ENVIRONMENTAL

ENGINEERING

GERARD KIELY
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
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in 2022 with funding from
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ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Gerard Kiely

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ee ee

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Kiely, Gerard
Environmental Engineering
I, “ule
628
ISBN 0-07-709127-2

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Kiely, Ger.
Environmental engineering / Gerard Kiely.
p. cm.
ISBN 0-07-709127-2 (pbk. : alk. paper)
1. Environmental engineering. I. Title.
TD146.K54 1996
628—dc20 95-30426 CIP

McGraw-Hill y
A Division of The McGraw-Hill Companies

Copyright © 1997 McGraw-Hill International (UK) Limited.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any
form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of
McGraw-Hill International (UK) Limited.

2345 QC 99876

Printed and bound in the United States of America

 CONTENTS

PREFACE xill

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xix

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS xx

PART ONE ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

CHAPTER 1 HISTORY AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK

il Historical introduction to the water and wastewater environment
2 Historical introduction to the air environment
13 Engineering, ethics and the environment
1.4 EU and US environmental law
|e) Evolution of EU environmental legislation
1.6 Some relevant international environmental agreements
ee / EU environmental legislation
1.8 US environmental legislation
1:9 Comparison of EU and US environmental legislation
1.10 Problems
References and further reading

CHAPTER 2 ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS AND NATURAL RESOURCES

Paul S. Giller, Alan A. Myers and John O’Halloran
2.1 Introduction to the ecological perspective
Dp The value of the environment
page) Levels of organization in the biotic component of the environment
2.4 Ecosystem processes
is) The human dimension
2.6 Environmental gradients, tolerance and adaptation
oy), Environmental changes and threats to the environment
2.8 Problems
References and further reading

* Unless otherwise stated, chapters are by Gerard Kiely.

vi CONTENTS

CHAPTER 3 INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 52
Ball Introduction a2
Shy Physical and chemical properties of water oy,
che) Atmospheric chemistry 95
3.4 Soil chemistry 102
39) Microbiology 107
3.6 Chemical and biochemical reactions 124
Jail Material balances and reactor configurations 129
3.8 Problems 142
References and further reading 144

CHAPTER 4 CONCEPTS IN HYDROLOGY 146

4.1 Introduction 146
4.2 Hydrological cycle 147
4.3 Water balance 150
4.4 Energy budget 152
4.5 Precipitation 154
4.6 Infiltration 163
4.7 Evaporation and evapotranspiration 174
4.8 Rainfall—runoff relationships 181
4.9 Hydrologic instrumentation 189
4.10 Flood flows 19%
4.11 Low flows 195
4.12 Urban hydrology 198
4.13 Groundwater 200
4.14 Groundwater chemistry, contamination and pollution prevention 214
4.15 Problems 221
References and further reading 224

PART TWO POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS 229

CHAPTER 5 ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS, DISTURBANCES AND POLLUTION 231

Paul S. Giller, Alan A. Myers and John O’Halloran
Sol Introduction 231
Dez The freshwater environment 233
53 Marine systems 245
5.4 Terrestrial ecosystems 22
>) Ecological systems and pollution 255
5.6 Problems 260
References and further reading 260

CHAPTER 6 WATER POLLUTION: ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES 263

Paul S. Giller, Alan A. Myers and John O'Halloran
6.1 Introduction 263
6.2 Water quality standards and parameters 265
6.3 Assessment of water quality 267
6.4 Aquatic pollutants 276
6.5 Freshwater pollution 276
 CONTENTS Vii

6.6 Estuarine water quality 288

6.7 Marine pollution 292
6.8 Problems 299
References and further reading 300

CHAPTER 7 WATER QUALITY IN RIVERS AND LAKES: PHYSICAL PROCESSES — 303

7.1 Introduction 303
7.2 Parameters of organic content of water quality 304
7.3 Dissolved oxygen and biochemical oxygen demand in streams 309
7.4 Tranformation processes in water bodies 311
7.5 Transport processes in water bodies 318
7.6 Oxygen transfer by interphase transfer in water bodies Se)
7.7 Turbulent mixing in rivers 322
7.8 Water quality in lakes and reservoirs 324
7.9 Groundwater quality 328
7.10 Problems 330
References and further reading By)

CHAPTER 8 AIR POLLUTION 334

8.1 Introduction 334
8.2 Air pollution system 335
8.3 Air pollutants 337
8.4 Criteria pollutants 340
8.5 Acid deposition 358
8.6 Global climate change—greenhouse gases 358
8.7 Non-criteria pollutants 362
8.8 Emission standards from industrial sources 362
8.9 Air pollution meteorology 366
8.10 Atmospheric dispersion 374
8.11 Problems 387
References and further reading 388

CHAPTER 9 NOISE POLLUTION 390

Donncha O’Cinnéide
9.1 Introduction 390
9.2 Physical properties of sound 392
9.3 Noise and people 398
9.4 Noise criteria 401
9.5 Noise standards 404
9.6 Noise measurement 404
9.7 Outdoor propagation of sound 409
9.8 Noise contours 415
9.9 Noise section of an environmental impact assessment 416
9.10 Noise control 417
9.11 Problems 418
References and further reading 419
Vili CONTENTS

10 AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION 420

CHAPTER
Bill Magette and Owen Carton
10.1 Introduction 420
LOR Nutrient cycles in agricultural systems 421
10.3 Soil physical and chemical properties 424
10.4 Waste production on farms 427
10.5 Pollution potential of farm wastes 428
10.6 Nutrient losses 429
10.7 Other wastes and potential pollutants 431
10.8 Legislation (EU) 432
10.9 Summary 433
10.10 Problems 433
References and further reading 434

PART THREE ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES 435

CHAPTER 11 WATER TREATMENT 437

When Introduction 437
2 Amount of water required 438
Wits) Water quality standards 439
11.4 Water sources and their water quality 443
ES Water treatment processes 446
LL6 Pre-treatment of water 449
ihet Sedimentation, coagulation and flocculation 451
11.8 Filtration 465
9 Disinfection 471
11.10 Fluoridation 478
WpI Advanced water treatment processes 479
O12 US primary drinking water standards 487
IL Problems 491
References and further reading 492

CHAPTER 12 WASTEWATER TREATMENT 493

ea) Introduction 493
EP? Wastewater flow rates and characteristics 495
123 Design of wastewater network 506
12.4 Wastewater treatment processes 508
12S) Wastewater pre-treatment ey
12.6 Primary treatment 519
L237 Secondary treatment 524
12.8 Activated sludge systems 532
WAS Attached growth systems 540
12.10 Nutrient removal 545
La Secondary clarification 550
122 Advanced treatment processes 552
12713 Wastewater disinfection ee)
12.14 Diffusers for wastewater 556
i255 Problems pee!
References and further reading 561
 CONTENTS ix

CHAPTER 13 ANAEROBIC DIGESTION AND SLUDGE TREATMENT 563

Sal Introduction to anaerobic digestion 563
Ie Microbiology of anaerobic digestion 564
13:3 Reactor configurations 565
13.4 Methane production 570
IIS) Applications of anaerobic digestion ae
13.6 International regulations for biosolids 574
1357 Biosolids characteristics 576
13.8 Processing routes for biosolids 584
139. First stage treatment of sludge 584
1310 Second stage treatment of sludge 595
eral Sludge disposal 606
1312 Integrated sewage sludge management 617
13a13 Problems 617
References and further reading 619

CHAPTER 14 SOLID WASTE TREATMENT 623

Ejvind Mortensen and Gerard Kiely
14.] Introduction 623
14.2 Sources, classification and composition of MSW 628
14.3 Properties of MSW 635
14.4 Separation 643
14.5 Storage and transport of MSW 645
14.6 MSW management 652
14.7 Waste minimization of MSW 652
14.8 Reuse and recycling of MSW fractions 652
14.9 Biological MSW treatment 657
14.10 Thermal treatment—combustion/incineration 665
14.11 MSW landfill 673
14.12 Integrated waste management 688
14.13 Problems 688
References and further reading 690

CHAPTER 15 HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT 693

Per Riemann
1524 Introduction 693
1522 Definition of hazardous waste 696
15.3 Hazardous waste generation 699
15.4 Medical hazardous waste 703
(ayes) Household hazardous waste 705
15.6 Transportation of hazardous waste 705
137 Hazardous waste treatment facility AN?
15.8 Planning a hazardous waste incinerator 716
15.9 Planning an inorganic waste treatment plant 716
1510 Treatment systems for hazardous waste 719
Ney Handling of treatment plant residues 738
ieslZ Contaminated sites 742
ayail) EU Hazardous Waste Directive (91/689/EEC) Annexes I, II, II
i 745
15.14 Problems 748
References and further reading 749
X CONTENTS

CHAPTER 16 INDUSTRIAL AIR EMISSIONS CONTROL 750

Sean Bowler
16.1 Introduction 750
16.2 Characterizing the air stream iy!
16.3 Equipment selection d52
16.4 Equipment design 754
16.5 Special topics is
16.6 Problems 778
References and further reading TaD

CHAPTER 17 AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION CONTROL 781

Bill Magette and Owen Carton
WA Introduction 781
Vie Obstacles to agricultural pollution control 781
Ae) Agricultural water pollution control principles 782
17.4 Point source controls 783
Wes Non-point source (NPS) controls 787
17.6 Land application of wastes 787
Lis} Codes of practice for land application of animal and other wastes 794
17.8 Agricultural air pollution control His)
17.9 Problems 796
References and further reading 796

PART FOUR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 799

CHAPTER 18 WASTE MINIMIZATION 801

Dermot Cunningham and Noel Duffy
18.1 Introduction 801
13:2 Life cycle assessment 802
18.3 Elements of a waste minimization strategy 809
18.4 Benefits of waste minimization 812
135 Elements of a waste minimization programme 815
18.6 Waste reduction techniques 820
18.7 Conclusion 826
18.8 Case study—Paint Industry (USEPA 1990) 826
oe) Problems 828
References and further reading 830

CHAPTER 19 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT 831

Michael O'Sullivan
1911 Introduction 831
19.2 Origins of EIA 832
193 EIA procedure 832
19.4 Project screening for EIA 835
105 Scope studies for EIS 838
19.6 Preparation of an EIS 838
Lo Review of EIS 841
19.8 Multidisciplinary team management 841
199 Examples of project EIS 844
 CONTENTS Xi

19.10 Case study 851

19.11 Problems 853
References and further reading 853
Appendix 19.1: project screening 854

CHAPTER 20 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF TRANSPORTATION 857

Donncha O ’Cinnéide
20.1 Introduction 857
20.2 Transportation and development 858
20.3 Transportation planning 858
20.4 Matrix of environmental impact and transportation system stages 859
20.5 The environmental effects of roads and traffic 860
20.6 Vehicular impacts 861
20.7 Safety and capacity impacts 870
20.8 Roadway impacts 871
20.9 Construction impacts 874
20.10 The traffic generated by proposed developments 874
20.11 The environmental impact assessment of proposed road developments 876
20.12 Problems 876
References and further reading 877

CHAPTER 21 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING 878

21.1 Introduction 878
21.2 Mechanism of pollutant fate in the environment 880
21.3 Mathematics of mass transport: diffusion—advection 886
21.4 Population models and models of physical systems 893
21.5 Hydrodynamic modelling of rivers 903
21.6 Water quality modelling in riverine systems 909
21.7 Watershed modelling 918
21.8 Modelling water quality in estuaries 921
21.9 Modelling water quality in lakes and reservoirs 925
21.10 Groundwater modelling Di]
21.11 Modelling of wastewater treatment: activated sludge O30)
21.12 Fugacity modelling 932
21.13 Air quality modelling 936
21.14 Problems 943
References and further reading 945

GLOSSARY 947

APPENDICES A-D 965

INDEX 969

* Unless otherwise stated, chapters are by Gerard Kiely.

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 PREFACE

Humanity is now being forced to investigate the environmental consequences of its development actions,
on a local, national and global scale. In the short time span since the industrial revolution, the face ofthis
planet has been changed in many areas, sadly in some, irreversibly. Change was called progress, but now
this generation, who are the beneficiaries of past progress, are also the inheritors of past environmental
mistakes. The gains of the past will be retained and future progress will be attained, not based on the
narrow forces of economics or engineering but on sustainable development. Somewhat an overused
phrase, sustainable development is defined as ‘the ability to meet the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’. The latter calls for a balanced use
of resources. The evolution of the age of sustainable development will require radical changes for many
professional disciplines as they are now known, but most particularly for engineering. Engineering now
requires an ecological appreciation and a responsiveness to a public well educated in environmental
conservation.
The engineering profession must include environmental protection in its brief if it is to retain public
credibility. No longer can engineers design and construct projects without assessing their environmental
impact on the environment. The onus of ‘duty of care’ now legislates for the developer or producer to be
accountable for materials, waste or otherwise, from ‘cradle to grave’. Engineers are now regularly called
upon publicly to defend their proposals, sometimes losing, because of inadequate sensitivity of their
proposals to impact on humans, flora and fauna. The democratization of the planning process with
requirements of Environmental Impact Assessment necessitates that engineers not only be well versed in
their own discipline but also be acquainted with and sensitive to the environment in a holistic way.
Engineers now work in multidisciplinary teams alongside ecologists, economists, sociologists,
planners, environmentalists, lawyers and chemists. Environmental engineering and environmental science
are modern disciplines (post Second World War) and have only found their way into general usage in the
past few decades. Environmental engineering is defined by Peavy et al. (1985) as ‘that branch of
engineering that is concerned with protecting the environment from the potentially deleterious effects of
human activity, protecting human populations from the effects of adverse environmental factors and
improving environmental quality for human health and well being’. Figure P1.1 is a schematic of the
author’s present concept of the requirements of the academic education of an environmental engineer.
Environmental engineering is closely associated with other branches of engineering, e.g. civil and
chemical, and with the sciences of chemistry, physics and biology. In addition, environmental engineering
is associated with subsets of the above, e.g. hydrology, meteorology and atmospheric science as subsets of
physical science; water, air and soil chemistry as a subset of chemical science; microbiology and ecology
as a subset of biological science. As such, environmental engineering may seem like ‘all things to all
men’. This, of course, identifies to some extent the fact that environmental engineering is not yet a mature
engineering discipline with well-defined boundaries. It is an evolving branch of engineering and this
contributes to its excitement as a profession. There is room in environmental engineering for students and
practitioners with backgrounds differing from the traditional engineer.

Xill
XIV PREFACE

Infrastructure
Water resources
Water quality
Sanitary services
Hydroinformatics
Basic engineering Waste engineering

Chemical hazardous waste

Process engineering
Chemical
Transport of chemicals
Air quality

Water chemistry
Chemistry Air chemistry
Soil chemistry

Hydrology and hydrogeology

Meteorology and
atmospheric science
Physics Fluid mechanics
Heat and mass transfer
Basic sciences
Sound and noise
Soil physics

Microbiology
Ecology
Agronomy

Economics management
Economics Environmental law
Politics
Social science

Figure Pl.1 Building blocks of environmental engineering.

Environmental engineering today addresses problems in the water, air and soil environments. Some
consider that environmental engineering evolved out of sanitary engineering. The latter is an established
subset of civil engineering. Civil engineering students have been taught sanitary (or public health)
engineering courses for over 100 years. Traditional sanitary engineering addressed problems of water
quality (drinking water and wastewater) and municipal solid waste disposal. This branch of engineering
was sometimes called public health engineering or municipal engineering as it dealt with the services
(water supply, wastewater and solid waste) that public municipalities (local authorities in Britain and
Ireland) managed. In addition to the above, environmental engineering has evolved to address problems in
the air and soil environment.
Civil engineers traditionally covered the areas of hydrology and water quality, water treatment and
wastewater treatment. Chemical engineers, on the other hand, identified with chemical processes,
industrial wastewater, hazardous waste and air pollution. Environmental engineering is considered in this
text as having a wider brief and, as well as the core areas of water and air quality and water treatment, the
following subjects are now considered essential in the education of an environmental engineer: ecology,
microbiology, groundwater, solid waste, farm waste, noise pollution, environmental impact assessment,
environmental legislation and environmental modelling and management.
Environmental engineers when trained in the above subjects will have a basis to adapt to the
changing needs in the employment world. For instance, environmental engineers will be attracted to the
 PREFACE XV

area of waste management and reduction. This may mean wider employment opportunities not readily
available to the traditional engineering disciplines. The urgency for solutions to waste treatment and
disposal, be it in the solid, semi-solid, liquid or gaseous areas, will drive environmental engineers and
environmental scientists to evolve innovative treatment and disposal technologies. As such, this field will
not only create new employment opportunities, but will also stimulate many research opportunities.
Environmental engineering (within a multidisciplinary environment) as a recent development is
exciting and the wealth of opportunities for environmental engineers in the wider arena, be it as project
leaders or team players, is very challenging. It is now necessary that the environmental engineering/
science undergraduate student be exposed to the non-engineering environmental disciplines (e.g. social
science/law) during their academic years. They then would be not only capable of negotiating with non-
engineering professionals but would be sensitive, in their own right, to other key players (e.g. the public)
in the environmental debate.

Who This Book Is For

This book is designed to be used as an undergraduate textbook in an introductory course on

environmental engineering. It is also broad enough to serve as a text in an elective subject of
environmental engineering to allied engineering fields at undergraduate level. These may include: civil,
chemical, mechanical, agricultural and food engineering. Undergraduate students in environmental
science will find the wide range of material covered and its quantitative nature of benefit to them. The
quantitative approach with a mathematical foundation and numerous examples and homework problems
is essential to engineering and science education. Graduate students, new to the subject, will find the
essentials for transition to environmental engineering within this book.

What This Book Contains

Part One of the book covers the legislative and scientific background, with chapters on environmental
legislation, ecology, chemistry and microbiology, and hydrology. Chapter 1 opens with the background to
environmental engineering and outlines the legislative details with which engineers are obliged to comply.
Some of the landmarks in environmental history are presented. An overview of these requirements is
presented for the different environments. The driving force for innovative technologies is sometimes
environmental legislation. A brief history of the evolution of environmental legislation is included, with
comparisons between environmental legislation in the European Union and the United States. The current
status and detail of legislation is enumerated, indicating the international homogeneity in legislative
compliance requirements in the 1990s.
Chapter 2, on ecosystems as a resource, is designed to introduce the engineering student to the need
for sensitivity towards the ecological environment. Traditional engineering textbooks lacked ecology
studies. The environmental engineer needs to be sensitive to the ecologist’s view of the environment.
Chapter 3 is an introduction to chemistry and microbiology. This chapter deals with the water, air and soil
environment, including material balances, biological and chemical kinetics, and reaction engineering. The
latter half of this chapter focuses on some microbiological aspects of water and wastewater treatment.
Chapter 4 introduces concepts in hydrology. This includes the hydrological cycle and its components as
well as the radiative energy balance. Rainfall/runoff relationships are introduced and include discussions
of low flows and high flows in riverine systems. Groundwater, as a resource, is also treated.
Part Two contains six chapters on environmental pollution not always associated with civil or
chemical engineering. These are ecological aspects of water pollution, physicochemical aspects of water
pollution, agricultural pollution, noise and air pollution. Chapter 5 looks at ecological disturbances in the
different environments. Chapter 6 provides an ecological perspective to water pollution, using biological
XVi PREFACE

parameters to assess pollution levels. The types of pollution are described and the response of the systems
to the various types of pollution are discussed (freshwater and marine). Chapter 7 examines water quality
from an engineering perspective, investigating BOD, DO and other parameters in rivers, lakes and
estuaries using numerical tools to quantify water quality and pollution. Chapter 8 has in its introduction a
brief quantitative outline of the environmental legislation requirements for the air environment. Criteria
pollutants and their sources are discussed. Relevant aspects of meteorology and climatology are
introduced and plume dispersion, including atmospheric dispersion, is examined. Chapter 9 introduces the
topic of noise, its sources, in the outdoor and indoor environment. The impact that noise has on people
and the calculation of noise magnitudes are covered. Traffic noise is discussed. Chapter 10 covers the
topic of agricultural pollution. In the developed world, farm waste is arguably the most serious source of
pollution yet to be addressed. The negative impact of farming activities is seen in the cultural
eutrophication of freshwater systems, high levels of nutrients in groundwater systems and marine systems.
The residues of agrichemicals are also being identified internationally in the water bodies. This chapter
covers the areas of soil physics, farm practices and natural and artificial fertilizers.
Part Three is the core of the text, and traditional in its content. It contains eight chapters on water and
waste treatment and disposal. These include water and wastewater treatment, sludge and solid waste
treatment, hazardous waste treatment, air pollution control technologies and agricultural pollution control
technologies. Chapter 11 is a traditional engineering style chapter on potable water treatment for
municipal and industrial requirements. This chapter serves as an introduction to the topic covering unit
operations and processes. The design aspects of municipal water treatment plant is also covered.
Advanced water treatment processes for algae removal, iron and manganese removal are also addressed.
Chapter 12 is on wastewater and sewage treatment for municipal, industrial and agricultural applications.
It covers the unit processes, including physical, chemical and biological operations. Secondary treatment
with nutrient removal is covered along with advanced wastewater treatment. Chapter 13 examines
anaerobic digestion and sludge from wastewater treatment processes. The sludge composition, treatment
and disposal are discussed with a view to ecologically sound disposal routes. A negative consequence of
better wastewater treatment and better standards of liquid effluent is the generation of greater volumes of
sludge. With the elimination of the sea disposal route and the tightening up of land spreading as a disposal
route, innovative treatment and disposal methods are urgently required. Sludge and its fate are topical
issues. By definition, “clean sludge’ and its use as a soil conditioner lead on to alternative uses, i.e. forest
fertilizers, land reclamation, sacrificial land application and landscaping. This chapter examines such
possibilities. Chapter 14 covers municipal solid waste in aspects from composition and quantity to
landfilling, incineration, composting and anaerobic digestion. Recycling and waste reduction at source is
addressed. Chapter 15 is an introduction to the treatment of hazardous waste, its definition, composition,
quantification, transport, treatment and ultimate disposal. Aspects of the central hazardous waste
treatment facility at Kommueikemi in Denmark are also discussed. An introduction to rehabilitation of
contaminated sites is included. Chapter 16 examines industrial air pollution control technologies
including those for particulate and gaseous emissions. Chapter 17 discusses, in a short chapter,
methods of reducing agricultural pollution which are essentially good farmyard and agricultural
practices.
Part Four introduces the areas of environmental management. These four chapters include waste
minimization, impact assessment, impact of transportation and environmental modelling. Chapter 18
examines the area of waste minimization, life-cycle assessment and clean technology. A priority of
environmental planning is waste minimization, particularly in relation to industry and its waste products,
either liquid, solid or gaseous. Advanced environmental policy has moved upstream from ‘end of pipe’
technologies to waste reduction at ‘source’. Chapter 19 looks briefly at the historical development of the
EIA process. The scoping of a project, the detailing of a study and, finally, the assessment are defined.
Chapter 20 examines the impact of transportation systems on the environment and how to evaluate that
impact. Chapter 21 introduces environmental modelling with aspects of kinetics, river and lake water
quality and estuarine systems. Applied aspects of numerical modelling of the air environment
is
 PREFACE XVii

introduced. Specific areas of wastewater are also introduced. Software available (typically in the public
domain) is discussed with views to applications.

How to Use This Book

Because of the extensive amount of material here, this book may be covered in a one-year or two semester
course. Ideally, material in Part One (essential background) and Part Two (pollution environments—water,
air, soil, etc.) would be covered in the first semester course. Parts One and Two serve as a solid
introduction to the more engineering technical parts, Three and Four. Part Three (environmental
engineering technologies) and Part Four (environmental management) could be covered in the second
semester.

Reference
Peavy, H. S., D. R. Rowe and G. Tchobanoglous (1985) Environmental Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York.

Gerard Kiely
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This book has grown out of courses in environmental engineering and environmental science that I have
been lucky enough to have been involved in at University College Cork, (UCC). These courses have been,
Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Advanced Wastewater and Solid Waste Management, both
at undergraduate level. At graduate level, I have also been priveleged to have coordinated a graduate
Diploma in Environmental Engineering for the past four years. At UCC, I have had excellent cooperation
from all my colleagues within the Civil and Environmental Engineering Department but particularly Dr.
Eamon McKeogh, Dr. Donncha O’Cinnéide, Dr. Tony Lewis and Professor Philip O’Kane. Special thanks
for their encouragement to Professor David Orr and Professor Eamonn Dillon. I have also drawn over the
years from colleagues in other departments within UCC, but particularly; in the Zoology Department,
Professor Paul S. Giller, Dr. John O’Halloran, Professor Alan A. Myers, Mr. Gerard Morgan and
Professor Maire Mulcahy; in the Mathematical Physics Department, both Dr. Garrett Thomas and Dr. Jim
Grannell; in the Food Microbiology Department, both Professor Kevin Collins and Dr. Alan Dobson. I
would also like to thank my colleagues at the Cork Regional Technical College, Mr. Noel Duffy and Mr.
Dermot Cunningham. From the consulting industry and government bodies within Ireland, there are
several professionals who have contributed to the above mentioned coursework, namely: Mr. Tony
Moloney of Malachy Walsh and Partners, Cork; Mr. Donal Daly of the Geologic Survey Ireland; Mr. John
Aherne, Mr. Fred Willis, Mr. Brian Russell, Cork County Council; Mr. Richard Bryne, Kruger
Engineering Ltd, Kilkenny, Ireland; Mr. Tadg O’Flaherty, Forbairt, Dublin; Mr. Gerard O’Sullivan and Ms
Denise Barnett of E. G. Pettit’s, Consultants, Cork; Dr. Gabriel Dennison of Dublin County Council; Mr.
Michael O’Sullivan of RPS, Ireland; Mr. Sean Bowler of Cara Partners, Cork; Dr. Owen Carton of
Teagasc, Wexford, Ireland; Mr. Donal Cronin of Weston FTA Consultants, Cork.
I would also like to thank: Dr. Robert Matthews of Bradford University; Mr. Liam Cashman of the
European Commission in Brussels; Mr. Per Riemann of Chemcontrol A/S, Denmark; Mr. Ejvind
Mortensen of Reno Sam Consultants, Denmark; Professor Bill Magette at the University of Maryland,
College Park, MD.; Professor Ed Schroeder; Professor George Tchobanoglous and Dr. Masoud
Kayhanian of the Civil and Environmental Engineering Department at the University of California at
Davis. A very special thank you to Professor Mel Ramey and Professor Marc Parlange for allowing me to
work at UC Davis as a Fulbright Fellow during the academic year 1993-94. And thanks to my friend Dr.
John Albertson at UC Davis. Other Davis colleagues I would like to thank are Professor Ken Tanji and
Mr. Tony Cahill. Finally, I would like to thank Mr. Charles Dolan for proofreading the manuscript and Ms.
Marcia D’Alton for the glossary and also for proofreading. Thanks are also due to the staff at McGraw-
Hill UK, for their patience and unfailing co-operation, particularly David Crowther, Camilla Myers,
Rosalind Comer and Matthew Flynn.

X1x
 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

I would like to acknowledge the following people who contributed chapters to this book:
e Professor Paul S. Giller, Professor Alan A. Myers, and Dr. John O’Halloran of the Zoology
Department, University College Cork, Ireland for Chapters 2, 5 and 6.
e Dr. Donncha O’Cinnéide of the Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, University
College Cork, Ireland for Chapters 9 and 20.
e Dr. Owen Carton of Teagasc, Johnstown Castle, Wexford, Ireland and Professor Bill Magette of
Natural Resources and Environmental Engineering Department, University of Maryland, College Park,
MD, USA, for Chapters 10 and 17.
e Mr. Ejvind Mortensen of Reno Sam, Association of Joint Municipal Waste Handling Companies,
Roskilde, Denmark for Chapter 14.
e Mr. Per Reimann of Chemcontrol A/S, Nyborg, Denmark for Chapter 15.
e Mr. Sean Bowler of Cara Partners, Cork, Ireland for Chapter 16.
e Mr. Noel Duffy and Mr. Dermot Cunningham of the Clean Technology Centre, Cork Regional
Technical College, Cork, Ireland for Chapter 18.
e Mr. Michael O’Sullivan of RPS Group Ltd, Cork, Ireland for Chapter 19.

Gerard Kiely

XX
 PART

ONE
ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL
ENGINEERING
“

7 fn VO oe et: | Ast
 CHAPTER

ONE
HISTORY AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK

1.1 HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION TO THE WATER AND WASTEWATER

ENVIRONMENT

Edwin Chadwick, Secretary of the Poor Law Commission in the United Kingdom, penned the ‘sanitary
idea’ as a means of promoting better health among the masses, in the 1842 report ‘An Inquiry into the
Sanitary Conditions of the Labouring Population of Great Britain’. Prior to this period, household wastes,
liquid and solid, were simply dumped on the public streets and left to rot and blow away. Chadwick called
for street and house cleaning by means of supplies of water and improved sewage collection and
specifically stated that ‘aid be sought from the science of the Civil Engineer, not from the Physician’.
Chadwick and his physician collaborators identified the condition that solutions for environmental
medical problems would come from engineering and not from the medical community (Petulla, 1987).
Chadwick’s engineering solutions included:
e Supplying each dwelling with clean drinking water
e Removing wastewater from dwellings and collecting it in a network of pipes
e Applying the collected sewage to agricultural land (away from the towns)
From that time onward, there was recognition that improvements to health could be brought about by
improvements to the sanitary idea, with regards to drinking water, sewage and household wastes. Also in
1876 in the United Kingdom, the River Pollution Act forbade the discharge of sewage to streams and
rivers, but not to the estuaries and seas. The land application of sewage was in many cases bypassed and
ended up in the rivers, when engineers could show that there was ‘adequate dilution’ available in the river.
The Royal Commission Report of 1912 permitted sewage discharge to rivers if it had a BOD (biochemical
oxygen demand) of 20 mg/L and an SS (suspended solids) of 30 mg/L.
In England in 1914, Arden and Lockett discovered that when organic sewage was aerated in
‘settling’ tanks, after some time (days) the effluent from the tank underwent a treatment resulting in
reduced oxygen demand of the effluent. This process, called activated sludge (see Chapter 12), used
micro-organisms in suspension, in an aerobic environment, to break down the organic wastes. This was a
breakthrough in technology and it should have led to widespread treatment of organic wastes by biological
activated sludge. However, the process was patented and did not find itself in widespread use until much

3
4 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

later. This technology has stood the test of time, and activated sludge is still by far the most common
means of treating not only municipal sewage but also industrial organic wastewaters.
Around the turn of the century, similar developments were taking place in the United States. It was
recognized that drinking water and sewage discharge water were two separate issues. Raw water for
drinking purposes was most commonly surface water abstracted from rivers, lakes and man-made
reservoirs. Minimalist treatment was not much more than settling of the visible solids. On the other hand,
sewage continued to be discharged to rivers, thereby potentially polluting downstream water abstraction
points with organic and microbiological contaminants. By 1900, many American cities were making
progress in supplying piped drinking water to households and returning the sewage wastewater via an
underground sewerage piped network, to rivers. There were still concerns with health and many cities had
recurring typhoid epidemics. In 1910, when the city of Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, population 500 000 plus a
suburban population of 500000, required a State permit to extend its sewage network, the State Health
Director requested a comprehensive sewage plan for the collection and disposal of all municipal sewage.
Hazen and Whipple, Consulting Engineers, prepared a report and concluded that a sewage treatment plant
would offer no increased protection to the downstream residents, as suburbia would still be discharging its
sewage downstream. This study was a landmark and, regretfully, brought the American engineering
community with it for decades to come, to preach the acceptability of discharging untreated sewage to
rivers. It was not until 1959 that Pittsburg eventually got a wastewater treatment plant (Petulla, 1987).
The purification of water for drinking dates back to sand filters in Roman times. In the twentieth
century, urban areas began to treat water using slow sand filters (detailed in Chapter 11). The quality of
purification was excellent from these slow sand filters, but because of the slow rates of throughput, they
required large land areas. In the 1890s and 1900s, rapid gravity filters, with their much increased
throughput, began to replace the slow sand filter. Chlorination was added as a later treatment step for
microbiological purification. In the 1950s, fluoridation of drinking water to reduce tooth decay was
introduced and was popularized throughout the world for a few decades after its American introduction.
Fluoridation of drinking water supplies is no longer thought to be desirable in several western developed
countries as the availability of fluoride tablets and fluoride toothpaste and much improved diet and dental
hygiene (since the 1950s) is now commonplace.
The preoccupation with human sewage treatment/disposal in the nineteenth century, resulted in
ignoring the possibility of pollution from industrial wastewater discharges. It was thought, at the time, that
the acids in industrial discharges would help to kill the human sewage microbes that caused human
diseases and so be a benefit to river water quality and its downstream abstraction for drinking purposes.
No attention was given to the incidents of fish kills, river water discoloration from industrial wastes or
from abattoir wastes. Industrial wastewater treatment is a modern (post Second World War) development.
In the United Kingdom, traditionally many industries discharged their liquid wastes into public sewers,
which were subsequently treated at the sewage treatment plant. This practice is still dominant in the
United Kingdom, while countries like Ireland (that were late to industrialize) insisted that their industries
(especially chemical and pharmaceutical) treat their own industrial wastewaters separate to municipal
sewage. In the short period of a few decades in Ireland, industry has installed wastewater treatment plants,
many of which are superior in their technology to those of municipal plants. Table 1.1 is a chronological
list of the key events of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries regarding public health and water/sewage
(after Petulla, 1987).

1.2 HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION TO THE AIR ENVIRONMENT

Cities in the United Kingdom and the United States in the nineteenth century were well into the industrial
revolution which predominantly used soft coal for energy and heating. An insignificant amount of gas
began to be used from the 1800s on. Smoke from coal was then the bane of urban life. Many large cities
world-wide, like London and New York, were sited on coastal areas or on inland waterways like Leeds or
 HISTORY AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK 5

Table 1.1 The Industrial Revolution and public health

Citizen groups and

Date Science and technology professional opinion Government activity
1842 Chadwick’s monumental public
health report calls for
engineering solutions to
environmental miasma.
Griscom’s New York study in
1845 reaches similar
conclusion
1847 American Medical Association
founded with intent to conduct
sanitation surveys
1848-9 Englishman William Budd links England’s National Public Health
typhoid fever to water polluted Act passes
by sewage. New cholera
epidemic
1850s Commuter railroads’ smoke and ‘The sanitary question’ gains For two generations, Royal
noise begin to appear in national prominence in Commissioners recommend
American suburbs England. Miasma theory purifying sewage by spreading
guides public opinion it on the land
1860s Pasteur experiments with England’s River Pollution Act of
microbes and vaccines 1876 makes it an offence to
discharge sewage into streams
1880s United States boasts 598 Engineering journals debate
waterworks systems. Most single-pipe versus separate
sewage systems dump sewer system designed by Col.
untreated waste into rivers, Waring
streams, lakes, harbours
1884 Ladies Protective Association
founded
1890s Water closets present engineers Medical community pitted against British Commissions give up land
with overflow, collection, engineering societies over who spreading of sewage as
disposal problems. Series of should decide issues of public impractical, begin to advocate
typhoid epidemics occur health treatment and dilution methods
Chlorine introduced to purify Engineers prefer dilution and Engineer Col. Waring appointed
drinking water supplies filtration/purification methods New York’s first street-cleaning
for economic reasons. Commissioner
Physicians argue for
wastewater treatment
1900 3.5 million horses living in
American cities, representing
air/water pollution problems
1905-7 International Association for the Pennsylvania passes law that
Prevention of Smoke forbids cities to dump untreated
established sewage
1910 Hazan and Whipple Report Resulted in widespread dumping
concluded that a new sewage of sewage to rivers and
treatment plant for Pittsburg Pittsburg did not get a sewage
served no advantage from an plant until 1959
economic and health
standpoint
1914 Arden and Lockett discover
‘activated sludge’.
a eee

Adapted from Petulla, 1987. Reprinted by permission

6 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Table 1.2 Air pollution episodes

Location Date Pollutants Effects

Meuse Valley, Dec. 1930 SO, “63 excess deaths

Belgium
Donora PA, USA Oct. 1948 SO, 20 excess deaths
Poza Rica, Mexico Nov. 1950 H,S 22 excess deaths
London Dec. 1952 SO, 4000 excess deaths
New York Nov. 1966 SO; 168 excess deaths bs

Adapted from Seinfield, 1986. © 1986, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reprinted
by permission

Berlin. Such locations were susceptible to atmospheric inversions which, particularly in winter time,
caused the particulate matter of black smoke to darken the airshed, resulting in the air environment being
highly contaminated. The air pollutants affected human health, vegetation and materials. Incidents of
death due to air pollution in the early part of the twentieth century are chronicled in Seinfield (1986) and
repeated here in Table 1.2. The principal culprit was SO, from coal.
Health officers and Medical Associations identified the black lungs of dead city residents as being
evidence of deadly smoke pollution causing consumption and bronchial disorders. Smoke Abatement
Leagues and Ladies Health Clubs were organized around the United States and newspapers and journals
attacked judges for leniency on industrial air polluters. Eventually, politicians listened and engineers
became involved in technical innovation (Petulla, 1987). Thus turn-of-the-century reformers had begun to
address smoke as a nuisance.
The catalyst for legislative change was the London smog of 1952, which lasted for several days and
caused 4000 deaths. The Clean Air Act in the United Kingdom followed in 1956, which was preceded by
the Air Pollution Control Act, in the United States in 1955. The emphasis of both was to reduce urban air
pollution generated by the use of coal and oil, producing particulates (black smoke), carbon dioxide,
carbon monoxide and unburnt hydrocarbons. Legislative improvements grew and by the 1980s very
detailed legislative pieces were in place in all developed countries, with some reference even to
international and transnational air pollutants.
With the expansion of industry and the proliferation of the chemical and pharmaceutical industries
and nuclear power since the 1940s, air pollutants other than coal off-products were being detected in the
air environment. The evolution of environmental air quality legislation took cognisance of these changes,
spelling out the permissible values of a wide range of organic contaminants (see Chapter 8). With the
spread of industry internationally, accidents occurred. The 1976 dioxin release at a chemical plant in
Seveso, Italy, was the largest release of dioxins known and the dioxin cloud is still considered to have
contaminated areas occupied by up to 37000 people. As dioxin is a confirmed chemical carcinogen, this
accident caused much international concern, and the long-term studies following Seveso have confirmed
the widespread outbreaks of chloracne and many years later, cancer. This accident was the catalyst in
Europe for the EEC directive on the handling, transport and safe preserving of hazardous chemicals, also
called the Seveso directive (see Chapter 15). Further serious accidents, like the nuclear power plant
disaster at Three Mile Island in the United States (1979), Chernobyl in 1986 and the explosion in a
chemical plant at Bhopal, India, in 1984, moved the legislative protective policies forward to demand
more accountability by industry and, particularly, those industries perceived by the public as higher risk,
e.g. the chemical industry.
In addition to the disasters like Seveso, Chernobyl and Bhopal, the external environment was
deteriorating in a more insidious way. Rachel Carson in Silent Spring (1962) noted the demise of plant
and animal life in the rural countrysides of the United States which were previously havens for all life
from insects and birds to rabbits. She viewed the widespread use of pesticides and other chemicals in
agriculture as destroying non-target animals and their habitats, and noted that this was an international
 HISTORY AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK 7

phenomenon that began with the industrialization of agriculture. Other problem areas addressed in
Chapters 2 and 5 are the modern phenomenon of acid rain or the transnational destruction of forest lands.
We now know that air pollutants are damaging buildings and architectural works to the tune of an
estimated $10 billion dollars annually in the United States. Other materials affected are clothing due to
soiling, automobile tyres and windshield wipers due to ozone, and masonry and electrical contacts due to
acid or alkaline pollutants containing sulphur. Crop losses in the United States due to pollution are
estimated at $10 billion annually (Cunningham and Saigo, 1990). SO, PAN and other air pollutants are
known to cause damage to vegetation, but others, including chlorine, hydrogen chloride, ammonia and
mercury, are implicated in vegetation distress. Our concern for the air environment has therefore shifted
emphasis from the products of soft coal in earlier days to the widespread organics and hydrocarbons
produced by modern industry.

1.3 ENGINEERING, ETHICS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Traditionally, engineers were able to practise their profession without having to address environmental
ethics to the same depth that is now required. Traditionally, it was acceptable to design a road or change
the course of a river, based on technical and economic conditions. Questions on the rights or wrongs of a
river diversion were questions that engineers did not spend too much time on. These questions were left to
others, usually the client, the relevant government agency or maybe an architect. Environmental
engineering practice now requires us to address such questions. Legislation requires us to produce an
environmental report (EIS) prior to the design stage of a project. It is at this stage that we must address the
environmental ethic question. An environmental ethic concerns itself with the attitude of people towards
other living things and towards the natural environment (Vesilind et al., 1994). Engineers are not yet
trained to address and understand the environmental ethic. However, it is fast becoming a requirement and
some of the seniors in our profession are addressing the issue—because, on reflection, they are not totally
happy with how engineering has moulded our modern environment. We are, of course, proud of the
profession’s achievements in the general area of public health, of water supply, sewage treatment, waste
treatment, infrastructure of roads, housing, etc. What some are unhappy about are the negative long-term
impacts of engineering projects on ecology as well as on humans. We relish the engineering achievements
of Mulholland in bringing fresh water 300 km from the Sierra Nevada to Los Angeles, but engineers then
(1910) did not question the long-term impact and did not forecast the decay of the fertile Owens Valley
(Eastern California) from where the water was diverted. Similarly, we take engineering pride in the great
water dams in the Tennessee Valley, but now question the ecological implications. In the development of
the O’Shaughnessy Reservoir in Eastern California for a water supply for San Francisco, why were the
conservationist views of the naturalist, John Muir, almost anathema to the engineering profession at the
time? Today we thank John Muir and President Roosevelt for preserving one of the greatest natural parks
in the world, i.e. Yosemite in California, though the engineers in the early part of this century, hungry for
progress, wanted major road development rather than preservation. Recently, we have seen the opening of
the largest series of dams in the world in Eastern Turkey, for energy and irrigation. The loss of water to
adjacent nations is an issue of transnational water rights. The dilemmas for engineers on the design of
such projects are many. Leaving aside the ecological issue, the ethical issue is a serious question. It is not
only a political question. It is also an environmental ethical question. No longer can we engineers and
scientists hide behind technology and economics; our profession must share responsibility for the ethical
dilemmas or face the longer-term consequences of such issues returning to haunt us. The ethical question
requests that we also put aside nationalist views for the long-term greater benefit of the global population
and ecology.
There are precedents for issues returning to haunt us. For instance, in many areas of the world, a
technological fix in the 1960s was to house people in high-rise suburban apartments. Less than thirty
years later, these developments are considered failures. What was an engineering technological success
8 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

turned out to be an environmental and social failure. A question that should have been addressed by the
design engineers at the time was—would they themselves live in that high-rise, unserviced environment?
Of course, none would have said ‘yes’. This answer was a declaration for failure. As environmental
engineers, we need to ‘believe’ in our projects as ecologically and humanely desirable. If I do not
‘believe’ in a project, say the establishment of a waste incineration plant, can I promote it and be
technically involved? If the answer is negative, this does not necessarily give the project the ‘thumbs
down’, but it does force us to be ‘creative’ and seek out innovative technical solutions, which are also
environmentally suitable. As engineers, traditionally we have a ‘fixed’ solution for many technical
problems. Today, we must be more adaptable and flexible and collaborate with groups (environmental and
community groups) for input at the inception of projects. The engineering brief today is very different to
that of a generation ago. Granted, we are more high-tech with solutions and more technically competent,
but the added brief of public participation makes our task more demanding. Traditionally, an engineer
could live out a successful technical career without public participation as a professional. Now we need to
have the technical competence of a backroom technician with the ability to interact with groups, other
than engineers, at a public level.
Environmental ethics for engineers is virtually non-existent in current engineering courses. Students
do need exposure to this new and sensitive subject and readers are referred to the journal Environmental
Ethics, published quarterly by The University of North Texas, and works by Vesiland et al. (1994).

1.4 EU AND US ENVIRONMENTAL LAW

Today’s environmental problems pay no heed to geographic boundaries, as was well illustrated by the
Chernobyl nuclear accident in 1986. On the day of the nuclear explosion, the wind was blowing
northward, carrying the bulk of the air contaminants out of the Ukraine. The problems faced by the
Ukraine people are related to groundwater, surface water and soil contamination, although airborne
radiation is also a problem. The wind patterns at the time caused contamination to reach Northern Poland
and Scandinavia the day after. Ultimately, the radioactive cloud spread throughout Europe and the United
Kingdom and Ireland. In the highlands of the latter countries sheep grazing the grasses were not allowed
on the food market for several years afterwards.
Environmental law is evolving to cover a wider catchment and even continental areas with the same
regulations. This is the case in the United States where federal environmental regulations apply to all of
the States. However, there are still some US States, e.g. California, that often adopt stricter environmental
regulations than those set nationally. In the European Union, environmental legislation is following the
same path as the United States, with the Commission of the European Union in Brussels setting Eurowide
regulations. However, some countries such as Germany and Denmark in several cases adopt more
stringent regulations than the European Union. It is not permitted in either the United States or the
European Union for a state or country to adopt lesser stringencies. On an international scale, there are also
regulations for those countries that have signed the Stockholm Agreement (1972) on the banning of ocean
dumping of wastes/sludges, the Montreal Protocol (1987/1990) to eliminate CFCs and other ozone-
depleting chemicals by the year 2000 and the Rio Summit (1992) with its objectives on sustainable
development. However, not all countries, especially the less developing nations, are party to these
agreements as they see no monetary gain for them. They, of course, contribute little to the problems of
ocean dumping or greenhouse gases and they do not accept that they should adopt expensive technologies
for environmental protection, especially as they contributed little to global environmental decay. The
hierarchy in modern environmental legislation is shown in Fig. 1.1. At the international level, the ‘honour’
system is used, where penalties are difficult to impose on an offender. On the other hand, at the local level,
the ‘polluter pays principle’ is enforceable and jail terms, while not common, have been enforced for
offenders in some jurisdictions.
 HISTORY AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK 9

Global

London Law of the Sea, 1962

Montreal Protocol, 1987/90
Stockholm Agreement, 1972
Rio Declaration, 1992

US Federal Europe
USEPA EU, Brussels

Country by country

County/city County/city

Figure 1.1 Levels of environmental legislation in the European Union and the United States.

The levels of legislation that industry and municipalities must abide by are shown in Fig. 1.1 for the
United States and the European Union. Other countries such as Australia, New Zealand, South Africa,
Japan, Canada and the Scandinavian countries are similarly structured. However, the larger part of Asia,
Africa, Central and South America and Eastern Europe have insignificant environmental legislation.
Today many development projects funded (by the World Bank and others) in the less developed countries
are only done so on the basis of compliance with as near as possible to world environmental standards.
The requisite standards are sometimes based in WHO (World Health Organization) guidelines or United
Nations guidelines.

1.5 EVOLUTION OF EU ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION

The original EEC treaty of 1958 made no mention of environmental protection. The first Community
directive that can be considered ‘environmental’ was the 1967 directive on ‘classification, packaging and
labelling of dangerous substances’. In 1970, the EEC legislated on motor vehicle air and noise emissions.
It is considered that the impetus for such legislation was as much economic as environmental. In 1972, the
Community participated in a United Nations Conference on the ‘Human Environment’ in Stockholm. Out
of this grew the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and in 1973 the Community adopted
its first environmental action programme (1973 to 1976). Since then, environmental action programmes
have become a central feature of the EU environmental policy. To 1995, there have been five. The current
programme is entitled ‘Towards Sustainability’ and was launched in March 1992. The ‘Single European
Act’ brought into force in 1987, inserted an environment chapter into the Treaty (1958) and made explicit
reference to the environment in a provision aimed at the realization of a frontier-free internal market. The
period since 1987 has seen several significant developments. A new accent has been placed on the
enforcement of EU environmental legislation, with the Commission processing a large number of
infringement proceedings against non-complying Member States (countries). Some of these proceedings
have arisen out of environmental complaints from the public, the number rising from 9 in 1982 to 480 in
1990. There has been a growing recognition of the role of market-based and financial instruments that
seek to reflect environmental costs in the price of goods and services and legal instruments that provide
public finance for environmental objectives. Global and regional issues have figured prominently with the
10 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Community participating in several important international conventions. In 1992, the Maastricht Treaty
was signed which strengthens the Community’s environmental role, (Cashman, 1993).

1.5.1 Evolution of Environmental Legislation in Leading EU Countries

Northern Europe, particularly Germany, Denmark and Holland, played a leading role in establishing
environmental legislation. In fact, today many of the legislation pieces in place in the European Union are
derived from national legislation of some Northern European countries. Western and Southern Europe
have lagged behind their northern European counterparts in development and implementation of
environmental legislation. Where European Union legislation is not complete, as in the ‘air environment’,
practitioners make use of standards such as the German TA Luft air quality standards or the WHO air
quality guidelines. Similarly, advanced standards for solid waste treatment and disposal with regard to
landfill liners, leachate collection, landfill closure, landfill and stability, adapted by the European Union,
are similar to those practices in place in northern European countries. The United Kingdom has had
environmental standards for water quality going back to the beginning of the century. A Royal
Commission Standard in 1916 set wastewater discharge standards for public and industrial discharges at
20/30 (20 mg/L BOD, 30 mg/L SS). These same standards are still deemed adequate 80 years later. After
the London smog of 1952, the United Kingdom introduced in 1956 the British Clean Air Act. This has
since been amended several times. The United Kingdom wrote into law the UK EPA (Environmental
Protection Agency) in 1991, taking a lead in several environmental legislative areas, with Ireland
following suit in 1993, 20 years after the Danish and US EPAs.

1.5.2 Evolution of US Environmental Legislation

From 1948 onwards, the US Congress responded to increasing pollution from industrialization by
expanding the federal role in both air and water pollution. Between 1948 and 1972 the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act (FWPCA) was amended five times, as was the Air Pollution Control Act (APCA)
between 1955 and 1972. The FWPCA of 1948 provided grants to state agencies. The 1955 APCA also
provided grants to state agencies for feasibility studies and research, but not grants for contract work. Both
the water and air acts were upgraded by Congress in tandem. The 1955 Federal Pollution Control Act
(FPCA) replaced the 1948 FWPCA and developed a system of grants for municipal wastewater treatment
plants. On the air side, the US Clean Air Act of 1955 provided federal assistance to states on air pollution
issues. The 1960 Motor Vehicle Act required research into automobile exhaust gases and the revised 1963
Clean Air Act set about creating standards for air pollution control. In the area of solid waste the 1965
Solid Waste Disposal (Act) addressed both municipal and hazardous wastes disposal and set up
management guidelines for collection, separation, transportation, recycling and disposal.
Solid waste laws have come a long way in the United States since 1965 and the most recent RCRA
(Resource Conservation and Recovery Act) 1994 specifies that 50 per cent of all municipal waste
collected be diverted from landfill by the year 2000. The hierarchy regarding waste is now, firstly, waste
minimization at source, then recycling and reuse, then conversion to energy and, as a last resort,
landfilling. The Clean Air Act has been updated in 1970, 1977, 1990 and 1992. The more general criteria
pollutants were identified and standards set for them. The National Emission Standards for air toxics was
elaborated in the 1990 amendment under the National Emission Standards for Harzardous Air Pollutants
(NESHAP), where 189 toxic air pollutants were listed with standards. Goals to reduce SO, emissions by
10 million tons below the 1980 levels were identified in 1990.
While the Solid Waste Disposal Act was introduced in 1965, the follow-through on municipal solid
waste (MSW) was delayed due to the momentum that was developed by the requirements of hazardous
waste disposal. The episode of the “Love Canal’ tragedy accelerated the formation of the Comprehensive
Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA) or Superfund in 1980. This was a
 HISTORY AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK 11

five-year programme which hoped to clean up all the contaminated sites in the country. The volume of
sites was grossly underestimated and even by 1994 there were only in excess of 50 sites fully cleaned up,
with about 1700 in need of extensive remediation. The 1980 Superfund was reauthorized under the
Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) in 1986 and massive budgets were allocated to
the work. However, most of these budgets have been consumed by legal consultancy and research fees,
with the result that few sites have been cleaned up. The EPA is insisting on full remediation and this of
course is both time and money consuming.
The Federal Water Pollution Acts have been amended several times and the most recent in 1992
identified 65 000 chemicals that are regulated in wastewater discharge. Many of these are either toxic to
humans or fish. The Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974 has been upgraded several times and the 1986 Act
specifies that the EPA publish a list of contaminants found in drinking water. This list was of 85
contaminants by 1992. Environmental legislation is very well developed in the United States and in many
areas it is the most developed of all nations.

1.6 SOME RELEVANT INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AGREEMENTS

What is known as the ‘Law of the Sea’ was first signed in London in 1954. This was an international
convention for the prevention of pollution of the sea by oil. Several annexes and protocols to the
convention followed. The 1974 protocol was again signed in London and this was an international
convention on the high seas in cases of pollution by substances other than oil. The 1978 protocol was
signed as an international convention relating to the prevention of pollution from ships. The 1992
convention was on the prevention of marine pollution by dumping of wastes and other matter.
The Stockholm Declaration on the Human Environment was signed in 1972 and this included 109
recommendations for environmental action. It was very wide-ranging on the protection of the
environment and included topics as disparate as protection of architectural heritage, rainforest protection
and water quality in rivers, lakes and seas.
The USEPA banned the use of CFCs in non-essential aerosol propellants in 1978. The Montreal
Protocol signed in 1987 and revised in 1990 called for the elimination of CFCs and other ozone-depleting
gases by the year 2000. However, there is much debate still on the economic viability of such a major
change. Many developing countries resist this agreement as they will be burdened by the high cost of CFC
replacement even though it was the developed world that has been the dominant user of CFCs.
The most recent significant agreement was the Rio Declaration in 1992, twenty years after the
Stockholm (or Helsinki) declaration. This aimed to reach global agreement on a number of key
environmental issues: climate change, biodiversity, tropical forests and sustainable development. The
conference produced two important conventions: one on climate change and the other on biodiversity, as
well as the Rio Declaration which sets out basic principles to guide environment and development policy
and Agenda 21, a long-term plan to integrate environment and development. Each of these helps to define
the wider international setting in which not only future European Union and United States measures will
take place, but all countries of the world.

1.7 EU ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION

By 1992, the European Community had adopted more than 200 pieces of legislation covering pollution of
the atmosphere, water and soil, waste management, safeguards in relation to chemicals and biotechnology,
product standards, environmental impact assessment and marine protection (Johnson and Corcelle, 1989).
The extent and scope of this legislation, its binding character, the dynamic nature of Community
Environmental Policy and the general growth in supranational and global environmental regulation, all
make the Community’s environmental role of considerable relevance to the engineering and scientific
12 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

professions. This is so, not only in the specific field of environmental engineering (including water and
wastewater treatment, solid waste management, control of emissions and land use priorities) but also in
more general fields (e.g. in relation to project development and product design and production).
Action by the Community is through a range of legal acts provided for in the Treaties (from the
Treaty of Rome in 1958 to the present day).
1. Regulations These are the most far reaching and lay down the same law for all the Community and
apply in full throughout, conferring rights and imposing duties directly on citizens in the same way as
domestic law.
2. Directives These are addressed to Member States, binding them to achieve certain results (standards)
but allowing them to choose the form and methods for doing so. The Directive is by far the most
commonly used legal act in the field of the environment and is published in the Official Journal of the
European Communities. Technical annexes are commonly found at the end of the Directive. It is
generally necessary for Member States to adopt the contents of the Directive in some form of domestic
legislation.
3. Decisions These are legal acts binding on the persons to whom they are addressed including Member
States and legal persons. Their main use in the area of the environment has been to authorize the
Community to become a party to international conventions.
4. Recommendations These are non-binding legal acts (rarely used in the environmental area).
5. Opinions These are explanations of the other legal acts and are frequently issued after draft directives
or regulations have been made public.

In 1990, the Commission endorsed ‘A Community Strategy for Waste Management’ which set out
priorities as:
e Waste prevention
e Reuse and recycling
e Waste to energy
e Safe final disposal

In addition to environmental legislation, the Community adopts strategies on environmental policy.

Similarly, the Fifth Environmental Action Programme (1992-1996) addresses several critical
environmental themes: climate change, acidification and air quality, protection of nature and biodiversity,
management of water resources, the urban environment, coastal zones and waste management.

1.7.1 Some of the Significant EU Environmental Directives

Table 1.3 lists the significant Directives. The list is meant to give the reader an idea of the range of
directives and is not meant to be comprehensive. The reader is referred to Duggan (1992) from which
Table 1.3 was extracted. The significant ‘environments’ are:
e Water
e Air
e Land (soil)

In addition, other ‘areas’ of significance are listed in Table 1.4. These areas are:

e Waste—non-hazardous and hazardous

e Chemical substances
e Noise
e Habitats
 HISTORY AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK 13

Table 1.3 Significant EU environmental directives in water, air

and land environments

Directive number
Environment Directive name and date

Water Surface Water for Drinking 75/440/EEC

Sampling Surface Water for Drinking 79/869/EEC
Drinking Water Quality 80/778/EEC
Quality of Freshwater Supporting Fish 78/659/EEC
Shellfish Waters 79/923/EEC
Bathing Waters 76/160/EEC
Dangerous Substances in Water 76/464/EEC
Groundwater 80/68/EEC
Urban Wastewater 91/271/EEC
Nitrates from Agricultural Sources 91/676/EEC

Air Smoke in Air 80/779/EEC

Sulphur Dioxide in Air 89/427/EEC
Lead in Air 82/884/EEC
Industrial Plants 84/360/EEC
Large Combustion Plants 88/609/EEC
Existing Municipal Incineration Plants 89/429/EEC
New Municipal Incineration Plants 89/369/EEC
Asbestos in Air 87/217/EEC
Sulphur Content of Gas Oil 75/716/EEC
82/219/EEC
Lead in Petrol 85/210/EEC
Emissions from Petrol Engines 70/220/EEC
Air Quality Standards for NO 85/203/EEC
Emissions from Diesel Engines 88/77/EEC

Land Protection of Soil When Sludge is Applied 86/278/EEC

The environmental quality objectives are requirements—usually concentrations of substances—that must

be fulfilled at a given time, now or in the future in a given environmental medium, water, air or soil. For
instance, the 1976 Bathing Water Directive fixes microbiological and physicochemical standards for
freshwaters and seawaters where bathing is explicitly authorized. This directive has had and still has major
implications for wastewater discharges, both municipal and industrial. In addition to this directive, the
more recent (1991) Urban Wastewater Directive ensures at least secondary treatment plants on all urban
coastal locations where traditionally no plants existed. In addition to raising standards of wastewater
discharges, the European Union is funding the setting up of these plants, particularly in the less developed
regions of the Community.

1.7.2 European Union Quality Standards in the Water Environment

The water environment can be considered to consist of:

e Potable waters
e Raw water sources from freshwaters including groundwater
e Waters for fish habitats and bathing
e Wastewaters—municipal and industrial
14 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Table 1.4 Significant EU environmental directives in other ‘areas’

e
eee ee ee ee
Environment Directive name Directive number and date
eens es ea, a eee
Waste Incineration of Hazardous Waste Proposal Com(2) Mar °92
Hazardous Waste 91/689/EEC
Packaging Waste Proposal 92/C263/01
Waste Framework Directive 75/442/EEC
Toxic and Dangerous Waste 78/319/EEC
Disposal of Oils 75/439/EEC .
87/101/EEC
Transfrontier Shipment of Hazardous Waste 84/63 1/EEC
85/469/EEC
86/279/EEC
Landfill of Waste Proposal Com 91. May ’91
Disposal of PCBs and PCTs 74/403/EEC
Prevention of Air Pollution from Municipal 89/369/EEC
Incineration Plants
Reduction of Air Pollution from Municipal 89/429/EEC
Incineration Plants

Noise Noise in the Workplace 82/188/EEC

Construction Plant Noise 79/113/EEC
81/1051/EEC

Chemical Major Accident Hazards 82/501/EEC

substances ‘Seveso’ Directive 87/216/EEC
88/610/EEC

Habitats Conservation of Wild Birds 79/409/EEC

85/411/EEC

General Environmental Impact Assessment 85/3837/EEE

Packaging and Packaging Waste 92/C263/01
Eco-audit Scheme (Regulation) Proposal 92/C76/02

Potable waters Table 11.3 in Chapter 11, lists the European Union drinking water standards. Briefly
they are divided among:
e Organoleptic parameters—include colour, turbidity, odour and taste
e Physicochemical parameters—include temperature, pH, conductivity, Ca, Mg, K, Na
e Parameters concerning substances undesirable in excessive amounts—include nitrates, nitrites,
ammonium, HCs, phenols, organochlorines, etc.
e Parameters concerning toxic substances—include pesticides, PAHs, heavy metals
¢ Microbiological parameters—include total and faecal coliforms and faecal streptococci
¢ Minimum requirements for softened water—include total hardness and alkalinity.
While all six parametric sets (55 parameters) are significant, a typical water treatment plant is required to
test for the different parameters at different frequencies. This is discussed in Chapter 11 and enumerated
in Annexe II of Directive 80/778/EEC. For instance, some of the parameters of immediate relevance to the
design of a water treatment plant include colour, turbidity, odour and taste. These are the four organoleptic
parameters and are required to be sampled according to C2 frequency. This is 3 times per year for a 10 000
population to 120 times per year for a population of one million. The reader is encouraged to become
familiar with this technical Annexe II to the Directive. The four headings relating to the general
monitoring frequency are: minimum monitoring (C1), current monitoring (C2), periodic monitoring (C3)
and occasional monitoring in special situations or in case of accidents (C4).
 HISTORY AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK 15

Raw water sources from freshwaters including groundwater Sources of surface water to be used
(and treated) as drinking water are classified according to three categories in the ‘Surface Water Drinking
Directive’, 75/440/EEC. Category Al requires only physical treatment (filtration) and disinfection.
Category A2 requires normal physical and chemical (coagulation) treatment and disinfection. Category
A3 requires intensive physical and chemical treatment and disinfection. Raw water is categorized by its
values of 46 parameters (similar to those in the Drinking Water Directive, above) which are listed in
Annexe II of the Directive. Only in exceptional circumstances can water of a lower quality than category
A3 be used (possibly for blending with better water). Further comments on the application of this
Directive are included in Chapter 12.

Groundwater As the extent of potable water sourced from groundwater varies from 25 to 75 per cent in
the EU Community, the Groundwater Directive 80/68/EEC sets standards regarding the tipping of waste
and activities on or in the ground involving List I (more dangerous) or List II substances. It is noted that
List I and List II in this Directive are not identical to List I and List II of the directive on dangerous
substances discharged into the aquatic environment, 76/464/EEC.

Waters for fish habitats and bathing The freshwater fish directive is designed to retain freshwater
quality suitable for supporting either salmonoid or coarse fish. The more stringent standards associated
with salmonoid rivers set out in an annex to Directive 78/659/EEC, 14 physical and chemical parameters
which are to be attained (imperative values). Other higher standards called guide values are to be aimed
for. For example, the values set for total ammonia are | mg/L (imperative) and 0.04 mg/L (guide). Values
for coarse fish are also set with 14 physical and chemical parameters, but the values are less stringent. By
comparison with the total ammonia for salmonoid rivers, the coarse fish river values are 1 mg/L
(imperative) and 0.2 mg/L (guide). The other significant directive is related to bathing water quality, 76/
160/EEC, which fixes imperative and guide values for microbiological, physicochemical and other
substances. Imperative values for total and faecal coliforms are set at 10 000 and 2000 per 100 mL, while
the guide values are set at 500 and 100 respectively. The reader is recommended to study this directive as
it pertains not only to water quality but also to wastes which impact on water quality. The other directive
relating to water quality is the Shellfish Directive 79/923/EEC. Twelve physicochemical and
microbiological parameters are listed with imperative and guide values for brackish or coastal waters.

Wastewaters Several directives are addressed to industrial and municipal wastewaters. The Urban
Wastewater Directive 91/271/EEC specifies that ‘there is a general need for secondary treatment of urban
wastewater’ for industrial and municipal discharges. While values for BOD (25 mg/L), COD (125 mg/L)
and total suspended solids (35 mg/L) are fixed, the more recent requirements are for nutrient removal
(2 mg/L of P and 10-15 mg/L oftotal N) for ‘sensitive areas’. The issue of sensitive areas is still being
assessed. Some of the more conservationist countries like Germany and Denmark are likely to classify
substantial areas of their land/water space as (environmentally) sensitive. The earlier directive on
dangerous substances discharged into the aquatic environment, 76/464/EEC, contains an annex of List I
and List II substances for which reduction programmes were required. List I includes substances selected
on the basis of toxicity, bioaccumulation and persistence, e.g. carcinogenic substances, organochlorine
compounds and mercury and cadmium. List II includes the less dangerous substances such as the heavy
metals of copper, lead, zinc, ammonia and cyanide.

1.7.3 EU Quality Standards in the Air Environment

EU air quality regulations are not as well developed as those for water/wastewater. In the European Union
there is still much reliance on German standards (TA Luft), USEPA standards and the WHO Air Quality
Guidelines. The air quality regulations relevant to the European Union are described in Chapter 8 and are
written into directives relative to emissions of gaseous and particulate matter from vehicles, industrial and
16 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

municipal plants, and incinerators. Industrial and municipal plants include not only manufacturing,
chemical, pharmaceutical, automotive plants, etc., but also waste plants as in industrial and wastewater
treatment plants. In recent years, the air emissions from wastewater treatment plants have been given
much attention, particularly in relation to odours, hydrogen sulphide, methane, ammonia gases, volatile
organic compounds and hydrocarbons. In the European Union the TA Luft emission limits have been used
in the absence of EU directives. Also, in the past, the ambient air quality standards as defined by WHO
(1987) have been used in the absence of EU directives. Table 8.1 of Chapter 8 itemizes the most
significant EU directives, resolutions and decisions. Table 8.4 lists the air pollutants defined as criteria
pollutants and their associated ambient limit values. The averaging time for pollutant measurement is
important, as clearly the maximum value tolerated for a single hour would be typically much higher than
the annual average value. In the air environment, two types of limits are of interest:
e Ambient limits (those set by a regulatory authority pertaining to upper acceptable levels on a spatial
urban environment).
e Emission limits (levels set by a regulatory authority pertaining to point emissions from industrial
sources).

Again, emission limits set on an industrial air emission of, say, CO would be much higher than the
ambient limit in the location of discharge. The difference is to allow for dilution and dispersion of the
industrial discharge into the ambient environment. Very generally, the emission limit of some of the air
pollutants is about 30 times that of the ambient limit. This of course does not always hold true. The
criteria air pollutants (ambient air standards) and some limits and associated directives are listed in
Jiablemiass
It is noted from Table 1.5 that not all criteria pollutants have EU ambient limit values. Where they are
lacking, the USEPA value has been inserted. The WHO guidelines are very detailed with respect to both

Table 1.5 EU criteria pollutant standards in the ambient

air environment

Pollutant EU Limit EU Directives

CO 30 mg/m?: lh EU Guideline: no
EEC ambient
limit
NO> 200 pg/m?: lh 85/203/EEC
Oy 235 pg/m?: lh USEPA: no EEC
ambient limit

SO, 250-350 ug/m*: 24h 80/779/EEC

80-120 g/m*:; Annual 89/427/EEC
PM, 250 pg/m?: 24h 80/799/EEC
80 pug/m?: Annual 89/427/EEC

SO. +PMjo 100-150 pg/m*: 24h 80/779/EEC

40-60 yg/m*: Annual 89/427/EEC
Pb 2 ug/m°: Annual 82/884/EEC
Total suspended 260 pg/m?: 24h USEPA: no ambient
particulates (TSP) limits for EEC
HC 160 yg/m?: 3h USEPA: no ambient
limits for EEC
 HISTORY AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK 17

criteria pollutants and non-criteria pollutants. The reader is referred to Chapter 8 for further details and
references.

1.7.4 EU Quality Standards for Waste

The first EU directive on waste was in 1975 (75/442/EEC) and this placed the duty on each Member State
to ensure that waste was disposed of without harming human health or the environment. It contained five
mandatory requirements including the need to appoint competent authorities, prepare waste disposal plans
and practise safe disposal of waste. Waste recycling was encouraged and waste hauliers and disposal sites
were to be permitted. While this directive was in essence very general, it did establish a framework
throughout Europe for the ‘technical’ management of waste. Countries like Denmark and others were well
advanced at this stage while others, like Ireland, Spain and Greece, were not. Two directives were issued in
1975 (75/439/EEC) and 1987 (87/101/EEC) on the disposal of waste oils. This was first introduced
because in several Member States large percentages of waste oil were dumped. The directive sought to
redress this environmental problem while encouraging oil recycling. The proposed directive (92/C263/01)
on packing waste seeks to cut down significantly the volume of this waste and its toxicity. Within 10 years
of implementation, 90 per cent by weight must be removed from the waste stream for the purpose of
recovery and 60 per cent by weight of each material of the packaging waste output must be removed from
the waste stream for the purpose of recycling. The proposed landfill directive (Com 91 May 91) imposes
strict criteria on the design, construction, maintenance, management, closure and post-closure of landfills.
This proposal reiterates that the waste management philosophy be: firstly, waste reduction at source;
secondly, recycling and reuse; thirdly, waste to energy, including incineration; and as a last choice,
landfill.
Landfills are classified as monolandfill or multidisposal. There are also three classifications based on
waste type: hazardous waste; inert waste; and municipal non-hazardous and other compatible waste.
Certain wastes are not permitted to be landfilled, oxidizing or explosive waste or flammable waste,
infectious wastes and some liquid wastes, if they are incompatible with the specific landfill. There is much
detail to this proposed directive and it serves to a degree as a brief on the proper and acceptable design
and management criteria by which a landfill should operate. The expensive element as regards many
countries who traditionally depended on elementary dump sites are the stringent requirements set for
groundwater protection by either natural or synthetic liners (see Chapter 14).
EU directives on hazardous waste are not nearly as well developed as those in the United States. The
first EU directive on hazardous waste was in 1978 (78/319/EEC) on toxic and dangerous waste. This
directive laid down a broad framework of control of both household and toxic wastes involving the
establishment of competent authorities responsible for producing hazardous waste management plans and
authorizing installations handling waste. Toxic waste was defined. The competent authorities responsible
for implementation were also defined. A mechanism for plans, permits, recording, inspection, separation,
packaging, transporting and disposal was identified. As regards payment for disposal, the principle of ‘the
polluter pays’ was adopted. The annex to this directive listed 27 toxic or dangerous substances. Earlier
regulations on the disposal of PCBs (polycyclic chlorinated biphenyls) were identified in Directive 74/
403/EEC. A more recent directive on hazardous waste, 91/689/EEC, defined in greater detail what was
hazardous waste and was done so in some cases by identifying the waste (e.g. wood preservatives) and in
others by identifying the industry producing the waste (e.g. pharmaceuticals, medicines and veterinary
compounds). Annexe IA lists 18 property types and Annexe IB an additional 22 constituent types.
Annexe II lists 51 constituents of wastes that render them harmful (e.g. phenols, mercury, etc.) and
Annexe III lists properties (14 sets) of wastes that render them hazardous (e.g. corrosive, carcinogenic,
etc.). This is a significant directive in that there are definite guidelines in defining what is a hazardous
waste. This directive identifies what is hazardous in relation to a waste constituent and also in relation to
the impact such a constituent or waste has on the environment or humans. Three directives on the
18 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

transfrontier shipment of waste were issued and revised since 1984 (84/631/EEC, 85/469/EEC, 86/279/
EEC). The purpose of these directives was to control movement within the Community and into and out
of the Community by ensuring that competent authorities provided a permit for such movement. The
proposed directive (March 92) on incineration of hazardous waste is a technically detailed instrument
focusing on emission quality from these incinerators. The hazardous emissions are specified with
proposed limits (for international comparisons, see Chapter 15) for the compounds of total dust, total
organic carbon, inorganic chlorine compounds, inorganic fluorine compounds, sulphuroxides, carbon
monoxide, cadmium, thallium, mercury, other heavy metals, and dioxins and furans. The technologies and
their operating conditions are detailed as well as costs of establishing an actual incinerator. It is interesting
that this is one of the proposed directives that is more like a technical manual. It appears that there is some
trend, at least in some of the directives, to contain more than volumes of legal comments and to contain
engineering/scientific data more akin to an engineering code or standard. Two other directives relating to
incineration are for prevention and reduction of air pollution from municipal incineration plants (89/369/
EEC, 89/429/EEC). As in the case of hazardous incineration plants, emission limits are set for total dust,
heavy metals (listed), HCL, HF and SO>. The emission standards decrease as the plant production output
(in tonnes/h) increase.
Another major directive that is related to hazards is that of the Major Accident Hazards of Certain
Industrial Activities, 82/501/EEC. This is often referred to as the Seveso Directive, from Seveso in
Northern Italy where an accidental industrial release of hazardous chemicals, including dioxins, occurred
in 1980. This directive was updated in 1987 and 1988 (87/216/EEC and 88/610/EEC). The purpose of
these directives was to establish measures that would address the risk of exceptional hazards such as fires,
explosions and massive emissions of dangerous substances. These measures include preparing hazard
surveys and emergency plans and notifying the competent authorities of dangerous substances retained on
an industrial site (see hazardous waste treatment in Chapter 15).

1.7.5 EU Quality Standards in Other Areas

Other areas addressed in directives that are of relevance to environmental engineering/science include:
e Noise
e Habitats
© General

The directives on noise relate to construction plant noise (79/1 13/EEC and 81/1051/EEC) and noise in the
workplace (86/188/EEC). The framework sets out an approval, verification and certification procedure for
noise levels for specific plant types (e.g. generators, bulldozers, jackhammers, etc.). Methods of
measuring noise and standards are also defined.
There are two directives on the conservation of wild birds, 79/409/EEC and 85/411/EEC. The
purpose of these directives is to cover the protection, management and control of all species of naturally
occurring birds. It also includes migratory birds that use Europe or any Community State as a breeding
ground or even in a flyover capacity. Their habitats, nestings, eggs and, of course, the birds themselves,
are included. General obligations are placed on the Member States to preserve and maintain and to re-
establish biodiversity and also areas for bird habitats. There are also specific measures to be complied
with and Annexe I lists the especially vulnerable species that require special conservation measures.
Appropriate steps are to be taken by the Member States to avoid pollution and deterioration of habitats.
Annexe II lists the species that can be hunted in Member States. Those species listed in Annexe I are
prohibited from being sold or moved outside of their current habitat. This directive is not only important
to environmental scientists from the perspective of conservation but it is also important to engineers, who
should understand that there are areas or habitats which at first investigation may be amenable for
development but on detailed investigation may be found to contain sensitive species habitats. Before too
 HISTORY AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK 19

much effort and finance is expended on the engineering side of projects (e.g. roads), it is prudent to invest
also in eco-investigation so that projects are not rejected at a later planning stage. It is recommended that
readers study in more detail and compare the US Endangered Species Act with the EU Conservation of
Wild Birds Directive.
Other directives of relevance include the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Directive (85/337/
EEC) and the proposed directive on Eco-auditing (92/C76/02). The EIA Directive provides for the
systematic assessment of proposed projects in the public and private arenas. Items to be accounted for
include the protection of human health and the environment, the quality of life and the need to maintain
the diversity of the species and the continuity of the ecosystems. Annexe I of this directive includes
project descriptions that must undergo EIA. These include motorways, hazardous waste disposal
installations, crude oil refineries, power stations, airports, etc. A more comprehensive list is in Annexe II
where Member States consider such projects in need of an EIA. The direct and indirect effect of a project
is to be described on:
e Material and cultural heritage
e Human beings, fauna and flora
e Soil, water, air, climate and landscape

The proposed eco-audit directive has the objective of evaluation and improvement of the environmental
performance of industrial activities and the provision of relevant information to the public (see Chapter 19
for further details on EIS and eco-audit).

1.8 US ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION

By 1996, the Federal US government, principally through the offices of the USEPA, had substantial
environmental legislation implemented in the areas of:
e Water pollution (surface water and groundwater)
e Drinking water
e Air environment
e¢ Municipal solid waste
e Hazardous wastes
e Others (including endangered species and occupational safety and health)
The mechanism of putting an environmental law on to the statutes is a many-faceted process. Initially the
USEPA develops the regulations by assessing the available technical and scientific information, preparing
draft regulations and then submitting this draft for intra-agency review. For instance, in the case of setting
water quality standards for contaminants under the SDWA (Safe Drinking Water Act), the USEPA is
required to assess each contaminant with respect to human exposure, health effects and toxicity,
monitoring and analysis, treatment technologies and costs. The reason for the intra-agency review process
is to ensure the proposed regulations are: scientifically and technically defensible; are meeting legislative
requirements; and are not at odds with other agency activities. Once peer review is obtained, the proposed
regulations are submitted for public comment. The ‘public’ means the scientific community, those
potentially impacted by the new regulations and the interested public. Public hearings and briefings are
encouraged and prior to the proposed rule making an advance notice is made public, so that public
participation can be made at this late stage. After an adequate public comment period of 30 to 120 days,
the received public comments are reviewed and used in the final preparation of the proposed rule. Even
after a CFR (Congressional Federal Register) has been published with a title number, interested parties
can still use the courts for litigation against the rule. Each environmental rule is published as a CFR. For
instance, in the case of the SDWA, the CFR Title 51, Part 63, 2 April, 1986, page 11396 states the
maximum concentration limit (MCL) for fluoride.
20. ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

1.8.1 Some Significant United States Federal Environmental Legislation

Tables 1.6, 1.7, 1.8 and 1.9 list the chronological development of United States Federal environmental
legislation in the areas of:
e Environmental policy
e Water and wastewater
e Air
e Municipal solid waste
e Hazardous waste
e Others

It is seen that legislation began around 1955 and proceeded slowly up to the founding of the USEPA in
1970 by President Nixon. From 1970 to 1995, legislation has been continuous with Congress updating the
Water Acts, the Air Acts and the Waste Acts typically every 4 to 6 years. As standards are now at an all-
time restrictive set of values, it is likely that the next decade will not bring the same voluminous set of
environmental laws. It is possible that as the depth of scientific knowledge increases, standards for some

Table 1.6 Significant US federal environmental legislation—policy and water quality

Name of Act Abbreviation Date Comments

Policy
Earth Day 1970 Signalled height of environmental
awareness in US government
National Environmental Policy Act NEPA 1969 Required EIS for Federal Projects
Environmental Pollution Agency EPA 1970 Combines the Federal Water Quality
Administration Agency and US Public
Health Service
Water
River and Harbors Act 1889 Protects waters from pollution
Federal Water Pollution Control Act FWPCA 1948 Grants for feasibility studies
Amendments to FWPCA FWPCA 1956 Grants for feasibility studies
Water Quality Act WQA 1965 Enacted water quality standards
Amendments to FWPCA—now called the Clean CWA 1972 Massive grants for wastewater treatment
Water Act and collection
Safe Drinking Water Act SDWA 1974 EPA sets standards for drinking water
quality
Fishery Conservation and Management Act FCMA 1976
Soil and Water Resources Conservation Act SWCRA 1977
EPA Wetlands Regulations 1989
Amendments to Safe Drinking Water Act SDWA 1986 EPA publishes lists of contaminants
found in public water supplies (85 by
1992)
Amendments to CWA CWA 1987 Regulation of toxics and sewage sludge
in wastewaters and non-point source
(NPS) pollution control grants
Surface Water Treatment Rules SWTR 1989
National Pollution Discharge Elimination System NPDES 1990 Permits for industrial and municipal
stormwater discharges
Amendments to CWA CWA 1992 65 000 chemicals regulated
Standards for the Use and Disposal of Sewage Sludge 49CFR503 1993 Sewage sludge standards
Amendments to CWA CWA 1995 Incentives for watershed management, a
HR961 new wetlands permitting programme
based on ecological values, etc.
 HISTORY AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK 21

Table 1.7 Significant US federal environmental legislation—air quality

Name of Act Abbreviation Date Comments

Clean Air Act CAA 1955 Federal and technical assistance to states
Motor Vehicle Act 1960 Required basic research on automobile exhausts
Amendments to Clear Air Act CAA 1963 Department of HEW to publish criteria for national air quality
standards
Air Quality Act—Amendments AQA 1967 Established a framework to improve nation’s air and guarantee
air standards by region
Clean Air Act—Amendments CAA 1970 EPA to establish minimum air quality and regulatory goals that
state and local governments were to achieve
Clean Air Act—Amendments CAA 1977 EPA imposed strict requirements on areas not meeting standards
for criteria and toxic air pollutants (see Chapter 6)
Clear Air Act—Amendments CAA 1990 Air toxics—National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air
Pollutants (NESHAP)—goal to reduce by 50% the
nationwide emission of 189 toxic air pollutants including
asbestos, beryllium, vinyl chloride, benzene, radionuclides,
arsenic, radon 222, etc. Also in the chemical industry to lower
by 90% the fugitive emissions of 148 VOCs (volatile organic
carbon)
Clean Air Act—Amendments CAA 1990 EPA to ensure reduction of SO; emissions by 10 million tons
from 1980 levels. Also NO, reductions
Clearn Air Act—Amendments CAA 1992 New Chemical Safety Board to police the above

Table 1.8 Significant US federal environmental legislation—solid wastes

Name of Act Abbreviation Date Comments

Solid Waste Act SWDA 1965 Policed by the US Public Health Service to promote solid
waste management and resource recovery including
guidelines for the collection, transportation, separation,
recovery and disposal
National Environmental Policy Act 1969 Requires EIS on solid waste projects; e.g. new landfills
Resource Recovery Act 1970 Shifted emphasis of national solid waste programme from
disposal to recycling and reuse, and to conversion of
wastes to energy
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act RCRA 1976 Provided legal basis for implementation guidelines and
standards for solid waste storage, treatment and disposal
1978 EPA published guidelines on MSW management and revised
them in 1984 and 1988
Comprehensive Environmental CERCLA 1980 Mechanism for responding to uncontrolled landfills, i.e. to
Response, Compensation and Liability sites with mixed municipal and hazardous wastes
Public Utility Regulation and Policy Act PURPA 1981 Directs public and private utilities to purchase power from
waste to energy sources
RCRA Amendments—Hazardous and RCRA 1984 Includes banning of landfilling for RCRA hazardous wastes
Solid Waste Disposal Amendments (HSWDA)
California Assembly Bill AB 1993 Recycling goals—S0% of all MSW to be directed from
landfill by 2000: 25% by 1995
Amendments to RCRA RCRA 1994 Includes recycling goals enumerated in line with those of
California and Florida
22 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Table 1.9 Significant US federal environmental legislation—hazardous waste

e
CS SS ee ee ee e
Name of Act Abbreviation Date Comments

Solid Waste Act SWDA 1965 Policed by the US Public Health Service; established a
federal research and grant programme including
hazardous and non-hazardous waste
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and FIFRA 1972 Manufacturers of pesticides to supply data to EPA of
Rodenticide Act unreasonable effects on the environment
Amendments to FIFRA FIFRA 1988 EPA mandated registration of pesticides by 1991:
23 000 pesticide products registered
Toxic Substance Control Act TSCA 1976 Mandated testing prior to commercial manufacture of
any new chemical and disclosure of information on
toxicity with the objective of preventing distribution
of toxic materials
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act RCRA 1976 Listed ‘acutely hazardous’ and ‘toxic’ wastes separately,
of chemicals to be disposed as hazardous wastes
Amendments to RCRA—Hazardous and RCRA 1984 EPA bans all landfilling of hazardous wastes. Regulates
Solid Waste. Disposal Amendments (HSWDA) small producers, prohibits non-containerized
hazardous waste in landfills, provides minimum
technical requirements for landfills, regulates
underground storage tanks for wastes and medical
wastes
Amendments to RCRA RCRA 1992 Increased emphasis on recycling and toxic use reduction
Comprehensive Environmental Response, CERCLA 1980 Designed to resolve all issues with abandoned,
Compensation and Liability Act uncontrolled, inactive hazardous waste disposal sites.
Identified 32 000 sites, 1200 put on priority list, 52
cleaned up to 1992
CERCLA 1988 It set up:
1. A superfund to pay for clean-up (1200 sites)
2. A National Priority List—NPL
3. National Contingency Plan
Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization SARA 1986 Revisions to Superfund including: new cleanup
Act standards that require use of permanent remedies:
sets a minimum number of superfund cleanup sites
and specifies liability for improper hazardous waste
disposal
Title IIT.
The Emergency Planning and Community SARA 1986 Includes: emergency planning and notification.
Right to Know Act Community right to know reporting on chemicals,
emissions, inventories. Strategy of first eliminating
acute health threats and permanent remedies
Hazardous Materials Transportation Act HMTA 1975 Governs safety aspects of hazardous materials
transport—packing, handling, labelling, marking,
placarding, transporting, unpacking
Hazardous Materials Transportation Uniform HMTWA 1990 Uniformity of regulations from state to federal.
Safety Governed by DOT, who register and charge a fee for
hazardous materials. Train personnel, inspect
paperwork, etc.
Pollution Prevention Act PPA 1990 This Act requires the EPA to establish a source reduction
programme including setting standards and
determining effects of hazardous waste source
reduction
eee
 HISTORY AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK 23

parameters will be made more strict, while others will be relaxed. One area still to be expanded is that
concerning solid waste, i.e. municipal solid waste. Many State programmes, particularly California and
Florida, are ahead of the Federal Regulations with respect to waste minimization and recycling. The last
half of the 1990s holds much debate for direction with respect to solid waste reduction and recycling.
Other areas that are addressed by United States environmental law include the following:

Endangered Species Act (1993)

Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act
Wetlands Action Plan (1989)
Wild and Scenic Rivers Act
Wilderness Act
Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act
Coastal Zone Management Act
Ground Water Protection Strategy (1984)
Indoor Air Quality
National Estuary Program
Pesticides in Groundwater
Occupational Safety and Health Act
Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act
Acid Precipitation Act (1980)

1.8.2 US Quality Standards in the Water Environment

The water environment is here considered as:

e Drinking water
e Wastewater

Drinking water (including groundwater) The key document on drinking water is the Safe Drinking
Water Act (1974) and amendments. Tables 11.4 and 11.15 of Chapter 11 list the primary drinking water
standards from the SDWA. Primary drinking water standards are those that are enforceable by law, while
secondary drinking water standards are non-enforceable by law and are, as such, recommendations. The
mandatory parameters are those that the states must comply with. However, many states have more
stringent requirements. Briefly, the standards are subdivided as follows:
e Primary standards
— Clarity (turbidity)
— Microbiological (coliform bacteria)
— Organic chemicals (list of 23)
— Inorganic chemicals (list of 11)
Radioactivity (gross alpha and gross beta activity)
e Secondary standards include
— Colour, odour, chloride, copper, foaming agents, iron, manganese sulphate, zinc, specific
conductance, total dissolved solids, pH, hardness, sodium, calcium, potassium, magnesium, boron
and nitrite

It is interesting to note that many of the secondary standards for use in the United States are ‘mandatory’
in the European Union. Also, many of the organic chemical standards that are mandatory in the United
States are not mentioned in the EU regulations. It would seem that the US treatment facilities have
achieved the standards on the basic physicochemical—organoleptic areas and have advanced to focus on
24 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

the more insidious organic chemicals. See American Water Works Association (1990) for an excellent
review of US water quality standards.

