eu-156 Beta 15 days
Kr-85 Beta/gamma 10 yr
Sr-89 Beta 50 days
Sr-90 Beta 29 yr
Y-91 Beta/gamma 55 days
Zr-95 Beta 63 days
Nb-95 Beta/gamma 35 days
Ru-103 Beta 40 days
Ru-106 Beta ya
Xe-133 Beta/gamma 5 days
Cs-134 Beta 2 yr
Cs-137 Beta 30 yr
Ba-140 Beta 12 days

for capturing neutrons. Moderators are made into control rods that are inserted in and
out of the reactor to moderate the reaction.
Fission reactions produces a large amount of heat. This must be dissipated away by
means of cooling water to prevent mechanical failure of the reactor assembly—a process
called meltdown. The ultimate uncontrolled reaction is called atomic explosion.

CRADLE-TO-GRAVE MANAGEMENT

Under RCRA a cradle-to-grave chain of management has been instituted. The chain
is composed of the generator, the transporter, treatment systems, storage facilities, and
disposal sites, as well as the EPA or appropriate state agency. The generator produces
the hazardous waste; the transporter receives the waste from the generator and transports
it to a destination such as treatment plants or storage facilities. Storage facilities are those
structures that are used to store the waste temporarily before treatment and final disposal.
 666 Hazardous Waste Management and Risk Assessment Chap. 13

A facility that treats, stores, and disposes the hazardous waste is called a TSD facility.
The TSD facility receives the waste from the transporter.
Central to this type of management is the hazardous waste manifest. The manifest
is a multiple-form document and contains information about the waste, and on the waste
generator, transporter, and TSD facility. The way that the system works is that the
generator initially completes the forms. One copy is retained; another is sent to the
USEPA or appropriate USEPA-delegated state agency. The remainder copies are given
to the transporter, who retains one copy. At this point the USEPA or the state has been
alerted that a hazardous waste is in the shipment process. Upon arrival, the transporter
gives the copies of the manifest (minus one copy) to the TSD facility. The facility then
retains one copy and returns one copy to the generator and another copy to the appropriate
USEPA or state agency. As can be seen, by this system, the whereabouts of the waste is
known at all times.
If a certain number of days have elapsed since the waste was given to the transporter
and the generator has not received the copy of the manifest, it is the duty of the generator
to investigate into the whereabouts of the waste. If, again, after a certain additional
number of days, the generator is still unable to locate the waste, the generator must
then file an exception with the USEPA. At any rate, the location of the waste must be
investigated continually until found.
To qualify for a generator, transporter, or a TSD facility, certain requirements must
be met. For example, the generator and the transporter must have an USEPA identification
number. The generator must refuse to give the waste to a transporter who does not have
the number and, vice versa. The USEPA identification number enables the agency to
monitor and track all hazardous wastes produced. The generator must comply with
all packaging requirements. These require the generator to identify and quantify the
wastes that are put in a certain container for transport. The transporter must follow all
placarding requirements while transporting the waste. The placard serves as a warning
to the public that a hazardous waste is being transported. The transporter normally
follows the transportation regulation developed by the Department of Transportation.
The transporter must also comply with all reporting requirements in case of an accident
during transport, which must be reported immediately to local authorities. In addition to
the USEPA identification number, the TSD facility must have a permit in order to carry
out its business. The final disposal facility must be an approved site. Figure 13-1 shows
a photograph of hazardous waste containers.

TREATMENT METHODS

Upon arrival at the TSD facility, the waste may be treated by a number of ways depending
on the type. Treatment methods used for hazardous wastes include biological treatment,
neutralization, oxidation-reduction, precipitation, carbon adsorption, ion exchange, elec-
trodialysis, reverse osmosis, fixation/stabilization, and incineration. Depending on the
type of waste, any one or combination of these methods may be used. Some of the
Treatment Methods 667

Figure 13-1 Hazardous waste

containers.

foregoing treatment methods have already been discussed in this book and will therefore
not be repeated, except for some that warrant repetition.
Biological waste treatment of hazardous organic wastes is very similar to con-
ventional waste treatment of organic wastes. The only difference is that whereas in
conventional treatment, the mean cell residence time may range from 4 to 15 days, in
hazardous waste treatment, the mean cell residence time may extend to 3 to 6 months.
Most organic hazardous wastes are anthropogenic, and they normally are halogenated.
Halogenated compounds are very resistant to biodegradation. These compounds include
pesticides, plasticizers, solvents, and trihalomethanes. Although these compounds are
toxic, they may be degraded by acclimatization with the attendant penalty of a very long
mean cell residence time.
The concept of acclimatization is also manifested in in situ biodegradation. In this
process, bacteria in the soil or in the environment have been in contact with the waste
for a long period of time; hence they have been acclimated to the waste. They have
developed the necessary enzymes to degrade the particular type of waste. In practice,
what is needed to accelerate the biodegradation process is to add nutrients, nitrogen and
phosphorus, to. the soil.
The treatment methods enumerated above do not apply automatically to all types
of waste. Just what type of method is applicable to a given waste must be determined
by some treatability experiment or a search of the literature.

Neutralization

When a hazardous waste has either a high or a low pH, it can be treated by neutralization.
For example, sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid are added to a waste high in caustic,
while NaOH or Ca(OH) are added to wastes that are acidic. The final pH before
discharge should meet regulatory requirements which is 6.5 to 8.5 in Maryland and
would be different elsewhere.
668 Hazardous Waste Management and Risk Assessment Chap. 13

Oxidation-Reduction

Whenever a constituent of hazardous waste is amenable to oxidation-reduction (redox) as

determined by some treatability experiment or by a literature search, this method may be
used. For example, if the waste is a cyanide, it may be oxidized by alkaline chlorination.
(Alkaline here must be emphasized, since acid chlorination produces hydrogen cyanide,
which is poisonous.) The process is carried out in two steps. The first step is conducted
at pH 10 and the pertinent reaction is as follows:
NaCN + 2NaOH + Cl, = NaCNO + 2NaCl + H20 (13-2)
The second step is conducted at pH 8 and the reaction is as follows:
2NaCNO + 3Clp + 4NaOH = 2CO2 + N2 + 6NaCl + 2H2O0 (13-3)
Another example of a redox treatment is the reduction of hexavalent chromium to
the trivalent form in electroplating operations using sulfur dioxide. Trivalent chromium is
much less toxic and more easily precipitated than hexavalent chromium. The reactions are
3SO, + 3H2O — 3H2SO3 (13-4)

2CrO3 + 3H2SO3 — Cro(SO4)3 + 3H2O0 (13-5)

Precipitation

Precipitation is a process in which an insoluble product is formed called a precipitate,

which is then settled or removed. Frequently, the precipitation involves the use of
Ca(OH)2 or caustic soda to form a precipitate of metal hydroxide. For example, the
following reaction shows the removal of a precipitable metal M using lime:
M2* + Ca(OH), > M(OH), + Cat (13-6)

Solidification and Stabilization

Inorganic hazardous wastes cannot be destroyed, unlike organic wastes, which can be
incinerated. A method that has been developed to treat these wastes is solidification and
stabilization. In this method, after the waste has been concentrated into ash or sludge,
it is mixed in a binding agent to solidify and to stabilize. After solidification, the waste
constituent should not leach out from the solid matrix for it to be considered treated.
Portland cement has been used as a solidifying agent.

Incineration

In general, there are three types of radioactive wastes: high-level wastes (HLW), inter-
mediate-level wastes (ILW), and low-level wastes (LLW). High-level wastes are those
with radioactivities measured in curies per liter; intermediate-level wastes are
those with radioactivities measured in millicuries per liter; and low-level wastes are
those with radioactivities measured in microcuries per liter. Radioactive wastes containing
Treatment Methods 669

isotopes higher than uranium in the periodic table are called transuranic wastes. For low-
level wastes, although an effective way to reduce the volume (by 80 to 90%), incineration
should only be used if monitored continuously for hazardous radioactive concentrations
in the effluent gas.
The permitting of a RCRA hazardous waste incinerator is a complex process, the
most important element of which is the trial burn. A trial burn, which has several
components and complicated requirements, is a treatability study that determines the
suitability of incineration to destroy the waste. The results of the trial then form the basis
of the permit that is subsequently issued if it passes a public hearing. The following are
determined during the trial burn:

. Allowable waste analysis procedures

. Allowable waste feed rate and composition
. Acceptable operating limits for CO in the stack
. Combustion temperature and combustion gas flow rate
&= .
an
YO
WB Allowable variations in incinerator design and operating procedures

There are three performance standards that a hazardous waste incinerator must meet:
effluent standard on principal organic hazardous constituents (POHC), hydrochloric acid,
and particulate. The POHC is one or more designated constituents in the effluent upon
which the destruction and removal efficiency (DRE) of the incinerator is based. The DRE
for all designated POHCs is normally specified as 99.99% or higher. For dioxins and
dibenzofurans, RCRA requires 99.9999% DRE. The DRE for RCRA wastes is given by
DRE Win ke Wout (13-7)

Wi
where W;,, is the mass feed rate of a POHC in the feed stream and W,,; is the emission rate
of the same POHC prior to release to the atmosphere. PCBs are regulated under TSCA.
The combustion efficiency is defined by
UE: [CO]
combustion efficiency = iCOs| + [CO] (13-8)

If the residence time of liquid PCBs in the furnace is 2s, TSCA requires the
combustion temperature to be at 1200 + 100°C with 3% excess oxygen; alternatively, if
the furnace residence time is 1.5 s, the combustion temperature is to be at 1600 + 100°C
with 2% excess air. The EPA interprets this requirement as equivalent to a DRE value
Lo 39907:
Hazardous wastes normally contain the chlorine atom; hence, when burned, hy-
drochloric acid is formed. Since the concentration can become hazardous, HCl is also
limited by some performance standard, such as a requirement of no greater than the larger
of 1.8 kg/h or 1% of the HCl prior to entering any pollution control equipment.
Particulates emitted from an incinerator can be hazardous if the waste incinerated
is also hazardous. For this reason, particulates coming out of a hazardous incinerator are
also limited by some standard. The standard is set to dry standard conditions corrected to
670 Hazardous Waste Management and Risk Assessment Chap. 13

TABLE 13-4 INCOMPLETE LISTING OF HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES

Hazardous
waste number Hazardous substance

P023 Acetaldehyde, chloro-

PO02 Acetamide, n-(aminothioxomethy])-
POS7 Acetamide, 2-fluoro-
PO058 Acetic acid, fluoro-, sodium salt
P066 Acetimidic acid, n-[(methylcarbamoyl)oxy]thio-, methyl ester

U077 Ethylene dichloride

U359 Ethylene glycol monoethy! ether

U043 Vinyl chloride

U248 Warfarin
U239 Xylene
U200 Yohimban-16-carboxylic acid,
11,17-dimethoxy-18-[(3,4,5-trimethoxybenzoyl)oxy]-,
methyl ester
U249 Zinc phosphide

some level of percent oxygen in the stack X. Let Y be the actual mole fraction of oxygen in
the stack in terms of the stack gas nitrogen and oxygen contents corrected to dry standard
conditions. Using 21 as the mole percent of oxygen in dry air, the mole fraction of oxygen
used in combustion is proportional to 21—Y. Using the correction X, the mole fraction of
oxygen used in combustion would also be proportional to 21—X (corrected to dry standard
conditions). The amount of particulate matter produced is proportional to the amount of
oxygen used in combustion. Hence, letting P,, be the actually measured particulate
concentration, P,, is proportional to 21 — Y. Also, letting P. represent the corrected
particulate concentration at the correction level of X, P. is proportional to 21 — X.
Formulating the proportionality equation and solving for P., the following is obtained:
eeagt 21—X
Ces LOS Ge (13-9)

If X is equal to 7, the numerator of equation (13-9) is equal to 14.4

Table 13-4 shows a short and an incomplete listing of hazardous substances that
can form the components of hazardous waste. The hazardous waste numbers are USEPA
numbers. This table simply gives the reader some idea of what a hazardous substance
can be. For an extensive list, the USEPA should be consulted.

3M. L. Davis and D. A. Cornwell (1991). Introduction to Environmental Engineering. McGraw-Hill,

New York, p. 696.
Treatment Methods 671

Example 13-7
A trial burn at 1000°C for a hazardous waste mixture designates the following as the POHCs:
chlorobenzene, toluene, and xylene. The waste feed and stack emissions are shown below.
The stack gas rate of flow is 400 m?/min at dry standard conditions. The permit requires
the following to be met: DRE = 99.99%, HCI emissions to be no greater than the larger of
1.8 kg/h or 1% of the HCl prior to entering the control device, particulates = 180 mg/m?
at dry standard conditions corrected to 7% Oo. Is the incinerator in compliance? The mole
fraction of Op» in the stack gas is 14%.

Inlet Outlet
Compound (kg/h) (kg/h)

Chlorobenzene (C6Hs5Cl) 150 0.010

Toluene (C7Hg) 420 0.030
Xylene (Cg Hj9) 430 0.065
HCl = 1.0
Particulates — 3.50

Solution For the POHC requirement:

DRE Win — Wout

Wi
150 — 0.010
DREchlorobenzene = eee ee) = 99.993%

420 — 0.030
DRI onencis= Te ew = 99.993%

430 — 0.065
DRExylene = ——>.— (100) = 99.985%
430
For the POHC requirement, the incinerator is not in compliance.
For the HCl requirement: Of the three POHC, only chlorobenzene yields HCl,

CoHs5Cl + 702 — 6CO2 + 2H20 + HCl

1 mol chlorobenzene — 1 mol HCl

CoHs5Cl = 6(12) + 5(1.008) + 35.45 = 112.49

15
HC] in gas prior to control equipment = Tao ul 1.33 kg-mol/h = 1.36(HCl) = 48.61 kg/h

1.0% of 48.61 = 0.4861 kg/h

1.0 kg/h < 1.8 kg/h; thus for the HCI requirement, the incinerator is in compliance.

For the particulate requirement:

eS Oe = 7
(1000) (1000) Gen = 291.67 mg/m?
21—Y 400(60) 14
 672 Hazardous Waste Management and Risk Assessment Chap. 13

For the particulate, the incinerator is not in compliance.

Overall, the incinerator is not in compliance. |Answer

FINAL DISPOSAL

After various treatment methods have been applied, there will always remain some residue
to be disposed of. Land disposal techniques include landfills, surface impoundments,
underground injection wells, and waste piles. Landfill designs have been discussed in
Chapter 11. It must be noted that hazardous waste landfills require at least two liners.
Also, wastes should not be mixed, and only compatible wastes should be placed in the
same cell. In addition, the location of each cell should be clearly identified in a locator
map or similar means. Surface impoundments are excavated or diked areas used to store
liquid hazardous wastes. This storage is only temporary. As in the case of landfills,
impoundments should be double-lined and provided with a leachate collection system.
Injection wells have been used as a cheap method of disposing of hazardous waste; they
should be located well below drinking water aquifers. Regulations regarding construction,
operation, and monitoring of injection wells have become more stringent and, as in the
case of landfills, reliance on this method of final disposal is strongly discouraged: Waste
piles are noncontainerized accumulation of solid hazardous waste used for temporary
storage.
Since hazardous wastes are simply kept on hold, all these methods of final disposal
may be considered temporary. Unless they are rendered innocuous before disposal, these
wastes are like time bombs waiting to explode at the right moment. Research must
therefore continue to find economical ways that will render hazardous wastes harmless
before being put in their final resting place.

Final Disposal of Radioactive Wastes

There is no way that the half-lives of radioactive wastes can be reduced; therefore,
the only method of treatment for these types of wastes is time. Wastes are held until
the radioactivity has died down to safe levels; at these levels, the wastes can then be
discharged into the environment. Holding of the waste can take days, months, or hundreds
of years, as can be computed from the half-lives of the fission products as shown in
Table 13-3.
High- and low-level wastes are put in different holding depositories. In the United
States, the only site for high-level wastes is Yucca Flats, Nevada; the sites for low-level
wastes are Maxey Flats, Kentucky; Sheffield, Illinois; and West Valley, New York. High-
level wastes are produced from nuclear reactors, which number around 102 in the United
States.* Low-level wastes are produced from such places as research laboratories and
hospitals. Yucca Flats is designated as a monitored, retrievable storage facility, which
means that the waste is to be retrieved after a number of years.

*USEPA (1988). Nucleus News. American Nuclear Society.

 Risk Assessment 673

States entered into compacts to manage their low-level wastes. One of these com-
pacts, the Midwest Compact, considers an engineered containment structure to store waste.
This structure can be above or below ground and consists of water-free storage vaults into
which radioactive wastes in their respective containers can be deposited. Before being
placed in containers, radioactive wastes must be reduced in volume. Volume reduction
includes evaporation (for liquid wastes), incineration, and compression (for solid wastes).
Reactor wastes contain the radionuclide plutonium, which has a half-life of
24,390 years, posing great problems for disposal. The fissile isotope, U-235, which
provides the energy in the nuclear fuel, is only 2 to 3% of the fuel mass; the rest is
the nonfissile U-238. During nuclear reaction, U-238 can capture a neutron that leads to
the production of plutonium, which because of its very long half-life, is very difficult to
dispose of. Plutonium may be separated from the spent fuel to reduce the overall half-life
of the resulting waste; however, this isotope is a critical ingredient in the production of
atomic bombs. Hence, if separated, the world could be in danger of the proliferation
of nuclear weapons if the technology for isotope separation falls into the wrong hands.
In France, plutonium is produced for use in nuclear electric power generation. In the
overall, disposal of radioactive wastes remains a very difficult problem for environmental
engineers.

RISK ASSESSMENT

Chloroform is produced daily in the chlorination of public water supplies; it is also a

potential carcinogen. Knowing this potential, should chlorination be stopped? If so, is
it justified? Making this decision involves taking some amount of risk; elimination of
chlorination would mean that the risk of getting cancer from this cause is zero, and con-
tinuing chlorination would mean that the risk of getting cancer always exists. The subject
of determining the probability of getting an undesirable health effect from exposure to
hazards is called risk assessment. Risk assessment has four essential elements: hazard
or risk identification, dose-response assessment, hazard or risk exposure assessment, and
hazard or risk characterization.
Hazard or risk identification refers to determining whether or not a particular chem-
ical is causally linked to an observed health effect such as cancer or a birth defect. This
may done by studies on animals using the suspected chemical or chemicals and positive
results assumed applicable to humans. Assuming positive results in the hazard identifica-
tion stage, the dose-response assessment may be performed. Dose-response assessment
refers to the determination of the probability of an undesirable health response (proba-
bility of risk) to a given dose. In other words, a relationship between dose of suspected
chemical and probability of risk is developed. Risk exposure assessment refers to the
determination of the circumstances of exposure of a person to a particular chemical.
The circumstances may include the length of time of exposure between the chemical and
the person, the concentration of the chemical at the point of exposure, and the volumetric
rate of flow of the medium carrying the chemical. As determined from the results of the
risk exposure assessment, the dose-response relationship may be modified depending on
674 Hazardous Waste Management and Risk Assessment Chap. 13

the actual percentage of exposure the person has had with the chemical. Risk characteri-
zation is the integration of the results of the foregoing three steps providing estimates of
the magnitude of the public health problem. In risk characterization, uncertainties of the
statistical methods used and the nature of these uncertainties should be explained. This
gives the reader an idea of how much reliance must be placed on a risk assessment report.
In hazardous waste management, risk assessment is normally done on the potential
risk of chemicals to cause cancer. Therefore, carcinogenesis will be discussed, first,
followed by elaboration on the dose-response and exposure assessment stages of risk
assessment.

Carcinogenesis

Cancer is thought to be produced by the mutation of DNA. DNA mutation causes the
cell to malfunction, leading in some cases to cell death, cancer, reproductive failure, or
abnormal offspring. Carcinogenesis induced by chemicals occurs in two stages: initiation
and promotion. /nitiation is the mutation of DNA as a result of exposure to the chemical;
promotion, influenced by the same or another chemical, is the stage where the cell
no longer recognizes growth constraints and continues to grow abnormally developing
tumors. Tumors may be benign or malignant. Benign tumors are not cancerous; their
existence is simply restricted to their own boundaries. On the other hand, malignant
tumors are those that break apart (undergo metastasis) and enter other tissues and spread.
Malignant tumors are therefore cancerous.
Chemicals may be categorized as human carcinogens, probable human carcino-
gens, possible human carcinogens, and noncarcinogens. Human carcinogens are those
chemicals that are shown by epidemiological studies to cause cancer. Probable human
carcinogens are those chemicals that are found to cause cancer by limited epidemiological
studies and to show carcinogenity by an adequate number of laboratory studies. The word
probable comes from the fact that limited epidemiological studies show the chemical to
be carcinogenic, but because the human data are only limited, the carcinogenity is only
probable. Possible human carcinogens are those showing carcinogenity on animals, but
no data on humans are available. Since there are no data on humans, the carcinogenity is
only possible. Noncarcinogenic chemicals are those that do not cause cancer in humans.

Dose—Response Assessment

In the determination of the dose-response characteristic of a carcinogenic substance, it is

assumed that any dose will always result in a certain probability of getting an undesirable
health effect called probability of risk. Hence the graph of probability of risk against dose
will pass through the origin.
There are two problems associated with determining the dose-response character-
istic of a carcinogen: (1) the experiment cannot be done directly on humans, and (2) the
concentration used in the experiment is large. Needless to say, no experiment to de-
termine carcinogenity of chemicals should be done directly on humans. Knowledge of
human carcinogens is derived from epidemiological studies. This situation poses a prob-
Risk Assessment 675

lem in ascertaining the human carcinogenity of a suspected chemical. In practice, aside

from epidemiological studies, all that is done is to perform experiments on nonhumans.
In addition, dose-response assessment is not determining whether or not a chemical is a
carcinogen but determining the probability of carcinogenic response to a certain dose.
Despite the inappropriateness and because experiments cannot be done directly on
humans, tests are conducted on animals. To apply dose-response data from animal bioas-
says to humans, a scaling factor must be applied. In deriving this factor, assumption is
made that the doses are equivalent if the doses per unit body weight are equal. Some-
times dose per unit of body surface area is also used. Strictly, the rates of absorption
of the chemical by the animal and the human are different, and this should be taken
into account to modify the dose-response characteristic. However, this information is
normally lacking, and absorptions are assumed to be equal.
The other problem is the large concentrations or doses used in the animal bioassay.
Humans are subjected to carcinogens at only low concentrations. In the animal bioassay,
by necessity, the concentrations or doses are large. Animals have very short life spans
compared to humans. If they are subjected to very low doses of a suspected carcinogen,
because of their short life spans, cancer will not develop during their lifetimes. To
induce cancer during the animal’s life, it is necessary to use higher doses, resulting in a
very unrealistic situation. On this account animal bioassays can be severely criticized.
Nevertheless, despite this drawback, dose-response data obtained from animals are used
to obtain a factor by extrapolating to concentrations applicable to human exposure. If the
probability of risk (dimensionless) is plotted against dose (standard unit is mg/kg-day),
the curve at the very low doses would be a straight line. The slope at these low doses
is the factor referred to above and is called the potency factor (PF). PF is one unit of
probability. The units of this factor are (mg/kg-day)~'. From these units, the potency
factor may be defined as the probability of risk produced by an exposure of a daily dose
of 1.0 mg/kg-day. But the lifetime of the animal tested has been made equivalent to
the lifetime of humans (assumed to be 70 years). Therefore, the “human” definition of
potency factor is the probability of risk produced by lifetime exposure of an average
daily dose, also called chronic daily intake (CDI) of 1.0 mg/kg-day absorbed into the
bloodstream. If the average daily dose is known, the lifetime risk is

lifetime risk = CDI (in mg/kg-day) x PF (13-10)

Table 13-5 shows potential factors of various potential carcinogens.

For noncarcinogenic substances, the key assumption is that there exists an exposure
threshold below which the chemical has no adverse effect on the person beyond that
caused by the background concentration. The lowest dose of a chemical that results
in an adverse response in a person is called the lowest-observed-effect level (LOEL).
Conversely, the highest dose that does not produce a response is called the no-observed-
effect level (NOEL). A dose somewhere below NOEL is the acceptable daily intake (ADI).
ADI is obtained from the NOEL by applying uncertainty factors, also called safety factors.
These factors are obtained as follows: To account for differences in sensitivities between
the most sensitive members of the population exposed, such as pregnant women, small
children, and the elderly and normal healthy people, a 10-fold factor of safety is used.
676 Hazardous Waste Management and Risk Assessment Chap. 13

TABLE 13-5 POTENCY FACTORS FOR VARIOUS POTENTIAL CARCINOGENS

PF, oral route PF, inhalation route

Chemical (mg/kg-day)~ | (mg/kg-day)~!

Arsenic las 50
Benzene 2.0(10~7) 2.9(10-7)
Benzo[a]pyrene ES 6.11
Cadmium — 6.1
Carbon tetrachloride Ons —
Chloroform 6.1(10~) S11 0n-)
Chromium VI — 41
DDT 0.34 —
1,1-Dichloroethylene 0.58 1.16
Dieldrin 30 a
Heptachlor 3.4 —
Hexachloroethane 1.41 Q=") —
Methylene chloride TaG0s ) (NCS)
Nickel and compounds — iLI)
PCBs Wel —
2,3,7,8-TCDD (dioxin) 1.56(10°) =
Tetrachloroethylene 5.1(1077) 1-3.3(10-3)
Trichloroethylene 10m.) 1.3(10-2)
Vinyl! chloride pe) 0.295

Another factor of 10 is applied if data are obtained from animal studies and extrapolated
to humans (which is normally the case). Finally, another factor of 10 is also used if
the animal data available are limited. Hence the overall safety factor to be applied to
the NOEL can be as high as 1000. ADI is obtained by dividing NOEL by the overall
factor of safety. Table 13-6 shows some ADI values.® (ADI, like CDI, is the amount of
chemical absorbed into the bloodstream.) Comparing Tables 13-5 and 13-6, a chemical
can be considered as both a potential carcinogen and a noncarcinogen. This means
that a chemical may be studied for its carcinogenic or noncarcinogenic effects. See the
values for cadmium and chloroform, for example. If the ADI is subtracted from CDI, the
remainder represents the dose effective in producing a risk. By analogy with carcinogens,
the risk formula for noncarcinogens is therefore

niski—= (CDE ADI) PE (13-11)

The problem with using equation (13-11) is that no PF exists, as yet, for noncarcinogens.
The hazard index defined as a is used in practice, instead. HIs are added for all the
chemicals of concern. Hazardous concentrations are said to exist if the sum is greater
than | and considered acceptable if the sum is less than 1.
For calculating daily intake requirements, the USEPA recommends standard values.
These are shown in Table 13-7.?

8Source: USEPA IRIS database (1989).

°USEPA (1989). Superfund Public Health Evaluation Manual. Office of Emergency and Remedial
Response, Washington, D.C.
Risk Assessment 677

TABLE 13-6 ADIs FOR CHRONIC NONCARCINOGENIC EFFECTS

OF VARIOUS CHEMICALS

Chemical ADI (mg/kg-day)

Acetone 0.1
Cadmium 510m)
Chloroform 0.01
1,1-Dichloroethylene 0.009
cis-1,2-Dichloroethylene 0.01
Methylene chloride 0.06
Phenol 0.04
PCB 0.0001
Tetrachloroethylene 0.01
Toluene OS)
1,1,1-Trichloroethane 0.09
1,1,2-Trichloro-1,2,2-trifluoroethane (CFC-113) 30
Xylene 2.0

TABLE 13-7 RECOMMENDED STANDARD VALUES FOR

DAILY INTAKE CALCULATIONS

Parameter Standard value

Average body weight, adult 70 kg

Average body weight, child 10 kg
Amount of water ingested daily, adult 7 Me,
Amount of water ingested daily, child LiL,
Amount of air breathed daily, adult 20 m3
Amount of air breathed daily, child 5 m3
Amount of fish consumed daily, adult 6.5 ¢g
Lifetime exposure 70 years

Example 13-8
The city of Annapolis with a population of 33,178 disinfects its water supply using chlorine.
If 50 wg/L of chloroform is being produced (a) estimate the maximum lifetime risk of an
Annapolitan to get cancer associated with the drinking of this water. (b) What extra cancer
deaths would be expected in Annapolis per year from drinking its water?

Solution (a) From Table 13-7, assume an average man of 70 kg, lifetime exposure of
70 years, and a water intake of 2 L/day. Also, from Table 13-5, chloroform has a potency
factor of 6.1(1077).
10~°)(1000) (2
Cpr — = 0.00143 mg/kg-day
risk = CDI x PF = 0.00143(6.1)(10-3) = 8.7(10-°)

or 8.7 deaths per million of population Answer

8.7 I
(b) Additional cancer deaths = Te (33)= ().004 person Answer
678 Hazardous Waste Management and Risk Assessment Chap. 13

Example 13-9
Estimate the risk of getting an undesirable health effect due to chloroform from drinking the
Annapolis water. Assume that the PF value of Table 13-5 applies. Also determine HI.

Solution

Risk = (CDI — ADI) x PF

From Table 13-6, ADI = 0.01 mg/kg-day and from Example 13-8, CDI =
0.00143 mg/kg-day.

Risk = (0.00143 — 0.01)(6.1)(10~°) = —3.6(107°) or zero Answer

0.00143
HI = 0.143 Answer
5001

Risk Exposure Assessment

The dose-response data developed above assume that the person is being exposed to
the chemical all the time. However, this may or may not be the case. To evaluate a
more accurate response of the person, the exposure circumstances must be delineated
and defined. For example, a potential carcinogen volatilized from a landfill may have an
effect only if the prevailing wind is blowing toward a residence. At other times, the effect
is zero. The dose-response developed above must therefore be corrected by the fraction
of time that the wind is not blowing toward the residence. Just how much correction 1s
to be applied on a particular exposure situation should be determined on a case-by-case
basis.
One other potentially important exposure is the human consumption of contami-
nated fish. If the water is contaminated with aldrin, for example, it is relatively easy to
determine the ambient concentration. However, just how much of this will end up in the
fish that is consumed by humans? Some chemical will simply be excreted by the fish,
but some will not. Those that are not excreted or are excreted with difficulty are said to
bioconcentrate in the fish body. The amount of bioconcentration is measured in terms of
the bioconcentration factor (BF), which relates the concentration of the chemical in the
fish tissue and the concentration in the water. Thus

concentration in fish = concentration in water x BF (13-12)

Table 13-8 shows some bioconcentration factors for several chemicals.