Wastewater The principal document on wastewater standards is the CWA (1972) and its amendments.
The objective of this Act was to restore and maintain the chemical, physical and biological integrity of US
receiving waters. Progress was made in receiving waters quality by the introduction of limits on
discharges for industry and municipalities. Under the National Pollution Discharge Elimination System
(NPDES) Program, permits were issued. The minimum national standards for secondary treatment were
set as 45 mg BOD./L and 45 mg SS/L for the average 7-day concentratiom It was also set that the pH of
the effluent at all times be in the range 6-9. The Water Quality Act of 1987 was a revision of the Clean
Water Act and introduced more stringent standards and severe penalties for permit violations. The
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) (1969) and its amendments require that an environmental
impact statement (EIS) be prepared for all wastewater treatment plants. The impacts to be evaluated
include social, economic, ecological, legal and political considerations. The development of an EIS for
wastewater treatment projects is controlled by the Council on Environmental Quality Regulations as part
of the NEPA. In 1993, major national regulations were introduced for the setting of standards for sludge
disposal. This is 40CFR part 503 and has very detailed standards for land application, surface disposal,
pathogen and vector attraction and incineration. Further details are included in Chapter 13.
Regarding surface water quality, the Clean Water Act of 1987 introduced a shift of emphasis. Rather
than looking at categorizing surface waters, the future effort was to be spent in making sure that
discharges to these waters were within standard. The Surface Water Treatment Rules (SWTR) of 1989
addressed those water bodies needing remedial action.

1.8.3 US Quality Standards in the Air Environment

The Clean Air Act was first introduced in 1955 and has been amended eight times up to 1992. The first
Act was simple and provided federal assistance to states that had serious problems. Under the 1963 and
1967 amendments, the department responsible, the Health, Education and Welfare (HEW) Department,
published criteria for national air quality standards and set up a legal, financial and technical framework to
improve the nation’s air and guarantee air standards by region. In 1970, the new EPA, in revising the
CAA, established minimum air quality and regulatory goals that state and local governments were to
achieve. Criteria pollutant standards were set for CO, NO, 03, SO, PMjo, Pb, TSP (total suspended
particulates) and HC. The CAA amendments of 1977 imposed strict requirements on areas not meeting
criteria pollutant standards and toxic air pollutants. The 1990 CAA amendments, under the National
Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP), set goals to reduce by 50 per cent the levels
of 189 toxic air pollutants and by 90 per cent fugitive emissions from industry. In line with international
policies on greenhouse gases, the 1990 CAA amendments set the goal of reducing SO> by 10 x 10° tons
below that of 1980 levels. The CAA amendments of 1992 established a new Chemicals Safety Board to
police the NESHAP standards.

1.8.4 US Quality Standards for Solid Waste

Waste is broadly subdivided into:

e Non-hazardous (most municipal waste)

e Hazardous

The Solid Waste Act of 1965 promoted a management system for waste that included resource recovery
so as to improve the quality of air, land and water. Technical and financial assistance was provided to the
 HISTORY AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK 25

states via the US Public Health Service. A national database program was initiated with the intent of
improving collection, separation, recovery, recycling and disposal. Occupational training was initiated for
operations in the waste business and guidelines and standards for the several processes from collection to
disposal were initiated. New landfills and other significant projects related to waste management became
the subject of required EISs under the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969. With
responsibilities going to the EPA for administration, the Resource Recovery Act (1970), the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act (1976), set guidelines for solid waste management to the public. The
RCRA established a legal framework for the implementation of the guidelines and the standards for solid
waste handling, storage treatment and ultimate disposal. The Superfund or CERCLA (1980) established
the mechanism of identifying and funding landfill sites that were the object of previous uncontrolled
dumping, including solid waste and hazardous waste. RCRA was amended in 1984 and 1994 and
essentially 50 per cent of all waste collected is to be diverted from landfills by the year 2000. The EPA
philosophy for waste management is firstly waste minimization, then recycling and reuse, then energy
recovery and, as a last resort, landfilling.
The 1965 Solid Waste Act included management guidelines for hazardous waste as well as non-
hazardous waste. The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) (1972) required
pesticide manufacturers to inform the EPA of their products with special reference to the unreasonable
effects on the environment. FIFRA was updated in 1988 and at that time the national register of pesticides
contained 23 000 entries. In 1976, the Toxic Substance Control Act (TSCA) mandated testing prior to the
commercial manufacture of any new chemical and the public disclosure of data on toxicity with the goal
of preventing the distribution of toxic materials. The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (1976)
listed ‘acutely hazardous’ and ‘toxic’ wastes separately, with chemicals to be disposed as hazardous
wastes. RCRA has been updated in 1984 and 1994, and today’s emphasis is on hazardous waste reduction
at source (through the Pollution Prevention Act of 1990) and proper disposal of end wastes. Because of
the public disquiet of the 1970s regarding landfill and other sites that were up to then badly managed, the
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability (CERCLA) was introduced in
1980. Also known as Superfund, this law set out to identify the badly managed sites and to clean them up.
The plan was that the task would take five years. By 1985, CERCLA was bogged down in the legalities of
ownership, responsibility, and engineering consulting and legal fees. It was reauthorized as the Superfund
Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) in 1986. To date, about 1200 sites have been identified as
badly contaminated and needing to be cleaned up, but less than 100 have undergone permanent remedial
treatments. The National Priority List is continuously updated as more data become available. Title II of
SARA of 1986 instituted emergency planning and a community right to know reporting on chemicals and
emission inventories.
Other Acts of relevance are the Hazardous Materials Transportation Act (1975) and its amendments,
the Hazardous Materials Transportation Uniform Safety Act (1990). The latter instituted uniformity of
regulations from state to state and is policed by the Department of Transport (DOT). Regulations for
hazardous materials transport are in place and standardized for their packing, handling, labelling,
marking, placarding, transporting and unpacking.

1.8.5 US Quality Standards in Other Areas

There are many areas besides the air, water and waste environments which are relevant to the
environmental engineer and scientist. Included among these are:

e Conservation
e Public lands

There are several major legislative Acts under each of the above.
26 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Conservation The significant Acts in chronological order are:

1. The Multiple-Use Sustained-Yield Act of 1960 Congress deemed that the national forests are
established and administered for outdoor recreation, range, timber, watershed, and wildlife and fish
purposes. The Secretary of Agriculture was authorized and directed to develop and administer the
renewable surface resources of the national forests for multipie use and sustained yield of the several
products and services from these lands. The establishment of areas of wilderness are consistent within
the provisions of this Act.
2. The Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 Congress deemed that there was a national interest in the
effective management, beneficial use, protection and development of the coastal zone as it was rich in
a variety of natural, commercial, recreational, ecological, industrial and aesthetic resources, many of
these fragile. It is national policy to encourage and assist the states to effectively protect, develop and
enhance these resources, including floodplains, wetlands, estuaries, beaches, dunes, barrier islands,
coral reefs, and fish and wildlife habitat. Policy also included assisting in the redevelopment of
deteriorating urban waterfronts and ports and sensitive restoration of historical sites.
3. The Endangered Species Act of 1973 Congress declared that various species of fish, wildlife and
plants in the United States have been rendered extinct as a consequence of economic growth and that
other species are so depleted that their continuity is threatened. In keeping with international
agreements, federal assistance to the States as a system of incentives is encouraged so as to develop
and maintain conservation programmes that also maintain the ecosystems for these species. The
federal policy is such that federal departments and agencies are to conserve endangered species and to
use their authority to do so, and also to co-operate with State and local agencies to resolve water
resource issues in concert with conservation of endangered species.
4. Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act of 1974 With amendments in 1978 and
1980, these Acts promote a sound technical and ecological base for the effective management for the
nation’s renewable resources. Because most of the forest lands are in private, State and local
government ownership, Congress planned that the Federal Government is to be a catalyst to encourage
and assist the owners in the efficient long-term use and improvement of these lands and their
renewable resources, consistent with the policy of sustained yield and multiple use.

Public lands The significant Act is the Federal Land Policy and Management Act of 1976. Congress
declared that the US policy was that public lands be retained in federal ownership unless a parcel for
disposal was deemed in the national interest. That the national interest is best served if the resources are
periodically and systematically inventoried and their future use planned for. The public are to be informed
of any proposed change of use or change of ownership. The lands are to be maintained in a manner that
protects the quality of scientific, scenic, historical, ecological, environmental, air and water resources, and
archaeological values. This also means the provision of food and habitat for fish, wildlife and domestic
animals so as to provide outdoor recreation, and human occupancy and use. The management of such
lands would be on the basis of multiple use and sustained yield.

1.9 COMPARISON OF EU AND US ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION

Environmentalism is one of the most significant ‘movements’ of the second half of the twentieth century.
The movement was essentially led by the United States and some northern European countries. New
Zealand and Canada also showed a healthy regard for the environment. The beginning of the legislative
era started with the Clean Air Act in 1955 in the United States and progressed slowly for a decade to 1965
with the Solid Waste Act, and then in 1970 with the establishment of the USEPA and a flourish of
legislation during the 1970s. Superfund was set up in 1980 and SARA was reauthorized in 1986. The
 HISTORY AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK 27

latter half of the 1980s and the 1990s also saw a proliferation of legislation in the hazardous and solid
waste area. Amendments were instituted to the Clean Air Act and also the Clean Water Act.
European environmental legislation developed much more slowly. While some countries in northern
Europe were making legislative progress, the European Economic Community, established in 1958, had
no direct mandate to legislate for environmental matters until the Single European Act was signed in
1986. However, using the criteria of reducing barriers to trade, the EEC was able to establish legislation
on environmental matters since 1970. Since then, significant legislative pieces have been introduced in the
areas of air, water, soil, waste and other environments. The European Economic Community (EEC) has
had name changes to the European Community (EC) (1986) and then to the European Union (EU) (1993).
The volume of United States environmental legislation surpasses that of the European Union.
In the area of water treatment (potable), groundwater, surface waters, wastewater treatment and
wastewater discharges, both the United States and European Union have reasonably equivalent standards
and guidelines. There are differences, for instance, where the United States is now more focused on the
objective of eliminating synthetic organics in waters and less so on the physical-chemical parameters of
water quality (as this is conventional technology). The future changes in the water environment are likely
to be associated with the synthetic organics, which are numerous, and their reactivity in the different
water/soil/sediment environments is not fully understood.
The US legislation on waste, including hazardous waste, is more developed than that of the European
Union. There is still a need in the European Union for elaboration of solid waste disposal, particularly in
the areas of landfilling and alternatives to landfilling. For instance, the United States Sewage Sludge
Regulations of 1993 are excellently detailed and far more elaborate than their EU counterparts. On
hazardous waste, the European Union is still in the area of feasibility and identifying the hazardous sites,
while the United States Superfund (1980) has provided finances for the remediation of hazardous sites.
Also, it appears that the legislation on air quality is more advanced in the United States, having started in
1955 and with several amendments since then. Competent authorities in parts of the European Union still
make use of the German regulations on air emissions (TA Luft) in the absence of an integrated European
Union standard.
An invaluable study resource for environmental legislation is USEPA via the Internet. Less detailed
access is also available for the EU and many other countries on their legislation.

1.10 PROBLEMS

1.1 Write a review of EU environmental legislation as it pertains to drinking water (use other
references).
1.2 Write a review of US environmental legislation as it pertains to drinking water (use other
references).
1.3 ‘Engineers have contributed more to the public health of mankind than medical doctors’. Write a
two-page essay supporting the above.
1.4. Write a two-page essay against the statement of Problem 1.3.
1.5 Locate the relevant EU directives on municipal solid waste and write a two-page review of the state
of the legislation.
1.6 Repeat Problem 1.5 for the US.
1.7 Compare the state of environmental legislation in Japan and Australia with regard to wastewater
discharges to the river environment.
1.8 ‘Environmentalism is a spiritual movement’. Critique the above statement with specific reference to
the state of the environmental legislation in New Zealand and the input to it of the Maori culture.
1.9 Identify the key pieces of international environmental legislation that would be used against me in a
court of law, should I as an industrialist, dump a hazardous waste into an upstream reach of the
River Danube.
28 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

1.10 ‘The US is over-legislated with regard to industrial liquid waste discharges’. With regard to the
above, identify the key legislative pieces and suggest those that you would ‘water down’ to support
the above statement.

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

American Water Works Association (1990) Water Quality and Treatment. A Handbook of Community Water Supplies. 4th edn,
McGraw-Hill, New York.
Arbuckle, J. G. et al. (1989) Environmental Law Handbook, 10th edn, Government Publications Inc., Maryland.
Arbuckle, J. G., et al. (1993) Environmental Law Handbook, 12th edn, Government Institutes, Rockville, Maryland.
Arden, E. and W. T. Lockett (1914). ‘Experiments on the oxidation of sewage without the aid of filters’. J of Soc. Chem. Ind. Vol. 33,
pp. 523-1122.
Bockrath, J. (1977) Environmental Law for Engineers, Scientists and Managers, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Carson, R. (1962). Silent Spring, Haughton-Mifflin, Boston.
Cashman, L. (1993). Lecture on environmental law to the Environmental Engineering Dept., at University College, Cork.
Camp Dresser & McKee (April 1993). A Guide to EPAs New Sludge Regulations.
Commission of the European Communities (March 1992) The State of the Environment in the European Community. Com(92).
Cunningham, W. P. and W. Saigo (1990) Environmental Science, W.C. Brown, New York.
Denney, R., M. Monahan and D. Black (1993) California Environmental Law Handbook, Government Institutes, Rockville,
Maryland.
Department of Health, New Zealand (1992) Public Health Guidelines for the Safe Use of Sewage Effluent and Sewage Sludge on
Land.
Duggan, F. (1992) EC Environmental Legislation—A Handbook for Irish Local Authorities, Environmental Research Unit, Dublin,
Ireland.
Environmental Law Society (1992) Environs. Environmental Law and Policy Journal, University of California, Davis.
Federal Register (1 July 1988) Secondary Treatment Regulations, 40CFR Part 133.
Findley, R. W. and D. A. Farber (1992) Environmental Law in a Nutshell, West Publishing Co., Minnesota.
Freedman, M. and B. Jaggi (1993) Air and Water Pollution Regulation. Accomplishments and Economic Consequences, Quorum
Books, New York.
Henrichs, R. (1988) ‘Law, literature review, J. WPCF, 60 (6).
Johnson S. P. and G. Corcelle (1989) The Environmental Policy of the European Community., Graham and Trolman Publishers,
London.
Mackenthun, K. M. and J. I. Gregman (1992) Environmental Regulations: Handbook, Lewis Publishers.
Middlekauff, R. D. (1975) Water Quality Control Legislation, Practising Law Institute, New York.
Noyes, R. (1991) Handbook of Pollution Control Processes, Noyes Publications, Park Ridge, New Jersey.
O’Brien and Gere Engineers Inc. (1988) Hazardous Waste Site Remediation. The Engineer’s Perspective. Van Nostrand Rheinhold,
New York.
Osmanczy, E. (1990) Encyclopedia of the United Nations and International Agreements. Taylor and Francis Publications, New York.
Peavy, H. S., D. R. Rowe and G. Tchobanoglous (1985) Environmental Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Petulla, J. M. (1987) Environmental Protection in the United States. Industry, Agencies, Environmentalists, San Francisco Study
Center, pp. 34-35.
Robinson, Snr. M. (1976) Environmental Legislation, Praeger Publications, New York.
Scannell E. The Law and Practice Relating to Pollution Control in Ireland.
Seinfeld, J. H. (1986) Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics of Air Pollution, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, Table 2.2, pmoss
Selected Environmental Law Statutes, (1993-4) Educational Edition, St Paul, West Publishing Co., St. Paul, Minnesota.
Stolaff, N. (1993) Environmental Law Dictionary, Oceana Publications Inc., New York.
Sutherland, T. E. (1993) Environmental Law. In Greener Buildings, Environmental Impact of Property. S. Johnston (ed.), Macmillan,
Basingstoke.
Vesilind, P. A., J. J. Peirce and R. F. Weiner Environmental Engineering, 3rd edn, Butterworth-Heinneman, Oxford.
Water Environment Federation (1991) Manual of Practice No. 8 (ASCE Manual and Report on Engineering Practice No. 76), Design
of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants, Vol. 1.
Water Environment Federation (1993), Alexandria, VA, USA. Standards for the Use and Disposal of Sewage Sludge, 40 CFR Parts
257, 403, 503.
 CHAPTER

TWO
ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS AND NATURAL RESOURCES

2.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

The multifaceted role of present-day environmental engineers demands a greater understanding of the
functioning of living systems and of their interaction with the environment on which the work of the
engineer is based. This is the role of this chapter as a scene setter—the essential background of ecological
concepts and natural resources—with a qualitative emphasis. See the references on page 51 for the
quantitative side. As a starting point, we need to understand the currency we are dealing with—what is the
environment? The global environment can be divided into two major components as depicted in Fig. 2.1.
Environmental engineers use and manipulate physical resources such as natural energy (waves, wind,
hydroelectric) and water (for domestic supply and waste transport). They alter the topography of terrestrial
and aquatic systems through road building and through structures for flood alleviation, protection from
erosion, etc., creating new physical settings in which living systems have to exist and function. However,
as shown in Fig. 2.1, the physical and chemical (abiotic) components are only one part of the natural
environment and, as many would argue nowadays, are not as important as the biotic component of living
organisms to the well-being of the human species and the earth as a whole.

Abiotic Biotic
\ \ |

Atmosphere Living organisms

Hydrosphere (air) (viruses, bacteria, fungi,
(oceans, lakes, rivers, plants and animals)
shallow groundwaters)
and

Lithosphere Dead organic matter

(solid earth, soils) (dead organisms and
waste products)

Figure 2.1 The major components and subcomponents of the natural environment.

29
30 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Natural living systems supply humanity with an array of indispensable and irreplaceable services
that support our life on earth (Erlich, 1991). These include direct resources such as building products
(wood), food, medicines, clothing materials, etc. Living systems also provide functional services such as
maintenance of the appropriate mix of atmospheric gases, generation and preservation of soils, disposal of
wastes, restoration of systems following disturbance, control of pests, cycling of nutrients and pollination
of crops. Thus, not only is humanity totally dependent on the living environment but the integrity of the
planet is itself dependent on the maintenance of the natural environment and on the interactions between
the living organisms and the physical/chemical components of the earth.

2.2 THE VALUE OF THE ENVIRONMENT

Natural resources may be renewable, non-renewable or abstract. Non-renewable resources include fossil
fuels, minerals, clear-felled tropical hardwoods that are not replaced and rare animals or plants that are
hunted or collected in an uncontrolled way. Renewable resources include energy from the sun and the
biological and biogeochemical cycles (such as the water and energy hydrological and carbon cycles). At a
more immediate level, renewable resources include forests that have been selectively felled and replanted,
animal and plant populations that have been properly managed through controlled hunting, fishing and
collecting, and waters with controlled inputs that can be readily recycled and reused. Abstract resources
include animals, plants and the natural landscape as part of ‘the countryside’ used for recreation and
tourism activities such as bird watching, fishing, hiking, sight-seeing, etc. Non-renewable resources are of
course finite, while the other two categories are effectively infinite provided they are not overutilized or
damaged. Our descendants will not thank us for exhausting finite resources, nor for destroying the
renewable ones.
The biotic diversity of living systems must therefore be viewed as a common property resource for
all mankind. It is subject, however, to ‘the tragedy of the commons’ (Hardin, 1968). The commons (in
British terms) were communal areas set aside for villagers to graze their livestock. The tragedy was that
individuals were free to increase their exploitation by grazing more and more animals without paying the
additional costs of keeping the commons in a productive state. The costs were shared by all the villagers
although the benefits accrued only to the individual who owned the livestock. The result was overgrazing
and deterioration of the resource. Common property resources in today’s world include scenic landscapes,
wilderness areas, migratory animals including whales, biodiversity and clean air and water. The tragedy of
the commons equally applies to these.

2.2.1 Environmental Auditing

Decisions on whether or not various engineering or other developments go ahead in an area are often
based on economic considerations. However aesthetically pleasing an environment is, the economic
considerations require that we also put a specific value on it. So how can we do this? The first step should
be an environmental audit, a listing of all the resources of the area. This is fairly straightforward for non-
biological resources such as fossil fuels or minerals but is not so straightforward for many biological
resources. The number of species presently known to science is around one and a half million, but how
many species are there yet to be discovered? Various methods have been used to try to estimate the
number of species that actually exist (global biodiversity), e.g. by extrapolating from areas with well-
known faunas and floras (such as temperate forests) to those less well known (such as the tropical
rainforests) or by looking at the number of new species of each group of plants and animals added per unit
of time searching or area searched in, say, the rainforest. Estimates of global biodiversity range from 2
million to 50 million species but most scientists would consider a figure of 20 to 30 million to be about
right.
 ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS AND NATURAL RESOURCES 31

Table 2.1 Some components, functions and attributes of

the environment viewed in relation to their value to
mankind

Characteristics Direct use Indirect use Non-use

Components
Wild fauna resources
Wild flora resources
Agricultural resources
Water supply +++
Functions
Sediment retention
Nutrient retention
Shoreline stabilization
Flood control
Ground water recharge +++4+4++4+
Water transport aa
Tourism and recreation 7

Attributes
Biological diversity + at aE
Heritage ae

Modified from Aylward and Barbier, 1992

Having arrived at an audit of biodiversity, we would need to examine the known value to mankind of
the existing species, then estimate the, as yet, unknown value of those new species and finally extrapolate
to the total value of the particular environmental area under study, which includes all the still to be
discovered species and their yet to be discovered value. The uses of the living environment may be of
direct or of indirect value (Table 2.1), but first let us consider some of the direct uses, which include
foodstuffs, industrial and commercial products, tourism, recreation and medicines.

Food All our food ultimately comes from other organisms, most of which are cultivated plants or
domesticated animals. Most plant food comes from about twenty major crop species, while the bulk of
meat supplies originate from an even smaller number of domesticated animal species. Seafood is an
exception, aquaculture currently supplying only about 10 per cent of the 70 million tons harvested
annually, but this will change as wild stocks continue to decline. This dependence on a very small number
of domesticated animal and plant species for our food supplies is a result of historical chance rather than
design. Many wild plants and animals have great potential as human food sources. Indonesians make use
of some 4000 native wild plants in their diet, but few of them have been explored for potential
domestication and culture, while less than one-quarter of the 250 different fruits eaten by the peoples of
Papua New Guinea have been cultivated.
The inhabitants of the Brazilian rainforest also utilize a wide range of food resources from the forest,
among which is a palm tree called ‘Milpesos’ (Jessenia bataua). An amino acid analysis of this plant has
revealed that the protein is equivalent to that of prime beef and 40 per cent higher than the biological value
of soya bean protein (Balick and Gershoff, 1981). Such high-yielding plants of small size with large fruit
clusters could be selected as an ideal crop for the lowland tropics (Balick, 1985), where high protein
sources are especially desirable.
Those few crops that we do currently cultivate are derived from a very small number of plants,
sometimes a single plant. They therefore have a very reduced genetic base. This may result in low disease
resistance, inability to grow in a wide range of climatic conditions and so on. The wild populations from
which they were originally collected have a large gene pool and hence much greater variability. The
32 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Table 2.2 Estimated performance of cows and capybaras in the

conditions of the Pantanal, Brazil

Individuals for Age (years) M Weight at Median weight gained

Species each 3 hectares at withdrawal withdrawal in each hectare (g/day)

Cow 0.1 4.5 490 283

Capybara 18 ils) 35 1134

Data from Dourojeanni, 1985

potato, for example, is subject to diseases such as blight and to infestations by eel worms. Genes
conferring resistance to such diseases and pests may well exist in wild populations and these could be
introduced into cultivated forms to improve them in many ways as long as adequate populations exist in
the wild. Extinction is not the issue here but maintenance of sufficiently large wild populations to supply a
repertoire of genes for selection by plant breeders.
The situation is no different where animals are concerned, with domestic stocks often derived from a
small population of animals. The cow is domesticated almost world-wide as a source of animal protein,
despite the fact that it is not well adapted to many habitats, such as the tropics. In Venezuela attempts have
been made to domesticate the capybara, a large native rodent, as an alternative to the cow. The yields have
been shown to be superior to that from cows under similar conditions (Table 2.2).

Industrial and commercial products Industrial and commercial products provided by the environment
include minerals and fossil fuels from the abiotic component; wools, hides, feathers and bone meals from
animals; cotton, sisal, jute, rubber, waxes, resins, oils, gums and tannins from plants, to name just a few.
Add to this thousands of as yet unrecognized products. The most commercially valuable of all products
that we obtain from plants, however, is wood. Trees are cultivated in plantations, but mainly for
whitewood. Hardwoods are such slow growers that we depend upon harvesting from natural forests and
over 85 per cent of hardwoods come from virgin tropical forests. Most tropical forests are cut down
completely with no selective logging and no replanting schemes.

Medicines Wild plants and animals are a very important source of drugs, analgesics, antibiotics,
anticoagulants and antiparasitics. Over half of all prescription drugs contain some natural products. A
major success story is the Madagascar periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus). Alkaloids from this plant inhibit
cancer cells and have contributed massively to the reduction in mortality from childhood leukaemia, as
well as in improvements in survival from Hodgkin’s disease. This plant is now widely cultivated, although
Madagascar profits little from the exploitation of its flora. There are millions of possibly useful substances
in living organisms, because life has had billions of years to evolve a repertoire of antipredator,
antiparasite and antidisease chemistry. At the moment there is increasing interest in coral reef organisms
as a source of antibiotics. Coral reefs, like rainforests, are highly diverse, so that competition between
organisms for living space has resulted in the development of an array of chemicals for killing or
dissuading competitors and reducing predation. Rainforests may contain many cures but they are also the
source for very serious diseases like the HIV and Ebola viruses, which are most likely sourced from
animals (monkeys) living in the rainforest.

Tourism and recreation In many cases, land is more valuable as a wildlife preserve than it would be if
converted to crops. The economic yield from tourists who come to see a lion in Amboseli National Park,
Kenya, is equal to the income from a herd of 3000 cows. Hunting of a lion, including permits, vehicle
hire, assistants, food, etc., would bring in only about 5 per cent of the revenue generated from tourism.
Activities such as bird watching and fishing are enjoyed by millions of people world-wide. In the United
 ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS AND NATURAL RESOURCES 33

States there are 8 million bird watchers and 30 million anglers. The total amount spent each year in
America on these activities is several billion dollars (Cunningham and Saigo, 1990).

2.2.2 Biodiversity
With regard to indirect uses of the environment, it is the biological processes themselves that provide the
value (Table 2.1). Indirect uses are particularly difficult to put an economic value on, but are dependent to
a large extent on the value of biodiversity. Pearce (1990) calculated a global damage cost for climate
change of US$13 per tonne of carbon emitted into the atmosphere. He further estimated the indirect
carbon credit due to a single hectare of conserved diverse tropical rainforest to be US$1300. A correct
valuation of national and international indirect uses of managed and unmanaged natural systems might
alter significantly perceptions of the worth of such systems (Aylward and Barbier, 1992).
Biodiversity does not imply just a collection of species. In the same way that our bodies are more
than simply the sum of the parts, so the natural environment is an ordered complex in which the species
are harmoniously co-adapted. Just as our bodies are made up of cells combined into tissues, which in turn
make organs and finally a whole body, as we will see later, the environment consists of populations of
species which together with other species form communities. Many communities combine to form
landscapes, and finally culminate in global biodiversity. Biodiversity is a basic resource which acts as a
human life-support system. Soil formation, waste degradation, air and water purification, nutrient cycling,
solar energy absorption and maintenance of biogeochemical and hydrological cycles all depend upon
plants and animals. Natural biological systems are the culmination of billions of years of evolution and
they maintain ecological processes at no material costs to us.
Not all species play an equally important role; some species are ‘key’ species while others play a
supporting role. When rabbits are removed from open grassland, shrubs freed from grazing pressure may
take over and the whole appearance of the habitat changes from open grassland to impenetrable thickets.
Limpets play a similar role on rocky shores, controlling the growth of seaweeds. Remove the limpets and
open rocks with barnacles soon become clothed in dense growths of seaweed. Some other organisms, by
contrast, can be removed without any obvious effect and their place is quickly taken by existing species or
by newcomers. Nevertheless, ecosystems are highly complex, dynamic and little understood. To continue
the analogy with the human body, damage to an organ can cause serious repercussions to health. So also
the removal of a species can lead to knock-on effects so that a whole system becomes greatly
impoverished or collapses. Recent experimental work in the laboratory-based ‘ecotron’ has shown that
reduced biodiversity does impair the services that ecological systems provide, such as overall productivity,
stability against disturbance and nutrient recycling (Naeem et al., 1994).
We can recognize three kinds of loss of biological resources; firstly the depletion of a once-common
species, secondly local or global extinction and thirdly ecosystem disruption.

Depletion of a once-common species This loss has occurred to many species. For example, vast herds
of buffalo which once roamed the prairies of America have been replaced by cows. These herds, like other
previously abundant species, could be restored if humanity so wished, because much of the habitat still
exists and the species still survives in small numbers in wildlife refuges. The reduction in the numbers of
a species, however, can reduce the gene pool of that species and hence the loss of some characteristics, so
restored populations may suffer lowered ability to survive in a changing environment.

Local or global species extinction Extinction is forever, so when a species is lost, we lose not only all
the characteristics of the species at the time of extinction but also all of the potential adaptations that
might have appeared in future offspring. Extinction is a natural process and the final end of all species. It
has been occurring regularly since life evolved 3 billion years ago. However, it generally occurs at a slow
background rate which allows natural ecological systems to adjust, as new species arise or existing species
expand to replace the extinct species. There have been several mass extinctions in the past, the last of
34 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

which occurred some 60 million years ago. It is also true that biodiversity rebounded after this mass
extinction, but that took millions of years and continued until very recently when humanity originated the
current mass extinction. The present rate of species loss from deforestation alone is about 10.000 times
greater than the rate of natural extinction prior to the appearance of humans on this planet (Silver and
DeFries, 1990). It is probable that the earth could sustain a mass extinction of life and bounce back again
as it has done in the past, but are we prepared to wait the millions of years necessary for the recovery to
occur and will the human race still be around to see it happen?

Ecosystem disruption Beyond a certain point, ecological systems can become so impoverished that
major ecological processes are disrupted and a catastrophic decline sets in. This is the most serious of all
losses. Humans are directly responsible for habitat destruction and environmental degradation and this
promises to escalate as the human population rises in the coming decades with an estimated 6 billion
people by the year 2000 (Kim, 1993). Accelerated destruction of world-wide biodiversity is threatened
and with it ultimately the capacity of the earth to sustain human life.

2.2.3 Cost-Benefit Analysis

Traditionally in economics, the state of the environment has not been used as a criterion to influence
calculations of economic optima. Environmental services such as pollution absorption by biotic systems
are not marketable and many environmental factors such as ecosystem stability, scenic and recreational
values, historic importance and so on are not readily quantifiable. Such elements were always excluded
from the analyses. It is even more difficult to put a monetary value on such things as beauty or health.
With the publication of the World Conservation Strategy (IUCN, 1980), the idea of sustainability entered
the equation and environmental parameters needed to be incorporated into calculations.
Sustainability involves the management of all assets and natural and human resources to increase
long-term wealth and well-being for all. Sustainable development rejects policies which deplete the
productive base and leave future generations with poorer prospects and/or greater risks than our own.
Technologies that contribute to sustainable development include pollution control, renewable energy
production, recycling and resource recovery, resource management and scientific research. Working
principles include the ‘safe minimum standards’ (SMS) criterion (Bishop, 1978; Bishop and Ready,
1991), which attempts to provide a decision-making process for problems involving long periods of time,
large uncertainties (such as extinction probabilities and irreversibilities) and the ‘minimax rule’ (minimize
maximum losses), a necessarily pessimistic decision rule biased towards conservation. The SMS approach
makes conservation the preferred option unless it can be demonstrated that the social cost of conservation
(i.e. the foregoing of benefits) is unacceptably large (Pearce and Turner, 1989).

2.2.4 Environmental Ethics

Environmental ethics pose questions about the morality of the relationships between humans and the rest
of nature. Do humans have obligations, duties and responsibilities to the natural environment? If so, how
do we weigh these obligations and responsibilities against human values and interests? We must eradicate
our feelings of superiority over the rest of the natural world and develop, as the theologian Martin Buber
put it, an ‘I-thou relationship’ rather than an ‘I-it relationship’ with the environment (Cunningham and
Saigo, 1990).

2.3 LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION IN THE BIOTIC COMPONENT OF THE

ENVIRONMENT

One of the major axioms in ecology is that everything in the global environment is connected to
everything else, so that changes in one component can affect many others over both space and time. This
 ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS AND NATURAL RESOURCES 35

is clearly seen when we consider the nested levels in the organizational hierarchy of ecological systems on
earth. At the lowest level, cells are the basic structural and functional units of life while organisms are the
active processors of matter and energy. Six major levels of ecological organization are recognized.

2.3.1 Individual

These have physiological functions and respond to environmental conditions. Individual organisms
belong to a species that includes all the individuals potentially able to interbreed with one another and
produce fertile offspring. An example of a species is the salmon Salmo salar.

2.3.2 Population
This consists of a group of individuals of the same species living in a particular area at the same time.
Each population is genetically distinct to some degree from other separate populations of the same
species. They have a size and a birth, death and hence population growth rate.

2.3.3 Community
Populations of different species live together, many interacting with each other, forming a community, e.g.
in a pond—a natural community of plants, animals and microbes forming a distinctive living system.
These interactions lead to the formation of food webs, a hierarchy of who eats who. Communities occur in
habitats, which refers to the kind of physical environment or place determined by the topography,
vegetation structure, geology and surrounding medium (air or water), e.g. forest habitat, seashore habitat,
etc. Some species live in just one habitat, e.g. fish in a lake. Others may use several different habitats, e.g.
bird species like the crow use fields, seashore, hedgerows, etc.
Within each habitat one can describe for a species its place within the community—a combination of
what it does and where it lives; this is termed the species niche. Competition occurs between similar
species or species with similar niches for resources that are in short supply.

2.3.4 Ecosystem
This encompasses both the living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components of an area—a combination
of the community and physical and chemical components of the local environment. The major feature of
this ecological level is the strong interaction between the biotic and abiotic components as illustrated in
Fig. 2.2. Major processes like nutrient cycling and energy flow occur at this ecological level (see below).

Biotic

Community of Hydrosphere
living organisms (water)

|
Lithosphere Se :
(solidicarth soil) | —_——_—$———$——$ Atmosphere (air)

Abiotic

Figure 2.2 The dynamic nature of the ecosystem due to the interactions between and interdependence of the various components.
36 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

2.3.5 Biomes

Where environmental conditions (e.g. climate) are similar in different parts of the country, or on a larger
scale in different parts of the world, the habitats (e.g. in terms of vegetation type) and communities are
also often similar. We can thus discern a higher level of organization, the biome, e.g. tropical rainforest
(high temperature and rainfall), coniferous forest or Taiga (low winter temperatures), grassland (warm
temperatures, fairly low rainfall), desert scrub (high temperatures, very low rainfall).

2.3.6 Biosphere
The highest organizational level is the biosphere—that part of the earth and atmosphere in which life
exists. It includes the surface layer of land, the oceans and sediments at the bottom of water bodies, and
part of the atmosphere occupied by life. Large-scale biogeochemical cycling of materials (both natural
elements and pollutants) occurs at this ecological level. The ultimate aim of ecological study is to
understand how the biosphere functions (as if it were one large ecosystem) in order to be able to predict
what affects certain human activities will have in the future and how to ameliorate the problems already
caused.

2.4 ECOSYSTEM PROCESSES

As seen above, the ecosystem consists of a series of interacting biotic and abiotic sub-compartments (Fig.
2.2) and two important ecological processes act as the major linking pathways between these
compartments. These two processes, energy flow and nutrient cycling, are essential for the survival and
maintenance of the biotic environment.

2.4.1 Energy Flow

One of the most important interactions between living organisms and their environment is in the provision
of food. This involves not only the supply of energy to survive but also of raw material for construction of
body tissues and gametes for reproduction of the species. On earth, the ultimate source of energy for life
is solar radiation or light, and this is eventually re-radiated back to space as heat (see Chapter 4). It is the
change from non-random energy (light) to random energy (heat) that allows work to be done, and this
drives life on earth.

Energy sources In ecosystems, a proportion of the light energy is converted to chemical energy, which
is the energy currency of living systems. This is stored in either living or dead organic matter (carbon-
based compounds). In living organisms, some organic matter is converted to a certain chemical complex
(called ATP, adenosine triphosphate), which is itself broken down during metabolism to release the stored
chemical energy and allow work to be done (e.g. locomotion, cell division, biochemical reactions). In the
environment there are essentially two sources of energy: autotrophic and heterotrophic. Autotrophic
production of energy rich organic matter is carried out within the ecosystem by green plants in the
presence of light via photosynthesis (see below). Some energy is also produced in deep-sea ecosystems
around hydrothermal vents by sulphur-oxidizing bacteria. Green plants and chemosynthetic bacteria are
called autotrophs. In contrast, a heterotrophic energy source is one where the chemical energy is imported
as organic matter which originated from primary production in some other ecosystem (Ricklefs, 1979):
An example is in heavily shaded forest streams, which are dependent on organic matter, such as dead
leaves, entering the stream from the surrounding catchment and carried down from upstream. This
imported (often called allochthonous) organic matter forms the major energy source on which the stream
community 1s built.
 ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS AND NATURAL RESOURCES 37

Photosynthesis All green plants create their own food through a complex series of chemical reactions
driven by solar radiation (using pigments called chlorophylls). They can synthesize energy-rich organic
molecules such as glucose containing chemical energy from carbon dioxide and water with the release of
oxygen:

12H2O + 6CO> + 709 kcal chlorophyll+-enzymes

see OH Ora OOo OF (2.1)
(from light) (carbohydrate) (to air)

Photosynthesis was not only a major step for life, it was also a major step for the environment
(Ricklefs, 1979). Firstly, photosynthesis releases oxygen, creating an atmosphere whereby organisms
requiring oxygen can survive, and, secondly, through the formation of oxygen complexes an ozone layer
has resulted, which blocked the penetrating rays of ultraviolet light and thus permitted life on land.
Photosynthesis is carried out only in daylight in leaves and often in the stems of green plants. It is
only light in the visible spectrum that can be used and much of this is lost before it reaches the plant
through reflection, scattering and absorption in the atmosphere and by clouds and reflection from plant
surfaces. Of the total amount of solar radiation available, only 1 to 5 per cent is used in photosynthesis.
The glucose produced by the plants may simply be stored as an energy-rich substance in the form of
starch or be combined with other sugar molecules to form carbohydrates like cellulose, used in plant cell
or tissue construction. Plants also require inorganic substances like nitrogen, phosphorus, magnesium and
iron. These are obtained from the soil or in the case of some plants (like clover) nitrogen can be obtained
from the atmosphere with the help of bacteria living in the roots. These substances, together with glucose,
are then structured via chemical reactions into complex substances like fats, proteins and nucleic acids,
which in turn are used to form plant tissues, etc. The production of organic matter by plants is called
primary production.
When any organism requires energy, essentially the reverse chemical reaction to photosynthesis
occurs, called respiration. Respiration is where the glucose molecule is broken down in the presence of
oxygen to yield carbon dioxide, water and energy:

metabolic enzymes
C6H120¢6 + 602 CO, + H2O + energy for work and maintenance (2)

In animals, more complex organic molecules like fats and proteins can also be respired to produce
energy for work. A waste product of respiration and work is heat, which is ultimately re-radiated back into
space.

Primary production Because the rate of photosynthesis and primary production is so vital, the amount
of primary production in different ecosystems is an important parameter to consider. Gross primary
production is the total amount of chemical energy (or biomass) stored by plants per unit area per unit
time. However, since plants require energy for synthesis of organic matter and functioning of the plant
itself, some of the gross primary production is used in the process of respiration. The remaining
production, net primary production, can then be used in plant growth and reproduction; thus:

Net primary production = gross primary production — respiration (2.3)

This is normally 80 to 90 per cent of gross primary production levels. The primary production is
affected by a number of environmental factors, but the key ones are water, light, soil nutrients and
temperature. Net primary production levels vary considerably over the globe but can be classified into
four broad groups, each with a characteristic productivity range. It is only this net primary production
which is available for harvest by mankind or other organisms and which is passed along various food
chains leading to the flow of energy through ecosystems. The normal range (1000 to 2000 g/m? yr) is
found in many forests, some grasslands and highly productive temperate crops.
Low range (0 to 250 g/m? yr) ecosystems include deserts, semi-desert, Arctic tundra and tropical
38 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

ocean water. The middle range group (250 to 1000 g/m? yr) includes non-forest communities limited by
drought, cold, nutrients, etc., e.g. shrublands, tropical mangroves, grassland and most cereal crops.
Finally, the very high range (2000 to 3000 g/m? yr) includes rainforest, marshes, temperate inshore
ocean water and intensive tropical crops, e.g. sugar-cane, rice. These ecosystems are all provided with
plenty of water, warm temperatures and continuous nutrient replenishment.

Food chains and food webs Autotrophs can manufacture their own food, but two other groups of
organisms, saprobes and animals, collectively known as heterotrophs, cannot. All heterotrophs, whether
directly or indirectly, are dependent on producers as the primary source of food. Saprobes or decomposers
feed by absorption of dead organic matter, e.g. certain bacteria, yeasts and all fungi. Animals feed by
ingesting ready-made organic foodstuffs from living or dead organisms (carbohydrates, fats and proteins).
Chemical energy produced by primary producers and the nutrients used by plants to build plant
tissues are passed up through a chain of consumers—the food chain—providing each link in the chain
with energy and nutrients. Each consumer population uses the food energy consumed to live and respire
and the remaining energy can then be used to help produce new biomass by growth and reproduction.
This production of new biomass by the consumer population is called secondary production. Secondary
production of one consumer population then becomes a potential food and energy source for another
further up the food chain. Ecosystems consist of a myriad series of such food chains. Species populations
at each link in the various chains can in turn be grouped into what are known as trophic levels. The
primary producers are the first step in the so-called grazing food chain and are the first trophic level. The
primary consumer forms the next trophic level (i.e. herbivores feeding on the plants) followed in turn by
the secondary consumer which may be a predator or a parasite feeding on herbivores. A tertiary consumer
is a predator population feeding on the preceding consumer level (predator eating predator) and so on (see
Fig. 2.6).
Thus energy initially bound up by plants flows up through the trophic levels along a simple food
chain. There appears to be a limit to the length of grazing food chains—three to four levels in terrestrial
and freshwater ecosystems and up to six in marine ecosystems. There are a number of theories proposed
to account for this general pattern, ranging from energy limitation to size ratios of predators and prey to
dynamical constraints on the stability of long chains, but the explanation is not yet clear. In most
ecosystems food chains interlink, producing food webs. Some consumer populations also feed at more
than one trophic level (e.g. omnivores feeding on both plants and animals) and in more than one food
chain.
Plants and animals also produce waste organic matter (e.g. leaves and faeces respectively) and many
individuals die before being eaten and are not consumed by the next trophic level in the grazing food
chain. This dead organic matter or detritus then becomes a food source for further groups of consumer
organisms, the detritivores (such as earthworms, woodlice, millipedes, etc.) and the decomposers (bacteria
and fungi) in the decomposer food chains. More detailed discussion of the role these types of consumers
play in the recycling of nutrients will follow in Sec. 2.4.2. Suffice it to say at this point that the largest
proportion of the energy flow in terrestrial ecosystems is probably through this pathway, as herbivores
probably use on average much less than 30 per cent of primary production.

Secondary production As we have seen, energy flows from one trophic level of a grazing food chain to
the next, but at each transfer stage the laws of thermodynamics operate and energy is lost from the system.
As mentioned above, not all net primary production is actually eaten: much escapes herbivores and much
is lost from the grazing food chain when plants die. Of the food actually consumed by animals, some is
egested undigested in the faeces, e.g. cellulose, by many terrestrial herbivores. As 40 to 80 per cent of
energy intake can be lost by herbivores and 10 to 50 per cent by carnivores it plays no part in animal
production (Ricklefs, 1979).
From the food digested and assimilated into the body, the bulk of the energy is spent in respiration
for metabolism and activity. For example, insects respire 63 to 84 per cent of assimilated energy, fish 91 to
 ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS AND NATURAL RESOURCES 39

Import of Cc ,
organic matter oe, Y

Heterotrophs
Autotrophs
Primary ea
ea

=
producers

Sunlight Respi- Herbi-

P

Photosynthesis ratory vores vores Wie

c Storage
process
] /X of dead
organic | Export
Gross
production

yee
Heat Y

Figure 2.3 The hydraulic analogy of energy flow through an ecosystem. The energy is imagined as being channelled through pipes
whose thickness is proportional to the rates of energy flow. Some hydraulic equivalent of a prism placed at the entrance deflects most
of the sunlight from the community to represent that proportion of the incident light not used in photosynthesis. From then on the
degradation of energy at each trophic level is shown by pipes running to the heat outlet (R = respiration; Top C. = top carnivore)
(after Odum, 1956).

94 per cent and mammals 97 to 99 per cent. This energy is effectively lost as heat from the ecosystem.
More energy is lost in excretion of the waste products of metabolism (as urine, for example). Therefore
only a fraction of the original energy intake remains to be incorporated into new organic matter (either
growth of the individual or reproduction of new animals) or secondary production and can be passed from
one trophic level up to the next level in the food chain. Thus the flow of energy through food chains
within an ecosystem is characterized by gradual reduction of energy available for each succeeding trophic
level. This has been likened to energy being channelled through a series of pipes of decreasing diameter
(Fig. 2.3). It is now generally accepted that there is about a 10 per cent energy transfer between levels;
therefore up to 90 per cent of the potential energy available is lost between one trophic level and another.
What one finds, therefore, is an energy pyramid within the ecosystem as one moves through the trophic
levels (Fig. 2.4).
This energy pyramid is usually mirrored by a pyramid of numbers whereby there are more
individuals in the primary producer trophic level than in the primary consumer level, more in the primary
consumer level than in the secondary consumer level and so on (Fig. 2.4). The top trophic levels are
characterized by having the lowest population size. We will see in Chapter 5 that this pyramid is also
important for explaining how toxic compounds affect ecosystems.
40 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Tertiary
consumers
consumers

Secondary
Soponay consumers
consumers
Size — ,
Zooplankton
Primary consumers rimary CONSUMETS

Phytoplankton :
Primary Producers Primary producers

<—+—_—_——— Abundance ——————_> <_—_——- cal/m? day ——————_>

(a) (b)
Figure 2.4 Pyramid of (a) numbers and trophic levels for an ecosystem and (b) the concept of the energy pyramid and individual
size of a food chain.

2.4.2 Decomposition and Nutrient Recycling

Associated with the flow of energy through grazing food chains in ecosystems is the movement of
nutrients: amino acids, minerals, sugars, salts and vitamins. These are passed from one organism to
another during feeding. As organic molecules of food are broken down by respiration and metabolism, so
chemical constituents are either incorporated into the body of the organism or released back into the
environment as wastes and when the organism sheds body parts or dies (Begon ef al., 1990).
In living organisms, the chemical constituents released are carbon dioxide and water from respiration
and excretory nitrogenous products of metabolism (e.g. urine in mammals, uric acid in birds and insects).
In dead organisms and with faeces, the breakdown of organic matter or decomposition is carried out by
the detritivores and ultimately by decomposing organisms mentioned above, although physical and
chemical processes may also play a part.

Decomposer food chain On land most decomposition takes place in soil, while in aquatic ecosystems it
occurs in sediments at the bottom of water bodies. Decomposer or detritus food chains (Fig. 2.5) are based
on detritus (dead organisms, leaves, etc., undigested and partially digested faecal matter and excreted
waste products from metabolism) as opposed to living plants in grazing food chains. The initial
consumers of this food source, the detritivores, ingest and partially digest detritus, breaking down the
organic matter to some degree, and after extracting some energy, egesting the remainder in faeces and
excretory wastes as smaller particles. These wastes are then utilized by the next detritivore population in
the chain, which repeats the process, breaking down the original organic matter further, and the wastes are
again utilized by the next link in the chain, etc. The final breakdown of the organic matter to its original
inorganic constituents of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, etc., is carried out by bacteria (true decomposers).
At each stage, energy is extracted and the organisms respire; thus energy flows along these decomposer
food chains with less energy being available to each succeeding stage (Fig. 2.5).
The importance of decomposition is that the complex organic molecules in the original detritus are
gradually broken down to much simpler constituents and inorganic molecules (like nitrates and
phosphates) as the material moves through the decomposer food chain. These are then incorporated into
the soil or sediments or dissolved in water, where they become the nutrients available for reuse by plants.
Thus there is a recycling of nutrients within the ecosystem.
Just as ecosystems are composed of a web of grazing food chains, so there is a network of
decomposer food chains based on different detritus food sources. The detritus feeders have their own
predators which creates a link between the grazing and detritus food chains. When the predators die, they
 ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS AND NATURAL RESOURCES 41

Decomposer food chain energy flow

Organic De
detritus 4 =f )
/ a
/ 7
D1—D4 are different “4 i ve
levels in the chain. N
‘ sar eae \ v| »/ x
Size of circle indicates 4 &
relative amount of energy. Respiration

Figure 2.5 A schematic diagram ofthe detritus or decomposer food chains. Each link in the chain extracts nutrients and energy from
the organic matter and loses energy through respiration before passing on the remaining organic matter to the next link in the food
chain.

enter the decomposer food chains as well. So we see a cycle of nutrients in the ecosystem, from soil to
plants where they are incorporated into organic matter, through a series of consumer populations in the
grazing food chains. Waste and dead organisms from these pass to the decomposer food chains which
gradually break the organic matter down to its original constituents. The end product of this food chain is
the reintroduction of nutrients into the soil and atmosphere for reuse by plants, a vital ecosystem process
to replenish nutrients for further primary productivity. Detailed examples of nitrogen and phosphorus
nutrient cycles are presented in Chapter 10. Although energy flow and nutrient recycling are quite
complex, they can be summarized in a simple diagram (Fig. 2.6) that demonstrates clearly the major
differences in the two processes.

Biogeochemical cycles While ecosystems are often considered as black boxes for many of the
processes that take place within them, ecosystem boundaries are in fact permeable to some degree or
other; thus energy and nutrients can be transferred to and from one ecosystem to another via imports and
exports. Movement of chemicals and elements therefore occurs on a global scale within the biosphere as if
the biosphere was one large ecosystem. All parts of separate ecological systems on a local and indeed a
global scale are ultimately linked in biogeochemical cycles.

Sun’s energy

Producer i Producer

R
a
D : ; D
Primary consumer é
6
c c
Co) R Co)
m wi m
P Rie P
. ry)“
2S Secondary consumer s

e e
r a r

Tertiary consumer

Energy flow Nutrient cycle

5

1983).
Figure 2.6 An overview of the two major ecosystem processes of energy flow and nutrient recycling (redrawn from Clapham,
42 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

A clear demonstration of this movement of materials was seen following the Chernobyl nuclear
accident in Russia on 25 April 1986 (Apsimon and Wilson, 1986; Aoyama et al., 1986). During the
accident, | per cent of the reactor cores’ radioactive ions rose high above the reactor site before dispersing
downwind just like smoke out of a chimney. Most material rained down to earth in the vicinity of the
plant, devastating an area 100 km across. However, the radiation cloud then moved around the globe in
the atmosphere over the next few days, reaching the British Isles to the west, Scandinavia to the north, the
Mediterranean to the south and Japan to the east. Deposition of radioactive material to the land occurred
following rainfall. The interest in this example is that we can recognize the origin and movement of the
radioactive material easily. However, nutrients and minerals can be moved in the same way in the
biosphere within biogeochemical cycles, and by radioactively labelling nitrate or phosphate, for example,
we can similarly trace their progress through the biosphere. From such studies, we know that
biogeochemical cycles can have a number of phases and reservoirs:

1. Organic phase, where nutrients pass rapidly through biotic communities via food chains.
2. Inorganic phases are important to ecosystems, as the reservoirs for all nutrient elements are external to
food chains:
— Sedimentary phase involves interaction with the solid earth as rocks. This phase forms part of all
element cycles and movement in and out of these sedimentary reservoirs is usually slow and naturally
the result of geological activities such as volcanoes, weathering, etc.
— Atmospheric phase forms part of some cycles, e.g. nitrogen and carbon, but not others, e.g.
phosphorus.
— There is also an aquatic reservoir for some elements including plant nutrients.

Reservoir for CO,

Atmospheric
phase

Release of CO, by com-

bustion of coal, oil, gas
or natural release of CO, absorption CO, release
oil or gas in photosynthesis in respiration, fire

Diffusion of CO,
Organic across air/water
phase (living interface in both
organisms directions
and
Refractory organic molecules
detritus)
from wastes, dead organisms CO, absorption in
aquatic photosynthesis

ea
CO, release by respiration
in aquatic organisms, dissolved
organic molecules from dead
Sedimentary organisms, wastes
phase (solid : be Aquatic
Solution of limestone, erosion of | reservoir
earth, fossil
carbonaceous sediments
fuels)
Reservoir for Reservoir for
limestone: CaCO, dissolved CO,

Formation of limestone
Figure 2.7 The carbon biogeochemical cycle (adapted from Clapham, 1983).
 ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS AND NATURAL RESOURCES 43

As an example, we have selected the carbon biogeochemical cycle which resembles the flow of
energy through the ecosystem (Fig. 2.7). Almost all carbon enters food chains as carbon dioxide via
plants. It then passes through food chains and is released back into the environment as carbon dioxide in
respiration and from fires into the atmosphere or land, or from respiration into water in the sea. It is then
reused by plants. This is the basic carbon cycle. Some storage of carbon occurs in sediments as carbonate/
limestone, in soils as peat, coal or as oil and gas. These sedimentary phases can be released naturally from
the reservoirs by geological activity such as erosion, volcanoes, etc.
As a result of man’s activities through the combustion of fossil fuels, the rate of movement of carbon
into the atmospheric phase has accelerated and is now much faster than natural recycling of sedimentary
carbon. This has led to a disturbance in the balance of carbon throughout the biosphere, which in turn has
led to the well-publicized increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The result is predicted to be a
global rise in temperature of some 1 to 3 °C over the next 30 to 50 years through the so-called ‘greenhouse
effect’. Some predicted consequences of this effect include melting of the ice caps, increase in sea levels
and flooding. A 1°C increase in temperature at a location will be equivalent to effectively moving
approximately 60 to 100 miles nearer to the equator and hence will result in a marked climatic shift
(Houghton ef al., 1993). Through range shift, animals and plants may be able to keep up with the
movement of conditions over time as the climate changes providing the rate of change is not too fast, but
it is likely that many species will not be able to track their preferred climate and habitat.

2.5 THE HUMAN DIMENSION

The ‘greenhouse effect’ is but one of the environmental problems that have resulted either directly or
indirectly from the activities of man. The role of the human population on environmental change has been
simply summarized by Erlich and Erlich (1990) in the simplified equation
I =PAT (2.4)
where the impact J of the population on the environment results from the size of the population (P), the
per capita affluence or consumption (A) and the damage caused by technologies (7) employed to supply
each unit of consumption. As P increases, so too does T because supplies to additional people must be
mined from deeper ores, pumped from deeper deposits, transported further. It is also suggested that the
per capita consumption of commercial energy in a nation can be used as a surrogate for the AT part of the
equation—a considerable proportion of the environmental damage involves use of commercial energy,
from clearing tropical forests for agriculture to mining, manufacturing, road building and extraction of
fossil fuels (Erlich, 1991).
The overall human population has more than doubled in the past 40 years although not evenly over
the globe. Population growth rates are increasing exponentially in the less/underdeveloped countries while
growth is slow or non-existent in most developed countries. Many resources are being depleted with little
recycling, and waste products are being returned to the environment in a different form and at
concentrations that are often toxic or otherwise damaging. Land use changes are taking place rapidly. The
global human population lives on only about 2 per cent of the global land area, but a further 60 per cent is
taken up growing crops, grazing livestock or being utilized for extraction of mineral resources and
removal of forest. Much of the remaining land area is either desert or covered with ice or is too steep for
use (Miller, 1990). Forests, grasslands and wetlands are disappearing rapidly and deserts are expanding
due to soil erosion and a decline in underground water deposits and lowering of water tables. The effects
of this level of stress on the environment is evident in the form of climate change (see the report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in Houghton et al., 1993) and degradation in the quality of
the environment from global warming and sea-level rise at the global scale to river pollution and urban
smog at a local scale.
44 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Scientists are concerned that climate change (specifically patterns of temperature and rainfall) may
be occurring too rapidly for human societies and agricultural systems to adjust successfully (Schneider,
1989). Our technological capabilities and,demands for natural resources have grown rapidly since the
industrial revolution in the Western world and outstripped our understanding of the impact of these
changes on the environment. It is only in the last 20 years or so that scientific research has started to
provide some understanding of what is happening to our environment.
Human activity is therefore seen as a significant cause of environmental change, mainly as a result of
the conflict between maintaining and using the environment; i.e. development and exploitation of physical
resources, building and urbanization, changing land use and deposition of wastes, often at the expense of
the integrity of the biotic component of the environment and biological resources. The fact that the biotic
component has tended to be ignored and has suffered as a consequence of exploitation of the abiotic
component has led to the emergence of extremist views by some parts of the environmental movement.
Ecological research has provided empirical data on the effects of environmental degradation,
disturbance and pollution at both local and global scales and has provided methods of measuring the
deterioration in the quality of the environment. This has led to a reappraisal of the balance between
exploitation of physical and chemical components of the environment and the consequent changes to the
biotic component. This, in turn, has led to the development of environmental and planning legislation in
many countries world-wide (see Chapter 1). The application of various legal controls, such as the US
Endangered Species Act of 1973, has led to the cessation or holding up of large-scale engineering and
development projects due to attempts to protect single species such as the snail darter (in the Tellico Dam,
Tennessee controversy of the 1970s; Cunningham and Saigo, 1990) or the spotted owl (halting forestry
development in northern USA in the late 1980s and early 1990s). This may not be the best approach to
use (as compared to protecting habitats), but does indicate the degree of change in approach to the
planning process for various developments.

2.6 ENVIRONMENTAL GRADIENTS, TOLERANCE AND ADAPTATION

2.6.1 Environmental Gradients

One of the most obvious patterns in nature is the uneven distribution of organisms over the globe. Each
species is not found in every type of habitat or in every part of the world. To discover why, we need to
look at the environment as a place to live. Within the environment are a multitude of factors that can affect
organisms. These include physical and chemical factors like light, temperature and pH, known as
conditions; factors the organism actually uses like food, water, shelter, etc., known as resources; and the
presence of other organisms like predators and competitors with which organisms interact.
The level of most environmental factors varies over some limited range, with a gradient between the
extremes: high to low, large to small. For example, if we examine temperature; there is a global gradient
from the equator towards the north or south, a regional gradient with altitude, a local gradient within
vegetation (from top to bottom) and with aspect. Temporal gradients in temperature also occur over
historical time with ice ages, over decades with sun spot activity, through the year with seasons and also
on a daily cycle.
To live and thrive in a given situation, each species must have the essential resources and conditions
necessary for growth and reproduction. A species population tends to inhabit those areas offering a
particular combination of suitable conditions and resources. This is because each species only functions
efficiently over a limited part of each environmental gradient—its tolerance range.

2.6.2 Tolerance

Consider just one environmental gradient. If we plot some measure of success of a species population
(such as population density or number of individuals, survivorship or fitness—contribution to subsequent
 ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS AND NATURAL RESOURCES 45

High
Lower limit Upper limit
of Range of of
tolerance optimum tolerance

Population A B -
size or fitness
or survivorship

Species eee Low Species

absent iS ; population| absent
numbers

Low
Low High

Environmental gradient
(e.g. temperature, food size, altitude, etc.)
A = zone of intolerance
B = zone of physiological stress
Fitness = number of offspring contributed to next generation
Figure 2.8 A schematic tolerance curve for a single species population existing on a single environmental gradient.

generations) against the gradient, a tolerance curve is generated. Figure 2.8 illustrates a ‘universal’
tolerance curve, which is usually depicted as a normally distributed, bell-shaped curve, but in reality may
often be skewed as, for example, in relation to gradients of concentration of toxic elements, where the
right side of the curve is often truncated.
Within the range of optimum of the curve, the majority of individuals of the species population can
survive and reproduce; thus a large population size is maintained as the conditions along this part of the
environmental gradient are ideal for the species. Beyond this range, towards the high and low ends of the
environmental gradient, most individuals suffer increasing physiological stress—the zone of physiological
stress—where conditions are less than optimal such that most individuals can stay alive but cannot
function efficiently nor reproduce. Not all individuals are genetically identical and show exactly the same
levels of tolerance to some environmental parameter. A few individuals with a slightly different genotype
and tolerance level may in fact survive fairly well under conditions where the majority of individuals do
badly. However, surrounding the areas along the gradient where the species population can exist
successfully are areas where no individuals of the species can survive because physical conditions or lack
of food resources are too extreme for that species to permit survival—the zone of intolerance. For
example, boundaries of zones of lichen floras in England and Wales are clear and related to gradients in
air pollution associated with patterns of urbanization (Fig. 2.9). Lichens are basically intolerant of air
pollution and they have therefore been used as indicators of such pollution. The use of lichens and other
biological species in this way is termed biomonitoring.
Thus the geographical range of a species is bordered by upper and lower tolerances to a factor that
changes on a geographical scale. The same applies at a local scale where the distribution within a
particular habitat is confined by boundaries set by conditions which change along environmental gradients
in the habitat. Species populations, however, are affected by a range of environmental gradients at the
same time, e.g. aquatic animals respond to temperature, food availability, oxygen level, flow rate,
substrate type and many other factors (Chapter 5). Species populations have a range of optimum for all of
these factors, and the species is most successful if it inhabits that part of the environment where these
ranges of optima overlap to the greatest degree. Different species have more or less different ranges of
optima for the same factors; thus as one moves along an environmental gradient, so the combination of
species living at various points along the gradient—the community—will change. This is shown very
clearly in Fig. 2.10 for vegetation types on mountains in Tennessee in relation to altitude, temperature and
46 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

kilometres

apa
Figure 2.9 Approximate boundaries of zones of richness of lichen floras in England and Wales. Zones 9 and 10 are richest in flora
and zones 0 to 2 poorest (after Holdgate, 1979; Hawksworth and Rose, 1970).

moisture. Different species are adapted to different conditions, with some overlap. Obviously if conditions
change, e.g. become drier or colder, the whole pattern will change and some species will disappear while
others will come to dominate.

2.6.3 Limiting Factors

The tolerances of species to different conditions or resource levels vary. Some species have wide
tolerances to some environmental factors (eurytopic), with a wide tolerance curve and a broad range of
optimum, and narrow tolerances to others (stenotopic). Also species growth and reproduction are often
regulated by just one or a few conditions or resources in short supply. The resource in short supply or the
condition over which the species has the smallest range of optimum will limit the species functions and is
called the limiting factor. For example, plants need light, nutrients from soil and water. In arid climates,
plant growth is strongly correlated with rain; there is sufficient light, but water is the limiting factor.
As discussed earlier, not only can too little of something be limiting but also too much. Many
animals feed on dead organic matter (e.g. in freshwater or marine systems), but when this resource is
present in too great an amount, (e.g. immediately downstream of sewage input) such organisms may not
survive because the decomposition of the organic matter by bacteria affects levels of another resource—
oxygen.

2.6.4 Normal Responses to a Changing Environment

The environment is changing all the time, with, for example, daily and seasonal temperature cycles and
longer term climatic fluctuations over thousands and millions of years. Individuals, populations and
 ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS AND NATURAL RESOURCES 47

1750.
(Heath bald) 3
(Boreal forests) 6
A

Beech | forests é
Mesic type | Sedge type o
1500

5
6
= 9) .
= 1250 ountain
ob pine heath
ea} S
sa 3
S z
1000
. z
5
3s |
Pitch pine
| ig heath
= a iS}
750 2 eS ]
om 3 a
a. 8 = °
: 1S z =
x nes = iS ant:
o 5 oO % Virginia
oe 5 pine forest
[ey ete!
Caves ae Draws} Sheltered |Open slopes |Ridges and
Canyons Ravines slopes NEE W S peaks
N NW SE SW
Moist <- > Dry

Figure 2.10 Vegetation types in relation to elevation and topography in the Great Smoky Mountains, Tennessee. The vertical axis
incorporates gradients of temperatures and other factors related to elevation; the horizontal axis incorporates gradients of moisture
relations and other factors from moist or mesic situations on the left to dry or xeric on the right, as affected by topographic position
(after Whittaker, 1956).

species can make adjustments that can allow them to survive in conditions they might not otherwise be
able to—this is provided that the changes are at a rate that can be matched by these adjustments.
A lizard species in a desert has a definite optimal range of temperature with upper and lower limits of
tolerance. Individuals can maintain themselves within this range as temperatures fluctuate during the day
by changing their behaviour (balancing time in the sun and shade at different times of the day to maintain
their optimal body temperature). Animals can also avoid unsuitable conditions which effectively shift the
environmental gradient at a location by undertaking a small-scale range shift (change in location) to
remain within suitable environmental conditions along the environmental gradient. On a larger scale, this
may involve seasonal migration as seen in many insects, birds and mammals that move to different areas
offering better conditions for part of the year, returning to the initial area when conditions there improve.
Some animals can create their own microclimate within an otherwise adverse set of conditions, such as
digging burrows. They can then organize their daily activity outside to coincide with the more tolerable
conditions during the daily temperature cycle, for example.
Organisms that are too big to burrow and/or cannot move, or cannot move fast enough to avoid
changing and unsuitable conditions, have to remain and overcome the adverse conditions by changing
their physiology. They are in effect temporarily moving their tolerance curve along the environmental
gradient axis in one direction or another. For example, short-term responses to a decrease in temperature
in mammals includes raising body heat production and constricting near-surface blood vessels. Slightly
longer term responses may include increasing body fat layers, length of fur, etc., allowing the organism to
survive under colder temperatures than previously. Some animals may alter their daily or seasonal activity
times to suit the timing of favourable conditions. Thus many species hibernate, basically ‘switching off’
48 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

most physiological systems. Organisms can also adjust their physiology over time by acclimation
(acclimatization to conditions). If a person goes to high altitude, they produce more red blood cells to
cope with the lower partial pressures of oxygen.
In the face of more permanent changes in the environment, species can also adjust by
acclimatization, a gradual and reversible alteration in physiology and morphology over a number of
generations. On a longer term basis, species can undergo adaptation through natural selection (evolution),
where the species actually changes genetically, as only the more tolerant individuals to the prevailing
conditions can survive and reproduce well; thus the species as a wholé shows improved survival and more
successful reproduction. The tolerance curve of the species therefore moves permanently with respect to
the environmental gradients. One of the best known examples is metal tolerance in the grass Agrostis in
relation to pollution from mine wastes (Walley et al., 1974). Metal-tolerant populations quickly arose and
were able to colonize mine waste heaps and polluted soils. When the pollutant is newly introduced into
the environment or is at very high concentrations, only a few individuals of a species that have a tolerant
genotype (i.e. individuals that lie at the extremes of the species population tolerance curve) survive.
Maintenance of genetic variability within a species is important in this context by providing a pool of
genotypes among which some individuals may be capable of surviving a range of different environmental
changes. Polluted areas such as those affected by mine wastes become species poor, as few species can
survive. However, those tolerant species populations that do survive often grow to reach large population
sizes.
The ability of organisms to respond to changes in the environment depends on the rate and extent of
changes. If changes are too fast or too large, there may not be enough time for species to acclimate, to
adapt or move to a new area with suitable conditions.

2.7 ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES AND THREATS TO THE ENVIRONMENT

A major axiom in ecology is that the environment changes naturally over time and organisms, populations
and communities have to respond. Depending on the time scale we are looking at, different responses are
seen (Fig. 2.11).
Over very short time periods, individual organisms respond to changes in stimuli they receive from
the environment, e.g. through nerve impulses, reflexes and behaviour. Over periods from days to years,
depending on the life span of the species, individuals are born and die, but species populations remain and
may adapt to small-scale environmental change. Over geological time, the temperature of earth has
naturally changed, causing climatic changes into and out of ice ages, continental plates have moved
around the surface of the globe and the topography of the land has changed. This has led to changes in the
extent and distribution of various biomes on a global scale.
The climatic changes are usually slow enough to allow communities to change gradually over
historical time at any one particular location, e.g. the beetle community at one particular site in Wales,
sampled from fossil remains at various depths in the soil corresponding to various times in the past
(Coope, 1987). Each community at a particular time for a particular depth in the soil, was adapted to the
particular climatic regime that was prevalent at that time.
Thus gradual changes to the environment over long enough time periods do not seriously damage the
environment or the ecosystem processes as species are able to track the environmental change, by either
moving in space or changing in their degree of tolerance, keeping within their optimal type of
environment. However, sudden dramatic changes in environmental conditions of an area over short time-
scales can have serious and damaging effects on the living systems there. This is what we frequently see
as a result of human activity.
We live in a world of increasing industrialization, development, use of resources, urbanization and
intensification of agriculture. All cause rapid changes to the local or regional environment and frequently
 ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS AND NATURAL RESOURCES 49

| ]
~<— VERY SHORT TIME—> in |
—<—_ HUMAN TIME—>

Nervous responses HISTORICAL

———————
reflexes SF) TIME

Hormonal
responses |

—=— Behaviour ——~> GEOLOGICAL

| TIME

—— Locomotion migration —»

—- Acclimation >

Population growth
—<— anddecline ~—_ >

eee Range
shift

Natural
population —>
extinction

Man-induced Natural
—<— species > species —>
extinction extinction

10-12 10-9 10-6 103 l 108 108 10°

Time (years)

Figure 2.11 Diagrammatic representation of individual (plain text), population (bold text) and species (italic text) responses to
environmental change over a range of time-scales.

at the level of the biosphere. These environmental changes are often too fast to allow organisms,
populations, communities and ecosystem processes time to respond. It is the degree, timing and speed of
habitat disturbances that causes most of the problems arising from human activity.
Basically, changes that would naturally occur over geological or historical time now happen over
human time and cause large-scale disturbance to natural systems. One consequence is a decline in
biological resources or environmental services, as discussed earlier. Many engineering processes and
constructions can cause rapid environmental changes that can seriously disrupt environmental systems.
Cultural eutrophication of rivers and lakes lead to a rapid increase of nutrients that normally takes
hundreds to thousands of years and hence give rise to large-scale problems of water pollution.
Engineers are at the forefront of humanity’s endeavours to change, harness and mould the
environment and in some countries they are the decision makers as to whether or not new developments
go ahead. It is therefore essential that engineers work hand in hand with environmental scientists; i.e. the
biotic component of the environment should form an integral part of the equation for the assessment of
any potential environmental manipulation, exploitation of resources or other development, and that
environmental considerations should become part of an engineer’s decision making and design processes.
50 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

2.8 PROBLEMS

2.1 Outline the pathway of energy through natural ecosystems and its role. In what ways can energy
flow be altered or interrupted by the activities of humans?
2.2 Define secondary production and discuss how humans can maximize the yield from secondary
producers, with minimum disruption to the environment.
2.3. Describe some of the outcomes resulting from the disruption of biogeochemical cycles.
2.4 Compare and contrast an autotrophic and heterotrophic ecosystem.
2.5 Why are decomposers so important in ecosystems?
2.6 How would you summarize the concerns of the environmental scientist over the interaction between
humans and the environment?
2.7. Why do many anthropogenic disturbances have such dramatic and long-lasting effects on natural
ecological systems?
2.8 What is meant by a ‘key species’?
2.9 Why is it important to preserve wild populations of cultivated plants?
2.10 With regard to ‘tolerance curves’, do a brief literature search and describe such a curve for a real
situation. Discuss why tolerance curves are more likely to be skewed rather than bell-shaped.

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Aoyama, M., et al. (1986). ‘High levels of radioactive nuclides in Japan in May’, Nature, 321, 819-820.
Apsimon, H. and J. Wilson (1986) ‘Tracking the cloud from Chernobyl’, New Scientist, 17, July, 42-45.
Aylward, B. and E. B. Barbier (1992) ‘Valuing environmental functions in developing countries’, Biodiversity and Conservation, 1,
34-S0.
Balick, M. J. (1985) ‘Useful plants of Amazonia: a resource of global importance’, in Key Environments—Amazonia, G. T. Prance
and T. E. Lovejoy (eds), Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp. 339-368.
Balick, M. J. and S. N. Gershoff (1981) ‘Nutritional evaluation of Jessenia bataua: source of high quality protein and oil from
tropical America’, Economic Botany, 35, 261-271. °
Begon, M., J. Harper and C. Townsend (1990) Ecology. Individuals, Populations and Communities, Blackwell Scientific
Publications, Oxford.
Bishop, R. C. (1978) ‘Economics of a safe minimum standard’, American Journal of Agronomy and Economy, 57, 10-18.
Bishop, R. C. and R. C. Ready (1991) ‘Endangered species and the safe minimum standard’, American Journal of Agronomy and
Economy, 73, 309-312.
Clapham, W. B. (1983) Natural Ecosystems, 2nd edn, Macmillan Publishing Company, New York.
Coope, G. R. (1987) ‘The response of late quarternary insect communities to sudden climate changes’, In Organisation of
Communities: Past and Present, J. H. Gee and P. S. Giller (eds), Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, pp. 421-438.
Cunningham, W. P. and B. W. Saigo (1990) Environmental Science,. Wm. C. Brown, Dubuque, Iowa.
Dourojeanni, M. J. (1985) Over-exploited and under-used animals in the Amazon region’, in: Key environments—Amazonia, G. T.
Prance and T. E. Lovejoy (eds), Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp. 419-433.
Erlich, P. R. (1991) ‘Forward: facing up to climate change’, in Global Climate Change and Life on Earth, R. C. Wyman (ed.),
Chapman and Hall, London.
Erlich, P. and A. Erlich (1990). The Population Explosion, Simon and Schuster, New York.
Hardin, G. (1968) ‘The tragedy of the commons’, Science, 162, 1243-1248.
Hawksworth, D. and F. Rose (1970) ‘Qualitative scale for estimating sulphur dioxide air pollution in England and Wales using
epiphytic lichens’, Nature, 227, 145-148.
Holdgate, M. W. (1979) A Perspective of Environmental Pollution, Cambridge University Press.
Houghton, J. T., G. J. Jenkins and J. J. Ephraums (1993) Climate change. The IPCC Scientific Assessment, Cambridge University
Press.
IUCN (1980) World Conservation Strategy, Gland, 'UCN, UNEP, WWE.
Kim, K. C. (1993) ‘Biodiversity, conservation and inventory: why insects matter’, Biodiversity and Conservation, 2, 191-214.
Miller, G. T. (1990) Resource Conservation and Management, Wadsworth, California.
Naeem, S., L. Thompson, S. Lawlor, J. Lawton and R. Woodfin (1994) ‘Declining biodiversity can alter the performance of
ecosystems’, Nature, 368, 734-736.
Odum, H. T. (1956) ‘Efficiencies, size of organisms and community structure’, Ecology, 37, 592-597.
 ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS AND NATURAL RESOURCES 51

Pearce, D. W. (1990) ‘An economic approach to saving the tropical forests’, LEEC paper DP 90-06, International Institute for
Environment and Development, London.
Pearce, D. W. and R. K. Turner (1989) Economics of Natural Resources and the Environment, The John Hopkins University Press,
Baltimore.
Ricklefs, R. E. (1979) Ecology, 2nd edn, Nelson, Middlesex.
Schneider, S. (1989). Global Warming, Sierra Club Books, San Francisco.
Silver, C. S. and R. I. S. DeFries (1990) One Earth One Future: Our Changing Global Environment, National Academic Press,
Washington, D. C.
Whalley, K., M. Khan and A. Bradshaw (1974) ‘The potential for evolution of heavy metal tolerance in plants. I. Copper and zinc
tolerance in Agrostis tenuis’, Heredity, 32, 309-319.
Whittaker, R. H. (1956) ‘Vegetation of the Great Smokey mountains’, Ecological Monographs, 26, 1-80.
 CHAPTER

’ THREE
INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

3.1 INTRODUCTION

In addition to a solid foundation in physics and mathematics, the student of environmental engineering
needs to be well versed in aspects of chemistry and microbiology as they relate to environmental
engineering applications. The prerequisite for this chapter is a university level course in general chemistry.
It is desirable but not a prerequisite to have taken a university level course in the biology of
microorganisms or general bacteriology. However, after completing this course on the introduction to
environmental engineering, the student wishing to progress in this field is recommended to take additional
courses in chemistry, atmospheric chemistry, soil chemistry, general bacteriology, or microbiology of
aerobic and anaerobic bacteria. What further courses the student takes will depend on the path of
specialization chosen.
This chapter aims to introduce the student to the physical and chemical properties of water and also to
some fundamentals in atmospheric and soil chemistry as they relate to environmental engineering. This
chapter also introduces microbiology with outlines of the organization of the microbial world including
bacteria and viruses. There are positive and negative aspects of microbiology in environmental
engineering. For instance, bacteria are exploited in the purification of wastewater to reduce the organic
contaminants, in a very commonly used process called activated sludge (Chapter 12). Also the presence of
some bacteria or any viruses in drinking water or bathing water are potentially harmful and must be
‘engineered’ out of the water. This chapter also introduces the topic of chemical and biochemical
reactions, stoichiometry and kinetics, so that the student can compute, for instance, how much of a
specific chemical (for instance ‘alum’, also known as aluminium sulphate) is required to purify drinking
water by removing very minute suspended or dissolved solid particles. The final topics in this chapter are
on material balances and reactor configurations. Material balances are fundamental to ‘accounting’ of
inputs and outputs in processes. In any process, be it chemical, biochemical or physical, the mass of
materials input to the process must be equal to the mass of the products output, plus or minus any
generation or loss within the ‘process’. For instance, a trivial example is the case of an outfall pipe
discharging a wastewater to a river. Consider that upstream of the outfall, a river has a low level of
pollution, while downstream of the pipe, the level of pollution is higher and depends on the two inputs:

52
 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 53

the upstream ‘clean’ river and the wastewater pipe discharge. The amount of ‘pollution’ discharged
legitimately can be computed if the level of acceptable water quality downstream is known. A control
volume of the reach of river of interest is, in this case, the ‘reactor’. Many configurations of reactors exist
in the natural and in the industrial world. One such simplified reactor is the ‘complete mix’, where the
concentrated influent is rapidly mixed on entering the reactor and becomes diluted, so that when the
influent mass is ready to be discharged as effluent (maybe a few days or weeks later) its concentration will
be greatly reduced. Having completed this chapter, the student should have an adequate base with which
to handle the chemistry and microbiological aspects as they relate to the later chapters on water, air, soil
and mixed environments.

3.1.1 Methods of Expressing Concentration

The two methods of expressing the concentration of a constituent of a liquid or gas are:
1. Mass/volume_ The mass of solute per unit volume of solution (in water chemistry). This is analagous
to weight per unit volume; typically, mg/L = ppm (parts per million).
2. Mass/mass or weight/weight The mass of a solute in a given mass of solution; typically mg/kg or
ppm (parts per million).

mass of solution
If the density of a solution = p = (kg/L)
volume of solution

, : : mass of constituent
and concentration of a constituent in mg/L = Ca, = (mg/L)
volume of solution

mass of constituent
and concentration of a constituent in ppm = Ca? = (mg/kg)
mass of solution

then rearranging,

fey
a Ca2
If p= Tko/L, then: Cay = Cro (3.1)

i.e. the concentration of a constituent in ppm mg/kg = concentration of a constituent in mg/L.

For most applications in water and wastewater environments, p= | kg/L. For applications in the air
environment, Eq. (3.1) does not hold. The use ofmg/L is most common in water applications as the
volume of the solution is usually determined as well as the mass of the solute. The unit ppm is typically
used in sludges or sediments.

Example 3.1 Express the concentration of a 3 per cent by weight CaSO, solution in water in terms
of mg/L and ppm.

Solution
3 30000
3% by weight = = 30000 ppm
100 1000000
Since the solution is water, from Eq. (3.1), then C=30000 mg/L.

Example 3.2 If a litre of solution contains 190 mg of NH,* and 950 mg of NO;, express these
constituents in terms of nitrogen (N).
54 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Solution
14mgN 7
190 mg NH4t/L = 190 mg NH4t/L x iene = 148 mg NH4t-N/L

950 me
mg NOs</li=
NO3"/ = 950: mg
m
g NO NO aS Ie
eneNOe eae g NOs NO; NE
=I

At the beginning of this section concentration in terms of mass or weight for a fixed weight or volume
of solution is discussed, e.g. 1 L or 1 kg. Chemists sometimes prefer to. use the concentration term mole,
which is the mass of a constituent which is numerically equal to the molecular weight of the constituent.
For instance:
1 gram mole of methane (CH4) = 18 g of methane

where 1 mole is that amount of a constituent which contains the Avogadro number of molecules.
Therefore the mole notation does not refer to a fixed weight but to a fixed number of particles. In the mole
context there are four entities of concentration:

mole zi moles of solute

1. MolaCBli
li ty Arpt We Fat
mee —4so
carsor
lu
om ti
sohion
itn
mole a moles of solute
2. Molar ity ity (M),(M)
olar IL. = 1L of solution

eq _ equivalent of solute
3. Normality (NV),
L _1L of solution
lecul ight
ELS
where equivalent weigtht in eae 1) BoM
e equivalence (n)
where n is the number of protons denoted in an acid—base reaction or is the total change in valence in
an oxidation reduction reaction. If two different solutions have the same normality, they will react in
equal proportions, 1.e.
VaNa = VeNp (3.2)
where V4, Vg are the volumes of solutions A and B, and Na, Np are the respective normalities.

number of moles of solute

4. Mole fraction X¥ = -
total moles of solution

Example 3.3 Using Example 3.1, i.e. a solution which is 3 per cent by weight of CaSO, in water 3

express the concentration in (a) molality, (b) molarity and (c) mole fraction.

Solution
Molecular weight of CaSO, = 136 g/mole
3 per cent by weight = 30 g/kg
mole 30 g/kg
(a) Molality (m), = 0.22 mole/kg
kg 136 g/mole
mole —-30g/L
(b) Molarity (), = 0:22 mole/D= 022M
L 136 g/mole
 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 55

30/136
c) Mole fraction, X = = ()
(c) PES) 230) 13642970/18 sesciihe
pam es 970/18 Wis 3
230/136 970718 =r

Mass Concentrations as CaCO; A very common system for expressing hardness (calcium and
magnesium) and alkalinity (HCO; ,CO37~ and OH) concentrations in water chemistry is the calcium
carbonate system (see Sec. 3.2.5). This system of units can be thought of as normalizing concentrations to
CaCO3, a substance commonly used in water chemistry. In this system, the concentration of a substance
as mg/L as CaCO; is determined by the equation:

50 x 103 mg CaCO;
of quivalents
Number equivalents of of substance
subst per lit
litre x ————————————
equivalent of CaCO;

For example, for hardness,

CaCO;
inole
> Ca**t
1
+ CO;?-
mole 1 mole
2 equivalents 2 equivalents

For Ca** in precipitation or dissolution reactions,

100 g/mole _
Equivalent weight of CaCO3 = = 3) Seg
2 eq/mole

The reader is referred to Snoeyink and Jenkins (1980) for a historical commentary on the ongin of this
unit system.

Example 3.4 Given the concentration of Ca’? as 92 mg/L in a solution, express the concentration
in eq/L and also inmg/L as CaCO3.

Solution
molecular weight 40 20mg
The equivalent weight of Cat in mg/meq = charge 2° meq
: ae concentration in mg/L
gene normality i) in ed/ equivalence in mg/meq
IL
= ee mg/ = 4.6 meq/L
20 mg/meq
However, the equivalent weight of Ca as CaCO3 = 50 g/eq = 50 mg/meq
mg meq
The concentration of Ca in mg/L as CaCO3 = 50—— x 4.6 ——
meq Ik,
= 230 mg/L

3.1.2 Stoichiometric Examples

If the gas methane is burned with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water, the reaction is
CH, + Op Fe CO, ar 2H,O (3.3)
56 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Oxygen (O) is an ‘element’ of atomic weight 16, hydrogen is also an element with atomic weight | and
carbon is an element of atomic weight 12. An element is defined as ‘a pure substance which cannot be
split into any simpler pure substance’. They are usually classified into metals and non-metals. Methane
(CH,) is a ‘compound’ of molecular weight*16. Carbon dioxide is a compound of molecular weight 44
and water is a compound of molecular weight 18. A compound is defined as ‘a pure substance composed
of two or more elements, combined in fixed and definite proportions in a chemical reaction’. The
‘molecular weight’ is the sum of the atomic weights of all the constituent atoms. The molecular weight of
methane is 16. A ‘mole’ has the Avogadro number (6.023 x 102) of.molecules and is expressed as

mass in g
le =
Bee = molecular weight

Reactions are expressed stoichiometrically as:

CH, ar 20> => CO, ar H,O

1 mole 2 moles 1 mole 1 mole
of + 0) = ° a of
methane oxygen carbon dioxide water

1x 16g/mole + 2x 32g/mole —> 1x 44g/mole + 1 x 36g/mole

l6g qr 64¢ —> 44g sF 36g

Mass balance: 80g = 80g.

In stoichiometric examples, the left side of an equation computed in grams (or kg) must equal that of the
right side of the equation. This is the most elementary of the concepts of mass balances that receive much
attention throughout this book.

Example 3.5 In the treatment of potable water, an aluminium sulphate solution is used as a
coagulant to produce an aluminium hydroxide (sludge) floc (see Chapter 11 for details). Compute the
amount of sludge produced if 100 kg of alum coagulant is used daily. The stoichiometric analysis is as
follows.

Solution

AIS.) 1430 9-3 Ca(tiCO,), ee, 2Al(OH). a a 3CaSO. ena Ome aCe
1 mole 3 moles 2 moles 3 moles 14 moles 6 moles
of + _ of — of + to) + of + of
alum ca bicarbonate alum hydroxide ca sulphate water CO;

(3.4)
Mass Balance (molecular weights):

Al2(SO4)3 - 14H2O = 27 x 2+ (32 + 16 x 4) x 3+ 14(18) = 594 g

3.Ca(HCO),= 3[40 +2 x (1 +12 +3 x 16)] — 486g
DAICOH) aes ee = 156g
3CaSOq4 = 3(40 + 32 +4 x 16) = 408 g
14H,O = 142 x 1 + 16) =252 9
6CO,
= 6(12 + 2 x 16) = 264 g
Therefore, Eq.(3.4)becomes :
594 g + 486 g = 156 g + 408 g + 252 9+ 264g
1080 g = 1080 g
 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 57

ic! 594g of alum produces 156g of alum hydroxide sludge and so

teh 100 kg of alum used daily produces 26 kg of alum hydroxide sludge.

Example 3.6 If natural gas (98 per cent CH4) is used to fuel a thermal power plant, compute the
amount of oxygen required daily to produce 100 MW of power if the calorific value of gas is 50 MJ/kg.

Solution

Power 100 MW = 3600 x 10? MJ/h

Gas required =
360610 Bapetere
50x 108
Gas at 98% CH, — CH, = 0.98 x 7.2 = 7.06 T/h
Stoichiometric equations:
CHy4 a 20> > 2H,O ar CO,

1 mole 2 moles 2 moles 1 mole

of + of > of =e of
methane oxygen water CO?