Another point that must be considered in human risk exposure assessment is the
possibility that a chemical may degrade before reaching the point of contact with a
person. It is possible that at the point of exposure the concentration would already be
zero. The amount of degradation of a chemical may be measured in terms of its half-life.
Table 13-9 shows some half-lives of various chemicals.
Risk Assessment 679

TABLE 13-8 BIOCONCENTRATION FACTORS FOR SEVERAL

CHEMICALS

Chemical Bioconcentration factor (L/kg)

Aldrin 28
Arsenic and compounds 44
Benzene So)
Cadmium and compounds 81
Carbon tetrachloride 19
Chlordane 14,000
Chloroform 31/5)
Chromium III, VI, and compounds 16
Copper 200
DDE 51,000
DDT 54,000
1,1-Dichloroethylene 5.6
Dieldrin 4,760
Formaldehyde 0
Heptachlor 15,700
Hexachloroethane 87
Nickel and compounds 47
PCBs 100,000
2,3,7,8 TCDD (dioxin) 5,000
Tetrachloroethylene 31
1,1,1-Trichloroethane 5.6
Trichloroethylene 10.6
Vinyl chloride LI)

TABLE 13-9 HALF-LIVES (DAYS) OF VARIOUS CHEMICALS

Air Surface water

Chemical Low High Low High

Benzene 6 a= i 6
Benzo[a]pyrene | 6 0.4 —
Carbon tetrachloride 8030 _— 0.3 300
Chlordane 40 — 420 500
Chloroform 80 _ 0.3 30
DDT — — 56 110
1,1-Dichloroethane 45 — ] 5
Formaldehyde 0.8 — 0.9 3)
Heptachlor 40 — 0.96 _
Hexachloroethane 7900. —- il 9.5
PCBs 58 — 2, 12.9
2,3,7,8-TCDD (dioxin) — — 365 730
1,1,1-Trichloroethane 803 1752 0.14 7
Trichloroethylene aH) — 90
Vinyl chloride le — >)
680 Hazardous Waste Management and Risk Assessment Chap. 13

Example 13-10
The PCB chronic water quality standard in the state of Maryland is 0.014 ug/L. Assume
that a risk exposure assessment determines a correction factor to the dose-response data of
0.60. Assuming that the water quality standard is met and that, in fact, the concentration of
PCB in the ambient water is 0.014 g/L, what is the risk of a person dying of cancer due
to PCB in Maryland?

Solution From the previous tables, the following are obtained for PCB: BF =
100,000 L/kg, PF = 7.7, adult weight = 70 kg, and daily fish consumption = 6.5 g.

Concentration in fish = concentration in water times BF

PCB in fish tissue = 0.014(10~°)(1000)(100,000) = 1.4 mg PCB/kg fish

_ 6.5(10~7)(1.4)
CDI = 0.00013 mg/kg-day
i: 70
Risk = CDI (PF) (correction factor) = 0.00013(7.7) (0.60)

= 0.0006 or 6 persons in 10,000 Answer

Example 13-11
A factory discharges PCB into a stream resulting in an instream concentration of 0.20 wg/L
just below the outfall. At a distance 100 miles downstream, a town uses this stream
as a source of water. Calculate the lifetime risk of getting cancer from drinking this wa-
ter. Assume that the velocity of the stream is 1.0 mph, and assume that dispersion is neg-
ligible.

Solution

100
Time of travel = a 100 h = 4.17 days

From Table 13-9, half-life ranges from 2 to 12.9 days; use 5 days. Letting C be the
concentration, we have

C/2=Ce*) — & = 0.1386 per day

concentration at point of use = 0.2027 9-138°4.17) — 9.142 pg/L

Water ingested daily per person = 2 L/day and

average weight of person = 70 kg (from table)

_ 0.112(10~°)(1000)
(2)
CDI = 3.2(10-°) mg/kg-day
a 70
PE = 7/7)
Glossary 681

Risk = CDI(PF) = 3.2(107°)(7.7) = 2.46(10~°)

or 2.46 persons per 100,000 population Answer

GLOSSARY

Acceptable daily intake (ADI). A dose below the NOEL obtained by applying a safety
factor to the NOEL.
Alpha radiation. The release of positively charged helium atom.
Atomic explosion. Uncontrolled nuclear fission.
Atomic mass number. The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
of an atom.
Atomic mass unit (amu). The mass equal to one-twelfth the mass of the C-12 atom.
Atomic number. The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
Atomic weight. The weight of an element expressed in terms of atomic mass unit, amu.
Becquerel. One nuclear disintegration per second.
Benign tumors. Tumors that are not cancerous.
Beta radiation. The release of electrons during a breakup of the nucleus of an atom.
Bioconcentration factor. The factor used to multiply the concentration of a bioconcen-
trating chemical in water to obtain the concentration of the chemical in fish.
Combustion efficiency. The ratio of the concentration of carbon dioxide in the effluent
to the sum of the concentrations of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide in the
effluent.
Corrosivity. Characteristic of a material that has high or low pH.
Critical mass. The minimum amount of nuclear mass to sustain a nuclear reaction.
Curie. A unit of radiation equal to 3.7(10!°) nuclear disintegration per second.
Dose-response assessment. The determination of the probability of getting an undesir-
able health effect from a given dose of a substance.
Fission chain reaction. A continuous nuclear reaction.
Fission reaction. The breakup of a radioactive nucleus.
Gamma radiation. The electromagnetic radiation released during the breakup of the
nucleus of an atom.
Generator. The facility that produces the hazardous waste.
Hazard or risk identification. A determination of whether or not a particular chemical
is causally linked to an observed health effect.
Hazardous waste. Any waste or combination of wastes that poses substantial danger to
humans, plants, and animals.
Hazardous waste manifest. A multiple-form document that contains information about
the waste, the generator, transporter, and the TSD facility.
High-level waste (HLW). Radioactive waste that contains radioactivity measured in curies
per liter.
Ignitability. A characteristic that causes a material to catch fire.
682 Hazardous Waste Management and Risk Assessment Chap. 13

Initiation. The mutation of DNA due to exposure to a chemical.

Intermediate-level waste (ILW). Radioactive waste that contains radioactivity measured
in millicuries per liter.
Lowest-observed-effect level (LOEL). The lowest dose of a chemical that results in an
adverse effect in a person.
Low-level waste (LLW). Radioactive waste that contains radioactivity measured in mi-
crocuries per liter.
Malignant tumor. A cancerous tumor.
Meltdown. A mechanical failure of a nuclear reactor.
Moderators. Control rods used to prevent runaway reactions in a nuclear reactor.
Molecular weight. The weight of a molecule expressed in terms of the atomic mass
unit, amu.
No-observed-effect level (NOEL). The highest dose of a chemical that does not produce
an adverse effect in a person.
Potency factor. The probability of risk produced by a lifetime exposure of an average
daily dose of 1.0 mg/kg-day.
Principal organic hazardous constituents (POHC). One or more designated constituents
in the effluent upon which the destruction and removal efficiency (DRE) is deter-
mined.
Promotion. The stage in cancer development where the cell no longer recognizes growth
constraints but continues to grow forming tumors.
Rad. The absorption of 100 ergs of energy as a result of radioactive radiation per gram
of substance.
Radioactivity. The spontaneous breakup of the nucleus of an atom.
Reactivity. The instability of a substance due to its speed of reaction.
Relative biological effect (RBE). The ratio of the energy absorbed from a gamma radia-
tion to the energy absorbed from a given radiation that produces the same biological
effect as the gamma radiation.
Risk assessment. The act of determining the probability of getting undesirable health
effect from exposure to hazards.
Risk characterization. The overall integration of the results of risk assessment.
Risk exposure assessment. The determination of the circumstances of exposure to a
given chemical.
Roentgen. The dose of gamma or x radiation that produces | esu of electricity in 1 cubic
centimeter of air at standard temperature and pressure.
Roentgen equivalent man (rem). The product of the dose in rads and RBE.
Superfund. The other name for the CERCLA (Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Compensation, and Liability Act).
Toxic substance. A poisonous substance.
Transporter. The person or facility that receives the hazardous waste from the generator
and transports the waste to a TSD facility.
Transuranic waste. Radioactive waste that contains isotopes higher than uranium.
Trial burn. A treatability study that determines whether or not incineration is suitable
for destroying a hazardous waste.
 Problems 683

PROBLEMS

13-1 A sample of waste is analyzed using the TCLP toxicity test. It contains the following
concentrations: lindane, 0.3 mg/L; toxaphene, 0.2 mg/L; and 2,4-D, 15 mg/L. If all the
other toxics are absent, is the waste a hazardous waste?
13-2. Repeat Problem 13-1 using the EP toxicity test.
13-3. A waste from an industrial process contains arsenic 4.0 mg/L, mercury 0.02 mg/L, and
barium 110 mg/L. Is the waste hazardous?
13-4. What is 2,4-D?
13-5. What is the difference between the EP and TCLP tests?
13-6. What are the masses of the plutonium and uranium atoms expressed in terms of grams and
pounds?
13-7. Aside from its radioactivity, why is a waste containing plutonium dangerous?
13-8. On the controversy over the international inspection of North Korea’s nuclear facility, the
United States believes that the reason for North Korea’s objection to the inspection is that
one of its facilities is processing plutonium. Why the controversy over plutonium?
13-9. Why can France use plutonium in their reactors whereas underdeveloped countries cannot?
13-10. Global warming is an important issue in today’s events, and scientists believe that CO? is
an important contributing factor. Plutonium can replace fossil fuels for energy production.
Are you in favor of using this material for the purpose of alleviating global warming? Why?
13-11. What is the half-life of plutonium?
13-12. What is done to avoid runaway reactions in nuclear reactors?
13-13. What is the mass of one atom of tritium?
13-14. U-238 decays releasing the @ particle. What is the atom produced?
13-15. In the decay chain of U-238, what is the stable end product?
13-16. Describe the three levels of radioactive wastes.
13-17. What are the elements 4°X1g and 238X992
13-18. A laboratory is contaminated by I-131 at a concentration of 10 times the tolerance level.
How long must the laboratory be isolated before it can be occupied again? Solve this
problem if the contaminant is I-129.
13-19. Sr-90 decays to yttrium by the release of a f particle. What is the atomic mass number
and the atomic number of yttrium?
13-20. The radiation from Co-60 is shielded using concrete. For a thickness of 110 cm, the percent
transmission of radiation is 0.001%. The attenuation of radiation with distance has been
found to be proportional to the radiation. Calculate the constant of proportionality.
13-21. The rad of radiation A is 10 rads and that of radiation B is 2 rads. If A has an RBE of 1
and B has an RBE of 7, how much more damaging is B compared to A?
13-22. From the result of Problem 13-20, what thickness of concrete will shield the radiation to
reduce it by 99.6%?
13-23. Toluene is fed into an incinerator at the rate of 500 kg/h. If the rate at the stack of toluene
is 60 g/h, what is the DRE?
13-24. If 95% of the toluene in Problem 13-23 is converted to CO and H20O and the rest to CO
and H2O, what is the combustion efficiency?
684 Hazardous Waste Management and Risk Assessment Chap. 13

13-25. A trial burn at 1000°C for a hazardous waste mixture designates the following as the POHCs:
chlorobenzene, toluene, and xylene. The waste feed and stack emissions are shown below.
The stack gas rate of flow is 400 m?/min at dry standard conditions. The permit requires
the following to be met: DRE = 99.99%, HCl = no greater than the larger of 1.8 kg/h or
1.0% of HCI in stack gas, particulates = 180 mg/m? at dry standard conditions corrected to
7% Oz. Is the incinerator in compliance? The mole fraction of O2 in the stack gas is 14%.
Assuming that the stack gas temperature is 900°C, calculate the flue gas composition.

Inlet Outlet
Compound (kg/h) (kg/h)

Chlorobenzene (C6Hs5Cl) 153 0.010

Toluene (C7Hg) 432 0.037
Xylene (CgHj0) 435 0.070
HCl -- ile
Particulates — 3.65

13-26. Methylene chloride in an aqueous solution of 6000 mg/L is being incinerated at a rate of
50 L/min. Assuming that all chlorine is converted to HCl, what is the rate of production
of HCl?
13-27. Assume that the acid in Problem 13-26 is to be completely scrubbed using lime. Calculate
the amount of lime needed.
13-28. In equation (13-9), Pe = Pm[(21 — X)/(21 — Y)], is 21 — Y the actual mole fraction of
oxygen used in combustion? Why? How about 21 — X?
13-29. The city of Annapolis, which has a population of 33,178, disinfects its water supply using
chlorine. If 100 wg/L of chloroform is being produced (a) estimate the maximum lifetime
risk of an Annapolitan associated with the drinking of this water. (b) What extra cancer
deaths would be expected in Annapolis per year from drinking its water?
13-30. The maximum contaminant level in drinking water for trichloroethylene has been set at
5 g/L. What is the lifetime risk of getting cancer for a person consuming this drinking
water?
13-31. The drinking water well of a home near a landfill has been contaminated with trichloro-
ethylene at a concentration of 11 ppb. The owner switches to a public water supply, which
also contains chloroform, another suspected carcinogen. If the concentration of chloroform
is 55 ppb, has the owner made the right decision?
13-32. An 80-kg man has been working 4 days a week for 30 years at 10 hours per day. He has
been inhaling all these years at his workplace an average of 1.0 m°/h of air contaminated
with 0.15 mg/m? of trichloroethylene. If the absorption factor for the chemical is 90%,
what is the probability that this man will have cancer in his lifetime?
13-33. A person smokes 15 cigarettes per day. One cigarette contains approximately 30 wg of
benzo[a]pyrene. If the person weighs 80 kg and has been smoking for the past 30 years,
what is his probability of getting cancer in his lifetime?
13-34. Repeat Problem 13-33 for a person weighing 130 lb.
13-35. The chronic water quality standard for DDT in the state of Maryland is 0.001 wg/L. Assume
that a risk exposure assessment determines a correction factor to the dose-response data of
 Bibliography 685

0.60. Assuming that the water quality standard is met and that, in fact, the concentration
of DDT in the ambient water is 0.001 jg/L, what is the risk of a person dying of cancer
due to DDT in Maryland?
13-36. One gram per day of dioxin is leaking into a 40,000-m? pond. Assuming complete mixing,
what would be the steady state in the pond?
13-37. A factory discharges DDT into a stream, resulting in an instream concentration of 0.09 wg/L
just below the outfall. At a distance 100 miles downstream, a town uses this stream as
its source of water. Calculate the lifetime risk of getting cancer from drinking this water.
Assume that the velocity of the stream is 1.0 mph.
13-38. Repeat Problem 13-36, assuming that dioxin is conservative.
13-39. What is a rem?
13-40. The cancer risk for exposure to cosmic radiation is believed to be one lethal cancer per
8000 person-rem. Cosmic radiation at mean sea level is approximately 40 mrem/yr. What
is the lifetime probability of getting cancer for a person living near the ocean?
13-41. Repeat Problem 13-40 for persons living 1 mile above mean sea level. At this altitude the
cosmic radiation is approximately 65 mrem/yr.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Davis, M. L., and CORNWELL, D. A. (1991). Introduction to Environmental Engineering. McGraw-

Hill, New York.
Masters, G. M. (1991). Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science. Prentice Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
USEPA (1988). Nucleus News. American Nuclear Society.
USEPA (1989). IRIS database.
USEPA (1989). Superfund Public Health Evaluation Manual. Office of Emergency and Remedial
Response, Washington, D.C.
VESILIND, P. A., J. J. PEIRCE, and R. F. WEINER (1988). Environmental Engineering. Butterworth,
Boston.
WENTZ, C. A. (1989). Hazardous Waste Management. McGraw-Hill, New York.
 CHAPTER 14

Noise Pollution and Control

Noise, an unwanted sound, is a phenomenon that has plagued us from the day we were
born. Like wastewater, waste air, and solid waste, it is a pollutant. Noise slows down
productivity and can be a cause of complaints from workers subjected to noisy envi-
ronments. It annoys and hurts people both psychologically and physiologically. In this
chapter we discuss noise pollution and its transmission, noise criteria, and control.

SOUND PRESSURE, POWER, AND INTENSITY

There are three important parameters that must be learned to characterize or, otherwise,
study noise or sound: pressure, power, and intensity. These are discussed next.

Sound Pressure

As sound is propagated through the air, compression and rarefaction bands are formed.
Compression and rarefaction are disturbances over existing conditions. Pressures are
high in the compression band and are lower in the rarefaction band. What accounts for
the propagation of sound is the differential of these pressures above and below existing
atmospheric pressure. Without these differentials, no sound can be transmitted, as the ear
will perceive no change.

686
Sound Pressure, Power, and Intensity 687

Nala ial Hegr tcn

Rarefaction
Compression 5

Displacement
(jum)

Pressure
variation
(Pa)

Figure 14-1 (a) Sinusoidal wave sent through a tube. (b) Displacement and
pressure waves.

Figure 14-la shows a sinusoidal air wave propagated through the tube, indicating
the compression and rarefaction bands. Call the pressure differential Ap. From physics,
the pressure in a traveling sound wave is
Ap = Apm sin(kx — ot) (14-1)

where Ap, is the maximum pressure differential, k the angular wave number (the number
of radians per unit of displacement x), and w the angular frequency (the number of radians
per unit time t). The plot of equation (14-1) is shown in Figure 14-1b.
688 Noise Pollution and Control Chap. 14

In the figure, a differential strip of traveling air wave of thickness dx is isolated and
depicted to be at a displacement s from the tip of x. This differential element oscillates
to an amplitude of s,, that coincides with the middle of the rarefaction band (at minimum
Ap). This means that, when s is at its maximuin (s,,), the pressure differential is a
minimum, indicating that if Ap uses the sine function, the displacement wave must use
the cosine function. Hence let the displacement wave be
S = S» cos(kx — ot) (14-2)

The plot of s is shown in Figure 14-1b.

From physics or fluid mechanics, the definition of the bulk modulus of elasticity
of a gas is contained in the equation
AV
Ap =— Baars (14-3)

where f is the bulk modulus of elasticity, V the volume of parcel of air, and AV the
change in volume due to compression. V is equal to A Ax and AV is equal to A(A Ax)
equals AA(Ax) = A As, where A is the cross-sectional area of the parcel of air through
which sound propagates. Substituting in equation (14-3) and taking limits yields

(Vay
I au
6 ae P
(14-4ee
Partially differentiating equation (14-2) with respect to x and substituting the result
in equation (14-4), we have

Ap = BkS sin(kx — wot) = Apm sin(kx — owt) (14-5)

From equation (14-5),

APm = (Bk)Sm (14-6)

From physics, the velocity of propagation of sound v is

v= 2 (14-7)
0

where p is the mass density of air. Therefore, the diferential pressure is

ADm = (v7 0k) 5m = (V0) 5m (14-8)

Sound Power

The energy of an oscillating sound wave is composed of kinetic and potential energies.
When a spring is compressed, it posseses potential energy, and, when it is released
against an object placed on it, the energy will be transferred to the object as kinetic
energy. Neglecting the effect of friction, the resulting kinetic energy will be equal to
the original potential energy. The air propagating the sound wave or noise is like a
spring. In its compressed state, it also possesses potential energy. When it expands
toward the rarefaction state, the compressed state potential energy will be released not to
Sound Pressure, Power, and Intensity 689

another object, however, but to the air itself, as kinetic energy. The frictional energy of
expansion may be neglected, and the kinetic energy is also therefore equal to the original
potential energy. Hence, for any given parcel of air, the energy content of the traveling
sound wave is equal to its potential energy plus kinetic energy equals twice its kinetic
energy.
The kinetic energy dK of a differential mass of air dm propagating the sound
wave is
1
ke sdmv, (14-9)
where vu; is the velocity of oscillation of the air mass—not the velocity of sound, which
is v. vu; may be obtained by partially differentiating equation (14-2) with respect to t and
the result substituted for the v, in equation (14-9),
1
dK = 5 (PA dx)(—5m)* sin’ (kx — wt) (14-10)
where 0A dx is dm.
The total energy dE is twice dK. Also, power is the rate of change of E with
respect to time, dE /dt. Hence, from equation (14-10) and the fact that dx/dt is v,

Ne NG
op aeee pAvw’s? sin?(kx — wt) (14-11)

Taking the average over a whole number of wavelengths, the average power, dE /dt, is

dE a ee
Tee = pAva’s? sin*(kx — wt) = 5 PAO Sn (14-12)

where sin?(kx — wt) = : for a whole number of wavelengths.

Sound Intensity

The intensity / of a sound wave is defined as the average rate at which power is transmit-
ted per unit cross-sectional area in the direction of travel. Hence from equation (14-12),
I is
!
5pAvws iy) |
p= a = 5 press (14-13)
From equation (14-8), equation (14-13) may also be written as
A 2
Tee (14-14)
2pv

APm WD is called the root mean square (rms) pressure of the sound wave, Apyms. Hence,
in terms of the rms pressure, equation (14-14) becomes
2

po ePiins (14-15)
pv
 690 Noise Pollution and Control Chap. 14

Example 14-1
The maximum differential pressure Ap,, that the ear can tolerate in loud sounds is 28 N/m?.
What is the amplitude s,, for such a sound in air at a frequency of 1000 Hz? Assume 6
and p equal to 20.6 psi and 1.23 kg/m? for air, respectively. What are the rms pressure and
intensity?
Solution

14.696 psi = 101,330 N/m?

101,330
B = 20.6 psi = === (20.6) = 142,038.51 N/m?

i oom /142,038.71 Sesccropeyt

p 1.23
A 28
Sm = es SS See SS 1.07(10~>) m Answer
vp@ 339.82(1.23)(1000)
: : 5A (27)
A 28
APrms = a a Wri = 19.80 N/m* Answer

ns Ape. i 19.807 4 N?/m*4

pv 1.23(339.82) ~ (kg/m) (m/s)
N- J
= 0.94 we = 0.94 a8 = 0.94 W/m? Answer
iiss m

Example 14-2
Repeat Example 14-1 for the pressure amplitude of 2.8(107>) Pa of the faintest detectable
sound at 1000 Hz.

Solution

B = 20.6 psi = 142,038.51 N/m?

0 = BBO iy/s

aye APm a 2.8(10->) =| 07(107!!) m Ans

" vpw 339.82(1.23)(1000)(27) vet
A DEEN: ©
APrms = B = “a = 1.98(107°) N/m? Answer

we Vey SUESDib
I = 9,.38(107!3) W/m? Answer
pv 1.23(339.82)

MEASURES OF NOISE

Table 14-1 shows sound powers and pressures coming from various sources. Noise
measurements are not normally reported, however, in terms of the units used in the table
but in terms of decibels. The decibel is logarithmic.
Measures of Noise 691

TABLE 14-1 SOUND POWERS AND PRESSURES COMING

FROM VARIOUS SOURCES

Sound power (W) — Sound pressure (Pa) Source

— 0.060 City street corner

— 0.020 Conversational speech
— 0.0060 Typical office
— 6.00 Near elevated train
— 2.00 Bottling plant
— 0.60 Full symphony
— 0.20 Inside automobile
— 0.0020 Living room
—- 0.00060 Bedroom at night
100 aa 75-piece orchestra
l — Auto on a highway
0.001 — Voice shouting

In defining decibel, arbitrary reference values are chosen, depending on the type
of decibel to be defined. For example, for power, the reference value is 10~!* W. For
pressure and intensity, the references are, respectively, 2(10-*) Pa and 10~'* W/m’. In
terms of general definition, the decibel is

decibel (dB) = 10 log (14-16)

yy

where x is any one of pressure, power, and intensity and y relates to the respective
reference values.
Using the respective decibels, the word /evel is now used. For example, for power,
the decibel is the sound power /evel L,,, and for pressure and intensity, the decibels are
sound pressure level L, and sound intensity level L, respectively. Using equation (14-16),
the respective definitions of the appropriate decibels follow.

W
L,, (dB) = 10 log 10-2 sound power level (14-17)

L,(dB) = 10 log 10-12

sound intensity level (14-18)

L,, and L; are the sound power and sound intensity levels, respectively.
In the definition of the sound pressure level, the rms value, Ap;ms, is used. Since the
intensity / is proportional to the square of pressure, to be consistent with equation (14-18),
the definition for sound pressure level, L,,, should have the rms pressure and the reference
pressure being squared, respectively. Thus

L, (dB) = 10log
Ne AP ims sound pressure level (14-19)
(2d0-5)/2 — O 108 010-1)
 692 Noise Pollution and Control Chap. 14

Relationships Among Intensity, Pressure, and Power Levels

Substituting equation (14-15) in equation (14-18) yields

Lrp=10 log APims/PU (14-20)

10-!2

At 29°C} 0.7 = el 84 kg/m?, par = 9206 psi — 14703851 N/m’. Therefore, v =

J B/o = /142,038.71/1.184 = 346.4 m/s. Substituting the values of o and v in
equation (14-20) gives
Ape
L,; = 10log——*— 14-21
! ©4.1(10-!) Song
Although equation (14-21) holds at 25°C, from equation (14-19), L; = L,, approxi-
mately.
By definition, P,, = JA, where A is the area of air that is receiving noise normal
to the direction of propagation. Therefore,
P.
Ww IA I
Lon LOilog 19-12 = 10 log = 10log——,, + 10log A = L; + 10log A
10-12
107
(14-22)
Example 14-3
The sound power from a voice shouting is 0.001 W. What is the sound power level? What
are the sound intensity, the sound intensity level, the sound pressure, and the sound pressure
level at a distance 6 m from the source?

Solution
Seat ee 000) =90dB Answer
om llega Olas
ep
Assume that the sound radiates from the source in all directions. Hence the area of prop-
agation at 6 m distance is the surface area of a sphere = 4mr? = 47 (6*) = 452.39 m2.
Then

ee 2.2(10-°) W/m? Answer

452.39

20a)
Tra NOlos p= = 63.42 dB Answer

Lj}*Lp Ly = 63.42 dB Answer

i
ee Pies
ae = 63.42
P © 4.0(10-!)
Aprms = 0.02966 N/m? Answer

HOW DO WE HEAR

Figure 14-2 shows the anatomy of the ear. As shown, the ear is composed of the outer,
middle, and inner ears. The pinna, auditory canal, and eardrum or tympanic membrane
How Do We Hear 693

Eardrum i

Outer ear |Middle | Inner ear

ear
(a)

Outer ear Middle Inner ear

ear
Ossicles
: Oval window
Auditory
Cal Upper gallery of cochlea

Pinna

Lower gallery of cochlea Apex of

Eardrum Round window cochlea

Eustachian tube

(b)

Reissner’s membrane
Upper
gallery
Tectorial
membrane

Basilar membrane

(c)

Figure 14-2 Ear anatomy. (P. F. Cunniff (1977). Environmental Noise Pol-
lution. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley and Sons, Inc.)
 694 Noise Pollution and Control Chap. 14

are parts of the outer ear. Sound transmitted through the air or other medium reaches
the pinna and continues through the auditory canal and strikes the tympanic membrane.
The membrane is thus set into vibration. The middle ear, an air-filled chamber, is
composed of three tiny bones called ossicles. The ossicles are the malleous (hammer),
incus (anvil), and stapes (stirrup). The vibration of the tympanic membrane is transmitted
to the malleous, incus, and stapes in the middle ear.
The semicircular canals and the cochlea are parts of the inner ear, which contains
a fluid called the perilymph. The semicircular canal provides the sense of balance, and
the cochlea contains the organ of Corti, which is the sense organ for hearing. At the
entrance to the inner ear is an element called the oval window. Figure 14-2b shows the
cochlea being straightened out, and the bottom shows its cross section. The cross section
shows a membrane called Reissner’s membrane, the basilar membrane, and the tectoral
membrane. The cochlea is divided by the basilar membrane into the upper and lower
galleries. Between the tectoral and basilar membranes are some 23,500 minute hair cells.
The vibrations from the stapes are transmitted to the inner ear through the oval
window, generating waves in the perilymph fluid. The waves proceed from the oval
window, along the upper gallery, around the cochleal apex, and through the lower gallery,
terminating at the round window. The waves cause displacement of the basilar membrane,
which, in turn, sways the tiny hair cells to and fro, producing a straining effect on the
cells. The straining produces a piezoelectric effect, and the electricity being produced is
transmitted to the brain through the auditory nerve, producing the perception of hearing.
The corresponding electric potential produced is called the cochleal potential.
As long as sound is not transmitted as a sudden impact, the ear has the capability to
protect itself from intense noise by a reflex action called the acoustic reflex. This reflex
is the stiffening of the tympanic membrane by the action of the two small muscles in the
inner ear called the tensor tympani and the stapedius. The ear can detect sound pressures
as low as 2(10~>) Pa and, before experiencing pain, to as high as 200 Pa.

LOUDNESS

The sound levels of power, intensity, and pressure are physical effects that the ear re-
ceives; it is not, however, what the person perceives. What is being perceived or heard de-
pends on how the brain interprets or perceives the sound levels the ear receives. Loudness
is the brain’s perception of the magnitude of the sound levels. If the levels are high, the
brain perceives the sound as loud, and if the levels are low, the brain perceives them as not
loud. The higher levels of sound produce more vibration in the ear mechanisms, and vice
versa; the brain’s interpretation of loudness depends on the magnitude of this vibration.
Since what is actually heard is not the decibel level but the interpretation of it, other
units are used for loudness: the phon and the sone. The normal, everyday sound being
heard is a conglomeration of several frequencies. The audible frequency range is from
16 to 20,000 Hz. Sound below 16 Hz is called infrasound, while sound above 20,000 Hz
is called ultrasound. Phon is the loudness of a tone that is numerically equal to the
corresponding sound pressure level when heard at 1000 Hz. Thus a sound pressure level
Loudness 695

at 40 dB is 40 phons when heard at the 1000-Hz frequency. The decibel level for a given
loudness may be different at other frequencies. For example, a loudness of 40 phons may
have 50, 60, 80, or any other decibel level when heard at other frequencies. Figure 14-3
shows a chart of equal phon or loudness contour.
The phon unit is not additive. For example, assume that there are two sources,
each heard separately at 40 phons. If the two sound sources are heard simultaneously,
the combined loudness will not be equal to 80 phons. Acoustic workers therefore devised
a unit of measurement such that the loudness of two or more sources can simply be added.
Take the two 40-phon sources and sound them simultaneously. Stop the sounding and
take only one of the two and adjust its tone until it is heard equal to the two sources
sounded simultaneously. Using the proper unit of measurement, the resulting value for
the adjusted source can be made equal to twice that of either of the two 40-phon sources.
Hence if the first 40-phon source is one and the second is also one, the sum is equal to two.
Let this be the value of the adjusted 40-phon source. Hence | sone for the first 40-phon
source plus | sone for the second 40-phon source equals 2 sones for the one adjusted to
equal the value of the two simultaneously operated 40-phon sources. This new unit, the
sone, is now defined as the loudness of 40 phons made arbitrarily equal to 1. Using S for
the number of sones and P for the number of phons, this definition in equation form is
S) — 9(P—40)/10 (14-23)

From this formula, when P = 40 phons, S = 1 sone, and when P = 50 phons,

S = 2 sones. Hence 40 phons + 40 phons = 50 phons, not 80 phons. In terms of sones:
1 sone + | sone = 2 sones, and the process is additive. The plot of equation (14-23) is
also shown in Figure 14-3.
Example 14-4
Calculate the loudness in sones for a simultaneous exposure of the following tones: 30 dB
at 350 Hz, 60 dB at 1800 Hz, 70 dB at 3000 Hz, and 45 dB at 4000 Hz. Also calculate the
overall number of phons.

Solution Use the equal-loudness contour of Figure 14-3 to determine the phon levels.

Frequency Sound pressure Loudness Loudness

(Hz) level (dB) level (phons) level® (sones)

350 30 30 0.5
1800 60 62 4.59
3000 70 uo 14.93
4000 45 oy 2

» 22.32 sones Answer

Calculated using S = 2(?—49)/10,

22.32 =2(P 40/10 Pp = 84.8 phons Answer

 RHR
N ev
SHEE SH To SSP
NS 7 an | |

SS

ASNT TTlooSE 7
ASSSTRSSE FHTTT SRE
oOoO

NSSF HT SRS
ARSISOSEEH Te SOR
nN=>

CARESS ls SON
COSI Tio SETI
& oO

CCOPRNNSESCE ETT SEIN

bo
CECCMSS SECT SIM,
N oS

Hee SLUM SS
= Sangre Orci
20,.N/m2)
(dB
level
Sound-pressure
re

100 1000 5000 10,000

Frequency (Hz)
(a)

100.0

Loudness
at 1000 Hz

0.0

Tia
Tics
§ = 2(P — 40/10

Loudness
(sones)

‘oe {____| |
40 60. 80 100
Loudness level (phons)
(b)

Figure 14-3 (a) Equal-loudness contours. (b) Phon and sone relationship.
 Measurement of Noise 697

MEASUREMENT OF NOISE

Noise is measured by means of a sound level meter. The meter is positioned in a desired
location with no obstruction from the sound source and the reading is taken. Figure 14-4a
is a drawing of a sound level meter attached to a calibrator. A calibrator is one that
produces a reference sound and when attached to the microphone calibrates the meter.
The vertical dashed line in the figure locates the microphone and the point where the
calibrator is attached to the meter.
The basic parts of most sound level meters include a microphone, amplifiers,
weighting networks, and a display reading in decibels. Figure 14-4b shows the schematic
diagram of the basic parts of a sound level meter. Sound pressure coming from a source
reaches the microphone, where a pressure transducer such as a diaphragm mimics the
pressure pattern of the source and converts the signal to a small current of electricity.
The electrical signal thus produced is then amplified in a preamplifier.
Sound pressure that the meter receives is not the same as what the ear would
perceive. For this reason an electronic circuitry called a weighting network is built into
the meter so as to produce a readout that closely resembles a human response. A series
of three internationally accepted weighting scales has been adopted. These are the A, B,
and C weighting networks. The A network approximates human response to low-intensity
sounds, the B network approximates the response to medium-intensity sounds, and the
C network approximates the human response to high-intensity sounds. Figure 14-4c
shows the plot for the three networks.
The network circuitry electronically subtracts the actual sound pressure level of
a particular frequency that reaches the microphone according to in which network the
meter is set. For example, using the A network, at a sound frequency of 250 Hz, the
actual pressure level reaching the meter is subtracted by 9. The difference is what is
shown in the readout. Depending on whether the network used is A, B, or C, readouts
are in dBA, dBB, or dBC, respectively. As shown in the figure, at low frequencies, the
A network subtracts the incoming signal severely; the C network, less; and the B network,
in between. Since the readings are not actually the true sound pressure levels, readouts
from the A, B, and C networks are called sound levels, not sound pressure levels. This
is the reason that the meters are called sound level meters and not sound pressure level
meters.
The A network is more commonly used. Another network, the D-weighting net-
work, has also been recommended as closely resembling the human response to noise at
airports.

Frequency Band Analysis

Theoretically, the sound pressure level of each frequency can be measured to determine
the distribution of levels versus the frequency of a particular sound. This distribution is
called the sound spectrum. However, this undertaking is hardly warranted and impractical.
Therefore, a convention has been set to divide the frequency spectrum into bands. One
of these is the octave band. A band of one octave is a range of frequencies whose ratio
698 Noise Pollution and Control Chap. 14

Calibrator ' Sound level meter

'
1
(
f
1
'
‘
1
1
1

(a)

Preamplifier Amplifier
Weighting Display

Microphone BORIS ees

Frequency responses
for SLM weighting characteristics

Relative
(dB)
response

20 50 100 200 500. 1000 =2000 5000 10,000 20,000

(c)

Figure 14-4 (a) Sound level meter. (b) Schematic drawing of basic parts
of sound level meter. (c) Plot of weighting networks. (P. F. Cunniff (1977).
Environmental Noise Pollution. Reprinted by permission. John Wiley and
Sons, Inc.)

of the upper to the lower frequency in the band is 2:1. Thus, calling y, and yp the upper
and lower frequencies, respectively,

Vu == 2h (14-24)
Measurement of Noise 699

The procedure of measuring pressure levels using band analysis is to set the meter
at the geometric mean frequency and take the reading. The geometric mean is the average
logarithm of the upper and lower frequencies. Letting f. represent the geometric mean
yields

l
log le 7 log Vea log Yu) = log Vv VOVu Ye = V/V VeVu (14-25)

To obtain a more accurate characterization of the sound spectrum, the octave band
may be subdivided into smaller bands. Hence the band may be divided in two, producing
the //2 octave band analysis, or the band may be divided in three, producing the //3 band
analysis. In measurement, the geometric mean of these smaller bands is also calculated
to read against sound pressure levels or sound levels, as the case may be. Since the
lower frequency is always a constant percentage of the upper frequency, the octave,
1/2 octave, 1/3 octave analyses, and so on, are called constant-percentage frequency
analyses. To differentiate from the 1/2 and 1/3 octave bands, the regular octave band
analysis is designated as the 1/1 octave band analysis.
The sound spectrum may also be analyzed using a constant increment of frequency.
This type of analysis is called constant-frequency analysis. For example, for a constant-
frequency analysis at an interval of 10 Hz, if the sound spectrum ranges from 20 to
10,000 Hz, there will be (10,000 — 20)/10 = 998 data points to be taken.
The standard set of octave bands used in instrumentation is tabulated in Table 14-2.

TABLE 14-2 STANDARD OCTAVE BANDS

Octave band (Hz) Center frequency (Hz)

22-44 35
44-88 63
88-177 125
177-355 250
355-710 500
710-1,420 1,000
1,420-2,840 2,000
2,840-5,680 4,000
5,680-11,360 8,000
11,360—22,720 16,000

Example 14-5
The upper and lower frequencies of an octave band are 11,360 and 22,720 Hz, respectively.
(a) What is the center band frequency? If the lower frequency is 11,360 Hz, what are the
upper frequencies of the corresponding (b) 1/2 and (c) 1/3 octaves?

Solution

(a) Ye = ¥ 11,360(22,720) = 16,065 Hz Answer

700 Noise Pollution and Control Chap. 14

(b) Let ye = lower frequency

Yul = first upper frequency

Yy = second and last upper frequencies

Te = eter

Yul =XV0 Yu =XVur =X(KYe) =X?ye=2ye x = V2

Yui = ¥2(11,360) = 16,065 Hz Answer

Yu = 2ve = 2(11,360) = 22,720 Hz Answer

(meet ye = lower frequency

Yul = first upper frequency

Yu2 = second upper frequency

Yu = third and last upper frequencies

x = factor

Janil 25s Yu2 = XYu1 = X(xye) = xy

Vu3 = XYu2 = x(x" yp) = x yy x=/2

Yui = V27(11,360) = 14,313 Hz Answer

# 2
Yu2 = (v2) (11,360) = 18,033 Hz Answer

Vu = 2yve = 2(11,360) = 22,720 Hz Answer

Decibel Addition

Decibel readings of a sound spectrum need to be added and converted to a single reading.
This single reading constitutes the overall characterization of the sound or noise. Let
there be the following sound pressure level readings: Epi; Lp2y2--, adds Ls) Prom
the definition of L,, the following expression for the rms differential pressure: Apane
Measurement of Noise 701

corresponding to L,,; can be obtained:

Demi = V'4.0(10-!9) 1021/10 (14-26)

The corresponding equations for P57, >, and, are, respectively,

ADs? = V/'4.0(10-!9) 1202/10 ( 14227)

ANDinnen = V/4.0(10-!9) 1Q/pn/10

(14-28)

Adding the equations above, the total rms pressure, APrmmsT, 18

i=n

APrmsT = V4.0(10-) 5>V10Lpi/10 (14-29)

(=

Hence the total decibel level, Lor is

AP imsT
[/4.000-%) Sint To
Lyr = 10log = 10log
4.0(107!°) 4.0(10-!°)
(14-30)
[=n :
10 log (xJ io)
i=]

By analogy, the total decibel level corresponding to L,, and L,, respectively, are

=n

‘Bn AutaSS ian (14-31)

vol

i=n

Lip =110 10g 5 107 (14-32)

il

Note that the arguments of the logarithms are not squared and the square root of the L
values are not taken since, unlike Ap,;m;, P, and J are not squared in the definition of
decibels.

Example 14-6
The noise spectrum of a cutter equipment at a 5.0-ft distance is analyzed using the 1/1 octave
band analysis, producing the results below. (a) What are the sound pressure level Lp,7 and
702 Noise Pollution and Control Chap. 14

the sound level Lpar generated by the equipment? (b) What is the pressure generated at
the given distance? (c) What are the corresponding power and intensity levels?

Center frequency (Hz) Lp (dB) A correction* dBA

63 62 SNE 36
125) 71 =l6 55
250 2, =f 63
500 Wi =3 74
1000 oD = 92
2000 79 SF 80
4000 WY) +1 78
8000 63 —1 62

“From Figure 14-6.

Solution

i=n

(a) Lpr = 10log (xviata)

i=]

10 log (v/102/10 + 1071/10 4 /1972/10 4 y/1977/10 + y/1992/10

4 1079/104 /1077/10 + Vi08) — 97.28 dB Answer

Lpar = 10 log (v 1036/10 4 /1955/10 4 /1963/10 + /1074/10 + ¥/1992/10

+ ¥/1080/10 4 4/4078/10 + ./1962/10 iy= 9640 dBA Answer

(b) Aprms = V4.0(10-!9)1047/10 — ./4.0(10-1 0)

1097.28/10

= 1.46 Pa Answer

Apee 1.467
(Cm aa — slog ss = 10loe ————— a Ord
4.0(10-!9) he 4.0(10-1°) eee
Assume that the sound radiates in all directions.
D
5.0
Ly = Ly + 10log A = 97.27 + 10 log 4x (35) = 111.92 dB Answer

Miscellaneous Measures of Noise

As a result of the diversity of practice, several units of measure of noise have evolved that
are applicable only to specific areas of concern. Thus community noise measurements
have evolved differently from industrial noise measurements. Airport noise measurements
Measurement of Noise 703

have also evolved on their own. Units of measurements coming from one area can have
no relationship with those coming from other areas.
Also, in discussions so far, sound levels have been expressed as functions of fre-
quencies. This is not necessarily the case, however. Instrument readings may be cal-
ibrated to indicate directly and automatically the sum of the decibels of the various
frequencies that make up the noise. Thus a 120-dBA noise from a jet airplane may not
be a reading for a particular frequency (such as 63 or 125 Hz) but for the whole range
of frequencies composing the noise.

Community noise. In the area of community noise, the following measures

have been used to assess noise problems: statistical measure Ly, equivalent sound level
Leg, day-night average sound level Ly,, and noise pollution level Lyp. The statistical
measure 1s a probability distribution analysis where a sound level equaled or exceeded
so much percent of the time is calculated, such as the Lio and Lo. The values of N, in
these cases, are equal to 10 and 20 and are the sound levels exceeded 10% and 20% of
the time, respectively. The equivalent sound level Leg is an A-weighted average measure
Over a given time period. The day-night average sound level Lan is an Leg A-weighted
sound level during a 24-h period (Leqi24)) with 10 dBA added to the Leq)’s during the
time from 10 P.M. to 7 A.M. Another noise measure related to Ly, is the community noise
equivalent level (CNEL). In CNEL, 5 dBA is added during the hours of 7 P.M. to 10 P.M.
and 10 dBA is added during the hours of 10 P.M. to 7 A.M. over a 24-h period. Finally,
the noise pollution level Lyp is the Leg value that has a probability of exceedance of
0.50%.
The formulas for the measures of noise above are written below.
2

Leq = 10 log (xfi iv) (14-33)

i=

where L,,; is the dBA level and fj is the fraction of time that L,,4; is in progress.
5
i=10 PM i=7_ AM 2
Lan = ote (Ds fv 10Lcav@i/104 YS f iam 7 (14-34)
i=7 AM i=10 PM

Lyp = Leqoo) + 2.560 (NPGB) (14-35)

where 2.56 is the critical ratio corresponding to 0.50% exceedance (obtained from sta-
tistical tables). Critical ratio is the ratio of a particular value to the standard deviation.
Leq(oo) is the mean of the Leq’s of a sufficiently long A-weighted sample of noise in
dBA. Note that unit of Lyp used is NPdB. From statistics, the standard deviation o is
defined as

es jae = Leq(oo) | (14-36)

N-1

where N is the number of Legi sample values.

704 Noise Pollution and Control Chap. 14

Example 14-7
Traffic noise data are shown in the table below. Compute (a) Loo and (b) Leg.

Time (s) dBA

10 71
20 1D
30 70
40 78
50 80
60 84
70 76
80 74
90 Ws)
100 74

Solution (a)

Percent of time equaled

Time (s) dBA Serial no. (m) dBA or exceeded (qth
— 7) (100)

10 7A 1 84 9.1
20 75 2 80 18.2
30 70 3 78 PU 3
40 78 4 76 36.4
50 80 5 aS 45.5
60 84 6 WS S45
70 76 qi 74 63.6
80 74 8 74 WOT
90 Ws 9 TA 81.8
100 74 10 70 90.9

x-—71 — 81.
me tre : sep aes
70 —71 90.9
— 81.8
x = 90
10 => 90.9 x = Lo9 =71.1dBA Answer

n 2
10
b)
(b) Legeq = 1010 g (>fiiV 10£4i/10 ii Ses
100

] 10
= 10log Ee (1071/10) + i— (1075/10) 4 5,V 1070)

10
f00 / (1078/10) a an
10 (1080/10) ails =
TATA
/ (1084/10)
Measurement of Noise 705

o ~ (1076/10) 4 a / (1074/10) 4 a (1075/10)

>

10 1074/10 ] = 76.67
76)
+ 700 (10 Answer

Example 14-8
The hourly Leq’s (Leq(1)’S) in a certain neighborhood are shown in the table below. Compute
(a) Lan and (b) Lp, assuming that the 24 h of record is sufficient to define Leg(oo)-

Time Leg(1)

24:00—-1:00 4]
1:00-2:00 Bil
2:00-3:00 32)
3:00-4:00 30
4:00-5:00 30
5:00-6:00 30
6:00-7:00 38
7:00-8:00 il
8:00-9:00 62
9:00—10:00 70
10:00—11:00 60
11:00—12:00 60
12:00—13:00 59
13:00—14:00 61
14:00—15:00 62
15:00—16:00 62
16:00—17:00 60
17:00—18:00 70
18:00—19:00 59
19:00—20:00 61
20:00—21:00 SP
21:00-—22:00 Syl
22:00—23:00 40
23:00—24:00 40

Solution

(a) Lan
5
i=10 PM i=7 AM ee
= ve » fiv 1QLequei/10 1 Ds Fev 10 Leacien +10)/10
i=7 AM i=10 PM

mae ad
Eom
706 Noise Pollution and Control Chap. 14

Leg(t) Adjusted Dena 1 Qadiusted Leq(1)/10 / 1 yadjusted Leg) /10

Time

24:00—1:00 41 51 125,892.54 354.81

1:00-2:00 31 41 12,589.25 112.20
2:00-3:00 32 42 15,848.93 125.89
3:00-4:00 30 40 10,000 100
4:00-5:00 30 40 10,000 100
5:00-6:00 30 40 10,000 100
6:00-7:00 38 48 63,095.73 251.19
7:00-8:00 51 51 125,892.54 354.81
8:00-9:00 62 62 1,584,893.20 1,258.93
9:00—10:00 70 70 10,000,000 3,162.28
10:00—1 1:00 60 60 1,000,000 1,000
11:00—12:00 60 60 1,000,000 1,000
12:00-13:00 59 59 794,328.24 891.25
13:00—14:00 61 61 1,258,925.40 1,122.02
14:00—15:00 62 62 1,584,893.20 1,258.93
15:00—16:00 62 62 1,584,893.20 1,258.93
16:00—17:00 60 60 1,000,000 1,000
17:00—18:00 70 70 10,000,000 3,162.28
18:00-—19:00 59 59 794,328.24 891.25
19:00—20:00 61 61 1,258,925.40 1,122.02
20:00—21:00 52 52 158,489.32 398.11
21:00—22:00 a 51 125,892.54 354.81
22:00—23:00 40 50 100,000 316.23
23:00—24:00 40 50 100,000 316.23
20,012.17

2
1
in Olog |
320.012. = 58.42 dBA Answer

(b) Lyp = Leq(oo) + 2.560 (NPdB)

ss eee “7 Lael:
Con
N-1

Time Leg(i) = Leg(oo)* [Leqi) = Leateola Leq(i)

24:00—1:00 4] —9.5 90.25

1:00-2:00 3 —19.5 380.25
2:00-3:00 32 —18.5 342.25
3:00-4:00 30 —20.5 420.25
4:00-5:00 30 —20.5 420.25
5:00-6:00 30 =O 420.25
Measurement of Noise 707

(Continued)

Time Leqi) — Leq(oo)* [Leq() — Vere lA Leg(i)

6:00-7:00 38 —12.5 156.25

7:00-8:00 51 0.5 0.25
8:00-9:00 62 IS) 3225)
9:00-—10:00 70 19.5 380.25
10:00-11:00 60 9.5 90.25
11:00—-12:00 60. 9'5 90.25
12:00-13:00 SY) 8.5 IPDS
13:00-14:00 61 10.5 110.25
14:00-—15:00 62 hes) 22S
15:00-—16:00 62 hs 1 3).25)
16:00—17:00 60 95 90.25
17:00-18:00 70 19:5 380.25
18:00-19:00 59 8.5 YAS
19:00-—20:00 61 10.5 110.25
20:00-21:00 oy 1.5 PES
21:00—22:00 5) 0.5 0.25
22:00—23:00 40 —10.5 110.25
23:00—24:00 40 —10.5 110.25

Lae 4,246

Ae He 2 4246
c= Dilhegi
=Leaiooy]* _ = 13.59
Nea 24—1
Lyp = 50.5 + 2.56(13.59) = 82.29(NPdB) Answer

Airport noise. |The following measures have been used to evaluate airport noise:
perceived noise level, composite noise rating, and noise exposure forecast. Perceived
noise level (PNL) is a calculated single value based on known levels of people’s annoy-
ance from jet flyover noise. The composite noise rating (CNR) is a contour map of equal
PNLs in and around the vicinity of an airport. The noise exposure forecast (NEF) is a
contour map similar to CNR but using different definitions, as will be shown later.
For the PNL mode of measure, the chart shown in Figure 14-5a was developed.
This is a chart of equal noise that people perceived in jet flyover noises measured in
noys. Note that if a given sound pressure level from the ordinate of Figure 14-5 at the
1000-Hz frequency is substituted for the P in equation (14-23), a value is obtained that
is equal to the number of noys. Hence at the 1000-Hz frequency level, noys and sones
are numerically equal. In addition, the relationship on the right-hand side of Figure 14-5a
has the same form as the relationship between phon and sone [equation (14-23)]. Hence
using PNdB instead of P, the relationship between PNdB and N (the number of noys) is
N oe 2 (PNdB—40)/10 (14-37)
708 Noise Pollution and Control Chap. 14

s pay
oe L ar fy Noys PNdB
120 400
130

300 eh
110 200

&s 100 ep
100 110
L
iS 80
a.
x 90 60
ay 100

a 40
na)5 80 30 90
2 20
a0 15 = 80
2
2 10
2 60 70
oO
6. 5
2=} 50 4— 60
9 3
=Ss} 40 D 50
~O

30 1 40

20 05—— 30
0.4
0.3
10 035 20

°50 5 i) 2 5 1000 2 5 10,000 20,000

Frequency (Hz)

PM an Aeae Rehg ae S aie ig

10 PNdB

(PNdB)
PNL

hi
Flyover time

Figure 14-5 (a) Equal noise contours. (b) Measuring the 10-PNdB At.
Measurement of Noise 709

By comparing equations (14-23) and (14-37), this analogy may be made: Phon is to sone
as PNdB (perceived noise decibel) is to noy. Note that because of this relationship, noy
and sone are almost numerically equal to each other. PNdB is the unit for PNL.
To calculate PNL, octave band data are, first, converted to noys N, using Fig-
ure 14-5. After conversion, the effective noy value N, is calculated by one of the
formulas below. N, is then converted to PNdB by the use of the relationship shown on
the right-hand side of Figure 14-5a or by equation (14-37). Note that in this conversion,
N of equation (14-37) is the N, of the following equations:

N, = 0.3 )°N; +0.7Nmax (for 1/1 octave band) (14-38)

N, = 0.15 }° Nj +0.85Nmax (for 1/3 octave band) (14-39)
Nmax 18 the maximum noy obtained in the conversion of the octave band data to noy.

Example 14-9
The following data are associated with a jet aircraft at a given location on the ground.
Calculate the PNL at the point.

1/1 Octave band

(Hz) Ly (dB) Nj; (noys)

63 8))| 20
125 103 50
250 105 80
500 100 65
1000 90 33
2000 88 48
4000 81 34
8000 70 14

Solution The third column has been obtained using Figure 14-5.

NF IOl3 iy N; +0.7Nmax (for 1/1 octave band)

= 0.3(344) + 0.7(80) = 159.2 noys

Note: 80 is the maximum noy in the third column.

From Figure 14-5, PNL = 114 PNdB. Answer

As mentioned before, CNR is simply a contour of equal noise. From CNR, a new
method, the noise exposure forecast (NEF), evolved. NEF is also a contour of equal noise
but using a different set of definitions. The first is the single event effective perceived
noise level (EPNL). The EPNL for type of aircraft i flying over path j as perceived at a
710 Noise Pollution and Control Chap. 14

point on the ground is defined as

EPNL;; = PNLijmax + Dij + F (PNGB) (14-40)
where PNL max is the maximum PNL during the flyover of the aircraft; D = 10 log(Ar/20),
where At is the time interval in seconds during which the noise level is within 10 PNdB
of PNLmax; and F ~ 3 dB. A sketch for finding At is shown in Figure 14-5b.
Now, as perceived at a point on the ground, the noise exposure forecast NEF;; for
the type of aircraft i flying over a path 7 for a number of daytime flights np;; and for a
number of nighttime flights ny;; is given empirically by

NEF,; = EPNL;; + 10log (oa 2 | —75 (PNGB) (14-41)

Summing for all aircraft types and possible flight paths, the NEF at a particular point of
interest on the ground is (using the method of decibel addition)

NEF = 10log (xeel ee” *) (14-42)

pe Oy)

An empirical equation to convert from NEF to Lap is

Lan = (NEF +35)43 dBA (14-43)

Example 14-10
Since hundreds of flights can occur in a given airport for several types of aircraft and flight
paths, the use of equation (14-42) can become lengthy and tedious. Hence a computer
program should be used. However, to illustrate the use of the equations, assume only two
aircraft types, two flight paths, two daytime flights, and one nighttime flight at path 1 and
one daytime flight and two nighttime flights at path 2 for aircraft types 1 and 2. At a
given point on the ground, assume that the PNLmax’s for aircraft types 1 and 2 are 114 and
117 PNdB, respectively, over flight path 1, and 116 and 120, respectively over flight path
2. Also assume that the Ar for both types of aircraft in all paths is 25 s. Find the NEF at
the given ground location. Calculate the corresponding Lay.

Solution
EPNL;; = PNLijmax + Djj +3 (PNdB)

ZS
EPNL); = 114+ 10log 0 ap 3 ss MIS PNdB

25
BENE oe MS tr) ND). PNdB

2S
EPNL2; = 117+ Eee 4p3 == IPOS PNdB

25
EPNL2 = 120+ 10log 0 qo 3 = 123.09 PNdB
Sorted
NEF); = EPNL;; + 10 log (S + om )a5
Measurement of Noise 711

Moy MD = epee nN, =2

N Doe ND» = | NN>, = 1 NNy = 2

NEF}; = 117.97+10log (= + 75 )— 75 = 42.67

2 |

1 2
NEF}2 = 119.97 + 10 log G ane “Bulla 45 = 47.32

2 |

| .D, qs = $4 39
NEF22 = 123.97 + 10 log a

NEF = 10 log (xDs wr)

i j
ae 10 log (On JE 1047.32/10 ze 1049:67/10 Af 1Osbee”) = 53.89 Answer

Lan = (53.89 + 35) +3 = 88.8943 dBA Answer

Industrial noise. In the area of industrial noise, the following measures have
been used: noise exposure rating NER; noise dose, D; noise criteria, NC; preferred
noise criteria, PNC; speech interference level, SIL; and preferred speech interference
level, PSIL. Noise exposure rating is the measure of noise that prorates the actual time of
exposure of an employee to the total allowable exposure time for a given noise level. The
allowable exposure times are recommended by the Committee on Hearing, Bioacoustics,
and Biomechanics (CHABA). The noise dose is similar to the NER except that the
allowable exposure times are recommended by the Occupational Safety and Health Act
(OSHA) and not by CHABA. Noise criteria are the measure of noise used to quantify
noise levels in interior spaces. The preferred noise criteria measure is an improvement
over the NC. The speech interference level is defined as the average of the sound pressure
levels at the octave bands at 600 to 1200, 1200 to 2400, and 2400 to 4800 Hz. The
preferred speech interference level is the average of the sound pressure levels at the 500-,
1000-, and 2000-Hz octave bands. Approximate PSIL values may be obtained by adding
3 dB to the SIL values.
The exposure times recommended by CHABA are shown in Table 14-3, and those
by OSHA are shown in Table 14-4. In conjunction with these tables, the equations
defining NER and D are, respectively,

NER = )~ Ci (14-44)

p= =C; (14-45)
712 Noise Pollution and Control Chap. 14

TABLE 14-3 ALLOWABLE EXPOSURE TIMES FOR A GIVEN SOUND LEVEL

(dBA) AS RECOMMENDED BY CHABA

Number of noise exposures per 8-h workday

Cumulative
exposure I 3 7 15 3) 75 150 or more

8h 90
6h Oil 92 93 94 94 94 94
4h 93 94 9) 96 98 99 100
2 hi 96 98 100 103 106 109 2
da 99 102 105 109 114 115

TABLE 14-4 ALLOWABLE NOISE EXPOSURE TIMES (OSHA)

Sound level (dBA) Time (h) Sound level (dBA) Time (h)

85 16.00 86 13.93
87 12 88 10.57
89 9.18 90 8.00
91 6.97 92 6.07
93 Rss) 94 4.60
95 4.00 96 3.48
97 3.03 98 2.83
99 Days) 100 2.00
101 eS 102 ilsy
103 1S 2, 104 aS
105 1.00 106 0.87
107 0.77 108 0.67
109 0.57 110 0.50
imal 0.43 LD 0.38
113 Os 114 0.28
nS) 0.25

where C is the total exposure time at a given steady-state noise level, and T is the
allowable exposure time at the corresponding noise level. The T of equation (14-44) is
obtained from Table 14-3 and that of equation (14-45) is obtained from Table 14-4. For
the recommendation to be met, NER and D must be less than 1.

Example 14-11
The noise levels in the chiller and compressor areas are 92 dBA and 93 dBA, respectively.
If the employee is exposed three times at 2 h per exposure in the chiller area and 2 h in the
compressor area determine if the CHABA and OSHA recommendations are met.
Measurement of Noise 713

Solution

C;
NER = =

o-rF U
C;

From Table 14-3, for 92 dBA at three exposure times, allowable exposure is 6 h; for the
93 dBA and | exposure time, the allowable exposure is 4 h.

IQ) 2 ‘
NER = ae ae 4 al 5" recommendation not met. Answer

From Table 14-4, for 92 dBA allowable exposure is 6.07 h; for the 93 dBA the allowable
exposure is 5.28 h.

3(2 2
(= a + 58 = 1.37, recommendation not met. Answer
aS

The NC and PNC curves are shown in Figure 14-6. To determine the NC or PNC
level around an area, the octave band sound pressure levels are plotted on the ordinate
and the band frequencies are plotted on the abscissa to obtain the respective NCs or
PNCs. The highest value represents the NC or PNC level, as the case may be.

Example 14-12
The data below were obtained from a cutter after a silencer was installed. What are the
corresponding NC and PNC levels? What are the PSIL value and the approximate SIL
value?

1/1 Octave band

(Hz) L, (dB) NC PNC
63 63 38 45
125 70 58 62
250 2B >65 >65
500 16 +65 >65
1000 79 >65 >65
2000 80 +65 >65
4000 16 +65 >65
8000 63 64 >65

The corresponding NC and PNC values are both > 65. Answer

ES cee = 78.33 Answer

SIL = 78.33 —3 = 75.33 Answer

 Noise Pollution and Control Chap. 14

NC
value

jzbar)
0.002
(dB
level
sound
band
Octave
re
pressure

63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000

Frequency (Hz)
(a)

PNC
value

Octave
sound
band
(dB
level
jzbar)
0.002
pressure
re

250 500 1000 2000 40 S oS CoS S oO

Frequency (Hz) Figure 14-6 (a) NC curves. (b) PNC

(b) curves.
 Outdoor Noise Propagation 715

OUTDOOR NOISE PROPAGATION

The sound intensity / at a distance r from a point noise source radiating uniformly in all
directions in the surrounding is P,,/42r*, where 4zrr* is the spherical area receiving the
noise. If the source is not a point source, or if the source is not radiating uniformly in
all directions, a factor Q, called the directivity, may be factored in. Hence, in general, /
at a distance r from the source may be written as

Py
I=0O (14-46)
4nr2

where 477 is now a spherical area equivalent to the area receiving the noise. The area
receiving the noise may also be designated generally as the area S, whether spherical or
nonspherical. With power P,,, the general intensity at the distance r of S is

Pw
es 5 (14-47 )

Dividing both sides of equation (14-45) by 10~!? W/m”, taking the “decibel” log-
arithm, performing the necessary algebra, and using the definition of the respective deci-
bels, the following equation is obtained:

ee Goes r2 Set (14-48)

This equation is the general representation of the inverse square law.

From equation (14-45) and J = P,,/S,
4 2
Q= e (14-49)
Example 14-13
Determine the value of QO for the following placement of a point source: (a) radiating
uniformly in all directions, (b) in a corner, and (c) on a flat surface.

Solution Let r be the distance.

(a) S =4nr’; = =1 Answer

| v4

(b) Ss = g(4nr’)s Q = —— =8 Answer

|
(c) S= = (4c); Q = —— =2 Answer
 716 Noise Pollution and Control Chap. 14

Example 14-14
The sound power level and the sound pressure level at a distance of 50 ft from one side of
a cooling tower have been reported as shown below. Calculate the sound pressure level and
the sound level at a distance of 100 ft from the tower.

Octave band center frequency (Hz)

Levels 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000

Ly (dB) 98 97 92 92 88 83 79 Ws
Lp (dB) 64 61 58 59 54 50 47 41

Solution

Q = r2(10Le—Lwt 11/10)

Octave band center frequency (Hz)

63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000

Liss 98 97 92 92 88 83 719 We
L (50) 64 61 58 59 54 50 47 4]
Q DSB 7.91 12.53 7 D3 S07) 19.86 19.86
L p(100) 57.98 54.98 51.98 52.98 47.98 43.98 40.98 34.98
Corrections —26 —16 —9 —3 0 aie| +1 —1
Lp A(100) 31.98 38.98 42.98 49.98 47.98 44.98 41.98 33.98

=n
Lpr = 10log (xvii)
=|

LOG tard ieee al log (/'1957-98/10 +4. \/1954.98/10 4. ./1951.98/10

+ /1052-98/10 +4. 4/1947.98/10 4. ¥/1943.98/10

+ ¥ 1070.98/10 + 4/ 10934.98/10 ' = 68.86 dB Answer

Lpa T(100, sound level) 10 log (v/1031-98710 + /1038.98/10 4. \/1942.98/10

+ y/1049.98/10 4 ./1947-98/10 + ./1944.98/10

+ v/1041-98/10 + /1033-98/10)" — 61.5 dBA Answer

Outdoor Noise Propagation 717

Attenuating Factors

Equation (14-48) does not apply to the near field, which is the area in the vicinity of
the noise source. The area beyond a distance of approximately one wavelength away
from the source is called the far field. At far-field distances, the equation applies. At
these distances, noise will encounter several attenuating factors. These factors can be the
attenuation due to molecular absorption by atmospheric air molecules (A); the attenuation
due to the change in the value of pv when barometric pressure and temperature change
appreciably from normal conditions (A>); attenuation due to rain, sleet, snow, or fog
(A3); attenuation by barriers (A4); attenuation by grasses, shrubbery, and trees (As); and
attenuation owing to wind and temperature gradients (Ag). Including these attenuating
factors, equation (14-48) becomes

RA St, Seen
) (14-50)
where A == AN + Az + A3+ Ag+ As + Ao.