Ix log + 2x32g>2x18 + 1x44

Mass balance: 80g = 80g

64
7.06 T/h of CHg requires 16 x 0628 25 Ly heofeO5

Example 3.7 The composition of air is given in % volume as: 78.1% No; 20.95% O,; 0.05% Ar.
Determine the average molecular weight of air and its composition by % weight.

Solution The % volume is also the number of relative moles.

Molecular weight
Component % volume = moles g/mole grams % weight

N> 78.10 28 2186.8 TS

O, 20.95 ay) 670.4 23.12
Ar 0.95 40 38 1.3

Total 100.00 100 2895.2 100.0

The average molecular weight is ~ 2895.2 g/100 mole

~ 28.952 g/mole

3.2 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER

Water is never pure, except possibly in its vapour state. Water always contains impurities, which are
constituents of natural origin. Frequently, water contains contaminants, which are constituents of
anthropogenic origin. For instance, the presence of the chemical impurities of calcium and magnesium
ions (Ca?* and Mg?*) in groundwater are usually of natural origin, being due to the dissolution of these
minerals from the soil and underground rocks. However, the presence of the nitrogen compounds of
ammonia nitrogen (NH,), nitrite (NO. ) or nitrate (NO3_) in groundwater is possibly due to pollution
58 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

from agricultural fertilizers, agricultural liquid wastes, sewage or industrial wastewaters. In environmental
engineering, water is of central interest due to its many varied occurrences and uses, including:
Surface freshwaters in rivers and lakes and groundwaters when used as drinking water
Surface freshwaters as used in fish and other fauna habitats
Surface freshwaters as used for anthropogenic liquid discharges
Surface freshwaters and groundwaters as used for irrigation
Surface waters as used for recreation
Surface waters as used for navigation

The acceptability of a water for its defined use depends on its physical, chemical and biological properties,
and sometimes on whether these properties can be modified to suit the defined use. The composition of
water is the end result of many possible physical and/or chemical and/or biochemical processes.

3.2.1 Physical Properties of Water

The standard physical properties of water such as molecular weight, density, melting point, boiling point,
temperature (at maximum density), etc., are reported in the Appendices. The variations of density,
dynamic viscosity, etc., with temperature are also reported in Appendix A3. Other physical properties that
show wide variation in magnitude include: colour, turbidity, odour, taste, temperature and solids content.

Colour Colour in water is caused by dissolved minerals, dyes or humic acids from plants. The
decomposition of lignin produces colour compounds of tannins and humic acids. The latter causes a
brown-yellow to brown-black colour. Coloured wastes, including dyes or pulp and paper plants, also
cause colour, as does the presence of iron, magnesium and plankton. Water colour caused by dissolved or
colloidal substances that remain in the filtrate after filtration through a 0.45 mm filter is called ‘true
colour’. ‘Apparent colour’ is the term applied to coloured compounds in solution together with coloured
suspended matter. Colour is measured in units of mg/L of platinum and in rivers ranges from 5 to 200 mg/
L. As mentioned in Chapter 11, the European Union (EU) drinking water upper limit is 20 mg/L, with a
guideline value of 1 mg/L.

Turbidity Turbidity in water is a measure of the cloudiness. It is caused by the presence of suspended
matter which scatters and absorbs light. In lakes, turbidity is due to colloidal or fine suspensions. Very
clear lakes are notable in that light can penetrate to great depths, as determined by the depth at which a
200 mm diameter black and white plate (Seechi disc) when lowered into the water is still visible. The so-
called Seechi depth was determined to be 35 m at Lake Tahoe, the Alpine lake on the California/Nevada
border (Tchobanoglous and Schroeder, 1987). In summer eutrophic conditions, still water bodies may
have a Seechi depth as low as 0.5 m. In rapidly flowing rivers, the particles in suspension are larger and
turbid conditions occur during flood times. Turbidity can be correlated with suspended solids, but only for
waters from the same source. In such cases, a simple turbidity measurement may replace the complex
time-consuming suspended solids test. Turbidity is measured by a visual comparison test with standard
turbidity suspensions in | L bottles, in units of mg/L of SiO. River values range from 2 to 200 mg/L of
SiOz. The EU drinking water upper limit is 10 mg/L of SiO, with a guideline value of 1 mg/L.

Odour Clear (distilled) water is odourless. Many organic and some inorganic chemicals are odorous,
including algae and other organisms. Hydrogen sulphide (HS), sometimes present in groundwater and in
wastewaters, is malodorous. The threshold odour is determined by diluting a sample with odour-free water
until the last perceptible odour is detectable. This result is expressed as a dilution ratio. The smallest
odour threshold is 1. For drinking water the EU upper limit is a dilution ratio of 2 at 12°C. In the United
 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 59

States (Standard Methods 1992), the minimum detectable odour threshold concentration (MDOTC), is
determined also on a dilution basis. This test is to some extent subjective and the MDOTC can vary from
person to person.

Taste Taste, like odour, may be due to decaying micro-organisms or algae. It may also be due to high
concentrations of salts such as Ca** and Mg?* and Cl. In the European Union, the drinking water test of
dilution is set at an upper limit of 2 at 12 °C. Taste is usually only an issue in drinking water and rarely in
waters not used for drinking.

Temperature Temperature is perhaps the most significant parameter in lake waters with regard to lake
stability. As density decreases from | kg/L at 4°C to 0.994 kg/L at 35°C, water at deeper depths is heavier
and is lightest close to the surface. If large temperature gradients are reported, then stratification may
occur between the upper warmer water body and the lower colder water body. With no mixing between
both layers, the upper warmer layer may become susceptible to eutrophication. Similar problems may
occur in saline waters. In wastewater treatment plants temperature may also be significant in that, above
36°C, the aerobic micro-organism population tends to be less effective as wastewater purifiers.
Temperature may also be important in the river environment, as increased water temperature reduces the
amount of oxygen in the water, thereby making the river less desirable for fish, particularly the more
sensitive salmonoids. The discharge of effluent wastewaters (if warm) will also elevate the river
temperatures. For drinking water, the EU upper limit value is 25°C.

Solids The solids content of water is one of the most significant parameters. The amount, size and type
of solids depend on the specific water. For instance, an untreated sewage wastewater may have organic
particulate matter, including food scraps of size range in millimetres, while a purified drinking water may
have particles in the size range 10° mm. A clear lake, like Lake Tahoe, may have solid particles of size
range 10 *mm while a eutrophic reservoir has particulate matter of size range in millimetres. There are
several classifications of solids in water and wastewater as sketched in Figs 3.1 and 3.2.
Solids are annotated in the following ways:

e Total solids, TS
e Suspended solids, SS
e Total dissolved solids, TDS =TS — SS
e Total volatile solids, TVS
e Volatile suspended solids, VSS
The total solids (TS) of a water/wastewater sample is all of the residue remaining after evaporation at
105°C. Which classification of Fig. 3.1 to use depends on the application. For instance, in investigations
for the design of a settling tank for water or wastewater treatment, it would be desirable to know the
settleable fraction. As such, the classification to use is: settleable/non-settleable. This is determined in a
laboratory test using an Imhoff cone (Fig. 3.3) into which the water sample is poured and allowed to settle
over a period of 1h. The extent or degree of settlement is then expressed in mg/L.
In drinking water or river water samples it is sometimes desirable to know the fractions of solids that
are suspended and also those that are dissolved. Sometimes the colloidal fraction is broadly included with
the dissolved fraction. The suspended solids (SS) fraction is that which is retained on a membrane filter or
a glass-fibre Whatman filter of pore size about 1.2 pm.
The filterable solids is the term given to the combination of colloidal and dissolved solids. Colloidal
particles are of clay origin and of a size range of 10~* to 1pm. Colloids do not dissolve, but instead
remain as a solid phase in suspension. Colloids usually remain suspended because their gravitational
settling velocity is less than 0.1 mm/s. The process by which a colloidal suspension becomes unstable and
undergoes gravitational settling is called coagulation (Chapter 11). The dissolved particles may be of
60 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Suspended
Organic
Solids Colloidal Solids

Dissolved Inorganic

(a) (b)

Filterable Settleable

Solids se Solids <0

Non-filterable Non-settleable

(c) (d)

Volatile
sib
Non-volatile (fixed)

(e)

Figure 3.1 Classification of solids found in water and wastewater.

either organic or inorganic origin. In water or wastewater plants, these fractions are removed by either
chemical coagulation (Chapter 11) or biological oxidation (Chapter 12).
In semi-solid sludges from wastewater treatment, it is sometimes relevant to further subdivide the
suspended solids into volatile and non-volatile fractions. These correspond to the organic and inorganic
fractions. The volatile fraction is gasified at a temperature of 550°C and the remaining residue is the non-
volatile or fixed suspended solids fraction.

3.2.2 Inorganic Chemical Properties of Water

Included among the chemical processes influencing the quality of water described by Dojlido and Best
(1993) are the chemical processes of:

Acid—base reactions
Exchange processes between the atmosphere and water
Precipitation and dissolution of substances
Complex actions/reactions
Oxidation—reduction reactions
Adsorption—desorption processes

The chemical properties of water may be classified as either inorganic or organic. What properties to
look for and what water analysis to carry out depends not only on the end use of the water but also on its
origin and history. For instance, for a historically ‘pure’ groundwater with no known anthropogenic
pollution, the key parameters to quantify may be the major ions of Ca** and Mg?*. These are reported in
concentrations ofmg/L. An excess of these ions may be a water that is unpalatable and corrosive to
plumbing fixtures. A surface water is more likely to contain organic chemicals from land runoff or
anthropogenic pollution. The chemical properties of water are important to assess its quality as suitable
for domestic or industrial use. The presence or absence of certain chemicals will define the suitability of
water as being non-corrosive to metals or concrete. The assessment of a water quality may be either:
 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 61

= a

Scanning Electron microscope

tunnelling
microscope

- Light microscope

Atoms Amino Viruses - Bacteria Algae

acids Fungi
Protozoa

: ! =
Molecular world Biological world

10-9 O-= 107 10-6 10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 107! LO ees
millimetres

Particle size (mm)

—— ~ > >
Dissolved Colloidal Suspended or
solids solids non-filterable
solids

~ | a
Non-settleable Settleable
Figure 3.2 Particle size classification of solids in water and wastewater.

e Specific, for instance analysis for major ions (Ca, Mgt) or heavy metals (Pb, Cu, Zn, Sn)
e General, for instance tests such as alkalinity, hardness, electrical conductivity, pH, etc.

Major ions The major ionic species in some natural waters are listed in Table 3.1. It is seen that all
natural waters contain dissolved ionic constituents in varying amounts. The dominant ion in rainwater is
chloride, as rainwater is largely derived from seawater. The predominant ionic species in either surface
waters or groundwaters is that of bicarbonate and the dominant divalent ionic species are usually calcium
and magnesium. In seawater, chlorides and to a lesser extent sodium predominate. Details of each
element, occurrence, significance and method of determination are given in Dojlido et al. (1993).

Minor ions In addition to the major ionic species found in natural waters, there may also be minor ionic
species. Table 3.2 lists these. They are classified as minor since their concentrations are in the order of ppb
(parts per billion) or ppt (parts per trillion), while major ions are more typically in ppm concentrations.

Example 3.8 A groundwater was analysed and gave the following results. Use an anion—cation
balance to check if the analysis is adequate.
62 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Constituent Concentration (mg/L)

(Caza 190
Mg? 84
Na* 75
Fe?+ 0.1
@dai 0.2
HCO; 260
S@xcm 64
COs 30
Cla 440
NO;~ 35

105mm
a Transparent 1000 mL cone

Settleable solids
reported in mL/L

Suspended
non-settleable
450 mm solids

1000 mL

Settled ve

if
solids
fraction
——-

Figure 3.3 Imhoff cone for determining the settleable fraction of wastewater.

Table 3.1 Major ionic species in natural waters

Concentrations in mg/L

World Surface Surface

average water, water, Groundwater,
river reservoir Niagara Groundwater, Davis, Sea-
Ionic group Constituent ion Rainfall water? in Californiat River§ Dayton Ohio§ Californiatt waters

Cations Calcium, Ca?t 0.09 Sy 4.0 36 92 34 400

Magnesium, Mg** O27, 4.1 1.1 8.1 34 66 1350
Sodium, Nat 1.98 6.3 2.6 6.5 8.2 67 10 500
Potassium, K* 0.30 2.3 0.6 12 1.4 2.0 380

Bicarbonate,
Anions HCO; 0,12 58.4 18.3 119 339 e244 142
Sulphate, SO. ~ 0.58 Ne) 16 22 84 Sy/ 2700
Chloride, Cl~ 3.79 7.8 2 13 9.6 39 19 000
Nitrate, NO3_ —— 1.0 0.41 0.1 13 13.9

General
characteristics TDS TAS 120 34 165 434 523 34 500
Total hardness
as CaCO; — 56 14.6 123 369 346
pH Si) 7.4
+ Adapted from Montgomery (1985).
t Adapted from Tchobanoglous and Schroeder (1987).
§ Adapted from Snoeyink and Jenkins (1980).
+tAdapted from City of Davis, California, 1993 Annual Water Quality Report.
 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 63

Table 3.2 Minor ionic species in natural waters

Cations Anions

Aluminium, AP* Bisulphate, HSO,—

Ammonium, NH,4* Bisulphite, HSO,~
Arsenic, As* Carbonate, CO,?~
Barium, Ba? Fluoride, F~
Borate, BO,*~ Hydroxide, OH~
Copper, Cu*t Phosphate, HPO, -,HPO,?~, PO,°>~
Iron, Fe**, Fe*+ Sulphite, S?~
Manganese, Mn** Sulphate, SO;7~
Adapted from George Tchobanoglous and Edward D. Schroeder,
Water Quality (p.72), © 1987 by Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company, Inc. Reprinted by permission of the publisher

Solution If the analysis satisfies the following ion balance equation, it is then considered adequate:

|>> anions — }> cations| < 0.1065 +0.0155 >> anions (35)

Cations Anions

Atomic Equivalent Atomic Equivalent

Concentration mass mass Concentration Concentration mass mass Concentration
Ion (mg/L) (g) (mg/meq) (meq/L) lon (mg/L) (g) (mg/meq) (meq/L)

Gay 7190 40.08 20 9.5 HCO, 260 61 61 43

Mg** 84 24.3 12.2 6.9 SOvam 64 96 48 1.33
Na* 75 23.0 23 3.3 COx- 30 60 30 1.0
Fe** 0.1 Sys P27) 0.004 Gls 440 3515) 3555 12.4
Cd 0.2 112.4 56.2 0.004 NO; 35 62 62 0.6
Total 19.7 19.6

|>> anions — )> cations| = |19.6 — 19.7| = 0.1

0.1065 + 0.0155 >> anions = 0.1065 + 0.3038 = 0.410

Therefore the analysis is adequate as per Eq. (3.5).

Silica, SiO, ‘The presence of silica (a non-ionic mineral) along with calcium, magnesium, iron and
aluminium can cause scaling in boilers. Most natural waters contain less than 5 mg/L of SiO2, although
higher values up to 100mg/L have been reported. Silica can potentially be a limiting mineral in the
process of surface water eutrophication. Silicon (Si) is a constituent of aquatic plants and animals in their
skeletal structure. The concentrations in surface waters reduce in summer time due to its uptake by the
accelerated growth of aquatic phytoplankton organisms in water, which is fuelled by sunlight and
nutrients (phosphate). In Chow Valley Lake near Bristol, UK, the winter levels of SiO. were 6 mg/L, and
in May during the spring plankton growth the values were reduced to 3.5 mg/L (Dojlido and Best, 1993).

Nutrients The two nutrients of importance in water/wastewater are nitrogen and phosphorus. They are
both essential nutrients for plant and organism growth, but in excess they can be undesirable, often
leading to eutrophication. .
Nitrogen This is one of the basic components of proteins and in water it is used by the primary
producers in cell production. Nitrogen exists in nine valence states. The largest amount of nitrogen is in
64 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

the atmosphere, as 78 per cent by volume. In the nitrogen cycle, introduced in Chapter 2 (and again in
Chapter 10), nitrogen cycles between its inorganic and organic forms. The inorganic forms of nitrogen of
key interest are: No, NH; and NO;_. The organic forms of nitrogen of interest are: NH3, NO, and NO; .
Plants have the ability to ‘fix’ N> and convert it to nitrates. Animals cannot utilize inorganic nitrogen or
nitrogen from the atmosphere, unless it is first converted into its organic form. The conversion of N> to
NH; takes place when hydrogen combines with nitrogen. Ammonia is used to make nitrogen fertilizers
and as ammonium nitrate, ammonium sulphate, urea and ammonium phosphate. In the water
environment, nitrogen dissolved in water can be fixed by algae and bacteria. Nitrogen can also enter
surface or groundwaters via sewage or industrial wastewaters resulting from the breakdown of proteins
and other nitrogen compounds. A sewage effluent contains ammonia nitrogen if partial oxidation is used
and contains nitrate if full oxidation is used (see Chapter 12). Large concentrations of organic nitrogen are
indicative of organic pollution in a surface water, so typical limits are set at about 1 mg No,,/L for good
quality rivers. Ammoniacal nitrogen exists in both the NH,” ion and undissociated ammonia gas, NH3. It
is the free ammonia, NH3, which is toxic to organisms and for salmonoid rivers upper limits are set at
1 mg NH3-NIL. In the sludge treatment process of anaerobic digestion, values above 50 mg NH3-N/L are
toxic to the methanogenic bacteria (Chapter 13). Nitrite, NO. _, is a transitional compound in the nitrogen
cycle and tends to be unstable. The EU drinking water directive sets upper limits of 0.1 mg NO>-N/L and
the salmonoid EU freshwaters fisheries directive sets an upper limit of 0.01 mg NO2-N/L.
Nitrates in drinking water are harmful, and upper limit values of 40 mg NO; -N/L are typical for
drinking water. For surface waters for salmonoids the upper limits are typically 1 mg NO3-N/L. Dojlido
and Best (1993) gives further details on nitrogen and analysis for nitrogenous compounds.
Phosphorus This is an important nutrient in the aquatic environment and in freshwaters is most often
the limiting nutrient of cultural eutrophication. Phosphorus was introduced to detergents in 1935 and is
also a key crop fertilizer component. Phosphorus occurs in all living organisms and is important for
cellular activity. Bones contain about 60 per cent Ca3(PO,4)2. and about 2 per cent of dry weight of
protoplasm is phosphorous. About 80 per cent of phosphate production is in fertilizers. Other uses are
chemicals, soaps, detergents, pesticides, alloys, animal feed supplements, catalysts, lubricant and
corrosion inhibitors (Dojlido ef al., 1993). Phosphates are present in surface waters as a result of
weathering and leaching of phosphorus-bearing rocks, from soil erosion, from municipal sewage,
industrial wastewater effluent, agricultural runoff and atmospheric precipitation. Studies reported in
Dojlido and Best (1993) indicate that from phosphorus-based fertilizer rates of about 30 kg P/ha applied
to land, loss rates ranged from about 0.1 to 5 per cent, giving loss concentrations of about 0.03 to 1.5 kg
P/ha. In sewage treatment plants with specific phosphorus removal technologies, about 75 per cent of
phosphorus is removed. Typical phosphorus in sewage influent varies from 15 to 50 mg P/L. This initial
figure is typical of sewage only, while the latter is more typical of plants treating a mix of municipal
sewage and phosphorus-bearing industrial effluent. Very high phosphorus wastewaters are produced in the
distillery industry (about 1000 mg P/L). Atmospheric precipitation on lands may account for between 0.01
and 1.43 mg P/L. Dojlido and Best (1993) report rainfall contributions of 0.6 kg P/ha. In freshwater and
lakes, the input of phosphorus from municipal sewage plants and industrial wastewater plants is much
reduced due to the installation of either biological phosphorus removal technologies or more typically
technologies for chemical precipitation of phosphorus. Lakes in spring/summer may go eutrophic if the
concentration of phosphorus exceeds about 30 g/L of total phosphorus. EC guidelines for salmonoid
water has an upper limit of 65 yg total P/L. If the ratio of nitrogen to phosphorus exceeds 14:1, the
limiting nutrient is phosphorus and this is almost always the case for freshwater rivers and lakes.
The most commonly occurring compounds of phosphorus in water are:

Orthophosphates: Na3PO, Trisodium phosphate

Na HPO, Disodium hydrogen phosphate
Na2H PO, Sodium dihydrogen phosphate
(NH4)2HPO, Diammonium hydrogen phosphate
 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 65

Polyphosphates: Na3(PO3)¢ Sodium hexametaphosphate

Na3P30j6 Sodium tripolyphosphate
Na4P 07 Sodium pyrophosphate
Reporting of phosphate is by the varying physical options:
¢ Dissolved total phosphate, determined after filtration through a 0.45 4m membrane
e Particulate phosphate, as in filterable solids
e Total phosphates, the summation of insoluble and soluble forms.
Figure 3.4, adapted from Dojlido and Best (1993), reports average concentrations of inorganic substances
in surface waters (excluding groundwaters or wastewaters).

Gross chemical properties of water—inorganic The gross chemical properties of water that are in
widespread use when relating a water quality, be it drinking water, wastewater or river water, are:
pH
Alkalinity and acidity
Hardness
Conductivity
PH _ pH is defined as the negative log (base 10) of the hydrogen ion concentration and is unitless, i.e.

pH = —log[H*] (3.6)

Water dissociates slightly into hydrogen ions (H*) and hydroxide ions (OH ), often referred to as
hydroxyl ions as per the following equation:

H,O = Ht + OH-
_ HAOH]
H*][OH— ee)
[H20}]

pg/L
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10 000 100 000. 1000 000
= eee in T = T
Asbestos Be Sn B
Iii
Pb
Me Cu
Zn
Cr AS i
I Br Sr N - NH,
PO zs E so
ee IO,
SSS
: HCO;
Al :

See As Mg Dissolved solids

Ca See eee re TA
a) Ss "a ee a ae el
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.05 0.1 Ose! 5 10) 50 100 500 1000
mg/L

Figure 3.4 Average concentration ranges of inorganic substances in surface waters (adapted from Dojlido and Best, 1993. Reprinted
by permission of Ellis Horwood/Prentice Hall).
66 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

where K is the equilibrium constant and [ ] is the concentration in mole/L. Introduce

Ky =1b 10H] (3.8)

where Ky = ion product or dissociation constant
= 10~'4 mol/L at 25 °C

Taking the negative log of Eq. (3.8) gives

—log Ky = —log[H*] — log [OH] (3.9)

Introduce
pKw = pH + pOH. (3.10)
where
pH = —log[H*] (3.11)
and
pOH = —log [OH} (3.12)

In the absence of foreign materials for (distilled) water [H_]=[OH ], as required by electroneutrality
(3° cations = 5° anions). Hence the definition of ‘neutrality’ for water is at pH = 7 = pOH.

‘Acidity ‘implies [H+] > [OH-]

[H+] > 107-7 mole/L
Therefore pH <7
‘Basicity’ implies [H" |= (OH |
[H+] < 1077 mole/L
Therefore plies]

Examples on the pH scale are reported in Fig. 3.5.

The pH of most mineral waters is 6 to 9. The pH remains reasonably constant unless the water quality
changes due to natural or anthropogenic influences, adding acidity or basicity. As most ecological life
forms are sensitive to pH changes, it is important that the anthropogenic impact (e.g. effluent discharges)
be minimized. In Chapter 12 on wastewater treatment, it is seen that the pH control of wastewater influent
to biological treatment systems is important to maintain within a specific range. An influent pH, too far to
one side of the acceptable range (6 to 8) may kill off the active microbiological population, leading to
untreated effluent discharges. Similarly, in Chapter 11 on water treatment, it is seen that the addition of
alum as a coagulant depresses the pH, which may be required to be corrected by the addition of lime
(CaCO3). As such, the pH of water is of key parameter in numerous aspects of environmental engineering
and is dependent on:

e the types of rock/soil from which acid/alkaline compounds can be eroded

¢ The carbonate system (Sec. 3.2.5) and the concentrations of carbonates and carbon dioxide; waters with
low carbonate concentrations are usually acidic
e The exposure to wastewater or atmospheric pollutants

Alkalinity and acidity ‘Alkalinity’, the capacity of water to accept H* ions, is a measure of its acid
neutralizing capacity (ANC) and is often described as the buffering capacity. Similarly, ‘acidity’ is a
measure of the base neutralizing capacity (BNC). Alkalinity and acidity are capacity factors of a water.
 payenueouSLSeDH
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67
68 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

From the carbonate system (Sec. 3.2.5), the following carbonate species contribute to alkalinity in relative
amounts, as shown in Fig. 3.6:
Hydroxide, OH™
Carbonate ion, CO;
Bicarbonate ion, HCO; —
Carbon dioxide, CO,

Stumm and Morgan (1981) define alkalinity as

[Alk] = [OH~] + 2[CO3*-] + [HCO3~] — [H*] (Gi3)
Besides the carbonate system species, other salts of weak acids such as borates, silicates and phosphates
also contribute to alkalinity. In the ‘anaerobic’ environment the salts of weak acids, including acetic and
propionic acids, contribute to alkalinity, as do ammonia and hydroxides in other environments. Table 3.3
gives typical alkalinity values for common environmental engineering applications. Alkalinity is
measured volumetrically by titration with N/50 H,SOq, and is declared in mg CaCO;/L. The amount of
acid required to react with OH, CO;”~ and HCO;_ is called the ‘total alkalinity’. The measured value
may vary depending on the pH and end point of titration chosen (Standard Methods, 1992). The relative
amounts of CO), HCO; and CO;~ at various pH values are shown in Fig. 3.6.
Since alkalinity is made up of three components it is sometimes required to know the individual
contributions. This can be determined if the pH and total alkalinity are known.
H,O + H,O = H307f + OH

K,, = [H30*][OH-] = 10-" mole?/L2

HCO; + H,O = H30f + COscs

[H30*][CO3*~ ] =
Kyo 4:8 105) moles
[HCO3~]

[Alk] + [H,0*] = [OH] + 2[CO,2-] + (HCO,-]

Alkalinity is expressed in mg CaCO;/L. The gram equivalent weight of CaCO; is 50. Therefore 1 mole/L
is equivalent to 50 000 mg/L of alkalinity as CaCO3. Solving the above equations, the individual alkalinity

100

80

Alkalinity
(mg/L)
CaCO3)
(as

Figure 3.6 Relative amounts of CO, HCO;-, CO and OH}~ at various pH levels (adapted from Sawyer
& McCarthy, 1989).
 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 69

Table 3.3 Some typical alkalinity

values

Alkalinity
Application (mg CaCO;/L)

Upland (limestone) river 50-200

Lowland lake 10-30
Potable water 50-200
Domestic wastewater 200-400
Anaerobic sludge supernatant 2000-8000
Pig slurry 15 000-20 000
‘Acidic’ stream 10-20
“Non-acidic’ stream 750
‘Acidic’ soil water 10-20

contributions (Sawyer and McCarty, 1989) are:

total alkalinity + 50 000[H3;07] — 50000 K,,/[H3;0*]
Alkalinity 1 mg/L Leof of
alinity in CaCO; —
CaCO3 1+ [H,0*]/2K5 (3.14 )

a ee Oe
Bicarbonate alkalinity = carbonate alkalinity Ea (15)
2

Hydroxide alkalinity
ydroxide alkalinity == 50 000 (H,07)
5000 Ky 3.16
(3.16)

Example 3.9 The supernatant from anaerobic co-digestion of the MSW food fraction and primary
sewage sludge has an alkalinity of 4427 mg/L as CaCO3. The pH is 7.27 at a temperature of 25°C.
Determine the individual alkalinity contributions.

Solution

pH = —log[H30*] = 7.27
(H307] = 10-727 = 5.37 x 10-8 mole/L

From Eq. (3.14):

4427 + 50000 x 5.37 x 10-8 — 50000 x 10-!4/(5.37 x 10-3)

Carbonate alkalinity =
145.37 x 10° x48 < 10")
= 7.9 mg/L as CaCO3

Table 3.4 Ionic

species responsible
for hardness

Cations Anions

Cas HCO;
Mg?* SOie

Sia Cla
Fe?+ NO;
Mn?*+ SiOzcm
70. ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Table 3.5 Relative hardness of waters

Degree of
hardness meq/L mg/L as CaCO; »

Soft <1 0-75

Moderately hard 1-3 75-150
Hard 3-6 150-300
Very hard > 6 > 300

From Eq. (3.15):

53) 10
Bicarbonate alkalinity = 7.9 x
25648 Sat0s0
= 4419.06 mg/L as CaCO3

From Eq. (3.16):

10 -14
Hydroxide alkalinity = 50000 x 108
5.37
— 0.03 mg/L as CaCO;
Total alkalinity = 7.9 + 4419.06 + 0.03
= 4427 mg/L as CaCO;

Hardness ‘Hardness’ is expressed principally by the sum of the divalent metallic cations, Ca’* and
Mg*". These cations react with soap to form precipitate and with other ions present in water to form scale
in boilers. The ions causing hardness have their origin in soil and geological formations. Table 3.4 lists the
dominant ionic species, all responsible for hardness. Hardness is a water parameter used in potable water
(not wastewater). Traditionally, hardness was calculated inmg/L as CaCO; (similar to alkalinity) or as
meq/L. Table 3.5 is a qualitative listing of waters rated on hardness.
Hardness is made up of:
e Carbonate hardness or temporary hardness (TH) since this form is removed on prolonged boiling:
Carbonate hardness = )~ (bicarbonate + carbonate) alkalinity

This is so, when alkalinity is < total hardness.

e Non-carbonate hardness (NCH)

Furthermore, since Ca7* and Mg’? are the dominant hardness-producing ions, it may be relevant to
quantify their contributions, should softening be considered as a treatment process. Hardness is computed
inmg/L as CaCO; as follows:

. 50
Hardness in mg/L as CaCO3 Ben. 2+ (3
= M** (in mg/L) x eq wt of M2+ (3.17)

where M** is any divalent metallic ion (e.g. Ca**, Mg?*).

Hardness in mg/L as CaCO; = M?+ (in meq/L) x 50 (3.18)

 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 71

Example 3.10 Determine the various hardnesses of the following water sample:

Concentration

Constituent mg/L meq/L

Cart 60 3
Mg’ 29.3 2.4
HCO; 366 6

Recall:

concentration (mg/L)
Concentration (meq/L) =
equivalent weight (mg/meq)
Atomic weight
Equivalent weight = (mg/meq)
Valence
50
Hardness (mg/L) as CaCO3 = Concentration (mg/L) x
equivalent weight
Hardness (mg/L) as CaCO3 = Concentration (meq/L) x 50

Solution Using mg/L:

Concentration Atomic Equivalent Hardness

Ion (mg/L) weight Valence weight (mg/L as CaCO3)

es 60 40 2 20 60 x 50/20= 150
Mg? 2913 24.31 2) 12.2 29.3 x 50/12.2=120
HCO; = 366 61 1 61 366 x 50/61 =300

Total hardness (TH) = Ca** + Mg?+ = 270 mg/L as CaCO;

Carbonate hardness (CH) = HCO; = 300 mg/L as CaCO;

However, the CH cannot exceed the TH and the CH is therefore represented as 270 mg/L as CaCO3.

Solution Using meq/L:

Concentration Hardness
Ion (meq/L) (mg/L as CaCO3)

Cae 3 3 x 50=150
Mg?t 2.4 2.4 x 50=120
HCO; 6 6 x 50=300

Conductivity Electrical conductivity or, as it is more commonly called, conductivity, is a measure of the
ability of an aqueous solution to carry an electric current. The electric current is conducted in the solution
by the movement of ions and so the higher the number of ions (i.e. the greater the concentration of
dissolved salts) the higher the ionic mobility and so the higher the magnitude of conductivity. Chemically
pure water does not conduct electricity since the only ions present are H* and OH™ and so the
conductivity of very pure water is about 0.05 S/cm (microsiemens/cm). On the other hand, a seawater
with high salts has a conductivity of about 40000 pS/cm. Typical values are reported in Table 3.6. The
specific conductivity is the conductivity of 1 cm? of water across a | cm distance at 20°C. Conductivity is
72 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Table 3.6 Typical conductivity ranges

for different waters

Water Conductivity range (uS/cm)

Chemically pure 0.05

Distilled 0.14
Rainwater 20-100
Soft water 40-150 ‘
Hard water 200-500
Range of rivers 100—1 000
Groundwater 200-1 500
Estuarine water 200-2 000
Seawater 40 000

measured by placing a conductivity meter (made up of two platinum electrodes) in a water sample and
recording the electrical resistance. In most waters, conductivity is due to the dissociation of inorganic
compounds as organic compounds dissociate little. Therefore, a positive measure of conductivity is
indicative of the concentration of dissolved inorganic salts. If the concentrations of ions (cations and
anions) are known, then conductivity can be computed from

SE Sel i=l
(3.19)
where eC = electrical conductivity in wS/cm
C; = concentration of ionic species i in solution in mg/L or meq/L
jf; = conductivity factor for the ionic species (see Table 3.7)

In water quality analysis, conductivity has been used to determine other parameters, since
conductivity is easy to measure. For instance:
Salinity : im meg NaCl = eC xFf;
where f, = a conversion factor
= 0.52—0.55

Total solids: imme eS7 EeseCws fi.

where fis = 0.55—0.9, determined experimentally
for the particular water
Total dissolved solids: in mg TDS/L = eC xftas
where ftas = 0.55—0.7, determined experimentally
for the particular water

Table 3.7 Conductivity factors for various ions

Conductivity factorf; Conductivity factorfj
(uS/cm) (uS/cm)

Cation per meq/L per mg/L Anion per meq/L per mg/L

Caa5 52 2.6 HCO,” 43.6 0.72

Mg?* 46.6 3.82 (COR?= 84.6 2.82
eG Te 1.84 Cle 75.9 2.14
Na? 48.9 Bale NO; 71.0 TS)
SO4~ 73.9 1.54

Adapted from Tchobanoglous and Schroeder, 1987

 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 73

The various factors for salinity, TS and TDS may not be single valued but may approximate to a
calibration-type curve, determined by experiment. For example, in physical model studies of salinity
intrusion from estuarine to freshwater areas, conductivity is used as the measurement parameter to
determine salinity. Studies of salinity intrusion in the 1 acre physical model of San Francisco Bay use
conductivity probes at different depths to determine salinity profiles.
In addition, the ionic strength which is a measure of the intensity of the electric field can be
approximated by the following equations (Snoeyink and Jenkins, 1980):

beet 0n eS (3.20)
and NO ped OT eC

= oe (GZ)

where Jt = ionic strength

Z; = charge of species i

Although conductivity appears to have no health significance, the EU drinking water directive places
an upper limit of 1500 uS/cm.

3.2.3 Organic Chemical Properties of Water

The main element of organic compounds is carbon, C. Organic substances may be natural or man-made.
In fact, most are natural, and they are produced by plants and animals. Today in excess of 1.8 million
synthetic organic compounds are produced, with about 250000 new chemical compounds being
synthesized annually and 300 to 500 going into production (Dojlido and Best, 1993). The presence of
organic compounds in water is as a contaminant, whether it be naturally occurring or man-made. The
objective in water/wastewater treatment is to minimize these compounds by biological, physical or
chemical treatment processes. Figure 3.7 reports the average concentrations of some organic substances
found in surface waters (Dojlido and Best, 1993).

pg/L
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000. 10000 100 000 1000 000
7 ——J T T Ta

Chlorophyll
Amino acids
Phthalates hye
= THN Sulpholignins

———— PCB Se VCH

——— eee Phenols Detergents

Fatty acids ———_______ CCE Humic substances

: Ether extractions
N(organic) BOD

=e —
red (tual
ihe NE ve
COD (Cr)
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.050.1 Cand 5 10 1°59 100 500 1000
mg/L
Figure 3.7 Average concentration ranges of organic substances in surface waters (adapted from Dojlido and Best, 1993. Reprinted
by permission of Ellis Horwood/Prentice-Hall).
74 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Organic compounds in water are typically divided into five groups, depending on their chemical
structure:

1. Hydrocarbons These are organic compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen, e.g. ethane
(CH; CH3;), ethylene (CH = CHz), benzene (CgH.), toluene (C6 Hs—CHs3).
2. Halogenated compounds These are organic compounds in which a halogen is the principal atom
(atoms include fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine), e.g. chloroform (CHCls), dichloromethane
(CH2Cl,), carbon tetrachloride (CCly).
3. Carboxylic acids and esters These are organic compounds built around the carboxyl group (a carbon
linked to oxygen with a double bond) and others with two functional groups attached to an oxygen
atom, e.g. acetone (CH;COCH;), formaldehyde (CH20), ethyl ether (CH3CH2COH2CHs3).
4. Other organic compounds.

Contaminants: naturally occurring organic substances The naturally occurring organic substances in
water, wastewater and bottom sediments are:

1. Proteins These are made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur and nitrogen with the basic
building blocks of amino acids e.g. bacteria (CsH7NO>) is mainly protein.
2. Lipids These comprise fats, waxes, oils and hydrocarbons, which are insoluble in water but soluble in
some organic chemical solvents, and are slowly biodegradable.
3. Carbohydrates These contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They include cellulose, hemicellulose,
starch and lignin which are readily biodegradable (except lignin). An example is glucose, CgH)20.¢.
4. Plant pigments These are made of chlorophyll, haemins and carotenes and include alcohols, ketones
and carotenoids.

Synthetic organic chemicals (contaminants) The synthetic organic chemicals which are the products
of the chemical, petroleum and agricultural industries include:
1. Pesticides and agrichemicals Table 3.8 reports on some of the pesticides, including chlorinated
hydrocarbons and organophosphates, and also some herbicides. It is seen that some like DDT (now
banned internationally) have a low solubility in water and are thus prone to vaporization. The 95 per
cent degradation period for several of the pesticides is 1 to 25 years. The LCDs which is the lethal
concentration to kill 50 per cent of the population (fish, etc.) is detailed in Dojlido and Best (1993), but
typically is <50 mg/kg for the most toxic to > 5000 mg/kg for the least toxic.

Table 3.8 Synthetic substances in water environment

Time for 95 per WHO standards

Solubility Persistent cent degradation drinking water
Classification Compound Formula (mg/L) half-life (years) limit (ug/L)

Pesticides
Chlorinated DDT C,4HoCls 0.0012 >6 months 4-30 1.0
hydrocarbons — Aldrin Cy2H6Cle 0.01 >6 months 1-6 0.03
Methoxychlor Ci6H,5Cl,02 0.10 2—6 weeks 30
Dieldrin C,2HsCleO 0.18 >6 months 5-25 0.03
Endrin C\2HgCleO 0.23 a
Lindane CeoH6Cle 7.0 —
Organic Parathion C)oH4NOS5PS 24 <2 weeks
phosphates Melathion CyoH4NOsPS> 145 <2 weeks
Dimethoate C5H,2NO3PS5 2500 <6 months

Herbicides Simazine C5H2CINs 5 <6 months

and Propazine CoH) 6CI Ns 8 <6 months
fungicides 2, 4, 5-T CgHs5Cl,03 280 =
Diquat C,2H,2Br2N> 70%
 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 75

2. Surface active agents These are used for washing, emulsifying, wetting, foaming, etc., as they lower
the surface tension of water when placed in it. The molecule of a surfactant (detergent) has two parts—
a hydrophobic part, which is insoluble in water and soluble in non-polar liquids such as oils, and a
hydrophilic part, which is soluble in water and insoluble in non-polar liquids. It is this dual property
that makes them suitable for the earlier listed uses.
Surfactants are harmful to the aquatic environment as they may cause foaming and reduce the
diffusion of atmospheric oxygen to the water. In sewage wastewaters, concentrations of surfactants
may be up to 20 mg/L and in industrial wastewaters (those industries that use large quantities of
solvents) concentrations may be up to 1000 mg/L. In rivers, typically values range from 0 to 1 mg/L in
contaminated rivers. In recent years, biodegradable detergents have been introduced which has reduced
the contamination level.
3. Halogenated hydrocarbons These are the end products of the reaction of halogen with hydrocarbons,
with the chlorinated hydrocarbons being of key interest. Low molecular weight chlorinated
hydrocarbons are volatile and so measurable by gas chromatcgraphy. High molecular weight
chlorinated hydrocarbons are of low volatility and difficult to measure. The most significant
halogenated hydrocarbons are trihalomethanes (THMs) or haloforms. These compounds are
represented by CHX3, where X is the halogen, Cl, F, Br or I, and some are:

e Trichloromethane (chloroform), CHCl,

e Tribromomethane (bromoform), CHBr;
e Bromodichloromethane, CHCl,Br
e Dibromochloromethane, CHCIBr,

THMs may be either discharged to aqueous environments in industrial (chemical) wastewaters or

formed by the reaction of chlorine with organic compounds in the water environment. Of principal
concern to environmental engineers/scientists is the reaction of chlorine (used extensively in water and
wastewater treatment plants as a disinfectant) with organic compounds in the water. Chloroform is
produced in the following reaction:

acetone sodium Trichloroacetone sodium

(precursor) hypochlorite hydroxide
CH3COCH3 + 3NaOCl — CH3COCCI3 + 3NaOH Ge)

trichloroacetone sodium sodium trichloromethane

hydroxide acetate
CH,COCI3 + NaOH = CH3CO Na =f CHCl; (322)

Acetone in Eq. (3.21) is called a trihalomethane precursor. Humic substances, from decaying
vegetable matter, leaves, etc., are the main precursors of THMs, but petrochemical organic effluents
may also be. Chlorophyll and algae may also be precursors (Dojlido and Best 1993).

Other synthetic organic chemicals include, chlorinated aromatic compounds (chlorinated benzenes,
polychlorinated biphenols) dioxins (found in the water, air and soil environments and polynuclear
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Many of these synthetic organics are present in the water environment in
only trace amounts as low as 10° mg/L, but rarely as high as 1 mg/L. Figure 3.7, from Dojlido and Best
(1993) reports some range values of some organics. Dojlido and Best (1993) is essential reading for
further study in this area.

Determination of organic content of water The determination of the organic content of water can be
by:
1. Specific tests to measure the concentrations of specific compounds. The reader is referred to Standard
Methods (1992) for details of specific tests. .
2. Non-specific tests to measure the overall concentration of the organic content.
76 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Tests for the overall concentrations include:

BOD (a biochemical test that uses micro-organisms)

COD (a chemical test)
TOC (an instrumental test)
TOD (an instrumental test infrequently used; see Standard Methods, 1992).

Before introducing these tests, the concept of dissolved oxygen is mentioned briefly. Oxygen from
the atmosphere is transferred across the air/water interface by the principle of mass transfer. The amount
of transfer depends on how much oxygen can be solubilized in water. Oxygen is regarded as weakly
soluble in water with dissolved oxygen levels in water usually less than about 10mg/L, with the con-
centration decreasing with increasing water temperature. This topic is covered in more detail in Sec. 3.2.4.
BOD—biochemical oxygen demand The BOD, is the amount of dissolved oxygen used up from the
water sample by micro-organisms as they break down organic material at 20°C over a 5-day period. It
measures the readily biodegradable organic carbon. Clean waters have BODs values of less than | mg/L.
Rivers are considered polluted if the BOD; is greater than 5 mg/L. The EU freshwater fisheries directive
sets an upper limit of 3 mg/L for salmonoid rivers and 6 mg/L for coarse fishwaters. The EU directive
applicable to rivers for abstraction for drinking water is for 3 mg/L (for minimum treatment—chlorination
only), 5 mg/L (for standard treatment—coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, filtration; (see Chapter
11) and 7mg/L (for special treatment—in addition to standard treatment, specific organic removal
processes may be required; see Chapter 11). The BODs is arbitrarily set at 5 days and this may not be long
enough to determine the BOD ultimate, which is again arbitrarily set at 20 days. The BOD of municipal
wastewaters ranges from about 150 to 1000 mg/L, while for industrial wastewaters (food industries) the
value may be several thousands. Another term used is the BOD, or the ultimate BOD, which may take 10
to 20 days for complete stabilization. Typically the BOD, & twice BODs. Further details on BOD in
freshwater and saline waters are given in Chapter 7.
COD—chemical oxygen demand The COD test measures the total organic carbon, with the exception
of some aromatics such as benzene which are not oxidized in the reaction. The test determines the amount
of oxygen needed to chemically oxidize the organics in a water or wastewater. It is described in detail in
Standard Methods (1992). A strong chemical oxidizing agent is used to oxidize the organics rather than
using micro-organisms as in the BOD test. The oxidizing agent is potassium dichromate in an acid
solution. COD is attractive as a test since it takes about 2 hours by comparison with 5 days for the BOD. A
disadvantage is that it tells us nothing about the rates of biodegradation. In typical municipal wastewaters
the BOD ultimate (~ BODy9) is approximately equal to the COD and
BOD; ~ 0.6 COD (3.23)
However, this factor (0.6) has to be established by calibration and does not hold for complex industrial
wastewaters, particularly those with high contents of organic non-biodegradable fractions (e.g. ABS, alkyl
benzene). Such a wastewater may register close to zero BOD while registering a high COD. The EU
drinking water directive sets guideline values of 2mg/L, with maximum admissible concentrations of
5 mg/L when using potassium permanganate (rather than potassium dichromate) as the oxidizing agent,
for water to be treated and used as potable water. The EU urban wastewater directive sets an upper limit of
125 mg/L for treated wastewaters prior to discharge to rivers.

Example 3.11 If bacterial cells are represented by the chemical formula C;H7ON. Determine the
potential carbonaceous BOD.

Solution As the cells require O. to stabilize them to end products we first stoichiometrically balance
the equation
Cs5H7O2N + 507 = 5CO> + 2H,O + NH3
stable end products
as a result of oxidation
 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 77

Therefore each mole of bacterial cells requires 5 moles of O> for oxidation and thus
5 moles of O> x Wy
COD = 1.42
1 mole of C5sH7O.N 1 x 113
BOD, = 0.92 COD
= (9256 1421.31
If the bacterial cell concentration was, say, 1000 mg/L, then the potential BOD, = 1310 mg/L.
TOC—total organic carbon The TOC test measures all carbon as CO, inmg/L and therefore the
inorganic carbon (HCO; ,CO, CO; , etc.) must be removed prior to the test. Acidifying and aerating
the sample is the method used to remove inorganic carbon. This test can be carried out by oxidizing the
organic carbon to carbon dioxide at a temperature of about 950°C (evaporation) in the presence of a
catalyst; the carbon dioxide is then determined spectrophotometrically by infrared absorption. The TOC
test measures the mass of carbon per litre of sample, while the BOD and COD tests determine the amount
of oxygen required for biochemical and chemical oxidation respectively. The TOC is a simple
instrumental test and there are many TOC (instrument) analysers available commercially. TOC is now
regularly specified in permits for industrial wastewater treated effluent. The theoretical relationship
between COD and TOC is that the COD is 2.66 times greater, though practically closer to 2.5 times, as the
COD rarely achieves full oxidation.
C6H120¢6 + 602=6CO? + 6H2O
6 x 32
CcOD = 180 = i 66

TOG a4
180
COD _ 1.066
Theref
erefore —_—
TOC = —_—_
04 =,
2.66

The COD test is still a more informative test as it quantifies the amount of oxygen that will be
consumed by a wastewater, and it is knowledge of oxygen in, say, a river before and after effluent
discharge that will describe the water quality states of that river. Figure 3.8 is a schematic of the BOD/
COD relationship in a sample of wastewater.
In some situations, in wastewater analysis, the different components of carbon may be useful, and
these are detailed in Standard Methods (1992). Total carbon is subdivided as per Fig. 3.9. Purgeable
organic carbon is another term for volatile organic carbon.

Example 3.12 A wastewater is analysed and is shown to contain 100 mg/L of ethylene glycol
(C>H,O2) and 120 mg/L of phenol (CsH¢O). Determine the COD and TOC.

Biodegradable

BOD, Total
COD organic
material

Posed |.
Non-
biodegradable

Figure 3.8 Schematic of BOD/COD/T.org matter relationship.

78 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Total carbon

ogra
we + eee
Inorganic C Total organic C
(IC) (TOC)
id
| a F
Particulate Dissolved Purgeable Non-purgeable

a
Dissolved Particulate

Figure 3.9 Schematic of subdivisions of carbon in water.

Solution
Ethylene glycol, C2H¢O2
Atomic mass = 62 g/mole
CHO + 2.502 = 2CO2 + 3H20
:
COD *~ SesZ CS PE stylL,
Ethylene glycol contains 2 atoms of carbon so,
2x 12
TOG — Se OO R= 338570718
62
Phenol, CsHsO
Atomic mass = 94 g/mole
CeO 47-07 = 6CO> 73130
1x32
CoD — x 120 = 286 mg/L
94
Phenol contains 6 atoms of carbon so

65e12
TOC= x 120 = 92.4 mg/L

3.2.4 Solubility
Solids, gases and liquids may dissolve in water to form solutions. Water in this case is called the solvent
and the substance, either solid, gas or other liquid, is called the solute. A measure of how soluble a
substance is in water is determined by its solubility. For example, the solid compound NaCl is very soluble
in water but the solid compound AgCl is almost insoluble. Similarly, ammonia gas (NH3) is highly soluble
in water while oxygen is weakly soluble. When a substance enters water, some of that substance will go
into solution. At some time later, no more of the substance will dissolve and equilibrium is thus reached.
The solubility reaction is generally written as:

A,B, = aAt + bB-

For example, Al(OH), = AP+ +3 OH-
or NH; + H,0 = NH4gt + OH
Introduce K, = [A}*[B)?
 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 79

where K, = solubility constant, which never changes for

a given substance
and [ ] = molar concentration, mole/L (4 mg/L)
Introduce pK, = —log K,
For instance, for the solubility product of Al(OH3), K; is 10~** mole?/L? or pK,=32. Similarly, the
solubility product of NH; is 1.82 x 10°-> or pK, =4.74 mole?/L?.

Solubility of solids When a solid is dissociating into its ionic components it is said to be undergoing
‘dissolution’. When the ionic components of the solution are changing into solid, it is said to be
undergoing ‘precipitation’. Both processes of dissolution and precipitation are common in environmental
engineering applications. For instance, ionic impurities washed off the land in flood times are usually
dissolved in the recipient stream floodwaters. In wastewater treatment, phosphorus is removed from the
treated wastewater via ‘precipitation’, more commonly chemical precipitation using ferric as:
HO
Fe>+ +H PO,~ <> FePO, +2 Ht
ferric ferric
phosphate

Many ‘solid’ chemicals like lime, alum, activated carbon, etc., are introduced in solution form in water
treatment processes for the purpose of water purification. For instance, Al(OH); dissolves in water and
dissociates as follows:
Al(OH), > AP+ + 30H-
Kon (Al (OH es) e110
where Kgp = solubility product

The ‘solubility product’ is a measure of solubility, and is dependent on other parameters, including pH,
temperature and pressure. The higher the K,,, the more soluble the compound. Table 3.9 lists some
common compounds in environmental engineering and their solubility products. For example, Al(OH); is
weakly soluble, whereas calcium sulphate (CaSO,) is highly soluble.

Example 3.13 Determine the concentration of the aluminium ion (Al?*) in pure water caused by
the complete dissociation of Al(OH)3. Remember that Al’+ was defined as a ‘minor’ ionic species,
indicating its concentrations to be in the range ppt to ppb.

Solution
Al(OH); <= A+ + 3 OH

Table 3.9 Solubility products of some compounds

Common name of Solubility product
Application compound Equilibrium reaction Kenav2se@

Coagulation Aluminium hydroxide Al(OH); = AP* +3 OH™ ea Om

Magnesium carbonate MgCO; = Mg?* +CO3~— A 10m.
Hardness removal Calcium carbonate (lime) (CHCO) <e: CH ECO 5 Or
Iron removal Iron hydroxide Fe(OH); @ Fe** +3 OH 6p 10°
Phosphate removal Calcium phosphate Ca(PO,4)2 <> 3 Ca?* +2PO,7- i se WO"
Fluoridation Calcium fluoride CaF, <> Ca?+ + 2F~ 30% 10-7"
Metals removal Copper hydroxide Cu(OH), <> Cu** +2 OH 1.6 x 10°
Flue gas desulphurization Calcium sulphate CaSO, @ Ca** +S0,7- DA NON.
en EE
80 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

From Table 3.9,

Ky = 1x 105
[AV] [OH-} = 1 x 10-*
From stoichiometry, it is seen that three times as many hydroxide ions (OH_) dissolve as aluminium ions
(Al*+); i.e. the concentration of [OH”] is three times [AI’*]. Therefore
(Ole j= sare ‘
[AB+][OH-P = [AB+][AB+]) = 1 x 10-2?
27[AB+}* = 1 x 10-7
[AP+] = 44 x 107! mole/L
Molecular weight of Al = 27 g/mole
[A+] = 44 x 10-!° mole/L x 27 g/mole x 10° mg/g
= 120 x 10~° mg/L (120 ppt)
Note that the concentration of AP* is ~120 ppt (parts per trillion), indicating that it is a ‘minor ion’ as
defined in the minor ion species of Table 2.3.

Example 3.14 Determine the amount of ferric chloride required to precipitate phosphorus in a
wastewater with a P concentration of 10 mg/L, if the flow rate is 36 400 m*/day. Assume that liquid ferric
chloride is FeCl; - 6 HO and the equilibrium reaction is

FeCl; -6H,O + H»PO4” + 2HCO3° > FePO, +3 Cl” +2 CO, + 8H20O

thionde orcas

Solution Molecular weights:

Liquid ferric chloride, FeCl, -6H,O = 55.9 + 3 x 35.5+ 6 x 18 = 270.4 g/mole

Ferric phosphate, FePO4 = 55.9 + 31 +4 x 16 = 150.9 g/mole

The stoichiometric equation indicates that 1 mole of liquid ferric chloride produces 1 mole of ferric
phosphate precipitate. This corresponds to a weight ratio of 270.4 : 150.9 or 1.8: 1. Assume the density of
liquid ferric chloride is 1.4 kg/L with a ferric strength of 50 per cent. Since 1 mole of Fe is required per
mole of P, then the weight of Fe required per unit weight of P is:
mol wt of Fe _ 55:9
1k aS i 1s Ke Fey Ke 2
cel nou? Bil
The weight of liquid ferric chloride (ferric) per L is
1.4 x 0.5 = 0.7 kg/L
The weight of Fe per L of ferric is
kg mol wt of Fe Bon!)
0)7 fos) eG
ee aolnintenae a9 4 ee EME
The amount of ferric required per kg of P is
kg Fe . L of ferric
= 12:4 of terric/kg P
~ kg P 0.145 kg Fe
3 .

Ferric daily requirement 36000 60 10 men epee

day Lb kg P
= 4513 L/day
 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 81

Solubility of gases Some fraction of air constituents contacting water goes into solution in water. This
means that of the numerous air constituents some will dissolve in water to different extents. The principal
atmospheric gases that go into solution are oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide and all waters exposed to
the atmosphere will have some of these gases in solution. Other gases in solution in water are ammonia
(NH3), hydrogen sulphide (HS) and methane (CH4), which are more likely to be associated with
microbiological activity. For instance, methane in lakes may come from the anaerobic decay of sediment-
laden organic matter. The amount of a particular gas dissolved in water depends on:
e Its solubility in water
e Its partial pressure at the air/water interface or sediment/water interface
e The water temperature
e The level of salts in the water
If water contains as much of a specific gas as it can hold in the presence of an abundant supply, then the
water is said to be saturated. For instance, the saturated concentration of O in water at 20°C is 9.3 mg/L.
If at 20°C, a water contains, say, 7.5 mg/L of O, then this is equivalent to 80 per cent saturation. When
oxygen dissolved in water is in equilibrium with the oxygen in the atmosphere, the water is saturated with
oxygen to 100 per cent. When the O, content exceeds 100 per cent it is said to be supersaturated.
Supersaturation may occur under the following cases:
1. Water flowing over a dam and plunging into the plunge pool at the bottom generates water in the
plunge pool that is >100 per cent saturated. This is due to the excess air bubbles being trapped in the
plunge pool water, which falls to the depths of the pool; on rising back to the surface, the pressure
decreases rapidly and supersaturation occurs.
2. High photosynthetic activity (in summer) by aquatic plants and phytoplankton produce more oxygen
than is expelled at the surface, thereby creating supersaturation.
3. When thermal plumes are discharged to rivers with temperatures (often 10 to 20°C) greater than the
recipient river water, the rapid rise in water temperatures causes oxygen supersaturation in the plume
vicinity.
The solubility of gases in water is related to the partial pressure of the gas in the atmosphere above
the water by Henry’s law:
Henry’s law => P, = Kpx, (3.24)

where P, = partial pressure of gas, atm

Ky, = Henry’s law constant, atm (see Table 3.10)
X, = equilibrium mole fraction of dissolved gas
Therefore
mole gas (ng)
Me (3223)
~ mole gas (ng) + mole water (ny)

The partial pressure P,, of the gas in air is the volumetric concentration times the air pressure. As air
contains ~ 21 per cent Oo, then the partial pressure for O2 + 0.21 atm. Oxygen levels in rivers are an
important parameter regarding the suitability of the river for particular fish life. For instance, salmonoid
rivers (i.e. rivers capable of supporting salmon) require oxygen levels in excess of 6 mg/L. Coarse fish
require O, levels in excess of 3 mg/L. Oxygen levels in rivers are reduced by oxygen consuming effluents,
e.g. from a wastewater plant. Table 3.10 shows Henry’s law constants for the most common gases that are
slightly soluble in water.

Example 3.15 Determine the saturation concentration of O2 in water at 10°C and 20°C at | atm.

Solution
O, is 21% of air (v/v) > P, = 0.21 x 1 atm = 0.21 atm
82 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Table 3.10 Henry’s law constants for common gases soluble in H,O
K, x 1074, atm
Temperature —_——*
(© C) Air N> Op CO, CO H> H,S CH,

0 4.32 5.29 25) 0.073 3) py S12) 0.027 2.24

10 5.49 6.68 Breil 0.104 4.42 6.36 0.037 ALY)
20 6.64 8.04 4.01 0.142 5.36 6.83 0.048 3.76
30 Wei 9.24 4.75 0.186 6.20 Te29) 0.061 4.49
40 8.70 10.4 5.315) 0.233 6.96 he)! 0.075 5.20

From Table 3.10, at 10°C, Henry’s law constraint is:

Ky = 3.27 x 10* atm/mole

From Eq. (3.24),

ae
P

Therefore
0.21
= 6.42 56105°
3 DT a10! ‘
Since | mole of water is 18 g then
1000 g/L
[H20] 18 g/mole quoe

From Eq. (3.25),

BE oH}
Ae Ng + Ny

6.42
,
x 10-6 =Net8 55.6__
Since ng < 55.6, we can say:
fig = GAD aL Oniee 5510) =35 7) 10—% mole,I:
=13/57 50105 mole/L
Saturation concentration (mg/L):

C, =ngM, where M = molecular weight of O

= 3.57 x 10-4 mole/L x 32 g/mole x 10° mg/g
= 11.4 mg/L at 10°C (at 1 atm pressure)

Similarly,
C, = 9.3 mg/L at 20°C (at atm" pressure)
As temperature increases, the saturation concentration decreases, so in warmer seasons river oxygen
levels are more vulnerable to oxygen demand from effluents or algae, as discussed in Chapters 6 and 7.
The saturation concentration of oxygen in water will also depend on the chloride concentration. For
instance, at 20°C, C,~ 9.3 mg/L for no chloride. At chloride levels of 20 000 mg/L, C, for 0) ~ 7.4 mg/L
at 20°C. Further details are given in Sawyer and McCarty (1989). As oxygen is only slightly soluble in
H,0, it is this factor primarily that limits the ability of freshwaters (and saline waters) to be used for
 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 83

dilution of organic wastes. As the dissolved oxygen (DO) reduces, the water body may become
‘anaerobic’ or without oxygen, during which time it can only support anaerobic fauna.

Example 3.16 Determine the saturation concentration of (a) nitrogen in water at 20°C, at 1 atm
and (b) carbon dioxide in water at 20°C at 1 atm.

Solution

(a) Air is 79% No (v/v) > P, =0.79 x 1 atm=0.79 atm

From Table 3.10 at 20°C,

Ky, = 8.04 x 104 atm/mole

0.79
So = 98 0S
*e = 8 04 x 10! a
nis
Ng
s Ng + Nw
n
085
i‘10 4ny + 55.6
iy =5.460107 “mole/L

Saturation concentration, (molecular weight of N2 = 28)

CS I SS
= 15:29 meiL

(b) Air is 0.033% CO (v/v) +P,

=0.000 33 x 1 atm=0.000 33 atm

From Table 3.10 at 20°C,

Ky = 0.142 x 104 atm/mole

0.000 33
ea Be oad Um
z= 0,142 x 104 -
ee:
Me Ng + Ny

.233 x 10-§ = 2.
n

ree n, + 55.6
n=) sel mole)Is

Saturation concentration,

C,; = 0.13 x 10-4 x 44 x 10°

= 0.57 mg/L at 20°C and 1 atm

In summary, the saturation concentration at 20°C and 1 atm is:

O7 = 9.3 mg/L
No = 15.3 mg/L
CO, = 0.57 mg/L
84 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

The saturation concentration of N> in water is ~ 1.6 times that of O2 in water. An environmental
engineering application of the relevance of oxygen and nitrogen levels is seen in urban wastewater
discharges. For instance, the typical untreated municipal wastewater has a chemical oxygen demand
(COD) of about 600 mg/L and a total nitrogen concentration of about 40 mg/L. Traditional wastewater
treatment plants reduced the COD level to about 50 mg/L, using the various unit processes described in
Chapter 12. However, little attention was given to nitrogen reduction. An environmental problem resulting
from excess nutrients is algae production. Algae can be represented by the chemical formula,
C106H2630110Ni6P (Randall et al., 1992). Therefore, 1 kg of nitrogen could theoretically stimulate the
production of 16 kg of algal biomass. This is equivalent to 20 kg of COD. Thus, 40 mg/L of nitrogen in
an effluent discharged to a water body could result in the production of a COD equivalent to 800 mg/L.
This is greater than the COD of the organics in the untreated urban wastewater. While the treated effluent
(COD ~50 mg/L) should not impact on the river water quality, the fact that the nitrogen went untreated
may have a major impact. Hence the more recent legislative requirement of nitrogen (and phosphorus)
removal as well as organic removal from urban wastewaters prior to discharge.

Volatilization Liquids and solids may vaporize into the atmosphere in a process known as volatilization.
The mechanisms of volatilization are similar to those of evaporation of soil water. Figure 3.10 is a
schematic of evaporization/volatilization.
The mechanisms of volatilization are:
1. Initially vapour escapes through the air/liquid or air/solid interface into the atmospheric boundary
sublayer.
2. Then gas/vapour diffuses through the boundary sublayer by molecular and turbulent diffusion (see
Chapter 21).
3. The gaseous compound is transported away from the site by advection and dispersion.

The phenomenon of volatilization occurs in many areas of environmental engineering, including:

1. VOCs are released to the atmosphere from aeration tanks, wastewater lagoons, constructed wetlands,
freefall weirs, etc., and wastewater treatment plants.
2. Chlorine gas may be released accidentally at either wastewater or water treatment plants.
3. Methane gas and VOCs are released at landfill and other sites. See Gill (1995) on the emission of
hazardous air pollutants (HAPs), such as benzene and vinyl chloride, from landfill sites.

Vertical profile
of horizontal
wind velocity Transport of compound by
advection and dispersion

Boundary
sublayer

Vapour diffusion through

boundary layer

en Vapour escape
Soil surface or through surface
liquid or solid
surface
Figure 3.10 Schematic of vaporization/volatilization process.
 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 85

In the European Union and the United States the emission of many VOCs are now regulated with
guidelines and maximum concentration admissible values. Recent measures to reduce the amount of
VOCs entering the atmosphere include covering aeration tanks in wastewater treatment plants and
collecting all off-gas and treating it. For low concentrations of a VOC in water, the gas phase
concentration at equilibrium above the water surface is proportional to the liquid phase concentration,
with Henry’s law constant the proportionality factor. As this constant increases, so does the relative rate of
volatilization. Other physicochemical factors influencing the rate of volatilization include: molecular
weight, diffusion coefficient in water and air, and the concentration of the VOC in both the gas and liquid
phase. The simplest models used in determining VOC volatilization are based on the Lewis and Whitman
(1924) two film theory model, described in Chapter 7.
The rate of vaporization (mass transfer) of a VOC is proportional to the difference between the
saturation or equilibrium concentration in the water body and the existing concentration of the VOC in the
water body. This is:
r= —k(C —C,) (3.26)
where r = vaporization rate, g/m* h
k = mass transfer coefficient, m/h
C = existing VOC concentration in water body, g/m*
C, = saturation concentration of VOC in the atinosphere, g/m*
If C < C,, no vaporization occurs. If C > C,, vaporization occurs. If a VOC is assumed to be vaporizing
from a water body of finite area, say a wastewater tank of surface area A, and depth h, then
Outflow due to vaporization = rA,, g/h
dc
Loss of VOC to volume A4,h is = —A,h
dt
Assume vaporization is independent of surface temperature, wind speed, etc., then
dC
a Ash = rA,

Ole, Ee k
—=-=-—-(C-C
dt Ah ns s)
Integrating,
C=C; —kt
= as ST)

and so
—kt
€=C,+ (GC —G)exp — pe (3.28)

where Cp = VOC concentration in air at time zero

and C = VOC concentration in air at any time f

This is a simple model of VOC vaporization (Tchobanoglous and Schroeder, 1987), and assumes
‘still’ air conditions. Vaporization rates increase with wind speeds and air temperatures. As many VOCs
are persistent in the air environment, an indication of their persistence is given by the duration of their
half-life, i.e. the time it takes for the concentration to reduce to half its original.
Introduce C,/2 as the VOC concentration equal to half the initial concentration Co. Replacing C by
C)/2 in Eq. (3.27) gives
Co/2-C,_ (itn
“OCs =exn( A
86 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Typically, C, in the atmosphere is low, so if C,; > 0, then

h
hp = 0.695 Gz9)

Example 3.17 Determine the time required for benzene (CsH.) and DDT (C,4H,Cls) to vaporize to
half their original concentrations from a wastewater treatment plant holding tank of depth 2 m. The mass
transfer coefficient for benzene is 0.144 m/h and for DDT is 9.34 x 10-3 m/h. Values for transfer
coefficients are given in Tchobanoglous and Schroeber (1987).

Solution
Equation (3.29) is

h
j2 = 0.69 je

for benzene, k = 0.144 m/h

and DDT, = 9,34 x 10-7 m/h

Therefore for benzene,

0.69 x 2
= ——— =9 5h
2 044
and for DDT,

0.69 x 2
Bee
NS
De eye AT (Grd
Oe
Other VOCs, like dieldrin or lindane, have half-lifes as long as three years and one year respectively.

3.2.5 The Carbonate System

The carbonate system of acid—base reactions is ubiquitous in the environment, particularly so in the water
medium. Inorganic chemical species originating in minerals (e.g. CaCO3) and in the atmosphere (CO>)
can become dissolved in water. They have the effect of impacting on the pH, alkalinity and buffer
capacity of waters. Regarding the various dissociation constants in the following description, the higher
the dissociation constant, the more rapidly the chemical equation goes towards completion. For instance,
the chemical reaction associated with the dissociation constant of 4.47 x 107’ is more rapid than that
associated with a dissociation constant of 4.8 x 107’. A simplified carbonate system is presented
stepwise, beginning with atmospheric CO) being dissolved in water vapour.
Step I Gaseous CO,(g) in the atmosphere dissolves in water vapour (H2O) to produce aqueous
CO,(aq):

CO2(g) <> CO, (3.30)

With Henry’s constant (see Table 3.10),

Ky, = 0.164 x 104 atm/mole at 25°C

Using Henry’s law,

Pco,(g) = KyXx¢ G3
 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 87

If the concentration of CO, in the atmosphere is 330 ppm (see Chapter 8), then Pco,(g) = 0.000 33:

0.000 33 atm = (0.164 x 10* atm) (xz = mole fraction)

Therefore Ao Oa Ot
so
Ng
Pym aes: (3:32)

where Ny = 55.6 mole/L

The molar concentration of [CO2(aq)] = ng © nyXg

—o500e2 OlealOe!
[CO2(aq)] = 1.12 x 10-> mole/L (3.33)
Saturation concentration in mg/L,
C, = Nco, X mole weight
= 1.12 x 10° mole/L x 32 g/mole x 10°
= 0.36 mg/L

Step 2 Aqueous CO,(aq) reacts with H,O in a water medium, e.g. a freshwater river, to form weak
carbonic acid (H»CO3) as:
CO2(aq) + H20 < H2CO3 (3.34)
The equilibrium expression is

= Cora a iltns Mir (335)

The molar concentration of

[H2CO3] = K[CO2(aq)] (3.36)
= Opel0s allo 10=
[H2CO3] = 1.79 x 10-8 mole/L Gm)
It is difficult to differentiate between CO,(aq) and H,CO3 in solution as [CO2(aq)] © 625[H2CO3]. An
‘effective carbonic acid’ term is introduced and defined as
H2CO3* = HCO; + CO>(aq) (3.38)

Molar concentration of
[H2CO3*] = [H2COs3] + [CO2(aq)] G39)
= 1.79 < 10 2a 10—
[H2CO3*] © 1.12 x 10-> mole/L (3.40)

Step 3 In the water medium, carbonic acid (H2CO3*) is diprotic, i.e. it dissociates in two steps: firstly to
the bicarbonate ion (HCO;_) and secondly to the carbonate ion (COx *): The dissociation to bicarbonate
1S:
H,CO3* <« Ht + HCO3~ (3.41)

The equilibrium expression is

_eee
[H*][HCO3"] = 4.47 x 1077 mole/L (3.42
SE; CO7) i !
88 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Secondly, the bicarbonate ion (HCO3_) dissociates to the carbonate ion (CO,”-) and the hydrogen ion
(H*) as
HCO;~ < Ht + CO;?- (3.43)

The equilibrium expression is

2 =eeaieers
COs] | ~ 4.8 x 107'! mole/L (3.44)
3

Summary of major equilibria in the carbonate system

CO2(g) <* CO2(aq)

CO (aq) + H20 — H2CO3
H,CO3* = CO2(aq) + H2CO3
H)CO; « HCO; + Ht
HCO3~ < CO3*- + H*
H,O ~— Ht + OH”

Step 4 Limestone (CaCO3) in solid form has the solubility reaction:

CaCO; < Ca?* + CO3?- (3.45)
where the solubility product is
Ki (Care (€Os- = 5: 0m niole
4)ba (3.46)

Example 3.18 Determine the pH of rainwater if the concentration of CO, in the atmosphere is
330 ppm at 25°C and | atm.

Solution
pH = —log[H*]
The mole concentration of [H*] is required. For electroneutrality, the hydrogen ion concentration is
balanced by the negative ions of bicarbonate, carbonate and hydroxide, as inferred from Sec. 3.2.2:
[H*] = [HCO;~]+ 2[CO37-]+ [OH] (3.47)
bicarbonate carbonate hydroxide

The pH of rainwater is known to be <7; hence the values of the bases, [C OR] and [OH], are negligible.
Thus:

[H™] © [HCO3~] (3.48)

The equilibrium expression from H>CO3* is

[H*] [HCO37] &

Kk, I =———_—_
[H,CO3*] 4, 47 x 1077
107" mole/L (3.49)

Therefore

[H*](H*]
Kk, | + ———_
[H>CO3*] (3.50)

However, from Eq. (3.40),

[H,CO3*] = 1210s mole/1.

 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 89

Therefore

[H+ = K,[HCO;*]
= 4.47 « 1077 x12) 10>
[H+] = 2.24 x 10-6
pH = —log [H*]
= 65

Example 3.19 Determine (a) the pH and (b) the alkalinity of the following groundwater at 15°C.

Constituent Concentration (mg/L)

Car 190
Mg?* 84
Na* 75
Fe*t 0.1
(digs 0.2
HCO, 260
SOsam 64
COe 30
Cla 440
NO; 35

Solution

(a) pH
Consider the dissociation of HCO;:

[HCO3~] = [CO3*-]+ [H*]

yeratioe
quilionum
ent
consta Nn 9) SS
yee [C0377]
[HCO3-]

At 15°C from Appendix A4, Kz = 3.72 x 107!! mole/L

Atomic mass of HCO3” = 61 g/mole

Therefore ae
[HCO;_]=
1000 x 61 = 4.96 x 10 mole/L.
mole/

Atomic mass of CO,” = 60g/mole

Therefore

30
2—) — ——____ = 5,() x 10~* mole/L
oO 000 x60 is /
From the above equation,

[HCO37-] Pie 4-20 x 10-3

(A 4) i= KS eect
(CO32]er BD se "5 ei an
Oris

=3.17.x 10>"
pH = —log[{H*] = 9.5
90 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

(b) Alkalinity

Concentration €on: x valence

Ion (mg/L) Valence mg/L

HCO; 260 | 260

CO 30 2 60

Alkalinity = 260 + 60 = 320 mg/L

Example 3.20 Given the following water quality analysis, determine the unknown values:
Ca?* = 40 mg/L
Mg?* =)
Nat =
Ke = 39.1 me/L
HCO; =7
Sore = 96 mg/L
Cle = 35,0 mg/l
Alkalinity =3 meq/L
Non-carbonate hardness = 1 meq/L

Solution
(aa Use alkalinity to determine [HCO;].

Alkalinity is due to the presence of HCO; only.

Atomic mass of HCO3” = 61g

Alkalinity = 3 meq/L =
[HCO3"]
61

Therefore [HCO37] = 183 mg/L

(b) Use hardness to determine [Mg**]:

Total hardness = carbonate hardness + non-carbonate hardness
{Ca?* + Mg?*} = 3 meq/L - 1 meq/L
C 2+ M 2+
Mee ] i! oy Earned
equivalent mass equivalent mass
4070 Meta
20 pee
[Mg**] = 24.4 mg/L

(c wa Use the anion—cation balance to determine [Na‘]:

Concentration Equivalent mass Concentration Concentration Equivalent mass Concentration

Cations (mg/L) (mg/meq) (meq/L) Anions (mg/L) (mg/meq) (meq/L)

Cee 40 20 2.0 HCO; ~—s-:183 61 3

Mg?t 24.4 12.2 2.0 SO,- 96 48 2
Kt 39.1 39.1 1.0 Clas 355) Boe 1
Na‘ x 23 x/23
Total $+ x/23 6
 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 91

Assume )° anions = )> cations

x
6=5+—
33
Therefore [Nat] = x = 33 mg/L

Buffers Some rivers when subjected to acid rain suffer a reduction in pH and become acidified. Other
rivers when subjected to acid rain suffer no serious pH reduction and do not become acidic. The reason
for the difference in response is due to the presence or absence of ‘buffering capacity’. A riverine system
is said to have buffering capacity if it resists changes in pH. This ‘resistance’ is due to the presence of
species of the carbonate system. Weak bases, such as HCO; _, CO; and OH", all contribute to resist pH
changes if a strong acid is added. The ‘acids’ of acid rain are the strong acids of nitric acid (HNO3) and
sulphuric acid (H2SO4). Similarly, the weak acids, such as HjCO3 and H30*, resist pH changes if a strong
base (e.g. NaOH) is added. Most freshwater systems have a pH range of 6 to 9. As such, it is only the
weak bases and weak acids that contribute to a riverine system’s buffering capacity. Figure 3.11 shows the
titration curve of the weak carbonic acid, H,CO3, with a strong base, NaOH. It is seen that in the pH range
of interest, 6 to 9, the pH changes only slowly. This means that carbonic acid behaves as a buffer in this
pH region. By comparison, it is also seen that the strong acid, H,SOu,, has no buffering capacity in this pH
region, when titrated with a strong base.
In the self-ionization of water, the ion product remains constant. The hydration of protons is generally
assumed and so [H30°] is equivalent to [H*]:
H,0+H2,0 <= H307T + OH

K=O On 10s"
If the concentration of the weak bases [OH] is increased by the addition of a strong base (e.g. NaOH)
then the concentration of [H;0*] decreases. In the major equilibrium equations of the carbonate system,
as [OH] increases the following equations move to the right as:
CO2(aq) + H2O — H2CO3
HCO; + H2,0 — H3;0* + HCO37
HCO;~ +H,0 — H30* + CO;?-

In moving to the right, more HCO3_ is produced while reducing CO, thus reducing only slightly the pH.
However, since there is only a finite amount of CO>(aq), eventually this will be all used up in the
production of HCO; . When this reservoir of HCO3 (or COz) is spent, the pH will decrease rapidly.

H,SO,
Acid,
Sulphuric

NEO)» Ei at

Figure 3.11 Titration curves of carbonic acid and sulphuric acid.

92 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Buffering is of major interest in retaining water quality for aquatic life in riverine systems. Some
anthropogenic activities (exotic forestry) whose acidifying effects (see Chapter 6) can be counteracted by
natural buffering capacity can be permitted without having a negative impact on water quality. However,
where the buffering capacity of the stream is poor, such activities may be harmful to aquatic life.
Buffering is also of importance in water and wastewater treatment. For instance, as many wastewater
treatment processes are biological (e.g. activated sludge and anaerobic digestion), inadequate buffering
capacity may cause the pH to go outside the optimum performance range for the micro-organisms. When
this occurs, inhibition of micro-organisms occurs and plant operation may fail. In the same way, the
nitrification process in wastewater treatment produces nitrous and nitric acids which may require the
addition of lime or NaOH for neutralization. In potable water treatment, the addition of coagulants often
causes a reduction in pH, and this too may need to be neutralized by the addition of lime. Liming is a
common process in the management of exotic forestry where acidification of streams occurs (Howells and
Dalziel, 1992). Lime is typically added from the air to eventually filter through the forest canopy, the soil
and thence to the stream system, neutralizing the pH of the stream and permitting a habitat suitable for
supporting fish life.

3.2.6 Oxidation—Reduction
In acid-base reactions, some compounds are proton (H*) donors while others are proton acceptors, e.g.
NH3 + H0<— NH,t + OH-
free ammonium
ammonia ion

i.e. the free ammonia accepts a proton and transforms to the ammonium ion. In an analogous way,
oxidation—reduction reactions involve electron (e ) donors (or reductants) and electron acceptors
(oxidants). With no free electrons in water solutions, an oxidation reaction is always accompanied by a
reduction reaction. Where both oxidation and reduction occur in a single equation, the cumulative is
called a redox equation. The individual equations are sometimes termed half-reactions.

Reduction : O, +4H*t +4e— = 2H,O

Oxidation : 4Fe*+ = 4Fe3+ + 4e-
Redox reaction : O, + 4Fe*t + 4H+ = 4Fe?+ +2HDO
Oxidation-reduction phenomena are significant in environmental engineering aspects of water and
wastewater. The reduction of oxygen by organic matter in freshwater is represented by

CH,0 + O, — CO, +H20

oxidized reduced

Such oxygen depletion (reduction) is undesirable, particularly in freshwaters supporting fish life. In the
nitrogen cycle, NH4* is oxidized to NO; in water and is represented by

NH,4t + 20, > NO3;- +2H+ +H>O

oxidized reduced

An ‘oxidation number’ is the charge which an atom of that element has or appears to have in a
compound. The fundamentals of oxidation numbers or states are:
. In free elements, each atom has a zero oxidation number.
. In simple ions, the oxidation number is equal to the charge on the ion.
. Halogens have an oxidation number of 17.
In most compounds, oxygen has an oxidation number of 27.
. In most compounds, hydrogen has an oxidation number of 1+. In hydrides it is
1~.
. In neutral molecules, the oxidation number of all atoms add up to zero. In complex
ions, the oxidation
number adds up to the charge of the ion.
 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 93

Examples of oxidation numbers:

NH4t :H=1+:3N=3-
HoS:H=17:5>S=27

CH4,:H=1t:3C=4-

Noe No = 02 N= 0
NOs sO Jee Ni
INQ3~ 3)
se D> 9 Ss IN) = Spr
SO4-
:O0 =2- :>S=6
ECO a Oeee Cra

‘Oxidation’ is defined as the ‘loss’ of electrons from a substance. Oxidation is shown to occur if the
oxidation state of the substance on the left side of the reaction equation ‘increases’ on going to the right
side, e.g.

4Fe?+ — 4Fe3+

Typical oxidation agents include:

e Non-metallic elements, accepting electrons to form anions, e.g. Brz, Clo, In, O2
¢ Metal cations, accepting electrons to form neutral molecules as used in the electro-industries, e.g.
GiigAl st Age! An
e Jons with an element in a high oxidation number, e.g. MnO, , Cr Ow

‘Reduction’ is defined as the ‘gain’ of electrons by a substance. Reduction is shown to occur if the
oxidation state of the substance on the left side of the reaction equation ‘decreases’ on going to the nght
side, e.g.

O, + 4H*t + 4e — 2H,O

Examples of redox reactions:

Metals with acids : Mg?+ +H)SO, — MgSO, + Hp
Metals with water : 2Nat+2H,O — 2NaOH+H>
Metals with non-metals : 2Nat + Ch — 2NaCl
Organic combustion : CgHig + 12.502 — 8CO,+9H,0

Example 3.21 Balance the redox reaction of sodium dichromate (NajCr207) with ethyl alcohol
(C>H5O0H) (Humenick, 1977) if the products of the reaction are Cr? and CO;.

Solution

1. Balance the principal atom:

N»2Cr207 =? Ch

C»H;OH >2 CO,

2. Balance the non-essential ions:

Na2Cr2.07 —>2 (he +2 Nat

C,H;OH >2 CO,

94 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

3. Balance oxygen with oxygen in water:

NaoCrOQy > 2 Cre+ + 2Nat* + 7H2O
3 H,O + C,H;0H — 2 CO,

4. Balance hydrogen with hydrogen ions:

14H*+ + Na,Cr.O07 > 2Cr>+ +2Nat+7H2O
3H,O + C,H;OH — 2CO, + 12H*

5. Balance charges with the electrons:

6e— + 14Ht + NaCr.07 > 2Cr?>+ + 2Nat +7H,O
3 H,O + C)H;OH — 2CO, + 12 Ht + 12e7

6. Balance the number of electrons in each half reaction and add together:
6e— + 14H+ + NapCr,0, > 2Cr>+ +2Na* +7H,0, multiply by 2
3 H2O + C,HsOH — 2CO,) + 12H* + 12e7, multiply by 1
Add:
y> = 28 Ht + 2.NajCr,07 + 3 H2O + CoHsOH > 4Cr?* +4Nat +2CO) + 14H,O + 12Ht
7. Subtract common items from both sides of the equation:
16H + 2Na,Cr.07 + C2H;OH > 4Cr3+ +4Nat +2CO,) + 11 HO

Application of oxidation—reduction reactions The following are some of the more common redox
reactions in environmental engineering:

e Solubilization and precipitation of iron and manganese, particularly in the treatment of groundwaters to
be used by municipalities and pharmaceuticals/beverage industries
e The use of chlorine and ozone as oxidants in water and wastewater treatment for bacterial disinfection
(see Chapter 11 and 12)
e In wastewater treatment, the removal of nitrogen by nitrification and dentrification either biologically or
chemically assisted
e In anaerobic wastewater/sludge digesters producing methane
e In municipal and industrial wastewater treatment plants, the oxidation of organic substances, typified in
BOD or COD reductions
¢ Corrosion of metals

Each reaction is characterized by a redox potential which is calculated from the Nerst equation:

By = By +"RT . [[oxidized species

pecies]
(352)
F [reduced species]

where E\, = equilibrium redox potential, volts

Eo = standard reduction potential at pH = 0 and at 25°C and at 1 atm
= 1.23 V and Eo = Ey when [Ox] = [Red]
R = gas constant, 8.314 J/mole K°
T = absolute temperature, K°
n = number of electrons transferred
F = Faraday constant, 96 487 c/mole
 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 95

The £}, potential is a measure of the potential, for a substance to be oxidized/reduced. The range of £}, in
the natural environment is 0.6 V (well oxidized) to —0.8 (intensely reduced). Surface waters have a range
of £,, from 0.2 to +0.5 V.

Consider the redox of water:

Oxidation : 2H20 @— O, + 4H? + 4e7

352
Reduction : 2H20 + 4e— «= Hp + 20H- \ )
According to Eq. (3.52), hydrogen ions are released when water is oxidized, thereby changing the
hydrogen ion [H*] concentration of water, i.e. pH change. The typical range of pH in natural waters is 4 to
9. This is determined by the carbonate system components: CO, HCO; and CO3”. Values less than pH
4 are rare but may be due to oxidation of sulphide minerals. Similarly, pH > 9 is also rare and such
alkaline environments are possibly due to sodium carbonate (O’Neill, 1991). The Merst equation for
water is:
4
ea an (oe )
Ale [H.O}

ona (4 x 8.314 x 298

96 487
)ino [H*})
= 1.23 + 0.0148 log ([O2] [H*]*)
= 1.23 + 0.0148 log [Oz] + 0.059 log [H*]
Recall that the atmosphere is made up of 21 per cent O3, so the partial pressure of O; =0.21 atm (at
2526) Therefore

E, = 1.23 + 0.0148 log [0.21] — 0.059 pH

= 1.22 — 0.059 pH
Figure 3.12 is a plot of the £,,/pH for some natural water environments. It is seen that typical rainwater,
which has a pH of about ~ 5.7, has an £},~0.5 V. As ‘rain’ finds its way to streamwater, it becomes
somewhat ‘reduced’ to an £,~0.4 V and a corresponding pH ~6.0. This assumes that in its
transformation from rain to streamwater it does not encounter acidifying soil or vegetative influences (e.g.
exotic forestry). If it does, and the rainwater remains in the soils and becomes waterlogged, it may become
acidic with a pH _~4.5 and an £;, ~ 0. In other words, water remaining waterlogged becomes reduced.

3.3 ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY

The following section is a brief introduction to atmospheric chemistry, necessary for the later chapters on
air pollution and air pollution control. The region of the atmosphere of key interest to the environmental
engineer is that closest to the earth’s surface, where the chemical composition of the air is 78 per cent
nitrogen and 21 per cent oxygen, which are essential for life in the biosphere. However, these elements
react in the atmosphere and can produce undesirable features such as smog. The primary pollutants, which
are emissions from anthropogenic sources are principally the oxides of sulphur, the oxides of nitrogen, the
oxides of carbon, hydrocarbons, metals and particulates. The chemistry of these is briefly explained but
the reader is referred to Seinfield (1986) for greater details, particularly with regard to secondary
pollutants. The most significant secondary pollutants (resulting from the reactions of primary pollutants in
the atmosphere) are those of ozone (O3) and acid rain. Metals, including lead and mercury, are discussed
in the chapter on air pollution (Chapter 8).
96 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Le |
Water oxidized

(volts)
potential
Redox

Se iz |

ae \ Reducing

ber ee ,
8 10 12 14
Alkaline ——>
pH

SSSoee Boundaries within which most normal environmental

systems lie
1 Rain 2 Rivers 3 Oceans (surface waters)
4 Waterlogged soils 5 Reducing marine sediments
6 Water affected by sulphide oxidation problems

Figure 3.12 £,/pH for some natural water environments (adapted from O’Neill, 1991. Reprinted by permission of Chapman and
Hall).

3.3.1 Structures of the Earth’s Atmosphere

The thin film of gas that surrounds the earth varies in structure as the distance increases outward from the
surface. The earth’s atmosphere is divided into regions based primarily on considerations of temperature
gradients, as shown in Fig. 3.13. The temperature at the earth’s surface varies from sub-zero °C in the
polar regions and high mountainous areas to highs of about 70°C in the arid desert regions. The
corresponding air temperatures close to the earth’s surface (within a few metres) are lows of sub-zero and
highs of about 50°C. In very warm areas, the air temperature is typically 10 to 20°C cooler than the hot
surface temperatures. Typically, at mid latitudes, the temperature falls with increasing altitude in the
troposphere. This is known as a positive lapse rate. The increase continues to an altitude known as the
tropopause, above which the temperature increases again in the region known as the stratosphere. The
height of the troposphere is about 10 km above the earth’s surface, while the stratosphere extends a further
20 to 30 km.
The lower 0 to 2 km of the troposphere can be further divided into several regions. This entire region
(0 to 2 km) is called the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL). The ABL is that region where the wind
velocity is affected by the shear resistance of the earth’s surface. This ABL is shallowest over oceans or
large inland waterways, where its height is about 500 m. The depth of the ABL may be up to 2km in
urban areas with many tall structures. In typical rural areas, the ABL depth is about 1 km. At the earth’s
surface, the wind velocity is lowest, and increases gradually (non-linearly) to the top of the ABL. Above
 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 97

Temperature

300

Thermosphere

i) oe See Mesopause
Mesosphere
(km)
H Silents Stratopause

30
Stratosphere

ls \esseosse Tropopause
Troposphere

0 300 600
T (K)
Figure 3.13 Vertical temperature profile of earth’s atmospheric regions.

the ABL, the wind velocity is approximately constant, being unaffected by the shear resistance of the
earth’s surface. The region of most interest for atmospheric pollution is that within the ABL, though
higher regions within the troposphere are of interest to large-scale air circulation behaviour and global
climate circulation modelling. A region close to the earth’s surface, called the sublayer of the ABL, is
affected by local roughness and is characterized by high turbulence and strong mixing. This height
depends on the fetch of the localized roughness, but may be as low as a few metres.
In addition to the atmospheric gases of Table 3.11, which are relatively constant, there are a number
of variable constituents of natural origin. These are listed in Table 3.12.

Table 3.11 Average composition

of the atmosphere

Gas Composition by volume (ppm)

No 780 900
O, 209 500
A 9300
CO, 300
Ne 18
He 2
CH, Dep)
Kr 1
N2O 1
Hp 0.5
Xe 0.08
O3 0.02
NH; 0.006
NO, 0.001
NO 0.000 6
SO, 0.000 2
98 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Table 3.12 Variable constituents of the earth’s

atmosphere of natural origin

Water as water vapour HFL (of volcanic origin)

Airborne soil or sand HS (Sulphide bacteria of volcanic origin)
NaCl Ozone
Meteoric dust Pollen
Volcanic dust and ash Bacteria
SO, Spores
HCL (of volcanic origin) Condensation nuclei

Adapted from Magill et al., 1956

The atmosphere is computed to weigh 4.5 x 10'° tonnes. The density of the atmosphere at ground
level is 1.29 g/L (1.29 kg/m?) and decreases with altitude. It also decreases with increasing temperature.
The above values are for standard temperature (273.16 K) and pressure (1013.25 mbar= 101.3 kPa). In
terms of gas volume, it is known that 1 gram mole of an ideal gas, at STP (standard temperature and
pressure) occupies 22.414 litres. An ideal gas is one that obeys the ideal gas law:
PV =nRT (3.93)

where §_P = pressure, Pa (N/m?)

V = volume, m?
n = number of moles
R = gas constant = 8.314 J/K moles
T = temperature, K
R = Rg (in dry air) = 287.04 J/kg K
R=R,, (for moist air) = 461.5 J/kg K

In addition to the existence of the atmosphere (the thin film of gas enveloping the planet earth), there
is also a hydrosphere which contains all the water in the oceans, lakes and rivers. The hydrosphere is
about 230 times heavier than the atmosphere. There is a constant flux of chemicals, primarily gaseous,
between these two spheres, as well as a constant flux of heat and momentum. This area of science is called
land (ocean)—atmosphere interaction.

3.3.2 Chemical Composition of the Earth’s Atmosphere

Table 3.11 shows the concentration of gases in the earth’s atmosphere (troposphere) close to ground level.
This ‘air’ is about 78 per cent by volume of nitrogen (N>), 21 per cent oxygen (O2) and | per cent argon
(Ar) with fractions of a per cent for CO, CH4, H2, CO, etc. This ABL layer is of most interest since it is
the zone where most living matter exists. However, microbial life has been found in the stratosphere, but
only in minute quantities.

3.3.3 Contaminant Gases in the Earth’s Atmosphere

From Table 3.11 it is seen that many trace gases exist in the atmosphere at levels of parts per million
(ppm) and parts per billion (ppb), or even as low as parts per trillion (ppt). For instance, SO, has
background levels (in a ‘clean’ atmosphere) of about 200 ppt. However, in highly polluted air
environments, the levels of SO) can be as high as 200.000 ppt or about 0.0002 per cent by volume. This
is, in the overall picture, a small fraction; however, it is because of its toxicity to humans and other life
forms that it is undesirable.
 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 99

The primary pollutants are those that are emitted by identifiable man-made sources and are

e SO, and SO,

e CO
e NO,
@ Metals
e Particulates
e Hydrocarbons
e Aerosols

The secondary pollutants are those formed in the atmosphere by chemical/photochemical reactions of the
primary pollutants, and are

O3
Photochemical oxidants including peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN)
Oxidized hydrocarbons
Acid rain

There is also a regulatory (USEPA) list of pollutants which are defined and listed in Chapter 8.

Sulphur oxides Pollution from sulphur oxides is primarily from two colourless gaseous compounds,
sulphur dioxide, SO, and sulphur trioxide, SO3. Together they are called SO,. Sulphur dioxide has a
pungent odour and does not burn in air. Sulphur trioxide is highly reactive. The simplified mechanism for
the formation of SO, is

SPO. S0, (3.54)

DSO 0; SSO) (3.55)
Typically, SO; is of the order of 1 to 10 per cent of the total SO,. At low temperatures, eq. (3.55) proceeds
so slowly that the equilibrium condition is rarely achieved and so, little SO3 is produced. At high
temperatures, the equilibrium mixtures contain lower SO; than at low temperatures. At high temperatures,
the reaction rate is rapid, thus achieving equilibrium rapidly, but little SO; is present in the mixture. Also,
SO; exists in the air as a gas only if the concentration of water vapour is very low. When sufficient water
vapour is present, the SO3 and water combine rapidly to form droplets of sulphuric acid, H2SO,,
according to
SOHO S03 (3.56)
Thus, H>SO, is the compound most commonly found in the atmosphere, rather than SO3. In the
atmosphere, SO, is in part converted to SO3 and then to H2SO, by photolytic and catalytic processes.

Carbon monoxide Carbon monoxide, CO, is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gaseous compound.
It is only slightly lighter than air (p ~ 1.25 g/L at STP) and is weakly soluble in water (see Table 3.10). It
may be formed from:
1. Incomplete combustion of carbon or carbon compounds when there is an O> deficit for complete
combustion.
2. By dissociation of CO, at high temperatures.
3. High-temperature reactions between CO, and carbon compounds.
The combustion of carbon fuels is:

2C+0, — 2CO (3:37)

2CO+0,7 — 2CO, (3.58)
100 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

The first reaction is about 10 times faster than the second; CO is thus an intermediary product and may
show up as an end product if insufficient O, is available for the second reaction. The dissociation of CO
iS

CO, + CO+0 (3.59)

and only occurs at very high temperatures (>1700°C). High-temperature reactions of CO and C are
represented by
CO, +C > 2CO (3.60)

which takes place only at very high temperatures. Automobiles are still the greatest contributors of CO to
the atmosphere and soils provide a source for removing the CO.

Oxides of nitrogen The basic chemistry of the formation of nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide
(NO) is
No +O, ~ 2NO (3.61)
INO +07 2NO; (3.62)
Nitric oxide is a colourless, odourless gas, while nitrogen dioxide is a red-brown gas with a pungent,
choking odour. Although other oxides of nitrogen exist (NO3, N20, N2Os), only NO and NO» are
dominant. NO is emitted to the atmosphere in greater quantities than NO> (the reverse of CO and CO).
As nitrogen makes up 78 per cent and oxygen 21 per cent of the typical ‘air’ volume, N> and O; tend to
react with each other, but only at temperatures >1200°C. This reaction thus occurs during high-
temperature combustion processes and can be considered a side reaction of combustion (Stoker and
Seager, 1972). Once in the atmosphere some NO is converted to NO, by photolysis (ultraviolet sunlight
energy) and does not involve a reaction with O,. Many of the serious effects of NO, pollution result from
their role in the formation of photochemical oxidants which are the harmful components of smog. The
photolytic process is represented as
(a) NO, + hv > NO + O* 3.63
where hy represents the photon of solar radiation of energy
and O* is a very reactive atomic oxygen

(b) OF Ore 03 3.64

(c) O3 + NO > NO; + O> 3.65

This process is cyclic, as shown in Fig. 3.14. However, the process would be ‘ideally’ cyclic producing no
net NOs, just a rapid cycling of NO2 (with O3 and NO being produced and destroyed in equal quantities),
were it not for the competing interests of hydrocarbons (HCs).
HCs interact in such a way that the cycle is unbalanced and NO is converted into NO, faster than
NO) dissociates into NO and O. This causes a buildup of O03. When NO,, HCs and sunlight combine, they
initiate a complex set of reactions that produce secondary pollutants called photochemical oxidants, ozone
(O3) being the most serious. This reaction can be represented in its simplest form by

HC + NO, + sunlight + photochemical smog

Nitric acid (HNO3) is one of the acids of acid rain (another being sulphuric acid, HySO4). One mechanism
for the formation of HNO; is

O3 + NO, — NO; + O> (3.66)

NO3 + NO2 > NOs (3.67)
 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 101

Ultraviolet
sunlight energy

NO,

NO 0,

oF vA O,

Figure 3.14 Photolytic NO2 cycle (adapted from Stoker and Seager, 1972).

Another is
2 NO, + H2O0 — HNO; + HNO, (3.69)
These topics are further discussed in Chapter 8.

Particulates While most air pollutants in the previous sections are gases, there are also many particulate
pollutants, which in some cases are by-products of gaseous pollutants, e.g. NyO; + HO — HNO;. Table
3.13 shows a wide range of particulate matter components from coal combustion, which may be
discharged into the atmosphere if adequate scrubbing facilities are not in place. Many industries still emit
particulates, although environmental legislation has been successful in reducing many particulate
emissions.
Particulate matter ranges in size from as small as 10° mm to as large as 1 mm. Because of their very
small size, they remain in the atmosphere for long periods and can travel great distances. They will, on
their own or on agglomeration with water droplets, settle to the earth’s surface. Particulates of natural
origin may be dust storms, volcanic ash and forest fires. An oddity of particulate natural pollution in
recent years has been the migration of Saharan dust to northern Europe. Particulate matter, either of
natural or anthropogenic form, is undesirable as it impedes lung efficiency in humans and animals.

Table 3.13 Fly ash composition of

coal combustion

Component Fly ash (%)

Aluminium (as Al,03) 9.81-58.4

Silicon (as SiOz) 17.3-63.6
Carbon 0.37-36.2
Tron (as Fe,03 or Fe304) 2.0-26.8
Magnesium (as MgO) 0.06—-4.77
Calcium (as CaO) 0.12-14.73
Sulphur (as SO2) 0.12-24.33
Titanium (as TiO) 0-2.8
Carbonate (as CO37~) 0-2.6
Phosphorus (as POs) 0.07-47.2
Potassium (as K,O) 2.8-3.0
Sodium (as Na2O) 0.2-0.9

Adapted from Stoker and Seager, 1972

102 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Particulate matter also interferes with plant growth when deposited on their leaves, it impedes
photosynthesis by shielding sunlight from the plant and it interferes with the balance of CO2 between the
plant and the atmosphere. Some particulatés are toxic and these are discussed further in Chapter 8.

Hydrocarbons By definition, hydrocarbon compounds contain only the elements of hydrogen and
carbon. There are, however, many thousands of such compounds in all three physical states. Of interest
are those HCs that are gases at normal temperature or are volatile, and they account for about 200 HC
compounds in urban air. They are sometimes classified into three types, based on the molecular structure.
1. Aliphatic or acyclic HCs, where all carbon atoms are arranged in chains (no rings) and without
branching, e.g.

gee
ane H a0) H
Propane, C3Hg

2. Aromatic HCs contain six carbon rings (benzene) in their molecules and each carbon atom has an H or
C attached to it, e.g.

AL ana ane

aes aa een
|
H aie

Benzene, CoH¢ H
Toluene, C7Hg

3. Alicyclic HCs are those containing a ring structure (six Cs) other than benzene.

Cyclohexane, C6H

In the urban air, HCs contain values typically in the level <ppm. For instance, CH, ~3 ppm,
C6Hg¢ ~ 0.03 ppm and C7Hg (toluene) ~ 0.05 ppm, were measured in Los Angeles urban air. Methane is
by far the highest, but most of its concentration is from natural biological processes. It is added to by
landfill sites, forest fires and automobiles. In general, automobiles account for most of the HCs in the
urban air. HCs are undesirable in the atmosphere because of their toxicity, particularly the more common
benzene compounds, e.g. C6He and C7Hg.

3.4 SOIL CHEMISTRY

Soils are porous media formed at the earth’s surface by the process of weathering over long periods,
contributed to by biological, geological and hydrologic phenomena. Soils differ from rocks in that their
 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 103

buildup over time shows layers of different soil types on top of each other, with definite vertical
stratification. Soils are considered as multicomponent, open, biogeochemical systems containing solids,
liquids and gases. Being open systems, they are subject to fluxes of mass and energy with the atmosphere,
biosphere and hydrosphere, and their composition is spatially highly variable and also changes with time
(Sposito, 1989). Soils are made up of three phases of solids, liquids and gases (including air and water
vapour). The composition of each phase depends on the climate, moisture content, closeness to the
surface and a host of other factors. Soils may also be organic or inorganic, but usually a combination of
both. Organic soils may contain a vastness of microbial activity. Ten grams of soil may contain a microbial
population equal to that of the earth’s human population. One kilogram may contain as much as 500
billion bacteria, 10 million actinomycetes and 1 billion fungi, with a length of root system in the first
metre for a single plant of up to 600 km. Therefore, because of the different phases in a soil sample, the
microbial population, the vast number of elements and of minerals and heterogeneity of structure, soils are
a dynamic domain. It is because of these and other phenomena of transport of soils from area to area that
the physics and chemistry of soils is undoubtedly most complex, much more so than that of air or water.

3.4.1 Chemical Composition of Soils

Table 3.14 indicates the main elements present in soil and in the rock crust. It is seen that in soils the 10
most abundant elements are:
In soils : O= Si> Al> Fes C= Ca K j'Na= Me= Ti
In crustal rocks : O> Si] sAl > Vee Ca Mea Na Ki li =P

The elements present in soils may be in either solid, liquid or gaseous form. Many soils have a porosity of
10 to 50 per cent depending on soil type and composition, so some of the elements listed in Table 3.14
may be in more than one phase. Soils in arid climates are typically 90 per cent inorganic matter. The Yolo
clay soil in northern California is about 98 per cent inorganic. In humid temperate climates, the ‘top soils’
(usually 0.1 to 0.3 m depth) will be predominantly organic, giving way to inorganic soils at depths below
the top-soil horizon. Soils are broadly non-homogeneous spatially. The structure of soils changes with
time through weathering, biological activities and water movement. As such, the stoichiometry of soils is
not straightforward. From Table 3.14, oxygen accounts for about 490 g/kg and silicon for about 310 g/kg.
Together, they account for 80 per cent of the soil make-up. They exist not as singular elements, O> or Si,
but combine to form minerals, some of which are listed in Table 3.15 (after Sposito, 1989). The dominant
structural unit in these is the Si—O bond, which is much stronger (and less prone to weathering) than the
typical metal-oxygen bond. The primary minerals are quartz, feldspar, mica, amphibole, pyroxene and
olivine, which have their origin in the parent rock. The secondary minerals are those that result from
weathering over time of the primary minerals (or silicates).
The non-solid fraction of soils is made up of soil air and soil water, ranging from 30 to 60 per cent of
the total volume. While the soil air composition is similar to atmospheric air, there can be wide ranges in
some compounds. Atmospheric air contains 209 500 ppm of O2 while that of soil air can be as low as
20000 ppm (near plant roots) and as high as 200000 ppm. Similarly, CO. in the atmosphere is about
300 ppm but can be much higher in soil air, typically 3000 to 30000 ppm near the earth’s surface and as
high as 100 000 ppm at greater depths. Other gases also vary, and this is due to the intense microbiological
activity in soils.
Soil water is more commonly referred to as soil solution, as it is far from being ‘pure’. It contains
dissolved minerals and colloids and suspensions. Some dissolved solids dissociate into ions, and these in
turn may attach to other ions or other solid particles. Section 3.4.2 discusses exchangeable ions.
Soil water may exist in small amounts as water vapour (<3 per cent by volume of soil). Other gases
exist in the dry pore space or are dissolved from atmospheric air into the soil solution. The amount of a
gas in the soil solution is dependent on the amount in the atmosphere and on Henry’s law gas constant. If
104 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Table 3.14 Mean elemental content in mg/kg in soil and crustal rock
Element Soil Crust EF Element Soil Crust EF

Li 24 20 eZ, Zn 60 75 0.80
Be 0.92 2.6 0.35 Ga Vy 18 0.94
B 33 10 3.3 Ge 12) 1.8 0.67
(€ 25 000 480 Sy) AS 7.2 eS) 48
N 2 000 25 80 Se 0.39 0.05 7.8
O 490 000 474 000 1.0 Br 0.85 0.37 2.3
F 950 430 Dp) Rb 67 90 0.74
Na 12000 23 000 0.52 Sr 240 370 0.65
Mg 9 000 23 000 0.39 Ye 25) 30 0.83
Al 72 000 82 000 0.88 Jie 230 190 jl
Si 310000 277 000 itl Nb 11 20 0.55
P 430 1000 0.43 Mo 0.97 135 0.65
S 1 600 260 6.2 Ag 0.05 0.07 0.71
Cl 100 130 Om Cd 0.35 0.11 3.2
K 15000 21000 0.71 Sn les 2p) 0.59
Ga 24 000 41 000 0.59 Sb 0.66 0.20 3.3
Sc 8.9 16 0.56 I 2 0.14 8.6
Ti 2900 5 600 0.52 Cs 4.0 3.0 eS
Vv 80 160 0.50 Ba 580 500 ee.
(Ge 54 100 0.54 La 37 32 1
Mn 550 950 0.58 Hg 0.09 0.05 1.8
Fe 26 000 41 000 0.63 Pb 19 14 1.4
Co 9.1 20 0.46 Nd 46 38 12
Ni 19 80 0.24 Th 9.4 12; 0.78
Cu 25 50 0.50 U D4] 2.4 Hell

Adapted from Sposito, 1989

the partial pressure of the gas is known and also the gas constant, then the amount of gas in the soil
solution at equilibrium can be determined.

Example 3.22 Determine the amount of CH, in a soil solution for equilibrium conditions.

Solution

Partial pressure of CH, in atmosphere = 2.2 ppm — 2.2 x 10~° atm

Henry’s law gas constant for CH, at 20°C = 2.97 x 104 atm/mole
(see Table 3.10)
2.2 x 10-6
Mole
ole traction
fraction ==
7907 x 104 =
0.741 x 107 =10** mole

Moles of CH, = 0.741 x 107!9 x 55.6

= 41.19 x 107! mole/L
Concentration of CH4, mg/L = 41.19 x 107!9 x 16
= 0,066 < 102-anei
= 4.12 x 10-3 mmole/m?

3.4.2 Exchangeable Ions

The interaction between the solid and liquid phase of a soil can be discussed in terms of the exchange of
cations/anions. Particularly for those soils that are of clay content, they may be largely colloidal (particle
 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 105

Table 3.15 The most common soil minerals

Name Chemical formula Importance

Quartz SiO, Abundant in sand and silt

Feldspar (NaK)AIO,[Si03]; Abundant in soil that is not leached
CaAl O4[SiO>]> extensively
KALb05[Si205]3Al4(OH)4
Mica K5Ab0;[Si205]3(Mg,Fe)o(OH)4 Source of K in most temperate-zone soils
(Ca,Na,K)> 3(Mg,Fe,Al)s(OH)>
Amphibole {(S1,A1)40);]2 Easily weathered to clay minerals and oxides
Pyroxene (Ca,Mg,Fe,Ti,AISi,Al)O; Easily weathered
Olivine (Mg,Fe)2Si04 Easily weathered
Epidote Ca>(Al,Fe)3(OH)Si30;> Highly resistant to chemical
Tourmaline NaMg3A1¢B3Si¢6027(OH,F)4 weathering used as index mineral
Zircon ZrSiO4 in pedologic studies
Rutile TiO,
Kaolinite Si4A14O;9(OH)g Abundant in clay as products of
Smectite M,(S1,Al)g(Al,Fe,Mg)4 weathering; source of exchangeable
Vermiculite Ono(OH)4, where cations in soils
Chlorite | M = interlayer cation
Allophane $i3A1,0)2 -nH,O Abundant in soils derived from
Imogolite SipAl4O;9-5 H2O \ volcanic ash deposits
Gibbsite Al(OH)3 Abundant in leached soils
Goethite FeO(OH) Most abundant: Fe oxide
Hematite Fe,0; Abundant in warm regions
Ferrihydrite Fe}90;5-9H2O Abundant in organic horizons
Bimessite (Na,Ca)Mn7O;4 -2.8 HO Most abundant Mn oxide
Calcite CaCO3 Most abundant carbonate
Gypsum CaSO, -2H20 Abundant in arid regions

Adapted from Sposito, 1989

size 10-* m to 1 ym) and when in soil solution are in suspension. Thus, a fraction of soil water and much
of these ions in soil solution are affected by the electrical charges. Soil colloids have a predominantly
negative charge (—ve) and retain cations (+ve) in the water film on the colloid surface. This retention or
bonding reduces the loss of cations such as Cast Mg?*, KK, Na by processes such as leaching, while
retaining those cations for plant uptake. The fraction of cations available for plant uptake is mostly in soil
solution near colloidal surfaces. These ions can exchange for other ions either in natural or artificial
processes of irrigation, liming or fertilization. For instance, an ammonium sulphate solution passed
through a specific soil column may result in a calcium sulphate leachate. The dominant cation (NH,*)
changes to the cation Ca** in the soil solution, because of the exchange within the soil column. Thus,
soils can be identified in terms of their cation exchange capacities (CEC), 1.e. their affinity for various
cations. The CEC is also influenced by the pH of the soil/soil solution. Table 3.16 shows CEC values and
major exchangeable cations for selected soils. The CEC values are low for coarse soils (~ 10 mmole/kg)
and high for fine texture soils (~ 600 mmoles/kg).
Thus, an ion exchange reaction may be broadly defined as a reaction involving the replacement of
one ionic species in a solid compound by another ionic species taken from an aqueous solution in contact
with the solid (Sposito, 1989). For instance, the exchange of Mg** for Ca** is represented as
CaCO3(s) + Mg?*(aq) < MgCO3(s) + Ca?* (aq) (3.70)
This equation can also be described in terms of its equilibrium constant, such as
_ [MgCO3] [C224]
2+ Loe
[CaCOs] [Mg?*]
The higher the equilibrium constant, the more readily the reaction is likely to go towards equilibrium.
106 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Table 3.16 CEC values and major exchangeable cations of selected soils
Exchangeable cations (% of total)

Soils pH oe | (Ca Mg?* Ke Nat HTtABt

7.0 383 79.0 13.0 2.0 6.0 =

Average of agricultural

7.0 203 65.6 26.3 55 26 fi:

Peers

Rate 7.0 561 84.3 11.0 1.6 3.0 =

ee
a ee eri 10.0 189 0.0 0.0 5.0 95.0 0.0

een ee 4.6 173 48.0 15:7 1.8 0.9 33.6

Pe ican 5.9 200 69.6 11.1 1.5 0.5 17.3

(Sweden)

Adapted from Bohn ef al., 1985. Copyright © 1985. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

The higher the equilibrium constant, the more readily the reaction is likely to go towards equilibrium.
Further details on the CEC are discussed in Chapter 10, and the reader is referred to Sposito (1989) and
Bohn et al. (1985) for further details.

3.4.3 Soil Salinity

Salinity of soils is usually not an issue in temperate climates with organic soils. However, it is a
major issue in the arid and semi-arid areas of the world. A soil solution is considered saline if the
electrical conductivity (EC) is >4000 yus/cm. In the inland fertile areas of California, values in excess
of 1000 ys/cm are regularly found. This is due mainly to the fact that, in these regions, evaporation
exceeds precipitation. Salts are not leached from the soil and therefore accumulate. The main sources
of soil salinity are: mineral weathering, atmospheric precipitation (near coasts), fossil salts and
antropogenic sources, such as irrigation.
Chemical and physical weathering of exposed rocks and minerals is the main source of salts (from
soils). In humid climates, salts are leached down through the soil profile by infiltrating rainwater. When in
the water table, they are further transported to rivers and seas and they enter the hydrological cycle.
However, in arid areas, there is less leaching (downward movement of rainwater and salts) and so the salts
accumulate. This is the case where high evaporation occurs and it is compounded by additional
transpiration rates if these arid areas (valleys) are highly cultivated with irrigation water. The salt
(chloride) concentration of rainwaters near the coast may be up to 200 mg/L and this can add salts to
coastal areas by precipitation. Inland, this mechanism of salt accumulation diminishes as the inland
concentration of rainwater rapidly reduces to ~ 1 mg/L. In areas where reservoirs have been built on
saline sediments, the latter have been transmitted to the downstream waters. Also when areas are irrigated
with water, the water table may tend to rise and the resulting saline groundwaters, when eventually
discharged, will increase the salinity of downstream areas. Some areas of the globe have naturally high
water tables, within a couple of metres of the surface. The water is drawn to the surface by capillarity and
also in water vapour, where it evaporates and leaves behind the salt. Some of these areas are called
saltpans. For further details on salinity, the student is referred to Tanji (1990).
 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 107

3.55 MICROBIOLOGY

Microbiology is the study of micro-organisms, which are distinct from all other living matter by their
small size, in the range 10° to 10° mm. Micro-organisms are important in the water, air and soil
environments, not only because of their ubiquity but also because of their activity, beneficial or otherwise,
in that environment. For instance, 1 gram of rich organic soil may contain as many as 2.5 billion bacteria,
half a million fungi, 50 000 algae and 30 000 protozoa. The water environment, as in rivers and lakes, may
contain undesirable micro-organisms such as algae, viruses, worms, biological slimes, etc. On the other
hand, bacteria are exploited in wastewater treatment processes to biodegrade the organic wastes. In the air
environment, many undesirable organisms such as mould spores, bacteria, yeasts, etc., are found. It is
therefore the task of the environmental engineer and scientist to understand the role of micro-organisms in
the particular environment, so as to beneficially transform that environment. For instance, some
understanding of microbiology is required by the water specialist when determining how much chlorine to
use when disinfecting potable water supplies, when designing a process for purifying wastewater, when
bioremediating a contaminated soil site or when designing an air circulation system for a contaminated air
environment.

3.5.1 Organization of the Microbial World

A simplistic classification of the microbial world in decreasing order of size and level of cell evolution is
presented in Table 3.17.
Micro-organisms can also be classified by their cell make-up. For instance, the lowest form, the virus,
does not have a cell structure and is composed of a double strand of genetic material and a protein coat.
Above the virus are the lower protista, including the bacteria, which are single-cell structures. In the case
of bacteria, these single cells are of a simple primitive kind, called procaryotes, in which the cell nucleus
is not encompassed by a membrane, but is free to move within the cytoplasm. Above the procaryotes
(bacteria) are the higher protista of plants and animals which have a well-developed cell structure
surrounded by a membrane. The organisms are either of single-cell or multicell composition, and are
classed as eucaryotic. Those organisms that are made up of cell structures, either single or multicellular,

Table 3.17 Classification of microbial world

Microbial kingdom Some microbes Cell structure

Animals Worms Unicellular or

Helminths multicellular

Plants Aquatic plants Well-evolved

Macrophytes cell structure
Seed plants —eucaryotic
Ferns
Mosses

Higher protista Fungi

Algae
Protozoa
Rotifers
Crustacea

Lower protista Bacteria Primitive cell

Blue-green algae structure—
Cyanobacteria procaryotic

No cell
Viruses Many structure
ee _
108 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

procaryotic or eucaryotic, can survive on their own, if the nutrient and the food supply is adequate. The
virus, on the other hand, is a non-living obligate parasite and needs other living cells for its reproduction.
The development and continuity of micro-organism life requires cell synthesis, and then cellmaintenance.
To sustain cell synthesis and cell maintenance, food in the form of carbon, energy and nutrients (NN EGS
S, Ca, Mg, etc.) is required. Also some micro-organisms require oxygen for survival and are called
aerobes, while others cannot survive in the oxygen environment and are known as anaerobes. Those
organisms that can survive in either environment are called facultative anaerobes. Those micro-organisms
that use CO, as the food carbon source are called autotrophic while those that utilize organic carbon are
called heterotrophic. In a similar way, those micro-organisms that use light as their energy source are
called phototrophic, while those that use energy from an inorganic chemical source are called
chemotrophs. Thus, those organisms that use light as an energy source and CO; as a food carbon source
are called photoautotrophic (e.g. algae). Those organisms that use light as an energy source and organic
material as the food carbon source are called photoheterotrophic (e.g. photosynthetic bacteria). Many
bacteria that use inorganic matter as the energy source and CO, as the food carbon are called
chemoautotrophs. Those bacteria and protozoa that use inorganic chemicals as the energy source and
organic matter as the food carbon source are called chemoheterotrophs.
The microbial nomenclature is binary, 1.e. it consists of two words indicating:

e Genus (genera
= plural), e.g. Vibrio
e Species, e.g. cholera

The genera, written with a capital letter, are defined in terms of

e Physiological characteristics, e.g. Vibrio, Nitrosomonas
e Pigmentation, e.g. Chromobacterium
e Diseases, e.g. Pneumococcus
e Nutrition, e.g. Amylobacter

3.5.2 Animals, Plants, Fungi, Algae, Protozoa and Viruses

This listing includes most organisms (mostly micro-organisms) of interest in the water, air and soil
environments, except bacteria (which are treated in Sec. 3.5.3). The dominant environment for microbial
proliferation is the soil, where usually there is an abundant supply of carbon, energy, moisture and
nutrients. Soil is also suitable for microbial development since it protects them from the sun’s radiation.
The greatest density of microflora is in the upper layers, sometimes called the organic top soil. The soil
surface tends to be free of micro-organisms, as is the case at greater depths. In the same way the water
environment usually contains sufficient nutrition to maintain micro-organism development, which usually
increases in density during the summer periods when river waters increase in temperature and decrease
their volume and velocities. Rainwater contains few micro-organisms due to its ‘purity’. Generally the air
environment is not suitable for micro-organism growth and development. However, organisms that are
found in the air have their origin in the soil (or water environment).

Animals (worms) The animals of interest to water quality are those of worms,which are of the mm size
and affect human health. The presence of flatworms (several species, including tapeworms) is hazardous
to health if found in water supplies. For instance, different species of nematodes(eel worms, roundworms
and threadworms) are responsible for diseases such as roundworm, hookworm and filarisis. Nematodes
serve a beneficial function in wastewater treatment (percolating filters) where the nematodes break loose
some of the biofilm attached to the media and thus prevent excessive growth on the media and clogging.
Nematodes are insignificant contributors to activated sludge wastewater treatment since the residence time
is too short for their reproduction period.
 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 109

Plants Plant growth in the river environment is generally regarded as undesirable. This is particularly
the case with heterotrophic slimes (sewage fungus) and phototrophic organisms (plants and some
bacteria). The latter include planktonic algae of microscopic plants which drift freely in the water, benthic
algae which grow on the river bed and solid objects such as logs, which are known as periphyton and
macrophytes or larger plants which are often rooted. Undesirable biological growths in rivers/lakes are
associated with elevated concentrations of organic matter (sewage fungus) and nutrients (plants).
Heterotrophic growths respond to elevated concentrations of simple sugars (measured by BOD).
Phototrophs require inorganic forms of nitrogen (ammonium and nitrate) and phosphorus (dissolved
reactive phosphorus). Undesirable sewage fungus growths do not occur when the BOD of the river/lake is
less than 1 mg/L. To prevent benthic algal growth, levels of dissolved inorganic nitrogen should be less
than 0.04 to 0.1 mg/L and levels of dissolved reactive phosphorus should be less than 0.15 to 0.03 mg/L in
the rivers/lakes.

Fungi Fungi are non-photosynthetic, chemo-organotrophic, aerobic, multicellular organisms. They are
primarily soil inhabitants, but can also be found in sea and freshwater. Fungi are mainly employed in the
degradation and composting of dead organic material, a behaviour described by the term saprophytic.
They are important members of the food chain as they recycle essential plant nutrients. Besides that, they
are also parasitic fungi of plants, animals and humans. Reproduction occurs by a variety of means, either
asexually by fission (genetic division by mitosis) involving either budding or spore formation or sexually
by fusion (genetic division by meiosis) of the nuclei of two parent cells. Fungi are classified on the basis
of their sexual reproduction cycle into four divisions as listed in Table 3.18.
Moulds are filamentous fungi. They grow by extending long thread-like structures called hyphae,
which form a mass called mycelium. The vegetative mycelium penetrates into the substrate to absorb
dissolved nutrients, while the reproductive mycelium forms reproductive structures such as spores, spore
sacs, etc.
Yeasts are unicellular, non-filamentous organisms. The cell is considerably larger than bacteria (1 to
5 um in width and 5 to 30 um in length) and is generally egg-shaped, spherical or ellipsoidal. Yeasts are
widely distributed in nature and reproduce asexually by binary fission or by budding. In contrast to
moulds, they can grow both aerobically and anaerobically. Yeasts have been employed by man for many
hundreds of years for the production of wine, beer, cheeses, etc., and are also used nowadays in large-
scale fermentations to produce antibiotics (penicillin) and other biochemicals.
Mushrooms are highly differentiated forms of fungi. The mycelium is in the soil, and in the right
conditions the macroscopic fruiting body, termed basidia, forms above the ground as the structure called a
mushroom.
Because of their saprophytic nature, fungi play a significant role in biological wastewater treatment
and the composting of municipal refuse. On the other hand, they cause damage through deterioration and
rotting of products made from natural materials. Of the approximately 100000 species of fungi, only
about 100 are pathogenic to humans and animals. They mainly cause infections of hair, nails, skin as well
as serious infections of internal organs such as the lung. One of the worst toxins, the aflatoxin, is produced
by a fungus called Aspergillus flavus. Improperly dried foods like peanuts, grain, etc., can be
contaminated by aflatoxin, thus causing fatty degeneration of the liver and liver cancer. The white rot

Table 3.18 Classification of soil and aquatic fungi

Type Division Characteristics/examples

Moulds (filamentous) Phycomycetes Sexual or asexual spores: Mucor, Rhicupus

Fungi imperfecti No sexual stage: Penicillium, Aspergillus
Yeasts (non-filamentous) Ascomycetes Sexual spores in sacs: Neu-raspora, Candida
Mushrooms (macroscopic) Basidiomycetes Sexual stage on basidia: common mushroom

Adapted from Mitchell, 1974

110 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

fungus is now known to be capable of degrading hazardous organic compounds and is used in situ to
clean up contaminated soil environment.

Algae Algae are essentially plant like. Most are aquatic organisms and they may inhabit fresh or saline
waters. The terrestrial species normally grow in soil or on the barks of trees and some have established a
symbiotic relationship with fungi to form lichens. The size of algae ranges from the microscopic
unicellular phytoplankton to the large multicellular seaweeds. The shapes of unicellular algae can be
spherical, cylindrical, club-like or spiral. Multicellular colonies can grow in filaments or long tubes or
simple masses of single cells that cling together.
Regardless of their size or complexity, all algal cells contain photosynthetic pigments and are thus
capable of photosynthesis. Because of the vast abundance of oceans on earth, it is probable that the algae
fix more carbon dioxide, and thus release more oxygen, than all the land plants combined. The pigments
are found in distinct bodies called plastids, chloroplasts or chromatophores.
The classification of algae is based on their cellular properties, the nature of the cell wall,
photosynthetic pigments and the arrangement of the flagella in motile cells. Seven general groups are
shown in Table 3.19. Groups I, II, IV and VII are of interest in the environmental field because of their
appearance in both clean and polluted water.
Algae can be a problem in water supplies, since they contribute to tastes and odours, clog water
intakes, shorten filter runs in water treatment sand filters and cause high chlorine demand in disinfection
processes. Another environmental problem is caused by the massive growth of some marine species. The
dinoflagellates, unicellular, flagellated marine organisms, comprise the ‘red tides’ sometimes seen in large
areas of the sea. Shellfish which consume the algae cannot be eaten during these events as the toxin
produced by some species of dinoflagellates is toxic to humans. Excessive growth of algae in rivers or
lakes is often an indicator of eutrophication. Due to excessive nutrient input of especially nitrogen and
phosphorus compounds—most often caused by human activities such as the use of agricultural fertilizers,
detergents, untreated waste water, etc.—algal growth may get out of balance. Dying algal masses usually
cause a high BOD and lead to anaerobic conditions with the development of methane and hydrogen
sulphide.

Protozoa Protozoa are the most highly specialized unicellular organisms. Most are non-photosynthetic,
reproduce asexually by binary fission and lack true cell walls, the latter being a distinguishing feature of
algae and fungi. Table 3.20 shows a classification scheme for common aquatic and soil protozoa.
The size and shape of protozoa vary greatly; some are as small as 1 um in diameter while others are
as large as 2000 ym. They are primarily aquatic organisms and widespread in nature. They survive

Table 3.19 Classification of algae

Division Colour Environment/cell arrangement/comments

Freshwater; mainly clean-water algae except Chlorella, Scenedezmus, mostly colonial,

I Chlorphyta Grass-green filamentous
Il Chrystohyta yellow-green Clean, cold water; mainly cellular, some colonial; diatoms have silica in cell walls
Ill Pyrrophyta yellow-brown Mostly marine; 90% unicellular, two flagella
Freshwater; requires organic nitrogen; will grow as a protozoa in absence of light;
IV Euglemophyta Green unicellular motulity by flagellum
V_ Rhodophyta Red Mostly marine; very clean, warm water, colonial; sheets are common
VI Phyophyta Brown Marine; cool water; colonial, large. Example: Macrocystis, giant kelp
Freshwater, warm, often polluted; unicellular, gelatinous clumps; no chloroplasts or true
VII Cyanophyta Blue-green! nucleus; nitrogen fixers, often responsible for algal blooms

‘ Blue-green algae are now generally referred to as blue-green bacteria or cyano-bacteria.

Adapted from G. W. Heinke, ‘Microbiology and epidemiology’, in Environmental Science and Engineering, J. G. Henry and W. W.
Heinke (eds), © 1989, p. 256. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 111

Table 3.20 Classification scheme for common aquatic and soil

protozoa

Pseudopods (Sarcodina)
Motile by pseudopods, flowing amoeboid motion: Amoeba, Entamoeba

Flagellates (Mastigophora)
Motile by flagella; many photosynthetic: Euglena, Volvox, Giardia
Ciliates (Ciliophora)
Free-swimming; motile by many cilia that move in unison: Paramecium
Attached; fixed by stalk to a surface: Vorticella

Parasitic protozoa
(Suctoria)
Free-swimming ciliates early in life cycle, then tentacles in later adult stalked stage
(Sporozoa)
Usually non-motile; rarely free-living; parasitic: Plasmodium
Adapted from Mitchell, 1974

adverse conditions by forming cysts with thick cell walls. Their nutrition type may be saprophytic, but
mainly they act as efficient predators on bacteria, and are thus found in particular where huge amounts of
bacteria are prevalent. Of the 32 000 species 10000 are parasitic, some causing serious diseases such as
malaria and sleeping sickness. The size and shape and the type of locomotory system serves as a criterion
for classification.
The sarcodina have a cell membrane that continually changes shape. They move by extending their
cytoplasm in search of food. These extensions are called pseudopodia, or false feet, and are typical of
amoebae. Sarcodina are saprophytic. Entamoeba histolytica is a common pathogen causing amoebic
dysentery in humans. Figure 3.15 is a sketch of Amoeba.
The mastigophora have flagella, and some species such as Euglena are photosynthetic, exhibiting
some of the characteristics of both protozoa and algae. The ciliophora are characterized by having fine
hairs or cilia. In addition to providing motility, cilia aid in the capture of food. Paramecium is a typical
ciliate. Figure 3.16 shows a sketch of Paramecium. The parasitic protozoa include suctoria (free-
swimming) and sporozoa (non-motile). Four species of Plasmodium, the cause of malaria, are members of
the latter group. The vector (carrier) that conveys these parasites to a human host is the female Anopheles
mosquito.
The waterborne diseases causing protozoa, include:
© Giardia lamblia, reservoired in beavers, sheep, dogs and cats. Causes early spring diarrhea, found
particularly in cold mountain water.
© Cryptosporidum, reservoired in many species of wild and domestic animals. Causes acute
gastrointestinal illnesses, including diarrhea, nausea and stomach cramps.
¢ Naegleria fowleri, found in warm waters, pools and lakes. Causes primary amebic meningoencephalitis
(PAM).
As protozoa act as predators for bacteria, they are found in many wastewater treatment facilities such
as activated sludge processes, percolating filters, etc. The considerable removal of bacteria (> 90 per cent
for Escherichia coli) in such treatment processes is believed to be caused mainly by protozoan activities,
as shown in Table 3.21.
In a typical activated sludge plant, the mixed liquor will contain approx 5 x 10* protozoa per ml.
These consist mostly of ciliates, but also significant numbers of amoebae and flagellates may develop
under certain conditions. The dominant ciliates include Opercularia, Vorticella, Aspidisca, Carchesium
and Chilodonella. The majority of these are attached to or crawl over the surface of the floc and feed on
the bacteria. By scavenging free-swimming cells, protozoa efficiently reduce effluent turbidity and soluble
BOD.
112 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Pseudopodium Nucleus Endoplasm

Ectoplasm — Phagocytic Contractile

vacuole vacuole

Figure 3.15 Structure of the amoeba protist (adapted from Lansing M. Prescott et al., Microbiology, 2nd edition. Copyright ©
1993. Wm. C. Brown Communications, Inc., Dubuque, Iowa. All Rights Reserved. Reprinted by permission).

Anterior end

Pellicle
Anterior contractile
vacuole
Oral groove

Micronucleus
Macronucleus

> Cilia
Oral vestibule

Phagocytic vacuole

Cytostome

Buccal cavity — Cytoproct

with rows ofcilia
used in feeding Posterior contractile
vacuole

Posterior end

Figure 3.16 Structure of the Paramecium protist (adapted from Lansing M. Prescott et al., Microbiology, 2nd edition. Copyright ©
1993. Wm. C. Brown Communications, Inc., Dubuque, Iowa. All Rights Reserved. Reprinted by permission.)

Table 3.21 The effect of ciliated protozoa on effluent

quality parameters in laboratory scale activated
sludge systems

Effluent parameter Ciliates absent Ciliates present

Total BOD (mg/L) 53-70 7-24

Soluble BOD (mg/L) 30-35 3-9
Suspended solids (mg/L) 86-118 26-34
Viable count (10° mL!) 160 1-9

Adapted from Curds, 1982

 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 113

Viruses Viruses are a unique group of infectious agents. They are different from protista as they do not
have a cellular structure. The simplest possible form of a virus is merely an RNA molecule. As they
cannot reproduce themselves, many biologists do not consider viruses to be obligately parasitic. The virus
RNA (or DNA) injected into the host cell ‘reprograms’ the cell’s reproduction mechanism to produce
exclusively viral material. Due to this interference with the normal function of the cell, viruses are
responsible for diseases in bacteria, plants, animals and humans. Viruses are extremely small, about 5 to
10 nm in diameter and up to 800 nm in length for some of the long thin ones. Due to their smallness, it
was not possible to detect them prior to the age of the electron microscope in 1931. Their morphology is
simple by comparison with algae, fungi or protozoa. Figure 3.17 shows the size and morphology of some
selected viruses. In general, viruses are composed of a nucleic acid core (either DNA or RNA, single or
double stranded). This is surrounded by a protein covering called a ‘capsid’. The capsid unit is made up of
smaller units called ‘capsomores’. A complete virus is called a virion. Viruses can exist in two phases:
extracellular and intracellular. Virions, in the extracellular phase, pass few if any enzymes and cannot
reproduce independently of living cells. In the intracellular phase, viruses exist primarily as replicating
nucleic acids and induce host metabolism to synthesize virion components. Eventually, complete virus
particles or virions are released (Prescott et al., 1993).
Viruses can be distinguished on the basis of structural arrangement of the capsid. There are four
general morphological types of capsids and virion structure:

1. Icosahedral is a regular polyhedron with 20 equilateral triangular faces and 12 vertices as shown in
Fig. 3.17(A), (/), (A), (Z) and Fig. 3.18(a).

(a) Vaccinia (b) Paramyxovirus (c) Herpes virus (d) Orf virus
virus (mumps)

(h) Adenovirus

(e) Rhabdovirus
(f) T-even coliphage
ENeeS
er
(g) Flexuous-
tailed phage
S
(1) influenza virus

Ce 0
B g (m) Tubulovirus

(j) Polyoma virus (k) Picomavirus (1) X174 phage

LL
lum
2nd edition.
Figure 3.17 The size and morphology of selected viruses (adapted from Lansing M. Prescott et al., Microbiology,
Copyright © 1993. Wm. C. Brown Communications, Inc., Dubuque, Iowa. All Rights Reserved. Reprinted by permission).
114 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Nucleic acid

Sem Capsid
(a) icosahedral
éCapsid

92.09.0220 Nucleic acid

(a
(b) Helical

Nucleic acid Head

Collar

bios, Sheath

Tail pin Base plate

Tail fibre

(c) Complex

Figure 3.18 Major structural arrangements in viruses (adapted from Sterritt and Lester, 1988. Reprinted by permission of E&FN
Spon Ltd).

2. ‘Helical’ is shaped like hollow protein cylinders, either rigid or flexible, as shown in Fig. 3.17 (m) and
Fig. 3.18 (5).
3. ‘Envelope’ is a roughly spherical outer membrane layer surrounding the nucleocapsid. The latter is
either icosahedral or helical. ‘Envelopes’ are shown in Fig. 3.17(5), (c), (i).
4. ‘Complex’ is capsid symmetry that is neither icosahedral nor helical. They may possess tails or other
structures as shown in Fig. 3.17(a), (d), (f), (g), (e) and Fig. 3.18(c) (Prescott et al., 1993).

The life cycle of viruses consist of three stages:

e Entry to the cell
Reproduction
© Release

The life cycle has two important variants:

e ‘Lytic’ cycle, which is followed by virulent types often killing the host cell
e ‘Lysogeny’, which is the state entered by the avirulent types

The classification of viruses is largely based on structural and chemical characteristics. The properties
involved are the type of nucleic acid, capsid geometry, capsid size and the presence or absence of an
envelope. Many other viruses, however, are classified simply on the basis of their observed effects on the
host. Viruses cause infections in humans, such as poliomyelitis, aseptic meningitis, gastroenteritis,
chicken pox, ebola, HIV, etc. Their removal from potable water, sewage waters and bathing waters is
therefore of great importance. Removal of viruses in sand filters is highly variable and depends on filter
 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 115

design and operation. Coagulation prior to filtration seems to be more successful. In disinfection
processes, viruses generally need higher doses of the disinfectant and longer disinfection times for
complete inactivation than those needed for pathogenic bacteria. Viruses are small enough to pass through
most sand filters and have been known to resist chlorination. Many viruses survive outside the host for
varying periods of time. This latter point has recently been given attention (Farzadegan, 1991) with
respect to HIV. Virus-kill in relation to effluent wastewaters is performed in the United States using
chlorine and, more recently, ultraviolet light, while disinfection of wastewaters is not a common West
European practice (except in France). Table 3.22 is a listing of common human diseases caused by viruses
(Stanier ef al., 1986).

3.5.3 Bacteria

Bacteria are the dominant organisms in biological wastewater treatment systems, and in many ecological
systems, including running and still waters, in soils and also in the air. In some instances, bacteria and
their abilities are exploited, for instance in wastewater treatment, or in biodegradation of groundwater
contamination. Bacteria are classified in different methods but in wastewater treatment bacteria are often
described as being aerobic (needing oxygen) or anaerobic (not requiring oxygen). About 80 per cent of
the bacterial cell consists of water and so the growth of bacteria is closely linked to the available water
supply. Water also serves as a food source, providing the necessary substances in a dissolved stage, and
are thus able to penetrate the cell membrane. Furthermore, physical conditions such as temperature, pH,
salt concentrations, pressure, the gaseous environment, etc., are all growth determining factors.
Bacteria (procaryotes) are distinguished from eucaryotes by several features. Eucaryotes have a true
nucleus which is surrounded by a membrane, whereas the procaryotes nucleus is arranged in a loop and
lies free in the cytoplasm, as shown in Fig. 3.19. Bacteria exist in three principal shapes: spherical (cocci),

Table 3.22 Common human diseases caused by viruses

Viral group and type Disease

Herpes viruses
Cytomeglovirus Respiratory infections
Epstein-Barr virus Mononucleosis
Herpes simplex viruses Oral and genital cold sores
Varicella virus Chickenpox, shingles
Hepatitus B virus Serum hepatitis
Influenza viruses Viral influenza and viral pneumonia
Polio viruses Poliomyelitis
Pox viruses
Orf virus Contagious pustular dermatitis
Variola virus Smallpox
Picorna viruses
Coxsackie viruses Herpangina
Hepatitis A virus Infectious hepatitis
Poliomyelitis virus Poliomyelitis
Rhino viruses Most colds
Parainfluenza viruses Measles, mumps, rubella
Rhabdo viruses Rabies
Reo viruses Diarrhoeal diseases
Retro viruses
Human T-cell leukaemia virus T-cell leukaemia
Human immunodeficiency viruses Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
(AIDs)

Adapted from Stanier et al., Microbial World, Sth edn, © 1986, p. 650. Reprinted by
permission of Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
116 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

rod-like or cylindrical rods, and spiral shapes. An essential unique feature of bacteria is that they are
single-cell organisms ranging in size from 0.5 to 5 wm long and 0.3 to 1.5 um in width. They are arranged
singly, in pairs, in clusters or in chains, as’ shown in Fig. 3.20.
To describe a bacterium properly, several specifications can be made, including:

¢ Morphological characteristics
General shape —coccus, rod, spirillum
Arrangement of cells—chains, e.g. streptococcus, filamentous ~
—cluster e.g. micrococcus
—pairs or packages
Locomotion features —existence or absence of flagella
Formation of spores
Capsules and slime envelopes
Gram coloration in positive or negative
e Physiological characteristics
Oxygen compatibility—aerobe, i.e. grows in the presence of oxygen
—anaerobe, i.e. grows in the absence of oxygen
—facultative aerobe/anaerobe, i.e. grows under both conditions
—obligate aerobe/anaerobe, i.e. grow under one of two conditions
Energy gain from §—respiration
—fermentation
—photosynthesis
Pigmentation of cells
Pathogenity

For further details on this topic, the student is referred to Prescott et al. (1993).
The most commonly encountered bacteria are either of the coccus or bacillus (rod) shape. Coccus are
roughly spherical in shape. They can exist as individual cells. Diplococci arise when cocci divide and
remain together in pairs. Long chains of cocci are formed when cells adhere after repeated division. This
is the pattern in the genera Streptococcus, Enterococcus and Lactococcus. Staphylococcus divide in
random planes to produce irregular clumps.
The rod (bacillus) bacteria differ in their length to width ratio. After division, the Bacillus megaterium
is a long-chain rod-like bacteria. A few rod-shaped bacteria, the Vibrios, are curved to form distinct

Inclusion
‘Mesosome’ Nucleoid Ribosome bodies —Capsule

Surface Cell wall Periplasmic Plasma

proteins space membrane
Flagellum

Figure 3.19 Schematic of bacterial cell morphology (adapted from Lansing M. Prescott er al., Microbiology, 2nd edition. Copyright
© 1993. Wm. C. Brown Communications, Inc., Dubuque, Iowa. All Rights Reserved. Reprinted by permission),
 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 117

(a) Spheroid shape oe a grr

Micrococcus Micrococcus
Streptococcus
0.5 to 1.5 {1m Individual cells
3.0 to 4.0 um

(b) Rod shape —

Bacillus
0.3 to 1.5 |1m by | to 10m

(c) Curved rod or spiral

Vibrio Spirillum
0.4 to 2.0m by | to 10m 0.6 to 2.0 um by 30 to 50 um

(d) Filamentous or chains

of individual cells J
Rar Ae
<<

Figure 3.20 Examples of bacterial cell morphology (adapted from Tchobanoglous and Schroeder, 1987).

commas or incomplete spirals. The smallest bacteria (of the genus Mycoplasma) are 0.1 to 0.2 um in
diameter, while the mid-size is about 1.1 to 1.5 um in diameter (Escherichia coli) with the longest up to
500 pm.

The bacterial cell The basic elements of the bacterial cell are shown in Fig. 3.19 and include:
IN The ‘cell wall’ of bacteria contains structures and substances (e.g. murein) not found in animals or
plants. It is the Achilles heel of bacteria and modern drugs (e.g. penicillin) attack and interferes with
the cell wall synthesis, without harming the host (e.g. human). The reaction of the cell wall to a
staining technique, the ‘Gram stain’, distinguishes two important types of bacteria. Gram-positive
bacteria react positively to stain and become blue while those that are negative stain pink. The cell
walls of Gram-positive bacteria contain up to 95 per cent peptidoglycan existing as a single layer. The
Gram-positive cell wall also contains polysaccharides, techoic and techuronic acids. The Gram-
negatives contain typically ~ 50 per cent proteins, ~ 25 per cent lipopolysachoride and ~ 25 per cent
phospholipid. The Gram-positives contain two cell walls while the Gram-negatives contain three
distinct cell walls.
. The ‘cell membrane’ or ‘cytoplasmic membrane’ serves as an osmotic barrier controlling and
regulating material transfer. It contains about 10 per cent of the total cell dry weight and is composed
of ~ 60 per cent protein and ~ 25 per cent lipids.
. The ‘cytoplasm’ is the liquid content inside the cell where granular food reserves of glycogen, sulphur,
etc., are stored.
. The ‘nucleus’ contains the genetic information on one DNA filament arranged in a loop of fibrillar
appearance. The double-stranded DNA forming the chromosome is about 0.3 nm in length.
. ‘Ribosomes’ are producers of proteins and contain ~ 80 per cent of the bacterial RNA. The RNA
contains the genetic code for the synthesis of proteins, mostly enzymes which serve as specific
catalysts in biochemical reactions.
118 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

6. The ‘capsule’ is the slime envelope surrounding the bacterial cell. It increases the resistance of the cell
against phagocytose and results in a higher virulence if the bacterium is pathogenic. “Sewage fungus’,
Spaerotilus natans, has such a slime envelope.
7. ‘Flagella’, either singly or in tufts, are the means of mobility of bacteria. The flagella shape and
arrangement are used in bacterium differentiation. The speed of Vibrio cholera is ~ 12 mm/min.
8. ‘Spores’ are formed by some groups of bacteria, e.g. the genera Bacillus and Clostridium. Due to the
impermeable cell wall and dehydration of the cell content, spores serve as a survival technique
resisting even adverse conditions, like heat, dryness, radiation or chemicals. While all living bacteria
are easily killed by heating at 80°C for a few minutes, spores can survive for hours at this temperature.
This can be an issue in using wastes for compost production. In this stage of dormant existence,
bacteria resist unsuitable conditions for long periods. In water disinfection procedures, spores can also
cause problems as they need higher concentrations of the disinfectant, usually chlorine.

Composition and characterization of bacterial cells Typical elemental composition of bacterial cells,
based on dry weight is: 50 per cent carbon, 20 per cent oxygen, 15 per cent nitrogen, 8 per cent hydrogen,
3 per cent phosphorus and less than | per cent each of sulphur, potassium, sodium, calcium, iron and
magnesium. Approximately 80 per cent of the bacterial cell is made up of water and it is through water
that the cells receive their food in dissolved form. Bacterial cells are represented chemically by empirical
forms such as:
Cs5H7NO) (most common)
and C42 Hj00N11013P
However, the above formulae are not universal and are environment dependent and so should be used only
cautiously. For instance, the theoretical oxygen demand (TOD) of 1 gram of C;H7zNO;j is 1.42 g, while
that of C42Hj00N11013P i Weil [Ue
Bacteria categorized according to nutrition are grouped according to Table 3.23 in broad metabolic
groups.

Examples

1. Green plants and Cyanobacteria are photolithotrophs, i.e. they use sunlight and the inorganic carbon
(e.g. CO2) as the electron donor to produce their organic food.
2. Nitrifying bacteria (discussed in Chapter 12 on wastewater treatment) such as Nitrobacter and
Nitrosomonas are chemolithotrophs, meaning that they use the oxidation reactions
NO,~ <— NO;~ +2e7 and NH4t <— NO,~ + 6e7
respectively, as energy sources and the inorganic compounds nitrate and ammonia as electron donors.
3. Animals and most micro-organisms are chemo-organotrophs, meaning that they use an oxidation
reaction as the energy source and organic compounds as electron donors.

Bacteria may be categorized according to the physical parameters of temperature, pressure, salinity
and pH.

Table 3.23 Broad metabolic groups of bacteria

Carbon source Inorganic (CO2) Autotrophs

Organic Heterotrophs
Energy source Sunlight Phototrophs
Oxidation reaction Chemotrophs
Electron donor Inorganic Lithotrophs
Organic Organotrophs
 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 119

Temperature he fact that micro-organisms are found in the permafrost soils of the Antarctic as well as
in hot springs is indicative of their ubiquity. Table 3.24 shows the different temperature ranges and optima
and the microbiological terms used to describe the particular types, and some examples of bacteria living
under these conditions.
Pressure Micro-organisms living at great depths in the earth or in the oceans experience high-pressure
conditions. The term used to describe this characteristic is called barophil.
Salt concentrations Salt water normally kills most micro-organisms. However, all marine organisms
and some special types adapted to very high salt concentrations are found in places like the Dead Sea and
the Great Salt Lake in Utah. They need these conditions for their growth. They are called halophiles.
pH conditions The optimum pH conditions for bacteria to grow range between 6.5 and 7.5, with
maximum limits between 4.0 and 10.0. Nevertheless, there are some who live in a strongly acidic
environment (acidophiles). Thiobacillus thiooxidans, for example, oxidizes S*~ to SO,°~, thus producing
sulphuric acid with pH values of about 1. The type is found in sewage systems and causes serious damage
to materials such as concrete in pipes, culverts and holding tanks.

Growth and death of bacterial cells Bacteria reproduce themselves by cell division, a process called
binary fission. Under a given set of conditions, the rate for this division process is characteristic for each
organism and is called generation time. The time to double the number of cells in the original population
ranges from 15 minutes for Enterobacteria to 5 to 10 hours for Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter. Table 3.25
shows the doubling time and optimum temperature for a range of micro-organisms. Escherichia coli, for
instance, has a doubling time of ~ 0.35 hours at a temperature of 40°C. The algae, protozoa and fungi
tend to have much longer doubling times than bacteria.
The rate of growth of the bacterial population is directly proportional to the number of bacteria
present and the growth rate constant:
dN /dt = kN (Ca)
where dN /dt = rate of growth
N = number of bacteria at time f
k = first-order growth rate constant

Integration yields
In(N/No) = kt (3.73)

where N, = initial population concentration

If G is the generation (doubling) time, then N = 2No. Equation (3.73) can now be rewritten as
iG:
= lin 2
In 2
k=—G 3.74
(3.74)

Table 3.24 Micro-organism types related to temperature

Temperature Temperature
range (°C) optimum (°C) Types Examples

0-30 Psychrotrophs Marine bacteria

< 20 Psychrophiles Gallionella
30-40 37 Mesophiles E. coli
40-70 > 50 Thermophiles Bacillus stearthermophilus
70-80 > 65 Extreme thermophiles Bacillus, Clostridia
120 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Table 3.25 Generation times for some micro-organisms

Temperature Generation time

Micro-organism (°C) (hours)

Bacteria
Beneckea nutriegens a7) 0.16
Escherichia coli 40 0.35
Bacillus subtilis 40 0.43 2 .
Clostridium botulinum 37 0.58
Mycobacterium
tuberculosis 37 ~12
Anacystis nidulans 41 2.0
Anabaena cylindrica WS) 10.6
Rhodospirillum rubrum 25 4.6-5.3

Algae
Chlorella pyrenoidosa 25 Wel
Scenedesmus quadricauda 25 519
Asterionella formosa 20 9.6
Skeletonema costatum 18 13.1
Ceratium tripos 20 82.8
Euglena gracilis 25 10.9

Protozoa
Acanthamoeba castellanii 30 11-12
Paramecium caudatum 26 10.4
Tetrahymena geleii 24 2.2-4.2
Leishmania donovani 26 10-12
Giardia lamblia 37) 18

Fungi
Saccharomyces cerevisiae 30 2
Monilinia fructicola 25 30
Adapted from Lansing M. Prescott et al., Microbiology, 2nd edn.
Copyright © 1993 Wm C. Brown Communications, Inc., Dubuque, Iowa.
All rights reserved. Reprinted by permission

By substituting this value of k into Eq. (3.73), the bacterial population N as a function of time f¢ is
expressed as
N = No2"/¢ (3.75)
Taking the logarithm of this equation,
logN = log No + (t/G) log 2 (3.76)
A plot ofN against ¢ on semilog paper produces a straight line with a slope of 0.3/G (log 2 =0.3) and a y
intercept of No.

Example 3.23 If a bacterial cell count increases from 10° to 10° in 10 hours, determine the
generation (doubling) time, G.

Solution
From Eq. (3.76),
t
log N = logNo + Glog2
 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 121

Then N = 10°: No = 103; t = 10 hours; G=?

t
Gis? = logN — logNo

10
G loe2 = log (10°) — log (103)

3 — 9 3

G = 0.5 h

In reality, the growth curve of bacteria described by these equations represents just one phase among
many. Bacteria brought into a nutrient grow until one factor comes to a minimum. If there is no
continuous addition of nutrient and no elimination of metabolic products, the growth under the given
conditions is called a static or batch culture, and is comparable to that of multicell organisms with genetic
limited growth.
Figure 3.21 represents several phases of growth. During the initial period, called the Jag phase, the
cells adjust to their new environment, often connected with a synthesis of new enzymes. This is followed
by the exponential or log phase and is characterized by a constant maximum division rate, which is a
bacterial characteristic for a given set of conditions. The bacterial population is the most uniform during
the log phase in terms of chemical composition, metabolic rates and other physiological characteristics.
This is followed by the stationary phase. Food limitation, population density, and the accumulation of
toxic by-products of cell metabolism lead to a decreasing growth rate, thus introducing the stationary
phase. The death or declining or endogenous rate is reached when the death rate starts to exceed the
growth rate.
Figure 3.21 is a schematic of the growth/death and time history of a single-cell batch culture. In
realistic situations, like biological wastewater treatment, the environment is made up of many bacteria and
the time history of the multiorganism (mixed culture) is not necessarily represented by Fig. 3.21. It may be
that while one species of bacteria are in the log growth phase, a neighbouring bacterial mass may be in its
endogenous phase.
Most bacterial processes found in engineering applications are either aerobic, anoxic or anaerobic.
An aerobic process is a respiration process in which free molecular oxygen (O2) serves as the terminal
electron acceptor. An anoxic respiration process is that in which the organic compounds serve as the
terminal electron acceptor. An anaerobic process is that which does not require free molecular oxygen.
The general model of the aerobic process is represented by

aerobes
Organic + O02 ——> new +CO,+H,O0+NH,+NO3° + NO.” (3.77)
matter biomass

6 Stationary phase
£ 5 (may be very long)
vo

24
zs)
Exponential or Death or
3 3 log phase endogenous
S| DB
= Lag phase
po
fo} |
a
D 6 & IQ Wa Wal iy iis) 20 NmN 24
Time (hours)

Figure 3.21 Schematic of the growth of a bacterial batch culture.

122 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

The corresponding model of the anaerobic process is represented by:

: : anaerobes ¥
Organic + H2O + nutrients > new + CH4 + CO, +NH; + HoS + heat (3.78)
matter biomass

Further details of these processes are given in Chapters 12 and 13.

Aspects of bacteria of special interest to environmental engineering * It is seen from Tables 3.26 and
3.27 that bacteria play a major role in all subject areas associated with the environment, e.g. soils, water,
air, etc. Many waterborne diseases are caused by pathogenic bacteria and it is one of the major tasks of
water treatment (Chapter 11) to reduce their numbers and render them harmless. Bacteria like E. coli,
which normally live in the intestines of warm-blooded animals and are excreted with faeces, are used as
indicator bacteria. If present in a water sample, they indicate that a contamination of the water has taken
place and thus the potential presence of pathogens exists. On the other hand, many natural environmental
processes would not work without the beneficial bacterial activities such as nitrification and nitrogen-
fixing (see Table 3.27). The significance of bacteria to ecology and the agricultural environment are
discussed in Chapters 2, 5 and 10 respectively.
The treatment processes for potable water are essentially physical and chemical (see Chapter 11)
(unless, of course, we regard some of the mechanisms of sand filtration as biological). As such,
microbiological unit processes are not dominant. Thus the presence of bacteria or other micro-organisms
is seen as undesirable. The task is therefore to eliminate harmful bacteria and this is most traditionally
accomplished by chlorine disinfection. However, the identification of harmful bacteria is expensive and
complex. Indicator bacteria such as E. coli, if found present in potable water, are indicative of faecal
pollution. Other indicator organisms are faecal coliforms, total coliforms, faecal streptococci and
Clostridium perfringens. The most common potable water test is that for ‘total coliforms’, which is

Table 3.26 Pathogenic bacteria relevant to drinking water

Genus Species Host Disease Route

Salmonella S. typhi Human and Typhoid Water and

S. enteritides animal gut; fever food processed
S. typhimurium Polluted water; with contaminated
contaminated food water

Shigella S. sonni Man Shingellosis As above, plus

S. flexneri person to person
S. bodyti contact
S. dysentericae

Myobacterium M. tuberculosis Man Tuberculosis Airborne or sewage

M. balnei contaminated
M. bovis Cattle water

Vibrio KV. cholera Man Cholera Contaminated water,

person to person
Leptospira L. pomona Infected humans; Leptospirosis Transmitted to blood-
L. autumnalis excreted in stream from animal
L. australis urine carriers; polluted water
Entero Variety Warm-blooded Unnary Sewage contaminated
pathogenic animals infections water or food
E. coli

Adapted from Montgomery, 1985

 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 123

Table 3.27 Pathogenic bacteria of special interest in environmental engineering

Group of bacteria Genus Environmental significance

Pathogenic bacteria Salmonella Cause typhoid fever

Shigella Cause dysentery
Mycobacterium Cause tuberculosis

Indicator bacteria Escherichia Faecal pollution

Enterobacter Faecal pollution
Streptococcus Faecal pollution
Clostridium Faecal pollution

Decay bacteria Pseudomonas Degrade organics

Flavobacterium Degrade proteins
Zooglea Floc-forming organism in activated sludge plants
Clostridium Produce fatty acids from organics in anaerobic digester
Micrococcus Produce fatty acids from organics in anaerobic digester
Methanobacterium Produce methane gas in anaerobic digester from fatty acids
Methanococcus Produce methane gas in anaerobic digester from fatty acids
Methanosarcina Produce methane gas in anaerobic digester from fatty acids

Nitrifying bacteria Nitrobacter Oxidize inorganic nitrogenous compounds

Nitrosomonas Oxidize inorganic nitrogenous compounds

Dentrifying bacteria Bacillus Reduce nitrate and nitrite to nitrogen gas or nitrous oxide
Pseudomonas Reduce nitrate and nitrite to nitrogen gas or nitrous oxide
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria Azotobacter Capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen to NH3
Beijerinckia Capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen to NH3

Sulphur bacteria Thiobacillus Oxidize sulphur and iron

Desulfovibrio Involved in corrosion of iron pipes

Photosynthetic bacteria Chlorobium Reduce sulphides to elemental sulphur

Chromatium Reduce sulphides to elemental sulphur

Phosphorus bacteria Acinetobacter Responsible for phosphorus removal in wastewater

Iron bacteria
Filamentous Sphaerotilius Responsible for sludge bulking in activated sludge plants
Iron oxidizing Leptothrix Oxidize ferrous iron

Adapted from G. W. Heinke, ‘Microbiology and epidemiology’, in Environmental Science and Engineering, J. G.
Henry and G. W. Heinke (eds), © 1989, p. 264. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.

defined as ‘all aerobic and facultative anaerobic, gram negative, non spore forming, rod shaped bacteria
that ferment lactose with gas formation within 48 hours at 35 °C’, (Standard Methods by Greenberg et al.,
1992). The total coliform group is made up of Escherichia coli, Enterobacter aerogenes, Citrobacter
fruendii and others. Differentiation between total and faecal coliforms is their ability or inability to grow
at 45°C. The dominant intestinal coliform in temperate climates is E. coli, but not so in tropical areas. In
the latter, the total coliform test is used. If animal pollution is suspected, a measure of its significance is in
the ratio of the faecal coliforms to that of faecal streptococci. If this ratio exceeds 4.0, the contamination is
considered human. If it is <0.7 it is considered to be from animal wastes, since faecal streptococci are
more common in animals, (Henry and Heinke, 1989).
For potable water bacterial counts, the most probable number method (MPN) or the membrane filter
method (MF) are used. These are detailed in Standard Methods (1992). Some relevant drinking water
standards set for the European Community are shown in Table 3.28.
124 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Table 3.28 Coliform standards for

potable water

Parameter MNP for EC

Total coliforms <1/100 ml

Faecal coliforms <1/100 ml
Faecal streptococci <1/100 ml
Sulphide-reducing clostridia <1/20 ml

t No positive coliform results in more than 5% of

samples collected each month.

3.6 CHEMICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL REACTIONS

Many processes in environmental engineering take place in reactors or in natural systems which can be
called pseudoreactors. For instance, a volume of wastewater in an activated sludge tank undergoes
changes to the contents over time. Initially, the contents may be a high COD waste, but the presence of a
suitable population of micro-organisms in the tank will over time degrade the organic waste, producing
ultimately a low COD effluent. In this example, the tank is the reactor and the process of change is called
reaction kinetics or, more specifically, biological or biochemical reaction kinetics. It is important in the
design of the ‘process’ to know what are the rates at which various components (e.g. organic material) are
removed from the wastewater and the rate at which the biomass sludge is produced in the tank reactor.
Knowledge of the reaction rates determines the size of the reactors required for a specific degree of
treatment. A process may be biological, biochemical or chemical. Examples of such environmental
processes include:

e Biological growth/decay of biomass/organic material in activated sludge, in anaerobic digestion, in

wastewater lagoons, in trickling filters, and in rotating biological contactors, etc.
Chemical processes of disinfection of potable water by chlorination or chlorine dioxide
Gas—water transfer, e.g. removal of H2S from groundwater
Diffusion of effluents in rivers and estuaries
Chemical reactions of contaminants in the air environment
Biochemical production of methane in a landfill site
Many reactions go to completion only after extended time periods. As such, some reactions are
introduced as going to, say, 80 per cent completion and this affects the mass or materials balance of the
process (see Sec. 3.7). Knowledge of the extent of the reaction is often required to size and cost the
reactor. The most important biochemical wastewater treatment process is activated sludge and is an
extremely slow reaction, requiring large reactor volumes and long times of retention before the reaction
goes towards completion. On the other hand, many industrial chemical processes are rapid, requiring
small reactors. Anaerobic digestion of organic wastes may take typically 20 days ‘retention time’.

3.6.1 Kinetics
For the example of using the process of activated sludge (described in Chapter 12) in wastewater
treatment, rate expressions are required to describe the removal of organic material, the growth of
microbial population and the utilization of oxygen. When reactions are described on a kinetic basis,
different reaction orders occur for a variety of organisms, substrates and environmental conditions (see
Fig. 3.22). In general, the relationship between the rate of reaction, the concentration of the reactant and
 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 125

the reaction order, n, (0, 1, 2), is given by:

ip = (Ce (3.79)
logr = nlogC (3.80)
where r = rate of reaction
n = order of reaction
C = concentration of element

Zero order is defined where the rate of reaction is independent of the concentration. First order is
defined where the rate is directly proportional to the concentration. Second order is defined where the rate
is proportional to the square of the concentration.

Zero-order reactions Consider the following zero-order reaction (Fig. 3.23), where the single reactant
A is converted to a single product P:
A—>P

The rate of conversion of reactant A, according to zero-order kinetics, is

eas ag a, (3.81)
where the minus sign indicates that A is reducing with time. If C represents the concentration of A at any
time ¢, and kp is the reaction rate constant then

ar Spe ko (3.82)

Integrating:
C = —kot + constant
if (Ge Copattimess—0 aathen
C63 =—hat (3.83)
A useful measure of performance is knowing the time it takes the reaction to proceed to 50 per cent
completion or half its initial concentration, 1.e.
Cc
Be—Co= —koty/2 (3.84)

CG
i= oa (3.85)

This is sometimes referred to as the (half) saturation constant.

First-order reaction For the conversion of a single reactant A to a single product P, the first-order

Second order

av
log r 1 First order
(rate) ae
|
Zero order

log C (substrate concentration)

Figure 3.22 Orders of reaction.

126 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Co

'S)
§

Time (f)

Figure 3.23 Zero-order reaction.

reaction behaviour (Fig. 3.24) is

A—>P

Then
dc
—-—=khC
dr 1 3.86
(3.86)

where k;, is the first-order reaction rate constant and C the concentration at any time ¢. Integrating:

Co
(ayaa
Inf —] =fAyt
oe
3.87

or
Co kit
log|
og(—}=)=~Te 3.88
GS)
The half-saturation constant is,

Co
] = kty/2 3.89
(ay 5) ge a
Therefore
In(2) 0.69
4j2=
1/2 ii ===
e 3.
(3.90)

Second-order reaction The rate of reduction of a reactant A for a second-order reaction (Fig. 3.25) is
described by
dC
eanape
ee 3.91
(3.91)

Co

.S)
&
XS
5 2
a Slope = -0.43 k,
33
c
3)
O

Time (tr)

Figure 3.24 First-order reaction,

 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 127

Slope =k

ise

concentration,
of
Reciprocal
1/C Time (f)

Figure 3.25 Second-order reaction.

where kz is the second-order reaction rate constant. Integrating:

——-—=ht
CuGe :
(3.92)

The half-saturation constant is

1
Gp ——=hpt
€ ott /2 :
(3.93)
1
h2= en (3.94)

Example 3.24 A laboratory test was used to determine the reaction order of a batch of micro-
organisms to degrade a food waste. The parameter used was COD (mg/L) over time. From the following
data on concentration, C, determine the most appropriate reaction rate.

(& Ke! Time

(mg/L) (L/mg) (min)

400 2.5 0
320 S56) 5)
280 3)ayi/ 10
240 4.17 20
180 5.6 30
110 9.1 40
50 20 50
40 25 60

Solution Plot the three figures associated with Fig. 3.26. For zero-order, simply plot the
concentration C against time. For the first order, plot log C against time, and for the second order plot 1/C
against time. From inspection of Fig. 3.26, the best fit is the second-order rate reaction so the general
equation for this substrate utilization is
1 1
———=ht
Cut emai
Bacterial rate processes In wastewater treatment the rate expressions of significance are:

e Rate of removal of organic matter

e Rate of growth of microbial population
e Rate of oxygen use
128 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

mg/L
COD
C,
Concentration SS
10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min)
(a) Zero order

O
BO
o)
a)

35 SS
a S10 20 30 4O sO) Co
Time (min)
(b) First order

20
IIS)
3 15
=) 10%
-—|v 10
HS)
5)

25570 20 30 40 50 60
@) eae)

Time (min)
(c) Second order
Figure 3.26 Trial reaction orders for a batch process.

These are described by the Monod model (see Chapter 12) and only briefly introduced here. Figure 3.27 is
a schematic of the relationship of these parameters. At time f= fo, the concentration of substrate (food) is
S = Sp; and as the process time increases, the concentration of S decreases (in a batch process). At the
same time, the biomass starts from a concentration of X= Xo, and increases over time, as the organic
matter which is being removed is converted to cell mass. Also, at the same time, as the cell viable mass
increases, initially somewhat exponentially, much O, is required, but this requirement stabilizes as the
biomass concentration becomes constant.
The various growth/death phases of the microbial process as shown in Fig. 3.21 can be represented
quantitatively. The exponential or log growth phase is represented by

oe px S05
ay Ge)

where X = microbial population as total or volatile solids, mg/L

jt = specific growth rate, d—!
 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 129

So

Concentration

Time

Figure 3.27 Change in substrate concentration during bacterial growth.

Specific
(d-')
growth
rate
4
K, So —>
Substrate concentration
Figure 3.28 Monod model—effect of substrate concentration on growth rate.

The most commonly used model relating microbial growth to substrate (total organic carbon matter)
utilization is the Monod model (1949). Monod identified that the growth rate, dX/dt, was not only a
function of microbial concentration but also of some limiting substrate(S) or nutrient concentration. He
described the relationship as in Fig. 3.28:

where L = specific growth rate, d-!

Lmax = Maximum specific growth rate, d~!
S = substrate concentration, mg/L
K, = saturation (half) constant, mg/L

Therefore, Eq. (3.95) can be replaced by

ee
dt
= Umax
2
—— X
K, ae &
G97)

which is the Monod model. For further details, refer to Chapter 12 and Gray (1990).

3.7 MATERIAL BALANCES AND REACTOR CONFIGURATIONS

Many quantities in environmental engineering are determined using material balances. All applications
where material is input to a process, be it chemical, biological or even hydrochemical, can be quantified,
in terms of its output and accumulation within the reactor process using the technique of material
130 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Boundaries of
control volume

a ee , Upstream airflow
|
Davacicen Airshed processor ‘clean’
airflow | ~mixing~
Se
polluted urban air

Los Angeles
city

Figure 3.29 Schematic of control volume in the air environment.

balances. This tool is used extensively in the areas of fluid mechanics and hydraulics, in chemical
engineering and food engineering. Simply stated, we identify a ‘control volume’, which maps the
boundaries of the process or process reactor. For example (see Fig. 3.29), if the airshed over Los Angeles
is taken as the control volume or box volume, then into that box will flow (vertically) air contaminants at
the lower level from urban activity. Through the side wall (upstream) will flow the local air circulation,
bringing clean or polluted air. Out the top of the box and the downstream side goes ‘processed’ air. This
may be more contaminated or purified than the air entering. This depends on the process in the box. If the
process in the box is highly turbulent with high mixing, then the contaminated inflows will be diluted by
the clean inflows. If there is no mixing, then the outflows will be undiluted and behave like a plug of air
being transported through the control volume, unchanged. This process is schematized in Fig. 3.29.
Quantities of air can be input in this model. So also can qualities of air, and the processes, such as mixing.
From hydrodynamics and chemistry, it is therefore possible to develop a model of the behaviour of the
airshed process and thus the air quality.
Many similar applications can be visualized. For instance, the flow of groundwater through a
‘purifying’ soil can be studied using material balances, as can most of the process activities of water and
wastewater treatment.
The alteration of a material usually takes place in a reactor. The reactor may be a defined ‘box’ like a
rectangular, reinforced concrete activated sludge tank or a reach of a river or an airshed, as already
mentioned, or a specific industrial chemical engineering reactor. Reactors are simplified into two types as
being either ‘completely mixed’ or plug flow, and these are detailed later in this section.

3.7.1 Material Balances

The laws of conservation of mass and energy arise in engineering frequently. Of special interest to
environmental engineering is the law of conservation of mass which underpins material balances. It states:
‘The sum of the weights (masses) of substances entering into a reaction is equal to the sum of the weights
(masses) of the products of the reaction.’
P|
| P,
:
Feed F,2 - Process == P, SS =r
Products
in F3 | out
Bh

Input — output = accumulation

 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 131

If there is no accumulation within the process, input = output. Therefore

n k

i=l all

Example 3.25 A wastewater treatment plant with an output of 38 400 m*/day discharges the liquid
effluent with a BOD of 20 mg/L into a river. If the BOD of the river upstream of the discharge point is
0.2 mg/L, at a minimum flow of 20 m*/s, compute the BOD of the river downstream of the discharge,
assuming complete mixing.

Og = 0.44 m/s
BOD = 20 mg/L

Op = 20 m/s Or + Oy = 20.44 m3/s

—_ Control ,
a

BOD = 0.2 mg/L volume BOD =?

Solution
Let the basis be 1 second time interval. The component material (flow) balance, since it is assumed
there is no accumulation within the control volume, is
Input = output

Ox + Og = (Qa + Qa)
The polluting load balance is
IeReatz Bei hedownstream

where Pr = mg of polluting load of upstream/s

= 20 x 10° x 0.2 = 4000 mg/s
Pg = 0.44 x 10° x 20 = 8800 mg/s
Pdownstream = (Op at QO) x 10? x BOD
= 20.44 x 10? x BOD
Therefore
4000 + 8800 = 20.44 x 10? x BOD
BODaewistean = 0.05 mo

A ‘process’ is one or a series of reactions or operations or treatments that result in an end product.
Examples are:
© Chemical manufacture
e Alum coagulation
© Fluoridation
e Chlorination
132 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

e Anaerobic reactors—sludge digestion

e Activated sludge processes
e Fluid transport
e Gas absorption
e NO, and SO, generation in the air environment
Material balances may be:
e Single unit process without chemical reaction or biological reaction
e Single unit process with chemical reaction or biological reaction
e Multiple unit processes with/without chemical reaction or biological reaction
A ‘process’ or a ‘system’ has a boundary, maybe arbitrarily defined, across which there may or may not be
activity (e.g. flow). The two types of systems are:
1. ‘Open’ system, where material is transferred across the boundary, i.e. it enters or leaves the system.
2. ‘Closed’ system, where no material crosses the boundary. This is sometimes termed a ‘batch’ system,
as no material passes the boundary until the process is complete.

A comprehensive formulation of the principle of material balances is as follows:

Accumulation input output generation consumption
within the = throughout the — through the + withinthe -— _ within the (3.99)
system system system system system :
boundaries boundaries
The material balance can refer to:
Total mass or total moles
Mass or moles of a chemical compound
Mass or moles of an ‘atomic’ species
The species may be chemical or biological
Mass flow rates
In the case of total mass, generation is considered equal to consumption (within the boundaries), even if
there is or is not a chemical/biological reaction and so:

Accumulation = input — output (3.100)

Example 3.26 Primary (PSS) and secondary (SSS) sewage sludge is thickened together in a picket
fence thickener. If the PSS is produced at 100 kg/h at 1 per cent dry solids (DS) and the SSS at 150 kg/h
at 3 per cent DS, determine the per cent DS of the end product.

SSS
Process
150 kg/h
3% DS
 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 133

Solution

Input = 100 kg/h at 1% DS

+ 150 kg/h at 3% DS
Output = 250 kg/h at x% DS

% Dry solids:

Mass flow input = 100 x 0.01 + 150 x 0.03 = 5.5 kg/h

Mass flow output = 250x, kg/h
250x = 5.5 kg/h

Therefore

Output x = 2.2% DS

Note: It is recommended that the students always sketch the material balance arrrangement, as here.

Methodology of material balances The following ‘strategy’ for analysing material balances is adapted
in part from Himmelblau (1989):
1. Sketch a flow chart or figure defining the boundary of the process.
2. Label the flow of each stream and their compositions with symbols.
oR Show all known flows and compositions on the figure. Calculate additional compositions from the data
where possible.
4. Select the basis for calculations, e.g. 1h, 1 day, 1 kg, etc.
. Write the material balances which includes the total balance and component balances. There must be x
independent equations if there are x unknowns.
. Solve the equations and check the solutions.
To explain the methodology of material balances, let us do some examples.

Example 3.27 A slurry containing 20 per cent by weight of limestone (CaCO3) is processed to
separate pure dry limestone from water. If the feed rate is 2000 kg/h, how much CaCO; is produced per
hour?

Solution
Step 1. Organize the data in flowchart format:

2) VE
Solution = 2000 kg/h (1) 2) Pure CaCO;
Process (3)
20% CaCO; S io Pure HO

There is one input stream (1) and two output streams (2) and (3).
134 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Stream number (1) 5 @ (3)

Slurry feed S Limestone L Water W

Stream name

Component Fraction kg/h Fraction kg/h Fraction kg/h

CaCO; 0.2 1.0 0 0

H,0 0.8 0.0 0 1.0
Total 1.0 2000 1.0 1.0

Step 2. Material balance equations:

(1) Total: 2000=L+W
(2) CaCO3: 2000 x 0.2=L x 10+ Wx 0.0
(3) H,O: 2000 x 0.8=L x 0.0+W x 1.0

Solution

Limestone production L = 400 kg/h

Water produced W = 1600 kg/h

Example 3.28 As a fuel source 20 kg of ethylene (C2H4) is burned with 400 kg of air. Determine
the composition of the resulting mixture. What is the percentage of excess air, assuming complete
conversion.

Solution

CH, + 30) — 2CO, + 2H20

Air: INI 9o% O, =21%

Molecular masses: (Cals ]A = Op ] Be N> = 28
CO, = 44; H,O=18; air = 28.84

Fuel F = 20 kg ()
1.0 CoH4
Burner ie
Air A = 400 kg 2? CO,
? HO
105
2N>

Note:

1 mole of C,H, = 28 g

1 kmole of C,H4 = 28 kg, therefore 20 kg of C>Hy = = = 0.71 kmole:

 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 135

Stream number (1) (2) (3)

Stream name Fuel F Air A Combined C

Component Fraction kmole Fraction kmole Fraction kmole

C2H 1.0
20
—
2H4 78 = 0.71
0, = — 9? 0.71
0.21 x 400
O.2 — — 0.21 —- 78 84 = 29) q ;
2.9]

0.79 x 400
N —_ = 0.79 ———— = 10.96 ? 10.
; 28.84 ee
CO, “= — — —
HO — = — —
Total 1.0 0.71 1.0 13.87 1.0 14.58

Input = output table in kmole

Component Input Generated Consumed Output

GH, 0.71 gaz 0.71 0

Oz 2.91 — 2.13 0.78
N> 10.96 — — 10.96
CO, = 1.42 = 1.42
H,0 — 1.42 — 1.42
Total 14.58

The input—output table is produced from the following. No C,H, is generated and all is consumed. There
are 2.91 kmole of O> in the feed and this reacts with CH, according to:

CoH, + 3O> = 2 CO, +e 2H,O

Oe7Al 3 SOL Dei egal 2 eV STA|

0.71 als 1.42 1.42

Of the 2.91 kmole of O> in the feed, 2.13 kmole are consumed leaving 2.91 — 2.13 =0.78 kmole in the
output. N> is inert and passes through to the output unchanged; 1.42 kmole of CO are generated, as are
1.42 kmole of HO. From the table, 14.58 kmole are in the output stream.