In the frequency range 125 to 12,500 Hz for temperatures between —10 and 30°C
and relative humidities between 10 and 90%, the Society of Automotive Engineers!
derived A; as
7.4(1078)y2r/o
| (14-51)
1+ (B)(AT)(y)
where y is the center band frequency in hertz, r the distance between source and receiver
in meters, @ the relative humidity (%), 8 = 4(10-°), AT = T — 20 in °C, and T is the
temperature in °C.
The equivalence of L; and L, is based on the value of (346.4)(1.184) =410 kg /m?-s
for pv at the standard temperature and atmosphere of 25°C and | atm, respectively;
however, for values of pv other than 410, the equivalence fails.
The equations for L; and L, derived before are, respectively,
Apes
ropemsionragy seal 1Q=2
(14-52)
pe
L, = 10log ——“— 14-53
: °© 4.0(10-22) te)
Equation (14-52) may be manipulated,

ik = 10]
Aperms pus Ali02) 14-54

Saal One Faces Cac?

Substituting equation (14-53) into equation (14-54) and simplifying gives
v
ee ee log410 (14-55)
'Society of Automotive Engineers (1964). Standard Values of Atmosphereic Absorption as a Function
of Temperature and Humidity for Use in Evaluating Aircraft Flyover Noise (ARP886). Society of Automotive
Engineers, New York.
718 Noise Pollution and Control Chap. 14

The pv in the numerator represents the correction to L, if L; were to be equal to Lp.

The correction A> is therefore
pv
Az, = 1Qlog 0 (14-56)

A3 is on the order of 0.5 dB per 1000 m in fogs and is, in general, considered to
be zero. Attenuation due to grasses, shrubberies, and trees (As) is not easy to generalize.
It ranges from 0 to 30 dB per 100 m.
Referring to Figure 14-7, the attenuation due to solid thin barriers A4 is found
as follows: In consistent units, let A be the distance from the noise source to the top
of the barrier, B the distance from the noise receiver situated on the other side of the
barrier to the top of the barrier, and r the distance between the noise source and noise
receiver. From these measurements, a parameter called the Fresnel number N may then
be calculated:
2 24332
N (14-57)
*" i
where A is the wavelength. With the value of N known, A4 may be obtained from
Table 14-5. Note that in the table there are two types of noise sources: point and line
sources. The moving highway vehicle traffic is an example of a line source.
Attenuation due to wind and temperature gradient (atmospheric stability) is gaged
separately as to whether the noise receiver is downwind or upwind from the source. For
downwind receivers, Ag may be estimated from Table 14-6, where y is the frequency
and r is the distance between the source and the receiver. For a receiver upwind from
the source, there is a distance X) where wind and temperature effects start to deflect
the sound waves. For distances less than Xo, wave deflection is negligible, while for
distances greater than Xo, deflection is appreciable. Hence Xo is one of the parameters
determined in order to calculate Ag. The space beyond the Xo limit is called the shadow
zone. Table 14-7 shows some values of Xo for source frequencies ranging from 300
to 5000 Hz and for various other environmental conditions, such as night or day, wind
speeds, sky conditions, and atmospheric temperature profiles. Finally, Table 14-8 gives
the correction Ag (for upwind receivers) for various values of r/Xo.
The propagation of noise in air involves such a very small perturbation of pressure
that the process may be considered frictionless, involving no heat exchange. Thus the
process is isentropic. From fluid mechanics, under isentropic conditions, the velocity of
sound v in equation (14-56) is

v = VERT (14-58)
where k is the ratio of specific heats at constant volume to constant pressure, R the gas
constant, and T the temperature. For air, R = 1716 ft-lb/slug-°R and, for a temperature
range of —40°C to 80°C, k = 1.4. Using these values, we have

= 49 OlN Tr (14-59)
where 7 is in degrees Rankine.
Outdoor Noise Propagation 719

il LPP

highway Right-of-way line

We

Wy FS) 1 69 67

: 70 67 64 62
Landscaping |!
30.5 m '

Noise — 4 63 60 57 55
abatement 1-8 mbattier
measures

60 Sif 54 53

70 65 62 59

Figure 14-7 Outdoor noise attenuation adjacent to a highway using barriers.

(Units of measure in Lj9, dBA; a four-lane highway at traffic level of 5000 ve-
hicles per hour at 85 km/h and 5% trucks). (P.F. Cunniff (1977). Environmental
Noise Pollution. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley and Sons, Inc.)

TABLE 14-5 VALUES OF A, (dB) FOR CORRESPONDING FRESNEL

NUMBERS, N

Ag Aq | Aq

N Point Line N Point Line N Point Line

0.1 8 7 0.2 9 i 0.3 9 8

0.4 10 8 0.5 1] 9 0.6 11 9
OW 1 10 0 13} 10 0.9 3 10
1.0 13 11 2 15 12 3 17 14
4 19 iS) 5) 20 16 6 P| 16
7 2, y/ 8 22 18 9 23 19
10 24 19 20 24 2 30 24 22
720 Noise Pollution and Control Chap. 14

TABLE 14-6 VALUES OF Ag FOR VALUES OF yr INA

DOWNSTREAM NOISE RECEIVER?

yr (fps) Ao (dB) yr(fps) Ao (dB)

4(10*)-4(10°) 0 6(10°) 2
8(10°) 3 10° 5
2(10°) 9 4(10°) 10
6(10°) 13 8(10°) 14
107 15 2(10’) 17
—
’Wind speed: < 40-50 km/h > 3-5 km/h; source-receiver
distance: < 82 km; source height: 3—5 m; receiver height: 1.5 m.

TABLE 14-7 VALUES OF X) UNDER VARIOUS ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS

Time Sky Temperature profile ;

Wind speed Xo
Day Night Clear Overcast Lapse Neutral Inversion (m/s) (m)

x x x 1-10 600
x x x 1-10 130
sé x x 1-10 80

TABLE 14-8 Ag FOR UPWIND

NOISE RECEIVERS?

“Source height: 3-5 m; receiver height:

2 m; wind speed: < 25-30 km/h >
3-5 km/h; source-receiver distance: <
82 km.

Example 14-15
In Example 14-14, what is the sound pressure level at the 100-ft distance given the following
additional conditions: A concrete barrier, 30 ft high, is erected between the tower and the
100-ft distance at a point 60 ft from the tower. The tower is 15 ft high, and the receiver point
is 6 ft high with the ground assumed horizontal. The atmospheric pressure and temperature
are, respectively, 14.7 psi and 60°F. The relative humidity is 80%. Assume that the receiver
is downwind from the source. Neglect A3 and As.

Solution

_ 7.4(1078)(y?r/6)
"TBAT
Outdoor Noise Propagation 721

; 5
60°F = (60-32) (5)= 15.56°C = 60 + 460 = 520°R

__7.4(10~8)y?(100/3.281)/80 2.82(1078)y?
' 1+ (4)(10-5)(15.56 — 20)(y) 1 — 1.78(10-5)y
An 10los
410
Pp 14.7(144) slug (14.59 kg \ (3.281? ft? kg
>= pRT Se ee (0.0004 (ie
i. DERE, BATI6520) fo \ slug 3m? Pel Ee
aS
We 49 Oly 1 140 010/520 = 1117 6 ae 340.6303
5 \3.281 ft
(1.237) (340.63)
wees ~ 0,12 dB
2 Me 410
an 2(A + B—r)
N
a
A = 602 + (30 — 15)? = 61.85 ft

B = 402 + (30 — 6)2 = 46.65 ft

r = vy1002 + (15 — 6)? = 100.40 ft

Uv

Y
2(61.85 + 46.65 — 100.40
wees MY E oasy
340.63
From Example 14-14, the given data at various frequencies as well as the corrections are as
follows:

Octave band center frequency (Hz)

y (Hz) 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000

L (100) 57.98 54.98 51.98 52.98 47.98 43.98 40.98 34.98 ?

Atil0- db 0.0 044 1.77) 7.11 2891 117.0" “486.0 2104
Az (dB) O22 On 02 — O12 ON 0.12 0.12 2
N 3.02 60 12.0 240 48.0 96.0 192.0 384.0
Ag (dB) PA 24 24 24 24 24 24 :
vyr(l0? ips) 0.06" 0.125° "0.25" °0.5 nO 2.0 4.0 8.0
Ao (dB) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Bb) ae:
Lpcioo) (dB) 41 34 28 HS) 24 20 17 8 ¢

4The data on this line are from Example 14-4.

>The data on this line are from Table 14-5, with N known.
©The data on this line are from Table 14-6, with yr known.
‘The data on this line are corrected Lp’.
 722 Noise Pollution and Control Chap. 14

L pT (100, sound pressure level) = 10 log (v 1040.55/10 si 1033-86/10 Se Ww 1027-86/10

4 4/1028.85/10 4 «/1023.83/10 4 ./1019.74/10

2
+ ¥/10!637/10 4 ¥'10556/10 ) = 47.41 dB Answer
Note: In this problem, the only effective attenuating factor is the barrier.

INDOOR NOISE PROPAGATION

The propagation of noise in an indoor space depends on the acoustic properties of the walls,
ceiling, floors, the materials present inside the space, and the reverberation effect as the
sound waves bounce from one surface to the other. It is intuitive that propagation would
somehow follow the inverse square law. In fact, the law is used, but in modified form.
L, had been derived as
Lp = Ly + 10 log 2
op: = (14-60)

This equation may also be written as

Ly
Q
I = Ly ai
a lOlog og =
Am r2 ( 14-61 )

But QO = 4zr’/S. Substituting in equation (14-61), we have

Ly = Ly + 10log 5 (14-62)

As applied in outdoor noise transmission, S is the area that receives the sound
coming from the source. To apply equation (14-62) for indoor transmission, S must
be defined in a convenient form. This definition should incorporate indoor receiving
parameters. Define S arbitrarily as
aa areas aoe” 14-63)
S 4xr? a R \
where R is called the room constant. The expression 47r* is the equivalent spherical
area. As shown, S' incorporates the indoor parameter r (distance from noise source to a
given point) and room constant R. The term containing R expresses the reverberating
effect as sound bounces back and forth inside the room. Expressed in terms of total
surface area receiving the sound (S7), R 1s empirically

= (14-64)

The sound absorption coefficient @ is the fraction of the incident noise that is absorbed
by the surface, and 1 — q@ is the fraction reflected. @ is given by

a
Ds ops:
(14-65)
Sr
where S is the area with absorption coefficient a and i is the index for the various
surfaces. Table 14-9 shows some values of a.
Indoor Noise Propagation 723

TABLE 14-9 ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT a FOR SOME BUILDING MATERIALS

Octave band center frequency (Hz)

Material 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000

Marble or glazed tile 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02

Plaster, gypsum or lime, smooth 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
finish on tile or brick
Plaster, gypsum or lime
Rough finish on lath Ons 0.10 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.03
Smooth finish 0.15 0.10 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.03
Plywood paneling, 3/8 in. thick 0.30 0.20 0.20 0.09 0.10 0.11
Brick, unglazed 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Brick, unglazed, painted 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02
Carpet, heavy
On concrete 0.01 0.05 Onis 0.40 0.60 0.70
On 40-oz hairfelt or 0.07 0.25 0.60 0.70 O72 0.74
foam rubber
With impermeable latex 0.07 0.30 0.40 0.35 0.50 0.65
backing on 40-oz hairfelt or
foam rubber
Concrete block
Coarse 0.35 0.45 0.30 0.30 0.40 Ors
Painted 0.10 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.09 0.08
Glass
Large panes of heavy plate
glass 0.15 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.02
Ordinary window glass 0.40 0.30 0.20 ORS) 0.07 0.04
Gypsum board, + in. nailed to 0.30 0.10 0.05 0.04 0.07 0.09
2 x 4’s, 16 in. o.c.
Floors
Concrete or terrazzo 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02
Asphalt, rubber, or tile on 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02
concrete
Wood 0.15 0.10 0.10 0.06 0.06 0.07

Ly is now written as
im + z}
Lp = Ly + 10log (<= (14-66)
This is the equation for indoor space sound propagation.

Noise Transmission Through Ducts

In heating and cooling systems, fans or blowers convey the air through ducts. Depending
on the elements installed, these duct systems may serve to attenuate the sound power gen-
erated by the fans, thus lowering the noise power that exits at duct outlets. Or they may
exacerbate the noise, increasing the noise power at duct outlets. Table 14-10 shows some
values of attenuation for various duct sizes, Table 14-11 shows attenuation in elbows,
724 Noise Pollution and Control Chap. 14

TABLE 14-10 APPROXIMATE ATTENUATION (dB/FT) IN BARE?

RECTANGULAR METAL DUCTS

Octave band center frequency (Hz)

Duct? 63 125 250 500 and above

Large (72 in. x 72 in.) 0.1 0.1 0.03 0.01
Medium (24 in. x 24in.) 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.05
Small (6 in. x 6 in.) 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.1
“For thermally insulated ducts, double the attenuations.
>Dimensions in parentheses are nominal sizes.

TABLE 14-11 APPROXIMATE ATTENUATION (dB) IN ELBOWS (30-90°)

Diameter or Octave band center frequency (Hz)

Elbow width of duct
type (in.) 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000

Square 5 0 0 0 1 6 8 6 4
10 0 0 ] 6 8 6 4 4
20 0 1 5 V 5 3 3 3
40 1 6 8 6 4 4 3 3
Round 5-10 0 0 0 0 1 ] 2 3
11-20 0 0 0 ] 1 2 2 3
21-40 0 0 i l 2 2 3 3
41-80 0 ] ] D 2 3 3} 3

and Table 14-12 shows sound production in turning vanes at an airflow of 2000 ft/m.
Table 14-12 also shows corrections for velocities other than 2000 ft/m. Turning vanes are
installed at duct elbows to control heating and ventilating requirements but unfortunately,
also serve as additional sound sources.

TABLE 14-12 SOUND POWER PRODUCED BY TURNING VANES AT 2000 FT/MIN

Octave band center frequency (Hz)

Duct size (ft square) 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000

2 Wil 71 65 61 56 Sy 45 38
0.5 57 56 55 53 50 44 38 Sil
0.25 51 51 51 50 46 42 35 28
0.1 62 61 59 56 oe 48 4] 338)

Velocity (ft/m)

800 1000 1200 1500 2000 2500 3000 4000

Corrections —24 —18 —12 —8 0 +6 +9 +15

 Indoor Noise Propagation 725

Example 14-16
A factory room measuring 70 ft long by 20 ft wide by 20 ft high is to be heated using a fan
with the following sound power level characteristics: 63 Hz, 98 dB; 125 Hz, 88 dB; 250 Hz,
89 dB; 500 Hz, 87 dB; 1,000 Hz, 85 dB; 2,000 Hz, 85 dB; 4,000 Hz, 83 dB; and 8,000 Hz,
71 dB. The main duct, 24 in. by 24 in., has a length of 50 ft with a 90-degree elbow of
24 in. by 24 in. at its terminus. This elbow is used to connect the main to a branch or a
continuation duct at a 90-degree turn with the main. The branch duct measures 24 in. by
24 in. by 60 ft long and is located at the ceiling running lengthwise with the 70-ft dimension
of the room, perpendicular to and at the middle of the 20-ft dimension. The branch duct has
6 outlets at the ceiling discharging 500 cfm each. The main duct, itself, conveys 3,000 cfm
of air. The distances of the outlets to a point in the middle of the room are: outlets 1 and
6 = 32 ft, outlets 2 and 5 = 24 ft, and outlets 3 and 4 = 17 ft. (a) Calculate the sound
power level at each duct outlet, and (b) calculate the sound pressure level at the point in
the middle of the room. The following are additional information: ceiling (70 ft by 20 ft):
acoustical tile, a(125 Hz) = 0.47, a(250 Hz) = 0.80, a(500 Hz) = 0.95, a(1000 Hz) = 1.0,
a(2000 Hz) = 0.9, w(4000 Hz) = 0.85, a(8000 Hz) = 1.0; walls (two 20 ft by 20 ft and
two 20 ft by 70 ft): painted concrete block; and floor (70 ft by 20 ft): linoleum.
Solution (a) Power level at each duct outlet, L yout

Octave band center frequency (Hz)

63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000

Sound power level of fan (dB) 98 88 89 87 85 85 83 val

Attenuation by 24 in. by 24 in. main 10 10 5 De mS) DES) Zed Des)
duct (Table 14-11, 50 ft)
Attenuation by 24 in. by 24 in. 0 i 5 7 5 3 3 3
elbow (Table 14-11)
Branch duct (Table 14-10, 60 ft/2) 6 6 3 IES iS) IES IES th)
Total attenuation (dB) 16 7 13 11 9 7 7 W
Corrected sound power level of fan (dB) 82* 71 76 76 76 78 76 64
Turning vane power level at WT Ui 65 61 56 ay 45 38
2000 fpm (Table 14-12)

o= ee Nee 2 = 750 fpm

(24/12)(24/12)
Correction at 750 fpm —24 —24 -24 -24 -24 -24 —-24 —24
Corrected vane power level (dB) Doan 47 41 a) 3) 28 Pak 14
Combined power level at branch teers Tf 76 76 76 78 76 64
i=n

Lut = 10log )>ioe 10 (log |1072210 7°) |g

TI

Let P,,7 = total power at duct and Pou = power at each outlet; hence, Pwout =
4(Pwr).
i=n

Lut = 10log )>19£wi/10

1
726 Noise Pollution and Control Chap. 14

Lor = 10 log[ 1087/19 aie 1971/10 a 1976/10 a 1076/10 oe 1976/10,

1978/10 ae 1970/10 si Loe a — 86 dB

1
10 log Pwour = 10 log 6 + 10 log Pur

Lwout = lOlog atLur = —7.78 + 86 = 78 dB for summation for all frequencies Answer

| 4
(b) Lp =Ly+ 10 log (a sli *)

Sra
pe Bes
l= @

as (meaS) /Sz

Octave band center frequency (Hz)

63 25) 250 500 1000 2000 4000 ~ -8000

Combined power level at branch 82 Ul 76 76 76 78 76 64

duct outlets L,, (dB)
twout for each outlet 74 63 68 68 68 70 68 56
|
Lwour = (10 log 6 + Ly)
a, ceiling z= 04 0.8 2090S AON 00m 0-o5n |
S; = 20(70) = 1400 ft?
a, walls (Table 14-9) 0.1 0.05 0.06 0.07' 0.09. 0.08 ea!
Sy = 2(20)(20) + 2(20)(70) = 3600 ft?
a, floor (Table 14-9) == |0,025 0.03." 0:03 O.0snmnO0 03 ae 002 =
53 = 1400 ft?
Sp = S; +S. + S3 = 1400 + 3600 + 1400 = 6400

ae (Soasi) (Sr <= 06 0.21 0.25an0 2600 25mn0 01 nee

Sra
R= 1219* 1219 “170 213399040. 2143" 00 02
l=—@

I
Ue p = lloilo
wout & (a : +
>|
SS
Lp: For r = 17 ft, left 50* 39 42 4] 41 43 42 30
For r = 24 ft, left 49* 38 42 4] 4] 43 4] 29)
FOR @ == 32 int, leit 49* 38 42 4] 4] 43 4] 29
nor i? == IY ihe, ial 50 39) 42 4] 4] 43 42 30
For r = 24 ft, right 49 38 42 4] 4] 43 4] 2D
Om atom tament 49 38 42 4] 4] 43 4] 29
Indoor Noise Propagation 727

(Continued)

Octave band center frequency (Hz)

63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000

Lpr: oy Gy 58 57 DH 3) Sil; 45
F
i=n 2

Lpr = 10log y >V102n/10

i=]

2
1Olog (2| 1050"/10 4 104°/10 + /1089°700} ) = 65°"
* Assumed

L pcmiddle of room) = 10 log (v/108sr0 te v/1054/10 SF WW 1058/10 ar Ww 1057/10

+ / 1057/10 + / 1959/10 4 ./1957/10 4. /4945/10 ii

=75 dB Answer

Noise Transmission Through Partitions

There are generally two types of partitions: the open barrier type, where sound waves can
bend around the open upper part of the structure by diffraction, and the “closed” barrier
type, where the sound waves cannot bend around the structure by diffraction (since the
structure is closed). An example of the closed type is a bedroom wall where the ceiling
and wall are tight (1.e., no opening). Transmission across open barriers has already been
discussed.
If the incident noise intensity on the partition is J; and the transmitted noise
intensity is J,, the intensity transmission loss (TL) in decibels is 10 log(; / 1072
10 los(Z,/10° *), This may also be written as
l;
TAO los - (14-67)
LE

The transmission coefficient is defined as the fraction of the incident noise that is
transmitted through the partition or wall, tT = /,//;. Substituting t into equation (14-67),
we have |
TL = 10log — (14-68)
if
A high-density medium does not vibrate easily. Since noise is transmitted through
vibration, if the medium has a high density, transmission will not be efficient; trans-
mission loss is proportional to density. Also, because of shorter wavelengths, noise at
higher frequencies is more easily absorbed and attenuated. Hence transmission loss is
also proportional to frequency. Kinsler and Fey* showed that in terms of the area density

2L. E. Kinsler and A. R. Frey (1962). Fundamentals of Acoustics. Wiley, New York.
 728 Noise Pollution and Control Chap. 14

of the partition py and frequency y, the transmission loss, TL, is given empirically by

TL = 20 log pey — 47.4 (14-69)

where py is in kg/m? and y is in hertz. Equation (14-69) is called the mass law and
applies only to rigid barrier with air on either side.

Example 14-17
A brick wall is 0.41 m thick and has an area density of 590 kg/m. If the frequency of the
incident sound is 500 Hz, calculate TL and r.

Solution

TL = 20 log pey — 47.4 = 20 log 590(500) — 47.4 = 61.7 dB Answer

| l
TL= 10los= 6/7 —L0ilos— t = 0.0000007 Answer
T T

NOISE CONTROL CRITERIA

In this section we present various noise control criteria that have been used in prac-
tice. Table 14-13 shows noise criteria in terms of NC (noise criteria) levels for various
activities, while Table 14-14 shows speech interference levels for various degrees of com-
munication effectiveness. The U.S. Federal Highway Administration (FHA) developed
the standards shown in Table 14-15 for new construction. These levels are those that
would be expected to yield no complaints.

TABLE 14-13 ACCEPTABLE NC LEVELS FOR VARIOUS ACTIVITIES

Suggested range of
Activity noise criteria, NC

Acceptable working conditions with minimum speech interference:

Industrial areas, garages, laundries NC-45 to NC-55
Moderately fair listening conditions:
Lobbies, cafeterias, drafting rooms, business machine areas NC-40 to NC-45
Fair listening conditions required:
Large offices, restaurants, retail shops and stores, etc. NC-25 to NC-40
Good listening conditions required:
Private offices, school classrooms, small conference rooms, NC-20 to NC-25
libraries, television listening
Very good listening conditions required:
Auditorium, theaters NC-15 to NC-20
Large meeting and conference rooms NC-15 to NC-20
Excellent listening conditions required:
Concert halls, recording studios, etc. NC-15 to NC-20
Sleeping, resting, and relaxing:
Suburban and rural: homes, apartments, hotels, hospitals, etc. NC-15 to NC-20
Urban: homes, apartments, hotels, hospitals, etc. NC-15 to NC-20
 Noise Control Criteria 729

TABLE 14-14 SPEECH INTERFERENCE LEVELS FOR VARIOUS DEGREES OF CONVERSATION

EFFECTIVENESS

Telephone communications:

PSIL (dB) Telephone intelligibility

> 865 Very poor

< 865 Good to very poor

Face-to-face communications:

Distance from speaker Communications

Vocal effort PSIL (dB) to listener (ft) intelligibility

Maximum vocal effort 100 1 Difficult

100 and above ] Impossible
Shout 90 ] Possible
Very loud voice 70 1 Possible
60 5 Possible
50 10 Possible
40 15 Possible

TABLE 14-15 FHA NOISE STANDARDS FOR HIGHWAYS

Design level (dBA)

Land use
category Leq Lio Description of land use category

A 57 60 Tracts of lands in which serenity and quiet are of extraor-

dinary significance and serve an important public need,
and where the preservation of those qualities is essential
if the area is to continue to serve its intended purpose.
Such areas could include amphitheaters, particular parks
or portions of parks, or open spaces that are dedicated
or recognized by appropriate local officials for activities
requiring special qualities of serenity and quiet.
B 67 70 Residences, motels, hotels, public meeting rooms, schools,
churches, libraries, hospitals, picnic areas, recreational
areas, playgrounds, active sports, areas, and parks.
GC 72 75 Developed lands, properties, or activities not included in
categories A and B above.
D Unlimited Unlimited Undeveloped lands.
E Sy 5) Public meeting rooms, schools, churches, libraries, hospi-
tals, and similar buildings.

The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) has also set out
guideline criteria for noise exposure at residential sites. These are shown in Table 14-16.
Table 14-17 is a land use compatibility table for various NEF values. The NEF zones
stated in Table 14-16 are the NEF zones mentioned in Table 14-17.
730 Noise Pollution and Control Chap. 14
TABLE 14-16 HUD NOISE ASSESSMENT CRITERIA FOR RESIDENTIAL
CONSTRUCTION

General external exposures Assessment

I. Exceeds 89 dBA 60 min per 24 h Unacceptable

Exceeds 75 dBA 8 h per 24 h
NEF Zone C (airport environs)
> 888 PNdB (exterior)
I. Exceeds 65 dBA 8 h per 24 h Normally acceptable
Loud repetitive sounds on site
NEF Zone B (airport environs)
74 to 88 PNdB (exterior)
I. Does not exceed 65 dBA more than 8 h per 24 h Normally acceptable
62 to 74 PNGB (exterior)
IV. Does not exceed 45 dBA more than 30 min per 24 h Acceptable
NEF Zone A (airport environs)
< 862 PNdB (exterior)

TABLE 14-17 LAND USE COMPATIBILITY FOR VARIOUS NEF VALUES

Zone A Zone B Zone C

Land use < 830 NEF 30-40 NEF > 840 NEF

Residential Yes No
Hotels, motels, offices, Yes No
public buildings
Schools, hospitals, churches, Yes? No
indoor theaters, auditoriums
Commercial, industrial Yes b

Outdoor amphitheaters, theaters Wesiay No No

Outdoor recreational (nonspectator) Yes Yes es

“Case history experience indicates that people in private residences may complain, perhaps vig-
orously. Concerted group action is possible. New single-dwelling construction should generally
be avoided. For apartment construction, note b applies.
>An analysis of building noise requirements should be made and needed noise control features
should be included in the design.
“A detailed noise analysis should be undertaken by qualified personnel for all indoor music
auditoriums and all outdoor theaters.

The USEPA has published noise criteria levels deemed necessary to protect the
health and welfare of U.S. citizens with an adequate margin of safety. These are shown
in Table 14-18.
Finally, the U.S. General Services Administration (GSA) requires that for equipment
used on government contracts, the noise levels at the site should not exceed the limits
shown in Table 14-19.
 Noise Control 731

TABLE 14-18 NOISE CRITERIA LEVELS TO PROTECT PUBLIC HEALTH AND WELFARE

Effect Level Area

Hearing loss Leq(24) < 70 dB All areas

Outdoor activity Lista SDs) (alls) Outdoor in residential areas and farms,
and other outdoor areas where peo-
ple spend widely varying amounts
of time and other places in which
quiet is a basis for use.
Leg(24) < 55 dB Outdoor areas where people spend
limited amounts of time, such as
schoolyards and playgrounds, etc.
Indoor activity La, = 45 dB Indoor residential areas
Interference and annoyance Leq(24) < 45 dB Other indoor areas with human ac-
tivities, such as schools

TABLE 14-19 GSA CONSTRUCTION NOISE REQUIREMENTS

Sound level (dBA) ay Sound level (dBA)

Equipment at 50 ft Equipment at 50 ft

Earthmoving Materials handling

Front loader 75 Concrete mixer 75
Backhoe i) Concrete pump WS
Dozer 1S Crane 1S
Tractor ie) Derrick Is
Scraper 80 Stationary
Grader 1S Pump 75
Truck 75 Generator 75
Paver 80 Compressor WS
Impact Other
Pile driver 95 Saw WS
Jack hammer aS Vibrator WS
Rock drill 80
Pneumatic drill 80

NOISE CONTROL

There are four general methods of controlling noise: enclosing the noise source, enclosing
the noise receiver, putting a barrier between the noise source and the receiver, and
controlling the noise generator.
Noise is transmitted by vibration. Hence the property of the enclosure must be such
that it should not vibrate when a sound wave hits its surface; otherwise, the enclosure
itself can become a noise source. Since vibration is inversely related to the mass of the
material, in the use of enclosures, the effectiveness of control is therefore a function of
the mass of the enclosure. By the mass law, the ideal enclosure is the heavy enclosure
(materials of high density). Table 14-20 shows densities » of some common materials
of construction.
732 Noise Pollution and Control Chap. 14

TABLE 14-20 DENSITIES OF SOME COMMON MATERIALS

OF CONSTRUCTION

Material p (Ib/ft?)
Glass 155
Lead, antimonial (hard) 700
Plexiglas or Lucite 68
Steel 478
Plywood (5 to 15 in.) 40
Concrete, dense poured 148
Masonry block
Hollow cinder (nominal 6 in. thick) 49
Hollow cinder : in., sand plaster each 58
side (nominal 6 in. thick)
Solid dense concrete 110
(nominal 4 in. thick)
Hollow dense concrete (nominal 6 in. thick) Wil
Hollow dense concrete, sand-filled voids 105
(nominal 6 in. thick)
Aluminum 168
Lead, chemical or tellurium 698
Plaster, solid, on metal or gypsum lath 105
Gypsum board G to 2 in.) 40
Wood waste materials bonded 45
with plastic, 5 lb/ft?
Concrete (clinker) slab, plastered 99
on both sides, 2 in. thick
Fir timber 40
Brick 130

Example 14-18
To control the noise coming from a tertiary crusher, the equipment installation is enclosed
with masonry blocks of solid dense concrete 4 in. thick. The following is the sound power
level characteristics of the crusher at the inside wall of the enclosure: 63 Hz, 98 dB; 125 Hz,
88 dB; 250 Hz, 89 dB; 500 Hz, 87 dB; 1000 Hz, 85 dB; 2000 Hz, 85 dB; 4000 Hz, 83 dB;
and 8000 Hz, 71 dB. What vocal effort would be exerted to have a face-to-face conversation
immediately outside the enclosure?

Solution

TL = 20 log pey — 47.4

From Table 14-20,

110 Ib I
Pe = —__— _ = 36.67— = 36.67(0.454 — 179.22, —
1/(4/12) ft? (1/3.281 = | m2

Since PSIL is computed only on the basis of the 500-, 1000-, and 2000-Hz octave bands,
calculate the TL on the basis of these frequencies only.