Example 3.29 Each day 3780 m° of wastewater is treated at a municipal wastewater treatment
plant. The influent contains 220 mg/L of suspended solids. The ‘clarified’ water has a suspended, solids
concentration of 5mg/L. Determine the mass of sludge produced daily from the clarifier.

Solution

Input sludge to clarifier = 3780 x 10° x 220 x 10-° = 832 kg/day

Effluent from clarifier = 3780 x 10° x 5 x 10-7 = 19 kg/day
136 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

832 kg/day Sludge = 813 kg/day

Effluent = 19 kg/day

Write a mass balance around the clarifier:

Dry solids sludge in = dry solid sludge out

Dry solids sludge out = effluent + sludge
Therefore Dry solids removed as sludge = 832 — 19 = 813 kg/day

3.7.2 Reactor Configurations

In environmental engineering, particularly in wastewater and water treatment, reactors are essentially of
three types:
1. ‘Batch reactors’ (BR), where the reactants are input to the reactor at the desired conditions and the
reaction takes place over a specified period of time. The contents are then discharged. The longer the
reaction time, the more complete the conversion. Many chemical processes are batch produced. For
example, the BOD test is a batch test. A BR is shown in Fig. 3.30.
2. ‘Continuously stirred tank reactor’ (CSTR), where the reactants are ‘continuously’ (maybe once per
day, per hour, etc.) fed to the reactor and the products (including unused reactants) are continuously
discharged from a well-mixed vessel. Being well mixed, the contents are assumed uniform in
concentration throughout with no concentration gradients and therefore equal to the effluent
concentration. Increasing ‘residence’ time in the tank increases the extent of conversion. This reactor is
common in wastewater treatment and anaerobic processes. It is shown in Fig. 3.31.
3. ‘Plug flow reactors’ (PFR), where the input is fed in at one end of a long reactor and products are
discharged at the other end after spending a minimum retention time in the system. As the distance of
travel along the length of the reactor is a function of time, the extent of conversion depends on the
length. As such, the longer the reactor, the greater the conversion. As the ‘plug’ of reactants moves
forward, it is well mixed within itself, but not with the remainder of the reactor contents. This reactor is

Influent C,
V(m3)
Effluent Cx.

Figure 3.30 Batch reactor (BR).

 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 137

Influent Effluent

Figure 3.31 Continuously stirred reactor (CSTR).

most common in activated wastewater treatment. Figure 3.32 shows the configurations of the PFR.
This type of reactor is often used in a variety of simulations, for instance, the mixing of a pollutant in a
river flow (see Chapters 7 and 21). There is a gradient of concentration from input end to output end.

Analysis of performance of reactor types The basis of all reactor analysis is the material balance
equation:
Input — output + generation = accumulation

In reactor analysis the following may occur:

1. Accumulation may be positive or negative.

2. Input may be through the system boundaries or by generation within the reactor due to reaction.
3. Output may be flow through the system boundaries or by consumption due to reaction.

The material balance for a material A may be written as

AG eae A rae Ae aearg (3.101)

Inflow — outflow + generation = accumulation

where O = the flow rate, m?/s

Ca = concentration of material A, mg/L
Ca, = influent concentration, mg/L
Ca, = effluent concentration, mg/L
V = volume of fluid in the reactor, m?
ra = tate of reaction of material A, mg/L s

Note that the batch process and plug flow process are considered ‘similar’ for analysis.
Batch process
Batch process > Q=0 so V=constant
Equation (3.101) becomes
dC,
Neer
dt

Influent n 7 @ Effluent
/—S V(m3)
0, Be: : Cy Or
(ay Cc
Si Grn One xs es
Figure 3.32 Plug flow reactor (PFR).
138 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

for the zero-order equation (see Sec. 3.6.1):

ra = —ko
where ko is the zero order, reaction rate constant (mg/Ls). Therefore
_ dC
edt
t CxS

and = ka |di | dC,

0 Ge
Cx GN = kot (3.102)

For this first-order equation:

ra = —h\Ca
dCa
—kyC, = —
Soeale di
40 dC.
—k, |dt = | eres
0 Gack
Ca
—k\t=1
1 n EX = (3.103 )

Completely Stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR) process In the steady state case, accumulation = 0. Therefore
dCa
VY —=0
dt
Equation (3.101) becomes
OLE — OCe +raV =

ra = =(Ga = Cx.)
For the zero-order equations:
Ch
V
Ca, — Ca, = bo —
Q
Introduce the term ‘hydraulic retention time’ (HRT) and define as

V
Q= 0 (see Chapter 12)

Therefore
Gr ney. =2 1B) (3.104)

For the first-order equation,

ra = —kCa,
Oe=IG Ae nD (3.105)
A0
The first-order reaction may occur late into the reaction (see Chapter 12) when the concentration is
approaching Ca, (i.e. the effluent concentration). Further details on the CSTR as regards tracers in the
riverine environment is in Section 21.4.1.
 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 139

Reactions of variable order—effluent treatment The removal of organic material by microbial action
is normally carried out in a continuous mode. The rate governing equation is

peace!
cecal St3.106)
es Knee
rate awe
S210

where k = specific substrate uptake rate,

units of mass of contaminant (organic) removal
per unit mass of micro-organisms present per
time, (g/g day)
C(= S) = substrate concentration (BOD or COD), g/L
K, = constant, i.e. the half saturation concentration of
substrate at k = kmax/2
Kmax = Maximum specific uptake rate

At low substrate concentrations, the first-order equation is

Cc
k= Kmax (3.108)
Kg

At high substrate concentrations, the zero-order equation is

Kes eae

Example 3.30 Consider two effluent treatment systems:

Activated sludge—CSTR
Trickling filte-—PFR
and two effluent types:
Domestic—with a BOD concentration of 200 mg/L
Industrial—with a BOD concentration of 4000 mg/L
The operating conditions are given as:

Nee, = O05Ia
k= 100meyU
Dic on
@tr = 0.1h (domestic)
Orr = 0.2h (industrial)
Mags = 5000 mg/L (MLSS or micro-organism concentration)

Determine the output from each reactor of effluent concentrations using both the first-order model and
actual kinetic models.
140 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

(1) Activated sludge—CSTR—domestic effluent

(a) Consider the first-order model, determine k:

3.109
ele (
kM
1 = K,

where M = mass concentration mg/L

0.05 x 5000 x C
= — Oy
iM 100
Therefore
ig SDS

The first-order equation for the CSTR is Eq. (3.105)

(Ch = G
kn =a (3.110)

where C, = influent concentration and C = effluent concentration

200 = ¢
DANO) =
© G

For @ =5 h, the effluent concentration is C= 14.9 mg/L

(b) Consider actual kinetics:
Since dC/dt > 0 (Baia)
OC; —-QC+rVvV =0

_ 5000 x 0.05 x C
100 ¢
(Cae, 2506
. s00L EG
200—C___250C
‘Se 00 ae
Therefore
CS Wieieme

So the first-order model and actual kinetics are compatible for domestic effluent, activated sludge
process.
(2) Activated sludge—industrial effluent

(a) Consider the first-order model:

 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 141

Cy -—C
PROC =
g Cc
4000 —
Dest aeG
C = 296 mg/L

(b) Consider actual kinetics:

Cc; -—C 250C

Gan, 100EEC
C = 2489 mg/L
Gnserting C = 296 mg/l Oo = 19.8 h)

The first-order model and actual kinetics are not compatible in this case.
(3) Trickling filter-—domestic waste

(a) Consider the first-order model (batch or plug flow):

E
—k,\t1 = n lIn—
C, (3112 )

As before,

MkimaxC 50000 x 0.05 x C

kM = = 2 == ASG
K, 100
Substituting into Eq. (3.112)

(e@
o 250 .l = 2500
In—

Therefore

C = 16.4 mg/L

(b) Consider actual kinetics:

In a batch process, Q=0, therefore V=constant, as the material balance equation (3.101) becomes
r=dC/dr

dC MkmaxC _ 50000 x 0.05 x C __2500C

Therefore th enue fOOLne m0 426
t CE
406100+C
-2500|dt =| dG
0 Ca; C
G (6,
Ao dC mS
—2500¢ = 100 | =+| dc
Ca; Cc Ca;

Gn
25007 = 100 In"! (Ga. = Cy)
Gi
142 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

for the trickling filter, t=O 0-0 b

and Ca, = 200 mg/L
Solving Ca, = 64 mg/L

(for Ca, = 16.4 mg/L, @ = 0.174 h)

(4) Trickling filter—industrial effluent

(a) First-order model, with hydraulic retention time of 0.2 h,

= 25 54)
Cay
2 In 7000

Ca, = 27 mg/L
(b) Actual kinetics:
4000
4000¢ = 100 In + (4000 — Ca,)
Ao
ROmi— 0 en

Ga 3220 me/E
(for Ca == 2 ang) — 12h)

Summary of results

Influent BOD Effluent BOD

Treatment system Waste type mg/L Model mg/L
Activated Domestic 200 First-order 14.9
sludge actual kinetics WI
Industrial 4000 First-order 296
actual kinetics 2488

Trickling Domestic 200 First-order 16.4

filter actual kinetics 64
Industrial 4000 First-order oH
actual kinetics 3200

It is seen from the above that several anomalies exist:

1. For domestic effluents a first-order model is sufficient for CSTR, since the reactant concentration is
everywhere equal to the outlet concentration.
2. The first-order model is erroneous for domestic effluents using TF, since this reaction type had a
concentration profile. The concentration is highest at the input end and lowest at the outfall end.
3. For high strength effluents, the first-order assumption is grossly unsatisfactory.
See Tchobanoglous and Schroeder (1987) and Himmelblau (1989) for many additional appropriate
examples on material balances.

3.8 PROBLEMS

3.1 Explain why hydrogen bonding is responsible for the high heat capacity of water.
3.2 Explain how electrical conductivity can be used to determine the flow rates in a stream.
3.3. Balance the following equations:
 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 143

Fe(OH), + H,O + 0) — Fe(OH),

Ch + KOH > KCl +KCIO; + HO
FeS + HC] > FeCl, + HS
MnO) + NaCl + H»SO4 > MnSOq + H2O + Cl, + NapSOxq
3.4 If a waste is characterized by its COD and 192 mg of COD is equivalent to 1 mmole of glucose,
determine the glucose equivalent of a waste of 5500 mg/L COD.
SES How many moles of H2SO, are required to produce 100 kg of CaSO, from CaCO;?
220 If biomass (microbial cells) is represented by C; H7 NO», determine the theoretical oxygen demand
of 1 kg of biomass.
37) Determine the mass fractions of nitrogen, oxygen and argon in air if the respective mole fractions
are 0.781, 0.21 and 0.009.
3.8 Calculate the pH of a solution if, before dissociation, the solution contains:
(a) 20 mg/L of hydrochloric acid,
(b) 15 mg/L of acetic acid,
(c) 50 mg/L of hypochlorous acid.
Jo) Determine the concentration of Fe** in pure water caused by the complete dissociation of Fe(OH);
3.10 A water analysis is given below:
Cation Concentration
Caz 95 mg/L
Mg?+ 42 mg/L
Determine the total hardness.
Analysis of a wastewater sample gave the following:

Total alkalinity 88 mg/L as CaCO;

Temperature PEPE,
pH 8.8

Determine the carbonate, bicarbonate and hydroxide alkalinities.

3:12 An industry discharges its treated effluent with a flow rate of 1 m°/s into a river of flow rate
250 m?/s. If the BOD of the river background is 1.5 mg/L, determine the maximum BOD of the
effluent discharge if the river BOD should not be greater than 1.7 mg/L.
A fuel source of 25 kg of ethylene is burned with 250 kg of air. Determine the composition of the
resulting mixture. What is the percentage of excess air, assuming complete conversion.
3.14 In an anaerobic digestion reactor, the specific growth rate of the methanogenic bacteria is given by:
1
a Hj + (K/SUB) + ray,
where K = saturation constant of methanogens
SUB = substrate used by methanogens
AH = acetic acid (unionized)
K, = inhibition constant of methanogens.

Sketch with time the relationship of 4, K, SUB, AH and K;, explaining the significance of each term.
Sil) In a CSTR the chemical reaction rate is given as rg =—0.1[A]. If the reaction goes to 80 per
cent completion, determine the volume required for a volumetric flow rate of 100 L/s if [A], is
0.15 mol/L.
3.16 A wastewater CSTR of 50 m* volume operates on an irreversible first-order reaction basis,
144 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

r, =—k{A], where k=0.2 day'. The efficiency is 95 per cent. Determine the maximum flow rate
through the reactor. If the efficiency acceptable is 90 per cent, what is the optimum flowrate?
3.17 A plug flow reactor in an activated sludge wastewater system has a length of 100m by a width of
10m by a depth of 3 m. If the retention time is 2.5h, compute the flow rate.
3.18 Write a brief review of ‘HIV survivability in wastewater’ by P. Gupta, in Survival of HIV in
Environmental Waters, H. Farzadegan (ed.), 1991.
3.19 Ifa bacterial culture of 1000 cells doubles every hour, compute the number of bacteria after 24 h,
assuming the same growth pattern. Is your answer logical? Comment with respect to the death rate.
3.20 Discuss briefly anaerobes and aerobes and their utility in wastewater treatment.
3.21 Search the literature and/or the Internet and write a note on ‘The health risks (if any) of bacterial
spore survival in compost made from wastewater sludges, and its subsequent use in mushroom
production’.
3.22 Consider a primary settling tank in the treatment of wastewater. Assume an inflow of 2000 m?/day,
with a BOD; of 250 mg/L and a SS of 350 mg/L. If the SS reduction is 60 per cent once the BODs is
half of that, compute the flows in the two effluent streams, assuming the sludge stream contains
1 per cent DS. What is the BOD, in the sludge stream?
3.23 The growth of micro-organisms in an activated sludge (wastewater treatment) plant is assumed to be
represented by the saturation growth rate model, i.e. k=k,S/(k, +S) where k, is the maximum
growth rate, (constant), S is the substrate and 4, is the half saturation constant. A laboratory study
shows that:

S, mg/L 7 9 15 25 40 iS 100 150

k, day! 0.29 0.37 0.48 0.65 0.80 0.97 0.99 WAG

Determine the values of k, and Ks.

3.24 Consider a completed mixed reactor (CSTR) with an inflow Q of concentration Ci and a tank and
outflow concentration of C.
(1) Show that the mass balance for the reactor is: V(dC/dt) = O(C; — C)
(2) Solve the above equation analytically if C=Co at t=o.
(3) If Ci=150mg/L, O=7200 m?/day, V=200 m? and Co =30 mg/L, plot c versus time.
3.25 If bacterial cells are represented by C;H7NO>, determine the potential carbonaceous BOD of
1 gram of cells.

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Barnes, D., P. J. Bliss, B. W. Gould and H. R. Valentine (1986) Water and Wastewater Engineering Systems, Longman Scientific and
Technical, London.
Bohn, H., B. McNeal, and G. O’Connor (1985) Soil Chemistry, John Wiley, New York.
Curds, C. R. (1982) ‘The ecology and role of activated sludge’, Annual Review, Microbiology, 36, 27-46.
Dojlido, J. R. and J. A. Best (1993) Chemistry of Water and Water Pollution, Ellis Horwood/Prentice-Hall, Chichester/Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey.
Dolan, C. (1993) ‘Anaerobic co-digestion of MSW and primary sewage sludge, MEngSc thesis, University College, Cork.
Farzadegan, M. (December 1991) ‘Survival of HIV in environmental waters, Proceedings of a symposium at John Hopkins
University.
Fogg, G. E., W. D. P. Stewart, P. Fay and A. E. Walsby (1973) The Blue-Green Algae, Academic Press, New York.
Gaudy, A. F. and E. T. Gaudy (1980) Microbiology for Environmental Scientists and Engineers. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Gill, D. L. (1995) Report on Hazardous Air Pollutants from Landfill Sites. University of Maryland School of Medicine.
Gray, N. (1990) Activated Sludge: Theory and Practices. Oxford Science Publishers, UK.
Harrison, R. M., S. J. de Mara, S. Rapsomanikis and W. R. Johnston (1991) Introductory Chemistry for the Environmental Sciences,
 CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 145

Cambridge University Press.

Henry, J. G. and G. W. Heinke (eds) (1989) Environmental Science and Engineering, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Himmelblau, D. M. (1989) Basic Principles and Calculations in Chemical Engineering. Sth edn, Preintice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey.
Howells, G. and T. R. K. Dalziel (1992) Restoring Acid Waters—Loch Fleet 1984-1990, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Humenick, M. J. (1977) Water and Wastewater Treatment. Calculations for Chemical and Physical Processes. Marcel Dekker Inc.
USA.
Magill, P. L., F R. Holden and C. Ackley (1956) Air Pollution Handbook, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Mahan, B. M. and R. J. Myers (1987) University Chemistry, 4th edn, Benjamin/Cummings Publishers.
Manahan, S. E. (1991) Environmental Chemistry, 5th edn, Lewis Publishers.
Mitchell, R. (1974) Introduction to Environmental Microbiology, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Monod, J. (1949) ‘The Growth of Bacterial Cultures’. Annual Review of Microbiology, vol. 3.
Monteith, J. L. and M. H. Unsworth (1990) Principles of Environmental Physics, Edward Arnold, London.
Montgomery, J. M. (1985) Water Treatment, Principles and Design, John Wiley, New York.
Mudrack, K. and S. Kunst (1986) Biology of Sewage Treatment and Water Pollution Control, Ellis Horwood, Chichester.
National Research Council (1993) Soil and Water Quality—An Agenda for Agriculture, National Academy Press, Washington.
O’Neill, P. (1991) Environmental Chemistry, Chapman and Hall, London.
Prescott, L. M., J. P. Harley and D. A. Klein (1993) Microbiology, 2nd edn, Wm. C. Brown, Dubuque, Iowa.
Randall, C. W., J. L. Barnard and H. D. Stensel (1992) Design and Retrofit of Wastewater Treatment Plants for Biological Nutrient
Removal. Technomic Publishing, Lancaster, PA. USA.
Raiswell, R. W., P. Brimblecombe, D. L. Dent and P. S. Liss (1992) Environmental Chemistry, Edward Arnold, London.
Ryle, S. D. (1988) ‘Optimization of the rotating biological contactor process for nitrification/dentrification of wastewater, MEngSc
thesis, University College, Cork.
Sawyer, C. N. and P. L. McCarty (1989) Chemistry for Environmental Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Segel, I. H. (1993) Enzyme Kinetics—Behaviour and Analysis of Rapid Equilibrium and Steady State Enzyme Systems, John Wiley,
New York.
Seinfeld, J. H. (1986) Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics of Air Pollution, John Wiley, New York.
Senior, E, (1990) Microbiology of Landfill Sites, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.
Skinner, F. A. and J. M. Shewan (1977) Aquatic Microbiology, Academic Press, New York.
Snoeyink, V. L. and D. Jenkins (1980) Water Chemistry, John Wiley, New York.
Sposito, G. (1989). The Chemistry of Soils. Oxford University Press, UK.
Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, (1992). American Water Works Association (AWWA). eds
Greenberg, A. E., L. S. Clesceil and A. D. Eaton.
Stanier, R. Y., J. L. Ingraham, M. L. Sheelis and P. R. Painter (1986) Microbiol World, Sth edn, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey.
Stern, A. C. (1976) Air Pollution, Vols I-V, Academic Press, New York.
Sterritt, R. M. and J. N. Lester (1988) Microbiology for Environmental and Public Health Engineers, E&FN Spon, London.
Stoker, H. S. and S. L. Seager (1972) Environmental Chemistry: Air and Water Pollution, Scott, Foresimon and Co., London.
Stumm, W. (1972) Chemistry of the Solid—Water Interface, John Wiley, New York.
Stumm, W. and J. J. Morgan (1981) Aquatic Chemistry. An Introduction Emphasizing Chemical Equilibria in Natural Waters, 2nd
edn, John Wiley, New York.
Tanji, K. (1990) Agricultureal Salinity Asessment and Management, ASCE Manual and Report on Engineering Practices No. 71,
New York.
Tchobanoglous, G. and E. Schroeder (1987) Water Quality, Addision-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts.
Water Pollution Control Federation (WPCF) (1990) Wastewater Biology. The Microlife, WPCF, Alexandria, Virginia.
SSS
CHAPTER

FOUR
CONCEPTS IN HYDROLOGY

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Hydrology is the study of water and its movement along its various pathways within the hydrological
cycle; in the atmosphere; in the rivers and oceans; in the soil and in water containing rocks. Hydraulics is
the engineering of water flow in pipes, conduits, lakes or rivers. Water resources engineering is the art,
science and engineering of surface and groundwaters for human use. Hydrology is applied by engineers
who use hydrological principles to compute, for instance, river flows from rainfall, water movement in
soils from knowledge of soil characteristics including hydraulic conductivity, evaporation rates from water
balance or energy balance techniques. Applied hydrology uses many engineering assumptions in
attempting to quantify soil or river responses to rainfall events. It is easy, for instance, to quantify a
rainfall event and to quantify streamflow after this event, if field instrumentation has recorded the event.
However, it is still almost impossible to predict or model with accuracy what happens to rainfall once it
has fallen on land. Does 100 per cent of that rainfall go as surface runoff to the nearest stream or does 100
per cent infiltrate to the soil and show up in the streams, days or weeks later, with impact not only on the
streamwater volumes but also on the streamwater quality? In reality, either situation can occur but more
likely some precipitation goes as surface run-off, some as infiltration and some is returned to the
hydrological cycle via evaporation. What is the role of evaporation? Does precipitation exceed
evaporation or vice versa? Can we compute with any accuracy the regional scale evaporation if all our
evaporation studies are at the point scale? When can we expect remote sensing to deliver the answers? The
influence of surface vegetation, soil type, soil moisture status and topography is significant on water and
energy fluxes and the response from one site or watershed to another may be orders of magnitude
different. Rain intensity, duration and spatial distribution also play a significant role in the fate of land-
fallen precipitation. As such, art, science and engineering are all used to understand the pathways of water
in the hydrological cycle. There are still many, unquantified issues, particularly as we take hydrology into
meteorology and into climate studies.
This chapter discusses the hydrological cycle and its components as well as the energy cycle. It
explains the differences in infiltration and surface runoff. It defines evaporation and shows how to
quantify it at a point in space. This chapter also examines why our lack of understanding of evaporation,
particularly at the regional scale, is the missing link in closing the hydrological cycle water balance. It

146
 CONCEPTS IN HYDROLOGY 147

explains water balance for catchments, looking at hyetographs and hydrographs. It examines rainfall—
runoff relationships for flood flows and low flows. It examines the influence of urbanization on
hydrological responses. It briefly introduces the student to the physics of the energy cycle. The final
section of this chapter looks at both physical and chemical concepts of groundwater. By the end of this
chapter it is hoped that the student will have an introductory qualitative and quantitative understanding of
the physics of water in the hydrological cycle and also in the sun’s energy cycle.

4.2 HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

The hydrological cycle is central to hydrology. It is a continuous process with no starts or finishes. It is
shown schematically in Fig. 4.1. Water evaporates from the earth’s oceans and other water bodies, and to a
lesser extent from the land surfaces. Approximately seven times more evaporation occurs from the oceans
than from the earth’s land surface. Remember the ocean surface area of the earth is 2.5 times the land
surface area. The evaporated water or water vapour rises into the atmosphere until the lower temperatures
aloft cause it to condense and then precipitate in the form most globally as rain but sometimes as snow.
The latter occurs at the more alpine elevations or in cold seasons. The global annual average water balance
relative to 100 units of land precipitation is enumerated in the water balance diagram of Fig. 4.2. A
schematic of a modeller’s flow chart of the hydrological cycle is shown in Fig. 4.3.
Figure 4.2 is a simplistic way of showing the hydrological cycle but the objective is quantitative,
whereas Fig. 4.1 is qualitative. The material balance of Fig. 4.2 is based on the conservation of matter.
The four subregions of Fig. 4.2 are numerically in equilibrium on their own or taken as the totality of the
four. For instance, the equilibrium of the ‘oceans balance’ is satisfied by two inputs of precipitation plus
inflow, being equal to one output of evaporation, i.e.

For landmass : Input + change in storage = output

For oceans : Precipitation + inflow = evaporation

Clouds over Clouds over Clouds over

hills land oceans
<—_—___—_
Moisture over land
100 — 39
Precipitation 385
on land Pricipitation
61 over sea
Evaporation
from land

424
Evaporation and Evaporation
€vapotranspiration from ocean

ei flow
Groundwater flow
Impervious SS
~ =
layers
Groundwater flow ocean

Figure’4.1 Hydrological cycle with global annual average water balance given in units relative to a value of 100 for the rate of
precipitation on land (adapted from Chow et al., 1988).
148 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Clouds over \_~ oe

oceans oseto ;
Gate an

land’ clouds land clouds

Evaporation Precipitation Precipitation Evaporation
from oceans to oceans to land over land
424 385 100 61

424 385 100 61

Evaporation Precipitation Precipitation Evaporation

from oceans to oceans to land over land

39) 39
Oceans
Inflow Runoff

Figure 4.2 Material balance on aspects of the hydrological cycle.

Tables 4.1 and 4.2 show the distribution of the earth’s water resources. The oceans contain 96.5 per cent of
all water while the rivers occupy only 0.0002 per cent. The great store of usable freshwater is held in
groundwater at 30.1 per cent, while soil moisture stores are 0.05 per cent, or 250 times that of rivers.
Understanding of the hydrologic cycle as it relates to precipitation on land is required by many
different professionals—be it an engineer designing a water supply, an agriculturist designing an irrigation
scheme, a freshwater biologist investigating adequacy of river flows for fisheries habitats, an industrialist
abstracting water or discharging liquid effluent or a meteorologist forecasting weather patterns. What is of

Evaporation Precipitation Interception oe

ey Rain/Snow/Sleet/Hail 4

Depression
VOeEE = flow ; storage

Infiltration Channel
flow

Channel
Evapotranspiration Root zone storage
seepage

Groundwater Groundwater
storage flow

Soe
Figure 4.3 Components of the hydrological cycle (adapted from Bedient and Huber, 1988, p. 55, © 1988 by Addison-Wesley
Publishing Company, Inc. Reprinted by permission of the publisher).
 CONCEPTS IN HYDROLOGY 149

Table 4.1 Estimated world water quantities

Area Volume Total water Fresh water

Item (10° km?) (km?) % % Rates of exchange

Oceans 36.31 1338000000 96.5 3000-30000 yrs

Groundwater
Fresh 134.8 10530000 0.76 30.1 Days to 1000 yr
Saline 134.8 12 870000 0.93
Soil moisture 82.0 16 500 0.001 2 0.05 2-52 weeks
Polar ice 16.0 24 023 500 ey 68.6 1-16 000 years
Other ice and snow 0.3 340 600 0.025 1.0
Lakes
Fresh ile? 91000 0.007 0.26 1-100 years
Saline 0.8 85 400 0.006 10-1000 years
Marshes EA 11470 0.000 8 0.03
Rivers 148.8 2120 0.000 2 0.006 10-30 days
Biological water 510.0 1120 0.000 1 0.003 7 days
Atmospheric water 510.0 12 900 0.001 0.04 8-10 days
Total water 510.0 1385 984610 100.0 2800 years
Fresh water 148.8 35029 210 DS 100.0

Adapted from UNESCO, 1978

most pragmatic interest, then, is what happens to the land-fallen precipitation on a mesoscale of a
catchment or region, rather than the global annual water balance. The meteorologist has interests in the
hydrological cycle on a larger scale, sometimes global. Precipitation may be intercepted by vegetation, i.e.
grass, crops or trees. /nterception is the evaporation of water from the outer surface of leaves during and
after rainfall. Transpiration is evaporation of water through foliage. Some may lodge on the soil surface
and be retained there in depressions. This is called depression storage or ponding. Some water may
become overland flow and eventually reach a stream or river and be discharged as surface runoff. It may
infiltrate into the soil and flow horizontally as interflow. It may percolate through the deeper soil layer into
the groundwater zone and recharge the waters in the aquifers. A significant volume of precipitation may
be returned to the atmosphere through evaporation from water bodies and evapotranspiration from
vegetated surfaces. The extent of the latter depends on many factors, including climate, type of surface
vegetation, amount of rainfall and rain intensity. In general, of 100 units of rain that falls on grassland in
temperate zones, 10 to 20 units will go to groundwater, 20 to 40 units will evapotranspire and 40 to 70
units will become stream runoff. In arid and semi-arid areas, with little precipitation, not all of the above
phenomena may be experienced, as high evaporation tends to dominate the hydrologic cycle.

Table 4.2 Global annual water balance

Ocean Land

Area (km*) 361 300.000 148 800.000

Precipitation (km*/yr) 458 000 119000
(mm/yr) 1270 800
Evaporation (km?/yr) 505 000 72.000
(mm/yr) 1 400 484

Runoff to ocean
Rivers (km?/yr) 44700
Groundwater (km*/yr) 2 200
Total runoff (km?/yr) 47000
(mm/yr) 316

Adapted from UNESCO, 1978

150 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

The way precipitation becomes spatially distributed depends on climate, soils, geology, topography
and land use. For instance, if a soil vegetation matrix is saturated with water from a previous rainstorm, a
new precipitation event may become distributed solely to streamflow (via overland flow) with no
contribution to evaporation, infiltration or percolation. Alternatively, if a soil matrix is very dry with a low
water table, a precipitation event may be distributed to infiltration followed by percolation to groundwater,
with no quantity to streamflow. Therefore, to be able to quantify the distribution of precipitation,
knowledge of the soil and the response of soil to water is required.

4.3 WATER BALANCE

The water balance or water budget is the accounting of water for a particular catchment, region or even for
the earth as a whole. As seen in the preceding sections, the hydrologic cycle considers all the phenomena
of water phases in a qualitative description. The water balance is the quantitative account of the
hydrologic cycle. The input to the cycle is precipitation, either as rainfall, snow or sleet. The precipitation
is distributed as surface runoff, evaporation, infiltration to the unsaturated zone, changing its storage, and
deep percolation to the saturated zones.
The equation for the water balance, which is the conservation of mass in a lumped or averaged
hydrological system on a regional or catchment scale is
P=R+E+AS+AG (4.1)
where P = precipitation, mm/day
R = stream runoff
E = evaporation
AS = change in soil moisture status
AG = change in groundwater status

Equation (4.1) assumes that there is no ‘flow’ across catchments. While this is correct for surface water, it
is not always possible to verify that there is zero flow in the subsoil regions across catchment boundaries,
i.e. no interflow. If Eq. (4.1) is averaged over the hydrologic year (in northern temperate climates this is
typically 1 October to 30 September), there may be no significant change in AS or AG. Thus
P=R+E (4.2)
and so

E=P-R (4.3)
Equation (4.3) is often used to determine evaporation from the ‘annual’ water balance of closed systems.
Water balance data are required for a myriad of uses. If water is to be abstracted from surface waters
for irrigation, hydropower, cooling water or industrial requirements, it is necessary to understand not only
the absolute values of precipitation, evaporation and streamflow but also the trends over time. If a land use
change is proposed for a catchment, it may alter the water balance. For instance, it is most likely that a
grassland catchment in the temperate zone, if converted to forestry, would see an increased evaporation on
maturation of the plantations. This is due to the increased transpiration rates of trees over grassland. This
would leave less water for streamflow and its human and ecological uses may be impacted. Table 4.3 lists
water balance results for many catchments throughout the world for different land uses (mainly forest).
Evaporation losses (defined as evaporation/precipitation) vary from 15 per cent for upland moorland
catchments in the United Kingdom to about 70 per cent for fully forested catchments. Table 4.4 shows the
water balance of the continents. It is seen that the water loss due to evaporation varies significantly with
about 60 per cent for South America and 93 per cent for Australia.
 CONCEPTS IN HYDROLOGY 151

Table 4.3 Water balance for different land uses

Total
evaporation
Annual rainfall Runoff losses Losses
Author Location Land use P(mm) Q(mm) (mm) (%)
Law (1956) Stocks Coniferous 984 273 711 72
1955-6 Reservoir Forest 100%
(UK)
Institute of Hydrology Stocks 100% forest 1496 Ss) 953 64
1967-70 Reservoir
(450 m?)
Institute of Hydrology Stocks 22% forest 1662 1204 454 27
1956-70 Reservoir
(37.5 km’)
Institute of Hydrology Stocks 70% forest 1544 1049 495 32
1956-70 Reservoir
(10.6 km”)
Law (1956) Stocks Grassland, 1135 Wl 421 ay)
Reservoir moorland
(UK)
Law (1956) and Calder et al. — Stocks Grass, 1702 467 28
(1982) Reservoir lysimeter (PET)
irrigated
Law (1956) and Calder et al. Stocks Heather, 1702 520 31
(1982) Reservoir lysimeter (PET)
irrigated
Caspary (1990) Black Forest Norway Dormant season 484 466 49
spruce, 950
100% forest
Growing season 200 400 67
(1975) 600
Growing season 350 250 41
(1985) 600
Mulholland er al. (1991) Walker 100% 1400 728 672 48
branch, deciduous
Tennessee
Farrell (1991) Ballyhooley, 100% forest 1022 (throughfall) 446 44
N. Cork, 576
Ireland
Bishop (1991) Loch Fleet, Grassland, 2200 1740 460 Bil
Scotland moorland
Cooper (1980) Thetford, 100% forest 640 — 430
East Anglia
Shuttleworth Amazonia 100% 2593 -= 1393
(1988) rainforest
Kirby ef al. (1991) Wye, Grassland, 2394 2041 3)5)3}
Plynlimon, moorland
Severn
Kirby et al. (1991) Plynlimon, 68% forest 2620 1820 770
Wales (1977)
FRI New Zealand (1980) Mamai, New 100% beech 2600 1500 1000
McDonnell (1990) Zealand forest
Pearce et al. (1976) Big Bush, 100% beech 1500 600 800
New Zealand forest
Fahey, Watson New Zealand Tussock 1150 620 530 46
grassland, 1150 500 650 57
pine forest
152 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Table 4.4 Water balance of continents!

Area P Evapotranspiration Runoff

Continent (10° km?) (mm/yr) (mm/yr) (mm/yr)

Europe 10.0 657 375 282

Asia 44.1 696 420 276
Africa 29.8 695 582 114
Australia 7.6 447 420 27
North America 24.1 645 403 242
South America NS) 1564 946 618
Antarctica 14.1 169 28 141
Total land 148.9 746 480 266

' Data from Baumgartner and Reichel (1975)

4.4 ENERGY BUDGET

The energy received at the earth’s surface is essentially all solar (shortwave) radiation. Some of this energy
is reflected back from the earth’s surface to the atmosphere, and some penetrates the earth. The earth also
re-radiates some of the solar energy. Like the water budget, the energy balance is the accounting of the
distribution of the incoming shortwave solar radiation from space, through the atmosphere and onto the
earth’s surface of land and ocean, (see Fig. 4.4). The energy balance also accounts for the outgoing
longwave terrestrial radiation from the earth’s surface. This distributes to evaporation flux, sensible heat
flux and net radiant emission by the surface. What is of most interest to hydrology is the net incoming
radiation at the earth’s surface and the subsequent partitioning of this energy (measured in watts /m7) to

Solar radiation Terrestrial radiation

(shortwave) (longwave)

Reflected Outgoi
Space ae Incoming ee
100 km CO ~\
oe 6 18 16 4 30 27
( Backscattering 4 |
[94] by air Net radiant
Reflection emission by
Bvicioude greenhouse
[76] Vicar gases et radiant
emission by
11 Net clouds
Atmosphere absorption by
up to about 10 greenhouse
100km Reta gases
Absorption Reflecti Selena t
by atmosphere S earn ree cy tea
by surface Net radiant (Heating (Evaporation)
emission by ambient air) Net latent
surface Net sensible heat flux
heat flux
e | seed
Earth’s surface Absorption 1S i 24
Land—Oceans [46] eer NS )
by surface
any a
Heating of surface 46
Figure 4.4 Average global energy balance of the earth-atmosphere system. Numbers indicate relative energy fluxes; 100 units
equals the solar constant 1367 W/m?. Modified from Shuttleworth (1991) and Dingman (1994).
 CONCEPTS IN HYDROLOGY 153

evaporation, sensible heat and heat absorbed by the soil. The quantity of radiant energy remaining at the
earth’s surface is known as the net radiation, R,, typically in units of watts /m*, and is measured by a
simple instrument called a net radiometer. For a simple lumped system, the energy budget is expressed as

Ra =LE+H+G+PS+M (4.4)
where R, = specific flux of net incoming radiation, W/m?
L = latent heat of vaporization
E = evaporation
H = specific flux of sensible heat into the atmosphere (i.e. the energy
in watts/m? used to heat the ambient air)
G = specific flux of heat into or out of the soil
PS = photosynthetic energy fixed by plants
M = energy for respiration and heat storage in a crop canopy

Simplifying, by neglecting PS and M, then

R, =LE+H+G (4.5)
Like Eqs (4.1) to (4.3), Eqs (4.4) and (4.5) can be applied to either a single plant or a cropped field, a
catchment, a region or the global scale. In any given system, the connecting link between the water budget
and the energy budget equations is evaporation. Most of the net incoming solar radiation is absorbed near
the surface of the earth and converted to internal energy, either as longwave back radiation, evaporation,
downward conduction of heat into the soil, upward thermal conduction and convection of sensible heat
(Brutsaert, 1982).
A useful parameter derived from Eq. (4.5) is the Bowen ratio
H
Bo= LE (4.6)

which is a ratio of the sensible heat flux and the evaporation rate. For instance, in arid regions, Bo is >1,
since evaporation is limited by limited water supplies. In moist, warm, tropical areas, Bo < 1. Further
details are to be found in Brutsaert (1982) and Rosenberg et al. (1983). Estimates of the mean global
energy budget from Brutsaert (1982) are depicted in Table 4.5. Over the global land surface, it is seen
that, of the 50 kcal/cm* yr of net radiation, approximately 25 units go to evaporation and 25 go to
sensible heat flux. This complies with the values of evaporation for specific catchments in Table 4.4. In the
case of oceanic energy balance, approximately 85 per cent of the net radiation energy is distributed to
evaporation. It is therefore seen from these tables that evaporation plays a major role in the water and
energy balance of the globe and, more significantly, for the hydrological budget of the earth’s land surface.

Table 4.5 Estimates of mean global energy budget at earth’s surface in

keal/em? yr
Land Ocean Global

Reference R, LE H He LE H Ry LE H

Budyko (1974) 49 5 24 82 74 8 72 60 12
Baumgartner and 50 28 22 81 69 12 72 ay 15
Reichel (1975)
Korzun et al. (1978) 49 Af 22 91 82 9 79 67 12

Adapted from Brutsaert, 1982. Reprinted by permission of Kluwer Academic Publishers

154 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

4.5 PRECIPITATION

Precipitation in the form of rain, hail or snow is one input to the hydrologic cycle. If we are interested in
predicting or assessing a hydrologic response we need to be able to determine the amount, rate and
duration of precipitation on a spatial and temporal basis. In Sec. 4.14 we discuss the water quality aspects
of rainfall.
Precipitation occurs when air rises, expands (on cooling) and cools sufficiently for the water vapour
in the air to reach condensation point. The atmosphere is rich in nuclei, mainly soil/clay particles,
hydrocarbon waste products, sea salts, etc., with a size requirement greater than about 0.1 ym.
Additionally, for precipitation to occur, there must also be:
1. The presence of condensation nuclei on which condensation can start. In their absence, the air can
become supersaturated.
2. These condensed droplets should not evaporate when passing through drier air and should be of
sufficient size to free-fall under gravity to the earth’s surface. If the droplets are too small, they may
have an inadequate ‘settling’ or falling velocity to reach the ground.
Rain droplets increase in size either by coalescence (liquid to liquid) producing rain or when solid
aggregates with solid as with snow. An intermediate phase of aggregation of solid with liquid produces
hail, Bras (1990) identified the forms of rainfall precipitation, as in Table 4.6.
Precipitation in the form of rainfall has a large spatial variability for local thunderstorms covering an
area as small as 5 km” to a synoptic storm covering up to 250000km7?. Table 4.7 outlines the spatial
characteristics of general storms. In general, we have cellular thunderstorms during the warmer periods
(but not exclusively so). Details of the physics of rainfall can be found in many books, including Bras
(1990) and Eagleson (1970).

4.5.1 Measurement of Precipitation

The three means of determining the magnitude of rainfall, spatially and temporally, are:
e Precipitation gauges
e Radar
e Satellite remote sensing

The traditional means of measurement was to use a network of raingauges which were read manually on a
daily basis, and this gave daily rainfall at a single point in space. Today, raingauges are predominantly
continuous rainfall recorders, with attached electronic data recorders. Typically, these will record rainfall
at a point for a particular magnitude of rainfall, e.g. in increments of 0.2 mm. The mechanism may be a
tipping bucket, of capacity 0.2 mm and each time 0.2 mm falls, the start and finish time are recorded.
Analysis of the record can then be for hourly, daily, weekly, rainfalls. If an area has a sufficient number of
raingauges, then the temporal and spatial distributions of rainfall may be determined. Raingauges
connected to a telemetry system are now being used for real-time runoff forecasting. Raingauge networks

Table 4.6 Forms of precipitation

Name Description Size

Drizzle <1 mm/h 0.1-0.5 mm

Rain Light <2.5 mm/h >0.5 mm
Moderate 2.5—7.5 mm/h
Heavy >7.5 mm/h

Adapted from Bras, 1990

 CONCEPTS IN HYDROLOGY 155

Table 4.7 Characteristics of general storms

Intensity
Name Size (km?) (mm/h) Duration

Synoptic 25 000-250 000 0.2-2 Few days

Large mesoscale 2300-4600 1-3 <2
Small mesoscale 100-400 2-5 S35} 10
Cellular <10 >5 Minutes

Adapted from Bras, 1990

have been used in determining rainfalls that should be used in flood analysis, low flow in stream analysis,
groundwater recharge analysis, water balance studies of catchments and, to a lesser extent, water quality
analysis of rainfall. It is important to be aware that there are serious limitations to using raingauge data
from an insufficient network of gauges. Essentially a raingauge is a point measurement of rainfall and
rainfall will vary widely (spatially and temporally) depending on the type of rainfall. For instance, two
raingauges, 2 km apart, may record significant differences during a thunderstorm, but most likely similar
falls during a mesoscale storm.
Errors in the absolute magnitudes from raingauges can occur from poor siting (too close to buildings
or trees), overgrowth of ground cover, winds and other types of shielding. Figure 4.5 is a typical bar chart
(hyetograph) of a heavy rainstorm. It is seen that the record is not continuous. The storm duration is 24h
with a total rain of 91.8 mm. The peak intensity is 14.2 mm/h with an average intensity of 3.8 mm/h.
This rainstorm would be considered an infrequent event in a temperate wet climate like Ireland.
Ground-based radar is used to estimate the areal distribution of the instantaneous precipitation rates
in clouds. As such, it should be a more sophisticated and reliable method of rainfall determination than
raingauges. In theory, it should be able to provide a continuous description of rainfall over the cone of
influence of the radar. The radar image needs to be calibrated with on-ground raingauges or raindrop size
measurements. Because of many factors, including evaporation of falling rain and distortion of the
precipitation field by winds at elevations lower than clouds, a precise image of precipitation cannot be
obtained. While the precise magnitude of rainfall estimates from radar can be in error by factors of 0.5 to
2.0, radar does give a good picture of the areal extent of precipitation. The student is referred to Bras
(1990) and to Collinge and Kirby (1987) for further details on rain-radar.

intensity
Rain
(mm/h)

0 2 4 6 8 LOS 2 14 6) 18 20° 22 24
Time (h)

Figure 4.5 Typical hyetograph of a severe 24-hour winter rainstorm.

156 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Satellite observations can provide information on the areal distribution of precipitation working on
the principle that the atmosphere selectively transmits radiation at various wavelengths, and more
particularly in the visible and thermal infra-red wavelengths. The visible wavelengths are of the order of
0.77 to 0.91 ym (Bras, 1990) and give information on the distribution of clouds, and therefore possible
areal locations of rainfall. The infra-red wavelengths, 8 to 9.2 um and 17.0 to 22.0 um (see the
electromagnetic spectrum in Chapter 8), can be used to locate high clouds and their associated convective
precipitation cells. In the United States the polar orbiting satellites provide two visible and one infra-red
pass per day and from geostationery satellites providing images at intervals of a half hour (Dingman,
1994). Very obvious benefits of satellite imagery is for areas of low inhabitation, where raingauges or
radar are not available and particularly remote island locations, e.g. the South Pacific.

4.5.2 Precipitation Analysis

Analysis of precipitation results include the determination of:
e Areal precipitation
e Depth—area—duration analysis
e Precipitation frequency
e Intensity—duration—frequency analysis
e Extreme values of precipitation

Determination of areal precipitation from point measurements The mean areal precipitation of a
storm event is
1
Veg =3\ p(x)dx (4.7)

and the time-averaged mean areal precipitation is

if j) 22
P= = | P(x, ti)dx (4.8)
Tae T OAos A
where p(x) is a function describing the total accumulation of precipitation at all points x; in the catchment
and p(x, t;) describes the total precipitation at x and time ¢,. A is the catchment area and J is the total storm
period. Several methods are used to determine the areal average of a storm’s precipitation, including the
arithmetic mean, the Thiesson polygon, the Isohyetal method, the hypsometric method and the
multiquadratic method (Shaw, 1994). The use of the above methods is best illustrated by means of
examples.

Example 4.1 The catchment shown in Fig. 4.6 has six raingauges which recorded the intensities of
a storm event as illustrated in column 2. Two of the gauges are outside the watershed line. Determine the
areal precipitation using the Thiessen polygon method.

Solution

Step 1. Join with broken lines each ofthe six gauges as shown, | to 6, 1 to 3, 1 to 2, 1 to 5, 6 to 3, 3 to 4,
4105, 5) tO sontoe etc:
Step 2. Draw the orthogonal bisectors of these lines, i.e. AB is the bisector of 1 to 6, AC the bisector of 3
to 65 etc:
Step 3. Identify the contributing areas to each raingauge. The area BAC within the catchment is attributed
to raingauge 6. The area of the catchment bounded by GEF is attributed to gauge 4. These areas
are divided by the the total watershed area and reported as the Thiessen weights in column 3.
 CONCEPTS IN HYDROLOGY 157

Upland

Catchment
boundary

~<— Lowland

Precipitation P, Thiessen 6
Raingauge (mm) weight ©, » E;

l 45 0.280 12.6
2 39 0.135 Sho)
3 32 OTS 8.8
4 34 0.190 6.5
5 27 0.025 0.7
6 48 0.095 4.6

Total 38.5
Figure 4.6 Areal average precipitation determination by Thiessen polygon.

Step 4. The total areal precipitation is then computed from weighted contributions of each gauge as in
column 4. Therefore,
P=3 8esnmm

Another common method for areal precipitation determination is the isohyetal method. The isohyetal
map of a catchment shows the contours of precipitation. These could be composed from Example 4.1.
The contours of precipitation as determined from the raingauges and the contour map are drawn in fine
increments. The weights attributed to a contour interval are assigned w;, similar to the way weights of area
were assigned in the Thiessen polygon method. Depending on the range of rainfall, the contour
increments may or may not exceed the number of raingauges. For instance, in Example 4.1 with a range of
27 to 48 mm, i.e. 21 mm, a contour precipitation interval range might be, say, increments of 3 mm each.
The reader is referred to Shaw (1994) for further details.

Depth—-area—duration analysis As the area of a catchment increases, typically the depth of

precipitation decreases and this is accounted for in the UK Flood Studies Report (NERC, 1975) which
158 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

uses an areal reduction factor (ARF) for precipitation. For short duration storms, the ARF is significant, as
short duration storms also tend to spread over smaller land areas than longer duration storms. As the depth
and duration increase, so does the areal average precipitation. For many environmental engineering
applications, it is relevant to know the areal extent of a particular depth of precipitation and to know how
the depth varies with area. This is best illustrated by an example.

Example 4.2 Determine the precipitation depth—area curve for the hypothetical storm given in Fig.
4.7(a).

Solution Table 4.8 is computed as follows:

Step 1. Identify the isohyets, as shown in Fig. 4.7a, as being 100, 90, 80, 70, 60 and 50 mm, total
precipitation. Associate with each interval its contributing catchment area and enter as column 2
of Table 4.8.
Step 2. Identify the area between isohyets as column 3 and the average rain between isohyets as column
4.
Step 3. The volume of rainfall between isohyets is the product of columns 3 and 4 and is entered in
column 4. Column 6 is the cumulative rain.
Step 4. Column 7 is the areal rain which is column 6 divided by column 2.
Step 5. Figure 4.7(b) is now drawn with column 7 as ordinate and column 2 as abscissa. This is usually
drawn on a log scale for the x axis if the range covers several orders of magnitude. It is seen that
as area increases, rainfall depth decreases.

100 mm rain
contour

50mm rain
contour enclosing
a 230 km? area

Figure 4.7(a) Schematic of isohyets of a single storm cell (in mm) (Example 4.2).

110

depth
Rain
(mm)

60
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
Area (km?)
Figure 4.7(b) Precipitation depth—area analysis (Example 4.2).
 CONCEPTS IN HYDROLOGY 159

Table 4.8 Computation of depth—area precipitation

Area Average rain Volume of

Total area between between rain between Cumulative Areal
Isohyet enclosed isohyets isohyets isohyets volume rain
(mm) (km”) (km”) (mm) (10~'? mm*) (107! mm*)—s (mm)
100 15 15 105 S53 ILSy/5) 105
90 30 it's) 95 1425 3 000 100
80 55 25 85 225 Sul 93
70 90 35 1B 2 625 7750 86
60 150 60 65 3 900 11650 Wi
50 230 80 55 4400 16050 69

Depth—area analysis of single storm events can be extended to depth—area—duration analysis where
typically the durations are of the order of hours. This analysis is more detailed and the reader is referred to
Shaw (1994, p. 216) for a detailed example. Figure 4.8 represents a typical depth—area—duration set of
curves for a single storm. It is seen that as duration increases, so does the rainfall depth. Figure 4.8 can be
developed for any locality with rainfall records.

Precipitation frequency Most hydrologic parameters, including precipitation, streamflow, evaporation,

etc., are characteristically, time series i.e. their magnitude varies with time. They may be continuous like a
streamflow record (hydrograph) or possibly discrete like a rainfall record over a period of time with actual
magnitudes followed by zero readings (see Fig. 4.5). The determination of the frequency of a rain event of
a particular magnitude is of particular relevance to environmental engineering. For instance, we need to be
able to know if a rainstorm magnitude of 30 mm/h has a frequency of once per year or once per 50 years.
In other words, we need to be able to ascertain the return period or frequency. This determination will be
more accurate if the length of known records is long. For instance, if we know the annual rainfall for 100
years, we can, using statistics, determine and forecast many properties from this data set. For instance,
Fig. 4.9 (from Shaw, 1994) shows the different statistical distributions of the daily rainfall record for the
United Kingdom. The daily record (a) is shown to follow the J-type (or exponential decay) distribution,
while the monthly rainfall (6) follows the log normal distribution and the annual rainfalls (c) follow the

SS

rainfall
Areal
(mm)

eeer eh Piedad
dita tititititital

a6 2 3 a 5 6 7 B O7@
Area (km2)

Figure 4.8 Precipitation depth—area—duration curves (adapted from Shaw, 1994).

160 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

normal distribution. Different areas on the globe and even different locations within the United Kingdom
may follow different distributions to those of Fig. 4.9.

Intensity-duration-frequency analysis Many textbooks in hydrology detail intensity—duration—

frequency (IDF) analysis. A conceptual IDF curve is shown in Fig. 4.10. A different set of curves
pertain to different locations. As rainfall intensity increases, its duration decreases, i.e. [x t_'. This may
be represented by ,

jf (4.9)
a
where ] = rain intensity, mm/h
t = storm duration, (min or hours)
c,n = locality constants

Dillon (1954) derived the following equation for Cork, Ireland, from data for 35 years:
1/5
I = 152.4 aE (4.10)

where 7, is the recurrence interval in years, e.g. 4, 10, 20, 30, etc.

J-distribution

of
Number
days

OPA 82 16208 24 328mm

(a) Daily

Log-normal
positive skew
SS
50
of
Number@)
months — 1
0) 50 100 150 mm
(b) Monthly
20
5 16
ee Normal
6 12
o
a)E 8
qa 4
0
300 400 600, 800 1000 mm
(c) Annual
Figure 4.9 Daily, monthly and annual rainfall frequencies in the United Kingdom (adapted from Shaw, 1994. Reprinted by
permission of Chapman and Hall).
 CONCEPTS IN HYDROLOGY 161

200

1 in 100 yr
100 A
1 in 5O yr
|
Lin 10 yr
'
'
i}
'
'
'
'
20 i}
i]
'
'
'
'
'
1
'
intensity
Rainfall
(mm/h) '
'
'
'
'
'
'
'

60min hh h h
Duration f¢ (h)

Figure 4.10 Schematic of rainfall frequency—intensity—duration relationships.

The historical equation for IDF in the United Kingdom is that of Bilham (1936) and re-issued by the
UK Meteorological Society in 1962:
7 0282
(=a)
I = DAN |——— —2.2.54 (4.11)
}

where R = rainfall depth, mm

t = duration of rain, min
N = number of occurrences in 10 years

A revised version of Bilham’s equation is by Holland (1967):

0.318
R=25.4 (ans: ) (4.12)
The above equations have been used in engineering design for many years for the design of sewers.
However, the basic concept of IDF is to obtain a single-valued rain intensity for a particular storm
duration and frequency. For instance, with respect to the schematic of Fig. 4.10, it is seen that the 60
minute storm with a return period of 10 years has an intensity of approximately 50 mm/h. This assumes
that the storm has a rainfall of uniform intensity. This is most unlikely to occur in reality. The origin of
IDF was to determine a uniform rainfall intensity to be applied to the rational formula in determining
runoff

Q=CIA (4.13)
where O = runoff, m?/s
C = locality coefficient
| = intensity of rainfall, mm/h
A = catchment area, km?

Therefore, the IDF rainfall intensities do not represent actual time histories of rainfall. Also, neither is the
duration in IDF curves the actual length of the storm; rather it is merely a 60 minute period, say, within a
longer storm of any duration during which the average intensity happened to be the specified value (e.g.
70 mm/h). In fact, the IDF curves are smoothed contours and unless a data point actually falls on the
curve, it is hypothetical.
162 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Traditionally, sewer networks were designed using the rational method for runoff which may have
used IDF curves for rainfall intensity. Now such methods are used only in preliminary sewer analysis and
design. Firstly, it is advisable to use real rainfall data based on time series analysis—ideally, several years
of records with time intervals at least as low as 15 minutes and at 5 minute intervals where possible. These
long-term hyetographs are converted to hydrographs using a suitable rainfall-runoff relationship. The
long-term hydrographs are then routed through the sewer network like a storm hydrograph is routed along
a river channel. Refer to Bedient and Huber (1988) for details on flow routing techniques. One of the
benefits of using real rainfall data is that the hydrodynamics of sewer routing can be coupled with
hydrochemistry modelling. It is well established that a positive correlation exists between pollutants in
sewer and sewer flow rates. This coupling of real flows and water chemistry introduces more accuracy at
predicting pollutant levels that arrive at wastewater treatment plants or those levels that require to be storm
overflowed without treatment to a river. The real time monitoring of surface (meaning rainfall) and foul
sewers has recently advanced with the application of telemetry to the sewer networks.

Example 4.3 You are required to design an urban sewer system for a return period of 10 years, with
a rainfall duration of 2 hours. Compute the rainfall intensity using the Dillon, Bilham and Holland
equations, that would be used in the subsequent sewer design. (Details of a manual method of sewer
design are given in Chapter 12.)

Solution

Dillon equation jes lispg

Vieweip ie
= 152.4 101 x 1202/5 = 13.7 mm/h
t 0.282
Bilham equation R= 25.4 (—) ~2.54
0.209 x 120\°78
= —2.54 = 30.3 mm/2h = 15.15 mm/h
t 0.318
Hollandicquat
Ollan equa’ 10n R =25.4(—— ae)

120 0.318

=05 (Ga)
4|jea 21)
31.7 mm/2 h == 15.85
15) mm/h

It is important to note that the Bilham and Holland equations are applicable only to the United Kingdom
and even then results may be improved on if local data exists.

Example 4.4 Determine the rainfall depths (and intensity mm/h) for storm durations of 1, 6 and
24 h with return periods of 2, 5, 10 and 25 years from the annual maxima series given in Table 4.9.

Solution

Step 1. Rank the data as shown in Table 4.10 from highest to lowest for each duration (column 1).
Step 2. Estimate the quantile, g, for each value from

ion m

rae
where m is the rank and N is the sample total (V=15). The estimated quantile, q, is the
exceedence probability and can be plotted on log-log paper as shown in Fig. 4.11.
Step 3. The exceedence probability of 10 per cent corresponds to a 10 year return period, 4 per cent
corresponds to the 25 year and 20 per cent to the 4 year. .
 CONCEPTS IN HYDROLOGY 163

Table 4.9 Annual

maxima for 1965—79

lh 6h 24h
Year mm mm mm

1965 24 36 52
1966 18 29 38
1967 16 26 44
1968 25 35 49
1969 19 26 44
1970 14 22 48
1971 1k9f 2 34
1972 20 22 38
1973 12 3H 42
1974 18 25 39
1975 19 33 46
1976 iI) 28 39
1977 16 26 34
1978 21 hil 45
1979 23 36 42

Table 4.10 Annual maxima for 1965-79

Estimated lh 6h 24h
Rank quantile mm mm mm

1 0.062 5 25 36 52
2 0.125 24 36 49
3 0.1876 23 35) 48
4 0.25 21 33 46
5 (cs A) 20 31 45
6 0.375 19 31 44
i 0.437 19 29 44
8 0.50 18 28 42
9 0.565 18 724) 42
10 0.625 17 26 39
11 0.69 16 26 39
12 0.75 16 26 38
13 0.813 15 WS 38
14 0.874 14 DP 34
15 0.9375 12 22 34

Step 4. From Fig. 4.11, then Table 4.11 is prepared. This says that the 5 yr, 1h rainfall is 18 mm or the
50 yr, 24h rainfall is 53 mm.
Step 5. Figure 4.12 is another way of presenting Fig. 4.11.
For extreme values of precipitation, refer to Shaw (1944).

4.6 INFILTRATION

Infiltration is the movement of water (precipitation usually) from the soil surface into the soil. The
redistribution of infiltrated water examines the movement of that water in the unsaturated soil zone. The
164 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Depth—duration frequency
log-log

: H

3
@
=
=
p=

alee

6
3 +4 i. rN lh
yak
<s 2
5
a S
J Be
“
ae
= La a LIL =e + in

5
jaw
| .
10! el A
10° 2 ee NOE 10! 5 102
Exceedence probability (%)
Figure 4.11 Rainfall depth-exceedance probability duration.

fraction of precipitation that infiltrates on a global scale is about 76 per cent. However, on a regional or
local scale it has a large seasonal and spatial variation, even within a few hectares of catchment area.

4.6.1 Elemental Properties of Soils

The elemental properties of soil in relation to infiltration are:
Bulk density
Particle density
Porosity
Volumetric water content
Degree of saturation

Bulk density Bulk density p, or the dry density of a soil is

PpM4 (4.14)
where Mg = dry mass of a soil volume (dried at 105 °C for > 16 h)
and V, = total volume (original undried)
 CONCEPTS IN HYDROLOGY 165

Depth—duration frequency
log-log
4 if i = fa aye eats |

; = [ C1
Return ~ (| ise
period a |
4
oS EM i
ia Bag sg sss
eee Sec 4
3 50 yr —}— Ale rl|a eae8

=
E
ee
=
Q

10!
10° 2 3 4 5 6 ies 10! 2
Duration (h)

Figure 4.12 Rainfall depth—duration return period.

Typical values of p, are 0.7 kg/m? for peats to 1.7 kg/m? for sands or loams. Clays are typically about
1.1 kg/m’.

Particle density artical density p,, is

Ma
= — 4.15

where V4 = dry volume (no air, no water)

typical values for p,, are 2.65 kg/m? for most soils

Table 4.11 Depth—duration

return period
Duration (hours)
Return period 5
(years) 1 6 24

2 18 28 42
5 BES 34 48
10 235 36 50
25 25 3759 51
166 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Porosity Porosity ¢ is the volume proportion of pore space,

phe eae (4.16)

Vs Pm

where V, = volume of air

V,, = volume of water
V, = volume of solids

Values of porosity range from about 35 to 45 per cent for fine sands to 50 to 55 per cent for clays, with
peats at about 80 per cent.

Volumetric water content The water content @ is

pa Neal eels (4.17)

V; Pw V;

This is an important soil property and varies from 0 (when dry) to saturation (about 40 per cent for sands)
and as we will see it varies over space and time. The most successful methods for determining field soil
moisture are the neutron probe, the soil moisture capacitance probe or time domain reflectometry. Details
of some of the techniques are found in Shaw (1994).

Degree of saturation The degree of saturation s is the proporation of water containing pores and is a
measure of the ‘wetness’:
Ver 0
SS ee
athiien 1) 4.18
i)

4.6.2 Soil Horizons

From Tables 4.1 and 4.2, it is seen that groundwater contributes only 0.5 per cent of what rivers contribute
to the oceans. Also, these tables show that groundwater contains 30.1 per cent of the earth’s freshwater
supply whereas rivers and lakes contain only 0.266 per cent. Groundwater, while huge in volume, is also
almost static with very slow movement in the horizontal direction. The level of the water table, however,
rises and falls vertically, depending on climate and soil type. Soils play a major role in what happens to
precipitation, as large volumes of water can be held in the soil matrix or none at all, depending on soil
texture, porosity, structure, hydraulic conductivity and existing soil moisture. From Table 4.1, it is seen
that the freshwater held as soil moisture is almost ten times greater than the freshwater held in rivers.
Figure 4.13 shows an idealized vertical profile through a series of soil layers. The top layer is usually
a vegetation of grass, crop or trees, but it may be bare soil. Below this is the litter layer, more easily
identifiable in forest areas as composed of dead leaves, bark and other decomposed growth. Below this is
the soil proper and is described in horizons or layers. The upper or A horizon in mineral soils is generally
friable and rich in humus. This layer corresponds to the surface soil (sometimes called the topsoil). It is
that part of the soil in which living matter is most abundant and in which the organic matter is most
plentiful. Being closest to the surface, it becomes more leached by rainfall than the lower layers. The
middle level or B horizon, often called the subsoil, is mainly composed of well-weathered parent material
interwoven with roots and micro-organisms. Lying between the A and C horizons, it has some of the
properties of both, with fewer living organisms than A but more than C. By comparison with the A
horizon, the B horizon has a high content of iron and aluminium oxides, humus or clay that have been
partly leached from the A horizon. The lower C horizon is unconsolidated rock material composed of a
wide range of stones of different sizes. Below the C horizon is the parent consolidated rock. The depth of
each layer varies from millimetres to metres.
 CONCEPTS IN HYDROLOGY 167

Vegetation

Litter partly ©
decomposed -:
Rich
in
A horizon organic
matter

matter
B horizon
organic
Some

Almost
no
organic
matter

Consolidated
bedrock

Figure 4.13 Idealized soil section (adapted from Hillel, 1980).

In environmental hydrology, there are two distinct zones above bedrock which may hold and transmit
water. They are: the upper unsaturated zone and the lower saturated zone. They are shown in Fig. 4.14.
Water movement in the unsaturated zone is more complex than that of the saturated zone. In the latter, the
key parameter is hydraulic conductivity or the rate of movement of water. This is readily measured and
tends to be reasonably constant. However, in the unsaturated zone the hydraulic conductivity can vary by
orders of magnitude within a field, depending primarily on the degree of saturation and the current state of
soil suction.

4.6.3 Soil Water Content

Soil moisture is a complex phenomenon well described but poorly quantified. All soils will have a
maximum soil moisture magnitude when they are saturated. Similarly, if they are in extreme moisture

i=}
&
3
S|é
5 a Surface
Ss ay
a] & runoff
Qa.
SD 7

mm g '
© 5 \
oS oO fo) '
S| 5 = 1 Root zone
3 .N (a Unsaturated F
5i=|
iL pi herzone ui '

D iS)
‘& a}
> ay)
3 5
no) i=)
a) vo
3
a.
ss}
xSY
= (S)
3 Oo a
aan Drainage
n Saturated
l zone Baseflow

i, = Consolidated
| ———— eon
Figure 4.14 Unsaturated/saturated zone (adapted from Bras, 1990).
168 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

deficit, their soil moisture will be lowest (not zero). At any point in time, their soil moisture status will
vary from close to zero to maximum. It is therefore a dynamic action and responds to the antecedent soil
moisture conditions and the current rainfaN and solar heat pattern. It is easy enough to quantify, in a
vertical profile of a soil, the different levels of soil moisture (i.e. the percentage of moisture content).
However, because of continuous activity beneath the surface and above the surface, the fluxes of moisture
from one horizon to another are not constant. At times of rainfall, the movement of water in the soil
column will be downwards under gravity or upwards towards the water table through capillarity. At times
of drought, the direction of water movement will be upward towards the soil surface by capillarity from
the groundwater. The fate of rainfall depends largely on:
e Climate zone
e Soil characteristics and
e Soil antecedent moisture conditions

Figure 4.15 is a schematic of water in soil. Within the soil column there are three zones: aeration,
capillary and groundwater. The groundwater zone exists below the water table. The capillary zone is
the zone through which water will rise through the soil pores by capillary action. The upper zone is the
aeration zone where the pores are occupied by air. After rainfall events, the air may be expelled from
the pores by hydrostatic pressure to allow the infiltration water to occupy the pores. The soil column is
sometimes subdivided into two zones, the unsaturated upper zone and the lower saturated zone. The
unsaturated zone is the subject of intense research by hydrologists and studies on hillslope hydrology help
to elucidate the physics of unsaturated zone flow.
With respect to soil water, it occupies three different phases in a soil matrix. These are:
e Pore water
e Hygroscopic or adsorbed water
e Absorbed water

Seepage water
Soil particle

Hydroscopic
water

Air and water

Aeration zone vapour in soil
A. Pore water and
film water held tightly

Saturated capillary
water

Water table

—
Groundwater zone Groundwater

Figure 4.15 Water in the soil (adapted from Weisner, 1970).

 CONCEPTS IN HYDROLOGY 169

The pore water is by far the greatest volume of soil water and is the easiest to expel. The hygroscopic
water is adsorbed on to the surface of the grain particle and is held there by surface tension forces. The
absorbed water (internal to each grain) requires the removal of the pore water and hygroscopic water
before it can be dried out. Sandy soils have large pores and thus can be dried out easily. However, clay
particles have small pores (but higher porosity than sand) and small particles with intense hygroscopic
activity and require high suction forces to break the hygroscopic surface tension forces.
The phenomenon of soil suction is illustrated by placing a drop of water on to a dry soil particle. The
water is quickly drawn into the soil until it is saturated and then a thin film attaches to the perimeter of the
soil grains. This hygroscopic film is held with intense surface tension forces. These forces are expressed
in bars, i.e. | bar is the pressure equivalent to 10.23 m height of water column.
Field capacity and wilting point are further soil moisture parameters most often used in agriculture
soil studies. After the soil has been saturated and the excess water drained away, the soil is then at field
capacity. Vegetation extracts moisture from soil until it cannot do so any more. At this point wilting
occurs and the moisture content is known as the wilting point. Figure 4.16 shows a general relationship
between soil moisture and soil texture.

4.6.4 Movement of Water in Soil and Hydraulic Conductivity

Water movement occurs in soils under three distinct conditions:

e Saturated flow
e Unsaturated flow and
e Vapour phase flow
All water movement beneath the water table is of the saturated flow type. However, a soil may be
temporarily saturated above the water table and this occurs if all the pores are filled with water. From a
two-dimensional perspective, the movement of water may be vertically downwards or laterally as
interflow. The rate of movement depends on hydraulic conductivity of the soil. Unsaturated flow takes
place in response to gravity or moisture gradient. Once field capacity exists, capillary action draws the
water upwards to the roots and vegetation. After wetting of soils, water flows downwards due to gravity.
The mechanism of water movement in unsaturated flow is from pore to pore. Water may exist in the
vapour phase in the pores of a soil and be drawn upward to evaporate. The rate of movement depends on
the temperature gradient, relative humidity, pore size and pore continuity and the amount of available
water. So it is important to conceive of evaporation also from the depths of a soil column.

Available water

—t— Wilting point

moisture
Percent

Unavailable water
0
Sand Sandy Loam Silt Clay Clay
loam loam loam

Fineness of texture

Figure 4.16 General relationship between soil moisture characteristics and soil texture.
170 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Water moves in rivers due to a slope or gradient in its water surface. The steeper the gradient the
faster the flow. As lake surfaces have little gradient, water flows slowly. In soils and aquifers, water also
moves if it has a gradient, although at several orders of magnitude slower than river flow. This gradient is
called the hydraulic gradient. In rivers, water always flows practically horizontally (assuming one-
dimensional flow). However, beneath the soil surface, water may flow in either the x, y or z direction. The
way water flows in soils is dependent on soil type and its current moisture status. For instance, in summer
time, a sandy soil matrix may be dried out, and if rain falls, this rainfall will move vertically down through
the soil to help fill the soil pores with water. However, if the soil moisture status is close to field capacity,
then the principal direction of movement of water may be in the horizontal direction. This direction is
usually along the gradient of the water surface line, which may follow the topographic slope. The rate at
which water moves is called its hydraulic conductivity. It is easy to evaluate flow behaviour in a saturated
porous medium. This is usually the case in aquifers. However, there are times when the soil status is also
unsaturated. There may still be water movement in the soil, but it may be restricted due to excessive soil
suction.
Darcy’s law states:
dh
q = —Ki ae
= K — (4.19)
4.19

where q = the Darcy flux, m?/m?.s

i = the hydraulic gradient, = dh/dz, m/m
K = the hydraulic conductivity, m/s
Usually h is the height relative to a datum, but for unsaturated flow the total head is
h=W+z (4.20)
where = the suction head
The suction head, responsible for holding water to the surface of soil particles in unsaturated flow,
becomes significant as soil moisture decreases. The variation in the soil column of hydraulic conductivity
and soil suction head is shown for different moisture contents in Fig. 4.17. Soil suction or soil tension is
measured using tensiometers in the field.

~108
104
—107

10> A

=E —106 ==
= _| 10-6 Ne

gy -105 =
iS AAO 2! os
5 3
PS 104 g
3 4108 =§
= 2
8 ~103 3
+109 $
= 02 =
10 10

=i10) =i ai =i
YO O02 O23 WA Ws
Soil moisture content ©
porosity = 0.5
ee
Figure 4.17 Variation of soil suction head W and hydraulic conductivity K with moisture
contentn © foror Yolo
Yolo light clay (adapted from
ligh
 CONCEPTS IN HYDROLOGY 171

4.6.5 Soil Moisture Deficit

Soil moisture deficit (SMD) is a term commonly used in agricultural engineering. When the soil moisture
is below field capacity, it is said to have a soil moisture deficit. When the soil is saturated it does not have
a soil moisture deficit. SMD is a quantifiable parameter and is related to rainfall magnitude, degree of
moisture in soil and evapotranspiration. A catchment loses water at rates greater or less than PE (potential
evaporation), depending on whether the soil moisture is above or below field capacity. ET (actual
evapotranspiration) is less than PE when the vegetation cannot abstract water from the soil. After a rainfall
event (if the soil is saturated), it will hold no more water, thus producing runoff. The soil in this case will
continue to “give up’ water to the vegetation until a temporary equilibrium stage is arrived at, when
ET=PE, i.e. field capacity. At this stage SMD=0. As the soil dries out, SMD increases and ET
decreases. The magnitude of SMD and ET varies. As SMD increases further, ET becomes less and at
wilting stage SMD is greatest and ET negligible. It is important to note that SMD is a cumulative number,
depending on the previous months’ SMD.
Figure 4.18 is an idealized and simplified schematic of the time sequence of soil moisture related to
rainfall and PE for an annual cycle in the northern temperate zone. Three vegetation types are sketched:
grass, shrubs and trees. Each has a different root depth, depicted as three distinct horizontal layers.
In spring when PE > P (precipitation), the soil enters an SMD, first at the surface layers. As the
spring goes into summer SMD penetrates deeper until all the root zones (trees included) are in SMD. In
the autumn, P > PE and the upper soil layers become replenished with water, while the lower layers are

PE
PE PE
PE
>P

<PE
PE
PE <P)
Winter

Autumn
<PE
PE
<PE PE <PE <PE
Summer Grass
Tillage crop
<PE

<PE <PE
Trees

P= PE

PE eae

[_] Field capacity PE = potential evapotranspiration

[__] Soil moisture deficit = rainfall

Figure 4.18 Idealized annual moisture cycle for three vegetational types. (Adapted from Bedient and Huber, 1988.)
172 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

still in SMD. At this time, the movement of water is vertically downward in the soil column. As autumn
moves into winter, the depth of water replenishment deepens until all soil layers are filled with water and
there is no SMD at any depth. It can be visualized that in springtime the direction of movement of soil
water is downward while the reverse holds in the autumn.
Knowing the soil moisture deficit is important for agriculture and hydrology. During times of high
soil moisture deficits catchments tend to be less susceptible to producing flood events. A parameter used
in the United Kingdom and Ireland from the Flood Studies Report (KSR) (NERC, 1975) is the effective
mean soil moisture deficit in mm. For instance, some areas in the south-west of Ireland have an EMSMD
of 2 mm by comparison with values of 16 mm in East Anglia. The former is susceptible to flooding while
the latter is not.

4.6.6 Simple Infiltration Models

Infiltration is the mechanism of water movement into soil under gravity and capillary forces. It was
suggested by Horton (1933) that the rate of infiltration of rainfall into soil decreases exponentially with
time during a rain event. Some hours into a rain event, the infiltration rate may be close to zero as the soil
becomes saturated. The concept of infiltration, as seen by Horton, is shown schematically in Fig. 4.19.
Where 7 >// at all times, Horton’s empirical equation is

f=fe+(fo—fe™ (4.21)
where fo = initial infiltration rate
/f = infiltration rate at any time, mm/h
Jc = final infiltration rate
= empirical constant
i = rainfall rate, mm/h

Often /, is referred to as infiltration potential. In Horton’s equation k is a function of surface texture, where
k decreases with increasing vegetation. Also, f, and fo are functions of soil type and cover. Figure 4.20
indicates the variation of f with soil cover, rain intensity and topographic slope. Low rain intensity will
have a higher proportion of its rainfall infiltrate than a high-intensity event, as shown in Fig. 4.20(6).

Initial loss to storage

Gross precipitation rate (7)

Infiltration
f Rainfall
i

Time f

Figure 4.19 Horton’s infiltration concept.

 CONCEPTS IN HYDROLOGY 173

High rain
intensity
Bl
i=]
a = =
re
= E Bare soil E E
Balk = =

Low rain intensity

: 8 16 24 32
Grassed te ime Slope (%)
soil
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 4.20 Schematic of variation of infiltration capacity.

Example 4.5 Given f= 100 mm/h, k=0.35/h and f,=10 mm/h, find fat t=1, 2 and 6 h and
also Fy ta, (cumulative infiltration)

Solution From the Horton equation,

Pease aie
f =10+ 900-935
at 1h > f = 73.4 mm/h
2h—> f =54.6 mm/h
6h > f =21.0 mm/h

Cumulative infiltration after 6h = F'tota) = |

fdt = 285 mm

The ¢ index method of infiltration is sometimes used. This is the simplest method and is measured
by finding the loss difference between total precipitation and surface runoff (measured on the stream
hydrograph). The infiltration is assumed uniform over the full duration of the rainfall event. It is shown
schematically in Fig. 4.21. When considering rainfall events of, say, less than a day, the computation of
gross rainfall and effective rainfall will usually ignore evapotranspiration (ET). Longer term events of
greater than about two weeks will take ET into account.

Gross precipitation
a tate

Rainfall
7
Constant f
infiltration |yolume of
infiltration

Figure 4.21. The ¢ index infiltration concept.

174 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

The reader is referred to Dingman (1994) and Bras (1990) for a more serious mathematical treatment
of infiltration.

4.7 EVAPORATION AND EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

Evaporation is the process by which water is returned to the atmosphere, from the liquid or solid state into
the vapour state. Transpiration into the atmosphere also occurs through the leafy parts of plants and trees.
Because these processes are so interlinked, the ‘all in’ term used is evapotranspiration. In temperate
climates, forest land has about twice the evapotranspiration rates of grassland (typically 40 to 70 per cent
of total annual rainfall, by comparison with 20 to 40 per cent for grassland, as shown in some British
research). This means, of course, that less water infiltrates the soil or becomes part of runoff. About 70 per
cent of the mean annual rainfall in the United States is returned to the atmosphere via evapotranspiration,
as shown in Table 4.12. In areas of scarce water supplies forest development with higher
evapotranspiration losses can reduce the water yield to rivers and lakes.
The global (land+ oceans) annual average precipitation of about 1m is of course equal to the
evaporation. As the land surface of the earth evaporates approximately 70 per cent of its rainfall, allowing
the remaining 30 per cent to become runoff, then it is clear that on the ocean surface of the earth there is
more evaporation than precipitation (Brutsaert, 1982). Figure 4.22 shows the latitudinal distribution of
global precipitation and evapotranspiration. Figure 4.23 shows the relationship between evaporation,
precipitation and interception for the Amazonian rainforest, after Shuttleworth (1988).
Three types of evaporation/evapotranspiration are:
e Evaporation from a lake surface, Eo
¢ Actual evapotranspiration, ET
e Potential evapotranspiration, PE

Eo is the evaporation from a lake or open water body surface. ET is very complex as it includes the
evaporation and transpiration from a land surface, vegetated or otherwise. This means that ET for any one
surface type will vary depending on its present soil moisture status and is therefore a dynamic parameter.
ET will be greater for a soil which is saturated than if it were unsaturated. In an effort to simplify ET the
term PE was introduced, which is potential evapotranspiration. This is the evapotranspiration from a soil
matrix when the soil moisture is held constant at field capacity. This is achieved by spraying regularly.
Meteorological data will normally give values of Ey and PE but not ET. The latter is usually only
determined in catchment research projects, when measurements of the radiation and heat budgets are
taken.

Table 4.12 Precipitation—evapotranspiration from

continents

Precipitation Evapotranspiration Runoff

Continent (mm/yr) (mm/yr) (mm/yr)

Europe 657 35 282

Asia 696 420 276
Africa 695 582 114
Australia 447 420 ANd
North America 645 403 242
South America 1564 946 618
Antarctica 169 28 141

Total land 746 480 266

Data from Baumgartner and Reichel, 1975

 CONCEPTS IN HYDROLOGY 175

Precipitation

(mm/yr)
ET
Pand

eS
ee ee ee ee ee
80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80
North Equator South
latitude latitude

Figure 4.22 Latitudinal distribution of global precipitation and evapotranspiration.

Figure 4.24 shows a comparison of rainfall and potential evaporation at a number of sites in Ireland,
averaged over the period 1961 to 1990. The data for this figure is shown in Table 4.13. This is a typical
rainfall/potential evaporation plot for the temperate climate. PE exceeds rainfall in summer and as such
the soils require artificial watering. In winter, rainfall exceeds PE and this can lead to high runoff, with
potential for streamwater pollution from agricultural activities such as slurry spreading.
Two of the factors causing evaporation from any surface are:

e The availability of a supply of heat energy to provide the latent heat of vaporization
e The availability of a transport process to move the water vapour away from the surface, i.e. wind

500
iinr

400 me re:
eee Precipitation
— ate ia / input
E
2300
eran
5 ieatee eh
i le
s ' yo pe g
S ' i : H
a Viepetiicin
= le a
S 200 i Total
= ' ' ' ' evaporation

100

Figure 4.23 Monthly values for precipitation, total evaporation and the interception component for the 25-month period in the
Amazonian rainforest (adapted from Shuttleworth, 1988. Reprinted by permission of The Royal Society).
176 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

= ee e Rainfall
Rainfa
E 100 (mm per month) e i
56.90
a
2 «80
=iS 70
E 60
= V ° °
S& SO a
{=|
‘3 40 a
>
i 30 a a
5 0 ~ 4 Potential
= evaporation A
10F 4: (mm per month) eK
0 AS es a eee ie ei ean aa ee re ty
i D 3 4 5) 6 7 8 9 KO ll
Jan Months of the year Dec
Figure 4.24 Monthly rainfall and potential evaporation trends, Ireland (prepared from Table 4.13).

Solar radiation provides the heat source while wind, along with a vertical humidity gradient, supplies the
transport source. These are shown schematically in Fig. 4.25.
Evaporation from a lake surface depends on:
Available energy as heat
Solar radiation and more specifically net radiation
The temperature of the air and water surface
The wind speed
Saturation vapour deficit (e9 — e;)

Table 4.13 Rainfall and potential evaporation at four sites in Ireland

from 1961 to 1990
South Coast* East Coastt Midlandt West§

Month Rain PE Rain PE Rain PE Rain PE

January 104 10 69 9 93 2 121 3

February 87 21 50 21 66 14 83 13
March afk 40 54 39 72 30 96 28
April 55 64 51 61 59 53 62 49
May 64 84 55 83 72 74 78 69
June 54 92 56 94 66 82 71 75
July 53 90 50 91 62 78 64 68
August 80 74 71 73 81 61 97 54
September 79 50 67 50 86 39 104 33
October 95 26 70 25 94 16 124 14
November 88 12 65 10 88 2 118 2
December 100 7 76 5 94 ] 124 i

Year average 935 570 732 561 934 446 1143 408

* Cork—Roches Point on South Coast.

+ Dublin—Dublin Airport, 3km from East Coast.
{ Mullingar—Central Ireland.
§ Claremorris—West of Ireland.
Data from Irish Meteorological Office, 1993
 CONCEPTS IN HYDROLOGY 177

Net radiation

Air flow

Elevation Elevation Elevation

Evaporation
co
Wind velocity Air Specific
temperature humidity
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 4.25 Concept of evaporation from an open water surface (adapted from Chow et al., 1988).

Figure 4.25 shows the inputs and outputs to a control volume of ‘evaporating air’ and those natural
processes—radiation, temperature and wind speed—that effect evaporation. The reader is referred to
Chow et al. (1988), Bras (1990) and Brutsaert (1982) for further details.
At the earth’s surface, evaporation is the connecting link between the water budget and the energy
budget (Brutsaert, 1982). The most simplified energy budget is represented by
eg Bete Gr, (4.5)
where R, = specific flux of incoming radiation, k cal/m? y or W/m?
L = latent heat of evaporation, J/m?
E = rate of evaporation, m/y
H = specific flux of sensible heat into the atmosphere, k cal/m? y or
W/m? (i.e. the energy used in heating the ‘air’)
G = specific flux of heat into the earth, W/m?
Figure 4.26 shows the diurnal variation of the energy budget over an irrigated wet bare soil in Davis,
California, in August 1993. The peak net radiation (post-midday) is about 630 W/ m’. The energy used up
in evaporation, LE, peaks at about 400 W/ m°. The sensible heat, H, is then only less than 100 W/ m?.
This is to be expected for clear skies over a wet soil. For instance, over dry desert conditions, we might
expect about 10 to 30 W/ m? for LE and 300 to 400 W/m? for H. It is important to realize that evaporation

2)

(W/m
flux
Energy

ia cari a eR ET i Se ee ae eae
i Ole ea) ee ET
Time (h)

Figure 4.26 Energy balance 23 August 1993, Davis, California, on a wet irrigated bare soil.
178 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

can only occur if there is moisture to evaporate. In Fig. 4.26 there was significant water available in the
top layers of the soil to produce evaporation with 70 per cent of the net MEL going to evaporation use.
On a global scale, on an annual basis where G > 0, R, © 70-80 kcal/ cm? y. Over land, LE H and
over the oceans LE~ 90 per cent of Ry. This suggests that on a global scale LE~ 80 per cent of R,. While
significant spatial and temporal variations of the constituents of the energy budget occur, the above
figures emphasize the overwhelming importance of the evapotranspiration process to the overall heat
budget and also to the water budget (Brutsaert, 1982). Typically, the annual cyclic behaviour of
evaporation parallels that of the cycle of solar radiation and daily air temperatures for land surfaces and
shallow water bodies. However, deep waters show peaks in the fall of the year by comparison with peaks
in the summer for shallow lakes. Also deep water bodies show minimum evaporation in the spring and
while shallow water bodies show minimum in winter (like land). The daily cycle of evaporation follows
the cycle of temperature over land and also over water.

4.7.1 Mass Transfer Method of Determining Eo

Eo is the evaporation from an open water body as distinct from a moist soil surface. This method,
sometimes called the vapour flux method, calculates the upward flux of water vapour from the evaporating
surface. The equation conceived by Dalton, an English chemist, in the nineteenth century, was

Eo =f(u)(es — ea) (4.22)

where Eo = the evaporation from the water body
= the vapour pressure in the air
é, = Saturation vapour pressure at the temperature of the water surface
J(u) = a function of wind speed
f(u) = a(b + u) for Europe
or f(u) = Nu for the United States and Australia

Modifications to this equation are

= (A + Bu) (es — ea) (4.23)

where A = an empirical constant of 0.0702
and B = an empirical constant of 0.003 19 (not the Bowen ratio)
and u = wind speed at 7.5 m above ground

Still another equation is

Eo = Nu (es, = en) (4.24)

where IN = (0,11
and u2 = wind speed at 2m above ground

A variation on N is where

N = 0.291 4~°-9
where A = area, m2

EES 4.6 Compute the evaporation as an annual water loss from a lake which
has an area
~ 20 km? with uw, at 3m/s. Assume e, and e, are 15 and 10 mmHg respectively.
 CONCEPTS IN HYDROLOGY 179

Solution

Eo = Nun(es — ea)
N=0.11

U2. = 3m/s

Q, = IS iaohany[Ayer = IS bar = 19.7

mb
on Or Wat eran
@, = = IO mienlehs
S=75
= he lS== 13).2)
-2.mbat
solo)

Therefore

Ey = 0.11 x 3 x (19.7 — 13.2) = 2.2 mm/day

4.7.2 Energy Budget Method to Determine Eo

The simplified energy budget equation is
[eh Id, stele (4.5)
LE=R,-H-—-G (4.25)
This equation assumes no water advected input of energy and no change in storage of energy. It also
assumes a finite time period:
Le Ae (4.26)
where LE = latent heat flux
Py, = water density
Ay = latent heat of vaporization (2.47 x 10° J/kg)
= 597 — 0.564 T, cal/g with T in °C
pak -H-G_R-H-G
4.27
L PwAy (

Introducing the Bowen ratio gives a ratio of the sensible heat flux to evaporating flux as
H
B=—
LE
Therefore
= BLE) = BoA
and
Ri —G
= 4.28
pudv(l +B) Mae
Over land surfaces, B © 1, with sensible heat about similar to evaporative flux. Over the ocean surfaces,
B = 0.1 as evaporation is much more significant. Further details are found in Dingman (1994), Bras
(1990) and Brutsaert (1982). Also refer back to Table 4.5.

Example 4.7 Determine the evaporation from a lake with the following data:
R, -G=70 W/m? = LE+H
B= 0:4
Lake temperature LS 20°C
180 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Solution
ERE. R, — G
PwAv(l + B)
dy = 597 — 0.564 x 20 = 586 cal/g
PywAy = 10° g/m? x 586 cal/g
= 586 x 10° cal/m?
= 586 x 10° x 4.2 J/m?
= 586 x 10° x 4.2 W.s/m?
= 28.5 x 10? W.d/m?
70 W/m?
~ 28.5 x 103 W.d/m?
= 1.76 mm/day

This method can also be used for evaporation from land surfaces since B=0.4, this implies that the
evaporation flux >> sensible heat flux.

4.7.3 Water Balance Method of Determining ET or Eo

Lysimeters are used at field scale to determine the ‘point’ measurement of evaporation. A lysimeter is a
‘pan’, typically a metre to several metres in diameter and up to a metre in depth. It contains as near as
possible ‘undisturbed’ soil from the local site. It sits into the ground with its top surface flush with the
adjacent ground surfaces. It sits on time-calibrated weighing scales and responds to an increase or
decrease of the moisture content of the soil in the pan. The loss in ‘weight’ represents the loss to
evaporation and so evaporation is determined. This is a reliable method of determining field evaporation.
On a regional scale, E is synonymous with FT and the water balance equation is used to determine £, if
the other parameters are known:
E=P—R—AG—AS
where P = precipitation
R = stream runoff
AG = change in groundwater storage
AS = change in soil water storage.

Over long periods (e.g. a year), we have

E=>P—R
so if P and R are measured, estimates of EF are attained. The reader is referred back to Tables 4.3 and 4.4
for values of E from different continents and different land use surfaces respectively

4.7.4 Determination of Potential Evapotranspiration, PE

Evaporation (from a water body = Eo), potential evapotranspiration (PE) and actual evapotranspiration (E£)
have already been defined. The previous sections dealt only with the determination of Ey and it is seen
how complex a phenomenon evaporation from a water body is. Actual evapotranspiration is even more
complex as the effects of vegetation, and associated soil physics, are to be accounted for. This complexity
is reduced somewhat by simplification to potential evapotranspiration. This considers that the soil matrix
is continuously moist (at field capacity) and the evaporation from the vegetated surface is close to
 CONCEPTS IN HYDROLOGY 181

maximum. PE from a grassland surface is approximately equal to evaporation from a large water body.
Thus methods used to determine Eo are also used to calculate PE. Actual evapotranspiration is a dynamic
parameter varying with the season, but is especially dependent on the soil moisture status. ET may exceed
PE in vegetation with a high surface leaf area and high ambient temperatures. It was also mentioned that
the ET of coniferous forests in the United Kingdom were approximately twice that of grassland or
moorland at similar elevations. Penman (1948) inferred that:

PE =f Ey (4.29)
where fis an empirical constant from British data which varied with season for vegetated land surface as
follows:

November, December, January, February > f ~ 0.6

March, April, September, October + f ~ 0.7
May, June, July, August > f ~ 0.8

So typically, PE is about 70 per cent of lake evaporation. Since actual evaporation is <PE, we can
generalize and say that actual evaporation < ET <0.7Ep.

4.8 RAINFALL—RUNOFF RELATIONSHIPS

When rainfall occurs on the land surface it may follow different routes depending on topography and soil
conditions and soil moisture. If there are surface depressions they are apt to be be filled up early in a storm
event. Whether the rainfall converts to surface runoff or infiltration depends on principally two factors:
e Land slope
e Infiltration capacity

On steeply sloping sites, surface runoff is more likely to occur, while infiltration lags behind. On sites
more remote from rivers and streams and where the land gradient is not steep, infiltration may be the
primary mechanism and surface runoff lags behind. Generally, infiltration is seen as the controlling factor
in the availability of rain for runoff. Surface runoff is also called overland flow. Many hydraulic equations
exist to help quantify this runoff and some include the ‘all-in’ friction coefficient of Mannings, n. For
instance, understanding the behaviour of overland flow is fundamental to predicting the volume of water
arriving at outlets for storm sewer design. The parameter sometimes used for time is that of the time of
concentration (7,), i.e. the time for water falling on the remotest part of the catchment to arrive at the
stream outlet. If the storm persists after 7., it is assumed that all of the catchment is contributing runoff to
the stream or sewer system. This concept is used in the design of sewage networks and small drainage
networks (see example in Chapter 12). It is not considered comprehensive for large rural catchments, with
a variety of land uses. Other concepts used include the classic concept of Hortonian overland flow and
also the concept of subsurface interflow responding to infiltration status.
Figure 4.27 illustrates an idealized and simplified response of a catchment to different levels of
infiltration. The storm is assumed to have uniform rainfall intensity 7, and duration 4,. The minimum
infiltration rate for the soil is 4; and the time it takes to saturate will vary depending on the intensity. There
is no runoff (R =0) if:
1. The storm duration t, is less than that required to saturate the soil surface.
2. The storm intensity i, is less than the minimum infiltration rate Aj.

Case 1, shown in Fig. 4.27(a), is when the storm duration ¢, is less than fo, the minimum time required to
saturate the soil for the rainfall rate, i,. There is no runoff and the soil moisture deficit is decreased. The
rainfall rate, i,, is greater than the rate 4;. Case 2, shown in Fig. 4.27(5), is when storm intensity i, is less
182 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Infiltratian
or
rainfall
rates :
I,

Infiltration
or
rainfall
rates

A;

IF

t, Time ¢
(b) Case 2

Infiltration
or
rainfall ip
rates

Figure 4.27 Storm characteristics versus infiltration capacity (adapted from Bras, 1990).

than the minimum intensity A; used to saturate the soil. There is no surface runoff. Case 3, shown in
Figure 4.27(c), is when the storm intensity and storm duration are greater than 4; and fo respectively.
There is then surface runoff i.e. R>0. At the beginning of this storm, there is no surface runoff, as all
rainfall initially goes to soil infiltration and the soil moisture is continuously increasing until eventually
there is no moisture deficit. Surface runoff occurs after the storm intensity 7, equals the infiltration rate /
and this occurs at fo. This time period has been defined as the time it takes to saturate depression storage
or ponding. Ponding time is dependent on soil type but more specifically on antecedent soil moisture
status. The reader is referred to Bras (1990) for further details.
Two types of surface runoff mechanisms are the Horton mechanism and the Dunne mechanism, best
explained in Bras (1990). The classical Horton mechanism is described with reference to Fig. 4.28(a) as
follows. Prior to a rainfall event, the vertical soil moisture profile is indicated by the curve /°. Assume the
rainfall event has a precipitation rate (P) greater than the saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat). As the
rain event proceeds, the vertical soil moisture profile goes from ?°, to ft’, to 7, to . At P, the surface is
saturated. At this time, the infiltration rate drops below the rainfall rate, and overland flow begins. This is
known as the ponding time. Necessary conditions for the Horton mechanism (Freeze, 1980) are:
 CONCEPTS IN HYDROLOGY 183

Moisture Moisture
content content

2
Depth 2
Depth

Rainfall

Overland
flow
0 :
Pr 2 pB 14 Prreepe rp
Time Time

(a) Horton mechanism (P > K. sat) (b) Dunne mechanism (P < K sat )

Figure 4.28 Vertical soil moisture profiles changing during a rain event (adapted from Bras, 1990).

e A rainfall rate greater than the saturated hydraulic conductivity

e A rainfall duration longer than the ponding time

The Dunne mechanism is explained with reference to Fig. 4.28(b). It is assumed that the rainfall rate
(P) is less than the saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat). The vertical soil moisture profile prior to the
rain event is indicated as 7°. As the rain event proceeds, the vertical soil moisture profile goes from ?°, to
t', to ¢, to r°, to r*, to r°. At P, the water table has risen to the water surface, causing surface saturation
and ponding, followed by overland flow (Bras, 1990; Freeze, 1980).
The response of a catchment to rainfall will depend on the catchment topography and the distance
away from streams. Generally it is found that the Horton flow mechanism occurs on upslope areas remote
from the stream, while the Dunne mechanism is more likely adjacent to the streams. It has also been found
that it is most unlikely that 100 per cent of a catchment will contribute surface flow during a storm event.
What does occur, however, is that partial areas of a catchment contribute and this varies with soil and
topographic factors. Where surface hydraulic conductivity is lowest, Horton overland flow is generated
from partial areas of upslope lands. Where the water table levels are closest to the surface, Dunne overland
flow is generated from partial areas of upslope lands.
Many studies have concluded that only a fraction of a catchment area contributes to runoff.
Catchment studies by Betson (1964) concluded that, on average, about 22 per cent of the land surface
contributes to runoff. The reality of course is that catchment areas will contribute to runoff to varying
extents. The concept of variable source runoff holds that runoff is generated directly from precipitation on
to areas that are saturated with a rising water table.
184 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Runoff thus produced has two components:

1. Precipitation that cannot penetrate the soil surface becomes direct runoff.
2. Subsurface water, on rising to the surface, becomes surface runoff.

The latter component is sometimes called return flow and is one of the mechanisms by which subsurface
water becomes streamflow. Subsurface water can also follow the subsurface route and eventually becomes
streamflow, but this mechanism is very much delayed as the subsurface water velocity (hydraulic
conductivity) is maybe five to ten orders of magnitude slower than surface overland flow. This subject is
treated in detail by Bras (1990).
Bishop (1991) conceptualized streamflow as composed of surface runoff and subsurface runoff. He
treated surface runoff as ‘new water’, e.g. from a current storm. He treated subsurface runoff as ‘old
water’ or pre-event water (e.g. from a storm some weeks before). His interest was in the correlation
between stream discharge and stream acidity. He concluded from studies in Scotland and Sweden that
‘new water’ was much less acidic than ‘pre-event’ water and that ‘pre-event’ water contributes little to the
streamflow hydrograph.
Water from the unsaturated zone may, in certain catchments, be the principal source of basefiow. It
has also been identified in studies that there is a strip along the sides of the stream channels whose width
varies with rainfall and which is perennially saturated. This strip produces subsurface flow to form the
flood peak of the flow hydrograph.

4.8.1 Concepts of Rainfall versus Runoff

Figure 4.29 by Bishop (1991) shows eight sketches of varying concepts in rainfall versus runoff. Sketch
(a) is the traditional hydrological approach where rainfall is considered to split only into two parts—
overland flow and infiltration. Overland flow is assumed uniform over the catchment. The infiltration is
also assumed uniform. This concept is called the infiltration excess overland flow model. More recently,
instead of considering overland flow as being uniform, some studies have indicated that only parts of the
catchment contribute to overland flow. This concept is called the partial contributing area model and is
shown in sketch (5).
Another concept, shown in sketch (c), is that of saturation excess overland flow, where overland flow
occurs only after an area has saturated subsoil conditions and exfiltrates, causing overland flow. A still
more recent concept of macropore flow is where the subsurface runoff occurs in the unsaturated zone
through subsurface macropores with or without surface flows. The concept of subsurface streamflow is
shown in sketch (e), where both the subsoil of the unsaturated zone and that below the water table
contribute interflow to the stream. Saturated wedge flow is shown in sketch ( f ) and groundwater ridging
in sketch (g). The recent concept of transmissivity feedback is sketched in (h). Here the bulk of the runoff
is kept within the soil matrix by the postulated feedback relationship between a rising water table and
hillslope transmissivity, which breaks the rate of water table rise.

4.8.2 The Hydrograph

The hydrograph is a plot of stream discharge versus time. Hydrographs from different storm types are
shown in Fig. 4.30. The more classical shape hydrograph is shown in Fig. 4.30(d). Baseflow is that
component of the flow which is supplied by groundwater. Interflow is that supplied by subsurface flow for
the unsaturated soil matrix. The shape of the hydrograph depends on overland flow, subsurface flow,
groundwater flow, land slope, stream slope, land and channel roughness and rainfall pattern, intensity and
duration. For Fig. 4.30 it is assumed that the flow recorder is at the downstream end of the catchment in all
cases. Figure 4.30(a) is a hydrograph that may result from a rainstorm at the upper end of a watershed,
producing increased baseflow and some surface runoff. Figure 4.30(b) is the response to a storm at the
 CONCEPTS IN HYDROLOGY 185

(d) Macropore flow (h) Transmissivity feedback

Figure 4.29 Runoff generation mechanisms: Pr is precipitation, In is infiltration, Wt is water table, Ot is overland flow, St is
saturated lateral flow through the soil matrix and Ut is unsaturated lateral flow. The shading indicates areas saturated transiently
during runoff events where pre-event water may play an active role in runoff generation (after Bishop, 1991. Reprinted by
permission).

downstream end of the watershed where the river response is quick. Figure 4.30(c) is a case of a surface
runoff hydrograph with rain throughout the catchment. Elements of interest for the hydrograph include
the peak magnitude, the time to peak, the hydrograph duration and the separation of baseflow, interflow,
and surface runoff.
In Fig. 4.30(a), the catchment shape focuses to a point at the stream outfall and the rainstorm covers
the upland half of the catchment. The hydrograph shape shows a delayed response, by comparison with
Fig. 4.30(b). Comparing (c) and (d), it is seen that the more wide-bodied upland catchment (c) generates
an attenuated and delayed hydrograph peak. See Shaw (1994) for details of hydrograph construction and
methods of separating direct flow from baseflow.

4.8.3 The Unit Hydrograph

The unit hydrograph is defined as the basin outflow resulting from 10mm of direct runoff generated
uniformly over the drainage area at a uniform rainfall rate for a unit of time’, e.g. 1 h or 1 day. The 7 hour
186 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Very slow response Quick response

A short duration

Q Q
o o

5
oD oD

=S =

Q ja)

>
Time f Time f

(a) Rain at upstream end of catchment (b) Rain at downstream end of catchment

Very quick response

Long duration response

Direct runoff from

Q Q overland flow
50 ob Interflow
=|
a 3y
st =
‘a
4
g
i>)

(a) Q
—=a— Baseflow
>

Time f Time f

(c) Rain over full catchment area (d) Rain over fall catchment area

Figure 4.30 Interaction between basin shape and storm coverage in producing the hydrograph (adapted from Veissman ef a/., 1977).

unit hydrograph is defined as resulting from a unit depth of effective rainfall falling in 7 hours over the
full catchment. The three assumptions in this theory are:

1. The river flow rate QO is proportional to effective rainfall. In Fig. 4.31(a@) (both rain events of equal
duration) it is seen that increasing the rainfall intensity from 7 to ni produces a hydrograph with twice
the peak flow magnitude.
2. The effective rainfall/runoff relationship does not vary with time. In assumption | above it is seen
from Fig. 4.31 that both hydrographs (Fig. 4.31(a)) have the same duration, because both rainfall
events were of the same duration.
3. The principle of superposition applies. From Fig. 4.31(), the first rainfall event produces the
hydrograph number |. A second consequent rainfall event produces the hydrograph numbered 2 and a
third rainfall event produces hydrograph numbered 3. The cumulative effect of the three rain events is
to produce a hydrograph which is the addition of the three individual hydrographs (i.e. 1, 2, and 3).
Dooge (1973) summarized that the unit hydrograph theory modelled hydrologic systems as linear and
time-invarient. The assumptions of the unit hydrograph theory simplify hydrologic understanding, even
though none of the assumptions are likely to be strictly correct. For engineering applications, these
assumptions are widely used. For example, if we have a catchment and a record of the hydrographs due to
ten different rainstorms, we can for each rainstorm produce ten unit hydrographs corresponding to
unitized rainstorms (i.e. normalize all hydrographs as if all storms were unit storms of, say, 10 mm of
rain). We can then take an average of those ten unit hydrographs and call this the unit hydrograph for the
catchment, due to a 10 mm rainstorm. So when there is another storm, of, say, 50 mm, we can compute
the new hydrograph from the unit hydrograph.
 CONCEPTS IN HYDROLOGY 187

4.8.4 The Rational Method

Mulvaney (1851), Kuichling (1889) and Lloyd-Davis (1906) are credited with outlining this empirical
method of computing runoff, according to:

Q,=0.278 CIA m/s (4.30)

Q,, = peak river flow, m?/s
where C =a runoff or impermeability coefficient varying
from 0.05 for flat sandy soils to 0.95 for impervious urban typography
/ = uniform rainfall intensity in mm/h over the time of concentration 7.
A = the catchment or contributing area, km?

This is a simplistic method and should not be used other than to obtain a preliminary rough estimate for
Q,. The runoff coefficient C is dependent on the full range of catchment response parameters including
antecedent conditions, soil moisture status, soil type, soil porosity, land slope, land use, depth of water
table, etc., and also on the storm parameters including duration, spatial distribution, etc. This formula may
be used with care in small catchments for low-return period storms. For return periods greater than about
five years and catchment areas greater than 10 km* the rational method estimates Q,, higher than the unit
hydrograph method or the FSR (Flood Studies Report 1975) catchment characteristics method (see Sec.
4.10.1).
The rational method has been adopted in urban sewer design by Hydraulics Research, Wallingford
(1983). The Wallingford method uses the modified rational method as follows:

Q, = 0.278 CyClA (4.31)

where C, = a volumetric runoff coefficient varying from 0.6 for rapidly draining
soils to 0.9 for heavy soils and urban areas as being approximately 0.75
Cp =a routing coefficient, usually 1.3
I = rainfall intensity, mm/h
A = catchment area km?

Urban runoff is treated in Sec. 4.12 where the modified rational method is still used. It is also still usable
for foul/storm sewer design as given in an example in Chapter 12.

4.8.5 Catchment Modelling

Catchment modelling varies from the rational method type model to the fully integrated component,
deterministic, physically based, continuous models of SHE (Abbott er a/., 1986) or HSPF (1984). One of
the more detailed models is HSPF (USEPA, 1984) which has been in development since the 1960s. It had
its origin in Harvard, Stanford and the US Corps of Engineers. This is a one-dimensional integrated
hydrological-hydrochemical model, ideal for identifying best-management practices for water quality
management of river basins. HSPF is a physically based component model, i.e. each component of the
hydrological cycle is described mathematically by means of appropriate empirical or exact governing
equations. All of the components are then linked. The components include the different soil layers as
described by the parameters: upper zone storage, lower zone storage, lower zone evapotranspiration, etc.
This model and the SHE model are complex and the misinterpretation of a single parameter is sufficient to
make results meaningless. Both models are also continuous, i.e. they require data as time series input (e.g.
15 minute rainfall) increments and translate into time series output (e.g. full hydrographs, rather than just
peak flows). The flow sequence in the SHE model is shown schematically in Fig. 4.32.
Vieira et al. (1994) discuss the model of MIKESHE. MIKE is a hydrodynamics model for rivers,
estuaries, channels, etc., and SHE is the catchment model. Both MIKE and SHE are linked for optimum
188 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

(mm/h)
Intensity
Hydrograph of (rain) ni mm/h for th

Hydrograph of (rain) i mm/h for th

T = base length, the same in both cases

(m?/s)
Discharge

SS FP ——

Proportional principle of the Unit Hydrograph

(ad)

2
3
| || ay Net rain only

~<— Resulting runoff hydrograph

obtained by summing the
ordinates of the three
component hydrographs

Time
Super position principle of the Unit Hydrograph

(b)
Figure 4.31 Unit hydrograph assumptions.

catchment modelling and planning. Vieira ef al. (1994) itemize that it can be used for river basin planning,
water supply, irrigation and drainage planning, management and real-time control, contaminant
assessment from waste disposal sites, assessment of impacts of changes to land uses and farming
practices, soil and water management, studies of effects of climate change and ecological evaluations.
More simple models in use are the /umped parameter models. These transform actual rainfall into
runoff output by conceptualizing that all the catchment processes occur at one spatial point. Not all
physical parameters may be included in such a scheme. The unit hydrograph approach, which can use a
single rainstorm magnitude or a hyetograph, combines with singular catchment parameters, like
catchment area, stream slope, antecedent rainfall magnitude and soil type, to produce an outflow
hydrograph.
In such lumped models, the end parameter of interest is that of peak flow, Q,. The hydrograph shape
or duration in such models are not usually required. As such, the lumped models give an estimate of peak
flows in, say, flood examples.
 CONCEPTS IN HYDROLOGY 189

as
Evapotranspiration |
loss model

Canopy interception model

Snowmelt model

Overland and channel flow model

Root zone model (rectangular grid)

One-dimensional
unsaturated zone model
for each grid element Saturated flow model
(rectangular grid)

Figure 4.32 Schematic representation of the structure of the European hydrology model (SHE), the hydrological system (adapted
from Abbot ef a/., 1986. Reprinted by permission of Elsevier Science).

The relationship of water to soil is most important in catchment modelling. Some of the significant
parameters include upper zone storage (ponding), lower zone storage (unsaturated zone) and lower zone
evapotranspiration. Minor changes in any of these three parameters may cause significant changes to the
output hydrodynamics. For instance, summer water levels in lakes and rivers may be very dependent on
groundwater outflow. If this is not understood, lake levels in summer periods may not be correctly
modelled. Additionally, because of the strong correlation of water quality with discharge, if a coupled
hydrodynamic and water quality model like HSPF or SHE is used, then it is important that the
hydrodynamics are modelled as accurately as possible. Sediment levels and nutrient loads are
significantly dependent on accurate outflow hydrographs. More details of modelling are described in
Chapter 21.

4.9 HYDROLOGIC INSTRUMENTATION

This chapter on hydrological concepts cannot detail to any extent (because of space limitations) the wide
range of instrumentation being used in hydrology. Readers are referred to current manufacturers and other
textbooks on hydrology, e.g. Rosenberg et al. (1983), Shaw (1994), Bras (1990), Dingman (1994),
Bediént and Huber (1988), and Chow ef al., (1988). Table 4.14 summarizes some pieces of
instrumentation.
Traditionally, instrumentation for determining hydrological parameters, (e.g. rainfall, streamflow,
evaporation etc.) was in-situ. Typically, raingauges (or sheets of canvas/plastic on forest floors)
determined rainfall, an evaporation pot was used to estimate evaporation and water level recorders were
used to determine streamflow. Also the meteorology/atmosphere parameters (e.g. air temperature, energy,
humidity, etc.) were also ground-based or in-situ. This tradition has been used not only over land areas but
also over seas and oceans.
190 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Table 4.14 Hydrological instrumentation’

Purpose Instrumentation Parameters

Precipitation Raingauge ¥ —rainfall intensity

Radar —tainfall duration

Snowfall Snowgauge —snow depth

Streamflow V notches, weirs —small streams

Water level recorders —others .

Energy /meteorology /atmosphere Sonic anemometers —wind speed

Infra-red thermisters —-soil surface temperature
Cup anemometers —wind speed
Wind vanes —wind direction
Hygrometers —humidity
Thermocouples —air temperature
Dew point hygrometers —temperature/humidity
Soil heat flux plate —radiant energy to soil

Evaporation Lysimeter —evaporation of soil surface

Evaporation pan surface —evaporation from water surface

Soil moisture Neutron probe —soil moisture over a volume

Capacitance probe —soil moisture over a volume
Time domain reflectometry —soil moisture

Hydraulic conductivity Time domain reflectometry —hydraulic conductivity

Groundwater Wells —water level rise/fall

‘Satellite and remote sensing are now used to determine each and every parameter in this table.

4.9.1 Remote Sensing in Hydrology

However as we enter the twenty-first century, most if not all of the hydrological parameters will be
determined remotely by satellite or radar. Remote sensing is that field of hydrology/meteorology/
atmospheric science/earth science etc., which determines the requisite parameters, from measurements,
not of the parameter itself, but by the way it changes the electromagnetic spectrum from its known state.
Photography in the visible wavelengths is probably the easiest form of remote sensing. Today techniques
are capable of making measurements over the entire electromagnetic spectrum. Different sensors provide
unique information about the properties below the earth’s surface, at the earth’s surface (ground
temperature, air temperature, humidity, rainfall, etc.) and in the several regions of the atmosphere (e.g.
clouds). Measurements of the reflected solar radiation gives information on albedo, thermal sensors
measure surface temperature, (land or sea) and microwave sensors measure the dielectric properties of
surface soil or snow. The challenge for the remote sensing specialist and water resources scientist is to
interpret these remotely sensed properties in a way that can be used for effective management and
monitoring (Engman and Gurney, 1991).
The unique aspect of remote sensing in hydrology is primarily its ability to measure spatial
information as opposed to point data from which most of the hydrologic concepts and models have been
developed. Additionally, the ability to measure state variables (e.g., soil moisture, surface temperature,
etc.) over a catchment area is ‘almost’ possible with remote sensing. Another fact of remote sensing is
limited to satellite sensors and this is the potential ability to assemble long term temporal data sets (e.g.,
over decades), Engman and Gurney, (1991).
 CONCEPTS INHYDROLOGY 191

4.10 FLOOD FLOWS

Determination of flood flows in river and lake systems after rainfall events has always been of interest to
hydrologists. Additionally, hydrologists would like to be able to predict river flows for rainfall events that
have not yet occurred. The term return period or recurrence interval is used in flood planning or even the
hydraulic design of a bridge to identify the significance of a storm or flood event. A flood with a return
period of five years has 98 per cent probability of occurring once within that five years or a 20 per cent
probability of occurring in only one year. It is important to note that the return period has nothing to do
with the time sequence of an event. It merely states that, say, the five year flood has a 98 per cent
probability of occurring within a five year time span. It may occur any time during that five years. The five
year flood does not occur like clockwork every five years. We may in fact get the 100 year flood within the
next five years. Designs of sewer networks are often based on a return period of 2 to 5 years. However, if
this is in an urban renewal project with basements, the return period may be 50 to 100 years. Typically,
river structures are designed for return periods of 30 to 50 years. The higher the return period, the higher
the flood intensity. Higher return periods are reserved for structures potentially liable to cause catastrophe.
Dams might be designed for between 1000 and 100000 years. In such cases, the PMF, or probable
maximum flood, is of interest. A typical relationship of flow and return period is shown in Fig. 4.33. It is
seen that the relationship is approaching linearity below five years. Beyond this, it is non-linear and the
difference between the 500 and 1000 year flows are approximately 15 per cent. For Ireland, the
computation used for determining Fig. 4.33 (from the Flood Studies Report, UK, 1975) is
O= —3,33 + 4.2e-9Y (4.32)

where
y = In{—In(1 — 1/0] (4.33)
and Q = the mean annual flood
QO, = the flood magnitude with a return period f years.

Equations (4.32) and (4.33) are empirical equations from the FSR (NERC, 1975). The latter document is a
compilation of all available rainfall and river flow data in Ireland and the United Kingdom up to 1970

50 100. 150 200 250 300

Return period (years)

Figure 4.33 Typical relationship of river flow and return period.

192 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

(some rainfall and river flow records date from the early 1800s) which was analysed and empirical
regression equations produced for flood flow determination. The FSR document produced what is widely
known as the method of catchment characteristics for flood flow prediction. The methods are not
applicable outside the UK/Ireland.
The determination of return periods for storms and runoff is usually based on time series historical
data. For instance, to determine the return period for flows, the maximum flows in each year for the
history of the record are assembled. These are then ranked from highest to lowest. Statistical techniques,
including least squares estimates, moments estimates or maximum likely estimates, are used then to
determine the return period and associated flows.
A sample of different methods used to determine flood flows are itemized in Fig. 4.34 for the
ungauged and gauged catchments. A gauged catchment in one case has at least one water level recorded at
one location and has an associated stage (height) versus discharge for this location.

4.10.1 Catchment Characteristics for Ungauged Catchments

For the ungauged catchment, the FSR (NERC, 1975) produced several equations for flood flow
calculation based on the characteristics of catchments, i.e. area, stream slope, etc. The more detailed the
equation the more robust is the prediction. The calculation is based on Q, i.e. the mean annual flood, and
this can be modified for any return period based on equations similar to Eqs (4.32) and (4.33). The mean
annual flood does not have a return period of one year. In the United Kingdom/Ireland combination from
the FSR (NERC, 1975), Q has a return period of 2.4 years. The peak flow is taken for each of the number
of years of data available and is then ‘averaged’. Thus Q may be greater or less than the annual flood (of
any year) and is of course greater than the mean of the average annual flood. The empirical equations
apply to the United Kingdom and Ireland. The six-variable equation is

O= Cx AREA’ 5oSTMEROQ?2) < S’,° >< SOl ee RSMD (ee LAKE)e. (4.34)
where AREA = catchment area, km?
STMFRQ = stream frequency, number of junctions/km?
SOIL = an index based on five soil types, S1 to S5, where S1 is indicative
of a low runoff soil and SS is a high runoff (rock outcrops)
Siog5 = stream slope, between the 10 and 85 per cent locations, m/km
RSMD = net | day rainfall with a 5 year return period
LAKE = the fraction of catchment area occupied by lakes
C = regional multiplier, i.e. ~ 0.018 for Ireland, ~ 0.020 for Scotland

Flood flows

Gauged catchments Ungauged catchments

| | lt |
Annual Unit Peaks over Catchments Unit Compare with
maxima d hydrograph threshold characteristics hydrograph known
series (from rainfall and (POT) catchment
runoff records) series

Figure 4.34 Methods of flood flow determination for gauged and ungauged catchments.
 CONCEPTS IN HYDROLOGY 193

Details of how to use the above equation and an explanation of the parameters are found in Vol. | of the
LS ANERG. 1975).
The five-variable equation is:

QO =C x AREA®*7 x STMFRQ°3! x SOIL!23 x RSMD!!7 (1 + LAKE)” (4.35)

where C ~ 0.0183 for Ireland

~ 0.0224 to 0.0362 for Scotland/United Kingdom
The two-variable equations are

OQ = 0.0236 x AREA? x 5°84 (4.36)

and

Oe 2425 10m AREAS sec GAAR? (4.37)

The single-variable equation is

O = 0.667 x AREA®77 (4.38)

Example 4.8 Determine the mean annual flood using the six-, five-, two- and one-variable
equations for the following catchment in Ireland:

Catchment area = 1762 km?

Average annual rainfall = 1100 mm
Stream slope = 1.35m/km
Stream length = 109 km
Stream frequency, STMFRQ = 0.77

Soil parameters:
Class S2 = 41%
Class S4 = 31%
Glasstsor—w oo
Lake fraction = 0

The soil parameter as used in the equation is

SOIL = 0.15 $1 + 0.3 S2 + 0.4 83 + 0.45 S44 0.5 S5 = 0.403
The rainfall parameter as used in the equation is approximated by

RSMD = 2.48VSAAR — 40 = 42.4 mm

Where SAAR is the standard annual average rainfall. A more exact method is shown in the FSR (NERC,
1975). -
The results are summarized in Table 4.15 and the variation at + 25 per cent of the mean value of Q.
It is prudent to stay on the high side and so adopt QO ~ 300 m°/s. Methods pertinent to other countries,
e.g. the US, Australia, etc., are detailed in Chow et al. (1988).

4.10.2 Analysis of Peak Flows for Gauged Catchments

As mentioned in Sec. 4.10, if the catchment being analysed is gauged for river flow, then the records are
integrated to produce flood flows in correspondence to return periods. The following discussion is
194 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Table 4.15 Q values for different

equations
Catchment characteristics method a)(m? /s) ¥

Six-variable equation 304

Five-variable equation 289
Two-variable equation | 221
Two-variable equation 2 Die,
One-variable equation 211

independent of country and is based purely on statistics. Several different interpretations of the same data
set can be examined. With reference to Fig. 4.35, the following is noted:
1. The annual maximum series is made up of P,, P2, P3.
2. By defining a threshold at p, it is seen that the five peaks over this threshold P,, p;, P2, P3, p3 form the
peaks over threshold (POT) series. This is sometimes called the partial duration series.
3. A threshold may be set that there are NV peaks over N years where not every year yields a peak. This is
known as the annual excedence series.
It can be expected, then, that different methods yield different magnitudes of floods for the same
return period or different methods ascribe the same flood magnitude to different return periods. The values
will tend to be closer together when the period of record is longer. The following is an example of the
annual maximum series method.

Example 4.9 Given the series of annual maximum floods shown below from 1975 to 1989 for the
Bandon River, Ireland, compute the return periods and flood magnitudes from | to 100 years:

Year 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

Flood (m?/s) 298.4 85.7 144.7 211.9 121.4 113.7 131.7 223.5 108.3 102.9 95.6 239.8 132.6 261.2 145.2

Prepare Table 4.16 as follows

1. Rank the 15 floods from top to bottom as in column 2.
2. In column 3 give each a rank number m from | to 15 (n= 15).

Threshold

Q(m3/s)

| 2 3

Years
Figure 4.35 Flood peak data series.
 CONCEPTS IN HYDROLOGY 195

. Use the Weibull formula to attach a return period 7(x) in column 4 to each ranked flood as per:
1
Ga) = ued) Weibull equation for return period (4.39)
m

where P(x)
y=—-
T(s)

or P(x) = aa Weibull equation for probability

The Gringorton equation P(x) =(m — 0.44)/(n + 0.12) is often used instead of the Weibull equation.
. In column 5 attach the associated P(x) value, where P(x) is the probability of an annual maximum,
equalling or exceeding a flood value x m*/s in any given year, i.e. P(x) = 1/T(x).
. In column 6 attach the associated F(x) value, where F(x) is the probability of an annual maximum
being less than x in any given year, i.e. F(x) =1 — P(x).
. In column 7 place the associated value of y, as defined by y= — In { — In[1 — 1/7(x)]}.
~ . These can now be plotted on extreme value gumbel probability paper, as seen in Fig. 4.36.

. Draw the straight line of ‘best fit’ or fit a line using least squares or other method and extrapolate for
higher return periods. However, care needs to be used in extrapolating data beyond the number of
years for which data are available.

The line fitted to Fig. 4.36 is the least squares best-fit line. It is seen from the line of best fit that there
is a shortage of data available for flows between 150 and 250 m?/s. From this figure, values for extended
return periods are taken off by extrapolation and entered on Table 4.17. Because the records extend only
for 15 years, care is required in interpreting flood return values for periods much longer than 25 years.

4.11 LOW FLOWS

Low flows are also significant parameters in hydrology. Traditionally, hydrologists were preoccupied with
flood alleviation and so analysis for high flows is more commonplace than that of low flow analysis.

Table 4.16 Determination of flood flows versus return periods for Example 4.9
Return Reduced
Flood flow Rank period Probability Probability variate
Flood year 3 m T(x) (yr) 1X09) 22 (0) F(x) < O y

1975 298.4 1 16 0.0625 0.9375 2.74

1988 261.2 2 8 0.125 0.875 2.01
1986 239.8 3 538 0.1876 0.8124 57
1982 223.5 4 4 0.25 0.75 1.24
1978 PAU) =) 32 08125 0.6875 0.981
1989 145.2 6 2.66 0.375 0.625 0.755
1977 144.7 7 2.286 0.437 0.563 0.554
1987 132.6 8 2.0 0.50 0.50 0.366
1981 Wiley 9 1.77 0.565 0.435 0.183
1979 121.4 10 1.6 0.625 0.375 0.019
1980 113.7 hl 1.45 0.69 0.31 —0.158
1983 108.9 12 3) 0.75 0.25 —0.327
1984 102.9 13 3) 0.813 0.187 —0.517
1985 95:9 14 1.143 0.874 0.126 —0.728
1976 85.7 15 1.066 0.9375 0.0625 —1.0199

cl lee
196 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Return period (years)

1.001, al 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 1000

as + if =a

800

700

600

500.

(m/s)
x
400

300

200

100

001.01 NT Neel 1) 0) £0 25 278s 29 LS We My)

te Probability F(x)

(Ee eS | ee |S ee ee ee ee ee eS a eee ee
—2.0 —1.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Reduced variate, y
Figure 4.36 Flood frequency (Gumbel plot) flood flows for Bandon, Ireland.

However, analyses of low flows are of significant interest, particularly in relation to water abstractions for
water supply or hydroelectricity and most particularly for water quality. Whether effluent discharge
permits will be written or not depends on low flow magnitudes and the sustenance of fisheries or aquatic
habitats. There are many terms used in low flow analysis, some of which are defined in the following
section.

4.11.1 Parameters of Low Flow

A flow duration curve is a plot, as Fig. 4.37, with ordinates of flow (m?/s) and abscissa of percentage
exceedence. For example, the flow magnitude of 7 m°/s is exceeded 50 per cent of the time.
Percentage exceedence is the percentage of time that a given discharge is exceeded. The 95 per cent
Bes is flow that is equalled or exceeded 95 per cent of the time. In Fig. 4.37 this value is about
1.5 m°/s.

Table 4.17 Return period versus flood flows for Example 4.9

Return period (yr) 2 5 10 25 50 100 200

Flow (m*/s) (Weibull) 160 230 275 330 380 430 470
 CONCEPTS IN HYDROLOGY 197

|ne

(m?/s)
Flow

See ene
40 50 60 80 90
Exceedence percentage

Figure 4.37 Flow duration curve.

Daily mean flow is the mean of the instantaneous discharge throughout a 24-hour period.
Annual daily mean flow is the mean over a year of the daily mean flows.
Dry weather flow is the annual minimum daily mean flow with a selected return period. This term or
multiples of it are often used in foul and storm sewer design.
Baseflow is the contribution to streamflow from groundwater.
D-Day is a term used for the duration in days, e.g. 10-day is of ten days’ duration.
D-day flow is the average flow over D-consecutive days.
Sustained low flow is defined as the lowest mean flow that is not exceeded for a given duration.
D-Day sustained low flow (SLF) is the largest daily mean flow in the D-day period, e.g. the 7-day SLF is
found by getting the driest week’s average flow and then the largest daily mean flow in that seven-day
period is the SLF for the year. Thus, the 1-day SLF is the minimum DMF (daily mean flow) for the
year.
Minimum flow is the minimum flow observed in the period.
Exceedence percentage D-day flow is best defined by an example:
Q95, 10 is the 95 percentage exceedence flow, averaged over ten days
(Q95 per cent, 10-day).
Authorities in different countries specify different low flow parameters. For instance, within Ireland,
the 7-day SLF is often used in planning permits for effluent discharges. Other parameters used are the
O95, 10.

4.11.2 Frequency of Low Flows

It is of significance to establish frequencies of low flows as it was also significant to establish frequencies
of flood flows. It is of interest to establish return periods to magnitudes of low flows. The methods used
are several but that of the extreme value Gumbel distribution can be used as it was in Sec. 4.10.2 for flood
analyis.
198 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

4.12 URBAN HYDROLOGY

Urbanization affects the response of a catchment to rainfall in many ways, depending on the location of
the urbanization with respect to the upstream or downstream end of a river network. Complete
urbanization may reduce the hydrograph rise time by up to 70 per cent (Fig. 4.38) and increases the mean
annual flow by between 200 and 600 per cent, depending on the responsiveness of the catchment before
urbanization (NERC, 1979). The introduction of impervious surfaces and an efficient drainage system
increases the volume of runoff (reducing the amount of infiltration) and reduces flow travel time, yielding
a hydrograph that is faster to peak, faster to recede and of increased peak discharge. Correspondingly, the
flood frequency distribution is affected and floods of all return periods are, in general, increased. The
magnitude of the increase depends on the extent of urbanization and the relationship of the urban response
to the original rural response.
The following are listed as significant factors in the hydrograph response to urbanization in the FSR
No. 5 (NERC, 1979):
1. Catchments characterized by low percentage runoff and slow response are more affected by
urbanization than catchments already characterized by high percentage runoff and rapid response.
2. Urbanization has a greater effect on the response to small storms which previously yielded low
percentage runoff and little overbank flow than on the response to severe storms. Thus the mean annual
flood will be increased by a greater proportion than rarer floods.
3. Since urban catchments respond faster and yield runoff from smaller events, the 7-year flood after
urbanization tends to be caused by a shorter duration storm of smaller rainfall depth but higher
intensity. Therefore, the effect of urbanization on the 7year flood depends on local rainfall
characteristics and on the relationship between rainfall intensities for short- and long-duration storms.
4. The effect of urbanization depends on the location of urban development within the catchment.
Urbanization in upstream areas may result in a rapid urban response which coincides with and
reinforces the slower rural response from downstream. Urbanization in downstream areas may cause
the urban response to pass before the slow rural response from upstream areas arrives.

4.12.1 FSR Assessment of Urban Runoff

The FSR (NERC, 1975) estimates the effect of urbanization from

ob 70
i ja+ URBAN)'*(1 + 0.3 URBAN x mm)|—1 (4.40)
i
I,

é
ee

———¥» Time
Figure 4.38 Conceptual of hydrograph response due to urbanization,
 CONCEPTS IN HYDROLOGY 199

where Q,, = mean annual urban flood

QO, = mean annual flood for rural catchment, computed from Eq. (4.35)
URBAN = fraction of catchment urbanized
PR, = percentage runoff from rural catchment
= 102.4 x SOIL + 0.28 (CWI — 12.5)
(for SOIL see Sec. 4.10.1)
CWI = catchment wetness index (ranges 125 to 180)
~ 125 for dry catchment
~ 180 for supersaturated catchment

For instance, with a 50 per cent urbanized catchment and PR,=0.5, the mean annual flood of the
urbanized catchment is 23 per cent greater than the rural catchment. Further details are in the FSR
Supplementary Report No. 5 (NERC, 1979).

4.12.2 Urban Runoff from the Rational Method

As described in Sec. 4.8.4, the rational method is a simple method sometimes used in determining urban
runoff. The flow rate QO is represented by
On = 10.278 ClA m?/s
The runoff coefficient for typical applications is shown in Table 4.18. The other parameters were defined
in Sec. 4.8.4.

4.12.3 Modelling of Urban Runoff

To comply with environmental regulations of surface runoff water quality, more sophisticated techniques
than that of the rational design method are now required. Several systems exist including those that
accommodate both flooding and pollution analysis in sewers. Surface runoff models compute the inflow
hydrographs to the sewer network using time series historical rainstorms (if they are available). The runoff

Table 4.18 Runoff coefficient for

different surfaces

Description of area Runoff coefficient

Streets 0.7-0.9
Driveways 0.75—0.85
Grassed lawns (sandy)
<2% slope 0.05—0.1
2-7% 0.10.15
>7T% 0.15—0.2
Grassed lawns (clay)
<2% slope 0.13-0.17
2-7% 0.18-0.22
>T% 0.23-0.35
Roofs 0.78-0.95
Light industrial area 0.5-0.8
Heavy industrial area 0.6-0.9
Business areas 0.7-0.9
Apartment dwelling area 0.5-0.7
Individual residential areas 0.25—0.4
200 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

is routed through the pipe network of pipes, manholes and hydraulic structures in an unsteady analysis.
Such analysis allows examination of the hydraulic performance of complex looped sewer systems
including storm overflows, detention basins and pumping stations. The extent and return period for floods
can be identified and bottlenecks and weaknesses in the hydraulic system can be modified so as to reduce
extreme flood events to acceptable levels. The third aspect is assessment of the pollution load so that the
design of the downstream wastewater treatment plant can be more valid. Also, it is important that exact
pollution loads be identified for storm overflows. For instance, in sensitive receiving waters, knowledge of
the input of the eutrophication producing nutrients of nitrogen and phdsphorus is very important, not only
in their quantities but also in the time-varying inputs.
Modelling software systems accommodating these aspects of flooding analysis, hydraulic design and
pollutant assessment are available from many international organizations, including the Danish Hydraulic
Institute (MOUSE), the Hydraulic Research Station Wallingford and the USEPA. The MOUSE system is
also used in real-time control (RTC) for combined sewer overflow systems.

4.13 GROUNDWATER

As the focus of this book is on environmental engineering, a brief introduction follows into the physics of
groundwater. In Sec. 4.14, aspects of groundwater chemistry, contamination and aquifer protection
schemes are discussed.
Earlier parts of this chapter examined surface water and water movement in the unsaturated zone.
Groundwater is here defined as that water below the water table, in other words in the geologic strata
where the pore space is ~ 100 per cent occupied by water. ‘Hydrogeology’ is another word given to the
study of groundwater. Groundwater is a significant natural water resource. In Ireland, groundwater is used
for approximately 25 per cent of the raw water requirements. In parts of Europe the corresponding
percentage is about 80.

4.13.1 Aquifers
Figure 4.39 is a schematic of different aquifer types. An ‘aquifer’ is defined as a water-bearing rock
formation that contains water in sufficient amounts to be exploited and brought to the surface by wells. An
aquifer may be either ‘confined’ or ‘unconfined’. In Fig. 4.39, the upper aquifer is unconfined, i.e. it has a
natural ‘water table line’ free to move up or down. A confined aquifer is restrained by an upper
impermeable strata called an ‘aquaclude’, inhibiting the upward movement of water. When a series of
wells is drilled into the confined aquifer, the water will rise and attain its own ‘water table line’. This line
is the “piezometric’ line or that due to the hydrostatic pressure of the confined aquifer (see also Figs 4.45
and 4.46).
The piezometric line is a theoretical level if there are no wells. In aquifers, it is assumed that all the
pore space is occupied by water. As such, the ‘porosity’ is a significant parameter. It is defined as

Ve
Porosity 1 = — (aay)
Vy

where V, = volume of voids

V, = total volume
. : V
Void ratio e = —
Ss
 CONCEPTS IN HYDROLOGY 201

Recharge area

Natural
ground
line

Confined aquifer =

Impermeable bottom

Figure 4.39 Schematic of aquifer types.

where V, = solid volume (V; — V,)

Therefore

n= ,
l+e
an d e= as
l—n
(4.42)
:

Figure 4.40 shows the porosity variation with rock type. Table 4.19 shows the typical values of porosity,
and other parameters for different material types. Effective porosity is defined as the percentage of
interconnected pore space.

(a) Well-sorted sedimentary deposit with high porosity

(b) Poorly-sorted sedimentary deposit with low porosity
(c) Well-sorted sedimentary deposit of porous pebbles, giving high total porosity
(d) Well-sorted sedimentary deposit where mineral matter has deposited in interstices
(e) Rock rendered porous by solution (e.g. limestone area)
(f) Fractured porous rock

Figure 4.40 Relationship between texture and porosity of rocks (adapted from Meinzer, 1923; Domenico and Schwartz, 1990).
202 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Table 4.19 Porosity values by material

Range of
hydraulic
Porosity Specific conductivity!
Material range (%) yield (%) K (m/s)

Crushed stone >30 > 20 10-4 to 10

Coarse gravel 24-36 PP) LOmertonl Ome
Fine gravel 25-38 ay) —
Coarse sand 31-46 ~25 10m tonlOm
Fine sand 26-53 ~10 IO" we IO
Silt 34-61 ~8 1O-”?tro 1O=*
Clay 36-60 ~3 Ow WO”
Sandstone 5-30 ~5 1 i 10°
Limestone 5-50 ~2 lOmetoml Ome
Shale 0-10 ~3 Oe ttm WO?
Basalt 3-35 = Oma ton Ome
Till ~32 ~ 16 lOmucaton| Ome
Peat ~92 ~44 =

‘Saturated hydraulic conductivity also noted as Khgat.

Adapted from Johnson, 1962, 1967

4.13.2 Water Yield

The water yielding capacity of an aquifer is a significant physical parameter in hydrogeology and this
depends on and varies with several parameters, including:
Ne Specific yield: the amount of aquifer water expressed as a percentage that is free to drain under the
influence of gravity. By definition it is less than the porosity since some water is not free to drain due to
attractive and bonding forces such as surface tension. Some typical values are given in Table 4.19.
. Storage coefficient, S: somewhat similar to specific yield, this parameter expresses the volume of water
that an aquifer releases (or accumulates) per unit of surface area per unit length change in piezometric
head. For confined aquifers 10° <S < 10°. For unconfined aquifers 10~* <S <0.35 (Davis and
Cornwall, 1991). The units are m? of water/m?* of aquifer.
. Hydraulic gradient, dh/dx: the slope of the piezometric surface line in m/m. The magnitude of the
‘head’ determines the pressure on the groundwater to move and at what velocity.
. Hydraulic conductivity, K: in the unsaturated zone, discussed in earlier sections of this chapter,
hydraulic conductivity was defined as a measure of the ability of a medium (soil) to allow the passage
of water in units of m/s. With respect to aquifers, the medium is not soil but usually rock. K is a
property of both the medium and the fluid and is dynamic, and varies with moisture content. In this
book, we use the terms hydraulic conductivity and permeability interchangeably. The values can range
over 12 orders of magnitude, with the highest values for gravels and limestones (about 10-7 to 10 *)
and lowest values for unifractional igneous and metamorphic rocks and also clays (107° to 107 '4).
Some typical values are listed in Table 4.19.
. Transmissivity, 7: the rate of flow per unit width of the aquifer under a unit hydraulic gradient,
10s?
— T= 10
T=Kb m/s (4.43)
where b = thickness (height) of the aquifer
we will refer to Table 4.19 again when discussing clay liners for landfill (Chapter 14) which requires
almost negligible permeability at values lower than 10~” m/s.
 CONCEPTS IN HYDROLOGY 203

4.13.3 Groundwater Flow

As with flow in the unsaturated zone, flow in aquifers is to some degree three dimensional. If the
hydraulic gradient is predominantly undirectional, however, the flow will be almost one-dimensional. If
the conductivity K = K, = K, = K,, then the aquifer is regarded as ‘isotropic’ and this is the simplest flow
case to analyse. If K is independent of location within the aquifer, it is said to be ‘homogeneous’. Usually
in analysis, the flow is assumed to be isotropic and homogeneous. Darcy’s law for groundwater flow is
given as

dh
= —KA—
g dx
hy — hy
= ST, (4.44)
4.44

where QO = flow (horizontal) through the aquifer, m*/s

K = hydraulic conductivity, m/s
A = cross-sectional area, m?
hy — h, = head drop, m
1, — 1, = length difference (along horizontal x direction between h2 and h,),m
Q dh
2" A
] A =—= Ke —

oh oh oh
qx = Ko; Oy Ves,
Sa Se q; s
StS (4.45)
4.45

where q = specific discharge or flow per unit area

Example 4.10 Determine the daily flow capacity and the transmissivity of a sandstone aquifer if:
The aquifer height is 15m
The aquifer width is 800m
The aquifer length is 2km
The head change over the length of 2km is 3m

Solution Assume the hydraulic conductivity

K =6x 107-7 m/s = 5.2 x 10-* m/day

dh
= KA—
Qg dl
3
= 5),
Oa.) ae WSR —_
Serr = (),94 m:m?/d
/day

Transmissivity, 7 = Kb
= 5.2 x 107? x 15 = 0.78 m?/day

The general flow equations for groundwater flow are derived in several standard hydrology and
hydrogeology textbooks (Bras, 1990; Domenico and Schwartz, 1990). They are briefly presented here.

Flow in a saturated medium Figure 4.41 represents a unit control volume of a saturated medium. The
concept of mass balance is applied to determine the flow equation. The net mass balance in the x
204 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

0(pq,)Ax
pq, + aye

Note: for simplicity

flux is not shown
in the y and z directions

Figure 4.41 Element of saturated rock with no free surface.

direction is

Mass flow rate — mass flow rate = change in mass

into the unit out of the unit storage with time
O(pqx)Ax a)
pq. AyAz pa.2 “en hye = = AxAyAz (4.46)
where
n is an effective porosity (units of length) and pn is the mass per unit volume
and
qx = flow per unit area orthogonal to face AyAz
Equation 4.46 then reduces to
0qx _ ONx
ax —s at
In three dimensions

Oqx , OGy _ Oqz\ _ On

(2 - ay amar imein} 3)
Introduce the term ‘specific storage’, So, as the volume of water released from storage per unit volume of
aquifer per unit change in the pressure head (Bras, 1990), i.e. dimensions of inverse length.
From hydrostatics:

P= pg(h— Zy)
where h = piezometric head (Zp) = datum)

qx |Oy |94z\ _ _, OA
(#:+ ay t etl ee (4.48)

For steady state conditions,

qx | Gy |Gz
(#:== ay ate oath 0 (4.49)

Introduce Darcy’s Law, i.e. gy = K,(dh/dx). Then

0 oh 0 oh 0 oh
IK K,— —|kK,—)=
=( 4 y = ( Z >)A dz («.=) Grd)
 CONCEPTS IN HYDROLOGY 205

If the rock can be considered as isotropic, i.e. K, = f= he then.

Ph Fh &h

i.e. (the Laplace equation)

VnA=0 (4.52)
Different techniques for the solution of Eq. (4.52) include graphical methods, electrical analogues and
numerical methods which are discussed in Shaw (1994), Bras (1990) and Wang and Anderson (1982).
Analytical solutions exist based on the simplifying assumptions of Dupuit and Forcheimer for unconfined
flow. These assumptions are:
1. The hydraulic gradient dh/dx approximates the slope of the water table and the slope of the free
surface.
2. The water table and free surface are ‘practically’ horizontal.
3. The discharge is constant throughout the depth of flow being evaluated.
The Laplace equation (Eq. 4.52) is the basis of solving numerical problems of flow in porous media. This
can be extended beyond the hydrodynamics to include the water chemistry and so solve problems of
contaminant flow in groundwater situations. This topic is further discussed in the modelling section
(Chapter 21).

Unconfined flow Figure 4.42 shows the pattern of groundwater flow between two rivers whose water
levels are different.
If the flow is assumed to be one dimensional and steady state with a hydraulic conductivity K then
the Laplace equation is:
*h
a =.)
ae (4.53)
Integrating :
h? =ax +b (4.54)
Boundary condition 1: = pate —20,
Therefore
b= hy (4.55)
Water table Natural
ground

i Assumed Seepage face

Left ">> =~~_ ae water table
river Unconfined Pe Sce
aquifer
hy

> ;
i h,| Right
river

i’.
ae ee
_____
ER
e WANN LOANIN e-
x=0 LIX Impermeable YXKXX x=L
XXX a XXXXXS
Figure 4.42 Unconfined aquifer flow between two water bodies without recharge.
206 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Differentiating Eq. (4.54):

Wie
dx .

From Darcy’s equation,

dh
= —Kh—
: dx
Equation (4.54) becomes
dh
h? — Age ae h?

2
a2 = a (4.56)
Boundary condition 2: h= hate
2q
hi,R =h? L —=L
K

Therefore
K
q= TLE — hk) (4.57)
Equation (4.56) becomes
ee
ae i pt — hp) (4.58)

Equation (4.58) is known as the Dupuit parabola and Eq. (4.57) as the Dupuit equation. Equation (4.58)
gives the variation in the height of the water table going across ‘the island’ from the left river towards the
right river of Fig. 4.42.
The above equations hold only in the event of no recharge. Recharge is that proportion of rainfall that
‘eventually’ finds its way into the aquifer and raises the water level. If recharge is R, then

fe
—=R (4.59)
4.59

From Darcy’s law,

dh
= —Kh—
: dx
Therefore

vs eas ane = 4.60

dx —s-_-2: dx? Co

Integrating Eq. (4.60) twice:

ee
h=— es b

As in the non-recharge case, the boundary conditions are the same, giving
ae
= hy

and joes heeee

—h? RL
shar!
Ik, e K
 CONCEPTS IN HYDROLOGY 207

Substituting and rearranging, we arrive at

Hi?= hy —3> (hy, —ha) + Rx (© — 2) 62)

This equation determines the shape of the water table line and is parabolic. The flow rate through the
aquifer can now be determined from the following:
Differentiate Eq. (4.61):

di tz—i R
2h— ae = Ra es K! le x) 4.62
(4.62)
Equation (4.62) becomes

—2q he-hi R
= —(L—2
K ine aes
K R
Tray (ht — ha) 5 (L — 2x) (4.63)

Equation (4.63) is the Dupuit equation for flow with the effect of recharge.

Example 4.11 From Fig. 4.43, determine the height and location of the water table at the water
divide if recharge is estimated at 0.05 mm/day, to a coarse sand aquifer.

Solution For a coarse sandy aquifer assume K © 6.9 x 10~* m/s (Table 4.19), i.e. K & 10 m/day.
At the water divide, the flow splits and that to the left goes left and that to the right goes right. Therefore,
there is no flow where h=h,,,x and so, from Eqn. (4.63),
IK R
GpiesYs aL (hy,2 — hp)
2 5 (ZL —.2x)

Substituting for h., hp, L, k and R, yields

3 = 37) em

Recharge = 0.5 mm/day

Ground level

Water table
Location of
water divide

Datum NUNN SPUN

LIS
DP OEEK 5 ; CURR
BrOKK
“i Impermeable layer YOVIAY:
XXX ; PE ISIS GSS
Figure 4.43 Unconfined aquifer island with recharge.
208 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

From Egn. (4.61),

x Rx
he i 7 ine Peet ee =
Substitution yields

h=19.4m

Note that the height is greater than the higher of the two rivers above datum.

4.13.4 Groundwater Investigations

Groundwater investigations are required for a variety of purposes including:
Determination of volume/flows for a potential water supply
Determination of water quality
Determination of extent and magnitude of groundwater pollution
Determination of drawdown levels on property boundaries
The assessment of an aquifer for protection.
Assessment of risks to pollution of groundwater
The locations and magnitudes of an aquifer can be determined using:

e Resistivity surveys
e Seismic survey
e Wells and boreholes

Resistivity tests The composition of a geologic formation and the location of sites of groundwater can
be determined by passing an electric current into the geology via two electrodes spaced a distance L
metres apart, and measuring the resulting drop in voltage with a second set of electrodes:

_ERXA 4.64)
c= L (4.

where r = resistivity
ER = electrical resistance
A = cross-sectional area over the distance L
L = length between electrodes

The measure varies with the composition of the geology and the water content. In porous strata, the
resistivity depends on the water content. Fine clays have lesser resistivity values than coarse sands and
gravels. The spacing of the electrodes determines the depth of the penetration of the electrical current and
so relationships (calibrations) are developed between electrode spacing and apparent resistivity. Figure
4.44 is a schematic of a resistivity set-up. This method can also be used for contaminant plume
identification (Domenico and Schwartz, 1990).
The resistivity of dense limestone ranges from 10° to 10° Qm while that of porous limestone ranges
from 10'° to 10°. The value for dry sand/gravel is ~ 10‘, while that for saturated sand/gravel can be
~ 10 to 10.

Seismic surveys Sound waves are sent through the geologic strata and the approximate (near horizontal)
boundaries are identified by the refraction of the shock waves. A grid is selected, say at 10 m intervals (on
plan), and sound wave recorders, called geophones, are set at these points. A seismic wave is set up by an
 CONCEPTS IN HYDROLOGY 209

(1)-

RUT
Voltmeter Current

ore,
Potential |electrode
a electrode

Heri
ie
Equipotential
lines
Current
lines
Figure 4.44 Schematic of a resistivity set-up (adapted from Todd, 1980).

explosive charge at a particular point. From the recorded wave arrival times, the sound velocities can be
determined and hence the identification of the geologic strata type. It is an approximate method, and the
water table line can also be identified.

Wells and boreholes By far the most precise method of determining the geologic strata is to develop a
series of boreholes and record the soil/rock composition with distance downwards from the ground
surface. Typically core sizes may vary from 40 to 150 mm and continuous undisturbed cores yield detail
data of the hydrogeologic formations. Spatial data on the extent of aquifers are determined by selected
borehole sites and geostatistics is often applied to ascertain the optimum site locations. The identification
and extent of an aquifer groundwater source is then followed by well pump tests to ascertain the aquifer
flow rates and actual drawdown of the water table. See Domenico and Schwartz (1990) for further details.

4.13.5 Well Tests

Well tests are carried out in situ with the objectives including:
e Determination of hydrogeologic parameters of hydraulic conductivity, transmissivity and storage
coefficient
e Determination of quantity/quality of water supply
e Determination of sustainability of maximum yield
e To evaluate the impact of drawdown on neighbouring wells
¢ To provide baseline data on well performance and characteristics (Daly, 1994)

The range of small-scale tests that result in little well discharge that are used to determine K include:
e Rising and falling head tests
e Slug and bail tests
e Constant head tests
e Packer tests
e Tracer tests
210 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Those larger scale tests that involve significant well discharges that are used to determine, quantity,
quality and performance include:
e Step drawdown tests
e Constant discharge tests
The tests are described in further detail in Domenico and Schwartz (1990) and in most texts on
hydrogeology. In the rising and falling head test a fixed volume of water, sufficient to cause a measurable
instantaneous rise in water level, is rapidly introduced to the well. The well water level is recorded as the
water level falls with the water seeping into the surrounding aquifer. In the rising head test, a fixed volume
is removed. When the head changes are plotted with time, the hydraulic conductivity can be determined
(Daly, 1992). The other small-scale tests are variations of this. In the large-scale well tests, the well yield
in quantity and quality and well performance may be determined. Water levels in the well and observation
wells as well as those on nearby streams are recorded prior to a pumping test. The test typically exceeds
24 hours and is typically 72 hours, during which either a constant pumping rate is maintained or a step
series of constant pumping rates, i.e. start, say, with 40 m*/h for 6 h followed by 35 m°/h for 6 h, etc.
Drawdown measurements are plotted at intervals as small as 30 s in the first 30 min to about every 2
hours in the second and third day. Geologic institutions in different countries have their specific
recommendations for time intervals and plotting regimes. From these results, information on the
significant parameters of quantity, quality, etc., can be determined.

Example 4.12 Determine the approximate transmissivity (m°/day) from the stepped pumping tests
below (Daly, 1992):

Q S
Step (m*/day) ~—(m)
1 115.6 02235
2 146.2 0355
4 200.7 0.5
6 242.2 0.705

Each step had a duration of 60 min 5S, is the total (or cumulative) drawdown.

Solution The specific capacity, SC, for each step is given as

SCi = 115.6/0.235 = 491.9 m>/d.m
SC) = 146.2/0.355 = 411.8 m?/d.m
SC; = 200-7/0.5 = 401.4 m?/dm
SCi = 2422/0705 =343.5ane dim
The specific capacity therefore decreases with increased pumping rate. Drawdown is composed of
‘aquifer loss’ plus ‘well loss’. Aquifer loss is constant for the different discharge rates while the well loss
increases with discharge:

S; = BO+ CO’ (4.65)

where B = aquifer loss coefficient
and C = well loss coefficient

The well loss coefficient C is determined from Jacob (1950) as follows:

AS;/AQ; — AS;-;/AQ;-1
- AQ; + AQ; oA
 CONCEPTS IN HYDROLOGY 211

For steps 1 and 2:

_ AS2/AQz — ASi/AQ) _ 0.12/30.6 — 0.235/115.6
G = 12.9 x 10-6m/(m3/d)
AQ, + AQ; a 146.2
Similarly, for steps 2 and 3:
_ AS3/AQ; — AS2/AQ, _ 0.145/54.5 — 0.12/30.6
C= a
AQ> + AQ; 30.6 + 54.5
= —14.8 x 10° m/(m3/d)’
For steps 3 and 4:
C — AS4/AQs — AS3/AQs _ 0.205/41.5 — 0.145/54.5
AQ; + AQ - 54.5 + 41.5
= 23.7 x 10~§ m/(m3/d)
Taking the average as 7.2 x 10° m/(m*d)*. Therefore the well loss associated with each pumping rate
can be determined from the relationship
Sear: (4.67)
where C =7 x 10-° m/(m?/d)’
For each of the pumping rates used the well losses are:
Sete Xs 105 115.67 = 0,094. m
Sup 7 x 10% 0 146.27 = 0.149 m
So 10g 200.7 — 0.282 m
Seo 0m 242-2 041m

The corresponding aquifer losses are:

Sai = 0.235 — 0.094 = 0.141 > S,,/Q, = 1.22 x 107-3
50.3550 149 = 0.206 Su) = 1.41 < 10-3
S050 0.282 = 0218-984 /0,= 1.09 x10
SW 0705 = 0 41 0294 51,70, = 121 10-3
Average = 1.22 x 1073
These can also be determined graphically by plotting S,/Q against Q. The y intercept is the aquifer loss
coefficient and the slope is the well loss coefficient.
A preliminary estimate of the transmissivity is as follows. At the highest pumping rate of 242.2 m?/d
a total drawdown of 0.705 m was registered, giving a specific capacity of 242.2/0.705 = 343.5 m?/d.m.
Of the total drawdown, the well loss was 0.411 m. Therefore the theoretical specific capacity for a 100 per
cent efficient well is 242.2/(0.705 — 0.411)= 823.8 m°/dm. Transmissivity as given by Daly (1994) is
~ ee
SH OS
1?
~ Peat
= 1000 m?/d (4.68)
This is approximate and obviously depends on the losses and the well diameter. For further details refer to
Domenico and Schwartz (1990), and Daly (1992).
212 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Well AQ Original piezometric

surface
Ground

at f=0

at t >70 Observation

At t= 0 the water
table is horizontal at
the location of the
original piezometric
surface as shown.

Confined
——_—_—_— aquifer

FADD
Ye OT LD STEED CIID ELE
Impermeable
strata

Figure 4.45 Steady flow in a confined aquifer.

4.13.6 Steady State Well Hydraulics

Figure 4.45 outlines radial flow to a well in a confined aquifer. It is of interest to determine the parameters
of hydraulic conductivity K and transmissivity T. It is seen that the drawdown curve varies with distance
from the well face. A pumping well is surrounded by two non-pumping observation wells. The flow is
considered as two-dimensional and the aquifer is assumed homogeneous and isotropic. From Darcy’s law,
dh
Sie
g dx
dh
= K x
x 2nrb
2a —as (4.69)

where r = radial distance to an arbitrary point on the drawdown curve

b = height (thickness of the confined aquifer)

i.e. volume mr7b is that volume of aquifer available to yield water. For the boundary condition at r=ry,
h=h,, (see Fig. 4.45). Integration after separation of variables gives
(DV
Q= MS EPR (4.70)

For the derivation of equations, refer to Bras (1990):

= = Q r2
poe AUN n=) Cy
where T is the transmissivity of the aquifer.
Where the observation wells, h, and h2 are adjacent to each other at a radial distance r,; and r from
the well centre-line (see Fig. 4.45) and r2 >ry.
Figure 4.46 outlines the radial flow to a well in an unconfined aquifer. Darcy’s equation is
dh
QO = 2nrTr Kh—
re
 CONCEPTS INHYDROLOGY 213

iA >| Observation
wells

At t=0 the
water table is
horizontal as
shown.

CTI Aiea I LO ff RIOT LF TR

Impermeable
Strata

Figure 4.46 Steady flow in an unconfined aquifer.

Integrating :
Bl
C= — TK

inra/ni)
- l

ae
Aly

K =—.——_ In| —
Q r
n(hi, — h*) ‘|
where h, = height of the water table at observation well
1 at a radial distance r; and hp is the water table
height for the observation well 2 at a radial
distance r2(r2 > r)).

Example 4.13 Determine K for an unconfined aquifer 10m thick if a well delivers 360 m°/d.
Observation well 1 is sited at 20 m from the pumping well and records a drawdown of 6 m. Observation
well 2 is sited at 600m and the drawdown is 3 m. The original water table was recorded at 12 m.

Solution

ee OP Ei
ean) n(2)
At observation well 1, the drawdown is 6m. If hg is the original piezometric height then

h, = 12 —-6=6m,and
hp = 12-3 =9m
r} = 20m, rz = 600m
360
= ——— [n(600/20
ai m(81 — 36) CED
= 8.65 m/day
214 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

4.14 GROUNDWATER CHEMISTRY, CONTAMINATION AND POLLUTION

PREVENTION

This section is adapted from Daly (1994b) with kind permission. The natural chemistry of groundwater
varies depending on the nature of the subsoils and rocks that it passes through. For instance, in Ireland,
limestone bedrock and limestone-dominated subsoils are common and consequently groundwater is often
‘hard’, containing high concentrations of calcium, magnesium and bicarbonate. However, in areas where
volcanic rocks or sandstones are present, softer water is normal. The variations are shown in Table 4.20
for five sites in Ireland, where analyses of groundwater from different rock types are given. In considering
the impact of human activities, it is necessary to first take the natural (or baseline) water quality into
account. Groundwater is usually considered to be pure and safe to drink as it undergoes a filtering and
cleansing process through a subsoil cover and rock medium that surface waters do not have. However, this
does not guarantee groundwater purity. Problems can arise either due to the natural conditions in the
ground or to pollution by human activities.

4.14.1 Natural Groundwater Quality Problems

The principal natural groundwater quality problems are caused by hardness, iron, manganese, hydrogen
sulphide, sulphate and sodium chloride. With the exception of hardness and sodium chloride, they pose
occasional problems in the minor and poor aquifers rather than in the major aquifers.

Hardness Groundwater passing through limestone dissolves the calcium and magnesium compounds
which cause hardness. Consequently, hard groundwaters are common in limestone areas, with total
hardness concentrations varying from 200 to 400 mg/l. This may be beneficial to health and give a
pleasant taste. However, very high levels can be a nuisance, resulting in scale formation in kettles, pipe
systems and boilers.

Table 4.20 Water chemistry of some Irish groundwater

Borehole location

Gorey Knocktopher Ballaghdereen Ballincurry Mortarstown

Parameter Wexford Kilkenny Roscommon Tipperary Carlow

Total dissolved solids 92 280 360 283 500

Total hardness (as CaCO3) 60 185 307 225 320
Total alkalinity (as CaCO3) 18 184 295 237 304
Calcium 80 54 102 60 118
Magnesium 9.7 12 12.9 13.4 6.3
Sodium 24 16 8.8 18.8 12
Potassium 33, 1:9 3 3 0.6
Chloride 35 20 26 17 22
Sulphate 45 nil nil 2 2
Nitrate (as N) 0.5 3.0 0.9 1.4 2.8
Free and saline ammonia (N) 0.1 0.01 0.05 0.04 0.04
Albumincid ammonia (N) — 0.01 0.08 — 0.01
Iron 0.1 nil nil nil nil
Manganese nil nil nil 0.01 nil
Aquifer Ordovician Devonian Carboniferous Westphalian Sand and
volcanics sandstones limestone sandstone gravel

Note: (1) The analyses were carried out by the Irish Geological Survey State Laboratory
(2) All units in mg/1
Adapted from Daly, 1994b
 CONCEPTS IN HYDROLOGY 215

Iron and manganese Excess concentrations of iron do not usually cause health problems but are of
concern for aesthetic and taste reasons. When drawn from a well or tap, the water may be colourless but,
when it comes into contact with air, the iron precipitates to form a reddish-brown deposit resembling rust.
This gives a metallic taste to the water and stains plumbing fixtures and clothes. Manganese causes a
black discoloration of the water.
The source of iron can be iron minerals in the rocks or soils, pollution by organic wastes or
occasionally the corrosion of iron fittings in the water system. Groundwater from certain rock types such
as dark muddy limestones, shales and sandstones and from peat areas may contain very high iron
concentrations. The breakdown of organic wastes from septic tank systems, farmyards and other sources
can cause the formation of carbon dioxide and oxygen deficient conditions and can bring the iron into
solution in the groundwater. Manganese is frequently associated with iron although it is less prevalent. It
is also a good indicator of pollution by wastes with high BOD, such as agricultural silage effluent.

Hydrogen sulphide Hydrogen sulphide is a gas that is recognizable by its ‘rotten egg’ smell. It is
present only in deoxygenated water, from rocks such as black clay like limestones or shales that contain
pyrite, or from evaporite beds. It is often associated with iron problems. See Chapters 12 and 13 for a
discussion of hydrogen sulphide with regard to wastewater and anaerobic digestion.

Sulphate Significant concentrations of sulphate may be present where lenses of evaporites in limestones
have produced levels of sulphate of up to 800 mg/l. The problems caused by these constituents can be
solved by using water treatment systems and, where applicable, by removing the pollution sources.

Sodium chloride Saline intrusion into aquifers can cause high NaCl levels in groundwater. Problems
occur in areas where the rocks are highly permeable and where there is a low hydraulic gradient. The
problem may be exacerbated by groundwater abstraction wells near the coast.

4.14.2 Some Industrial Contributions to Groundwater Pollution

Pesticides In considering pesticides, it is worth distinguishing between those that are used for
agricultural and non-agricultural purposes, and between point and diffuse pollution sources. Non-
agricultural uses are the control of weeds on road verges, playing fields, around housing and industrial
estates and on railway tracks. Point sources are pesticide spraying of small areas, disposing of spent sheep
dip in soakways, soakways for road runoff, spillages (often during loading, mixing and rinsing), leakages
and careless disposal of containers and washings.
There are more than 32 000 different pesticide compounds being used, containing some 1800 active
ingredients (Houzim ef al., 1986). They vary in their solubility, persistence, mobility and toxicity, and
consequently in the risk they pose to groundwater. However, there is increasing concern about pesticides
and so the EC MAC (maximum admissible concentration) for individual pesticides is lw—0.1 pg/l—and
for total pesticides 0.5 g/l. According to Hallberg (1989), pesticides are occurring in groundwater in the
United States far more commonly that would have been predicted in the early 1980s. Also, detailed
studies in the United States (Hallberg, 1989) have shown that pesticides can move through the topsoil and
subsoil along preferential flow paths much faster and to greater depths than would be predicted by using
the Darcian concept of flow. The potential problem with pesticides is further compounded by the fact that
the breakdown products—the metabolites or degradates—may also be toxic and mobile (Hallberg, 1989).
Aldicarb, a highly toxic product used on sugar beet, has a very short half-life, but it degrades into
compounds which are not only equally or more highly toxic, but are also more persistent and considerably
more mobile (OECD, 1986).
The triazine herbicides, atrazine and simazine (pre-emergent weed killers) account for 40 per cent of
consumption of non-agricultural herbicides in Britain. They are mobile in soil and rocks, and are detected
216 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

more frequently in surface water than any other pesticides (ENDS Report, 1993). They are used for weed
control along railway tracks and roadways. Research by the Water Research Centre in the Granta
Catchment in Cambridgeshire found that herbicides applied to cereals entered surface streams, although
concentrations varied with river flow (stage) and time of year. The main pesticide peak occurred within
hours of heavy rainfall. The main risk from agricultural usage of pesticides is to surface water and not
groundwater.
Studies and monitoring in Britain have highlighted the pollution risk from spent sheep dip. The main
pollutants in sheep dip are organophosphates (diazinon and propetamhos) although solvents may also be
present. While organophosphates have a high solubility in water, they are relatively immobile (Houzim et
al., 1986). Yet when disposed of in soakaways, they have been detected at distances up to 400 m from the
soakaway (ENDS Report, 1993).
In the United States and Canada, a total of 39 pesticide compounds have been detected in wells in 34
States or provinces (Hallberg, 1989). Compounds used as soil fumigants and namaticides, such as
aldicarb, EBD, 1,2-D, and DBCP, which by nature are mobile and/or volatile, have been widely detected.
These pesticides are used on vegetables and speciality crops. The other commonly detected compounds
are herbicides—alachlor, atrazine (and metabolites).

Industrial solvents Groundwater supplies face a growing threat from a wide range of synthetic organic
chemicals, as a result of their casual disposal, leakage or spillage (Lawrence, 1990). Of these, the
chlorinated solvents which are widely used in industry appear to be the most commonly occurring
contaminants. These solvents are used as degreasers for various processes in the metal, electronic,
chemical, paper, textile and leather industries. Also, they are usually present in landfill leachate. The four
chlorinated solvents most widely used in Bnitain today are perchlorethylene, trichlorethylene (TCE),
methylene chloride and methyl chloroform (Lawrence, 1990).
Solvents and other synthetic organic chemicals are both a complicated and a significant hazard for
groundwater:

e They are of environmental significance at very low concentrations—parts per billion (ppb or g/l)
quantities. A small spill of a few litres could potentially pollute many millions of litres of groundwater.
For instance, one kilogram of pentachlorophenol entering groundwater would pollute 2 x 10° m* (440
million gallons).
e They are difficult to sample due to volatilization and analyses are expensive.
e They are resistant to degradation and so are persistent.
e Breakdown products do not always result in a harmless or less harmful product (MacKay et al., 1985).
Biotransformation of TCE can result in the formation of hazardous products such as vinyl chloride,
which is a confirmed human carcinogen (Burmaster, 1982). Also, even if biotransformation products
are less hazardous, they may be more mobile and create bigger problems.

Refined mineral oils These include petrol, aviation fuel, diesel fuel and heating oils of various grades.
They range in viscosity, but have densities less than that of water and a heterogeneous composition
dominated by pure hydrocarbons (Ashley and Misstear, 1990). In groundwater they cause taste and odour
problems, so the EC MAC is 10 ug/l. Pollution arises from petrol stations, oil storage depots, airfields and
spillages during transport. Private and farm wells are occasionally polluted in Ireland by leakages from
domestic oil storage tanks and by spillages that occur on farms when tractors are being filled with diesel.
Petrol stations are the other main potential source of pollution, particularly from leaking underground
storage tanks (LUSTS) and spillages. However, several of the petrol distribution companies are now
checking their service stations.
Recently, a new threat from petrol has been realized. This is an additive used in unleaded petrol as an
octane booster, called methyl butyl tertiary ether (MTBE). It forms up to 5 per cent of regular blends and
as much as 15 per cent of super blends. It is ten times more soluble in water than other constituents in
 CONCEPTS IN HYDROLOGY 217

petrol, and it dissolves and spreads rapidly in groundwater. Contamination of groundwater by MTBE is
now being recorded in Britain, although it is not particulary toxic (ENDS Report, 1993). MTBE has one
advantage—it is a good indicator of petrol contamination because of its solubility and low taste threshold
(10 g/l) and so it is likely to enable easier and quicker identification of pollution of groundwater than the
more toxic ingredients such as benzene.

4.14.3 Some Indicators of Groundwater Contamination

Introduction There has been a tendency in analysing groundwater samples to test for a limited number
of constituents. A ‘full’ or ‘complete’ analysis, which includes all the major anions and cations, is not
generally recommended for routine monitoring and for assessing pollution incidents. This enables (i) a
check on the reliability of the analysis (by doing an ionic balance), (ii) a proper assessment of the water
chemistry and quality, and (iii) a possible indicator of the source of contamination. A listing of
recommendations and optional parameters are given in Table 4.21. It is also important that the water
samples taken for analysis have not been chlorinated. The following parameters are good contamination
indicators: E. coli, nitrate, ammonia, potassium, chloride, iron, manganese and trace organics.

Faecal bacteria and viruses E. coli is the parameter tested as an indicator of the presence of faecal
bacteria and perhaps viruses; constituents which pose a significant risk to human health. The most
common health problem arising from the presence of faecal bacteria in groundwater is diarrhoea, but
typhoid fever, infectious hepatitis and gastrointestinal infections can also occur. Although E. coli bacteria
are an excellent indicator of pollution, they can come from different sources, e.g. septic tank effluent,
farmyard waste, landfill sites, birds. The faecal coliform: faecal streptococci ratio has been used as a
tentative indicator to distinguish between animal and human waste sources (Henry et al., 1987). However,
care is needed in interpreting the results.
Viruses are a particular cause for concern as they survive longer in groundwater than indicator
bacteria (Gerba and Bitton, 1984). They published data on elimination of bacteria and viruses in
groundwater has been compiled by Pekdeger and Matthess (1983), who show that in different
investigations, 99.9 per cent elimination of E. coli occurred after 10 to 15 days. The mean of the evaluated
investigations was 25 days. They show that 99.9 per cent elimination of various viruses occurred after 16
to 120 days, with a mean of 35 days for Polio-, Hapatitis-, and Entero-viruses.
The natural environment, in particular the soils and subsoils, is effective in moving bacteria and
viruses by predation, filtration and absorption. There are two high risk situations: (7) where permeable
sands and gravels with a shallow water are present; and (i7) where fractured rock, particularly limestone, is
present close to the ground surface. The presence of clay like gravels, tills, and peat will, in many
instances, hinder the vertical migration of microbes, although preferential flow paths, such as cracks in the
clay like materials, can allow rapid movement and bypassing of the subsoil.

Nitrate Nitrate is one of the most common contaminants identified in groundwater and increasing
concentrations have been recorded in many developed countries. The consumption of nitrate rich water by
young children may give rise to a condition known as methaemoglobinaemia (blue baby syndrome). The
formation of carcinogenic nitrosamines is also a possible health hazard and epidemiological studies have
indicated a positive correlation between nitrate consumption in drinking water and the incidence of gastric
cancer. However, the correlation is not proven according to some experts (Wild and Cameron, 1980). The
EC MAC for drinking water is 50 mg/l.
The nitrate ion is not absorbed on clay or organic matter, (Kolenbrander, 1975). It is highly mobile
and under wet conditions is easily leached out of the rooting zone and through soil and permeable subsoil.
As the normal concentrations in uncontaminated groundwater is low (less than 5 mg/l), nitrate can be a
good indicator of contamination by fertilizers and waste organic matter.
218 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Table 4.21 Parameters used to assess groundwater contamination

Recommended Parameters

Appearance Calcium (Ca) Nitrate (NO3)*

Sediment Magnesium (Mg) Ammonia (NH3)*
pH (lab) Sodium (Na) Iron (Fe)*
Electrical conductivity (EC)* Potassium (K)* Manganese (Mn)*
Total hardness Chloride (Cl)*
General coliform Sulphate (SO4)*
Ba coh* Alkalinity

Optional Parameters (depending on local circumstances and reasons for sampling

Fluoride (F) Fatty acids* Zinc (Zn)

Orthophosphate Trace organics* Copper (Cu)
Nitrite (NO>)* TOG Lead (Pb)
BOD.* Boron (B)* Other metals
Dissolved oxygen* Cadmium (Cd)

* Good indicators of contamination

Adapted from Daly, 1994

In the past there has been a tendency to assume that the presence of high nitrates in well water
indicated an impact by inorganic fertilizers. This assumption has frequently been wrong, as examination
of other constituents in the water showed that organic wastes—usually farmyard waste, probably soiled
water—were the source. The nitrate concentrations in wells with a low abstraction rate—domestic and
farm wells—can readily be influenced by soiled water seeping underground in the vicinity of the farmyard
or from the spraying of soiled water on adjoining land. Even septic tank effluent can raise the nitrate
levels; if a septic tank system is in the zone of contribution of a well, a four-fold dilution of the nitrogen in
the effluent is needed to bring the concentraton of nitrate below the EC MAC.
The EC Directive (91 /676/EEC) on nitrates from agricultural sources allows for the designation of
‘vulnerable zones’, which are areas of land that drain into surface or groundwaters which are intended for
the abstraction of drinking water and which could contain more than 50 mg/l nitrate if protective action is
not taken. If areas are designated as vulnerable it will have repercussions for farmers in these areas as the
application of livestock manure/slurry and inorganic fertilizers will be restricted. This is discussed further
in Chapter 10.

Ammonia Ammonia has a low mobility in soil and subsoil and its presence in groundwater indicates a
nearby waste source and/or vulnerable conditions.

Potassium Potassium (K) is relatively immobile in soil and subsoil. Consequently, the spreading of
manure, slurry and inorganic fertilizers is unlikely to significantly increase the potassium concentrations
in groundwater. In most areas in Ireland, the background potassium levels in groundwater are less than
3.0 mg/l. Higher concentrations are found occasionally where the rock contains potassium, e.g. certain
granites and sandstones. The background potassium: sodium ratio in most Irish groundwaters is less than
0.4 and often 0.3. The K: Na ratio of soiled water and other wastes derived from plant organic matter is
considerably greater than 0.4. Consequently, a K:Na ratio greater than 0.4 can be used to indicate
contamination by plant organic matter—usually in farmyards, occasionally landfill sites (from the
breakdown of paper). However, a K: Na ratio lower than 0.4 does not indicate that farmyard wastes are
not the source of contamination, as K is less mobile than Na (phosphorus is increasingly a significant
pollutant and cause of eutrophication in surface water. It is not a problem in groundwater as it usually is
not mobile in soil and subsoil).
 CONCEPTS IN HYDROLOGY 219

Chloride The principal source of chloride in uncontaminated groundwater is rainfall and so in any
region, depending on the distance from the sea and evapotranspiration, chloride levels in groundwater will
be fairly constant. Chloride, like nitrate, is a mobile cation. Also, it is a constituent of organic wastes.
Consequently, levels appreciably above background levels have been taken to indicate contamination by
organic wastes. While this is probably broadly correct, chloride can also be derived from potassium
fertilizers.

Iron and manganese Although they are present under natural conditions in groundwater in some areas,
they can also be good indicators of contamination by organic wastes. Effluent from the wastes cause
deoxygenation in the ground which results in dissolution of iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) from the soil,
subsoil and bedrock into groundwater. With reoxygenation in the well or water supply system the Fe and
Mn precipitate. High Mn concentrations can be a good indicator of pollution by silage effluent. However,
it can also be caused by other high BOD wastes, such as milk, landfill leachate and perhaps soiled water
and septic tank effluent.
Groundwater sampled immediately after a borehole is drilled often contains suspended solids which
usually diminish after a few hours pumping. Analysis of samples taken with suspended solids can show
high Fe and/or Mn concentrations which are due to the suspended solids and not the natural groundwater
quality. Consequently, samples taken during pumping tests on new wells should be filtered in order to get
representative Fe and Mn concentrations.

4.14.4 Groundwater Vulnerability to Pollution—A Hydrogeological Element of Risk

Vulnerability is a term used to represent the intrinsic geological and hydrogeological characteristics that
determine the ease with which groundwater may be contaminated by human activities (Daly and Warren,
1994). In considering the location and/or control of a potentially polluting activity in an area, it is
essential to appreciate that the vulnerability is a natural inherent (or fixed) characteristic of any area
whereas the pollution loading can usually be controlled or modified.
In general, groundwater depends on the time of travel of groundwater (and contaminants), on the
relative quantity of contaminants that can reach the groundwater and on the contaminant attenuation
capacity of the geological materials. As all groundwater is hydraulically connected to the land surface, it is
the effectiveness of this connection that determines the relative vulnerability to contamination.
Groundwater that readily and quickly receives water (and contaminants) from the land surface is
considered to be more vulnerable than groundwater that receives water (and contaminants) more slowly
and in lower quantities. The travel time, attenuation capacity and quantity of contaminants are a function
of the following natural attributes of any area:
. the subsoils that overlie the groundwater;
. the recharge type—whether point or diffuse;
. in the case of sands/gravels, the thickness of the unsaturated zone;
. in the case of diffuse pollution sources, the topsoil;
. hydraulic conductivity.
nA
bBWN

In general, little attenuation of pollutants occurs in the bedrock because flow is almost wholly via
fissures. Consequently, the subsoil—sands, gravels, glacial tills (or boulder clays), lake and alluvial silts
and clays, peat—are the single most important natural features in influencing groundwater vulnerability
and groundwater pollution prevention. Groundwater is most at risk where the subsoils are absent or thin
and, in karstic areas, where surface streams sink underground at swallow holes. The influence of the
various geological and hydrogeological factors is summarized below and in Table 4.22.
220 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Table 4.22 Range of groundwater vulnerability

Low vulnerability High vulnerability

(good protection) (poor protection)

1. High clay or organic content . Low clay or organic content

2. Low permeability subsoil, e.g. clay . High permeability subsoil, e.g. gravel
3. Thick subsoil . Thin or absent subsoil
4. Thick unsaturated zone . Thin unsaturated zone
5. Intergranular flow . Fissure or karstic flow
6. Diffuse recharge fh . Point recharge
HRmn
WN

Adapted from Daly, 1994

Hydrogeological factors
Influence of subsoils The subsoils act as a protecting layer over groundwater by both physical and
chemical /biochemical means. Fine grained sediments such as clay like till, lacustrine clays and peats have
a low permeability and consequently can act as a barrier or hindrance to the vertical movement of
pollutants. In areas where these sediments are present, surface water is more at risk than groundwater as
most, if not all the contaminants cannot migrate downwards and can only move laterally. Even if the
permeability is sufficiently high to allow slow intergranular movement of pollutants, for instance in sandy
tills or silts, the sediments can strain out and absorb bacteria and viruses. In contrast, high permeability
deposits—sands and gravels—allow easy access of pollutants to the water table although they provide
opportunities for dispersion of the pollutants among the pore spaces.
Sorption, ion-exchange and precipitation are vital chemical processes in attenuating pollutants. The
cation-exchange capacity of subsoils depends on the clay and/or organic content and ranges from
essentially zero for sands to about 50 meq/100 g for clay soils to over 100 meq/100 g for peat.
Consequently, clays and peats can attenuate bacteria, viruses and chemical pollutants such as cadmium,
mercury, lead, potassium and ammonium whereas clean sand and gravel has little effect. In general, the
higher the clay content and the lower the permeability, the greater the protection of groundwater from
pollution.
Influence of permeability type Permeability, discussed earlier, is a measure of the capacity of a rock to
transmit water, can be subdivided into two types. First, where the water moves between the grains of
subsoils such as sand and gravel, it is called primary or intergranular permeability. Secondly, where the
water moves through fractures or fissures or joints and along bedding planes, it is called secondary or
fissure permeability.
Intergranular flow is slower than fissure flow in rocks under most conditions. Void or pore sizes are
usually smaller and flow paths are more irregular. Also, the amount of water stored in granular rocks is
generally greater than in fissured rocks. These factors have an important bearing on pullutant attenuation.
In contrast to rocks in which fissure flow dominates, the slow flow rate in rocks with an intergranular
permeability delays the entry of pollutants into groundwater and, particularly in the unsaturated zone,
allows time and opportunities for interactions between pollutants and rock grains. Also, the relatively
small pore sizes allow filtration and absorption of bacteria and viruses. The irregular flow paths within a
porous matrix causes hydrodynamic dispersion which decreases pollutant concentration. For pollutants
that reach the water table and enter groundwater, dilution is much greater in rocks with an intergranular
permeability and thus the resultant pollutant concentrations are much less. The worst situation is in karst
limestone area where flow rates are very high—over 100 m/h in some instances—due to widening of
fissures by solution and there is little scope for attenuation other than by somewhat limited dilution.
Consequently, there is generally far greater degradation and purification of pollutants in rocks with an
intergranular permeability than in those with a fissure permeability.
Importance of unsaturated zone In sands/gravels, a deep water table reduces the likelihood of
pollution because the pollutants have to travel farther and are slower to reach the groundwater. This allows
 CONCEPTS IN HYDROLOGY 221

for the beneficial physical, chemical and biological processes, that occur in the unsaturated zone, to
attenuate the pollutants (Daly and Wright, 1982).