TLs00 = 20log(179.22)(500) — 47.4 = 51.65 dB; dB transmitted = 87 — 51.65 = 35.35

Noise Control 733

TL}, 000 = 20 1log(179.22)(1,000) — 47.4 = 57.67 dB; dB transinitted = 85 — 57.67 = 27.33

TL2 000 = 20 1log(179.22) (2,000) — 47.4 = 63.67 dB; dB transmitted = 85 — 63.67 = 21.33

BS 35a 3 E18
PS we = 28.00 dB
From Table 14-14, vocal effort is normal. Answer

Putting a barrier between the source and the receiver is a control used in highways
as shown in Figure 14-7. It is worth noting that landscaping is not a particularly good
barrier. However, it serves a psychological purpose, since landscaping blocks the sight
of the highway.
Control of noise at points of generation may be done with the use of mufflers or si-
lencers and isolation of noise source by vibration control. There are three basic silencers:
absorptive silencers, reactive expansion chambers, and diffusers. In the absorption si-
lencer, an acoustic material is lined directly on the interior of the duct. The duct may
be straight or may have some bends, or the duct may be expanded into a plenum lined
with the acoustic material. The acoustic material absorbs the noise, thus attenuating it.
The absorption silencer is a dissipative muffler (i.e., it dissipates the noise by absorbing
it). The reactive expansion chamber or muffler has no lining of absorptive materials but
attenuates noise by reflecting the sound waves so as to cancel the waves of the incoming
noise source. This process is called destructive interference. Reactive mufflers are the
types found in trucks and automobiles.
High-velocity mass air impinging on stationary air or solid objects produces noise
due to the turbulence created. Diffusers attenuate the noise by reducing this velocity. The
source flow is diffused out into a multitude of tiny flows having lower velocities using
some appropriate mechanism. The diffuser is an exhaust muffler, since it attenuates noise
by installing it at the end of a duct or pipe. Schematics of the various types of silencers
are shown in Figure 14-8a.
The attenuation in power level in a lined duct may be estimated using the Sabine
formula,

A= 12.6-a"
ig 1.4
(14-70)
where A is the attenuation per lineal foot in dB/ft, P the duct perimeter in inches, S
the cross-sectional area of the duct in in’, and a the sound absorption coefficient of the
lining. This formula holds only under the following conditions: y = 250 to 2000 Hz
and a = 0.2 to 0.4.
The power level attenuation characteristics of a lined 90°-duct bend and a lined
180°-duct bend are shown in Figure 14-9. Referring to Figure 14-8b, the power level
attenuation resulting from an acoustically treated air plenum is given empirically by

DN OO 14-71
8 S, (cos 0/2nd2) +(1—a)/aS, pice
3A. Thumann and R. K. Miller (1986). Fundamentals of Noise Control Engineering. Prentice Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, N.J., pp. 225, 228, 233.
734 Noise Pollution and Control Chap. 14

ee OOO UU UU UU UU ee la Datta

RRA
NNNNN
Absorptive silencer
Reactive expansion chamber

SEs Plenum chamber

Lined bend oo

Diffuser aS

(a)

Figure 14-8 (a) Basic types of silencers. (b) Fan plenum.

where A is the power level attenuation in dB, S, the plenum exit area in ft?, @ and d are
defined in the figure, a is the absorption coefficient, and S,, is the total plenum surface
area in ft’.

Example 14-19
A factory room measuring 70 ft long by 20 ft wide by 20 ft high is to be heated using a
fan with the following sound power level characteristics: 63 Hz, 98 dB; 125 Hz, 88 dB;
250 Hz, 89 dB; 500 Hz, 87 dB; 1000 Hz, 85 dB; 2000 Hz, 85 dB; 4000 Hz, 83 dB; and
Noise Control 735

Attenuation
(dB)

(a)

Attenuation
(dB)

UT PLE lee rele ml ah exave Be)

Figure 14-9 (a) Attenuation in lined 90°-duct bends. (b) Attenuation in 180°-
duct bend.
736 Noise Pollution and Control Chap. 14

8000 Hz, 71 dB. The main duct, 24 in. by 24 in., has a length of 50 ft with an elbow
of 24 in. by 24 in. The elbow is used to connect the main to a branch or a continuation
duct at a 90-degree turn with the main. The branch duct measures 24 in. by 24 in. by
60 ft long and is located at the ceiling running lengthwise with the 70-ft dimension of the
room, perpendicular to and at the middle of the 20-ft dimension. The branch duct has
six outlets at the ceiling discharging 500 cfm each. The main duct conveys 3000 cfm of
air. The distances of the outlets to a point in the middle of the room are: outlets 1 and
6 = 32 ft, outlets 2 and 5 = 24 ft, and outlets 3 and 4 = 17 ft. (a) Calculate the sound
power level at each duct outlet assuming that the duct is lined with an absorptive material
having a values as follows: 63 Hz, 0.5; 125 Hz, 0.5; 250 Hz, 0.7; 500 Hz, 0.7; 1000 Hz,
0.7; 2000 Hz, 0.7; 4000 Hz, 0.7; and 8000, 0.6. (b) Calculate the sound pressure level
at the point in the middle of the room. The following is additional information: ceiling
(70 ft by 20 ft): acoustical tile, a125 Hz) = 0.47, w(250 Hz) = 0.80, a(500 Hz) = 0.95,
a(1000 Hz) = 1.0, a@(2000 Hz) = 0.9, a(4000 Hz) = 0.85, walls (two 20 ft by 20 ft and
two 20 ft by 70 ft): painted concrete block; and floor (70 ft by 20 ft): linoleum. In the
absence of other information, assume that the Sabine formula applies to all the values of a
and frequency in this example.

Solution (a) Power level at each duct outlet, L pout

A= 12.6—a!4
S

Let Pwr = total power at duct and Pyout = power at each outlet; hence

500
Pwout = 3000 #7?

i=n

ne = 10log ) 1Q/ui/10
I

10 [log (Tozer) ) ae (102) ut. (lo) ai (10712) oe (icone)

au (10zeaes) + log (10!°°/1°) aL (1g — 52.89 dB

500
10 log Pwour = 10 log 3000 = Olos Bisa

500
anon = 10 log 3000 + wt = —7.78 se 52.89

= 45.11 dB for summation for all frequencies Answer

4
(b) Ty — pee Olog =
; oles + 5)
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 738 Noise Pollution and Control Chap. 14

Spaz
fx eee
l-@
we Ss ar; Si
ST

Octave band center frequency (Hz)

63 125 250 500, 1000 2000 4000 8000

Combined power level 51.6 45.5 305) 39.5) 30.5 205) NOES 125
at branch duct L,, (dB)
_wout for each outlet 43.82 SD, BID 2 ITP WBN ST

IL,wout
) — 101 a
O 8 3000 +L Uw )

a, ceiling [20(70) = 1400 ft?] a 0.47 0.8 0.95 1.0 0.9 0.85 |
a, walls [Table 14-9, 0.1 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.09 0.08 —
2(20)(20) + 2(20)(70) = 3600 ft*]
a, floor (Table 14-9, 1400 ft?) — 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0
Sr = 1400 + 3600 + 1400 = 6400 ft?
z= = =e A
Tr
STa
R= i-a NSE OI iol 2S Bra Dis DO Boxee
= &

iLPp = Itwout
)
+ 101 Oo g re 4 —
R

Hor —sli/ett 1933) 1323 O68 1.04

For r = 24 ft 19.16 13.06 6.68 0.76
Form = 32 ft 19.08 1253 Sao 0.63
i=n 2

Lyt = 10log (xVv i) 28.89 22.60 16.26 8.38

j=l

“Assumed. ay

Ly = 10log (2( eee) +2( (12 08) +2 OEE +2 Sa

= 34.06 dB Answer

Example 14-20
The fan in a household discharges air into several rooms in the house through a fan plenum.
Referring to Figure 14-8, d = 10 ft, @ = 50°, S,, = 350 ft”, and S, = 25 ft. The absorption
coefficients, a, of the glass lining used are as follows: 125 Hz, 0.6; 250 Hz, 0.8; 500 Hz,
0.8; 1000 Hz, 0.9; 2000 Hz, 0.8; 4000 Hz, 0.75. Compute the attenuation corresponding to
each octave band.
Noise Control 739

Solution

Pew OS 5
Se(cos 6/2 d“)+ (1 —a)/aSy

Octave band center frequency (Hz)

125 250 = =500 1000 2000 4000

a 0.6 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.8 0.75

Ads) ISO 158 1583 19 68 U7 Answer

Vibration Control

Noise is produced by vibration, and if a noise source is connected to an adjacent struc-

ture, the structure may also vibrate, making it a resultant noise source. For example,
a machinery with a driving cycle of 10 to 60 Hz and rigidly attached to a foundation
may produce a very annoying environment by transmitting its vibration to the foundation.
One way to contain the noise is isolating the noise source through vibration control. As
illustrated in Figure 14-10, vibration isolators may be of the spring type, rubber mount,
and so on.

Multiple-part spring Ceiling mount

napa] Rubber pad

Simple spring Cable isolator Suspended mount Rubber mount

Figure 14-10 Classification of vibration isolators.

Figure 14-11a is used to model the vibration of a noise source. The spring with a
spring constant k represents any isolator. The force F = Fo sin wt is the perturbing force
that causes the machine, represented by the block, to be displaced by a distance x from
740 Noise Pollution and Control Chap. 14

Equilibrium
W=mg
position
|——x
Fo sin wt Fo sin wt

(a)

Figure 14-11 Schematics for derivation of vibration control equation.

the equilibrium point. The perturbing force can be the eccentric force that results when
a machine is not balanced. The arrow with the half arrowhead at the bottom represents
the friction force acting to oppose the perturbing force; it is a damping force. W is the
weight of the machine, m its mass, g the acceleration due to gravity, and N the normal
reactive force. The middle drawing represents the sine waves that result from the action
of the perturbing force. The bottom is an example installation.
The friction or the damping force may be modeled as proportional to velocity (i.e.,
cx, where c is the damping coefficient and x is the velocity). Applying Newton’s second
Noise Control 741

law in the horizontal direction and rearranging gives

mx +cx +kx = Fosinwt (14-72)

where x is the acceleration. The perturbing force, Fo sinwr, is also called the forcing
function.
The differential equation corresponding to a system without the perturbing force is
a homogeneous equation obtained from equation (14-72) by equating the forcing function
to zero. The solution to this homogeneous equation is the complementary solution of
equation (14-72), whose auxiliary equation in i is

md +cA+k =0 (14-73)
By the quadratic formula,

é GUN en
A=-— + —)-— 14-74
2m eee m ( )
The value of c that makes the expression inside the radical (the radicand) equal to
zero is called the critical damping coefficient c.. From equating the radicand to zero, this
coefficient is

k
Cee TI oe (14-75)
Mi

When c is greater than c,, the system is said to be overdamped; damped; and when it is
less than c,, the system is said to be underdamped.
In equation (14-72), since the forcing function is harmonic (sinusoidal), the system
response to this force must also be harmonic. This response is the particular solution x,
since it is a response “particular” to the forcing function. The most general x, may be
written as

Xp = Asin wt + Bcos wt (14-76)

By letting A = Ccos¢@ and B = Csin@g, where C and @¢ are new constants to be

determined in place of A and B,

Fie Sl 4) (14-77)

Since the forcing function is given in terms of wf and the response function (x,)
is given in terms of wt + ¢, ¢ represents the phase difference (phase lag) between the
applied force and the resulting vibration of the system. x, may be substituted into
equation (14-72), from which, after performing the necessary algebra, the expressions for
C and ¢ may be obtained:

C= nicer raat ret Eine SouSwit tie (14-78)

JU = (@? /(k/m))P + 4(e/cc)?[@? /(k/m)]
@ = tan (14-79)
1 — w*/(k/m)
742 Noise Pollution and Control Chap. 14

Figure 14-11b shows a small curve that wiggles about the large sine curve. In the
absence of the forcing function, the large sine curve will be absent and the small curve
will then wiggle only about the abscissa. Since the complementary solution x, is the
condition when the forcing function is zero, the small curve wiggling about the abscissa
is the graph of the complementary solution. Putting in the forcing function will produce
the particular solution x,. Hence the left-hand side of Figure 14-11b represents the graph
of both the complementary and particular solutions of equation (14-72).
The complementary solution is the response of the system when it is allowed
to respond without a forcing function. This situation is obtained when the system is
originally displaced by an amount x from equilibrium and then released. Upon release,
the system will bounce back and forth, but without the forcing function. Since the forcing
function is absent, the complementary solution is transitory and will die out with time.
Hence the right-hand side of Figure 14-11b is the response of the system after some time
when the complementary solution has “disappeared.” Since the complementary solution
is transitory, it will not be considered; the response of the system will simply be written
in terms of its particular solution only. Thus

xX =
Fo/k
sin | wt — tan
2 | 2(c/ce) (w//k/m)
JUL = 2 /({k/m)P + 4(c/e.)?[w?/(k/m))] 1 — w?/(k/m)
(14-80)
Let the system be forced by the amplitude Fo only. Using this as the forcing
function in equation (14-72) and going through the same process of simplification as was
done with the perturbing force Fo sin wt, the response obtained is

Fo
LS = k (14-81)

Since this response is the response of a nonvarying forcing function, it is a static response,
as opposed to the response portrayed by equation (14-80), which is a dynamic response.
The ratio of the amplitude of the dynamic response to that of the static response is called
the magnification factor, MF, obtained from the equations above:

1
MP = = = — (14-82)
vl —a@*/(k/m)lr + 4(c/c.)*lo* /(k/m)]
MF represents the number of times the response of noncyclical applied force is
multiplied over when the force is made a cyclical force. The magnification factor is also
called transmissibility ratio, TR.
Equation (14-82) shows MF or TR as a function of c/c,. This ratio is called the
damping factor. Table 14-21 shows some values of this factor.

Example 14-21

A motor weighing 70 N runs at 3600 rpm. (a) What is the stiffness, k, of the spring isolator
to be provided if the desired TR is to be 0.15? (b) What is the phase difference between the
applied force and the resulting vibration?
Glossary 743

TABLE 14-21 ISOLATOR DAMPING FACTORS

Isolator type Damping factor, c/co

Suspended isolator mount 0.5

Rubber isolator pad als
Composite isolator pad 0).
Glass fiber block pad OWS
Simple spring isolator 0.15
Cable isolator 0.25
Multiple part spring 0.2
Rubber isolator mount 0.1
Ceiling isolator mount 0.15

Solution
1
(a) TRI
[1 — w*/(k/m)P + 4(c/cc)*[@?/(k/m)]
From Table 14-21, use c/cg = 0.15.
3600(2z77) 70
o = ——— 60 = 376.99 rad/s in = PEG 7.14 kg

1
TR = 0.185 = SS. k = 133,262.06 N/m Answer
2
376.99 376.992
(1SR IKET ) + 4(0.15)2 (k/T.14 )
2(c/lee k/m.
(b) ¢@ = tan! CIC )Mea
ONSSAK)ATES,
1 — w2/(k/m)

_, 2(0.15) (376.99/,/133, 262.06/7.14) mee

= tan) —___________ = _7,]3°
1 — 376.992
/(133, 262.06/7.14)
or 180—7.13 = 172.87° Answer

GLOSSARY
Absorption silencer. A type of silencer where acoustic materials are lined in the interior
of a duct to absorb the noise.
Acoustic reflex. A reflex action of the ear designed to protect it from intense noise.
Amplitude. The highest extent of oscillation of the particle in a wave.
A network. The weighting network that resembles human response at low frequencies.
Angular frequency. The number of radians per unit frequency.
Angular wave number. The number of radians per wave displacement.
Basilar membrane. Membrane that divides the cochlea into the upper and lower gal-
leries.
Bel. A unit of expressing ratios of numbers in logarithm.
B network. The weighting network that resembles human response at medium frequencies.
C network. Weighting network that resembles human response at high frequencies.
744 Noise Pollution and Control Chap. 14

Cochleal potential. The electric potential developed by the hair cells and transmitted to
the brain by the auditory nerve.
Community noise equivalent level (CNEL). An Leg over a 24-h period with 5 dBA
added during the hours of 7 p.M. to 10 p.m. and 10 dBA during the hours of
10 P.M. to 7 A.M..
Composite noise rating (CNR). A contour of equal PNL (in PNdB) in and around the
vicinity of an airport.
Constant frequency analysis. A frequency band analysis where the sound spectrum is
analyzed at a constant increment of frequencies.
Constant percentage frequency analysis. A frequency band analysis where the lower
limit frequency in the band is always a constant percentage of the upper limit
frequency.
Critical damping coefficient. Value of the damping coefficient when the expression in-
side the radical of the auxiliary variable of the vibration control equation is equal
to zero.
Critically damped system. A vibrating system whose damping coefficient is equal to
the critical damping coefficient.
Damping coefficient. A coefficient that expresses the damping force as a linear function
of the velocity.
Damping factor. The ratio of the damping coefficient of a vibrating system to its critical
damping coefficient.
Damping force. An opposing force; a frictional force.
Day-night average sound level. An L., over a 24-h period with 10 dBA added to the
Leqay’s during the time from 10 P.M. to 7 A.M.
Decibel. Ten times a bel.
Destructive interference. The attenuation of noise by canceling the incoming noise
waves using the reflected noise waves.
Diffuser. A device for attenuating noise by reducing the velocity.
Directivity. A factor that converts from a spherical sound intensity to nonspherical sound
intensity.
Dissipative muffler. A silencer that attenuates noise by absorbing it.
D network. A weighting network that resembles human response at airports.
Dynamic response. The response of a vibrating system to a varying perturbing force.
Effective perceived noise level (EPNL). A perceived noise level of measurement that
adds additional corrective parameters to the PNL.
Equivalent sound level. A single A-weighted equivalent measure of sound level corre-
sponding to readings taken over a given period of time.
Exhaust muffler. A noise attenuating unit installed at the end of a pipe.
Forcing function. Anything that starts a process into motion.
Frequency. The number of repetitions or cycles per unit time.
Frequency band analysis. The procedure of measuring pressure levels by setting the
sound level meter at the geometric center frequency of the band.
Hair cells. Contained between the tectoral and basilar membranes; serve as transducers
to convert pressure energy to electrical.
Glossary 745

Hertz. One cycle per second.

Infrasound. Sound transmitted below 16 Hz.
Longitudinal waves. Waves in which the particles oscillate in the direction of wave
motion.
Loudness. The brain’s perception of the magnitude of sound pressures.
Magnification factor (MF). The ratio of the amplitude of the dynamic response of a
vibrating system to the amplitude of its static response.
Middle ear. An air-filled chamber of the ear composed of the ossicles: malleous (ham-
mer), incus (anvil), and the stapes (stirrup).
Noise. Unwanted sound.
Noise criteria (NC). A measure of noise developed in a form of a chart to quantify noise
levels in interior spaces.
Noise dose. A measure of noise that prorates the actual time of exposure of a person to
the total allowable exposure time for a given noise level recommended by OSHA.
Noise exposure forecast (NEF). An improved version of the CNR by utilizing EPNL
instead of the PNL in mapping the contours.
Noise exposure rating (NER). A measure of noise that prorates the actual time of ex-
posure or exposures of a person to the total allowable exposure time for a given
noise level recommended by CHABA.
Noise pollution level. The L.g equaled or exceeded 0.50% of the time.
Octave band. A band of frequencies where the ratio of the upper limit frequency to the
lower limit frequency of the band is 2:1.
1/2 octave band analysis. A frequency band analysis where the octave band is divided
into two portions.
1/3 octave band analysis. A frequency band analysis where the octave band is divided
into three portions.
Organ of Corti. Contained in the cochlea of the inner ear, it is the sense organ for
hearing.
Outer ear. The pinna, auditory canal, and the eardrum (tympanic membrane) of the ear.
Overdamped system. A vibrating system whose damping coefficient is greater than the
critical damping coefficient.
Perceived noise level (PNL). A calculated single value of noise based on a known level
of people’s annoyance from jet flyover noise.
Period. Time per repetition or cycle.
Phon. Loudness of a tone which when heard at 1000 Hz is numerically equal to the
corresponding sound pressure level.
Preferred noise criteria (PNC). An improvement over NC.
Preferred speech interference level (PSIL). The arithmetic mean of the sound pressure
levels at the 5O0-, 1000-, and 2000-Hz frequencies.
Rarefaction. In the transmission of sound by longitudinal wave vibration, that portion
of the wave where the air is thin.
Reactive expansion muffler. A muffler that attenuates noise by destructive interference.
Semicircular canal. Part of the inner ear that provides the sense of balance.
Shadow zone. The space upwind from a sound source where wind velocity and temper-
ature deflect the sound waves.
746 Noise Pollution and Control Chap. 14

Simple harmonic motion. Motion in which acceleration is proportional to position; the

motion of a swinging pendulum is such a motion.
Sone. The loudness 40 phons, arbitrarily set equal to 1.
Sound. The auditory sensation produced by the vibration of air, water, and so on.
Sound absorption coefficient. The fraction of incident noise that is absorbed by a
surface.
Sound intensity level. Sound intensity expressed in decibels.
Sound level. Sound pressure level measured by the weighting networks A, B, C, and D.
Sound power level. Sound power expressed in decibels.
Sound pressure level. Sound pressure expressed in decibels.
Speech interference level (SIL). The arithmetic mean of the sound pressure levels at the
octave bands at 600 to 1200, 1200 to 2400, and 2400 to 4800 Hz.
Standing wave. A wave that does not move.
Static response. The response of a vibrating system to a nonvarying perturbing force.
Transmissibility ratio. The magnification factor.
Transmission coefficient. The fraction of incident noise that is transmitted through a
partition or wall.
Transverse waves. Waves in which the particles oscillate perpendicular to the direction
of wave motion.
Ultrasound. Sound transmitted above 20,000 Hz.
Underdamped system. A vibrating system whose damping coefficient is less than the
critical damping coefficient.
Vibration control. A method of reducing noise by isolating the noise source so as to
prevent the propagation of vibration.
Wavelength. The length of displacement of a single wave in a waveform.
Wave number. The reciprocal of wavelength.
Weighting network. The electronic circuitry built into a sound level meter so as to
produce a readout that closely resembles a human response.

SYMBOLS

A attenuation
c damping coefficient
CNEL community noise equivalent level
CNR composite noise rating
dBA decibel level on the A weighting scale
D noise dose
EPNL effective PNL
F amplitude of forcing function
k angular wave number; spring constant
Megs day-night average sound level
Leg equivalent sound level
Symbols 747

sound intensity level

Statistical measure of noise level
noise pollution level
sound pressure level
sound power level
magnification factor
number of sample values; Fresnel number
effective noy value
noise criteria
noise exposure forecast
noise exposure rating
decibel level on the Lyp measure
phon
sound power
pascal
preferred NC
sound pressure decibel level in the PNL measure
perceived noise level
preferred SIL
directivity
distance of noise receiver from noise source
gas constant; room constant
perturbation displacement of sound about equilibrium (s,,,
amplitude)
sone; area receiving noise
total surface area receiving noise
speech interference level
period
transmission loss
transmissibility ratio
velocity of sound
velocity of oscillation of air mass
watt
distance from sound source where temperature and wind
start to deflect sound waves
absorption coefficient
bulk modulus of elasticity
frequency
sound pressure above or below atmospheric or simply pres-
sure
mean square pressure
wave number
wavelength
density of medium for sound transmission
 Noise Pollution and Control Chap. 14

areal density of partition

relative humidity
angular frequency

PROBLEMS

14-1. Using numerical values show that cos2(kx — wt) = Nl

14-2. Using numerical values show that sin? (kx — wt) = el

1)

14-3. The maximum differential pressure, Ap», that the ear can tolerate in loud sounds is 28 N/m?.
What is the amplitude, s,,, for such a sound in air at a frequency of 10,000 Hz? Assume 6
and p equal to 20.6 psi and 1.23 kg/m? (for air), respectively. What are the rms pressure,
intensity, and wavelength?
14-4. What is the difference between sound pressure level and sound level?
14-5. Repeat Problem 14-3 for the pressure amplitude of 2.8(10~>) Pa of the faintest detectable
sound at 1000 Hz.
14-6. What is the sum of 68 dBA and 75 dBA?
14-7. The sound power from an automobile on a highway is | W. What is the sound power level?
What are the sound intensity, the sound intensity level, the sound pressure, and the sound
pressure level at a distance of 6 m from the automobile?
14-8. Using the weighting networks A, B, and C, the following sound levels were measured,
respectively: 95 dBA, 95 dBB, and 95 dBC. What is the approximate frequency of the
noise?
14-9, Calculate the loudness in sones for a simultaneous exposure for the following tones: 50 dB
at 350 Hz, 50 dB at 1800 Hz, 50 dB at 3000 Hz, and 50 dB at 4000 Hz.
14-10. Compute the mean of Problem 14-6.
14-11. The upper and lower frequencies of an octave band are 177 and 355 Hz, respectively.
(a) What is the center band frequency? If the lower frequency is 11,360 Hz, what are the
upper frequencies of the corresponding (b) 1/2 and (c) 1/3 octaves?
14-12. A sound level of 95 dBA is measured for 5 min followed by a dBA of 60 for a period of
60 min. Calculate the equivalent sound level for the whole duration of 65 min.
14-13. The noise spectrum of a cutter equipment at a 5.0-ft distance is analyzed using the 1/1
octave band analysis, producing the results below. What are the sound pressure level and
the sound level, Lpcr, in dBC generated by the equipment?

Center frequency (Hz) Lp

63 62
125 vil
250 72
500 Wal
1000 2.
2000 79
4000 Wi
8000 63
Problems 749

14-14. Find the mean of L, in Problem 14-13. Compare it to the arithmetic mean.
14-15. Traffic noise data are shown in the following table. Compute (a) L109 and (b) Lso.

Time (s)

14-16. The sound pressure level 55 m downwind from a compressor is 95 dB. If the wind
speed is 5 m/s, the temperature is 25°C, the relative humidity is 60%, and the baro-
metric pressure is 100.33 kPa, determine the sound pressure level upstream from the com-
pressor.

14-17. The ambient air temperature is 25°C. If a building is 7.0 m high, express its height in terms
of the wavelength of a 500-Hz sound.
14-18. The bihourly Leq’s, Leg(2)’s, in a certain neighborhood are shown in the following ta-
ble. Compute (a) Lay and (b) Lyp assuming the 24 h of record is sufficient to define
Leq(oo)-

Time

24:00—1:00
2:00-3:00
4:00-5:00
6:00-7:00
8:00-9:00
10:00—1 1:00
12:00—13:00
14:00-15:00
16:00—17:00
18:00—19:00
20:00—21:00
22:00—23:00

14-19. A shopping mall is proposed to be constructed in a very quiet neighborhood. The noise
measurements shown below are then taken in a nearby shopping mall similar to the one
proposed. Based on the Leg values, should complaints from the neighborhood be antici-
pated?
750 Noise Pollution and Control Chap. 14

Time Sound level (dBA)

5:00-7:00 43
7:00-9:00 56
9:00-11:00 64
11:00—13:00 70
13:00—15:00 69
15:00—17:00 55)

14-20. The draft fans of the boilers of a 650-MW power plant produce 90 dB at 32.0 Hz at a dis-
tance of 190.0 m on a calm day. Determine the dB at a distance of 500 m if the temperature
is 25°C, the relative humidity is 70%, and the barometric pressure is 29.92 in. Hg.
14-21. On the stage at an opera house, the following readings were obtained while a singer was
performing: 110 dBA, 111 dBB, and 112 dBC. What is the approximate frequency of the
singer’s voice?
14-22. The following data are associated with a jet aircraft. Calculate the PNL.

1/1 Octave band (Hz) Lp (dB) N; (noys)

125 103 50
500 100 65
1000 90 33
4000 81 34
8000 70 14

14-23. The sound pressure level of a full symphony and in a living room are, respectively, 0.632 Pa
and 0.002 Pa. Calculate the respectively sound levels.
14-24. Assume two aircraft types, two flight paths, two daytime flights, and no nighttime flight at
path | and one daytime flight and one nighttime flight at path 2 for aircraft types 1 and
2. Assume the PNLmax values for aircraft types 1 and 2 to be 114 PNdB and 117 PNdB,
respectively, over flight path | and 116 PNdB and 120 PNdB, respectively, over flight path
2. Also assume the A? for both types of aircraft in all paths as 25 s. Find the NEFs at
flight paths | and 2. Calculate the corresponding Lap.
14-25. The basement of a professor’s house is leaking at the joint between the basement slab and
the wall. He therefore cracked the joints to create a space into which hydraulic cement can
be poured to seal the crack. If he uses an air hammer with a dB value of 100, to what Leg
will he be subjected if he works 10 h a day?
14-26. The noise levels in the chiller and compressor areas are 92 dBA and 93 dBA, respectively.
If the employee is exposed two times at 2 h per exposure in the chiller area and | h in the
compressor area, determine if the CHABA and OSHA recommendations are met.
14-27. Convert the noise levels in Problem 14-26 to pressure levels.
14-28. Dogs can hear sound pressures as low as 2(10~°) N/m*. What is the equivalent sound
level? How acute is dog hearing compared to that of humans if the threshold of human
hearing is 28 Om) Pa?
14-29. The data below were obtained from a cutter after a silencer was installed. What are the
corresponding NC and PNC levels? What are the PSIL value and approximate SIL value?
Problems 751

1/1 Octave band (Hz) Ly (dB)

63 55
125 60
250 63
500 66
1000 69
2000 70
4000 66
8000 53

14-30. A machine produces 80 dBA at 100 Hz. What is the corresponding dBC?
14-31. A source is put at the bottom of a cylinder of length £ and diameter R. Determine the
value of Q.
14-32. The sound power level and the sound pressure level at one side of a cooling tower at a
distance of 50 ft have been reported by a manufacturer as shown below. Calculate the
sound pressure level and the sound level at a distance of 40 ft from the tower.

Octave band center frequency (Hz)

Levels 125 250 1000 2000 4000 8000

Ly (dB) Si OP 88 83 79 73
Lp (dB) 61 58 59 54 50 47

14-33. In Problem 14-32, what is the sound pressure level at the 40-ft distance given the following
additional conditions? A concrete barrier 30 ft high is erected between the tower and the
40-ft distance at a point 20 ft from the tower. The tower is 15 ft high and the receiver point
is 6 ft high, with the ground assumed horizontal. The atmospheric pressure and temperature
are, respectively, 14.7 psi and 60°F. The relative humidity is 80%. Assume that the receiver
is downwind from the source. Neglect A3 and As.
14-34. Obtain a sound level meter from your instructor. Using this meter, measure the sound
levels in your neighborhood and compare with the reading you obtain on the highway.
14-35. Using the same meter as in Problem 14-34, take the reading as an automobile passes you
on your neighborhood street. Compare the reading when no automobile is passing by.
14-36. A factory room measuring 70 ft long by 20 ft wide by 20 ft high is to be heated using a
fan with the following sound power level characteristics: 63 Hz, 98 dB; 125 Hz, 88 dB;
250 Hz, 89 dB; 500 Hz, 87 dB; 1000 Hz, 85 dB; 2000 Hz, 85 dB; 4000 Hz, 83 dB;
and 8000 Hz, 71 dB. The main duct, 24 in. by 24 in., has a length of 50 ft with a 90°
elbow of 24 in. by 24 in. at its terminus. This elbow is used to connect the main to a
branch or a continuation duct at a 90° turn with the main. The branch duct measures
24 in. by 24 in. by 60 ft long and is located at the ceiling, running lengthwise with the
70-ft dimension of the room, perpendicular to and at the middle of the 20-ft dimension.
The branch duct has six outlets at the ceiling, each discharging an equal amount of air.
The main duct itself conveys 15,000 cfm of air. The distances of the outlets to a point
in the middle of the room are: outlets 1 and 6 = 32 ft, outlets 2 and 5 = 24 ft, and
outlets 3 and 4 = 17 ft. Calculate (a) the sound power level at each duct outlet and
 752 Noise Pollution and Control Chap. 14

(b) the sound pressure level at the point in the middle of the room. Following is additional
information: ceiling (70 ft by 20 ft): acoustical tile, #(125 Hz) = 0.47, a(250 Hz) =
0.80, a(500 Hz) = 0.95, a(1000 Hz) = 1.0, a(2000 Hz) = 0.9, a(4000 Hz) = 0.85,
«(8000 Hz) = 1.0; walls (two 20 ft by 20 ft and two 20 ft by 70 ft): painted concrete
block; and floor (70 ft by 20 ft): linoleum.
14-37. A brick wall is 0.41 m thick and has an area density of 590 kg/m?. If the frequency of the
incident sound is 1000 Hz, calculate TL and tT.
14-38. To control the noise coming from a tertiary crusher, the equipment installation is enclosed
with | yin. plywood. The following are the sound power level characteristics of the crusher
at the inside wall of the enclosure: 63 Hz, 98 dB; 125 Hz, 88 dB; 250 Hz, 89 dB; 500 Hz, 87
dB; 1000 Hz, 85 dB; 2000 Hz, 85 dB; 4000 Hz, 83 dB; and 8000 Hz, 71 dB. What vocal ef-
fort would be exerted to have a face-to-face conversation immediately outside the enclosure?
14-39. The fan in a household discharges air into several rooms in the house through a fan plenum.
Refer to Figures 410d = 50 ft Gi 0 aS) 950 ft?, and S25 ft?. The absorption
coefficients, a , of the glass lining used are as follows: 125 Hz, 0.6; 250 Hz, 0.8; 500 Hz,
0.8; 1000 Hz, 0.9; 2000 Hz, 0.8; 4000 Hz, 0.75. Compute the attenuation corresponding to
each octave band. Compare the results when d = 10 ft.
14-40. A motor weighing 70 N runs at 1200 rpm. (a) What is the stiffness, k, of the spring isolator
to be provided if the desired TR is to be 0.15? (b) What is the phase difference between
the applied force and the resulting vibration? Compare result when rpm = 3600.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Brocu, J. T. (1971). Acoustic Noise Measurement. B&K Instruments, Inc.

CunNIEF, P. F. (1977). Environmental Noise Pollution. Wiley, New York.
Davis, M. L., and D. A. CORNWELL (1991). Environmental Engineering. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Harvey, S. G. and C. C. OLIVER (1972). “Classification and Performance of Commercial Vibration
Isolators.” Proceedings of Inter-Noise 72, pp. 133-137.
HIBBELER, R. C. (1992). Engineering Mechanics, Dynamics. Macmillan, New York.
KINSLER, L. E., and A. R. Frey (1962). Fundamentals of Acoustics. Wiley, New York.
PETERSON, A. P. G., and E. E. Gross (1972). Handbook of Noise Measurement, General Radio
Company.
SCHULTZ, T. J. (1968). “Noise-Criterion Curves for Use with the USASI Preferred Frequencies.”
Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 43, pp. 637-638.
SOCIETY OF AUTOMOTIVE ENGINEERS (1964). Standard Values of Atmospheric Absorption as a
Function of Temperature and Humidity for Use in Evaluating Aircraft Flyover Noise (ARP886).
Society of Automotive Engineers, New York.
THUMANN, A., and R. K. MILLER (1986). Fundamentals of Noise Control Engineering. Prentice
Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
VESILIND, P. A., J. J. PEtRcE, and R. F. WEINER (1988). Environmental Engineering. Butterworth,
Boston.
 Appendices

APPENDIX 1: ATOMIC WEIGHTS OF THE ELEMENTS BASED ON

C-12?

Atomic Atomic Atomic Atomic

Name Symbol number weight Name Symbol number weight

Actinium Ac 89 227.0 Cerium Ce 58 140.1

Aluminum Al 13 27.0 Cesium Cs 35) 3279)
Americium Am 95 (243) Chlorine Cl l/ 355
Antimony Sb 5] 121.8 Chromium (Ci 24 52.0
Argon Ar 18 309 Cobalt Co 27 58.9
Arsenic As 33 74.9 Copper Cu 2S) 6B
Astatine At 85 (210) Curium Cm 96 (247)
Barium Ba 56 IS 7a Dysprosium Dy 66 162.5
Berkelium Bk 97 (247) Einsteinium Es 99 (252)
Beryllium Be 4 9.012 Erbium leye 68 167.3
Bismuth Bi 83 209.0 Europium Eu 63 152.0
Boron B 5) 10.8 Fermium Fm 100 a7)
Bromine Br 35 79.9 Fluorine F 9 19.0
Cadmium Cd 48 112.4 Francium Fr 87 (223)
Calcium Ca 20 40.1 Gadolinium Gd 64 IS73
Californium Ci 98 (251) Gallium Ga 31 69.7
Carbon (C 6 12.0 Germanium Ge 32 72.6

4Values in parentheses (isotope atomic masses of longest half-life) are used for radioactive elements whose atomic
weights cannot be quoted precisely without knowledge of the origin of the elements.

753
 754 Appendices

APPENDIX 1: (CONTINUED)

Atomic Atomic Atomic Atomic

Name Symbol number weight Name Symbol number weight

Gold Au 79 197.0 Radium Ra 88 226.0

Hafnium Hf 72 RSS) Radon Ra 86 (222)
Helium He 2 4.0 Rhenium Re IS 186.2
Holmium Ho 67 164.9 Rhodium Rh 45 102.9
Hydrogen H ] 1.0 Rubidium Rb 37 85.5
Iodine I 3) POL Ruthenium Ru 44 101.1
Indium In 49 114.8 Samarium Sm 62 150.4
Iridium Ir Wi 192.2 Scandium SC Pil 45.0
Iron ie 26 55.8 Selenium Se 34 7930
Krypton Kr 36 83.8 Silicon Si 14 28.1
Lanthanum La Sy 138.9 Silver Ag 47 108.0
Lawrencium ie 103 (260) Sodium Na 11 220)
Lead Pb 82 AOU? Strontium Sr 38 87.6
Lithium Li 3 6.9 Sulfur S 16 Bal
Lutetium Lu al one Tantalum Ta 423 181.0
Magnesium Mg 12 24.3 Technetium Te 43 (98)
Manganese Mn 25 54.9 Tellurium Te a 127.6
Mendelivium Md 101 (258) Terbium Tb 65 159.0
Mercury Hg 80 201.0 Thallium Ti 81 204.4
Molybdenum Mo 42 G59 Thorium Th 90 23210
Neodymium Nd 60 144.2 Thulium Tm 69 169.0
Neon Ne 10 20.2 Tin Sn 50 118.7
Neptunium Np 93 237.0 Titanium Ti 22, 47.9
Nickel Ni 28 58.7 Tungsten W 74 183.9
Niobium Nb 4] 92.9 Unnilennium Une 109 (266)
Nitrogen N 7 14.0 Unnilhexium Unh 106 (263)
Nobelium No 102 (259) Unniloctium Uno 108 (265)
Osmium Os 76 IO Unnilpentium Unp 105 (262)
Oxygen O 8 16.0 Unnilquadium Unq 104 (261)
Palladium Pd 46 106.4 Unnilseptium Uns 107 (262)
Phosphorus Ip 15 31.0 Uranium U 2 238.0
Platinum Pt 78 eal Vanadium Vv De 50.9
Plutonium Pu 94 (244) Xenon Xe 54 1S des
Polonium Po 84 (209) Ytterbium Yb 70 173.0
Potassium K 19 39.1 Yttrium WY 39 88.9
Praseodymium Pai SY) 140.9 Zinc Zn 30 65.4
Promethium Pm 61 (145) Zirconium Zr 40, O12)
Protactinium Pa 9] 231.0
 App. 2: Saturation Values of Dissolved Oxygen 755

APPENDIX 2: SATURATION VALUES OF DISSOLVED OXYGEN

EXPOSED TO SATURATED ATMOSPHERE AT ONE ATM
PRESSURE

Chloride concentration (mg/L)

Temperature Saturated H2O vapor
AE 0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 pressure (kPa)

0 14.6 13.8 13.0 12.0 me3 0.61

1 14.2 13.4 12.6 11.8 11.0 0.66
2 13.8 il3}, RS iis 10.8 0.71
3 13> LT 12.0 li? 10.5 0.76
4 13.1 12.4 ile 11.0 10.3 0.81
5 12.8 12.1 11.4 10.7 10.0 0.87
6 DES 11.8 hit ORS 9.8 0.93
oT 22 11.5 10.9 10.2 9.6 1.00
8 LIES Li? 10.6 10.0 9.4 1.07
S) 11.6 11.0 10.4 9.8 Q) 1.15
10 it} 10.7 10.1 9.6 9.0 123
1] iM 10.5 of 9.4 8.8 ital
12 10.8 10.3 OF oF 8.6 1.40
13 10.6 10.1 QS 9.0 8.5 1.49
i4 10.4 Vg 9.3) 8.8 8.3 1.60
IS; 10.2 OF OF 8.6 8.1 1.70
16 10.0 oS 9.0 8.5 8.0 E82
iL) OF] YS 8.8 8.3 7.8 1.94
18 DS Onl 8.6 8.2 7.7 2.06
Is 9.4 8.9 8.5 8.0 7.6 2.20
20 oy 8.7 8.3 7.9 7.4 2.34
21 9.0 8.6 8.1 7.7 73, 2.49
22 8.8 8.4 8.0 7.6 Wil 2.64
22 8.7 8.3 WS 7.4 TD 2.81
24 8.5 8.1 Tel 7.3 6.9 2.98
25 8.4 8.0 7.6 UP 6.7 BMF
26 8.2 7.8 7.4 7.0 6.6 3.36
27 8.1 Tell Wed 6.9 6.5 B50
28 TSS, Tes Tes 6.8 6.4 3.78
25 7.8 7.4 7.0 6.6 6.3 4.01
30 7.6 Wed) 6.9 65) 6.1 4.24
 756 Appendices

APPENDIX 3: SDWA ACRONYMS

BAT Best available technology

BTGA Best technology generally available
CWS Community water systems
DWEL Drinking water equivalence level
EMSL USEPA Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory (Cincinnati)
GAC Granular activated carbon
10c Inorganic chemical
IPDWR Interim primary drinking water regulation
LOAEL Lowest observed adverse effect level
LOQ Limit of quantitation
MCL Maximum contaminant level
MCLG Maximum contaminant level goal
MDL Method detection limit
NOAEL No observed adverse effect level
NPDWR National primary drinking water regulation
NTNCWS Nontransient noncommunity water system
PAC Powdered activated carbon
PHS Public Health Service
POET Point-of-entry technology
POUT Point-of-use technology
PQL Practical quantitation level
PTA Packed tower aeration
RFD Reference dose
RIA Regulatory impact analysis
RMCL Recommended maximum contaminant level
RPDWR Revised primary drinking water regulation
RSC Relative source contribution
SDWA Safe Drinking Water Act
SMCL Secondary maximum contaminant level
SNARL Suggested no adverse response level
SOC Synthetic organic chemical
TNCWS Transient noncommunity water system
UIC Underground injection control
URTH Unreasonable risk to health
Voc Volatile organic chemical
 App. 4: Sample Drinking Water VOC Values 757

APPENDIX 4: SAMPLE DRINKING WATER VOC VALUES

Contaminant MCL (mg/L) BAT

Benzene 0.005—0 PTA or GAC

Carbon tetrachloride 0.005—0 PTA or GAC
p-Dichlorobenzene 0.075 PTA or GAC
1,2-Dichloroethane 0.005—0 PTA or GAC
1,1-Dichloroethylene 0.007 PTA or GAC
1,1,1-Trichloromethane 0.20 PTA or GAC
Trichloroethylene 0).005—0 PTA or GAC
Vinyl chloride 0.002—0 PTA
Bromobenzene — —
Bromodichloromethane — —
Bromoform — —
Bromomethane — —
Chlorobenzene — —
Chlorodibromomethane — —
Chloroethane — —
Chloroform — =
Chloromethane — =
o-Chlorotoluene — —
p-Chlorotoluene a= —
Dibromomethane = —
m-Dichlorobenzene — —
o-Dichlorobenzene — —
1,1-Dichloroethane — —
cis-1,2-Dichloroethylene — —
trans-1,2-Dichloroethylene — —
Dichloromethane — —
1,2-Dichloropropane — —
1,3-Dichloropropane — —
2,2,-Dichloropropane — _—
1,1-Dichloropropene — —
| ,3-Dichloropropene os —
Ethylbenzene — —
Styrene —_ —
1,1,1,2-Tetrachloroethane — =
1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane — —
Tetrachloroethylene o= -
Toluene = a.
1,1,2-Trichloroethane — —
1,2,3-Trichloropropane — —
m-Xylene — —
o-Xylene —— ==
p-Xylene — —
 758 Appendices

APPENDIX 5: SAMPLE DRINKING WATER SOC AND IOC VALUES

Contaminant MCL (mg/L) Contaminant MCL (mg/L)

SOC
Acrylamide treatment PCBs (as decachloro- 0.0005
technique biphenyls)
Alachlor 0.002 Pentachlorophenol 0.2
Aldicarb 0.01 Styrene 0.005
Aldicarb sulfone Tetrachloroethylene 0.005
Aldicarb sulfoxide Toluene DO)
Atrazine Toxaphene 0.005
Carbofuran DFASRa (Silviex) 0.05
Chlordane Xylene 10
2,4-D
Dibromochloropropane IOC
o-Dichlorobenzene Arsenic 0.05
cis-1,2-Dichloroethylene Asbestos 7 million
trans-1,2-Dichloroethylene fibers/L
1,2-Dichloropropane (longer than
Epichlorohydrin treatment 10 wm)
technique Barium S20)
Ethylbenzene Cadmium 0.005
Ethylene dibromide (EDB) Chromium 0.1
Heptachlor Mercury 0.002
Heptachlor epoxide Nitrate 10 as N
Lindane Nitrite las N
Methoxychlor Selenium 0.05
Monochlorobenzene Silver 0.05
 App. 6: Disinfectant Chemicals and By-Products 759

APPENDIX 6: DISINFECTANT CHEMICALS AND BY-PRODUCTS

Disinfectants
Ammonia Chlorine Hypochlorite ion
Chloramines Chlorine dioxide Hypochlorous
Chlorate Chlorite

Disinfectant by-products
Haloacetic acids
Dibromoacetic Monobromoacetic Trichloroacetic
Dichloroacetic Monochloroacetic

Haloacetonitriles
Bromochloroacetonitrile Dichloroacetonitrile
Dibromoacetonitrile Trichloroacetonitrile

Haloketones
1,1-Dichloropropanone 1,1,1-Trichloropropanone

Trihalomethanes
Bromodichloromethane Chloroform
Bromoform Dibromochloromethane

Chlorophenols
2-Chlorophenol 2,4-Dichlorophenol 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol

Aldehydes 3-Chloro-4-(dichloro- lodate

Bromate methyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5 H )- Iodide
Bromide furanone [MX] N-Organochloramines
Bromodichloromethane Chloropicrin Ozone by-products
Chloral hydrate Cyanogen chloride
 760 Appendices

APPENDIX 7: MICROBIOLOGICAL AND RADIONUCLIDE

CONTAMINANTS AND SECONDARY MCL VALUES FOR A
NUMBER OF SUBSTANCES

Microbiological contaminants
Total coliforms Giadia lamblia Legionella
Viruses Cryptosporidium

Radionuclide contaminants
Gross alpha particle Natural uranium Beta particle
Photon radioactivity Radium 226 and 228 Radon

Secondary MCLs

Contaminant SMCL (mg/L)

Chloride 250
Color 15 color units
Copper |
Corrosivity Noncorrosive
Foaming agents 0.5
Hydrogen sulfide 0.05
Iron 0.3
Manganese 0.05
Odor 3 TON
pH 6.5-8.5
Sulfate 250
Total dissolved solids 500
Zinc 5
 App. 8: Some Primary Drinking Water Criteria 761

APPENDIX 8: SOME PRIMARY DRINKING WATER CRITERIA

Contaminants Concentration (mg/L, unless noted otherwise)

Arsenic 0.05
Barium 1.00
Cadmium 0.010
Chromium 0.05
Lead 0.05
Mercury 0.002
Nitrate as N 10.00
Selenium 0.01
Silver 0.05
Chlorinated hydrocarbon
Endrin (1,2,3,4,10,10-hexachloro- 0.0002
6,7-epoxy-1,4,4a,5,6,7,8,8a-octo-
hydro-1,4-endo,endo-5,8-dimetha-
nonaphthalene)
Lindane (1,2,3,4,5,6-hexachloro- 0.004
cyclohexane, y isomer)
Methoxychlor [1,1,1-trichloro-2,2- 0.1
bis(p-methoxypheny])ethane]
Toxaphene (C;9Hj9Clg—technical 0.005
chlorinated camphene, 67-69%
chlorine)
Chlorophenoxys
2,4-D (2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic 0.1
acid)
2,4,5-TP (2,4,5-trichloro- 0.01
phenoxypropionic acid)
Microbiological contaminants Based on average of two consecutive days: 5 TU.
Membrane filter technique: not to exceed 1/100 mL on
monthly basis; not to exceed 4/100 mL of coliforms in
more than one sample in fewer than 20 samples per
month on an individual sample basis; not to exceed
4/100 mL of coliforms in more than 5% of sample in
more than 20 samples per month on an individual basis.
Fermentation tube method: |. 10-mL standard portions.
Coliforms shall not be present in more than 10% of the
portions on monthly basis; coliforms shall not be present
in three or more portions in more than one sample in
fewer than 20 samples per month on an individual basis;
coliforms shall not be present in three or more portions
in more than 5% of samples in more than 20 samples
per month on an individual basis. 2. 100-mL standard
portions. Coliforms shall not be present in more than
60% of the portions on monthly basis; coliforms shall
not be present in five portions in more than one sample
in fewer than 20 samples per month on an individual
basis; coliforms shall not be present in five portions in
more than 20% of samples in more than 20 samples per
month on an individual basis.
Turbidity Based on monthly average: | TU or up to 5 TU if the
water supplier can demonstrate that the higher turbidity
does not interfere with disinfection.
 762 Appendices

APPENDIX 9: SOME SECONDARY DRINKING WATER CRITERIA

Contaminants Concentration (mg/L, unless noted otherwise)

Chloride 250
Color 15 CU (color units)
Copper 1
Corrosivity Noncorrosive
Foaming agents 0.5
Hydrogen sulfide 0.05
Iron 0.3
Manganese 0.05
Odor < 3 TON
pH 6.58.5
Sulfate 250
Total dissolved solids 500
Zinc 5

APPENDIX 10: PHYSICAL CONSTANTS

Physical constant Value

Acceleration due to gravity, g 9.80665 m/s? and 32.174 ft/s? at sea level
Atomic mass unit, amu + the mass of '7C = 1.6605402(10-27) kg
Avogadro’s number 6.0221367(1073) per g mol
Boltzmann constant 1.380658(10~73) J/K
Charge-to-mass ratio for electrons 1.75881962(10!!) C/kg
Electrical permittivity constant 8.85(10—!2) C/V-m
Electron charge 1.60217733010') C
Electron rest mass 9.109390(10-3!) kg
Faraday constant 9.6485309(10*) C per equivalent
g mol 22.4 L ideal gas at STP of O°C and 1 atm
Ib mole 359 ft ideal gas at STP of °C and 1 atm
Neutron rest mass 1.6749286(10~2’) kg
Planck constant 6.6260755(10~34) J-s
Proton rest mass 1.6726231(10-2’) kg
Speed of light in vacuum 2.99792458(108) m/s
Standard room temperature D5eC
Standard temperature and pressure (STP) 1 atm and 0°C
Universal gas constant 8.205784(10~7) L-atm-K/g mol,
8.314510 J/g mol-K, 1.987 cal/g mol-K,
82.05 atm-cm?/g mol-K,
4.968(10*) Ibm-ft?/(Ib mol)-°R
49,720 ft-lb¢/slug-OR
 App. 11: Conversion Factors 763

_ APPENDIX 11: CONVERSION FACTORS

From

A, angstrom 10-8 cm
A C/s
acre 43,560 ft?, 0.00156 mi*, 0.405 ha
atm 101.325 kN/m?, 14.696 Ib¢/in?, 101.325 kPa, 1.013 bar, 29.92 in. Hg
and 760 mmHg at 0°C, 760 torr, 33.936 ft H2O (60°F), 2116.2 Ib/ft?
barrel 42 gal
Btu 252.2 cal, 778.2 ft-lbp
bu/ha 0.4047 bu/acre
CG 6.2(10!8) electrons, 1 A-s
cal 4.1868 J
cal/g mol 1.8 Btu/Ib mol
cm 0.3937 in.
cm? 1 mL
cP 0.000672 Ibm/s-ft, 10-3 Pa-s
dyn 10-> N
erg 1 dyn-cm, 10~7 J
esu 1.59(107!9) A-s, 1.59(107!9)
ft 0.305 m
ft 7.481 gal, 28.32 L, 0.0283 m3
Bes
[L8eG) +32)
g 0.0353 0z, 0.0022 Ibm
g/m? 8.3454 Ibm/Megal
gal B:185 1
oo 0.227 m3/h
grain 6.480(10~2) g
grain/ft? 2.29 g/m?
2.4711 acre, 10* m?
746 W; 33,000 ft-Iby/min; 2545 Btu/h; 0.0738 boiler hp
1.98(10°) ft-lbe
1 cycle/s
2.54 cm
2.7778(10~') kWh, 0.7376 ft-Ibr, 1.0 W-s, 1.0 N-m, 0.2388 cal, 10’ ergs
2.2046 Ibm
0.8922 Ibm/acre
0.8922 Ib/acre-day
1.6440 Ibm/hp-h
8345.4 lbm,/Mgal
0.2048 Ibi/ft?-day
62.428 lbm/10? ft?-day
0.9478 Btu
0.4303 Btu/Ibm
0.6214 mile
0.0099 atm
0.9478 Btu/s, 1.3410 hp
3412 Btu, 1.341 hp-h
5.0763 hp/10* gal
0.0380 hp/10? ft?
°C 773.16
 764 Appendices

APPENDIX 11: (CONTINUED)

From To

Ibe [lbin/(ge Ibm/slug)]g (ge = 32.174; g is the gravitational acceleration)

Ibn 453.6 g, 7000 grains, 16 oz
long ton 2240 Ibm
y 0.2642 gal, 0.0353 ft?, 33.8150 oz, 1.057 quarts, 10~> m?
L/m?-min 35.3420 gal/ft*-day
L/m? 2.4542(10~7) gal/ft?
m 3.2808 ft, 39.3701 in., 1.0936 yd
m/s* 3.2808 ft/s*, 39.3701 in./s?
m2 2.471(10~*) acre
m? 35.314 ft?, 8.1071(10-*) acre-ft, 1000 L, 264.1720 gal
m?/10° m3 133.6806 ft?/Mgal
m?/m-day 80.5196 gal/ft?-day; 10.7639 ft?/ft-min
m? /m?-day 24.5424 gal/ft-day
m? /m?-h 589.0173 gal/ft?-day
m? /m? 0.1337 ft?/gal
mile 5280 ft, 1609 km
Mg 1.1023 short ton, 0.9842 long ton, 1.0 tonne
MJ 0.3725 hp-h
N 0.2248 Ibs, 1 kg-m/s?
N/m? 1 Pa
Pa 1 N/m?, 1.4504(10~4) Ib¢/in?
poise 1 g/em-s, 0.1 Pa-s
eR °F + 459.49
short ton 2000 Ib, 0.907 tonne
stoke cm/s
ton of refrigeration 200 Btu/min
W 0.7376 ft-lb;/s, 1 J/s, 107 ergs/s
W/m?—°C 0.1763 Btu/ft?-°F-h
jum 10~-© m, 1073 mm
 App. 12: Environmental Tragedies 765

APPENDIX 12: ENVIRONMENTAL TRAGEDIES

Year Place Pollution problem Deaths, diseases, catastrophe, remarks

1854 Broad Street (pump), Water Asiatic cholera epidemic

London, England
1872 Lausen, Switzerland Water Typhoid fever epidemic
1892 Hamburg, Germany Water Cholera epidemic
1923 Chicago, Illinois Water Typhoid fever epidemic
1928 Olean, New York Water Typhoid fever epidemic
1929 Ogden, Utah Water Typhoid fever epidemic
1930 Meuse Valley, Belgium Air 63 deaths; 6000 became ill
1935 Chicago, Illinois Water Amoebic dysentery epidemic
1948 Donora, Pennsylvania Air 21 deaths; 6000 became ill
1948 London, England Air 700-800 deaths
1952 London, England Air 4000 deaths
1956 London, England Air 1000 deaths
1957 London, England Air 700-800 deaths
1959 London, England Air 200-250 deaths
1962 London, England Air 700 deaths
1963 London, England Air 700 deaths
1963 New York, New York Air 200-400 deaths
Loe Stringfellow acid pits, Water, hazardous Groundwater pollution
Glen Avon, California waste discovered in 1972
1975 Hopewell, Virginia Water, hazardous Kepone discharge to James
waste River; plant closed in 1975
1975 Back River, Baltimore, Water Fish kills
Maryland
1975 Waldwick, New Jersey Water, hazardous Biocraft Laboratories
waste leaked the solvent butanol,
acetone, and methylene
to the ground; dis-
covered in 1975
1976 Seveso, Italy Air, hazardous waste Dioxin cloud over Seveso
1978 Love Canal, Niagara Hazardous In 1976, puddles of haz-
Falls, N.Y. waste ardous wastes surfaced
at backyards of residents;
in 1978, EPA evacuated
237 families; people built
on top of chemical dump
1978 France Oil spill Called the Amoco Cadiz
spill, 68 million gallons of
oil was dumped off the
coast of France
1979 General Electric site, Water, hazardous PCB contamination; com-
Oakland, California waste plaint filed by a GE em-
ployee in 1979
1984 Bhopal, India Over 2000 people died by an
accidental release of methyl
isocyanate
 766 Appendices

APPENDIX 12: (CONTINUED)

Year Place Pollution problem Deaths, diseases, catastrophe, remarks

1985 Stratosphere over Air Announced in 1985 that a big

Antarctica hole over Antarctica the
size of the United States
has been created due to
ozone depletion mostly by
CFCs
1986 Chernobyl, Russia Nuclear Meltdown of a nuclear
reactor at Chernobyl; con-
tamination spread over
much of Europe
1989 Valdez, Alaska Oil spill The incident called Exxon
Valdez; the tanker Blight
Reef spilled 11 million
gallons of crude into Prince
William Sound
IDI Sacramento River, Hazardous Pesticide, metam sodium,
California chemicals spilled from a Southern
Pacific train into the 30-mile
stretch of stream threat-
ening Shasta Lake, a source
of water for California
199] Luzon, Philippines Dust, mud flows Mt. Pinatubo erupted, closing
an important U.S. military
base
EN Kuwait, Middle East Air pollution, spill The Gulf war; the Iraqi army
exploded oil storage tanks,
causing massive oil spills into
the Persian Gulf; they also
set fire to the Kuwaiti oil
wells, creating a large air
pollution problem
1993 Luzon, Philippines Dust, mud flows The Mayon volcano erupted
 App. 13: Environmental Legislations in the United States 767

APPENDIX 13: ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATIONS IN THE UNITED

STATES

Environmental concern

Drinking
Year Title Air Noise Water Solid Hazardous water

1850 City of Boston ordinance i

1881 Chicago and Cincinnati T
antismoke ordinances
1899 Rivers and Harbors Act
LOT Public Health Service Act
1924 Oil Pollution Act eet
1942 Walsh—Healey Public T
Contracts Act
1946 Atomic Energy Act
1948 Water Pollution
Control Act
1954 Atomic Energy Act
ISS Air Pollution Control Act T
1956 Federal Water Pollution
Control Act (FWPCA)
1960 Motor Vehicle Exhaust Act ij
1962 Federal Aid Highways i
Act Amendments
1963 Clean Air Act ii
1965 Motor Vehicle Air ii
Pollution Control Act
1965 Water Quality Act
1965 Solid Waste Disposal Act
1966 Department of t
Transportation Act
1967 Federal Air Quality Act il
1968 Radiation and Control for
Health and Safety Act
1970 National Environmental ii t
Policy Act
1970 Resource Recovery Act
1970 Occupational Safety ii
and Health Act
1970 Noise Pollution and T
Abatement Act
1970 Federal Aid Highways Act T
1970 Clean Air Act T
Amendments
1972 Federal Insecticide,
Fungicide, and Ro-
denticide Act
1972 FWPCA Amendments
 768 Appendices

APPENDIX 13: (CONTINUED)

Environmental concern

Drinking
Year Title Air Noise Water Solid Hazardous water

1972 Marine Protection, t

Research, and Sanc-
tuaries Act
1974 Safe Drinking Water Act T
1974 Energy Supply and
Environmental Co-
ordination Act
IS Hazardous Materials i
Transportation Act
1976 Resource Conservation T T
and Recovery Act
1976 Toxic Substances
T

Control Act
OTe, Energy Organization Act T
1977 Clean Water Act
1977 Clean Air Act
Amendments
1980 Comprehensive En- T T
vironmental Re-
sponse, Compensa-
tion, and Liability
Act (Superfund)
1980 Acid Precipitation Act
1980 Low-Level Waste T
Policy Act
1981 Municipal Waste
Treatment Con-
struction Grants
Amendments
1982 Nuclear Waste t
Policy Act
1984 Hazardous and Solid t il
Waste Amendments
1985 Low-Level Radioactive t
Waste Policy
Act Amendments
1986 Superfund Amendments T
and Reauthorization Act
1986 Radon Gas and Indoor
Quality Research Act
1986 Safe Drinking Water i
Act Amendments
1987 Nuclear Waste Policy T
Act Amendments
1990 Clean Air Act
Amendments
 App. 15: Environmental Organizations

APPENDIX 14: USEPA OFFICES

Region States included in region

I Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Vermont, Connecticut, Rhode Island

II New York, New Jersey
Ul Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Virginia, Delaware, Maryland, District of Columbia
IV Kentucky, Tennessee, North Carolina, South Carolina, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia,
Florida, Virgin Islands
V Minnesota, Wisconsin, Illinois, Michigan, Indiana, Ohio
VI New Mexico, Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Louisiana
VII Nebraska, Kansas, Iowa, Missouri
Vill Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Wyoming, Utah, Colorado
IX California, Nevada, Arizona, Hawaii, Pacific Territories
x Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Alaska

APPENDIX 15: ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS

Air and Waste Management Association Atlantic Center for the Environment
P.O. Box 2861 39 South Main Street
Pittsburgh, PA 15230 Ipswich, MA 01938

American Cetacean Society Canadian Coalition on Acid Rain

P.O. Box 2638 112 St. Clair Avenue W, Suite 401
San Pedro, CA 90731 Toronto, Ontario
Canada M4V 2Y3
American Forestry Association
1516 P Street, NW Canadian Nature Federation
Washington, DC 20005 453 Sussex Drive
Canada KIN 6Z4
American Littoral Society Ottawa, Ontario
Sandy Hook
Highlands, NJ 07732 Center for Marine Conservation
1235 DeSales Street, NW
American Rivers Washington, DC 20036
801 Pennsylvania Avenue, SE, #303
Washington, DC 20003-2167 Citizens Clearinghouse for Hazardous Waste
OB BOxEo26
American Wilderness Alliance Arlington, VA 22216
6700 East Arapahoe, Suite 114
Englewood, CO 80112 The Conservation Foundation
1250 24th Street, NW
Americans for the Environment Washington, DC 20037
1400 16th Street, NW
Washington, DC 20036 The Cousteau Society
930 West 21st Street
Arctic Institute of North America Norfolk, VA 23517
University of Calgary
2500 University Drive Defenders of Wildlife
Calgary, Alberta, Canada T2N 1N4 1244 19th Street, NW
Washington, DC 20036
 770 Appendices

APPENDIX 15: (CONTINUED)

Earth Island Institute National Parks and Conservation Association

300 Broadway, Suite 28 1015 31st Street, NW
San Francisco, CA 94133-3312 Washington, DC 20007

Environmental Action National Toxics Campaign

1525 New Hampshire Avenue, NW 37 Temple Place, 4th Floor
Washington, DC 20036 Boston, MA 02111

Environmental Defense Fund National Wildlife Federation

257 Park Avenue South 1412 16th Street, NW
New York, NY 10010 Washington, DC 20036-2266

Friends of the Earth Natural Resources Defense Council

Washington, DC 20003 40 West 20th Street
218 D Street, SE New York, NY 10011

Global Greenhouse Network Nature Conservancy

1130 17th Street, NW 1815 North Lynn Street
Washington, DC 20036 Arlington, VA 22209

Greenpeace, USA Pacific Whale Foundation

1436 U Street, NW 101 North Kihei Road, Suite 21
Washington, DC 20009 Kihei, Maui, HI 96753

Inform, Inc. Pollution Probe Foundation

381 Park Avenue South 12 Madison Avenue
New York, NY 10016 Toronto, Ontario
Canada MSR 2S1
International Research Expeditions
140 University Drive Public Citizen
Menlo Park, CA 94025 P.O. Box 19404
Washington, DC 20036
Land Stewardship Program
14758 Ostlund Trail N Rainforest Action Network
Marine on St. Croix, MN 55047 301 Broadway, Suite A
San Francisco, CA 94133
Land Trust Alliance
1017 Duke Street Rainforest Alliance
Alexandria, VA 22314 270 Lafayette Street, Suite 5B
New York, NY 10012
League of Conservation Voters
1150 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Suite 201 Renew America
Washington, DC 20036 1400 16th Street, NW, Suite 710
Washington, DC 20036
Marine Education and Research Ltd.
17 Hartington Park Sierra Club
Bristol, Great Britain BS6 7ES 730 Polk Street
San Francisco, CA 94109
National Audubon Society
950 Third Avenue Student Conservation Association, Inc.
New York, NY 10022 P.O. Box 550
Charlestown, NH 03630
 App. 15: Environmental Organizations 771

APPENDIX 15: (CONTINUED)

Trust for Public Land World Wildlife Fund
116 New Montgomery, 4th Floor 1250 24th Street, NW
San Francisco, CA 94105 Washington, DC 20037

Water Environment Federation Worldwatch Institute

601 Wythe Street 1776 Massachusetts Avenue, NW
Alexandria, VA 22314 Washington, DC 20036

Wildlife Conservation International Zero Population Growth

New York Zoological Society 1400 16th Street, NW
New York, NY 10460-9973 Washington, DC 20036

World Society for the Protection of Animals

29 Perkins Street, P.O. Box 190
Boston, MA 02130
 772 Appendices

APPENDIX 16: RELATIVE ROUGHNESS OF VARIOUS KINDS OF

NEW PIPES
Pipe diameter, D (ft)
0.2 04 06 1
0.05
0.04 |
0.03
0.02 4

0.01
0.008
ine
y
ZA
0.006
a
4 Zz)
0.004
ENS
NSS Wood <4SST
LY
IS .