Vulnerability and mapping

The geological and hydrogeological factors can be examined and mapped, thereby providing a
groundwater vulnerability assessment for any area or site. Four groundwater vulnerability categories are
used by the Geological Survey of Ireland (GSI)—extreme, high, moderate and low (see Table 4.22).
Vulnerability assessments should be an essential element when considering the location of potentially
polluting activities, such as landfill sites. The level of assessment required, and consequently the
geological and hydrogeological data needs, will depend on the degree of hazard provided by the pollutant
loading. In most instances a desk study and a simple, rapid site investigation using trial pits and existing
wells will be adequate. However, a comprehensive site investigation is required for landfill sites.

Case study—groundwater vulnerability in Ireland On an international scale, Irish aquifers are

relatively vulnerable to pollution:
1. Insh aquifers are mostly unconfined. (An aquifer is said to be confined when it is overlaid by
impermeable materials so that the aquifer is completely filled with water and the water is under
pressure.)
2. The subsoils overlying bedrock aquifers are often thin ( < 10 m), are sometimes absent, and are often
relatively permeable, consisting either of sands/gravels or sandy till. However, there are areas in
virtually every county in Ireland, substantial areas in some counties, where the subsoils are thick
(> 10m).
3. Irish aquifers are generally shallow—most bored wells are less than 100m deep.
4. Irish aquifers generally have a shallow water table, and, therefore only a thin unsaturated zone.
5. Irish aquifers exhibit only fissure flow; the sands/gravels are the only significant exception.
However, two factors help to mitigate the adverse consequences of such vulnerability:
1. Ireland has a high rainfall which provides substantial dilution for contaminants.
2. The generally high watertable and rapid through-put ensure that in many areas groundwater is
discharged fairly rapidly to surface streams. The groundwater circulation therefore tends to be
localized both in space and time. Thus pollution tends not to affect a wide area and is often of short
duration (weeks and months rather than years).

Conclusion to vulnerability mapping In conclusion, the vulnerability concept and vulnerability maps
are useful in the location of potentially polluting developments. Firstly, they indicate and are a measure of
the likelihood of pollution. Secondly, they enable developments to be located in relatively low
vulnerability and therefore in relatively low risk areas, from a groundwater point of view, and/or they
enable suitable engineering preventative measures to be taken. See Domenico and Schwartz (1990) for a
more detailed treatment of hydrogeology.

4.15 PROBLEMS

4.1 Prepare a flow chart for 100 units of precipitation falling on land and ultimately returning to the
hydrologic cycle via runoff to the sea or evaporation. What are the respective percentages of the
rainfall experienced at each process for a wet temperate climate (Ireland) by comparison with a
tropical climate (Brazil).
222 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

4.2 Determine the volume of water lost through evaporation during one year from a 10 km? lake, if the
annual rainfall is 1200 mm and the net increase in depth of the lake is 200 mm. State your
assumptions.
4.3 Write a brief report on a significant hydraulic project in your area (dam, river diversion, etc.) which
impacted on the natural waters. Describe the impacts, positive and negative.
4.4 Determine the infiltration rate based on the @% index method for the following rainstorm:

Rainfall Runoff
Time (mm/h) equivalent (mm/h)

0-5 min 3) 20
5-10 min 60 30
10-15 min 65 40
15-20 min 70 50
20-25 min 80 65
25-30 min 60 50
30-35 min 40 335)
35—40 min 20 15
40-45 min 15 10

4.5 For Problem 4.4, fit a Horton-type equation to the infiltration and determine the initial infiltration /,
the final infiltration f, and the rate constant k. From this equation verify the infiltration rates at 30
min and 45 min and determine the total infiltration.
4.6 In your college library, find the section that contains precipitation and streamflow records. For a
local watershed, record the monthly rainfall averages for a one year period. Determine the watershed
area. Also record the monthly average streamflows. Now compute and plot the trends of rainfall and
streamflow for each of the twelve months. Plot the rainfall and streamflow on similar units.
4.7 Explain why in Problem 4.6 the differences between rainfall and runoff are not constant throughout
the year (i.e. not the same percentage of rainfall goes to runoff for all rain events).
4.8 For Problem 4.6, also record the monthly average for evaporation for the same location as the
precipitation station. Now plot precipitation and evaporation. Discuss the trends. Also plot
evaporation plus energy runoff and compare with precipitation. Discuss why these two lines are not
similar.
4.9 In Raudkivi (1979) locate the section on evaporation with respect to evaporation from totally dry
surfaces and water-only surfaces. With figures, explain the differences in the radiation budget
parameters.
4.10 Compute the evaporation as an annual water loss from a lake of 100 km” if the mean wind speed at
2m is 4m/s. Assume values of et ~ 15mm Hg and E, © 10mm Hg respectively. What effect
would a higher wind speed have on evaporation?
4.11 Describe three field computation methods for the determination of evaporation.
4.12 With regard to Example 4.7, compute the series of evaporations for R, —G=70 w/m’, take
temperature = 20°C, but vary B from 0.1 to 5 in increments of 0.1. Graph your results.
4.13 As with Problem 4.12, repeat the exercise if R, — G=70 w/m* and B=0.1 if T is 10, to 40°C in
increments of 2°C. Graph your results.
4.14 Prepare intensity—duration—frequency (IDF) curves for 5 years and 2 years for the following data of
annual maximum intensity in mm/h:
 CONCEPTS IN HYDROLOGY 223

30 min 60 min 90 min 120 min

Year duration duration duration duration

1980 48.2 33.1 27.9 26.2

1981 26.8 17.6 1532) 14.8
1982 35.4 29.8 17.6 NB )-2)
1983 47.8 39.2 31.8 27.6
1984 44.3 34.8 Sel 25.8
1985 51.8 40.6 SB) 2 29.1
1986 46.3 41.4 36.4 30.3
1987 47.9 39.8 32.1 27.6
1988 44.8 34.2 29.8 24.8
1989 60.3 50.1 42.1 37.6
1990 18.2 16.8 Sel 12.8

(Refer to Shaw, 1994, or Bras, 1990, for methodology.)

4.15 Go to your library and compile the data for the period 1980-1995 compatible with rainfall records
for your own area to that of Problem 4.14. Then compute the 2 year and 5 year IDF curves.
4.16 Review the paper ‘Field studies of hillslope flow processes’ by Dunne (1978).
4.17 Compute the 30 year flood from the following data: catchment area, 15 km*, average annual rainfall,
1200 mm, stream slope, 2.9 m/km, stream length ~ 9.5 km, stream frequency, 1.76. Assume a lake
occupies 15 per cent of the catchment and the subsoil classification is 100 per cent class S2. Use the
British Flood Studies method of catchment characteristics to compute the flood magnitude.
4.18 You have been asked to size a culvert to carry a small stream beneath a new roadway. Outline the
method(s) you would use to do this, assuming there is no hydrologic data.
4.19 Go to your library and compile for your area the highest annual floods for at least a 10 year period.
A longer record is better. Use the method of Example 4.9 to compute the return period floods from 1
year to 100 years.
4.20 Repeat Problem 4.19, but now compile your data for the annual low flows. A suitable low flow may
be the lowest 7 day sustained low flow. Other definitions also apply.
4.21 Two rivers are separated by a 15 km wide unconfined aquifer. The left river water level is 28m
above datum and the right river is 14 m above datum. Compute the height of the water divide if
K=10~° m/s and there is no recharge.
4.22 Repeat problem 4.21 for the effect of recharge.
4.23 For Problem 4.21, compute the flow rate and direction in the aquifer.
4.24 Use Table 4.19 for the parameter hydraulic conductivity (or a more detailed table from more specific
texts) and compile a graph of K versus soil/rock type. Indicate the ranges for each soil/rock type. If
the environmental requirement for the base of a landfill is to have K < 10~°. State what are the most
suitable soil/rock strata.
4.25 Compute the approximate aquifer transmissivity from the following stepped pumping tests:

Q S,
Step | (m*/day) (m)

1 52.1 Only
2 68.2 0.32
4 83.8 0.46
6 99.4 0.69
224 ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

4.26 Determine in your area the water sources used for potable water. Write a brief report to the City
Engineer advising him of the current water demands, the current water sources (groundwater,
freshwater) and future demands. Suggest how future demands may be met.
4.27 For Example 4.12, plot the cumulative drawdown divided by appropriate flow rate against flow rate.
What are the aquifer loss coefficient and the well loss coefficient from this plot?
4.28 Consider a location you are familiar with that abstracts groundwater through wells for drinking
purposes. Identify on a map (e.g. scale 1:20 000):

(a) the wells;

(b) the geology;
(c) the land use activities (industrial and agricultural).

Prepare a map showing the areas that need protection, categorizing the areas at highest, modest and
lowest risk from the land use activities.

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MacKay, D. M., P. V. Roberts and J. A. Cherry (1985) ‘Transport of organic contaminants in groundwater’. Environ. Sci. Technol.
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Maidment, L. (1993) Hydrology Handbook, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Marani, A. and A. Rinaldo (1992) Transport Processes in the Hydrological Cycle, Instituto Veneto Di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti,
Venice.
Morris, P. (1992) ‘The hydrological effects of afforestation on upland catchments’, MEngSc thesis, University College, Cork,
Ireland.
Mulholland, P. J., G. V. Wilson and P. M. Jardin (1990) ‘Hydrogeochemical response of a forest watershed to storms. Effect of
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Pearce, A. J., L. K. Rowe and J. B. Stewart (1980) ‘Nightime wet canopy evaporation rates and the water balance of an evergreen
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Pekdeger, A. and G. Matthess (1983) ‘Factors of bacteria and virus transport in groundwater’. Environmental Geology, Vol. 5, No. 2,
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 CONCEPTS INHYDROLOGY 227

Wild, A. and K. C. Cameron (1980) Nitrate leaching through soil and environmental considerations with special reference to recent
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Portlaoise.
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FIVE
ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS, DISTURBANCES AND POLLUTION

5.1 INTRODUCTION

We introduced the concept of tolerance in Chapter 2. Each species has a particular range of optimum for
physicochemical factors such as temperature, pH, light, nutrients and biological factors such as food,
competitors and predators that vary in space and time within the environment. A species is most
successful in that area or place where the ranges of optima for the different factors overlap to the greatest
degree; this is, in effect, the species niche—the entire set of optimal conditions under which the species
survives and reproduces itself indefinitely. Each species within a community and habitat has a different
and unique niche, some more similar to each other than others. In crude terms we can think of the habitat
as a box into which the niches of all the species living in the community fit just like balls. This habitat
niche space itself fits into the entire niche space of the biome and in turn the biosphere.
This diversion into ecological theory is important to set the scene for the discussion on disturbance
and pollution of ecological systems. Disturbance can be defined as a discrete, punctuated killing,
displacement or damaging of one or more individuals or colonies that directly or indirectly creates an
opportunity for new individuals to become established (Sousa, 1984) and so causes a temporary or
permanent shift in the community. Pollution refers to any change in the natural quality of the environment
brought about by chemical, physical or even biological factors, and normally refers to the activities of
man.
Physical conditions can change naturally in the short term (e.g. through natural disasters like flood,
fire, storms, landslides, etc.) or in a directed way in the longer term (e.g. gradual climatic change), or the
habitat can be disturbed by man (building, drainage, forest clearance). Biological processes like predation
or grazing, non-predatory effects like digging and man-induced events like tree felling, hunting, mowing,
etc., can also cause disturbances. Chemical conditions can be altered through the elevation of con-
centrations of substances (like nutrients during eutrophication) or the addition of toxic substances (like
PCBs) through pollution. Under all of these circumstances, the prevailing environmental conditions in a
particular area have changed and may no longer encompass the ranges of optima—the niches—of a few,
many or even all the original constituent species of the community living in that area. Organisms will then

234
232 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

suffer physiological stress. In the longer term, if the adverse conditions persist, organisms may be forced
to move, if that is feasible, or may simply die out. The end result is the same; conditions have now become
unsuitable for the species in the original community, which changes, usually to a less diverse, simpler
community. If the species has a very specialist set of requirements that are only found in a few places,
adverse changes to the environment can lead to their extinction—they simply have nowhere else to go.
If conditions recover and the environment at that location reverts to its original configuration, the
original species may return provided that a source pool or refuge exists in an undisturbed/ unpolluted area
from which species can recolonize. If the species is driven to extinction, this is of course impossible! Thus
communities as a whole have the potential to recover from disturbances, but both the ability to recover and
the rate of recovery are dependent on the regime of the disturbance (Sousa, 1984), which in turn depends
on a number of factors: (a) the nature of the disturbance; (b) the size of the disturbed area; (c) the
magnitude and duration of the event—the intensity or strength of the disturbing force; (d) the timing and
frequency of the disturbance; (e) the predictability of the disturbance and (f) the turnover rate—the mean
time required to disturb the entire area.
Communities and ecosystems show differential abilities to resist disturbances and hence show
different degrees of stability in their composition and structure. Three community properties are important
in this regard:
1. Stability, the ability of the community to recover and return to its original configuration after a
disturbance. Some communities may be locally stable to small-scale disturbances but if perturbed
beyond a certain critical point they are forced into a new configuration, with species ending up with
different relative abundances or the community with a different composition, and effectively a new
community will replace the original one. Such communities are globally unstable. If the community
reverts back to its original configuration after both small- and large-scale disturbances it is said to be
both locally and globally stable.
2. Resilience. This is the measure of the speed with which the community returns to its former state
following a disturbance. A measure of resilience must be specific to the type of disturbance imposed,
as communities will be more resilient to some disturbances than to others. Greater resilience will be
conferred on a community where species can readily recolonize the area from an undisturbed area.
3. Resistance describes how much disturbance a community can absorb before it flips into a new
configuration—its resistance to change. Again, communities will tend to vary in their resistance
depending on the type of disturbance imposed and on the type of community itself.
The overall stability of any community depends on the environment in which it exists as well as the
species composition of the community. Some communities are only stable within a narrow range of
environmental conditions while others may be stable over a wide range of conditions. The former, so-
called dynamically fragile (Begon et al., 1990), communities are much more likely to be damaged by
natural or man-made disturbances than the latter, dynamically robust, communities. Some communities
are subject to naturally low levels of disturbance in a stable and predictable environment and have the
tendency to reach and remain in a fairly stable state, but, in turn, normally show relatively low resistance
and resilience to severe perturbations. On the other hand, communities living in a disturbed environment
usually show high levels of resilience and are able to recover from individual disturbance events quite
rapidly.
While disturbances by their very nature can lead to changes in an ecosystem, disturbances are not
always a ‘bad thing’. Some ecosystems that are disturbed actually have a higher biodiversity than if they
had not been disturbed. In these cases, the disturbance removes or reduces the dominant species or
superior competitor which in turn allows subordinate, weaker competitors the Opportunity to increase in
abundance or colonize a habitat they were prevented from living in previously. In other systems,
disturbances may be so frequent and/or large that the environment becomes extremely harsh, where only
a few tolerant species are capable of surviving; such systems will obviously have a low biodiversity. The
most important factors in this context are the magnitude, extent and frequency of disturbances relative to
 ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS, DISTURBANCES AND POLLUTION 233

the life span of the major species in the community (Giller and Gee, 1987). This will apply equally to both
natural and man-made disturbances.
Before we are in a position to discuss the impact of pollution on ecological systems, it is necessary to
explore the major factors governing freshwater, terrestrial and marine ecosystems and to briefly examine
the effects of natural disturbances and engineering activities on these systems.

5.2 THE FRESHWATER ENVIRONMENT

We can conveniently divide freshwater systems into lotic—running waters—and lentic—still waters. The
characteristic features, certainly of running waters, are determined by the physical setting, in which land—
water linkages are important. Therefore it is important to consider freshwater systems in the context of an
integrated system of the river catchment including both the aquatic habitat and the terrestrial drainage
basin. What happens in the catchment has direct and indirect effects on the freshwater ecosystems.

5.2.1 Oxygen
Oxygen is essential for animal and plant life as the major requirement for respiration, as described in
Chapter 2. Oxygen is 30 times less abundant in water (~ 10 mg/L) than in air, and can therefore become
a limiting factor. Oxygen concentration increases as water temperature decreases and as turbulence and
mixing in the water body increase. Thus a fast, shallow, turbulent stream has higher dissolved oxygen
levels than a slow-moving, deep river. Many species have narrow tolerance ranges to oxygen and can only
survive where levels are very high (> 10 mg/L), such as in cool, upland streams with a fairly fast current.
For example, among the fish, salmon and trout need high oxygen levels and are confined to relatively
shallow, fast streams or cold, upland lakes. In contrast, coarse fish like roach and rudd have wider
tolerance ranges and can survive under considerably lower levels of oxygen (> 6 mg L), such as in
deeper, slower rivers and warmer, lowland lakes. The difference in tolerance to oxygen levels among
invertebrate animals has been used in the development of biotic indices for identifying and monitoring
organic water pollution and water quality (see Chapter 6). Water depth also influences oxygen levels and
oxygen concentration—depth profiles are common in lakes (see Fig. 5.6). Water regulation activities, such
as construction of dams, can directly affect oxygen levels in rivers.
Any kind of disturbance that reduces oxygen levels will have a dramatic effect on the functioning of
freshwater communities and ecosystems. Freshwater systems are dominated by macroinvertebrates,
including insect larvae and other invertebrates like freshwater shrimps and worms that play a major role in
the ecosystem processes. Particularly relevant in the present context is their ability to break down organic
matter that enters freshwaters. Some freshwater streams rely on allochthanous energy inputs in the form of
detritus, which is gradually broken down through decomposer food chains (see Chapter 2). This process
relies on oxygen. Organic matter from low levels of sewage discharge or agricultural runoff can naturally
be dealt with in the same way. Excessive levels of organic matter, however, can result in drastic reductions
in oxygen levels in the water body, with consequent dramatic disturbance of the natural communities (see
Chapter 6).

5.2.2 Current
Current speed or velocity is a dominant physical factor in the functioning of running water ecosystems,
affecting the type of substrate, eroding nature of the stream channel, oxygen levels and sediment loads
and, in turn, therefore, the ecology. It is also a factor often influenced by engineering activities. The shear
stress of the current on the substrate is proportional to velocity” (t ov”), and influences the stability of the
substrate and the ability of animals living on and in the substrate (benthic macroinvertebrates dominated
234 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

by insect larvae) to retain their position on the stream bed. Fish and plants are also influenced by the
current. Different types of organisms have differential tolerance to flow conditions and show strong
preferences for a fairly narrow range of current speeds. High current speeds outside tolerance limits can
dislodge organisms and carry them downstream. In addition, high flows can cause direct mortality
through physical damage, while deposition and sedimentation of substrate can cause smothering of
organisms during a flood.

Flooding disturbance Flooding of rivers and streams is a frequent feature of many landscapes and
much attention is directed towards control and alleviation by engineers due to the impact on agriculture,
industry and urban areas. The destructive force of floods can be immense and amounts to considerable
economic loss. For example, floods in the United States resulting from Hurricane Agnes led to damage
estimated at $3000 million (Ward, 1978). Floods also act as natural disturbance agents on the aquatic
environment which may, in turn, result in economic loss through destruction of natural fisheries, related
losses through tourism, reduction in the assimilation capacity of the system for organic and other
contamination (largely through losses in invertebrate animals) and possibly indirect effects on water
resources and quality. The disturbance effects of flooding on the biology of aquatic systems is due mainly
to the rapid increase in shear stress on the substrate as a result of increased depth and velocity of water in
the stream channel.
During floods, the stream bed of riffle areas (shallow, fast flowing, usually steep sloped sections of
rivers) may be stirred up and detritus can be swept away. When stream depth reaches about 75 per cent
bankfull in the channel (Hynes, 1970) or about twice mean annual flow (Sagar, 1986), medium-sized
gravel (< 10 mm) begins to move. Severe flooding can cause the stream bed to be scoured by sand and
gravel particles entrained in the high-velocity flow, removing plant communities growing on stones
(periphyton, another invertebrate food source). It can also lead to large-scale displacement (10 to 20 m or
more) and overturning of boulders and stones and removal of sediments to depths of between 20 cm and
2 m. In contrast, in stream sections with gentle slope (e.g. pools and glides), large amounts of sediments
may be deposited. In many streams, discharge fills the channel about once every 1.5 years (Hynes, 1970).
Climatic irregularities, storms and locally heavy rain can cause discharges much greater than bankfull, but
these catastrophic events are rare (e.g. the 100 year flood). The timing of such natural disturbance events
is put into context of other physical and biological temporal patterns in rivers and streams in Fig. 5.1.

Benthic Changes in Midscale

sample Catchment a luvial
<> ieavél wee adjustments
a <n
Local Global colonization
colonization of disturbed Age of
of patches communities rivers
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Behavioural Life cycle of

changes invertebrates
SSS !
Episodic Recurrence
storm bankfull 100 yr
discharge discharge flood

ey ilgee T ] ie Pas ales

1-10s I-3min 6-24h 445d l yr 4yr 100 yr 1000 yr 1-100
million yr
Figure 5.1 Temporal scale of some biological and physical processes in stream and river ecosystems. Length of arrows indicates the
range of magnitude.
 ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS, DISTURBANCES AND POLLUTION 235

The impact on freshwater communities depends on the magnitude, timing, duration and aerial extent
of the flood disturbance. Resilience to small floods is usually high with rapid recovery of invertebrate
densities within several weeks to a few months. Similar recovery has been demonstrated under fluctuating
water levels in a regulated stream subject to hydroelectric power (HEP) generation (Gilason, 1985) and
flushing out of reservoirs (Bournard ef a/., 1987). Because variation in stream discharge and flood/spate
events are a natural part of the lotic environment, benthic invertebrates show adaptations to avoid
relatively small increases in current speeds by retreating deeper into the substrate (the depth controlled by
particle size, subsurface flow and oxygen tension gradients), and both invertebrates and fish can move into
more benign locations such as pools and dead zones where current speeds are negligible. The success of
this strategy is, however, dependent on the morphology of the stream channel. This kind of behaviour and
rapid recolonization from upstream contribute to rapid recovery times of benthic communities in the face
of small-scale disturbances.
Catastrophic disturbances caused by discharge levels equivalent to the 50 to 100 year flood have
much longer-term consequences. Samples taken from the Yoshino River in Japan six years prior to the
1959 Ise-wan Typhoon showed an invertebrate biomass (wet weight) of 32 g/0.25 cm?. Four years after
the disturbance, the value was only 0.5 g (Tsuda and Komatsu, 1964). Studies in Ireland have shown
similar dramatic and long-lasting effects (Giller, 1990; Giller et a/., 1991). Multievent floods in August
1986 (associated with Hurricane Charlie) caused greater than 1.5 times bankfull discharge in a tributary of
the River Araglin (a | in 50 year event), which led to a 95 per cent reduction in invertebrate density and a
30 per cent reduction in the number of different taxa (Fig. 5.2). Further flooding disturbances in June and
October 1988 retarded recovery somewhat, although it had proportionately less significant impact on the
already depleted fauna. Complete recovery to the pre-flood levels had still not occurred by 1989.
Fish can be affected by floods, through destruction of spawning areas, eggs or fry and loss of habitat
or food resources. These effects can lead to the destruction of an entire year class, delay in growth and
lower production. In some cases, recovery of fish communities can also be rapid, e.g. about 8 months
following a 16 year record flood, (Matthews, 1986), although in other cases several years were required.
Floods during the reproductive season may have more serious consequences for fish communities than
even very major ones at other times.

Taxa richness lim

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Figure 5.2 Changes in the mean density of macroinvertebrates (+t | s.d.) and number of taxa before and after catastrophic flooding
events at a site on a tributary of the river Araglin. Arrows show major (closed) and minor (open) disturbances (after Giller er al.,
1991).
236 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

Obviously, catastrophic floods causing severe scouring and removal of substrate will dramatically
affect river and stream communities. The impact of less severe floods will, however, vary, as different
types of streams are predicted to show different levels of resilience to flooding disturbance. Where floods
are seasonal and regular (i.e. predictable), as in high-gradient, spatey streams influenced by winter and
spring floods, the impact is less and recovery is relatively rapid. Unpredictable, aseasonal, irregular
disturbances (e.g. summer floods in temperate streams), especially to systems infrequently disturbed, have
severe impacts. Size of the disturbed area will also affect the rate and dynamics of recovery of the
ecosystem (Minshall, 1988). Similarly, multievent disturbances and ‘additional stochastic flooding events
during the recovery period are also known to delay recovery of stream systems.

Engineering implications to the effects of floods on natural ecosystems The way water interacts with
the surrounding catchment area has important repercussions on the influence of heavy rainstorms on the
running water system. Certain streams and rivers are naturally ‘spatey’; the catchment areas surrounding
them are such that there is rapid and considerable runoff and drainage of water into the system. Human
influence on the landscape can increase this input from the catchment and hence increase the natural
occurrence of catastrophic flooding events. Drainage of farmland causes water to run off the land more
quickly, leading to sharp hydrograph peaks in streams during storm events. In temperate climates, pre-
afforestation drainage (involved in preparation of the ground for planting) also changes the storm
hydrograph, with higher hydrograph peaks and a reduction of as much as 50 per cent to the time of peak
flow (Institute of Hydrology, 1984-87). The storage capacity of the soil is effectively reduced. This is
similar to the comparison in Fig. 4.38. As the canopy closes with the growth of trees and with the infilling
of drainage ditches, evapotranspiration by plants and reduced runoff (O’ Halloran and Giller, 1993) can
reduce the amount of water reaching streams by as much as 30 per cent under mild to moderate-sized
storm events, but severe storm conditions produce similar hydrographs in afforested compared to open
moorland streams. Clearfelling 40 to 50 years later again leads to increased runoff and ‘spateyness’. Also,
aperiodic releases of water from dams can cause similar ‘unnatural’ floods. Finally, dredging of rivers will
not only reduce the preferred habitat for fish but can also greatly increase the flow rates and hence impact
of spates on the system.
Much engineering work on streams and rivers is based on prevention of flooding of surrounding
land, e.g. channel modification to enlarge the carrying capacity, reduce water levels and reduce the
frequency of overbank flows; river discharge modification through dams, storing peak discharge and
regulating flow levels downstream; systematic removal of snag boulders and debris dams to aid
transportation; channelization to improve flow and flood control, etc. In the United States today, for
example, few rivers remain totally unaffected (Dahn et a/., 1987). All these activities fundamentally alter
the river systems and have been well reviewed by Hellawell (1986). Flood control procedures combined
with human modification and degradation of catchment areas can lead to extreme flooding and
sedimentation of abnormally long duration (Sousa, 1984). The spectacular flooding episodes seen in the
Mississippi and Missouri catchments in the United States in summer 1993 and spring 1995 is evidence of
this. Water regulation schemes (reservoirs, HEP), for example, usually have some legal stipulation as to
minimum flow, but the contrasts between low and high flows may be very great and rapid (Moss, 1988),
leading to catastrophic impacts on the biota of the system. The communities present prior to regulation are
adapted to the natural regime, and changes in the natural pattern must influence these communities,
usually leading to impoverishment and damage to fisheries and other aquatic life. Recovery may occur,
e.g. a five- to sevenfold decrease in fauna following dredging recovered after one year (Crisp and Gledhill,
1970), but, alternatively, the environment may be so altered as to prevent the return to its original natural
state.

Current, substrate and longitudinal changes Current also controls the nature of the substrate. Fast
currents lead to coarse gravels and cobbles, while slow currents lead to fine sediments, sands and mud.
Different species and communities are associated with different substrates. The physical stability of the
 ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS, DISTURBANCES AND POLLUTION 237

substrate and the propensity to be moved or scoured by spates and floods will also have an effect on the
benthic communities (Winterbourn and Townsend, 1991). The less stable the substrate, the greater the
disturbance effect of a spate or flood of a given magnitude. Pfankuch (1975) developed a rating system for
relative channel stability which involved a number of important criteria. For stream/river banks this
included the degree of vegetation cover, evidence of undercutting and the amount of newly deposited sand
and gravel. Riparian vegetation zones act as nutrient filters, sediment traps, climatic regulators and
wildlife refuges (Winterbourn and Townsend, 1991). Clearing of the natural riparian vegetation on river
banks, either through grazing activity of domestic animals or as part of river reguiation schemes, can have
significant effects on sedimentation and bank erosion. For bed stability, Pfankuch’s criteria included rock
angularity, size and degree of packing of substrate, amount of scouring and deposition and the distribution
of mosses and algae covering the substrate. Engineering activity such as dredging, bankside clearance and
stream straightening and widening tend to have a negative effect on these kinds of parameters and lead to
reduced substrate and bank stability. Often such work is carried out in such a crude way that recovery of
the ecosystem is prevented (Maitland, 1990).
As one moves through a river system from headwaters to the lowland river, current speed tends to
drop as the slope of catchment declines, water depth gradually increases as the river enlarges through the
addition of tributaries, water temperature increases as one moves from cool uplands to warmer lowlands
and there is therefore an overall trend for oxygen levels to decrease in the downstream direction. These
changes along physical gradients lead to longitudinal changes in communities, as different species are
adapted to survive only within a restricted range of conditions of current, temperature and oxygen.

5.2.3 Water Chemistry

Most of the dissolved and particulate organic and inorganic matter in freshwaters is carried in from the
surrounding catchment via surface runoff, subsurface flow and from groundwaters, although there is some
direct atmospheric input as well. As such, the chemical nature of the freshwater system strongly reflects
the type of land being drained and the land use (Table 5.1). In limestone regions, streams and lakes have
high alkalinity and pH, while in granite regions, and catchments draining bogs etc., the freshwaters are
low in dissolved salts and are often acidic. In agricultural areas, nitrogen and phosphates from fertilizers
enter the water system (see also Chapter 10).

Table 5.1 The effect of land use and catchment type on streamwater
chemistry compared with rainfall in the same area. Note that the
differences in streamwater quality are far greater than those for rainfall

New Hampshire,
USA Igneous Norfolk, UK Chalk
(insoluble) rocks, and glacial drift, Rift Valley, Kenya, Thorn
Chemical undisturbed forest lowland agriculture bush and rangeland
parameters a aa ee i aa SS
(mg/L) Rainfall Stream Rainfall Stream Rainfall Malewa River

Na* 0.12 0.87 1.2 aoe 0.54 9.0

Ree 0.07 0.23 0.74 Sill 0.31 4.3
Mg?* 0.04 0.38 0.21 6.9 0.23 3.0
Cie 0.16 1.65 BU 100.0 0.19 8.0
Gls 0.47 0.55 & il) 47.0 0.41 43
HCO; — 0.006 0.92 0 288.0 12 70.0
SOvom 0.72 6.2
pH 4.14 4.92 3.5 Wed

From Burgis and Morris, 1990

238 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

Littoral

Pelagic

Euphotic

Profundal

i)

1 ' nl N
i

Figure 5.3 Lake zonation showing the major subdivisions of the lake ecosystem.

Changing land use can thus have dramatic effects on water chemistry. This was elegantly
demonstrated by the famous Hubbard Brook (US) experiments where clearfelling of forests in an entire
subcatchment led to dramatic changes in a whole range of chemical and hydrological parameters (Likens
et al., 1970). Different species of plants and animals are adapted to different chemical conditions, so one
finds very different communities in acidic (soft) and alkaline (hard) waters for example. In general, acidic
waters tend to be species poor and are not favoured by salmonid fish; alkaline waters in contrast are much
richer in macroinvertebrates. Changing land use can therefore have knock-on effects to the freshwater
ecosystems through changes in water chemistry.

5.2.4 Light and Lake Zonation

Light is an important factor in still water and slow, large rivers. Light penetration in water is poor and
therefore light can be a major limiting factor to photosynthesis by aquatic plant life. Aquatic plants are
restricted to fairly shallow depths, and are much dependent on the clarity of water. Because of this, there is
a clear zonation of plants in lakes (Fig. 5.3).
The Jittoral zone, around the edges of lakes and ponds, extends down to the depth of the innermost
population of rooted plants. Macrophytes dominate, either submerged (pond weeds), floating leafed
(water lilies) or emergent (reeds). The open water euphotic zone extends down to the depth where average
light intensity allows plant production to equal respiration—the light compensation point. These plants
are phytoplankton, single cells or small colonies of algae, passively drifting or capable of only limited
mobility. As such, they are easily entrained in horizontal and vertical water movements. Below the light
compensation point, there is insufficient light for photosynthesis and plant survival. This point varies with
season, cloud cover and water clarity. Mixing depth plays an important role in primary production of
phytoplankton. Phytoplankton tends to sink, but turbulent mixing of surface waters can provide an
external force to keep the plants in the lighted zones. If wind-driven mixing is too vigorous and at too
great a depth, the plankton can receive insufficient light on average, as they spend too long below the light
compensation point. This critical depth of mixing is usually 5 to 10 times the light compensation point, a
mixing depth frequently occurring in winter. Plant growth thus ceases. Increasing mixing depth artificially
offers a useful but costly management strategy for controlling algal production in drinking water
reservoirs. For a fuller discussion of factors affecting phytoplankton production, see reviews by Reynolds
(1987, 1994).
The profundal or deeper zone lacks plants but receives a heterotrophic energy source in the form of a
rain of detritus from above (dead organisms, faeces, etc.). Decomposition of detritus by bacteria and fungi
uses up oxygen; thus a complex interrelationship occurs between the amount of nutrients in the water, the
 ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS, DISTURBANCES AND POLLUTION 239

level of plant production, the rate and amount of decomposition and oxygen levels. High levels of
nutrients lead to high levels of plant production and a large rain of detritus to the profundal zone when the
plants die. This, in turn, leads to high levels of decomposition, which consequently leads to low oxygen
levels. Different communities exist in lakes and rivers with different primary production levels (see
below), and the addition of large quantities of organic matter (from sewage outfalls or agricultural runoff)
can severely disrupt those communities naturally adapted to low productivity systems with relatively high
oxygen levels.

5.2.5 Lake Classification

Lakes and large rivers can be classified on the basis of the level of primary productivity. Low productivity
systems are known as oligotrophic, characterized by high levels of oxygen and low nutrient con-
centrations. High productivity systems are eutrophic, usually with low oxygen levels and high nutrient
concentrations. These are very different types of ecosystem with markedly different communities and
general characteristics (Table 5.2). Oligotrophic lakes contain organisms with little tolerance for low
oxygen whereas eutrophic lakes contain organisms more tolerant of low oxygen levels.
Because of the importance of phosphorus concentrations on primary productivity in lakes, the
Organisation for Economic and Cultural Development (OECD) has a classification scheme based on
concentrations of phosphorus and chlorophyll-a ( a surrogate for phytoplankton densities), which are in
turn related to concentration of phosphorus inflowing to the lake and water residence time of the lake
(Moss, 1988) (Fig. 5.4).
Lakes are generally not permanent features of the landscape. They gradually become filled with
sediment brought in from rivers and washed off the land and then eventually disappear completely,
leaving highly organic soils. This is the natural process of eutrophication, with the lake gradually
changing from oligotrophic to eutrophic as nutrient levels increase over time, usually several hundreds to
thousands of years. This process can be dramatically speeded up through human activity, where excess
nutrients added from fertilizers or sewage input leads to pollution. Similarly, damming a river leads to
concentration of organic matter upstream of the dam and can lead to enriched, lake-like, conditions with
increased plant production.

5.2.6 Water Density and Thermal Stratification

Another important property of water is that density is greatest at approximately 4°C—water above or
below this temperature floats on water at 4°C. Also, warmer water floats on cooler water. This density
differential per degree increases progressively with higher temperatures. During the year, as the water
body warms and cools seasonally, there is a changing temperature profile with depth. This has direct and
indirect effects on a number of ecosystem processes. As an example, consider a lake experiencing a
maritime climate (Fig. 5.5). During winter, temperatures are relatively uniform throughout the lake and
wind can mix lake water from top to bottom. Progressing into spring and early summer, the surface waters
heat up, decrease in density and float on cooler water below. These density differences resist mixing of
waters within the water body by wind. As temperature increases, this discontinuity becomes more marked
until the water body is fully stratified into three parts. A warm epilimnion at the top, a cold hypolimnium at
the bottom and a narrow region in between, called the thermocline, where temperature changes rapidly
with depth. This effectively creates a barrier preventing the two water bodies from being mixed by the
surface wind. This stratification may last through the summer and into autumn, when the surface waters
start to cool again. When the water body as a whole reaches a similar temperature again, wind can mix the
Whole lake from top to bottom, causing the overturn.
This kind of lake is known as monomictic (one overturn per year) and examples of temperature
depth-time profiles for a number of Irish lakes of varying depth are shown in Fig. 5.6. Dimictic lakes
240 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

Table 5.2 General characteristics of eutrophic and oligotrophic lakes

Character Eutrophic Oligotrophic
ee Ge ee ee
Basin shape Broad and shallow Narrow and deep
Lake substrate Fine organic salt Stones and inorganic silt
Lake shoreline Weedy Stony
Light penetration to 1% surface —20 20-120
value (m)
Water colour Yellow or green ‘ Green or blue
Net primary production (g/m? yr) 150-500 ; 15-50
Chlorophyll-a concentration (ug/L) —15+ 0.3=2.5
Alkalinity range (year) (meq/L) ter Up to 0.59
Total P (ppb) 10-30 < 1-5
Total N (ppb) 300-650 < 1-200
Oxygen High at surface, low under ice or thermocline High
Macrophytes Many species abundant in shallows Few species, some in deep water
Phytoplankton Few species, high numbers Many species, low numbers
Zooplankton Few species, high numbers Many species, low numbers
Macroinvertebrates Many species, high numbers Moderate species, low numbers
Fish Many species Few species

Adapted from Maitland, 1990, and other sources

Characteristic lake types 10000

Sewage oxidation ponds

heavily fertilized fish ponds,
some endorheic lakes
(without outlet streams) Concentration of
P in lake (jig/L) 23:8
Lakes in developed areas receiving 1000 | Hypereutrophic ay
substantial quantities of sewage or
domestic animal effluent

—
100-071
Lakes with cultivated or deforested
catchments and often some loadings
from sewage

|
Mesotrophic

Relatively undisturbed lakes in fertile

|
lowland catchments Ohgotrophic wees t
Undisturbed lakes in rocky, remote or phosphorus
of
concentration
Inflow
/L)
(ug me
upland catchments ae Mean concentration of
Bera chlorophyll-a (ug/L)
Ue liam ee

1 tiititt Pot LI
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Water residence time T,, (years) (log scale)
Figure 5.4 Lake classification based on relationships between inflow concentration of phosphorus and water residence time (iE)
The consequent most likely concentrations of phosphorus and chlorophyll-a in the lake are shown. Larger residence time leads to
greater deposition of phosphorus in the sediment, so lower in-lake phosphorus and chlorophyll-a concentrations will be obtained for
a given inflow concentration. Characteristic lake types in relation to inflow concentration of phosphorus are also shown (after Moss
1988; Burgis and Morris, 1990; and Vollenweider and Kerekes, 1981).
 ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS, DISTURBANCES AND POLLUTION 241

8 Temperature (°C) 8 12 16 20
VESTSVC SIA)
Winter Summer
and :
spring ' 20
: Depth
Autumn _— 40 Stratification

60
'

(a) Winter, spring and autumn (b) Summer profile

vertical temperature profile

32a Wind action

U
Hypolimnion

(c) Definition of areas by depth (d) Overturn and mixing through

full depth

Figure 5.5 Diagrammatic representation of seasonal thermal stratification in a temperate, maritime lake, (a) showing no stratification
and more or less constant temperatures throughout the lake. During this time, wind action can cause the lake to mix from top to
bottom as in (d). Stratification occurs during the summer, with a marked discontinuity in the temperature—depth profile (b) dividing
the lake into three strata (c).

(continental lakes in areas suffering cold winters) undergo a period of inverse stratification during the
winter, when colder surface waters lay on top of a warmer hypolimnion. A spring overturn occurs as
surface water temperatures rise. Shallow lakes like Lough Neagh in Northern Ireland (average depth only
12 m) will rarely demonstrate a stable thermal stratification except in the hottest of summers, while very
deep lakes, like the African Rift Valley lakes are permanently stratified (Moss, 1988).
Thermal stratification has major effects on both oxygen concentration (see Fig. 5.5b) and nutrient
supplies. When the lake is stratified) no mixing occurs between the top and bottom layers. The
hypolimnion receives no oxygen that has diffused into the surface waters and becomes increasingly
anoxic. The epilimnion, where the plants are, receives no dissolved nutrients from the bottom, where
decomposition occurs, so primary productivity becomes nutrient limited and declines over the summer.
When the overturn occurs, the hypolimnion is replenished with oxygen and the epilimnion with dissolved
nutrients. An end result of such seasonal cycles are seasonal blooms of phytoplankton, due to the
replenishment of nutrients in autumn and increasing temperatures and light levels in spring. Excessive
deoxygenation of the hypolimnium in summer, which can arise as a result of strong eutrophication of the
water body, can result in dramatic disturbances to the rest of the lake system on overturn and decreasing
quality of the water resource.

5.2.7 Water Regulation

Although this topic has been introduced earlier, the effects of major water regulation schemes involving
damming and impoundments deserve special attention. Dams are built to regulate river discharge
 240 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

Table 5.2 General characteristics of eutrophic and oligotrophic lakes

Character Eutrophic Oligotrophic
NS a ee ed ee

Basin shape Broad and shallow Narrow and deep

Lake substrate Fine organic salt Stones and inorganic silt
Lake shoreline Weedy Stony
Light penetration to 1% surface —20 20-120
value (m)
Water colour Yellow or green Green or blue
Net primary production (g/ m? yr) 150-500 15-50
Chlorophyll-a concentration (g/L) =Ilshe 0.32.5
Alkalinity range (year) (meq/L) 1+ Up to 0.59
Total P (ppb) 10-30 < 1-5
Total N (ppb) 300-650 < 1-200
Oxygen High at surface, low under ice or thermocline High
Macrophytes Many species abundant in shallows Few species, some in deep water
Phytoplankton Few species, high numbers Many species, low numbers
Zooplankton Few species, high numbers Many species, low numbers
Macroinvertebrates Many species, high numbers Moderate species, low numbers
Fish Many species Few species

Adapted from Maitland, 1990, and other sources

Characteristic lake types 10000

Sewage oxidation ponds

heavily fertilized fish ponds,
some endorheic lakes
(without outlet streams) Concentration of
P in Jake (jig/L) 23.8
Lakes in developed areas receiving Hypereutrophic
substantial quantities of sewage or
domestic animal effluent

aid
100
Lakes with cultivated or deforested
catchments and often some loadings
from sewage 100

|
Mesotrophic

Relatively undisturbed lakes in fertile

|
lowland catchments Oligotrophic
Undisturbed lakes in rocky, remote or concentration
Inflow
/L)
phosphorus
of
(yg
upland catchments Mean concentration of
chlorophyll-a (ug/L)
Bae ae iUltra-oligotrophic

0.1 1 10 100 1000

Water residence time T,, (years) (log scale)
Figure 5.4 Lake classification based on relationships between inflow concentration of phosphorus and water residence time (7,).
The consequent most likely concentrations of phosphorus and chlorophyll-a in the lake are shown. Larger residence time leads
to
greater deposition of phosphorus in the sediment, so lower in-lake phosphorus and chlorophyll-a concentrations will
be obtained for
a given inflow concentration. Characteristic lake types in relation to inflow concentration of phosphorus are also shown
(after Moss,
1988; Burgis and Morris, 1990; and Vollenweider and Kerekes, 1981).
 ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS, DISTURBANCES AND POLLUTION 241

8 Temperature (°C) se A oA)

a a TT
Winter ; Summer
and i
spring ' 20
; Depth
\
Autumn
m
(m) 40 Stratification

60

(a) Winter, spring and autumn (b) Summer profile

vertical temperature profile

3 — Wind action

U
Hypolimnion

(c) Definition of areas by depth (d) Overturn and mixing through

full depth

Figure 5.5 Diagrammatic representation of seasonal thermal stratification in a temperate, maritime lake, (a) showing no stratification
and more or less constant temperatures throughout the lake. During this time, wind action can cause the lake to mix from top to
bottom as in (d). Stratification occurs during the summer, with a marked discontinuity in the temperature—depth profile (b) dividing
the lake into three strata (c).

(continental lakes in areas suffering cold winters) undergo a period of inverse stratification during the
winter, when colder surface waters lay on top of a warmer hypolimnion. A spring overturn occurs as
surface water temperatures rise. Shallow lakes like Lough Neagh in Northern Ireland (average depth only
12m) will rarely demonstrate a stable thermal stratification except in the hottest of summers, while very
deep lakes, like the African Rift Valley lakes are permanently stratified (Moss, 1988).
Thermal stratification has major effects on both oxygen concentration (see Fig. 5.5b) and nutrient
supplies. When the lake is stratified) no mixing occurs between the top and bottom layers. The
hypolimnion receives no oxygen that has diffused into the surface waters and becomes increasingly
anoxic. The epilimnion, where the plants are, receives no dissolved nutrients from the bottom, where
decomposition occurs, so primary productivity becomes nutrient limited and declines over the summer.
When the overturn occurs, the hypolimnion is replenished with oxygen and the epilimnion with dissolved
nutrients. An end result of such seasonal cycles are seasonal blooms of phytoplankton, due to the
replenishment of nutrients in autumn and increasing temperatures and light levels in spring. Excessive
deoxygenation of the hypolimnium in summer, which can arise as a result of strong eutrophication of the
water body, can result in dramatic disturbances to the rest of the lake system on overturn and decreasing
quality of the water resource.

5.2.7 Water Regulation

Although this topic has been introduced earlier, the effects of major water regulation schemes involving
damming and impoundments deserve special attention. Dams are built to regulate river discharge
242 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

Lake Inchiquin

10

20

MS

Lake Dromore

(m)
depth
Lake

Figure 5.6 Temperature—depth (a) and oxygen—depth (b) profiles in six Irish lakes. Note that thermal stratification is unstable in
shallower lakes and that parts of the hypolimnion can become anoxic during the summer (after Allott, 1986).

preventing flooding of downstream settled lands, to create reservoirs of water and often to produce
hydroelectric power. When a barrier is put across a river, ecological conditions change dramatically
upstream as the aquatic system is switched from lotic to lentic conditions—from a river to a lake. Filling
time can vary depending on the size of the reservoir/man-made lake basin in relation to the size of the
river. For example, when the basin is small relative to river flow, as in Lake Kainji in Nigeria, filling took
 ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS, DISTURBANCES AND POLLUTION 243

Lake Inchiquin

Lake Dromore

Lake Cullaun

depth
Lake
(m)
nN

Lake Ballycullinan South

J ib 10 ats

Figure 5.6 continued Temperature—depth (a) and oxygen—depth (b) profiles in six Irish lakes. Note that thermal stratification is
unstable in shallower lakes and that parts of the hypolimnion can become anoxic during the summer (after Allott, 1986).

only three months, whereas Lake Nasser (capacity 130000 million m°), behind the Aswan High Dam on
the Blue Nile in Egypt, took 10 years to fill (Burgis and Morris, 1990). There are dramatic changes in the
flora and fauna post-impoundment that often take many years to stabilize. Provided there is not too much
subsequent disturbance to the new lakes, the systems will eventually settle down and resemble the local
natural lake ecosystems.
244 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

The
The most obvious effects of dams are local upstream changes in the aquatic ecosystem.
on to the original river
reduction in flow rate behind the dam will lead to deposition of fine sediments
substrate. Massive deposition of such sedinients on the rocky bed of the Blue Nile near the Roseires Dam
, 1972). Drowned
destroyed populations of the giant freshwater mussel for several kilometres (Hammerton
and
vegetation also starts to decompose, which releases nutrients but results in a decrease of oxygen levels
possibly deoxygenat ion of bottom waters due to the bacterial activity, which can be exacerbate d by
thermal stratificatio n. Slowing of current speed, sedimentati on, holding back of transported organic matter
and nutrients and release of nutrients from increased decomposition all add up to produce quite dramatic
increases in primary production in the newly created lakes. For example, following filling of the Sennar
and Roseires Dams on the Blue Nile, there was a 10 to 200-fold increase in phytoplankton over a 650 km
upstream stretch of the river (Hammerton, 1972). Such increased productivity can also lead to increased
production of certain fish species.
There are clear economic advantages to construction of a dam. For example, the Aswan High Dam
led to an increase in arable land from 7 to 9 million acres and HEP output in excess of $4500 million per
year at 1970 prices (Hammerton, 1972). However, these gains must be weighed against a large number of
immediate and long term disadvantages, in addition to the changed upstream water quality. Moss (1988)
gives a lucid discussion of the pros and cons of man-made tropical lakes in particular. Many species of
organism disappear, while other species appear, often in great abundance in the disturbed system. The
introduced alien water fern is one example (Salvinia molesta). This appeared in Lake Kariba and rapidly
spread to cover 21 per cent of the lake surface (Maitland, 1990). It severely impedes navigation, fishing
and affects water quality, largely through indirect deoxygenation of water under the weed cover. As a
floating plant, it shades out other plant life in the water so there is no oxygen release by photosynthesis
and no wind mixing of surface waters (Burgis and Morris, 1990). Other pests, especially insects, are also
favoured under the new environmental conditions and increase in abundance over very short periods of
time. After construction of the Sennar and Aswan High Dams, blackfly larvae (Simuliidae) which carry
river blindness (schistosomiasis) bred in the turbulent waters near sluice gates. Mosquitoes and midges
flourished in the newly created shallow areas of the lake edges (Hammerton, 1972).
Dams also cut upstream—downstream linkages, which have serious consequences for fish migration
in species that breed in the headwaters of rivers. This is particularly important for salmon, because,
though the discharge may be sufficient to maintain the survival of the non-migratory species, it may be
insufficient to enable movement of migratory species. However, the minimum acceptable flow for these
requirements is not needed for the whole year (adult salmon ascend river systems in June/July to spawn in
November/December) and a lower flow may be sufficient at other times for spawning requirements and
survival of progeny. Creation of artificial spates has been shown to be useful to encourage fish to migrate
up streams. The problem has also been overcome through the use of fish ladders and electrically powered
lifts (Moss, 1988). As a last resort, it may be necessary for the fisheries authority to catch the salmon
below the dam and physically transport the fish upstream. This practice, though it helps the overall fish
production, is unsatisfactory and indeed costly. Another way to maintain a fishery in a regulated river is to
undertake an introduction programme of reared fish which are released in large numbers upstream of the
dam. Turbines can also cause problems to fish moving downstream when the smolts (young salmon) are
returning to sea unless design or operating procedures are modified. The alternative is physical
transportation downstream. Fluctuating water levels in the littoral areas of the artificially created lakes also
cause problems to the flora and fauna (Smith et al., 1987).
Downstream of dams, the river loses much of its dynamic nature. Flow patterns are mediated
and
become more regular but can also be more extreme. Downstream temperature regimes are altered
(Winterbourn and Townsend, 1991) and oxygen levels can fall if oxygen-deficient waters
from deeper
layers in the lake are released. These waters may also contain suspended iron and manganese
hydroxides
and dissolved hydrogen sulphide (Moss, 1988). The hydrogen sulphide caused
by the excessive
decomposition can corrode the metal of turbines and the concrete of the dams. The regulation
of water
decreases or eliminates regular inundation and deposition of nutrient rich sediments on
the flood plain and
 ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS, DISTURBANCES AND POLLUTION 245

the downstream agricultural productivity is usually decreased quite dramatically. Sediments and nutrients
are retained behind the dam, thus causing downstream phytoplankton productivity to be reduced; in the
Nile, for example, it is only a fraction of the pre-dam density (Hammerton, 1972). Downstream biological
systems will, without doubt, be altered as a result of such changes in food supply and the physicochemical
environment.
Changes brought about by the construction of dams are not restricted solely to the local river system.
Historically, the annual discharge of freshwater from the Nile to the Mediterranean was 62 km?, but after
closure of the Aswan High Dam the annual flow decreased to 10 per cent of this figure (Hargrave, 1991).
There was also a shift in peak flow from the autumn rainy season to the winter months. This altered the
physical and chemical conditions in the south-east part of the Mediterranean Sea near the Nile Delta.
Sediment trapped behind the dam normally replenished sediments eroded from the Nile Delta by the sea,
as well as carrying nutrients to the marine coastal ecosystems. The result of these changes was twofold
(Hargrave, 1991): firstly, gradual erosion of the Nile Delta, with consequent shifts in navigation channels
and, secondly, a decrease in productivity of coastal waters and consequent decline in important fisheries
(Fig. 5.7). It was also speculated that the reduced freshwater input into the Mediterranean could result in
the loss of the freshwater barrier across the northern end of the Suez Canal to the Red Sea and thus lead to
movement of species between the two seas (Hammerton, 1972). The concomitant cascade effects on the
flora and fauna of either one or the other sea depend on the main invasion direction of species. We thus
see the importance of the link between freshwater and marine ecosystems.

5.3 MARINE SYSTEMS

The oceans cover a little over 70 per cent of the surface of the globe. On land, life exists as a thin veneer,
extending only a relatively short distance down into the soil and up into the atmosphere. In the oceans, life
exists from the surface down to the deepest parts of the oceans (about 11000 metres). Over half of the
globe lies beneath 4000 metres of sea, the largest ecosystem in the world, known as the abyss, where it is
permanently dark, has a constant temperature of approximately 4°C and experiences a constant pressure
in excess of 400 atmospheres. The deep sea is, however, scarcely exploited commercially, apart from
mining of the often-abundant manganese nodules. It is probable that as land resources become depleted,

200

160

Discharge
Sardines 120
———- Shrimps

80

(km)
from
discharge
Annual
Nile
catch
100)
annual
Fisheries
(tonnes
x

0
1962 1966 197 1974 1978
Year
Dam
complete
Figure 5.7 The effect of the Aswan High Dam on annual discharge from the River Nile to the Mediterranean Sea and the subsequent
changes to sardine and shrimp fisheries (after Wadi, 1984).
246 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

the deep sea will attract more exploration and, when appropriate technologies have been developed, will
become more exploited. Of course, the seas are of great commercial significance to human beings for
food. It should be realized, however, that over 95 per cent of fish (wild and cultured) and shellfish are
harvested from continental shelf areas, which make up only 8 per cent of the total sea area. The following
sections outline some of the main physicochemical features of marine ecosystems and discusses the
impact of various natural and anthropogenic disturbances.

5.3.1 Temperature
One of the most characteristic features of the oceans is its uniformity in physicochemical properties.
Temperatures range from around 0°C in high latitudes (as low as —2°C in the Arctic deep water) to
+ 30°C in shallow tropical waters (up to 35°C in the Persian Gulf), a range of only 30 to 37°C. This
compares with a range of about 145°C in terrestrial ecosystems, which experience temperatures of
—88°C in Antarctica to + 57°C in the Libyan Desert.

5.3.2 Salinity
The total amount of inorganic material dissolved in seawater is termed the salinity and is usually about 3.5
per cent or 35 parts per thousand. In the open ocean, where rainfall is low and evaporation high, salinities
may rise to 37 parts per thousand, e.g. in the Sargasso Sea. On the other hand, in the Arctic during the
summer, melting ice may lower salinities to around 30 parts per thousand. Inshore waters are a little more
variable, with salinities reaching 40 parts per thousand or more in the Eastern Mediterranean and Gulf of
Arabia, due to high temperatures with consequent evaporation and little freshwater run-off, and as low as
5 parts per thousand in the Northern Baltic, where there is considerable input from large rivers coupled
with relatively low temperatures.
Seawater is not simply ‘salt water’ but an extremely complex substance containing all naturally
occurring cations and anions (Broecker, 1974). Solutes weathered from rocks enter the sea with
freshwater drainage from the land. The chief cations are sodium, magnesium, calcium, potassium and
strontium; the principle anions are chloride, sulphate, bromide and bicarbonate, which together make up
99.9 per cent of the dissolved matter. This complexity is far from irrelevant to the animals and plants
living in the ocean. Many trace elements are necessary for the proper functioning of marine organisms.
For example, Tunicates, sessile marine animals often known as sea squirts, require vanadium, which they
extract from seawater to incorporate in the blood. Seawater also contains organic substances leached from
the tissues of organisms, secretions and excretions, antibiotics and so on, which are necessary to the
survival of many marine organisms. Thus seawater can be seen to be an extraordinarily complex
substance, which should be borne in mind when we look later at pollution in marine systems in Chapter 6.

5.3.3 Stratification and Productivity

Temperature and salinity together influence the density of seawater and, to a much lesser extent, so does
pressure, which increases with depth. The fact that the density of seawater varies with temperature has
important consequences for primary productivity in the oceans. In low latitudes where the sea surface is
heated by the sun more or less throughout the year, a thermal stratification similar to that in lakes is
established, where the warmer surface water floats on the denser colder water with a thermocline in
between. As plants and animals decompose, they sink and the consituent nutrients are not recycled into
the upper layers, so that plant nutrients become limiting, despite the abundant light for photosynthesis. For
this reason tropical waters are relatively unproductive (Koblentz-Mishke et al., 1970) and that is why they
always look so clear and blue. In high latitudes, there is no stratification because the surface waters are
 ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS, DISTURBANCES AND POLLUTION 247

cold and of much the same temperature as the deeper water. Instead there is continuous mixing which
brings nutrients back up to the surface. In the long day-length summers of high latitudes, there is ample
sunlight and ample nutrients so productivity is very high. It is the richness of cold Arctic and Antarctic
waters that allows large numbers of seals, walruses and the huge whales to flourish. Temperate waters are
intermediate between these two extremes, acting like the tropics in summer and like the high latitudes in
winter (Table 5.3).
During the summer in temperate waters, thermal stratification is established and when the nutrients
are used up from the surface waters they are not replenished, resulting in low productivity. In the autumn,
the surface waters start to cool, allowing some mixing with nutrient-rich deeper waters, but at about the
same time the amount of sunlight drops so at best there can be only a slight increase in productivity. In the
winter low light levels are a limiting factor, but, come the spring, the light levels increase and the nutrients
are available in abundance, leading to a spring phytoplankton bloom, which lasts until the thermocline
sets in and the nutrients are exhausted. This pattern of productivity is similar to that in many temperate
lakes.

5.3.4 pH
Unlike freshwater, the pH of seawater only varies between about pH 7.5 and 8.4, with the highest values
occurring at the surface during periods of high productivity when carbon dioxide is withdrawn during
photosynthesis. An increase in temperature or pressure causes a slight decrease in pH and under great
pressure, below 6000 metres, calcium carbonate goes into solution. Calcareous deposits are thus
conspicuously absent from the deep sea, and deep sea bivalves (shellfish) tend to have weakly calcified
shells, while deep sea fish have weakly calcified skeletons. It is the buffering properties of seawater,
resulting from the presence of strong bases and weak acids (HyCO3 and H,BO3), that maintains the pH.

5.3.5 Oxygen
The mixing properties of the oceans unlike those in lakes, operate on a global scale, and supply oxygen to
all ocean depths, including the deepest trenches, so that oxygen is rarely a limiting factor. This is not to
say that oxygen is uniformly distributed. There is, for example, an oxygen minimum layer at about 400 to
1000 metres. Enclosed seas such as the Mediterranean may experience deoxygenation at times, as may the
Norwegian Fjords. The Black Sea, cut off from the Mediterranean by the Bosphorus, is permanently
stagnant below 200m, and therefore devoid of animal life, although anaerobic bacteria flourish.

5.3.6 Circulation
The oceans therefore are in general well oxygenated, with a fairly even temperature, chemical composition
and pH. This benign nature is dependent upon the mixing properties of the oceans which are brought

Table 5.3 Seasonal changes in productivity

in temperate waters.
Season Light Nutrients Productivity

Spring Increasing High High

Summer High Low Low
Autumn Decreasing Recycling Moderate
Winter Low High Low

Limiting factors in bold

 248 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

about by the current systems generated by the action of the winds on the surface waters and the
differences in the density of seawater resulting from variations in salinity. The direction in which surface
currents flow is affected principally by the’ Coriolis effect and the shape of the land masses.
As the earth rotates on its axis, points at different latitudes rotate at different velocities. The rotational
velocity is proportional to its distance from the axis of rotation and ranges from 0 km/h at the poles to
1600 km/h at the equator. The result of this is that objects veer to the right of their intended path in the
northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere—this is the Coriolis effect. The prevailing
wind systems initiate surface water motion by transferring energy to the surface layer through frictional
stress. The trade winds blowing out of the north-east in the northern hemisphere and south-east in the
southern hemisphere form the major ocean gyres (circular currents, Fig. 5.8). These gyres, because of the
Coriolis effect, are clockwise in the northern hemisphere and anticlockwise in the southern hemisphere.
Surface currents have, of course, been known and charted for centuries, but only relatively recently
have deep water currrents been identified. Surface currents transfer their energy layer by layer to deeper
water and each layer moves with less velocity progressively to the night in the northern hemisphere and to
the left in the southern hemisphere. This is known as an Ekman spiral after the Danish oceanographer who
first described it. Between 100 and 200 m depths all the wind energy is used up. The net transport of water
in an Ekman spiral is about 90° to the right (northern hemisphere) or to the left (southern hemisphere) and
is called the Ekman transport.

Sinking air

Easterlies
(North-east polar winds)

60°N Rising air

,
Westerlies ,“
30°N Subtropical high Sinking air
Gulf BRS latitudes |
Stream _’ North-east
fe al Trades PEC
x ‘North equator current /
ee or Current

wsSouth equator
current
oe
0° isi
Rising airi
Equatonal low doldrums

South-east
B.C. Trade Winds * Benguela
‘° \ ny ‘ Current
30°S Subtropical high Bn.C. Sinking air
Horse latitudes
“Ss ifs vN a :

; Westerlies ‘YY *
Tea. ESS

4 4%
60°S Rigen
Subpolar low ge
per aS SS
mS * ‘\ \ " ye
Easterlies \ \ \ sy %
Pees
\ ‘(South polar winds) \
\ .
»

Sinking air
Figure 5.8 Wind systems (broken line) and surface currents
(continuous line) of the Atlantic Ocean
 ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS, DISTURBANCES AND POLLUTION 249

Surface currents move only the top 200 m or so of water, but deeper currents are initiated partly by
differences in density and partly by upwelling. Highly saline and/or cold, and hence dense, water sinks, to
be replaced by less saline and/or warm water. Deep water currents in the Atlantic, for example, are the
result of cold water from Antarctica moving northwards along the bottom and Arctic basin water pouring
over the Wyville-Thomson ridge and flowing south (Fig. 5.9). Upwelling occurs when winds blowing
from the land move surface waters away from the land. Deeper water then upwells to replace the surface
water.
Ocean currents are of great biological importance because in addition to mixing the waters and
providing a physicochemically uniform habitat for marine life, they also bring plant nutrients to the
surface waters where plant photosynthesis can take place, distribute larval stages of animals that are fixed
to the bottom, distribute plankton and govern the migration of marine animals to spawning grounds. The
speed of bottom currents also has a direct influence on the nature of bottom sediments and therefore on
benthic (bottom-living) communities. Just as in rivers or streams, where currents are slow fine sediments
accumulate, while where they are fast the bottom consists of shell gravels or other coarse substrates.

5.3.7 Waves

Another feature of oceans is the presence of waves. On the surface they are usually produced by winds. In
a moving wave in deep water, water particles move in a nearly circular orbit, rising to meet each wave
crest as it passes them. Waves move with the wind but the individual particles of water do not, although
there is a slow mass transport of water in the general wind direction (Fig. 5.10(a)).
Wave size and speed are dependent upon wind speed, wind duration and fetch (the distance over
which the wind blows). In theory, wave height cannot exceed 0.14 of its wave length. Breaking waves
with white caps are evidence of this factor being exceeded. This also occurs when waves approach a beach
(Meyer, 1972). As the waves enter shallow water, friction against the sea bed slows the waves down,
causing the wave length to decrease. When this happens the wave height increases, causing the waves to
collapse (Fig. 5.10(6)). A dramatic example of this phenomenon is the Tsunami (Murty, 1977). These are
low amplitude (about | metre), long wave-length (about 24 km) waves (sometimes incorrectly called tidal
waves), which travel at great speed (up to 750 km/h), usually as a result of an earthquake or volcanic
eruption. Out at sea these Tsunami can go unnoticed, but as they reach shallow water at a coastline,
friction reduces the wave length with a concomitant increase in wave height and they can rear up to 10
metres or more in height. When they reach low-lying islands such as in Japan or Micronesia, they cause
devastation and much loss of life.

Intermediate Surface
current current

Antarctica

Arctic
Wyville—
basin
Thompson
Ridge

Equator 50°S
Deep Bottom (Antarctic
current current convergence)

Figure 5.9 Longitudinal section through the Atlantic from pole to pole to show surface and deep water currents.
250 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

Wave length
Wind
direction :
Low air ea —_,. High air
pressure Ss
ERG pressure
Wave
amplitude
rt

(a)

Swell (constant wave length) Swell touches bottom Surf (breakers form)
: (wave length decreases)
Still water level

yi Water depth = 1.3H

Water depth = L/2 Velocity decreases ——————>
Wave height increases —————>

(b)
Figure 5.10(a) Wave parameter orbits of individual water particles shown by circles. Note that in a trough, water particles are moving
backwards while at the peak they are moving forward. (b) Release of wave energy in the surf zone, leading to breaking of waves
(after Thurman and Weber, 1984).

5.3.8 Natural Disturbances

Because of the immensity and homogeneity in conditions of the oceans, natural disturbances such as
hurricanes, floods, droughts, etc., generally have little impact upon marine systems except on a very local
scale, in inshore waters. In general, animals living in the intertidal and in shallow coastal waters of
temperate regions have adapted to environmental variation since they experience regular differences in
temperature and salinity and are exposed to the air for short periods as a result of the daily immersion
from the tidal cycle. These factors also vary seasonally. The organisms are thus scarcely affected by the
disturbances that can cause havoc on land. Organisms of tropical regions, on the other hand, do not
experience significant seasonality and may be more damaged by natural disturbances. Shallow coral reefs,
for example, may be killed by excessive rain during typhoons on the Great Barrier Reef of Australia,
while corals in the northern Red Sea have been killed by exposure to hot sun during extremely low tides.
Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions also damage coastal ecosystems.
Coastal areas exposed to the open ocean and with a long fetch may be periodically battered by
storms. The damage is from the force of the waves rather than from the direct effects of winds. On
temperate shores, winter storms often lead to the destruction and removal of large quantities of algae
(seaweeds). This loss is, however, quickly made good by regrowth the following year, so that there is little
long-term damage and thus the systems are resilient. Tropical shores are dominated by corals rather than
algae and coral reefs have a definite structure, including heavily cemented buttress zones and surge
channels to ameliorate the effects of heavy surf and strong waves. When hurricanes or cyclones hit a reef,
massive destruction can nevertheless occur, coral being destroyed not only by the force of the waves Bet
also by abrasion from sand and broken coral pieces. When such storms hit the leeward side (i.e. on the
side away from the prevailing winds) of a coral atoll, which is less protected, damage can be particularly
high. Badly affected reefs may take many years to recover.
 ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS, DISTURBANCES AND POLLUTION 251]

Because of the relative constancy of the marine environments, marine organisms are relatively
stenotopic in their physiology (have narrow tolerance limits); thus small changes in the environment
can have correspondingly large effects. Many tropical areas of world seas have experienced massive
die-off of corals. The corals are bleached white as a result of death of the symbiotic algae living within
their tissues and this in turn leads to death of the coral. This so-called ‘white death’ is thought to be a
result of raised temperatures caused by the El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO—cyclic changes in
current strength shifting the current system and so affecting the global climate). While changes in the
ENSO may be quite natural, there is also the possibility that they are an early warning of human-
induced global warming and they have the strongest effect on tropical systems which are less resilient
to such large-scale environmental change.

5.3.9 Anthropogenic Disturbances

Marine systems, because of their size, are buffered against disturbance and man has long regarded the
oceans as useful dumps for a wide variety of rubbish. We are now becoming aware, however, that such
a cavalier attitude to the seas is no longer acceptable. Recall the international uproar when Shell Oil
intended to dump one of their defunct North Sea platforms in the North Atlantic. The problems of viral
infection from swimming on beaches affected by sewage have brought home the real and immediate
dangers of polluting coastal waters. The discovery of PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) in Antarctic
penguins and lead residues in Arctic ice have demonstrated very clearly that marine pollution is a
global problem requiring co-operation from all nations.
At a local scale, marine environments can be damaged by engineering works such as causeways,
bridges and so on. A rich and diverse reef system in Florida was irrevocably changed into a low-
diversity, algal-dominated muddy biotope by the construction of a causeway which altered the
circulation regime. Dredging of sands, gravels, etc., for engineering works also seriously damages
shallow-water habitats. Dredging and filling have, for example, caused more seagrass destruction than
any other human activity, yet seagrass beds are of extreme importance as nursery grounds for young
fish, including many commercial species, and a considerable quantity is transported offshore where it
serves as food for a variety of surface feeding and benthic organisms (Zieman ef al., 1979).
Just as in terrestrial and freshwater systems, we have transported and introduced foreign species
into many land areas. Shipping has brought alien species to many parts of the world (Chapman and
Carlton, 1991), often from very distant regions, e.g., the New Zealand barnacle to Europe (Crisp,
1958). It has been estimated that the biomass of introduced animals to Southampton water in the
United Kingdom is greater than that of native species. What the effect of this is on marine ecosystems
has not been evaluated.
The opening of the Suez Canal put the Indian Ocean back into contact with the Mediterranean for
the first time since the suturing of Africa with Europe over 50 million years ago. At first, the high
salinity of the Great Bitter Lakes prevented immigrant marine organisms from making the trip between
the Red Sea and the Mediterranean, but as the salt was leached away from the lakes, animals started to
enter and colonize the Mediterranean from the Red Sea (Por, 1978; Vermeij, 1978), but interestingly
scarcely any have made the reverse trip. The reason for the polarization is unclear, but it may be a
result of failure in establishment in the new area rather than failure to arrive there. If the organisms
from the Red Sea have a competitive advantage over those from the Mediterranean, then few
Mediterranean species would be able to establish themselves in the Red Sea. This possibility
worried scientists when the building of a sea-level canal in Panama was considered. The Caribbean
species were thought to be competitively superior to those of the east Pacific. If the two seas were put
into contact, and if the hypothesis about relative competitiveness was correct, the effect on the east
Pacific fauna would have been disastrous.
252 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

5.4 TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS

the ground
Terrestrial ecosystems are characterized by'their vegetation—-the carpet of plant life covering
of the different layers
that confers a three-dimensional structure to the habitat. Vertical structure consists
or strata of the vegetation—a tropical forest has a very complex vertical structure compared to a simple
pasture or tundra. There is also a horizontal component with different patches of different species
combinations, each with its own degree of stability. There is also a temporal element to the nature of the
vegetation at a particular place, as pioneer assemblages of ephemeral weeds on uncultivated or disturbed
ground gradually change to climax forests with a complex array of life forms and layers.
Patches of vegetation growing under similar environmental conditions and with similar histories of
environmental change often resemble each other in composition and structure (Miles, 1979); this leads to
the idea of the biome described in Chapter 2. However, what environmental factors are the most
important?

5.4.1 Temperature and Moisture

Land heats up and cools down much more quickly than water, thus terrestrial habitats have greater daily
and seasonal temperature fluctuations. Thus from a global perspective, the distribution of vegetation can
be associated with temperature (Krebs, 1985). However, at the level of the individual plant species, there
is a less clear-cut effect of temperature. In cold climates, plants have usually evolved adaptations to cope
with low temperatures, but they cannot anticipate unusual conditions, so late spring frosts, for example,
can cause severe damage to temperate zone plants. The effect of temperature on animals does seem a little
sharper, but again at a global rather than a local level. Temperature is more likely to affect activity patterns
of animals than distribution per se.
Moisture, alone or in conjunction with temperature, is probably the most important physical factor
affecting the ecology of terrestrial organisms. Living matter is entirely dependent on water. Terrestrial
organisms lose water by evaporation and also in the excretion of waste products. The humidity of the air
plays a major role in water loss through the skin or lungs of animals and from the leaves of plants. Water
losses can be countered by reducing loss from evaporative surfaces (by behaviour, by altering activity
periods, colour and body shape or through possession of an impermeable cuticle, etc.) and by excreting
drier wastes (e.g. uric acid instead of urine). Alternatively, small animals can avoid the problem by
remaining in damp environments. Water can be obtained by animals by drinking or from food and by
plants from the soil. Water availability is critical and drought occurs when adequate amounts of water are
not present or available (e.g. frozen in the soil). In fact plants differ markedly in their ability to tolerate
drought and flooding.
Temperature and moisture levels interact strongly—as temperature increases so does the evaporation
rate. In fact, the global distribution of the major biomes can be explained by the combined effect of
temperature and mean annual precipitation (Begon er al., 1990). Wind can also influence evaporative rates
and the effect of the interaction of these three factors is clearly illustrated by the tree line so evident as one
climbs with altitude. The temperature declines with increasing altitude, rainfall increases and wind
velocity increases but soil moisture decreases due to freezing soils. Water desiccation or frost drought
then ensues and is the primary determinant of the tree line on mountains. Figure 2.10 in Chapter 2
provides a good illustration of the roles of temperature and moisture on the distribution of plant
communities.

5.4.2 Light, Nutrients and Soils

Light isvital for photosynthesis. Generally plants are either shade-tolerant or shade-intolerant
depending
on their ability to function efficiently at low light levels. Under dense shade there is normally
little ground
 ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS, DISTURBANCES AND POLLUTION 253

vegetation. This is usually attributed to lack of light reaching the forest floor, but competition between
plants for soil water and nutrients may also play a part. All plants require the same basic set of essential
nutrients including P, N, Mg, Fe, S, K and Ca, but they do not use the nutrients in the same proportions,
hence soil type can affect the distribution of plants. Soils are in turn affected by the plants that grow on
them. While it is true that most plants have a fairly wide tolerance for soil types (Krebs, 1985), some
species are restricted to specific soils. Bogs, for example, are very nitrogen-poor, but some plant species
possess nodules in their roots that contain bacteria capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen into usable
nitrates for the plant. Soil pH can also exert a strong influence on the type of vegetation either directly
through acidity levels or indirectly through the influence on the availability of nutrients and concentration
of toxic metals. For example, below pH 4 to 4.5, mineral soils contain high concentrations of organic
forms of aluminium, toxic to many plants.

5.4.3 The Influence of Humanity

In much of the world, the vegetation is not natural, but is semi-natural as a result of the activities of
humanity. The change from tropical rainforest to poor agricultural grazing land in large tracts of Africa
and South America is the most obvious example. However, what is not often realized is that very little of
the so-called ‘countryside’ of Europe is actually the natural vegetation for the region. It is the result of
hundreds of years of manipulation, tree felling, intensive grazing by cattle and sheep, application of
fertilizers and other activities. Removing the agricultural pressures from most of Europe and North
America would probably lead to a return to the natural forests that once covered these large tracts of land.
Humanity’s role in shaping terrestrial habitats should not be overlooked.

5.4.4 Natural Changes in Terrestrial Vegetation and Disturbance

Vegetation is naturally in a state of flux. Short-term, reversible, fluctuations occur about some notional
mean state on a seasonal or perhaps year-to-year basis, with differences among the constituent species
responding to fluctuations in the environmental conditions. Over a longer time frame, successional
changes occur which markedly alter the appearance of the vegetation over time. These changes are
directional from the initial state, involving the appearance of new species and loss of others. All
vegetation appears to be subject to successional change although the rate may often be too slow to be
detectable (Miles, 1979).
Succession can occur on pristine ground that has not previously been influenced by a community,
e.g. on new sand dunes, on lava flows or on substrate exposed by a retreating glacier. Such succession is
known as primary succession. An example would be the gradual colonization of sand dunes first by
grasses, then shrubby plants, then trees and finally climaxing in a forest habitat. This kind of sequence is
known as a sere and would take several hundred years to complete its course. The succession proceeds
deterministically in this case as each successive vegetation type (or seral stage) establishes itself because
the preceding type had modified the area in some way favourable to the successor (e.g. in dune
succession, the grasses hold the sand/soil in place, allowing larger plants to root; they also increase the
nutrient levels). This is known as the facilitation model of succession (Connell and Slatyer, 1977). Such a
successional series would end in a climax stage that was stable and self-sustaining, providing that the
conditions do not change markedly. Theoretically, if the climax is destroyed by a disturbance of some
form, the process would be repeated and the same climax vegetation restored (Miles, 1979).
If vegetation is partially or wholly removed by a disturbance, subsequent succession is known as
secondary succession, and may not operate as in the facilitation model due to the remaining seed banks in
the soil. In this case, subsequent changes in the vegetation may result from differential growth rates,
reproduction or survival of the species present. Weedy species may grow to full size first, with other
species occurring only as seeds or seedlings. Annual weeds then die back and grasses dominate, with
254 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

woody plants present, but only in a small or dormant form. As each successive stage drops out, a new
group of species, present from the start, dominate, until eventually the climax state is reached, e.g. a
forest. The gradual change is either (a) a result of different species having different strategies for
exploiting resources, and later species being able to tolerate lower levels of resources, growing to maturity
in the presence of earlier species and outcompeting them (the so-called tolerance model of succession), or
(b) due to the fact that each species can resist invasion of competitors (such as by monopolizing resources
like light), but later species gradually accumulate by replacing individuals of earlier species populations as
they die (the inhibition model) (Connell and Slatyer, 1977). Examples of successions influenced by the
processes outlined by the three models of Connell and Slatyer are given in Fig. 5.11.
Very often, vegetation is not allowed to reach its climax stage because of the impact of various
catastrophic disturbance events preventing stability over a time-scale longer than the life-span of the
primary species, e.g. as seen for the grasslands of the Great Plains and much of the natural forest of North
America (Miles, 1979). These disturbances fall into three different types:
1. Physiographic or geomorphic processes that create areas for colonization by other species, including:
coastal and other soil erosion by water, soil movement due to gravity (landslides, avalanches,
rockfalls), meandering rivers, silting of lakes and estuaries, deposition of material by glaciers, soil
erosion and deposition by wind, volcanic eruptions and flooding.
2. Climatic processes initiating vegetation change, including: drought, fires caused by lightning, wind-
blown trees, winter cold and early autumn or late spring frosts, storms and long-term climatic change.

> “Boulder clay till *Annual weeds Clean boulders

(nutrient-deficient soil) L \
| 1 yr | |
*Mosses
Dryas (shallow rooted *Herbaceous perennials *Ulva (pioneer green algae)
herbs) | (eg. Aster) a

*Willow (Salix) species | aes

(low growing first then crab ee Ss
ites 5 yr *Shrubs
*Red algae
*Alder (Alnus) up to 10 ft Gigartina leptohyncle
50 yr — scattered cottonwood Gelidinia coulteri
(pH soil 8-5)
25 yr *Early successional roe
trees (juniper sassafras)
100 yr *Sitka spruce (Picea) ee |
Ald PE Witced forest : ;
disturbance ~~
| 60 yr po
Af *L ate successional *
Gigartina
; ,
caniculata
A, i

200 yr *Sitka spruce trees (oak, beech)

Hemlock
—» Wet soils,
forest
poor (c) Inhibition
(Climax)
drainage (Seaweed boulder
sucession) (2-3 yr)
Sphagnum moss
soil pH eae
dare eee
acidified
(b) Tolerance
(old field succession)

Muskeg Bog

(a) Facilitation
(following glacial retreat)
Figure 5.11 Examples of successions influenced by the three models of Connell and Slatyer (1977).
 ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS, DISTURBANCES AND POLLUTION 255

3. Biotic processes that lead to the death of plants and create openings for new species to colonize,
including: the effect of other plants (competition), grazing by animals, plant diseases and epidemics.

Clearly, the frequency of these disturbances relative to the time for the full successional sequence to
run will determine whether or not the community will ever reach a stable climax. Frequent disturbances
may keep the ecosystem in a developmentally young state—this is frequently the case in so-called
managed terrestrial systems associated with agriculture, recreation, etc. Whether or not this is a ‘good
thing’ depends on the objectives of the management and the value of the resources held in the system.
However, not all disturbances are ‘natural’ ones like those above. So-called ‘unnatural’ disturbances are
the result of the activity of people. Clearly, engineering works can simulate physiographic and climatic
processes, creating areas for colonization within a natural vegetation and initiating vegetation change.
Biotic processes can be simulated directly by people through ploughing, use of herbicides, tree felling,
etc., and indirectly through starting of fires, eutrophication of water bodies, pollution and influencing
grazing pressures. Large-scale pollution can also stimulate climatic disturbances and change resulting
from air pollution, as in the greenhouse effect. We conclude this chapter by concentrating on these indirect
disturbances resulting from pollution.

5.5 ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS AND POLLUTION

The movement of pollutants and toxic compounds through the environment is very similar to the
movement of energy and nutrients within the ecosystem and on a larger scale through the biosphere.
These chemicals (commonly known as pollutants) may cause harm to living organisms and the
environment. The study of pollutant movement through the environment is known as ecotoxicology.
However, before discussing the processes involved, let us first define a pollutant.

5.5.1 Definition and Classification of Pollutants

A pollutant is defined as ‘a substance that occurs in the environment, at least in part, as a result of human
activities, and which has a deleterious effect on the environment’ (Moriarty, 1990). Pollutants are now
unfortunately part of our environment as a result of industry and other activities. It is estimated that there
are about 63 000 chemicals in use today (Maugh, 1978) and there are many hundreds being developed
each year. The term ‘pollutant’ is a broad term and refers to a range of compounds, from a
superabundance of nutrients giving rise to enrichment of ecosystems (see later) to toxic compounds which
may be carcinogenic (cancer causing), mutagenic (cause damage to genes) or teratogenic (compounds that
cause abnormalities in developing embryos). One of the most useful classifications of pollutants divides
them into two major groups: (a) those that affect the physical environment and (b) those that are directly
toxic to organisms, including humanity (Moriarty, 1990).

Pollutants that change the physical environment Some pollutants do not have any obvious direct
effect on living organisms but simply change the physical environment in such a way as to make
conditions less suitable for life or unsuitable for the community present in the ecosystem at the time. The
substances or conditions may have always been present, but now their concentrations or levels are altered.
A classic pollutant of this type is the ‘too much of a good thing’ pollutant. There are two good examples
of this phenomena. On a global scale, the atmospheric increase in levels of carbon dioxide, even though it
is a gas that is essential for life through its role in photosynthesis, can give rise to significant global
changes and may lead to global warming (Nisbet, 1991). In the same way, when normally limiting plant
nutrients such as phosphate and nitrate become superabundant in waterways, there may be an increase in
primary productivity. When this primary organic material dies and begins to decay, deoxygenation of
water can ensue and a decline in environmental quality and species diversity follows. In these examples,
256 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

when the natural balance in the distribution of these elements between the various phases of their
biogeochemical cycle is disturbed, there are major consequences for the environment. In both cases, the
rate of change of conditions is far in excéss of natural changes; thus ecosystems are damaged—they
become polluted.

Toxic pollutants Some compounds, however, directly affect an organism’s health and these are called
toxic pollutants. Toxic pollutants include a range of compounds from heavy metals, polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs) and dioxins to radioactive ions. Their toxicity depends on a number of factors.
Concentration It is important to point out that although many elements may be required by organisms
in trace amounts for normal physiological functioning they may also be toxic in large quantities; i.e.
toxicity depends on concentration. A good example of this are the heavy metals, such as copper and zinc.
Not all metals, however, have been shown to be essential in trace concentrations. Lead, aluminium and
mercury have no known physiological role and are highly toxic to organisms. It is important to point out
that all these compounds and metals have to be bioavailable, i.e. in a form that can be taken into the
organism, before they become toxic. The bioavailability of compounds very much depends on their
chemical form.
Chemical forms or species of compounds Most heavy metals are only absorbed by the individual
organism and distributed through ecosystems if they are in the methlyated form, where methyl group(s)
(CH3) are added to the element making it easier to enter organisms. In the same way, only certain species
of metals with particular charges are toxic to organisms. For example, the particular form of aluminium
which is toxic to fish in streams is a type called labile monomeric aluminium (Howells, 1990), and this
form only occurs at certain stream pH levels. Therefore a complete examination of the form and ‘species’
of metal must be established in any pollutant before its toxicity can be determined.
Persistence Some compounds disappear very quickly from the environment and are said to have a very
short half-life, i.e. the time for 50 per cent of the compound to disappear or be broken down into a non-
toxic form. Modern herbicides fall into this category. However, other compounds, such as organochlorines
and polychlorinated biphenyls are highly persistent and linger in the environment for decades, and in
some case generations. DDT is a well-known example of a persistent organochlorine insecticide that
remains widely dispersed throughout ecosystems for prolonged periods of time, long after it was banned
from international use (see also Table 3.8).