0.003 | y|
| w2r.a
VIA
0.002 NNNUAK SYS NS
EASON
OsHSEEEH
OE NEN SSS
DINNGSED Sues! Cash ID SRR TESEs'

aay
ZOOL
Y|
a4|
Amu
srHratC
v¥IQ 0.001 me i)4v4VaA,
NU |A Z WA N [I

yySCETERSAES
| a |
NEN ST NIN
Ree Se Ee NENSINGENSS
0.0008

BNE
NA AN N
0.0006
LNNIN I
VK
0.0004
0.0003

0.0002
Relative
roughness,

0.0001
0.000,08
0.000,06

0.000,04
0.000,03

0.000,02

0.000,01
0.000,008
0.000,006 N

10 20 3040 60 100 200 300

Pipe diameter (in.)
 App. 17: Moody Diagram 773

APPENDIX 17 MOODY DIAGRAM

£0'000°0

10'000'0
S|
“SSOUYSNOI dATIL[AY

1000°0
8000°0
£00 100°0

c000°0
900°0

7000
800°0
10°0
S00 v0'0 cO'0 S100 c00'0 9000°0
000°) UL —_———._-
OSe

OL
ee €

c ———

Lo

| | OS

wie 901

€
100°000°0 nara

daq
= [ROS rl
sodid
= gt =
: d
dy
ysno.
Sane *rd 8,
we
cOl
‘oquiny

€
‘aouaynginy Yo ia ©
Tod S ee a spjouscy

eee
ayaydui0g i

a
ct Ht OS

ie
Ol
ae €
| Rae

—<
no OM |
auoz
DES
ae
im ie
<OL€
ale
i:
QuOoZ EE
al
Se
| jel|
IL
ee ae——+|
MOU
2024 ai
—
ie
See ase EAN
| I
ly
|
Wontsuery
[BOND
reurueT
I =a a

4
rie ase
S100
S00

00
90°0

10 c0'0
60°0 800 L0'0
 774 Appendices

APPENDIX 18: DENSITY AND DYNAMIC VISCOSITY OF WATER

1000

990,

a
=
(90)

fe OO =
oh
EY)
£ob
=
|
im —

3 “Ee
9 (=|
oS oO
> CHD fs
2
&
Ss
i=)
Pal
(a

960

950
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 S000
Temperature (°C)
 App. 20: Gauss—Green Divergence Theorem 775

APPENDIX 19: DENSITY AND DYNAMIC VISCOSITY OF AIR

(kg/m?)
Density

10°)
Dynamic
(kg/m-s
viscosity
3

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

Temperature (°C)

APPENDIX 20: GAUSS—-GREEN DIVERGENCE THEOREM

The Gauss—Green divergence theorem converts the area integral to volume integral, and
vice versa. Let S be any vector and 7 be the unit vector normal to area dA, where A
is the area surrounding the domain of volume VY. Form the volume integral ble Sd ¥,
where $3 1s the scalar component of S on the z-axis. Hence,

aS aS; 22 9S 22 99 a4
[ $ar- = dx dy dz= f / dz axdy = | / 3 dz [nen3|dA
¥ IZ A Z| dz A ZI dz

where 73 is the unit vector in the positive z-direction.

EASY ee
/|f - de} [nen3|dA = / {S3(x,
y, Z2)} [nen3] dAz
A Z| dz Ao

= / {S3(x, y, Z1)} ((—nen3)]

dA,
A,

A; and A> are the bounding surface areas in the negative and positive z-directions, re-
spectively. Hence nen; is negative on A, (since on Aj,n is pointing toward the negative z
while 73 is pointing toward the positive z). Ne/3 is positive on Az (by parallel reasoning).
 776 Appendices

Therefore,
083 eae ets
5 d¥= {53(x, y, Z2)} [Men3]dAo+ | {S3(x, y, Z1)} (Nen3) dA\
y OZ 2 A,

= | sstienistaa (20-1)
A
In a similar manner,
0S, hm
ape silgen ald (20-2)

[ uve iedese (20-3)

Adding equations (20-1), (20-2), and (20-3) produces the Gauss—Green divergence theo-
rem:

as aS aS : ‘ :
[ stars [ Sart+ | Seay | aotsiai cee tesehaldS) (20:4)

[cvesyav= [(aes) dA (20-5)

¥ A

APPENDIX 21: REYNOLDS TRANSPORT THEOREM

Two general methods are used in describing fluid flow: Eulerian and Lagrangian. In
the Eulerian method, values of properties of the fluid (property is an observable quality
of a fluid) are observed at several points in space and time. The Lagrangian method,
on the other hand, involves tagging each particle of fluid and observing the behavior of
the desired property as the fluid moves, independent of spatial location. For example, if
velocity is the desired property, this velocity is measured as the particle moves without
regard to location in space.
It is possible to convert one method of characterization to the other using the
Reynolds transport theorem attributed to Osborne Reynolds. In other words, the theorem
converts the Eulerian method of description of fluid flow to the Lagrangian method, and
vice versa.
To derive the Reynolds transport theorem, invent two terms: control volume and
control mass (Figure 21-1). The solid closed curve on the left with the hatching slanting
upward to the right is the control volume. The other dashed closed curve with the hatching
slanting upward to the left is the control mass, that part of the universe composed of
masses identified for analysis; as such, if a boundary is used to enclose the masses, no
other masses are allowed to pass through this boundary. Control mass is also called
a closed system or simply a system, since no mass is allowed to cross the boundary.
The control volume, on the other hand, is a specific volume in space where masses are
allowed to come and go, implying that its boundary is permeable to the “traffic” of masses
crisscrossing through it.
App. 20: Reynolds Transport Theorem 777

Vv
. _CM

EEN EAS 248 Figure 21-1 Derivation of the

t t+ At Reynolds transport theorem.

Imagine the control mass and the control volume coinciding at an initial time f;
that is, the boundaries of both the control volume and the control mass coincide at this
initial time. From this position, let them move at different speeds but with the control
mass moving faster. After some time Afr later, the control mass and the control volume
take different positions; this is the configuration portrayed in Figure 21-1.
Let ® represent the value of any property of the system. The change of this property
when the system goes from ¢ to t + At is

A®y = Oy trar — Put (21-1)

where A is a symbol for change and M refers to control mass. At the initial time, since
control mass and control volume coincide, the ® of the the control mass ®y_;, is equal
to the ® of the masses inside the control volume ®y,. V refers to the control volume.
At time At later, Dy ;4,a; 1S given by

Dy t+at = Dy tar ca Dy tar si Dy t+ Ar (21-2)

where Py ;+,; is the value of ® for the control mass at t+ At. Py ;sar, Pr rrar, and
Pi, ++a;r are, respectively, the values of ® of the masses in the control volume, space I,
and space II at time t + Ar. Substituting equation (21-2) in equation (21-1), with ®y,
equal to Py ;, produces

A®y = Py star — Pprpar + Puyrpar — Oys (213)

Rearranging equation (21-3) and dividing all terms by Ar produces
A®y iy Dyrtar— Px, Prrpar a Dirpar (21-4)
At At At At
The function ® on the left-hand side of equation (21-4) is a function of only one
independent variable, t. Hence, in the limit, the term will produce a total derivative as
follows:

lintels
Ab =
D® Va
D fy pp ad¥
D Iu ed¥ (125)
At Dt Dt
where @ is the value of the property ® per unit mass of the system and p is the mass
density of the system.
For the first term on the right-hand side equation (21-4), ® is a function of both
space (¥) and time. Therefore, in the limit, the result will be a partial derivative and

® — © a) dV
Het eeemgere Racy S aE,
s. (21-6)
778 Appendices

The second term on the right-hand side of equation (21-4) is simply a rate of inflow
of the property ® across the boundary. Similarly, the last term is simply a rate of outflow
of this property across the boundary in the opposite side. The volume rates of inflow or
outflow are the product of velocities and cross-sectional areas of flow, and the mass rates
of inflow and outflow are, accordingly, the product of the mass density and the respective
volume rates. The last two terms on the right-hand side of equation (21-4) are, then, in
the limit

® ®
lim aro (- <P ~ Purest) fgpvendA (21-7)

where ¢', indicates that the terms inside the parentheses on the left-hand side are summed
over the area A that surrounds the control volume ¥. v and 7 are the velocity and unit nor-
mal vectors, respectively. The bullet e is the symbol for the dot product. Equation (21-7)
states that volume rate is negative for inflow and positive for outflow. Substituting equa-
tions (21-5), (21-6), and (21-7) into equation (21-4), we obtain

D Ju Ged¥ _ a + | doveiaa (ies)

Dt

The left-hand side of equation (21-8) is a derivative of the property in the control
mass. Hence, in a control mass, the derivative is a derivative with respect to time and
not of space. This is the derivative that would be observed on a given fluid property,
irrespective of where the fluid is in space. This is the Lagrangian method of describing
the property and the derivative is called the Lagrangian derivative.
The right-hand side of the equation shows the derivatives of the property in the
control volume. The derivatives express fluid property as a function of time and space.
The function with respect to time is the first term; the function with respect to space is
the second term, where the property ¢@ is convected by the velocity, v. Since convection
involves moving through space, the value of the function must vary as the convection
proceeds through space. This method of description is what the observer from a distance
is capable of seeing. Standing at a distance, fluid properties as they vary from point to
point may be observed (convective derivative); in addition, standing at the same distance,
the same fluid properties as they vary with time may also be observed (local derivative).
This mode of observation or description is the Eulerian method, and the entire right-hand
side of the equation may be called the Eulerian derivative.
Equation (21-8) portrays the equivalence of the Lagrangian and the Eulerian views:
the Reynolds transport theorem. The left-hand side of the equation is also called material,
substantive, or comoving derivative. The partial derivative on the right-hand side is called
local derivative, and the second term on this side is called convective derivative. Since
the theorem was derived by shrinking At to zero, it must be strongly stressed that the
boundaries of both the control mass and the control volume coincide in the application of
this theorem.
 App. 22: Literature on WAT25 and Its Instructions 779

APPENDIX 22: LITERATURE ON WAT25 AND ITS INSTRUCTIONS

WAT25 programs the following equations (see Chapter 5 for meaning and derivations).
The program can be used to model BOD demanding discharges to both free-flowing and
tidal receiving waters.

Le = Lege** e + aah
Cre
(1 — e*-*) x20
Perro ;
a= DO ae a = (1 — e#+*)
2300)

Up xfur AE,kK ‘ u—ju? +4E,,K

+.
Wc+
San 9 EM q
Oe D)1B

_. Gry :
Ly, = Laver ae — (i= gee) x20

ie Dig eh ae Clim tenn) ees

Ue 4) u2 + Nel A UL wy) ur + 4 EyKp
n+
= and
DiFs.
g,-
1
= — ) ue

On = Cre" x SC

Cy = Cygoe Nes

—u — fu? + 4E,.(pp — kk) —W,/ Us PAE (hp kk)

Hi ERTEN
eoEemAMT Cr ee iti Ma.
D es Doe 1.24 a;
4p Cao (Lp — k;1)
C4, at L (eu ; ~ ef0-
*)
ky — Exx dy —- Ud y.—

4 oKe
ears (e%-* — ef-*) 4 Lnokn
z (e%-* — 940-*)
ky — Exxqe- +uge— ky — ExxGn— + Ugn-
aie ete-* — ef-* |: ef-* efn-X _ @f-*
G ol SS a Gin TS 2
: ‘ ky (kz a Eye as Uge—) ky (ko a ExeQn= a Uda)

Go : :
— (1 — Ce ae) Xx = 0

ky
u— fur +4Eyxk2
qo- = ye

eZ, rc C40 als C do+x

Di Diet eeef gE Ce a’
ky — ExxQuy tug
Lok. (ede+* = ef0+*) Es Lnokn (e4n+* 5 eft*)
AP 5
ko a EyxGc+ ait Uqe+ kyz — Ege ap ofr
 780 Appendices

Sei (eles — e0+* [Sete a = e0+*

ae | kp (kn — Bung + aa hae | no (Uae R Agee a

SoG = eh) 0
ko
ut. /ur+4Ek,.ko
DI
—20
kot
Cab(Qb) + Catrib
(QOtribt)
Op + Quip

Running WAT v. 2.5

WAT version 2.5 (or WAT25 or simply WAT) requires the following:

An IBM PC or compatible computer (80x86 based). A computer with a math

coprocessor is recommended.
A floppy drive and a floppy diskette for data storage.
A hard drive for placing WAT25.EXE.
MS-DOS or PC-DOS version 3.1 or later.
At least 400K of conventional memory available for the program.

Installing WAT to hard disk. As the computer is turned on, the first screen to
appear is the root directory. At this directory make the subdirectory WAT25 by typing
the command shown at the first bullet below (note that capital letters are to be typed
exactly as shown). After creating the subdirectory, move to this subdirectory by typing
the command at the next bullet below. Now, you are in the subdirectory WAT25. Insert
the diskette provided into a floppy drive (such as A, B, D, and so on). In the command
at the third bullet below, the diskette is assumed to be inserted into drive A; if the drive
is other than A, substitute the letter of that drive for the A below. Type the command at
the third bullet; this copies the model WAT25.EXE into the subdirectory WAT25 of the
hard drive. Now, the model is completely installed.

MKDIR WAT25
CD WAT25
COPY A: \WAT25. EXE

Practice run. Practice running the model by using the example provided. There
are two example runs provided with the diskette: Examples 5-11 and 5-12. These exam-
ples are contained in the datafiles PROJECT.DAT, 00000005.STA, and 00000006.STA.
While in the subdirectory WAT25, copy these files by following the commands below
(again, the floppy diskette is assumed to be inserted into drive A).
App. 22: Literature on WAT25 and Its Instructions 781

e COPY A:\PROJECT.DAT
@ COPY A:\00000005.STA
@ COPY A:\00000006.STA

The WAT vy. 2.5 program is totally contained in the single DOS executable file WAT25.EXE.
Running the program is simply typing “WAT25” (without the quotes) from the DOS com-
mand line (DOS prompt).
The datafiles mentioned above were created by WAT. There are two general places
where these files may be written to: the hard disk where WAT25.EXE is located and any
floppy disk. Writing to the hard disk is not recommended, as this will clutter this disk. It
is recommended that a nonprotected floppy be used for datafile storage. In this practice
run, however, the datafile for Examples 5-11 and 5-12 have already been copied to the
hard disk (PROJECT.DAT, 00000005.STA, and 00000006.STA). Hence, use the hard disk
for this practice. The command to initiate the practice run is

WAT25

The command for using other disks for datafile storage would require specifying the disk
drive. For example, using A the command would be

WAT25 A:\

Henceforth, follow the instructions on the screen. After the project has been analyzed,
choose “Print Analysis Report” from the “Control Menu” to print the results. Again, just
follow the on-screen instructions; WAT is very easy to run.

Generic instructions for running WAT. Practically, the experiences learned from
the practice run above are all that are necessary to navigate through WAT25. However,
there are still others that are needed to be learned relating to the display.
A predetermined set of display colors has been selected for WAT to be used on
systems that have color displays. However, these colors may not look very pleasing or
some characters may appear invisible if a monochrome display is being used or a color
display is not available. WAT will have to be told if the display is color, monochrome,
or LCD. To do so, use the “/B”, “/M”, or ‘“/L” switch on the command line. The “/B”
switch tells WAT to use the black-and-white color palette. This switch would be used if
WAT is running with a color graphics adapter (such as a CGA, EGA, or VGA adapter)
but is connected to a black-and-white or monochrome monitor. The “/M” switch tells
WAT to use the monochrome display adapter (MDA) color palette. This switch would be
used, obviously, if WAT is being run on a system using the MDA display adapter. The
“/L” switch tells WAT to use the liquid crystal display (LCD) color palette. This switch
would be used if WAT is being run on a laptop computer or any other system using an
LCD display. For example, if WAT is running on a system with a VGA display adapter
but is connected to a monochrome monitor, it would be specified on the command line
782 Appendices

like this (continuing with the previous example):

WAT25 A:\ /B

WAT v. 2.5 Source Code and Compiling

Included with WAT25.EXE is the WAT v. 2.5 BASIC and assembly language source
code. The source code is composed of eight BASIC modules and three assembly lan-
guage modules. To compile the BASIC source code, Microsoft QuickBASIC v. 4.5 or
later is required. To assemble the assembly language source code, Borland International’s
Turbo Assembler v. 1.0 or later is required (it may also assemble under Microsoft Macro
Assembler v. 5.0 or later with little or no modification). However, assembled versions of
the assembly source code (QPRINT.ASM, SAVEAREA.ASM, and RESTAREA.ASM)
have already been included. They are placed in the WAT25.LIB library file included
with the source code.
Due to the size of the program, compiling it to memory in the QuickBASIC environ-
ment (QB.EXE) is not possible (unless the extended version of QuickBASIC, QBX.EXE,
included with Microsoft BASCOM vy. 7.1 Professional Development System is used).
Therefore, it can only be compiled to disk using the QuickBASIC command line com-
piler (BC-EXE).
To compile the WAT vy. 2.5 program, simply follow these steps:

e Compile all eight modules (WAT25.BAS, WAT25ANA.BAS, WAT25ERR.BAS,

WAT25EVT.BAS, WAT25PN1.BAS, WAT25PN2.BAS, WAT25SUP.BAS, and
WAT25UTL.BAS) using BC.EXE. Be sure to use the following command line
switches: /O, /E, /X, /V, /W, /T, and /C: 512. For example, to compile the
WAT25.BAS module, it would be entered on the command line like this:

BC WAT25.BAS /O /1 ea LRN PRE Cee SL

e After compilation of all eight modules is complete, eight corresponding object files
will result. Using the Microsoft Overlay Linker (LINK.EXE, included with the
Microsoft QuickBASIC package), link all eight object files together, along with the
WAT25.LIB library file. Be sure to use the /EX and /NOE command line switches
when invoking LINK. The command to use would be something like this:

LINK /EX /NOE WAT25 + WAT25ANA + WAT25ERR + WAT25EVT +

WAT25PN1 + WAT25PN2 + WAT25SUP + WAT25UTL,,,WAT25.LIB

The result of the linking process is WAT25.EXE.

 Index

a, determination of, 335 adjudication before a hearing aerobic ponds, 323

a@, determination of, 381 officer, 573 afterburners, 634
A network, 697 ADP, 24 aftercoolers, 612
AASHTO, 553, 558 adsorbate, 401 air Classifying, 543
abatement, 586 adsorbent, 401 air exchanges per hour, 641
absorption silencer, 733 adsorption air, molecular weight, 371
acceptable daily intake, 676 chemical, 401 air pollution, 582
acceptor reaction, 431, 432 physical, 401 air pollution control, 586
access to the site, 568 adsorption capacity, 401 air pollution control equipment,
acetylperoxylnitrate, 497 of activated carbon, 403 586
acid rain, 501 adsorption isotherm, 401 air quality modeling, 209
acoustic reflex, 694 experimental determination, air/cloth ratios, 607
activated sludge, 315 628 airport noise, 707
activated sludge system, 315 advanced secondary treatment Alo O3, 331
active chlorophyll a, 47 (AST), 301, 400 albedo, 508
active site, 261] advanced wastewater treatment, aldehydes, 495
active zone, 405 301, 400 aldocarbony! radical, 495
actual oxygenation rate. See advancing front, 454 aldocarbonyloxy radical, 496
AOR advancing the spark, 491 aldocarbonylperoxyl! radical,
actual specific hydraulic loading advective transport, 175 495
rate, 327 aeolian (windblown) deposits, aldocarbonylperoxylnitrates, 497
actual specific organic loading 100 alkadiene, 498
rate, 327 aeration, principles of, 331 alkanes, 497
acyloxy radical, 496 Siep ol alkatriene, 498
acylperoxyl radical, 495 aeration equipment, 333 alkene, 498
adenosine diphosphate, 24 parameters, 334 alkoxy radical, 496
adenosine triphosphate, 24 Aerobacter, 8 alkyloxy radical, 496
ADI, 676 aerobic digestion, 375 alley method, 530
adiabatic lapse rate, 210 design, 366 alluvial, 100
adiabatic processes, 613 aerobic lagoons, 323 alpha radiation, 658

783
 784 Index

alternative carbon source, 438 attached-growth processes, 327, biotowers, 324

altitude of a typical airplane 331 biradical, 470
flight, 503 attenuating factors, 717 black mayonnaise, 387
American Association of Atterberg limits, 553 blowby gases, 488
State Highway and atypical colonies, 9 BNR, 428, 430
Transportation Officials, automotive emission control, BOD, 38, 40, 41, 300, 323, 337
553 A485 calculation of, 40
American Water Works autotrophs, 23 ranges of, 39
Association, 19 available chlorine, 286, 290 bomb calorimeter, 524
ammonia preference factor, 51 available energy, 154 Bond work index, 542
anaerobic digestion, 360, 378 average daily flow, 102, 105 Bonita Springs, Florida, 109
experiment, 378 Avogadro’s number, 659 bottled water, 84
anaerobic lagoons, 323 AWWA, 19 bottom dead center, 485
anaerobic process, 33 Boussinesq’s equation, 564
anion membranes, 413 B, determination of, 334 Bq, 662
anion-exchange material, 410 B network, 697 branch, 121
anionic (negative), 262 Back River sewage treatment branch ducts, 129
anoxic, 24, 33 plant, 379 break-even point analysis,
anthracite, 254 Back River, Baltimore, 765 536-37
Antipolo, 17. See also Cobu backwashing head loss, 256 breakpoint, 289, 290
City. backyard method, 531 breakthrough, 407
AOR, 333, 334, 336 bacteria, 8 brilliant green lactose bile broth,
calcualtion of, 336-38 bagfilter, 130 9
apparent overall mass transfer baghouse, 605 Broad Street, London, England,
coefficient, 336 filters, 605 5
application of pressure, 362 shaker, 605 broad-fill load conditions, 563
aqueduct, 101 bar screens, 302 Brunauer, 401
aquiclude, 78 barometric pressure of Buckingham—Darcy law, 207
aquifer, 77 operation, 371 building, 101, 121
aquifuge, 78 BCT, 300 bulk modulus of elasticity of a
aquitard, 78 BDC, 485 gas, 688
area method, 548 becquerel, 662 Biichner experiment, 384
Arrhenius factor, 49 bed adsorption, 405 Bitichner funnel, 381, 382
Arrhenius law, 182 design, 412
arterial mains, 101 bed drying, 362 C network, 697
artesian aquifer, 78 belt filter operation, 362 Cs55H72MgNq4Os, 47
artesian well, 78 benign tumors, 675 (CH20) 06(NH3)16H3PO4, 44
as-compacted basis, 522 benzo[a]anthracene, 639 C5H7NO> Po.074, 447
as-discarded basis, 522 benzo[a]pyrene, 639 cake compressibility, 424
ASHLR, 327 Berl saddles, 428 cake filtration, 380
Asiatic cholera epidemic, 7, 225 best available treatment parameters, 383
ASOLR, 327 technology (BAT), 300 calibrator, 697
atmospheric pollution, 492 beta radiation, 661 canals, 101
atomic explosion, 665 BF, 679 cannibalization, 313
atomic mass numbers, 658 biflow mode, 242 canopy hoods, 130, 134
atomic mass unit (amu), 659 biochemical oxygen demand. capillary action, 362
atomic number, 659 See BOD. capillary fringe, 62
atomic oxygen, 505 bioconcentration factor, 679 capillary mains, 101
atomic weight, 659 biological air pollutants, 583 capillary (matrix) potential, 207
of elements, based on C-12, biological nitrogen removal, capture zone, 86
WSS 428, 430 capturing hoods, 130
ATP, 24 biosorption process, 319 carbon adsorption, 400
 Index 785

carbonate hardness, 274 charge neutralization, 260 community noise equivalent

carbonyl compounds, 493 chemical oxygen demand. See level. See CNEL
carbonyl group, 495 COD comoving derivative, 778
carboxyhemoglobin, 583 chemisorption, 401 composite noise rating, 707
carburetion, 488 chemotrophs, 24 composting, 386, 543
carburetor, 488 Chesapeake Bay, 43, 656 wetting for, 572
carcinogens, 675 chloramines, 288 compound plume, 343
Casagrande, 553 chlorine, liquid, 286 Comprehensive Environmental
Casagrande’s USCS chlorophyll a, 44 Response,
classification, 554 dead, 47 Compensation, and
cascading, 540 transport equations, 191 Liability Act, 656, 768
catalytic converter, 490 chromosomes, 664 Comprehensive Soil Survey
catalytic incineration, 634 chronic daily intake. See CDI System, 553
catalytic reactor, 490 circumpolar, 508 compression ratio, 614
catchment area, 99 clarification zone, 368 compression stroke, 485
cation exchanger, 412 Clean Air Act, 768 compressor power, 612
cation membranes, 413 Clean Water Act, 120, 300, 324, computer models, 167
cation-exchange material, 410 768 FORTRAN, 167
cationic, 262 ClO2, 286 QuickBASIC, 167, 782
cavitation, 152 closed system, 776 WAT, 192, 193, 779, 781-82
CBODR337 closure plan, 573
concentrate, 416
deoxygenation coefficient, CNEL (community noise
condensed phosphate, 447
188 equivalent level), 703
confined aquifer, 77
kinetics, 52 CNR, 707, 709
confining layers, 78
transport equations, 190 COR625
conservative substances, 171
CDI, 676 coagulation, 260, 265
consistency, 552
Cebu City, Philipines, 84 aids, 262
constant-frequency analysis, 699
cellulose acetate (CA) coarse-textured, 552
constant-percentage frequency
membrane, 419 cochlea, 694
analyses, 699
cellulose acetate butyrate, 421 cochleal potential, 694
contact stabilization, 319
cellulose triacetate, 421 COD (chemical oxygen
contaminants, 760
centrifugal acceleration, 592 demand) 38
microbiological, 761
centrifugal action, 362 coefficient of permeability, 79
contamination of groundwater,
centrifugal compressor, 612 coefficient of retardation, 91
centrifugal field, 592 coliform, 8 84
centrifugal field of force, 592 collection control, 586
centrifugal force, 592 solid waste, 517 of CO, 491
centrifugal pumps, 144 wastewater, 120 of gaseous pollutants, 625
centrifugal settlers, 586 combined available chlorine, of groundwater pollution, 86
centrifugal settling, 590 288 of NO, emissions, 492
centrifugation, See centrifugal combined available chlorine control mass, 168, 172, 776
action residuals, 288 control volume, 168, 776
centrifuge, solid-bowl, 367 combustion, 467 convective, 175
centrifuging, 540 products, 467 copper, 18
CDI (chronic daily intake), rapid, 467, 471 copper action level, 14
675-76 basic elements affecting, corona current, 601
CERCLA, 656, 657 473 corona discharge, 598
CFCs, (chlorofluorocarbons), combined water, 479 corrosivity, 657
NO, MON, Sl, Were fuel components in, 479 coulomb efficiency, 414
CHABA, 711 slow (biological), 29, 467 Coulomb forces, 663
Chao Praya River, Thailand, combustion zone, 474 cover, 570
233 cometabolism, 185 cradle-to-grave concept, 656
 786 Index

cradle-to-grave management, design cake filtration equation, donor reaction, 432

665 382 Donora, Pennsylvania, 4, 582,
criteria pollutants, 583 design of cleaning cycle, 608 765
critical damping coefficient, 741 design period, 120, 129 dose-response assessment, 674
critical mass, 664 design strength, 564 double acting, 612
critical pore diameter, 419 destination point, 528 double-layer compression, 260
critical ratio, 703 destruction and removal downflow filter, 242
critical-flow flumes, 303 efficiency, 669 drag coefficient, 228
CSO problems, 120 destructive interference, 733 drainage, 570
CSOs, 120 detention time, 231 drainage area, 99
ESSS#55 determination of pressure drop, drainage layer, 557
Cunningham correction factor, 609 drawdown, 81
619 detritus, 302 drawdown curve, 81
curbside method, 530 detritus tank, 302 DRE, 669
curie, 662 dewatered, 387 drift velocity, 600
current density, 414 dichloramine, 288 drinking water standards, 14
current density to normality, 414 diffuser calculations, 342 driving force, 331
current efficiency, 415 diffuser manifold, 343 dry adiabatic lapse rate, 210,
curve-number method, 70 diffusive transport, 416 504
cycle time, 383, 608 coefficients, 175 dry deposition, 503
cyclone spray chamber, 616 direct charge neutralization, 261 dry percentages, 521
cyclones, 586, 590, 592 direct-discharge transfer, 536 dry-weather flow, 123
direct-flame incineration, 634 dual-media, 242
D-weighting network, 697 discharge, 150 duct, 129
daily cover, 548 discharge electrode, 598 duct system, 138
daily probability, 104 discharge velocity head, 150 Dulong’s formula, 524
damping factor, 742 discrete settling, 228 Dupuit—Forcheimer assumption,
damping force, 740 disease-producing protozoa, ah
Darcy coefficient, 79, 82 391, 392 dusts, 583
Darcy velocity, 79, 90 disinfectant chemicals and dye, 177
Darcy’s law, 79, 199 by-products, 759 dynamic response, 742
day-night average sound level, disinfectants, 286 dynamically similar, 148
703 dispersion, 171
days and hours of operation, dispersion coefficients, 175, 179 effective perceived noise level.
S72 dispersive transport, 175 See EPNL
decibel, 691 displacement pumps, 144 effective pump head-discharge
decibel addition, 700 displacement series, 410 curve, 156
deficit, 189 disposal, 517 effective size, 243
transport equations, 191 sites, 665 effective stack height, 214
degradation, 180 of solid wastes, 548 effluent
denitrification, 428, 430, 445 dissolved solids, 37 disposal, 342
kinetics, 444 distribution of water, 99 limited waters, 301
heterotrophic side reaction, distribution reservoirs, 74, 108, standards, 300
434 109 weir, 238
NO, reduction side reaction, distribution system, 101 EGR, 492
~ 436 distributor, 101 electric double layer, 260
removal of ammonia by DNA, 505, 664 electric field acceleration, 598
stripping, 428 DO electric field of force, 598
density of solid wastes, 522 deficit, 188 electric wind velocity, 600
deoxyribonucleic acid, 505 kinetics, 52 electrodialysis, 400
depression storage, 61 sag, 187 membrane, 413
derivative by R, 46 domestic sewage, 120 membrane process, 413
 Index 787

electrolytes, 261 eutrophication, 43, 46 fission chain reaction, 664

electron acceptor, 25 excess treatment and fixed portions of the solids, 37
electron beam, 287, 393 stabilization, 276 floats, 358, 374
electron donor, 25 exchange capacity, 410 flocculation limit, 553
electronically excited oxygen exhaust gas recirculation, 492 flocculator unit, 266, 267
atom, 494 expansion of fluidized beds, 625 flocculent settling, 234
electrostatic precipitator, 586, extended-aeration, 319 flotation, 358
598 extraction procedure (EP) flotation device, 372
collector, 598 toxicity test, 658 specific solids loading rate
elemental analysis, 479 Exxon Valdez, 766 for, 366
EMB, 9 flotation thickening, 360
embankment, 563 ts, fn; fn, determination of flow coefficient, 147
embankment conditions, 563 338 flumes, 101
Emmet, 401 FAA, 553 fluorescence, 183
employee facilities, 572 facultative lagoons, 323 flux decline, 423
enclosures, 131, 137 facultative ponds, 323 flux through membrane, 423
Endo agar, 9 Falling Head Method, 557 fly ash, 583
endogenous, 312 fan, 129 fogs, 583
energy equation, 346 fanning, 211 food waste, 518
engineering, | far field, 717 food/microorganism ratio, 318,
entrapment in a precipitate, 260 faraday, 22, 414 319
environmental engineering, |, 2 Federal Aviation Administration, force main, 101
hydrology, 60 553} force-field settlers, 586
environmental legislations in the feeder, 101 forcing function, 741
United States, 767 fermentation tube method, 761 formazin turbidity units, 15
environmental organizations, fertilizer, 386, 388 free chlorine, 287
769 sludge, 388 residual, 288, 289
environmental quality modeling, FHA noise standards for free radical, 470, 472
167 highways, 729 frequency band analysis, 697
environmental tragedies, 765 field crops, 449 frequency distribution, 63
environmentalist, 6 field supporting strength, 564 Freundlich and Langmuir
BP) 658 filariasis, 225 isotherms, 401
EPNL, 709, 710 filling, 568 FTUs, 15
equilibrium constant, 474 filling sequence, 568 fugitive dusts, 138
equipment requirements and filter backwashing, 256 full flow, 125
maintenance, 570 filter bags, 605 fumes, 583
equipment specification, 333 filter cloths, 362 fumigation, 211
equivalence ratio, 468 filter frames, 362 functional groups, 410
equivalent, 75, 213 filter head loss, 246
equivalent sound level, 703 due to deposited materials, GAC, 401
equivalent spherical area, 722 250 gamma emitters, 664
equivalent spherical diameter, filter medium, 244 gamma radiation, 287, 393, 662,
247 filter plates, 362 663
equivalent weights, 19 filter yield, 383 garbage. See solid waste
equivalents, 19 filterable residues, 37 gas control, 568
Escherichia, 8 filtration, 242 gas waste, 517
Escherichia coli, 19 filtration velocities, 607 gas-side molar mass velocity,
ESPs, 586, 598 final cover, 551 631
Eulerian derivative, 325, 641, fine-textured, 552 gaseous pollutants, 582
7718 fire-flow durations, 112 Gauss—Green Divergence
Eulerian method, 168, 776 fire-flow requirements, 110 Theorem 7/275
eutrophic, 43 firefighting equipment, 572 Gaussian plume model, 201
 788 Index

General Services hemoglobin, 583 control of, 639

Administration, 730 Henry’s law, 187, 205, 502 indoor noise propagation, 722
general soil description, 552 heterogeneous catalysts, 634 indraft velocity, 137
generator, 665 heterotrophs, 23, 435 industrial noise, 711
geology, 552 high plastic, 554 industrialist, 6
geometrically similar, 148 high-density polyethylene, 558 inertial force, 592
geotextiles, 558 high-rate, 319 infiltration capacity, 61
Giardia lamblia, 19 high-rate anaerobic digester, infiltration inflow, 123
glacial, 100 360, 378 inflow, 120
grade, 101 higher heat of combustion, 524 influent spacer, 418
grade tunnel, 101 HOCI, 288 infrasound, 694
gram-positive rods, 10 hollow fine-fiber, 418 ignition timing, improper, 490
granular activated carbon, 401 homogeneous catalysts, 634 initiation, 675
gravitational settling, 586, 587 homologous pumps, 148 injection wells, 673
gravity thickeners, 360 honey-wagon method, 299 design, 87
green sheen, 9 hood, 129 disposal contamination, 86
greenhouse effect, 508, 509 Hooker Chemical, 5 inlet manometric head, 152
greenhouse gases, 509, 511 hot soak emissions, 488 inlet zone, 240
grit chamber, 303, 307 house sewer, 121 intake manifold, 485
cross-sections, 305 HSWA, 656 intake stroke, 485
grit channel, 303 HUD, 729 intensity transmission loss, 727
grit particles, 303 hydraulic conductivity, 79, 559 intercepting sewer, 122
groundwater, 62, 77 hydraulic loading rate, 233 interception, 61, 586
capillary fringe, 79 hydraulic profile calculations, intercoolers, 612
hydrology, 77 346 intermediate cover, 551
quality modeling, 198 hydraulic radius, 246 internal conversion, 183
GSA, 730 hydrocarbons, 493 intersystem crossing, 183
hydrodynamic dispersion, 178 interval, 63
Hagen—Poiseuille equation, 79 hydrogen cycle, 410, 411 intraparticle bridging, 260
half-reactions for bacterial hydrogeologic investigation, 387 inverse square law, 715, 722
systems, 25 hydrologic cycle, 61 inversion, 211
hard waters, 274 hydrology, 60, 77 inverted siphon, 101
Hardy Cross method, 113 hydrolysis, 180, 181 inverts, 123
derivation, 114 hydroperoxyl free radical, 496 inviscid, 89
haul distances, 552 ion exchange, 410
hazard identification, 674 ideal gas law, 210 ionosphere, 505
Hazardous and Solid Waste ideal temperature of combustion, iron, 17
Amendments, 656 473, 476 irrigation, 449
hazardous waste, 657 IDF (intensity-duration- irrotational, 90
health effects of, 663 frequency), 65 isothermal process, 612
high-level wastes, 673 idle mixture screw, 491 isotropic aquifer, 82
manifest, 666 ignitability, 657
organic constituents, 669 Imhoff cone, 37 Jackson turbidimeter, 15
HCFCs, 507 impaction, 586 James River, 656
HDPE, 558 impeller, 144 jar test, 262
head coefficient, 147 impounding reservoir, 74 jets, 342
heat of combustion, 524 incineration, 386, 387, 548, 634
heavy metal, 390 incus, 694 k values, for indoor air
Hechinger lawn fertilizer, 388 indicator organisms, 7 pollutants, 180, 645
height of a mass transfer unit H, individual mass transfer KoPtCle, 16
631 coefficients, 630 Kepone, 656
helminths, 8, 391, 392, 394 indoor air pollution, 586, 645 Kessener aerators, 319
 Index 789

ketones, 495 limiting flux, 369 yield, 443

kinematically similar, 148 liquid limit, 553 mean cell destruction time, 375
kinetic constants, 322 liquid waste, 517 mean cell residence time, 317
kinetic reactions, 172 liquid-side molar mass velocity, mean cell retention time, 375
kinetic transformation, 172, 180 631 measurement of noise, 697
kinetics, 46 litter control, 572 mechanical dispersion, 178
of eutrophication, 46 local derivative, 641, 778 mechanically loaded, 531
of growth and food local rate of change, 317 meltdown, 665
utilization, 312 LOEL, 676 nuclear reactor at Chernobyl,
of NO formation, 473 lofting, 211 766
Kjeldahl nitrogen, 39, 300 London, England 4 membrane filter
Klebsiella, 8 looping condition, 211 FilmTex FT-30, 421
loudness, 694, 695 technique, 10, 761
lagoon, 386, 387 Love, William T., 5 types, 419
Lagrangian derivative, 171, 189, Love Canal, 5, 765 membrane performance
204, 325, 776, 778 low plastic, 554 characterization, 421
Lagrangian method, 168, 176 low-level radiation, 664 mesosphere, 505
Lambert—Beers law, 48, 184 Low-Level Radioactive Waste mesotrophic, 43
land spreading, 386, 387 Policy Act Amendments metabolism, 185
land treatment systems, 449, of 1985, 657 metastasis, 675
455 lower heat of combustion, 524
methemoglobinemia, 18
landfill lowest-observed-effect level,
microbial kinetics, 185
compaction ratio, 522 676
microbial surface area, 329
and composting, 543 lung cancer, 586
microbial thermodynamics, 22
designs, 673 luxury uptake, 447
Milorganite, 389
gases, 568 Luzon, Philippines, 766
MLVSS, 323, 377
implementation, basic aspects
mobile cations, 413
Of 5 M-Endo medium, 10
modified friction factor, 247
methods, 548 M-FC medium, 10
modified Proctor compaction
sludge disposal, 386 magnification factor, 742
test, 557
solid wastes, 387 main duct, 130
module, 328
cells, 549, 568 main supply, 101
monitoring wells, 573
landscape vegetation, 449 mains, 101
monochloramine, 288
Langmuir, 401 malignant tumors, 675
Monod expression, 49
law of mass action, 411 manganese, 17
Monod’s equation, 185
lawyers, 6 manifold pipe, 144
monoradical, 470
layer, compressed, 260 manometric head, 152
manometric level, 152
Moody diagram, 773
leachate control, 556
Moore’s formula, 560
cap system, 551, 556, 573 manually loaded, 531
linear system, 556, 557 mass law, 728 MPN Index, 11
Marsten, Dean, 562 mass—volume relationships, 364 MPN technique, 10
Marsten’s formula, 562-63 material balance, 315, 369 MSW, 518, 545
pipes, loads on, 562 material derivative, 168, 171 Mt. Pinatubo, 766
lead, 18 mathematical models, 167 multiple-tube, 10
lead action level, 14 Maxey Flats, Kentucky, 673 municipal solid wastes, 518
leaf filter, 384 maximum daily flow, 104
leakage velocities, 137 maximum hourly flow, 104 NAAQS, 583
Legionella, 19 Mayo Beach peninsula, 84 NAD, 24
lift, 551 Mayon volcano, 766 NADH), 24
light extinction coefficient, 184 MEDI so1o nanofiltration, 416
lime-soda ash process, 275 IMECIL, SF National Ambient Air Quality
limestone, 100 MCRT, 317, 375, 442 Standards, 583
 790 Index

National Pollutant Discharge noise transmission OSHA, 711

Elimination System, 300 through ducts, 723 osmotic pressures, 425
natural tracer, 178 through partitions, 727 outdoor noise propagation, 715
NBOD, 337, 338 nominal hydraulic retention outer-vortex, 593
transport equations, 190, 191 time, 317 outfall, 130, 342
INGA nominal specific hydraulic outlet zone, 240, 593
NEF, 707, 709, 729 loading rate, 327 overall mass transfer coefficient,
nephelometric turbidity unit, 16 nominal specific organic loading 336, 630
nephelometry, 16 fates 27) overdamped, 741
NERe wa 72 noncarbonate hardness, 274 overflow rate, 236, 240, 309
net advective velocity, 178 noncarcinogenic chemicals, 675 overflow velocity, 600
net positive suction head, 154 nonconservative substances, 171 overflow weirs, 241
neutral plume, 212 nonfilterable residues, 37 overland flow, 451
Newton’s law of viscosity, 265 nonionic, 262 overland flow systems, 449
NF, 416 normal (Gaussian) distribution, oversize products, 540
NHRT, 317 202 oxidation ditch, 319
Nichols process, 364 normal anoxic denitrification, oxidative phosphorylation, 24
nicotinamide adenine 436 oxygen
dinucleotide, 24 normal curve, 201 deficit, 52
Nile River, Egypt, 100 notes on equivalent weights, 277 mole fraction, air, 371
NIMBY, 545 NPDES, 300 requirement, aerobic
nitrates, 38 NPK values of the fertilizer, 388
digestion, 375
nitrification, 428, 445 INESH S455
oxyhemoglobin, 584
Nitrobacter, 30, 38, 41, 47, NSHLR, 327
ozone, 505
51, 432-34, 441 NSOLR, 327
ozone depletion, 766
Nitrosomonas, 30, 38, 41, 47, NTU, 16
ozone hole over Antarctica, 507
Sil, 230, 2S, atsis), ae nuclear fission, 664
44] Nuclear Waste Policy Act
Amendments of 1987,
PA-100 membrane, 421
overall, 433
nitrification kinetics, 441 657 PAC, 401
nitrogen, net, 438 null point, 132 palatable, 237
nitrification unit, 442 number of equivalents, 19 PAN, 497
nitrites, 38 number of mass transfer units Paracolobacterium, 8
nitrogen fertilizer, 388 N;, 631 parallel connection, 144
nitrogen kinetics, 51 number of reference species, 20 Parshall flumes, 307
nitrogen, organic, 38 nutrient limitation, 49 partial derivative, 317
nitrogen, net, 438 nutrient removal, 428 partial flow, 125
nitrogen removal, 428 partial pressure of CO2, 502
nitrogen requirements, 388 observation well, 82 particulates, 138, 582, 625
nitrogenous deoxygenation octanol—water coefficient, 200 partition coefficient, 169
coefficient, 188 octave band, 697 Pasquil stability types, 215
INO Ag Ae O2> oligotrophic, 43 pathogens, survival times, 392
node points, 180 1/2 octave band analysis, 699 perce test, 453
NOEL (no-observed-effect 1/3 band analysis, 699 perceived noise level. See PNL
level), 676 on-site processing, 539 percent solute rejection or
noise open-channel-flow calculations, removal, 427
control, 728, 731 346 percentile size, 244
criteria, 711 operating line, 631, 632 perched water capillary fringe,
measurements of, 690, 702 operational plan, 568 Wii
noise exposure forecast, 707 order of removal, 276 perched water table, 77
noise exposure rating, 711 organ of Corti, 694 perk test, 453
noise pollution level, 703 organic pollutants, 583 permeate, 416
 Index 791

permeation rate, effect of PM-10, 583, 585 presumptive test, 9

temperature, 427 PNGS 7S pretreatment program, 301
permit application, 573 PNdB, 709 primary drinking water criteria,
permittivity constant, 598 pneumatic system, 129 761
peroxyacetylnitrate, 497 PN ZOE 09 primary feeders, 101
peroxyl radicals, 493 POHC, 669 primary NAAQS, 583
perturbing force, 740 point of concentration, 71 primary pollutants, 583
PF, 676 point of discharge, 193 primary regulations, 14
phenolic compounds, 286 polar vortex forms, 508 primary screen, 540
pheophytin, 47 polarization, 415 primary standards, 14
Phoenix Solid Waste polyelectrolytes, 261 probability distribution analysis,
Management Center, 538 polymers, 261 63, 104
phon, 694 695 polyphosphate, 447 processing, 517, 538
phosphorescence, 184 polytropic processes, 614 recovery of materials, 543
phosphorus kinetics, 50 pond, 323 for recycling, 539
phosphorous, organic, 447 poorly graded, 552 product water, 418
phosphorus removal, 446 porosity, 82 production of pure water, 412
phosphorous requirements, 388 Porteus process, 362, 394 project constants, 194
photochemical aerosol, 492, 499 positive-displacement machines, promotion, 675
photochemical oxidants, 495, 612 proportional-flow weirs, 303
497, 499 positive-displacement pump, protective drainage cover, 557
photochemical smog, 492, 494 144, 146 prototype, 231
photolysis, 180, 183 post-fill monitoring, 573 prototype tank, 236
carbonyl compunds, 499 potable water, 237 protozoa, 8, 392
cycle, 493 potassium chloroplatinate, 16 IASHOL,, Wii, W3}
decomposition, 492 potency factor, 676 public health engineering, 2
NO, 495 potential flow, 89 Public Health Service Act, 767
photosynthesis, 323 powdered activated carbon, 401 Public Health Service Act of
phototrophs, 24 power coefficient, 148 1912, 14
physical containment method, power requirements of pulse-jet baghouse, 605
86 electrodialysis units, 414 pump, 144
piezometric head, 78 power stroke, 485 pump specific speed, 150
pilot-plant study, 327 precipitation, 61, 62 pumping station, 144, 156
pinna, 694 preferential sorption—capillary pumping station head analysis,
piping system, 156 flow theory, 419 156
plain sedimentation, 309 preferred noise criteria measure. pumping station heads, 150
Planck’s law, 509 See PNC BVGro 02)
plane plume, 343 preferred speech interference
plastic limit, 553 level. See PSIL qualitative tests, 9
plastic range, 554 preliminary primary treatment, quantity of sewage, 122
plasticity index, 554 301 quenching, 183
plate-and-frame, 418 pressure aqueduct, 101 quenching process, 474
plate-and-frame press, 380 pressure drop
plate-type ESP, 600 across fixed adsorption beds, R derivative, 181
plenum, 133 625 rad, 662
plug flow process, 318 determination, 609 radiation absorbed dose, 662
plug flow reactor, 315 pressure filtration, 362 radical, 469
plugging-point method, 641 pressure membrane processes, radioactive wastes, 663
plume model, 213 413, 416 final disposal of, 673
dissolved contamination, 88 pressure tunnel, 101 radioactivity, 658
plumes, 342 pressures corresponding to [C;], radius of influence, 81
immiscible, 88 3)5)9) radon, 586
 792 Index

rapid infiltration, 449, 451 room constant, 722 sensitizer, 183

rapid-mix, 265 root mean square (rms) pressure septic tank—leaching field
rapid-sand filters, 242 of the sound wave, 689 system, 451, 453
Raschig rings, 428 root zone, 77 sequencing batch reactor, 445
rate of diffusion, 327 rotating biological contactor, series connection, 144
rational method, 69 328 service pipe, 101
raw water, 227 rubbish. See solid waste settleable, 37
raw water hardness, 227 rubble, 518 settling, 180, 186, 227
RBCs, 324, 331 run time, 608 type 1, 228
RBE, 662 run—clean time, 608 type 2, 234
RCRA, 4, 656 zone, 369
RDFs, 543 Safe Drinking Water Act, 14 settling operations, 237
reactions of the hydroxyl salvaging, 538 settling zone, 240
radical, 494 sample drinking water sewage, 120
reactive expansion chamber, 733 IOC values, 758 sewer, 120
reactive waste, 657 SOC values, 758 combined sewer, 120, 299
reaeration, 333 VOC values, 757 lateral, 121, 130
reaeration coefficient, 333 sandstone, 100 main, 122
recarbonation, 277 Sanibel—Captiva reverse manhole, 120
recovery, 538 osmosis, 417 outfall, 122
recycling, 538 sanitary engineering, 2 sanitary, 299
Red Book criterion, 301 sanitary landfill, 387, 521 self-cleaning hydraulics of,
reference species, 19 sanitary sewage, 120 124
refuse. See solid waste SAR, 452 trunk, 122
regeneration requirements, 411 saturating growth rate light sewer metering, 123
reject. See concentrate intensity, 47 sewerage works, 120
relative biological effect, 662 saturation values of dissolved shale, 100
rem, 662 oxygen, 755 Sheffield, Illinois, 673
removal time, 231 SBR, 445 short-wavelength ultraviolet,
Resource Conservation and scaling laws, 148 505
Recovery Act, 4, 656, schistosomiasis, 225 shredders, 542
768 Schulze—Hardy rule, 261 screenings
respiration rate, 336 scrubbed out, 586 Comminutor, 305
retention, 231 scrubbers, 616 Griductor, 305
return period, 63 SDWA, 14, 756 shredding, 542
reverse osmosis, 400, 416 Secchi depths, 184 shrinkage limit, 553
basic process, 416 secondary clarification and Subs Huh, Ws}
reverse-air baghouse, 605 gravity thickening, 368 SILODA, 545
Reynolds transport theorem, secondary drinking water simple, 309
LOSan 2 32044 aw © criteria, 762 single acting, 612
Rhode River estuary, Maryland, secondary feeders, 101 SiO2, 331
84 secondary NAAQS, 583 siting of the reservoir, 100
ribbon blender, 129 secondary pollutants, 583 sizing of impounding reservoirs
ridge-and-furrow method, 387 secondary regulations, 14 and low-flow analysis,
risk assessment, 674 secondary standards, 14 Ws
risk characterization, 674 secondary zones, 240 slate, 100
risk exposure assessment, 674, sediment oxygen demand, 52 slot hood, 133
679 sedimentation, 227 slow-sand filters, 242
risk identification, 674 primary, 308 sludge
Rivers and Harbors Act, 767 self-cleaning, 123 activated, 319
RO, 416 self-cleaning velocity, 123 age, 317
roentgen, 662 semisolid range, 554 digested, 362
 Index 793

microorganisms, 375 processing, 538 static suction lift, 150

storage detention time, 378 proximate analyses, 524 static-pile, 386
disposal, 386-87 site location, 551 station parameters, 194, 195
composted, 387 terminology, 517 stationary-container system,
fertilizer, 388 transfer stations, 536 SS, ISO), 3
objections to the use of, 390, solids flux, 369 statistical measure, 703
391 solids loading, 369 Stefan—Boltzmann law of
open bed, 367 solitary plume, 343 blackbody radiation, 508
thickened, 362, 365 solubility product constant, 42 sterilization, 286
treatment solute—water separation theory, stoichiometric ratio, 468
primary, 301 419 storage coefficient, 82, 200
secondary, 301, 308, 312 somatic cells, 664 storage facilities, 665
completely mixed, 315 sone, 695 storage tank, 102
unthickened, 365 SOR, 333, 334, 338 storage transfer station, 536
vacuum filtration, 362, 380 sound absorption coefficient, storm sewage, 120
volume index, 37 22 stormwater, 120
zone, 240 sound breaks, 568 stratosphere, 505
small-bubble diffusion, 331 sound intensity, 689, 691 Streeter and Phelps’ derivation,
smog, 4 sound level meter, 697 189
photochemical reactions, 500 sound power, 688 subadiabatic, 211
smoke, 583 sound power level, 691, 694, subbase, 557
Snow, John, 5 697 subdivision cell, 570
SO,, 625 sound pressure, 686, 691 subgrade, 557
SOD, 52 sound pressure level meters, 697 subslab, 641
sodium cycle, 410, 411 sound spectrum, 697, 700 substantive derivative, 778
softening, 273, 274 spacing of laterals, 559 substrate-level phosphorylation,
softening of carbonate hardness specific hydraulic loading rate, 24
of calcium, 274 328 subsurface water quality
softening of carbonate hardness specific retention, 82 modeling, 198
of magnesium, 275 specific substrate utilization rate, Subtitle D, 656
softening of noncarbonate 313 suction velocity head, 150
hardness of calcium, 275 specific yield, 82, 313 superadiabatic, 211
softening of noncarbonate speech interference level, 711 supernatant, 360
hardness of magnesium, spiral-wound, 418 supplementary fuel, 635, 636
295 split treatment, 281 surface impoundments, 673
soil classification, 553 spores, 10 surface runoff, 61
soil conditioner, 386 spray chamber, 616 surface tension, 79
soil structure, 552 sprays, 583 surface water hydrology, 62
soil types, 552 SRI SIT, surficial area, 328
solar constant, 508 stable, 211 suspended-culture system, 313
solid waste, 517, 518 stack effect, 641 suspended-growth processes,
characteristics, 518 stagnation point, 90 327
collection, 528, 534 standard barometric pressure, suspended solids, 37
driving time per container B7a sustained flow, 75
location, 531 standard fire stream, 107 SVI, 37
components, 519 Standard Methods, 37 sweeping force, 592
functional elements, 517 standard oxygen rate, 333 symbiotic relationship, 323
hauled-container system, 528, standard raingage, 62 synthesis of the maximum day,
531 standpipe, 102 112
generation rates, 518 stapedius, 694 synthetic organic pollutants, 583
management, 517 state variable, 46 synthetic resins, 410
moisture content, 521 static response, 742 system characteristic, 156
 794 Index

tapered aeration, 319 toxicity characteristics leaching unconfined aquifer, 78

TIGER NODS procedure (TCLP), 658 underdamped, 741
TDC, 485 TR, 742 underflow concentration, 369
DDH Ss transfer station, 536 underground storage tanks, 656
TDHR, 156 transmissibility, 82 underground waters, 77, 78
Teller, 401 transmissibility coefficient, 82 undersize products, 540
temperature correction factor, transmissibility ratio, 742 Unified Soil Classification
182 transmission, 100 System, 553
tensiometer, 207, 208 transmission coefficient, 727 uniformity coefficient, 244
tensor tympani, 694 transmission of water, 100 unit hydrograph, 70
terminal settling velocity, 240, transport terms, 175 unit operation, 226
588, 593, 600 transportation, 528, 536 unit process, 226
texture, 552 transporter, 665 units of radiation, 662
thermal draft, 137 transuranic wastes, 669 unsaturated hydraulic
thermal incineration, 634 trapping, 211 conductivity, 207
thermal reactor, 490 trash, 518 WSGS"555
thermodynamic variables, 22 TRESS USEPA, 666
treatment systems, 665 USEPA Offices, 769
thermodynamics, 22
trench method, 548 USTs, 656
first law of, 210
trial burn, 669 UV uradiation, 287
thermophilic digestion, 392
Triaxial Method, 557 UV radiation, 505
tidally averaged velocity, 178
trichloride, 288
TWMDIaL, 153!
trickling filters, 324 vacuum filter, 383
time-of-travel studies, 175
physical properties of, 328 performance, 366
timing of firing, 490
trihalomethanes, 286 vadose
tipping bucket, 62
tritium, 664 water, 77
TKN, 300
trommel, 540 zone water quality modeling,
Ly, PLY ee
Be .trommel screen, 2 204
TODH, 153 AkeWEFis tropospherey 50% 4y wie: Ms valve, 491
top dead geniter; abi on ¥¥ Fuprdck pyeader, 38 “ 1 der Waals adsorption, 401
Toray PEC-1000, 421 trunk dude; 190% ieshiitele
ely onWy isder Waals force, 260
total actual oxygen requirement, trunk feeder, 101 - nasa étative layer, 556
338 TSCA, 656 ventilation volume, 132
total carbon source requirement, TSD facility, 666 venturi, 616
437 TO), WS venturi scrubbers, 619, 620
total derivative, 317 tube-type ESP, 600 vertical component equations,
total developed head, 150 turbidity, 15, 761 205
requirement, 156 turbomachines, 144 vibration control, 739
total dynamic head, 150 two-stage high-rate digester, 378 virtual hood, 132
total inlet dynamic head, 153 typical colonies, 9 viruses, 8
total nitrogen, 39 viscous liquid range, 554
total organic carbon, 38 U.S. Department of Housing VOC, 585
total outlet dynamic head, 153 and Urban Development, volatile organic compounds, 585
total residual chlorine, 288 129 volatile solids, 37
total solids, 37 UF, 416 volatilization, 180, 186
total static head, 150 ultimate analysis of municipal volume shape factor 6, 588
total suspended solids, 300 solid wastes, 479, 480, vortex, 593
tower absorbers, 629 524 VSS, 360
tower height of an absorber, 629 ultimate disposal, 387
toxic substance, 658 ultrafiltration, 400, 416 waste air collection system, 129,
Toxic Substances Control Acts, ultrasound, 694 130
656 ultraviolet light, 287 waste air works, 129
 Index 795

waste piles, 673 weighing raingage, 62 wetland treatment system, 452

waste stabilization basins, 323 water-borne pathogens, 8 wetted area, 247
wastewater, 37, 120 watershed, 99 wetted perimeter, 246
wastewater collection system, weighting network, 697 white goods, 518
120 well function of u, 83
windrow, 386
hydraulics, 113 well graded, 552
working level, defined, 639
water gas reaction, 401 well hydraulics, 79
water pressure requirements, West Valley, New York, 673
106 Western Acceptance Solid Yucca Flats, Nevada, 673
water quality limited waters, Waste Transfer Station,
301 Baltimore County,
water softening, 273 Maryland, 537 Zeldovich, 471
water table, 62, 78 wet deposition, 503 zeolites, 410
rainfall, 63 wet percentages, 521 Zimpro process, 362, 394
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 WAT Version 2.5
Software diskette to accompany
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING:
_ A DESIGN APPROACH
by Arcadio Pacquiao Sincero
and Gregoria Alivio Sincero
— ©1996 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
A Simon & Schuster Company
— Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632

ISBN 0-02-410564-3

NOTICE TO CONSUMERS
BE heat
THIS BOOK CANNOT
FUND IF TH
FOR CREDIT OR RE
THE VINYL
PERFORATION ON
OKEN OR
DISK HOLDER |S BR
TAMPERED WITH.