5.5.2 Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification

All organisms are made up of individual cells and in order for these cells to obtain nutrients and essential
trace elements they selectively absorb and store a great variety of molecules. This is a natural process
called bioaccumulation or bioconcentration. Because of the similarity between many toxic compounds, in
particular heavy metals and essential trace elements, many toxins that are rather dilute in the environment
can reach dangerous levels inside cells and tissues through bioaccumulation. Some of these compounds
may even end up in the nucleus of cells. For example, O’Halloran and Duggan (1984) have shown that
some of the spent lead shot ingested by swans in Ireland ends up in the nucleus of the kidney cells (Fig.
5.12). The important point to emphasize here is that the mechanisms of bioconcentration are the natural
mechanisms whereby cells and indeed organisms obtain their basic nutrients, elements and vitamins and
that the pathways are not unique to toxic compounds.
Biomagnification, on the other hand, occurs not at the cellular but at the ecosystem level. It generally
occurs when the toxic compound concerned is not readily excreted from the organism but is stored and the
toxic burden of a large number of organisms at a lower trophic level is accumulated and concentrated
further by an organism (e.g. predatory bird or fish) at a higher trophic level as the material is passed up
food chains. For example, if we consider phytoplankton and bacteria in an aquatic ecosystem, these
organisms absorb toxic compounds from the water and sediment. Phytoplankton are preyed upon by
 ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS, DISTURBANCES AND POLLUTION 257

ve ¥8

Figure 5.12 Electromicrograph of the kidney tubule cell showing a dense compact granular region, termed an inclusion body, made
up of lead from a poisoned swan ( x 20000) (see the text for details) (from O’Halloran and Duggan, 1984).

zooplankton or small fish and these collect and retain the compound from the many prey organisms,
building up higher concentrations of toxins. The top carnivores in the food chain, e.g. game fish (salmon
or trout), fish-eating birds (kingfishers or heron) and indeed humans, can accumulate such high toxin
levels that they suffer ill effects and even death. One of the classic examples of biomagnification was in
the United States between 1949 and 1957 in Lake Clear, California (Mason, 1993). The lake was sprayed
in 1949 with a chemical, closely related to DDT, called DDD, in order to reduce a public nuisance caused
by non-biting midges. The spraying killed over 99 per cent of the insects, but by 1951 the population had
almost fully recovered. In 1954, a second treatment was carried out using a higher concentration of
pesticide. Shortly after the application of pesticide, a number of fish-eating grebes were found dead. The
level of DDD found in the dead birds showed that the compound had biomagnified by 80000 times the
level found in the water. The result of this biomagnification was a significant decline in the grebe
population from 3000 to 300 individuals by the end of the 1950s (Hunt and Bischoff, 1960). In Europe,
the most widely cited example of biomagnification was the accumulation through food chains of DDT
resulting in a decline in the peregrine falcon, a predatory bird (Newton, 1979).

5.5.3 Mixtures of Compounds or Pollutants

As mentioned in Chapter 2, organisms are not exposed to just a single environmental condition or factor
but to many simultaneously. In the same way, organisms are rarely exposed to individual compounds in
the environment. In fact, all environments consist of mixtures of natural organic and inorganic compounds
and most also include a range of manufactured compounds. These mixtures may have significant effects
on the toxicity of pollutants. If two or more compounds are present in a mixture they exert a combined
effect on an organism which may be additive (Mason, 1993). The opposite may also be true, whereby
certain mixtures of chemicals may reduce the toxicity of each chemical; these may be termed
‘antagonistic’. However, in some situations and with certain combinations of environmental factors, a
synergistic effect can occur in which the injury caused by exposure to two factors is more than the sum of
the exposure to each factor individually. A classic example of this type of effect was described by
258 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

Guderian (1977) using spinach plants subjected to air pollution. These plants were exposed to (a) normal
air, (b) air with a specified level of one of two pollutant compounds and (c) a combination of the two
compounds. In this case a reduction in the photosynthetic rate of 18 per cent occurred when plants were
exposed to air contaminated with hydrochloric acid (HCl) alone, an 11 per cent reduction in the
photosynthetic rate when exposed to air contaminated with sulphur dioxide (SO>) alone, while a reduction
of 50 per cent occurred when both were combined. Clearly HCI and SO) act synergistically, giving a total
reduction in photosynthesis which exceeds the sum due to the individual chemicals.
These complex interactions point out the unpredictability of the effects of pollutants in the
environment. They also indicate that care must be taken when interpreting the effects of pollutants on
organisms and ecosystems—effects that are normally predicted following single species toxicity tests
which are carried out before chemicals are brought into industrial production.

5.5.4 Lethal and Sublethal Effects

Chemical compounds and mixtures of chemicals can have three types of effect on organisms. One is no
effect at all, the second is a lethal effect and the third a sublethal effect. The first case is self-explanatory
whereby a compound is effectively biologicaily inert to the organism (although it should be pointed out
that some compounds may have no effect on some organisms but may prove lethal or sublethal to other
types). In the second case a substance may be lethal to an organism at a given concentration. In this
context there are specified protocols for defining the toxicity of substances and lethal doses based on LDs59
and LCs (i.e. the lethal dose or concentration of a toxic compound at which 50 per cent of organisms die
when exposed to that concentration for a certain duration of time, usually 48 hours). However, it is
important to remember again that these lethal doses are calculated using one or maybe two compounds in
the laboratory and may not really reflect what is happening in the environment. For this reason, biologists
and ecotoxicologists have begun to look at levels of compounds in wild animals in an attempt to better
assess the effects of environmental pollutants and contaminants in the environment.
Sublethal effects, though they are often less dramatic than death of individual organisms, may have a
much greater effect on the overall population. For example, the loss of one or two individuals of a
population through lethal poisoning, though undesirable, may not be very significant at the population
level, while a sublethal effect of compounds which damage genes (DNA) or affect developing embryos
(such as in birds’ eggs) may have very significant effects on the entire population. Sublethal effects can
occur at the genetic, biochemical, physiological, behavioural or life cycle level. One of the difficulties
identifying such effects is that biologists often do not not know the ‘normal’ range of biochemical,
physiological, behavioural or life cycle patterns for organisms and hence are unable to clearly distinguish
sublethal effects of pollutants. This lack of knowledge does not mean that such effects are not occurring,
but may be undetectable at this point in time.
A modern approach to identify sublethal effects of environmental compounds involves the use of
biochemical markers (termed biomarkers), recently reviewed by Peakall (1992). One of the most widely
described examples of biomarkers is the reduction in an enzyme called aminolaevalinic acid dehydratase
(ALDA) (Lansdown and Yule, 1986) and protoporphyrin [IX (O’Halloran et al., 1988) in red blood cells
during exposure to lead pollution. The levels of these biomolecules increase in the blood at low levels of
exposure to lead, reflecting sublethal metabolic damage caused by pollutants. A number of constituents of
plant biochemistry are also affected by pollutants, and some of the changes in the rates of photosynthesis,
such as those mentioned in the previous section, may be explained by the sublethal effects of compounds.

5.5.5 Environmental Factors Affecting Toxicity

A large number of environmental factors influence the toxicity of chemical compounds. These
environmental parameters not only affect the metabolism of organisms themselves but also influence the
bioavailability of chemicals to organisms.
 ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS, DISTURBANCES AND POLLUTION 259

Chemicals that are released into the atmosphere, water or soil are often transformed from one form to
another, e.g. elements may be transformed from an inorganic state to an organic state or vice versa. These
chemical changes may be brought about by oxidation, methylation or other chemical processes in the soil,
water or air. This often results in increased toxicity of compounds. For example, consider mercury (Hg), a
compound released in large concentrations from crematoria (Mills, 1990) and formerly a fungicide widely
used in agriculture. Inorganic mercury in itself is virtually unavailable to biological systems and hence has
no toxicity. However, when the mercury is transformed into methylated mercury by bacteria and fungi in
soil and water it becomes extremely toxic to biological systems (see Fig. 5.13 for a summary of the
transformation).
In the same way, the hardness or softness of water has a direct influence on acidification, leading to
hydrogen ion toxicity (H*) in freshwater ecosystems. In aquatic systems whose catchments are under the
influence of acid rain, the effects on the biology are many orders of magnitude greater if the alkalinity and
total hardness of the water are low. In contrast, if the water has an alkalinity value of greater than 20 mg/L
CaCOs, then there should be sufficient buffering capacity present to neutralize the effect of the hydrogen
ions (O’Halloran and Giller, 1993). In the same way, some heavy metals are only toxic at certain pH
levels. For example, aluminium can exist in a number of different forms or ‘aluminium species’ in the
environment, depending on the pH of the water. It is most toxic to aquatic organisms such as fish at pH
values of 4.0 to 4.5 when the aluminium exists as labile monomeric aluminium.
There is a whole range of other environmental parameters that affect the toxicity of compounds, such
as the level of organic compound present, environmental temperature, etc., but there are also particular
attributes of biological systems that affect the toxicity of compounds. Temperature is one of the most
obvious parameters affecting the toxicity of compounds which is related to the fact that the metabolism of
an organism is closely related to environmental temperatures, reviewed by Cairns ef al. (1975). Thus as
the organisms increase their metabolism, they often increase the uptake of chemicals and pollutants. The
increase in metabolism is often associated with increased absorption of compounds across the gut wall in
animals (Mason, 1993). Natural processes of detoxification of compounds carried out by organisms are
also important factors affecting toxicity. Some compounds are less easily absorbed and persistent in the
body in their original form (e.g. the insecticide DDT) than when they have been metabolized (e.g. to
DDE) by organisms. Thus in an attempt to detoxify compounds, the organism may produce an end
product which is in fact more toxic.

Hg?+

Plants, non-biological,
bacterial reduction actonal Bacterial synthesis
oxidation, Bacterial,
non-biological, non-biological,
plants Rg
Biological and
“es Non-biological bacterial reduction non-biological
g
16 EAR

Plants, non-biological,} | Non-biological,

bacterial reduction biological

Non-biological

Bacterial oxidation, Bacterial synthesis

non-biological, plants Hg*

Figure 5.13 Elements and chemicals can be transformed by biological processes, making them more bioavailable. Here the
transformation of inorganic mercury is illustrated as an ecosystem (after Mason, 1993).
260 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

with an overview of the basic

This chapter has set the scene for this part on pollution. It started
terrestrial ecosystems and how
properties, processes and controlling factors of freshwater, marine and
outlined the fundamental
these ecosystems can be perturbed by disturbances and pollution. We then
l systems. The remaining
characteristics of pollution and pollutants and their general effects on ecologica
and agricultural
chapters in this part deal with specific types of pollution covering water, air, noise
pollution.

5.6 PROBLEMS

5.1 In what ways do engineering processes and activities impinge on the functioning of freshwater
systems?
5.2 How can changes in primary productivity of aquatic systems affect the use of aquatic resources?
5.3 What is eutrophication? What are the differences between eutrophic and oligotrophic systems?
5.4 Why are there seasonal cycles of productivity in temperate seas?
5.5 Explain the significance of ocean currents to marine systems.
5.6 Describe the properties of seawater that are of biological significance.
5.7 Compare and contrast the pathways of pollutants and nutrients in a named ecosystem.
5.8 Outline the physical and chemical characteristics of a waterbody that make them susceptible to
pollution.
5.9 Why can the deposition of small quantities of some pollutants give rise to large-scale disruption of
ecological systems? Evaluate the importance of sublethal toxicity of a pollutant on ecosystems.
5.10 What are the short-term and long-term effects on the environment that can arise from the
construction of dams? Carry out a library search to identify examples other than those described in
this chapter.
5.11 Sketch a concept of the comparative hydrograph shapers for the same catchment resulting from a
storm for the following land, using conditions in a temperate climate.
(a) original upland catchment
(b) pre-afforest drainage catchment
(c) mature forest catchment
(d) clearfelled forest catchment.

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

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Begon, M., J. Harper and C. Townsend (1990) Ecology. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford.
Bournard, M., H. Tachet and A. Roux (1987) ‘The effects of seasonal and hydrological influences on the macroinvertebrates of
the
Rhone River, France. 2. Ecological aspects’, Archiv fur Hydrobiologie/Supplement, 76, 25-51.
Broecker, W. S. (1974) Chemical Oceanography, Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, New York.
Burgis, M and P. Morris (1990) The Natural History of Lakes, Cambridge University Press.
Cairns, J., A. G. Heath and B. C. Parker (1975) ‘The effects of temperature upon the toxicity of chemicals
to aquatic organisms’
Hydrobiologia, 47: 135-171. ;
Chapman, J. W. and J. T. Carlton 1991 ‘A test of criteria for introduced species: the global invasion by the isopod
Synidotea
laevidorsalis (Miers, 1881)’, Journal of Crustacean Biology, 11(3), 386-400. :
Connell, J. and R. Slatyer (1977) ‘Mechanisms of succession in natural communities and their
role in community stability and
organisation’, American Naturalist, 111, 1119-1144.
Crisp, D. J. (1958) ‘The spread of Elminius modestus (Darwin) in North-West Europe’, Journal o
f the Marine Biological Association
of the U.K., 37, 483-520. ,
Crisp, D. and T. Gledhill (1970) A quantitative description of the recovery of the
bottom fauna in a muddy reach in a mill stream in
Southern England after draining and dredging’, Archiv fur Hydrobiologie, 67, 502-541.
 ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS, DISTURBANCES AND POLLUTION 261

Dahn, C., E. Trotter and J. Seddell (1987) ‘Role of anaerobic zones and processes in stream ecosystem productivity’,
in Chemical
Quality of Water and Hydrologic Cycle, R. Averett, and D. McKnight (eds), Lewis Publishing, Chelsea, Michigan, pp. 157—
178.
Gilason, J. (1985) ‘Aquatic insect abundance in a regulated stream under fluctuating and stable diel flow patterns’, North American
Journal of Fisheries Management, 5, 39-46.
Giller, P. S (1990) ‘After the deluge’, Technology Ireland, 22, 41-44.
Giller, P. S. and J. H. R. Gee (1987) ‘The analysis of community organisation : the influence of equilibrium, scale and terminology’,
in Organisation of Communities Past and Present, J. Gee and P. Giller (eds), Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford,
pp. 519-542.
Giller, P. S., N. Sangpradub and H. Twomey (1991) ‘Catastrophic flooding and macroinvertebrate community structure’,
Internationale Vereinigung fur Theoritische und Angewandte Limnologie, 24, 1724-1729.
Guderian, R. (1977) Air Pollution. Phytotoxicity to Gases and Its Significance in Air Pollution Control, Springer, Berlin.
Hammerton, D. (1972) ‘The Nile—a case history’, in River Ecology and Man, R. Oglesby, C. Carlson and J. McCann (eds),
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Hargrave, B. T. (1991) ‘Impacts of man’s activities on aquatic ecosystems’, in Fundamentals of Aquatic Ecosystems, R. S. K. Barnes
and K. H. Mann (eds), Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, pp. 245-264.
Hellawell, J. M. (1986). Biological Indicators of Freshwater Pollution and Environmental Management, Pollution Monitoring Series,
Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, London.
Howells, G. (1990) Acid Rain and Acid Waters, \st edn, Ellis Horwood Ltd, Chichester.
Hunt, E. G. and A. I. Bischoff (1960) ‘Inimical effects on wildlife of DDD application to Clear Lake’, Californian Fisheries and
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Hynes, H. B. N. (1970). The Ecology of Running Waters, University of Liverpool Press, Liverpool.
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Koblentz-Mishke, O. J., V. V. Volkovinsky and J. G. Kabanova (1970) ‘Plankton primary production of the world ocean’, in Scientific
Exploration of the South Pacific, Standard Book No. 309-01755-6, National Academy of Science, Washington, pp. 183-193.
Krebs, C. J. (1985) Ecology. The Experimental Analysis of Distributions and Abundance, Harper and Row, New York.
Landsdown, R. and W. Yule (1986) The Lead Debate: The Environment, Toxicology and Child Health, Croom Helm, London.
Likens, G. E., et al.. (1970) ‘Effects of forest cutting and herbicide treatment on nutrient budgets in the Hubbard Brook watershed
ecosystem’, Ecological Monographs, 40, 23-47.
Maitland, P. (1990) Biology of Freshwaters. 2nd edn, Blackie, London.
Mason, C. F. (1993). Biology of Freshwater Pollution, 2nd edn, Longman Scientific and Technical, New York.
Matthews, W. (1986) ‘Fish faunal structure in an Ozark stream: stability, persistance and a catastrophic flood’, Copeia, 1986(2), 388—
SOME
Maugh, T. H. (1978) ‘Chemicals: how many are there?’, Science (New York), 199, 162.
Meyer, R. E. (ed.) (1972) Waves on Beaches, Academic Press, London and New York.
Miles, J. (1979). Vegetation Dynamics. Chapman and Hall, London.
Mills, A. (1990). ‘Mercury and crematorium chimneys’, Nature, 346, 615.
Minshall, G. W. (1988) ‘Stream ecosystem theory: a global perspective’, Journal of the North American Benthological Society, 7,
263-288.
Moriarty, F. (1990) Ecotoxicology: A Study of Pollutants in Ecosystems, 2nd edn, Academic Press, London.
Moss, B. (1988) Ecology of Freshwaters. Man and Medium, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford.
Murty, T. S. (1977) ‘Seismic sea waves: Tsunami’, Fisheries Research Board of Canada, Bulletin 198, Ottawa.
Newton, I. (1979) Population Ecology of Raptors, Poyser, Berkhamstead.
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O’Halloran, J., A. A. Myers and P. F. Duggan (1988) ‘Blood lead levels and free red blood cell protoporphyrin as a measure of lead
exposure in Mute swans’, Environmental Pollution, 52, 19-38.
Peakall, D. B. (1992) Animal Biomarkers as Pollution Indicators, Chapman and Hall, London.
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262 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

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Whittaker, R. H. (1975) Communities and Ecosystems. 2nd edn, Macmillan, New York.
Winterbourn, M. and C. Townsend (1991) ‘Streams and rivers: one way flow systems’, in Fundamentals of Aquatic Ecology, R. S. K.
Bares and K. H. Mann (eds), Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, pp. 230-243.
Zieman, J. C., G. W. Thayer, M. B. Robblee and R. T. Zieman 1979 ‘Production and export of sea grasses from a tropical bay’, in
Ecological Processes in Coastal and Marine Systems, R. J. Livingston (ed.), Plenum Press, London, pp. 21-33.
 CHAPTER

SIX
WATER POLLUTION: ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES

6.1 INTRODUCTION

Water is a renewable resource, which, as discussed in Chapter 4, is naturally recycled in the hydrological
cycle. Surface waters tend to have a short residence time in the hydrological cycle while groundwaters
have a very long residence time. This recycling renews water resources and potentially provides a
continuous supply. With the advent of industrialization, intensification of agriculture and increasing
populations, the demand for water has increased. The main uses of freshwater (consumer processes) can
be divided into two broad catagories: abstraction and instream uses (Table 6.1).
The patterns of use vary from region to region and with different stages of development of the
country. The marine environment and marine resources are also becoming increasingly important, not so
much from direct use of seawater (except in desalination plants in arid areas) but more in terms of
exploitation of biological (fisheries, seaweed) and geological resources (oil, gas, minerals), amenity and
use In power generation (wave generators).
Despite the fact that water is renewable, freshwater resources are finite. Inputs of water (via rainfall)
to a catchment are balanced by recharging of groundwaters and outputs from the catchment via river
surface flow, evapotranspiration and abstraction. For example, most rainfall in the United Kingdom falls

Table 6.1 Main consumer processes of aquatic

resources

Abstraction Instream uses

Domestic supply Biological exploitation

Irrigation Power generation
Industry—manufacturing Transportation/navigation
Industry—cooling Recreation/amenity
Flushing of canals Flood control
Diversion between catchments Waste transportation
Political boundaries

263
264 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

in the west and north uplands, and most excess rainfall (leading to surface runoff) occurs in the winter.
Regions of high population and intensive industry are found in areas of low rainfall and demand for water
is greatest in the summer (Mason, 1991). Asable farming also tends to be concentrated in drier parts of the
country and requires irrigation. This supply—demand inbalance means that local water resources are not
able to meet demand at all times. Similar problems are apparent throughout the world. For example, the
desert lands of southern California and the metropolis of Los Angeles, in particular, get most of their
water supply from northern California by means of a man-made aquaduct some 300 km long. Aside from
such redistribution networks and intercatchment diversion of water supplies, this shortcoming can be
overcome by the fact that water is also to a large extent a recyclable resource-——once used, it can
potentially be reused. However, each water use, including abstraction, leads to specific impacts on the
water resources. Domestic, industrial and agricultural consumer processes produce large quantities of
waste products for which the natural waterways offer cheap and readily available conduits for disposal. In
rivers and lakes, therefore, the effluents of some water users may become the water supplies of others. The
process of water treatment before and after use in consumer processes is therefore an important part of
modern society and is discussed in detail in Chapters 11 and 12.
Indirect influences on water resources are also apparent, largely related to land—water linkages
discussed in Chapter 5. Land use for urbanization, agriculture, afforestation and deforestation, and
leaching of wastes from landfill sites all influence the nature of aquatic resources. A clear example is seen
in relation to the intensification of arable farming through application of fertilizers to the land and the
consequent change in nutrient levels in lowland rivers draining such catchments (Fig. 6.1). Because of the
problem in the demand and supply ratios, much water abstraction occurs from these lowland reaches of
rivers rather than from more pristine upland headwaters. Engineering-based interventions in the
hydrological cycle, such as canalization, damming, diversion of water within and between catchments also
have effects on aquatic resources (see Chapter 5).
All of the above effects obviously relate to the quality of the aquatic environment in terms of the
physicochemical conditions and the state of the flora and fauna. However, in the present context, the
concern is more with the effects of direct consumer processes and indirect human activities on the use of
water as a resource. In this sense, we are interested in water quality.
For any of the above specific consumer processes, there are a set of requirements regarding the
quality of water to be used (usually related to concentrations of various chemical parameters, suspended
material and bacterial content). If water fulfills these requirements or standards, it is said to be of good
quality for the particular consumer process. If it does not, it is deemed unacceptable and of poor quality.

a
12

concentration
Nitrate
(mg/L)
Dorset
Thames Stour Great Ouse Frome
gu l sl 1 oie J
1928 1940 1950, 1960 1970 1978
Year
Figure 6.1 Changes in nitrate-nitrogen concentration in five British rivers associated
with intensification of agriculture in the river
catchments (after Moss, 1988).
 WATER POLLUTION: ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES 265

Water quality is therefore a term that implies some value judgement of the water with respect to a
particular use. A simple definition of water quality is therefore difficult due to the complexity of factors
influencing it and the range of functions water resources are required to fulfill, often at the same time.
Abstraction for domestic supply requires the most stringent standards and highest water quality, whereas
use for navigation can be met with the poorest quality. The largest demands for quantity (e.g. navigation
and industrial cooling) often require the least in terms of water quality, but to manage the freshwater
ecosystem to allow usage by all consumer processes, water quality needs to be maintained at the highest
quality demanded by the most stringent user.
Any change in the natural water quality implies pollution. Some natural events can lead to local
deterioration in water quality, such as hurricanes, mud flows, torrential rainfall and unseasonal lake
overturn. More serious, longer term and larger scale problems arise as a result of the activities of man.
Pollution of the aquatic environment means the introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of substances
or energy (heat) that result in deleterious effects, including harm to living (biological) resources, hazards
to human health (pathogens), hindrance to aquatic activities including fishing and impairment of water
quality with respect to a desired consumer process such as agriculture, industry, amenity or domestic
supply (Chapman, 1992).
Temporal variability in water quality occurs on a number of scales:

e Minute—minute to day—day: from small-scale water mixing and fluctuations in inputs to the aquatic
system
e Diurnal (24h) variability: related to biological and light-dark cycles, such as oxygen, pH, and related
to cycles in pollution inputs (e.g. domestic wastes)
e Days to months: related to climatic factors (hydrologic regimes, lake overturn) and to pollution sources
(industrial wastes, agricultural activity in the catchment)
e Seasonal: related to climatically driven hydrological and biological seasonal cycles
e Year—year: related mostly to human influences in the catchment (e.g. changing land use, clearing of
vegetation, building works)

The adverse pressures on the quality of the aquatic environment are particularly marked in
technologically advanced countries, where the range of requirements for water resources is increasing
together with greater demands for high-quality water. There is thus a conflict in use of aquatic resources
for high-quality water for drinking and recreation, on the one hand, and for more water for improved
sanitation, industrial uses, waste disposal, etc., on the other, all from the same source. Thus the amount of
wastewater increases and water treatment (see Chapters 11 and 12) is required in an attempt to maintain
sufficiently high quality of natural aquatic resources to satisfy the consumer demand. The conflict of uses
and strong land—water linkages have contributed to establishing a range of freshwater quality issues and
limitations to the use of water resources at the global scale, which are outlined in Table 6.2.

6.2 WATER QUALITY STANDARDS AND PARAMETERS

Pollution and water quality degradation thus interfere with vital and legitimate water uses at scales from
local to regional to international levels (given the transboundary unidirectional nature of river systems and
vastness of seas and oceans). Water quality criteria and standards are therefore necessary to ensure that the
appropriate quality of resource is available to a particular consumer process. The related legislation is
used as an administrative means to manage and maintain water quality for the maximum number of users
of the water body.
Water quality and standards vary and may originate in a number of possible ways; there are
international standards set by the WHO and EU (formerly EC), regional standards set by individual states
or local standards set by individual local authorities. In most European countries, absolute standards for
concentration of chemicals are set for all rivers. The standards and levels are set (on the basis of chemical
266 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

uses due to
Table 6.2 Major freshwater quality issues on a global scale (a) and limitations to water
degradation of water quality by various pollutants (b)
(a)
Water body

Rivers Lakes Reservoirs Groundwaters

Issue
Pathogens XXX xt xT Xx
Suspended solids OK na Xx na
Decomposable organic mattert XXX x XX x
Eutrophication§ Xx XX XXX na
Nitrate as a pollutant x 0 0 XXX
Salinization x 0 v8 XXX
Trace elements XX XX XX Xx
Organic micropollutants XXX XX XX Xxx
Acidification X Xx xx 0
Modification of hydrological regimestT KK Xx x

xxx Severe or global deterioration found. + Mostly in small and shallow water bodies.
xx Important deterioration. { Other than resulting from aquatic primary production.
x Occasional or regional deterioration. § Algae and macrophytes.
0 Rare deterioration. 4 From landfill, mine tailings.
na Not applicable. ++ Water diversion, damming, overpumping, etc.

(b)
Consumer process

Aquatic Power
Drinking wildlife, Industrial and
Pollutant water fisheries Recreation Irrigation uses cooling Transport

Pathogens XX 0 XX X XxT na na
Suspended solids XX xk XX Xx x xt xx§
Organic matter XX Xx XX = Xx xtT na
Algae Fei Tele x§$ XX + xxf xtT x99
Nitrate XX x na ae XxT na na
Saltst tt XX Ke na Xs xxfitt na na
Trace elements XX XX Xx xt x na na
Organic xx XX X p na na
micropollutants
Acidification x ox x 2 x x na

xx Marked impairment causing major treatment or excluding i Food industries.

+
the desired use. + Abrasion.
x Minor impairment. § Sediment settling in channels.
0 No impairment 4 Electronic industries.
na Not applicable +t Filter clogging.
+ Degraded water quality may be beneficial for this specific use. tt Odour, taste.
? Effects not yet fully realized. §§ In fish ponds higher algal biomass can be accepted.
4§ Development of water hyacinth (Eichhomia crassipes).
Tt? Also includes boron, fluoride, ete.
After Chapman, 1992 +++
Ti Ca, Fe, Mn in textile industries, etc.

and microbial parameters) by taking cognizance of the differing uses for which water quality must be
maintained. The ultimate objective of the imposition of standards is the protection of the end user, be
these humans, domestic animals or industrial plants. In this chapter we are concerned, however, with the
safeguarding of public health and the protection of ecosystems (which by definition of the standards is
often through the protection of fisheries). Both have very high quality requirements which complement
 WATER POLLUTION: ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES 267

each other to a great extent, on the basis that if a reservoir, lake or river is suitable to sustain fisheries it
will most likely be suitable for all other users.
There are also guidelines for drinking water quality issued by the World Health Organization and the
US National Academy of Sciences and the US Environmental Protection Agency. The relevant standards
are enumerated in Chapter 11 for drinking water and in Chapter 12 for wastewater effluent discharges.

6.3 ASSESSMENT OF WATER QUALITY

The maintenance and assessment of water quality are important procedures in modern society. Earliest
and simplest methods were purely subjective—does the water look clean, smell right, etc? Such
assessment of water quality is sufficient for some consumer processes but, for most, the fact that water is
such a good solvent and can contain all kinds of dissolved substances led to requirements for more precise
assessment methods. These have been met through hydrochemical analytical techniques. Each chemical
parameter has an associated standard, as discussed in Chapter 11, and water is chemically tested as a
routine measure to ensure it fulfils the quality standards for the various consumer processes. However,
there are thousands of chemical pollutants, but only a small number can be analysed in any one sample.
Scientists have also found that biological surveillance of aquatic systems can prove valuable in
assessing water quality and detecting pollution. Aquatic organisms show a lasting response to the
intermittent pollution episodes which may be missed by routine chemical monitoring which only samples
a relatively tiny volume of water at a particular point in time. Aquatic organisms also provide an
assessment of the average water quality that has pertained over a period of time. Organisms can also
accumulate and magnify low levels of chemicals (see Chapter 2) which may be below the detection point
of analytical chemical methods but which can be analysed from biological tissues. Biological methods
also provide information on the impact of pollutants on the ecology of the system, which chemical
methods, by themselves, cannot do. However, most biological techniques have the disadvantage of not
being able to give an accurate measure of the exact quantity of pollutants and concentrations of chemicals
and they may not pick up slight changes in water quality that do not impact significantly on the ecological
system but which nevertheless may be of importance to some consumer processes.
Thus modern approaches to the description of water quality utilize three approaches:
© Quantitative measurements, such as of physicochemical parameters in water, in sediments or in
biological tissues
© Biochemical/biological tests (including BOD estimation, toxicity testing, etc.)
¢ Semi-quantitative and qualitative descriptors involving biological indicators and species inventories
(Chapman, 1992)

The actual process of water quality assessment is an evaluation of the physicochemical and biological
nature of the water in relation to its natural quality, human effects and intended uses; i.e. basically to verify
whether the observed water quality is suitable for its intended use (Chapman, 1992). It includes the use of
monitoring. Monitoring involves the collection of information at set localities and at regular intervals to:
© Obtain information concerning substances entering the environment, the quantities, sources and
distribution
e Evaluate the effects of these within the environment
e Provide a basis for detecting trends in concentrations and effects and to establish cause and effect
relationships (e.g. acidification and eutrophication)
e Examine how far inputs, concentrations and trends can be modified, by what and at what cost
(Chapman, 1992; Mason, 1991).

The water quality assessment processes have the same basic philosophies in marine and freshwater
systems, although much more has been published concerning freshwater largely because of the greater
270 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

Table 6.4 The British Monitoring Working Party (BMWP) biotic index scheme for rivers. Scores
are summed for each species of the different families present in the sample
Families of freshwater macroinvertebrates Score

(a) Siphlonuridae, Heptageniidae, Leptophlebiidae, Ephemerellidae, Potamanthidae, Ephmeridae (mayflies)

(b) Taeniopterygidae, Leuctridae, Capniidae, Perlodidae, Perlidae, Chloroperlidae (stoneflies)
(c) Aphelocheiridae (bugs) 10
(d) Phryganeidae, Molannidae, Beraeidae, Odontoceridae, Letpoceridae, Goeridae, Lepidostomatidae,
Brachycentridae, Sericostomatidae (caddis-flies)

(a) Astacidae (crayfish)

(b) Lestidae, Agriidae, Gomphidae, Cordulegasteridae, Aeshnidae, Corduliidae, Libellulidae (dragonflies) 8
(c) Psychomyiidae, Philopotamidae (net-spinning caddis-flies)

(a) Caenidae (mayflies)

(b) Nemouridae (stoneflies) 7
(c) Rhyacophilidae, Polycentropodidae, Limnephilidae (caddis-flies)

(a) Neritidae, Viviparidae, Ancylidae (snails)

(b) Hydroptilidae (caddis-flies)
(c) Unionidae (bivalve molluscs) 6
(d) Corophiidae, Gammaridae (crustacea)
(e) Platycnemididae, Coenagriidae (dragonflies)

(a) Mesovelidae, Hydrometridae, Gerridae, Nepidae, Naucoridae, Notonectidae, Pleidae, Corixidae (bugs)
(b) Haliplidae, Hygrobiidae, Dytiscidae, Gyrinidae, Hydrophilidae, Clambidae, Helodidae, Dryopidae,
Elminthidae, Crysomelidae, Curculionidae (beetles) 5
(c) Hydropsychidae (caddis-flies)
(d) Tipulidae, Simuliidae (dipteran flies)
(e) Planariidae, Dendrocoelidae (triclads)

(a) Baetidae (mayflies)

(b) Sialidae (alderfly) 4
(c) Piscicolidae (leeches)

(a) Valvatidae, Hydrobiidae, Lymnaeidae, Physidae, Planorbidae, Sphaeriidae (snails, bivalves) 3

(b) Glossiphoniidae, Hirudidae, Erpobdellidae (leeches) 3
(c) Asellidae (Crustacea)

(a) Chironomidae (Diptera) 2

(a) Oligochaeta (whole class) (worms) 1

Adapted from Moss, 1988

most tolerant taxa type present in the sample, but it is dependent on the number of species (or groups)
identified in that taxa type.
A simpler and more robust index has been devised by the Environmental Research Unit (ERU) in
Ireland where the species are arranged into four basic groups depending on their known tolerance to
organic pollution—sensitive, less sensitive, tolerant and most tolerant. From the presence and relative
abundance of animals in each group one can derive a biotic index quality rating for the water body
from | to 5 (Table 6.7). This approach has been used for successful monitoring of river quality over 20
years in Ireland (Table 6.8).
The most complex but one of the best known indices is the Chandler Score, which is often
considered the most satisfactory. It divides the fauna into groups following the Trent Scheme but
includes an abundance factor at five levels for different species that reflects their tolerance to organic
pollution. Intolerant species receive high scores and scores increase further with increasing abundance
 WATER POLLUTION: ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES 271

Table 6.5 Results of 1985 survey of Brisith rivers based on the BMWP scheme.
The percentage of surveyed rivers which fall into each class of water quality
(1A-4) are given (class 1A—high quality—to class 4—grossly polluted)

Percentage of river length in each class

Good Poor and

Water the, Fair Poor Bad bad Total river length
Authority 1A 1B 2 3 4 3+4 surveyed (km)

Anglian 10 48 32 9 0.2 9 4328

Northumbrian 62 25 10 ?) 0.8 3 2784
North West 49 12 17 17 5 22 5323
Severn Trent 18 36 33) 12 1 14 5150
Southern 31 44 22 2 0.2 3) i992)
South West DIS) 41 2h] 6 0.6 6 2941
Thames 24 4] 28 7 0.1 7 3546
Welsh 33 30 11 6 0.6 6 4600
Wessex 26 35 32 6 0.6 7 2 467
Yorkshire 40 37 12 8 3 12 5 767
England and Wales 34 34 22 9 2 10 38 896

Percentages are rounded to the nearest per cent or | significant figure and may not sum to 100 per cent.
After Chave, 1990

in the sample (Table 6.9). Tolerant species receive low scores and scores decrease with increasing
abundance in the sample. Each species present is awarded a score and the sum of individual scores
gives the overall biotic index for the site. There is no upper limit but sites with values <300 are
considered to be moderately polluted while, 300 to 3000 are mildly polluted to unpolluted. A
modification is the Average Chandler Score, which corrects for variation in environmental conditions
over and above pollution (such as seasonal change or floods), (P. S. Giller unpublished data).
Most of these indices have been derived for assessment of organic pollution. A new Index of
Community Sensitivity has been devised for heavy metal pollution (Clements ef al., 1992). A measure
of sensitivity of each of 13 dominant taxa to known concentrations of heavy metals in experimental
streams is multiplied by their relative abundance and scores for each taxa are summated to give an
overall score for the site. This approach is likely to be most useful on a national basis, (Clements ef al.,
1992).
3. A third general approach is based on changes in the overall number of species and dominance levels. A
mild yet important pollution problem may not eliminate all clean water indicator species but might
reduce their numbers and increase numbers of more tolerant forms. Such changes may not be detected
by biotic indices but can be from the calculation of diversity indices. The more diverse the community
the better as far as water quality is concerned, but generally one would compare values over time or
between unpolluted and suspect sites. A drop in diversity would normally indicate a lowered water
quality and pollution or some other disturbance. The most commonly used index, particularly in the
United States (Washington, 1984), is the Shannon—Wiener diversity index based on information theory
where H = P; log. P;, where P; is the proportion of a taxa 7 to the total number of individuals of all
taxa in the sample.
The advantages of diversity indices over biotic ones are that:

(a) In the simple diversity indices, species or organisms need only be distinguished and not
necessarily identified
(b) No information on pollution tolerances is required.
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 WATER POLLUTION: ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES 273

Table 6.7 The ERU biotic index scheme used in Ireland, based on five index scores or ‘Q’ values
(Q5, good quality; Q4, fair quality; Q3, doubtful quality; Q2, poor quality; Q1, bad quality).
The Q index is based on the relative abundance of five faunal indicator groups, A—E (ERU, 1992)
Relationship between biotic index (Q) and the five faunal groups

Faunal groups

Biotic Community
index Q diversity A B Cc D E
Eroding substrata 5 High de ae tk ae aye 4 fis SS ee
(i.e. riffles) a Slightly reduced = ++ fis te ae alk aE oe ae Si te ali
3 Significantly = + — ++++ 44+ ++
reduced
2 Low = = ap = ote oe ae Se ot ts
l Very low = = = += ++4++
Depositing substrata 5 Relatively high + — ++4++ +++ fe at —
(i.e. slow-flowing 4 Slightly reduced _ ae oe ee ee ee Sete oe
areas) 3 Significantly - se aftes ce eas Seypie te
reduced
2 Low = = eS Gigaset 12 GF? a
1 Very low a = = = jf, ah aft ae

+ + + + =well represented or dominant ++-+=common — =absent

+ + =present in small numbers + — =sparse or absent

Indicator groups: key taxa

Group A Group B Group C Group D Group E

Sensitive forms Less sensitive forms Relatively tolerant forms Tolerant forms Most tolerant forms

Plecoptera Leuctra Tricladida Hirudinea Tubificidae

(excluding Nemouridae Ancylidae Mollusca Chironomus
Leuctra, Baetidae Neritidae (excluding
Nemouridae) (excluding B. rhodani) Astacidae Ancylidae,
Heptagentidae Leptophlebiidae Gammarus Niritidae)
Siphlonuridae Ephemerellidae Baetis rhodani Asellus
Ephemeridae Caenidae Chironomidae
Cased Trichoptera Limnephilidae (excluding
(excluding Hydroptilidae Chironomus
Limnephilidae, Glossosomatidae and
Hydroptilidae Uncased Trichoptera Rheotanytarsus)
Glossosomatidae) Coleoptera
Odonata Coenagriidae
(excluding Sialidae
Coenagriidae) Tipulidae
Aphelocheirus Simuliidae
Rheotanytarsus Hemiptera
(excluding
Aphelocheirus)
Hydracarina
274 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

Table 6.8 Results of a twenty year period of river pollution surveys in

Ireland on a 2900 km baseline based on the ERU quality rating scheme.
Figures represent the river lengths falling into the particular quality
class (with percentages)

Q rating 1971 1981 1986 1990

Class A Unpolluted 2400(83) 2250(78) 2000(69) 1900(65)
Class B Slightly polluted 150(5) 324(11) 580(20) 570(20)
Class C Moderately polluted 150(5) 206(7) 240(8) 380(13)
Class D Seriously polluted 200(7) 120(4) 80(3) 50(2)

ERU, 1992

However, diversity indices cannot give any information on the type of pollutant. Also there is no real
consensus as to what value indicates a polluted system. Wilm’s survey of the United States
(Washington, 1984) suggested Shannon—Wiener values of below 1.0 as substantially polluted, 1.0 to
3.0 as moderately polluted and 3.0 to 5.0 as unpolluted. However, values between 1.7 and 2.5 have
often been found in unpolluted systems, thus comparisons over time at one site or between similar sites
are needed to accurately detect pollution. All in all, despite its widespread use, the Shannon—Wiener
index must be used with caution as far as its biological relevance is concerned (Washington, 1984).

Use of organisms in controlled environments These mainly laboratory-based assessment techniques

have been a traditional way to test for the effects of certain chemical concentrations, e.g. assessing the
toxic effect of water samples or effluent on organisms in toxicity tests (bioassays; see Chapter 5). An
alternative is to make use of effects of water quality change on the behaviour of certain organisms, e.g.
fish. These tests can be conducted in the laboratory or on-site under controlled conditions in so-called
dynamic tests or ‘Toxalert systems’ (Fig. 6.3) and can give an early warning of negative water quality
changes.
Biological accumulation Samples of various species can be examined from the natural environment for
monitoring for the presence and relative levels of substances that can become bioaccumulated, such as
heavy metals, organochlorines and PCB, e.g. O’Halloran et al. (1993) for birds, Mason and O’Sullivan
(1992) for mammals and Philips and Segar (1986) for marine invertebrates. Alternatively, indicator

System
overflow
¢ Outlet y)

Test water

Figure 6.3 An example of a dynamic fish test which is used for continuous monitoring of toxicity
in water directed from a water
body through the test apparatus (after Chapman, 1992).
 WATER POLLUTION: ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES 275

Table 6.9 The Chandler Score biotic index scheme. Each specified species is
given a score corresponding to its relative abundance level in a five minute
kick sample of a stream or river. The overall Chandler Score for the sample
is the sum of all individual species scores

Abundance level

P Je € A Vv
Groups present in sample Points scored
Each species of Planaria alpina
Taenopterygidae 90 94 98 99 100
Perlidae, Perlodidae
Isoperlidae, Chloroperlidae
Each species of Leuctridae, Capniidae
Nemouridae (exd. Amphinemura) 84 89 94 97 98
Each species of Ephemeroptera (exd. Baetis) 79 84 90 94 97
Each species of Cased caddis, Megaloptera 15 80 86 91 94
Each species of Ancylus 70 1B 82 87 91
Rhyacophila (Trichoptera) 65 70 77 83 88
Genera of Dicranota, Limnophora 60 65 72 78 84
Genera of Simulium 56 61 67 73 75
Genera of Coleoptera, Nematoda 51 a5) 61 66 72
Amphinemura (Plecoptera) 47 50 54 58 63
Baetis (Ephemeroptera) 44 46 48 50 52
Gammarus 40 40 40 40 40
Each species of Uncased caddis (exd. 38 36 35 33 Bil
Rhyacophila)
Each species of Tricladida (exd. P alpina) 35 33 31 29 25
Genera of Hydracarina 32 30 28 25 21
Each species of Mollusca (exd. Ancylus) 30 28 25 22 18
Chironomids (exd. C. riparius) 28 2S) 21 18 15
Each species of Glossiphonia 26 2) 20 16 13
Each species of Asellus 25 22 18 14 10
Each species of Leech, exd. Glossiphonia, 24 20 16 12 8
Haemopsis
Haemopsis 23 19 15 10 7
Tubifex sp. Dy 18 13 12 9
Chironomus riparius 21 17 12 7 4
Nais 20 16 10 6 2)
Each species of Air-breathing species 19 15 9 5 i
No animal life 0

Levels of abundance in ‘score’ system

Level Nos. per 5 min. sample Remarks

P—present 1-2 May be drift from upstream

F—few 3-10 Probably indigenous, but rare
C—common 11-50
A—abundant 51-100
V—very abundant 100

After James and Evison, 1979

276 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

Table 6.10 Aquatic pollutants classified according to their

biodegradability

Degradable Non-degradable

Sewage and farm manures Inert particulates (clay, colliery waste, etc.)
Agricultural fertilizers and plant nutrients Man-made plastics
Food-processing waste (including breweries) Heavy metals (e.g. chromium, copper, lead)
Organic paper-mill wastes Halogenated hydrocarbons (DDT, PCBs)
Industrial wastes (especially petrochemical) Radioactivityt
Oils Acids and alkalis
Anions of sulphide and sulphite Industrial emission gases
Detergents Organophosphatest
Oil dispersants

+ Non-degradable in the short term but will degrade/decay over the longer term.

organisms can be placed in the environment in order to monitor water quality, e.g. marine mussels in the
‘mussel watch’ scheme (Bayne, 1978).
Pathological/morphological methods Many organisms suffer from abnormal growth and morpholo-
gical changes in body tissues as a result of long-term exposure to pollutants. These changes can be readily
identified and often give a first indication of potential negative changes in water quality, e.g. fish in
estuaries (Mulcahy et al., 1987), shellfish in relation to TBT (Bryan et al., 1986).
In the following sections the major aquatic pollutants will be described and some of the major effects
and long-term changes that have significantly altered water quality in rivers, lakes and the sea over the
past few decades are reviewed.

6.4 AQUATIC POLLUTANTS

The term pollutant was described in Chapter 5 and two main types were considered:
e Those pollutants that affect the physical environment
e Those that are directly toxic to organisms

Some 1500 substances have been listed as pollutants in aquatic systems and Mason (1991) has recently
summarized these (Table 6.10). To this list can be added heat, which cannot be placed in these categories.
Some of the compounds may interact additively or antagonistically or synergistically to give different
responses in aquatic systems. The influence of polluting substances in natural waters will vary according
to the pollutant, the local conditions and the organisms concerned. Pollutants can act in at least three ways
(Maitland, 1990):
e Settling out and smothering life, e.g. mining effluents, poorly treated sewage and sewage sludge
e Being acutely toxic and killing directly, e.g. some industrial effluents, heavy metals in relatively high
concentrations
e Influencing organisms indirectly, e.g. through reduction in oxygen supply, addition of fertilizers (see
eutrophication) or sublethal effects of compounds acting on growth, reproduction, etc.
In the following sections, freshwater, estuarine and marine pollution are dealt with separately. Although
there are obvious overlaps in many of the processes and sources of pollutants, the uses and importance of
the various aquatic resources are clearly different and deserve individual attention.

6.5 FRESHWATER POLLUTION

This section will deal specifically with organic pollution, the major form of pollution of freshwater
systems, and then discusses two other subjects of serious concern, namely eutrophication and acidifica-
tion, as illustrative case studies of freshwater pollution.
 WATER POLLUTION: ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES 277

6.5.1 Organic Pollution

By far the greatest volume of discharge into freshwater systems is composed of organic material,
municipal sewage, industrial wastewater and agricultural wastewaters. These liquid waste streams are rich
in organic matter, and as they break down in the presence of oxygen under bacterial activity, the dissolved
oxygen levels in the water are affected as well as liberating nutrients like nitrates and phosphates. These
wastes are said to have a high oxygen demand. The reduction in the oxygen concentration in the water,
brought about by the activities of the aerobic bacteria, is compensated for by diffusion of oxygen from the
water surface and from surrounding areas of higher oxygen concentration. This replenishment process is,
however, slow, and as the oxygen level drops, anaerobic bacteria, which can oxidize organic compounds
without the presence of oxygen, start to thrive. The end products from the activities of these bacteria are
hydrogen sulphide, methane and ammonia. These products are toxic to most higher organisms.
Consider the effects of organic pollution on a river community. When organic waste enters an aquatic
system, in this case a river, there is a characteristic response of decreasing oxygen levels, through the
processes described above, immediately below the source. The longitudinal profile of oxygen
concentration is called an oxygen sag curve. The extent of the sag and the downstream length of river
affected depends on the level of pollution (Fig.6.4). The shape of the curve will also depend on the flow
and can change seasonally, e.g. under low flow conditions the minimum oxygen levels can prevail over
longer distances. The degree of deoxygenation will depend on parameters such as temperature, dilution of
the effluent, degree of river aeration, BOD of the discharge and of the receiving waters, and the amount of
other organics in the river, etc. Recovery of oxygen levels results from dilution of the effluent and
reduction in the effluent through decomposition. Reoxygenation in a downstream direction also elevates
oxygen levels. This oxygen sag will have a profound effect on the biology of the system. In serious
pollution incidents, it may lead to complete deoxygenation and an anoxic environment and hence
complete elimination of the biota. However, in most cases, the level of pollution is not as serious as this.
Under continuous outfall of heavy organic pollution, the effect on water quality and oxygen levels is such
as to impose a clear downstream zonation of animal, plant and microbial populations (Hynes, 1960)
(Fig. 6.5).
Figure 6.5(a) and (b) trace the chemical changes in a river downstream of an organic effluent outfall.
The levels of suspended solids and BOD are high at the outfall and the level of oxygen quickly declines,
which coincides with the high BOD. In the same way, the level of ammonia, nitrate and phosphate are
high at the outfall but have different peaks of concentration in the receiving waters at various distances
from the pollution source as the organic matter is decomposed. These changes can be seen to be
influenced by micro-organisms and affect macro-organisms in the river in Fig. 6.5(c) and (d). The

Point of
discharge

100 Mild pollution

Heavy pollution

Gross pollution

Dissolved
saturation)
(%
oxygen
Distance downstream of discharge §=———>

the oxygen sag

Figure 6.4 The effect of different levels of organic effluent discharge on the oxygen content of river water illustrating
curve (after Mason, 1991).
278 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

Effluent
outfall

NH, (b)

Sey Rctvndten
ca tine
e= Bacteria
Antec erccccnccasccccecs
and
species
of
levels
Relative
parameters

Distance downstream ——————>

Figure 6.5 Diagrammatic presentation of the effects of an organic effluent on a river and the changes as one passes downstream
from a sewage outfall: (a) and (b) are physical and chemical changes, (c) changes in micro-organisms, (d) changes in larger animals
(after Hynes, 1960).

abundance of bacteria and sewage fungus is high below the outfall and has a significant impact on the
level of oxygen. This reduction in oxygen leads to a decline in the diversity of clean water
macroinvertebrates (Fig. 6.5(d)). In essence, the most tolerant species (e.g. tubificid worms) survive and
dominate near the effluent outfall and cleaner water forms progressively reappear as water quality
improves further downstream from the outfall. These changes in fauna are in fact used to help monitor
pollution and to gauge water quality as discussed in the previous section. Further details of quantitative
aspects of the oxygen sag curve are included in Chapter 7.

6.5.2 Eutrophication
Eutrophication can be defined as the enrichment of waters by inorganic plant nutrients. The nutrients are
usually nitrogen and phosphorus and these result in an increase in primary productivity. In this discussion
we are talking about artificial enrichment which has been termed ‘cultural eutrophication’. This is an
important distinction because eutrophication of waters is a natural process in the life history of freshwater
lake systems which tend to gradually change from an oligotrophic to a eutrophic system as they age (see
 WATER POLLUTION: ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES 279

Table 6.11 Modified version of OECD classification scheme based on values for annual
maximum concentrations of chlorophyll-a. Indicators related to water quality and the
probability of pollution are also shown

Annual maximum Degree of Impairment of

Lake trophic category chlorophyll-a Algal deoxygenation Probability multipurpose use
(codes in parentheses) (mg/m*) growth in hypolimnion of pollution _ of lake
Ultra-oligotrophic/ <8 Low Low Very low Probably none
oligotrophic (0)

Mesotrophic (M) 8-25 Moderate Moderate Low Very little

Eutrophic Moderately 26-35 Substantial May be high Significant May be appreciable

(m-E)

Strongly 36-55 High High Strong Appreciable

(s-E)

Highly 56-75 High Probably total High High

(h-E)

Hypereutrophic (H) Sb) Very high Probably total Very high Very high

Chapter 5). The general characteristics of oligotrophic and eutrophic systems were outlined in Chapter 5,
Table 5.2. Eutrophication also occurs in marine systems (see Sec. 6.7.1).
Before going into further detail it is important to point out that a number of factors affect the
occurrence of eutrophication: firstly, the nutrient or trophic status of the water body (see Fig. 5.6, Chapter
5), secondly, the characteristics of the water body (e.g. size, water residence time) and, thirdly, its
susceptibility to temperature and oxygen stratification and whether it is a monomictic or dimictic lake (see
Chapter 4). The degree of productivity can be classified according to the annual mean level of phosphate
entering a system and the annual mean production of plant growth in the form of chlorophyll-a. For a
variety of lake and water body types in Europe the OECD has the classification for water body status
shown in Table 6.11.

Sources of nutrients The sources of nutrients that cause the cultural eutrophication are essentially:
e Urban sewage effluent discharge which may be in the form of treated or untreated sewage or
e Agricultural activities, especially animal wastes and fertilizers (see Chapter 10 for further details),
which are found particularly in the Western world and the United States.

The pollution enters as a point source outfall in the case of treated sewage or is dumped into lakes/coastal
waters or is carried by rivers from diffuse sources in their catchments (associated with agriculture, animal
husbandry practices, poultry and pigs, ploughing and forestry). Sediments, too, are an important source of
nutrients in many water bodies and nutrient loads in many ways result from the past events in the
catchment. This is especially true in shallow waters where sediments are more easily disturbed by wind
action. Several studies have shown that significant fractions of nutrients from the sediments enter the
water column under reducing conditions. The sources of nutrients have been a target for control of
eutrophication (see below).

Ecological effects of cultural eutrophication Whatever the source of nutrients, the effects are
generally the same, and are summarized in Fig. 6.6. Plant population growth will increase, often leading
to increased macrophytes in littoral zones of lakes. In extreme cases the excess input of plant nutrients
(nitrogen and phosphorus) leads to massive algal blooms. Blue-green algae and diatoms like Asteriorella
280 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

\
\
Se
eae

fish
Cyprinid

eset ome
increase
of
level
Relative
———»BS ] Percid fish; 1
Oligotrophic ————————_>_ Hy pereutrophic

Figure 6.6 Changes in phytoplankton, macrophytes, benthic invertebrates and fish from oligotrophic to hypereutrophic lakes (after
Moss, 1988).

and Fragillaria and Cyanobacteria like Anabaena dominate (examination of pollen and spores of plants
from lake sediments can tell us when the eutrophication occurred in the past). Such blooms lead to a
massive reduction in transparency to light caused by an increase in turbidity of the water, which can lead
to death of macrophytes due to shading-out. Such blooms are aesthetically unpleasant, resulting in slimy
masses and smells and flies. In flowing waters, eutrophication can lead to extreme macrophyte growth
including the large filamentous algae Cladophora, especially in sewage-effluent rich rivers, or in the
tropics to huge populations of the water hyacinth Eichormia cassipes (Mason, 1991).
Secondly, a marked increase in organic detritus caused by the massive algal populations which die
off seasonally leads to increased decomposition in the lake bottom, and if thermal stratification occurs,
then rapid deoxygenation of the hypolimnion (bottom water) may occur (see Chapter 5). Over and above
the expected differences in communities between oligotrophic and eutrophic systems, this series of
activities can lead to a massive reduction in invertebrate communities, particularly in diversity, and can
change fish species from salmonids and coregonids (white fish) to cyprinids (carp and tench). Other
environmental effects result from changes to the habitat structure from loss of macrophytes, loss of
spawning grounds and loss of living habitats for fish and invertebrates. Effects on the whole food web can
follow with reduction in fish food and fish-eating and plant-eating birds. Increased vulnerability of bank
edges to erosion by waves can also ensue as macrophyte populations decline. Loss of fish through
eutrophication can have knock-on effects on the whole ecology of some lakes through the so-called
trophic cascade response (Carpenter and Kitchell, 1993). The zooplankton prey and consequently
phytoplankton communities on which they feed are markedly altered, again often contributing to blooms
of algae. In extreme cases of cultural eutrophication, primary production is also so high that subsequent
decomposition of organic matter and respiration at night completely deoxygenate the water and fish and
most invertebrates may be eliminated altogether.

Effects on man Eutrophication often occurs in large reservoirs which are used by people for water
abstraction, recreation, fishing, etc. These changes will clearly damage this resource and makes the
treatment of this water expensive for potable purposes (Table 6.12). Decreased amenity value occurs due
to cloudy water, interference with fishing, sailing and swimming affected by surface scum during algal
blooms, smelly decaying algae on the lake shores and often dense swarms of midges emerging from lakes,
causing a nuisance. The famous study on Lake Washington illustrates the problem of cultural
eutrophication. By 1926 the population of Seattle had increased to around 50 000 and raw sewage effluent
was entering the lake such that, by 1954, 56 per cent of total phosphorus input was from sewage (Fig.
6.7). Dense blooms of algae and cyanobacterium occurred in 1955, decreasing the amenity value of the
 WATER POLLUTION: ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES 281

Table 6.12 Some of the major effects of eutrophication on the receiving aquatic
ecosystem and the problems that ensue
Effects on physical, chemical and biological parameters
. Species diversity decreases and the dominant biota change
. Plant and animal biomass increases
. Turbidity increases
. Rate of sedimentation increases, shortening the life span of the lake
— . Anoxic conditions may develop
nAfhWN

Problems
. Treatment of potable water may be difficult and the supply may have an unacceptable taste or odour
. The water may be injurious to health
. The amenity value of the water may decrease
. Increased vegetation may impede water flow and navigation
— . Commercially important species [such as salmonids and coregonids (whitefish)] may disappear
ApPWN

After Mason, 1991

lake, (Mason, 1991). Water purification and supply problems arise if lakes are used for abstraction for
drinking water. Problems are caused by the increase in phytoplankton blocking filtering processes. This
results in reduced throughput of water at water treatment plants. Small algal cells can also get through to
the consumer supply, decompose in the pipes, with growth of bacteria and fungi leading to unpleasant
taste and odours and coloured water. Invertebrates can even sometimes occur in the domestic supply.
The blue-green algae themselves may also be toxic (Table 6.13). Reports of toxic strains of a
particular algae type Cyanophyta, have come from various areas including Australia, the United States,
South Africa and Israel. There have also been reports of poisoning incidences of birds or fish from 26
European countries (Table 6.14). Death of cattle and sheep in Norway was attributed to toxic blooms of
Microcystis and also deaths of cattle in Cheshire, United Kingdom, have also been due to algal blooms.

Table 6.13 A comparison of the toxicities of biological toxins

Toxin Source Common name Lethal doset (LDs0)

Botulinum toxin-a Clostridium botulinum Bacterium 0.000 03

Tetanus toxin Clostridium tetani Bacterium 0.000 1
Ricin Ricinus communis Castor bean plant 0.02
Diphtheria toxin Corynebacterium diphtheriae Bacterium 0.3
Kokoi toxin Phyllobates bicolor Poison arrow frog Daal
Tetrodotoxin Sphaeroides rubripes Puffer fish 8
Saxitoxin Aphanizomenon flos-aquae Blue-green algae 9
Cobra toxin Naja naja Cobra 20
Nodularin* Nodularia spumigena Blue-green algae 30-50
Microcystin-LR* Microcystis aeruginosa Blue-green algae 50
Anatoxin-a* Anabaena flos-aquae Blue-green algae 200
Microcystin-RR* Microcystis acruginosa Blue-green algae 300-600
Curare Chrondodendron tomentosum Brazilian poison arrow plant 500
Strychnine Strychnos nux-vomica Plant 500
Amatoxin Amanita phalloides Fungus 600
Muscarin Amanita muscaria Fungus 1 100
Phallatoxin Amanita phalloides Fungus 1 800
Glenodin toxin Peridinium polonicum Dinoflagellate algae 2 500

Sodium cyanide 10.000

* Toxins produced by blue-green algae associated with eutrophication.

+ The acute LDs, in ug per kg bodyweight by intra-peritoneal injection: some with mice, some with rats.
After National Rivers Authority, 1990
282 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

Table 6.14 Incidence of toxicity of blue-green algal blooms in European freshwaters

up to 1989

Number of sites with Number of sites with Incidence of bloom

Origin blooms tested toxic blooms toxicity (%)

United Kingdom 24 18 75
Norway, Finland and Sweden 51 30 59
(joint programme)
Sweden Dah 15 56
Finland 103 45 44
Hungary 3 3 100
Greece 4 4 100
Italy 2 2 100

After National Rivers Authority data, 1990

People swimming in eutrophic waters containing blue-green algae have been reported to suffer from skin
and eye irritations, gastroenteritis and vomiting. Similar problems can arise in marine systems.
High nitrogen levels in the water supply, causes a potential risk, especially to infants under six
months. This is when methaemoglobin results in a decrease in the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood
as nitrate ions in the blood readily oxidize ferrous ions in the haemoglobin. The net result of these
additions is increased cost and additional treatment processes.
The consequence of enrichment of coastal and marine waters is also eutrophication and many of the
effects are similar to those seen in freshwater systems (Sec. 6.7).

Reduction and control of plant growth A number of methods have been used to control
eutrophication in surface waters, including control of nutrient release into water bodies or nutrient
removal, accelerating the outflow of nutrient material, sealing the bed or lake bottom and manipulating the
hypolimnion by aeration. Control of nutrient release into water bodies is best achieved by limiting the
phosphate loading, but where the water is potable and used for human consumption the nitrogen also
needs to be reduced, e.g. using biological processes—nitrification and denitrification—with bacteria with
further treatment may give up to 90 per cent removal. Organic pollution control can be achieved by
treatment of waste to remove the nutrients and reduce the affects on water quality. In Lake Washington, 99
per cent of sewage effluent was diverted from the lake to the sea in 1967, which led to the rapid recovery
of the lake, with phytoplankton levels falling to a fifth of the 1963 levels within three years (Fig. 6.7).
Similar phosphate removal has been partially successful in Lough Neagh, Northern Ireland, which
has the largest lake area in Europe. In 1967 a bloom of green algae disrupted treatment processes in the
local water treatment plant, commercial fishery and recreational use. At that time it was the most
productive lake in the world. During the critical period of April to August, 80 per cent of the phosphate in
the lough entered from sewage effluents fed in by six major rivers. Land drainage also introduced
nutrients. Methods of removing phosphorus were introduced, reducing levels in the lough, and it has been
estimated that 50 per cent of the phosphate could be reduced by removal of phosphate from sewage
(Smith, 1977). See Chapter 12 for further details of phosphorous removal from municipal wastewaters.
Other possible methods of nutrient removal have also been employed, including the addition of
chemicals to the water to minimize the availability of phosphate. Ferric sulphate solutions have been
successfully used to reduce phosphate and reduce chlorophyll-a concentrations in Barton Broad, East
Anglia (Mason, 1991). Removal of phosphate from household detergents has meant a significant
improvement. The use of detergents in the dairying industry, i.e. phosphoric acid as a cleaning agent, has
also ceased, therefore reducing the amount of phosphate entering surface waters.
Accelerating the outflow of nutrient material by increasing the flow of water means there is less time
for phytoplankton growth and therefore the phosphorus is shifted out of the system faster. Removal of
 WATER POLLUTION: ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES 283

Sewage effluent
diversion
~
Start Completed

1963
100%
at

values
Percentage
relative
to

SS ES eee ——
1O38) 1963 1965 1967 1969

Figure 6.7 Recovery of Lake Washington from 1963 to 1970 after diversion of sewage effluent. Phorphorus dropped rapidly
because sewage was the main source of phosphorus to the lake. Nitrogen dropped less because the surface waters feeding the lake are
relatively rich in nitrogen. The amount of phytoplankton (measured by chlorophyll content of the water) dropped in parallel to the
phosphorus (after Krebs, 1955).

sediment by dredging, etc., is also used, but this may release more nutrients into the system exacerbating
conditions. Removal of vegetation will also help export the nutrients from the system.
Sealing the bed or bottom of the lake or reservoir in order to prevent the exchange of phosphorus
between water and the sediment offers another method. Here membranes such as polythene are placed on
the bed of the reservoir or lake and a layer of sand spread on it. The membrane must have holes in it to
allow the release of anaerobic gases (CH4, H2S, etc.). Manipulating the hypolimnion by aeration with
increasing surface circulation has been used in reservoirs in London to inhibit the algal blooms. This
prevents existing algae from remaining for long periods of time in the euphotic zone. Modelling
approaches to eutrophication control have been described in Jorgenson (1980) and Henderson-Sellars and
Markland (1987).

6.5.3 Surface Water Acidification

Eutrophication is, for the most part, a problem of the populated lowlands. In the uplands and in more
remote unpopulated regions, with poorly weathered rocks and thin soils on poorly buffered geologies,
acidification of lakes and rivers is much more of a problem. Over the last two decades, acidification of
surface waters has been a major focus for political and scientific activity largely because of the
transboundary nature of the problem. Effects on the chemical, ecological and economic and aesthetic
status of rivers and lakes have been detected and have serious implications. There are now many water
bodies which today have low pH, low alkalinity and elevated metal concentration as a result of
acidification, and in many cases changes have been induced by man through the disruption of
biogeochemical cycles (see Chapter 2).
Acidification of rivers and lakes has been described from a variety of countries in western Europe,
North America and Scandinavia (Harriman and Morrison, 1982; Harriman and Wells, 1985; Wellburn
1988, Edwards et al., 1990). The extent of these changes can be far-reaching. For example, in Norway an
area of 13000 km” is devoid of fish populations, with lesser changes over 20000 km’. About 18000
lakes in Sweden (20 per cent of those lakes > 1 ha) have a pH <5.5 at some time of the year and fish
stocks have been affected in 9000 lakes. Before discussing the effects in detail, the mechanism of
acidification is considered.
284 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

Dry and wet

deposition Vegetation,
Soils
foliar absorption,
Geology,
Land use drainage crown leaching,
throughfall, stemflow

Evapotranspiration
30% from afforested
17% from moorland Surface waters,
lakes, rivers, streams

Figure 6.8 A simplified summary of the factors affecting surface water acidification (after Gee and Stoner, 1989).

Causes of freshwater acidification

Atmospheric deposition Initially it was considered that acid rain resulting from atmospheric pollution
was the exclusive cause of freshwater acidification. It is now clear that the process is more complex. The
atmospheric deposition itself is only part of the problem and acidification of surface waters will only
occur if the total acid deposition is not neutralized by the vegetation, soils and rocks with which it comes
into contact prior to entering the stream, river or lake (see Fig. 6.8 for a summary of the pathway).
The primary atmospheric pollutants causing acid rain include oxides of sulphur and nitrogen emitted
from fossil fuel power generating plants and nitrogen oxides and unburnt hydrocarbons emitted by the
internal combustion engine of motor vehicles. Other potential sources of sulphur oxides include volcanic
activity and oceanic plankton which generate dimethyl sulphoxide. The primary pollutants undergo
chemical change in the atmosphere, leading to the production of secondary pollutants (HNO; and H,SO,)
which cause water acidification (refer also to Chapter 8). Pollutants may reach the earth’s surface as dry
deposition or dissolved in atmospheric moisture, which may fall as rain or snow or be deposited as
droplets of mist, termed ‘occult deposition’.
Climatic influences ensure that both the atmospheric concentration and the rate of deposition of
polluting gases is highly episodic and shows large spatial and temporal variation. The highly episodic
nature is also significant in that all the rain may fall in a short period of time. In mid Wales, for example,
30 per cent of the total deposited acidity falls on <5 per cent of wet days, while snow samples also
collected in mid Wales in February 1986 had pH values as low as 3.5, resulting in a large acid pulse into
the streams after snow melt (Gee and Stoner, 1989).
Scavenging by vegetation Vegetation can scavenge ‘dry’ and ‘occult’ pollutants very effectively. As
rainwater passes through a forest canopy, deposited materials are washed from the surfaces of the leaves.

Table 6.15 A comparison of mean values of three

chemical parameters in the throughfall of bulk
deposition (rainfall) under two age classes of the
conifer, spruce, and under oak trees, indicating the
scavenging effect of vegetation

pH SO, pequiv/L) Cl (equiv/L)

Bulk deposition 4.6 54 145

(rainfall) (3.4-7.1) (21-240) (128-873)
Oak 47 115 242
(4.1-6.1) (39-444) (56-451)
Spruce
12 year old 4.27 144 186
(3.7-6.0) (37-1181) (85-958)
25 year old 4.32 296 268
(3.6-5.9) (51-1512) (56-592)

After Gee and Stoner, 1989

 WATER POLLUTION: ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES 285

Conifers are particularly good scavengers of atmospheric pollutants and sea salts, as illustrated in Table
6.15. These are often planted in upland areas in which headwaters of many streams and lakes rise.
Coniferous trees are not the only vegetation types that scavenge pollutants. The levels of sulphate and
chloride ions under oak are higher than in precipitation. However, there are sufficient base cations for
neutralization to occur, and consequently throughfall in the soil under oak is generally less acidic than
precipitation. Studies in Wales have also shown that evapotranspiration in conifer plantations can be as
much as 30 per cent of the total water yield compared with 17 per cent for adjacent moorland catchments.
Evapotranspiration can, therefore, concentrate the solutions of materials deposited on conifer forests, thus
exacerbating acidification (Hornung and Newson, 1986).
Underlying geology and soils Surface waters are only acidified if the underlying soil and geology is
unable to buffer the effects of acid precipitation. The differences in effect are shown most clearly and
consistently where acid and/or thin soils overlie massive, base poor bedrock: e.g. brown podzolic soils,
stagnopodzols, podzols, stagnohumic gley soils, etc. The base poor rocks include igneous rocks, like
granites, slates and mudstones. It has also recently been shown that for a given soil type, concentrations of
aluminium in soil water are between two and three times higher under 25 year old conifers than in
moorland (Gee and Stoner, 1989). Red sandstone and calcium-rich soils seem particularly good at
buffering the effects of acidity.
The ability of a catchment to neutralize deposited acidity is also determined by the route by which
the precipitation reaches the receiving stream. For example, in some catchments there is sufficient
neutralizing capacity under low flow conditions, but under high flow events a large proportion of
streamflow can enter via surface runoff and is not in contact with neutralizing bases. Drainage changes
associated with land improvements or afforestation schemes exacerbate runoff rates, particularly under
high flow conditions.
Land use_ From the above it is clear that land use type will therefore have a significant influence on
surface water quality. This interaction between surface waters and catchment use has been known for
decades (Hynes, 1975) (see also Chapter 5). In temperate upland regions, many of the catchments from
which streams and rivers drain are only suitable for sheep farming and/or afforestation, both of which are
economically marginal and are thus frequently subsidized by government. Conifer afforestation is a
natural vegetation type in northern temperate regions. In many other countries, afforestation with exotic
conifer plantations has increased considerably in upland catchments in recent years. Clearly, based on the
well-established link between forestry and acidification, such land use in the catchment will influence the
stream’s water quality (hydrochemistry) and ultimately its ecology. Some acid-sensitive lands, however,
have been improved in the past for agricultural purposes and this has resulted in an improved neutralizing
capacity and thus reduced surface water acidification.

Effects of surface water acidification

Surface water quality The influence of acidification on surface water quality has received considerable
attention, not only because of changes in potable water quality, but also due to changes in the ecology of
systems caused by a reduction in pH. Because of the paucity and unreliability of historical data, it has
been difficult until recently to describe spatial and temporal trends in acidification. In the United
Kingdom, the Welsh Acid Waters Research Group looked at 57 major pH data sets for British sites and
found only six sites with a marked downward trend in surface water pH (UKAWRG, 1986). Battarbee and
his co-workers (1985) have looked at lake diatoms from sediment cores and constructed curves showing
the changes in pH over the last 150 years. Examination of diatom diversity and composition, in particular
the change towards acid-resistant species, has shown a pH decline by 0.5 to 1.2 pH units over 15 years in
some lakes. Comparison of cores taken from forested and unafforested catchments in Wales have
illustrated an acceleration in acidity under afforested catchments. More recently, the Welsh Water
Authority has carried out extensive weekly sampling (150 sites) in acid-sensitive areas throughout 1984.
Of the sites sampled 78 per cent had a minimum pH <5.5 and 34 per cent had a minimum pH <4.5.
286 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

There is now unequivocal evidence that afforestation in acid-sensitive areas depresses pH and elevates
aluminium concentration.
Several studies have now shown that ecological damage is caused by a combination of acidity and
elevated aluminium when calcium concentrations are low. The threshold beyond which ecological damage
might be anticipated is pH < 5.5 with dissolved labile monomeric aluminium > 0.2 mg/L and hardness
< 12 mg/L as C,CO3. Seasonal and episodic variations in water quality are also extremely important,
since they have a dramatic ecological consequence. Under high flow conditions, particularly in winter,
aluminium levels are generally at their highest, while pH and calcium concentrations are at their lowest.
For example, in studies in Wales, a drop of 2 units of pH (6.0 to 4.0) and a | mg increase in aluminium
concentration in an 11 hour period occurred during a storm event (Gee and Stoner, 1989). In an adjacent
stream draining a moorland there was a pH drop of 0.9. The low pH of acidic waters is no different from
the pH of many beverages and foods normally consumed by people and thus is not likely to pose any risk
to us. However, the acidification of the potable water supply will increase its propensity to dissolve certain
materials, in particular metals, from soil and from pipework (UKAWRG, 1989). The actual concentration
of these substances in the raw water at the point of abstraction will depend on the form and the amounts in
which they are present in the soils and rocks of the catchments from which the water is derived. For
example, in 11 Scottish lochs, including those whose mean pH was less than 5.6, the concentration of 13
metals were low and below the maximum acceptable concentration of the EU water directive at the time
(EC, 1980). There is some evidence of elevated aluminium, iron and manganese in more acidic waters, i.e.
pH < 4.6. Water containing these metals and organic matter may deposit these substances in the domestic
distribution system, which may result in temporary discoloration of water at the tap. However, since the
majority of potable water (i.e. of public water supplies) is purified before consumption (including pH
adjustment, see Chapter 11), the combined effect of acidification is likely to increase the cost of water
treatment rather than pose any major health risk.
Biological effects of acidification Organisms can be affected by acidification either directly by
physiological stress or indirectly by such changes as food supply, habitat provision and predation. As
expected, the ecosystem response to acidification is very complex, indicating the complexity of both
ecological and pollutant processes. Microbial activity seems to be reduced with reduced decomposition.
For example, in the United States, studies have shown that both the number and activity of epilithic
bacteria were reduced in acidified streams (UKAWRG, 1989). In lakes, diatoms usually decline at
pH <5.5 and filamentous green algae become dominant in littoral habitats. In extremely acid waters very
few species are present. In studies in the United States and the United Kingdom some reductions in
zooplankton species diversity have been found. For example, Fryer and Forshaw (1979) found more
acidic waters (pH 5.14) had fewer species (mean 9.18) than less acid (pH 6.48) waters (mean species
11.26). In particular, daphnid and copepod species were missing from acid waters. It is felt that nutrients,
e.g. calcium for their exoskeleton, and food availability were more important than acidity per se.
Stream organisms affected by acidification are the benthic macroinvertebrates which are important in
the self-cleaning processes of freshwater systems. Relationships between acid—base status of streams and
lakes and their macroinvertebrate faunas have been widely described and pronounced and consistent
differences in invertebrate assemblages in several geographical areas have been related to acidity
(Townsend et al., 1983; Hildrew and Giller, 1994). Typically acid waters have significantly reduced
diversity (Fig. 6.9). Two hypotheses have been proposed to explain the fewer species:
1. The direct physiological effects of acid-related factors, such as hydrogen ions and some heavy metals,
exclude sensitive taxa.
2. Acid-related factors influence invertebrates indirectly by interactions through foodwebs, either top
down (e.g. by release from fish predation) or bottom up (for instance by the alteration of food
supplies).
Changes in the geographical distribution of fish due to acidification is now well described. Acid
waters are characterized by reduced species diversity and in waters with pH <4.5 eels may be the only
 WATER POLLUTION: ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES 287

[J] Moorland stream

[] Afforested stream

frequency
Percentage

| aa T
6-9 10-12 13-15 16-18 19-2] 22-24 24-26 27-28
Number of families of macroinvertabrates
Figure 6.9 The percentage frequency of macroinvertebrate family richness (number of families) at 25 study sites on moorland and
afforested catchments illustrating the effect of increased stream acidity on the biology of afforested streams in this region (after
Omerod et al., 1987).

fish present. The acidity affects the fish in many ways, principally through gill and blood physiology
(impaired ion regulatory and acid—base status), reproductive physiology, developmental effects and
demineralization, metal accumulation and changes in behaviour. These effects may be either the effect of
pH or the combined effect of pH and aluminium.
The relative importance of hydrogen ions and aluminium toxicity varies substantially in natural
waters. At one extreme, certain Canadian brown water rivers are characterized by very low proportions of
the labile inorganic monomeric aluminium groups, even though total filterable aluminium may be high
(Lacroix and Townsend, 1987). Complexing by organics effectively eliminates aluminium toxicity in such
waters, and high mortality of salmon parr has been attributed to hydrogen ion toxicity at pH <4.6. In
contrast, Scandinavian studies have reported the dominance of labile aluminium toxicity in clearwater
lakes (UKAWRG, 1989). In some studies hydrogen ion toxicity alone caused plasma electrolyte loss, but
only at pH <4.6. Other animals can also be affected but most other research has been directed at
amphibians (Cummins, 1988) and birds, mostly dippers (O’ Halloran et al., 1990; Ormerod et al., 1990).

Potential Solutions The acidification of surface waters has resulted from deposition of acids, and this
has been accelerated in some areas by upland conifer afforestation. Potential mitigation techniques may
therefore be possible by policy changes in these areas either individually or in combination. Possibilities
include reduction in emissions, liming of moorland catchments, short-term restriction in afforestation and
direct liming of waters. Emissions, in particular of sulphur dioxide, are dominated by power stations and
are likely to remain about the same over the foreseeable future. Although some attempts at control of
emissions are being made, e.g. the United Kingdom proposes to reduce emissions by 14 per cent by 1997
by introducing flu gas desulphurization (FGD) at their plants (Gee and Stoner, 1989). Some workers,
however, have suggested that with increased demands in electricity the reduction will be in the order of 5
per cent. In addition, recent studies have indicated that reduced sulphate emissions have also resulted in
reduced depositions of other cations, which in the past have helped counteract the acidity to some extent.
Thus the net effect is likely to be still further reduced (Hedin et al., 1994). Atmospheric concentrations of
nitrous oxides are dominated by emissions from two sources: power stations and vehicles. Power stations
again are hoping to reduce emissions by 40 per cent, and with increased legislation there is likely to be a
reduction in nitrous oxides from vehicles (Gee and Stoner, 1989). It is expected that nitrous oxide levels
will drop by 6 to 12 per cent as a consequence.
However, despite these reductions, model predictions, calibrated in large catchments in Wales,
suggest that reducing emissions by 50 per cent from 1984 levels would cause no significant increase in pH
over the next 140 years, due to low weathering rates and base saturation in soils in those regions. The
288 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

6.0

Moorland
Wn an

Forest's. pe
wié

pH
Streamwater

1860 1900 1940 1980 2020 2060 2100

Year

Figure 6.10 Simulation of the pH of streamwater from the Dargall Lane catchment (UK), comparing moorland response (
assuming increased evaporation (--—-—) with different levels of pollutant scavenging (--- - ---) 20% additional sulphate, - ----
40% additional sulphate, ————— 60% additional sulphate (after Anon, 1987, Institute of Hydrology Research Report 1984-87,
Wallingford, UK).

effects if the catchments were forested is also illustrated (Fig. 6.10). Therefore reductions in emissions
will stop the decline in pH but may not help with recovery.
Liming is also a possible option and the liming of moorland catchments has been evaluated in
Scotland (Howells, 1986). However, more specific targeting and avoidance of ecological damage are
needed, e.g. preventing damage to acid-tolerant flora and fauna. Short-term restrictions to afforestation
and mitigation techniques may also provide an opportunity to minimize acidification in those areas where
plantation forests are planned to increase. No effective treatments have yet been proven, and the efficacy
of various forestry practices, e.g. contour ploughing, buffer stripping, etc., is questionable at the present.
Clearly the most appropriate future plan in such regions is to avoid planting on acid-sensitive catchments
(e.g. Giller et al., 1993). Such options are, of course, unavailable to regions where coniferous forests are
the natural vegetation. One of the most direct methods of pH adjustment in freshwater systems is by direct
liming of surface waters. However, liming is a costly operation which is only beneficial in the short term
unless repeated on a regular basis. It can, however, be justified when the overriding consideration is the
protection or restoration of a fishery.

6.6 ESTUARINE WATER QUALITY

Before discussing estuarine pollution in detail, we will identify some of the main characteristics of
estuaries and illustrate how they differ from other aquatic systems.

6.6.1 Characteristics of Estuaries in Relation to Pollution

There are at least five important characteristics of estuaries which relate not only to the pollution itself but
also how it is distributed and how it may affect estuarine ecosystems. The main points we will consider are
tidal movement, salinity, fluctuations in temperature and oxygen, reduced species diversity and sediments
and sedimentation.
Movement of the tide has a profound effect on the distribution, character and adaptations of the
estuarine organisms, and not only on the organisms but also on the destination and the effects of pollution.
The daily cycle of the tide means that organisms living on the upper parts of the intertidal zone generally
must be able to withstand prolonged exposure to the air and short periods of inundation with brackish or
saline waters. In addition to the twice daily changes in the levels, there are the monthly patterns of spring
or neap tides. These tides will also determine the distribution of pollutants in an estuary. It is often
common practice to discharge on a high tide, but if waste is discharged at the wrong state of the tide, the
 WATER POLLUTION: ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES 289

waste may be driven further above an outfall, rather than out to sea as desired. Superficially it appears that
in estuaries there is a one-way flow of water from the river to the sea. This gives the false impression that
anything poured into estuaries would simply flow out to sea, to be diluted by the vastness of the oceans.
We now know differently. Estuaries are very complex, affected not only by tidal mixing but also by the
Coriolis force (see Chapter 5), causing cyclonic circulation and increasing the residence time of effluents
in estuaries, with greater opportunity for wastes to settle to bottom sediments.
Salinity is the amount of inorganic material dissolved in water expressed as a weight in grams per
kilogram of water, i.e. parts per thousand (see Chapter 5). The salinity in an estuary will change over time.
Saline water is heavier than freshwater, so it tends to sink below the inflowing freshwater as one
progresses down an estuary, forming a salt wedge (Fig. 6.11). This salt wedge varies longitudinally within
an estuary and during the course of a tidal cycle. Associated with the tidal movements, there are large
changes in oxygen and temperature during the course of a tidal cycle. These changes, in addition to those
of salinity, will also make it difficult for organisms to survive. Some workers, e.g. Wilson (1984), argue
that it is sometimes difficult to distinguish the effects of pollutants on estuarine organisms from effects
imposed by the physical variability in the environment. Oxygen consumption of the cockle Cerastoderma
edule, for example, is more affected by a 50 per cent change in salinity than by a 10° fold increase in
nickel concentration (Wilson, 1984).
The diversity and distribution of organisms is an important consideration in evaluating the effects of
pollution in estuarine ecosystems. Estuaries have a naturally low diversity of species and higher biomass
than other aquatic systems (Fig. 6.12). The majority of species present are euryhaline (tolerant of wide
salinity changes) and occur in high abundance. The substrate will also influence the species present, in
that at the top of the estuary it will tend to be muddy, whereas at the seaward end it would tend to be stony.
In addition to these changes in chemistry, there are also possibilities for stratification of the water
body, the long residence time, the nature of mixing zones and sedimentation of material when the river
enters the estuary to be taken into consideration. The change of pH and redox potentials as freshwater
encounters the sea causes intense flocculation of clay and other particles, with increased adsorption of
metals and other materials on the flocculates. The sedimentation in estuaries leads to extensive mudflats
containing much organic material, metals and pesticides from the water column. No two estuaries are the
same and detailed examination of the hydrological flow and the estuarine processes (mentioned above),
etc., needs to be established to allow the prediction of the geochemical behaviour of each element and its
possible effects on organisms as well as the role of estuaries in governing the mass balance of nutrients
between rivers and oceans.

6.6.2 The Origin of Pollutants in Estuaries

Most rivers discharge into estuaries; therefore any pollutants or nutrients that the river may be carrying
will end up in the estuary. The type of catchment activity that can influence the streamwater quality will
also influence the surface water quality in estuaries. Ports have historically developed on estuaries which
provided shelter and transport up the rivers into hinterlands. It is no coincidence that some of the major
cities in the world are sited on estuaries. As these cities attracted industries around them, so more and
more pollutants were discharged into the estuaries.

5 15 25 Salinity %
Head of estuary
Freshwater 35

Saltwater Mouth of
estuary

Figure 6.11 A generalized salinity salt wedge gradient in an estuary (redrawn after Prater, 1981).
290 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

10054

S
Mn
ee

Number/m2

(a) Number of animals

50
oy
te}
fs

; 0 i.
(b) Number of taxa

30

& 20
3
=
i=

; ;0 tle I
i D2 2 2 S6 i]
Marine Estuarine Fresh-
; at AS i water
(c) Biomass of animals fake

Exposed intertidal
Moderately exposed intertidal
Sheltered intertidal
Subtidal
Estuarine intertidal
Lower estuary
Freshwater lake
YDWNASWN-

Figure 6.12 The number of animals, taxa and their biomass in freshwater, estuarine and marine aquatic habitats in the United
Kingdom (data from McLuskey, 1981).
 WATER POLLUTION: ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES 291

The main classes of pollutants in the estuarine and marine environment are organic waste, heavy
metals, synthetic organic chemicals (e.g. organochlorines), thermal water and oil. There is overlap with
marine pollutants but we have dealt with the two environments separately to highlight the major
differences in cause and effect.

Organic waste The bulk of municipal and licensed industrial waste into estuaries is organic matter.
Most of the domestic organic waste is sewage (municipal wastewater). This organic waste will have a high
biological oxygen demand (BOD). For example, unpolluted estuarine waters would be expected to have a
BOD of | to 2 mg/L; in contrast, crude sewage has a BOD in the range 300 to 400 mg/L, while some
industrial waste can have BODs exceeding 1000 mg/L. These BOD values may lead to deoxygenation
and to the creation of anaerobic conditions with the production of hydrogen sulphide, as discussed earlier.
In addition to the high BOD, the waste may also contain high levels of nitrogen and phosphate,
which may lead to eutrophication of estuarine systems. This effect, however, is often prevented by the
natural turbidity of estuarine waters which reduces the amount of light reaching the plant life, especially
algae fixed to the substrate in shallow water. In addition, there is often an increase in bacteria and viruses
of faecal origin associated with sewage, many of which are pathogenic.
In many instances the sewage is simply discharged into the estuaries in the hope that the waste will
be taken out on the tide. The complex nature of currents and mixing in estuaries, however, often leads to a
high residence time of such effluents, further exacerbating the pollution problem, as has been seen in
many Mediterranean lagoons, e.g. at Marseille and Venice.

Heavy metals In addition to the organic contamination of the water, there is an added load of heavy
metals from sewage and industrial waste. Metals such as copper and zinc in a sewage often become bound
to the sediments of the estuary. These metals, unlike the organic waste, are not biodegradable and persist
in the environment. The metals often precipitate out because of the displacement of the metal ions by the
ions in the salt water. They are often concentrated in filter feeding molluscs such as the mussel, Mytilus
(Bayne, 1978; Philips and Segar, 1986). This accumulation may have adverse effects on the aquatic flora
and fauna and may constitute a public health problem where contaminated organisms are used for food.
It is worth mentioning that the behaviour of any heavy metal in an estuary will depend on its
chemical state: whether it is in solution or particulate. The chemical behaviour of river-borne trace
elements within an estuary is determined to a large extent by the chemical form in which it is transported
by rivers: in solution, adsorbed on to surfaces, as solid organic particles, coating on detrital particles,
lattice or crystalline form and precipitated (as pure phases on detrital particles). The behaviour of the
metal or pollutant will very much depend on these properties, but the important point to bear in mind is
that the pollutant must be bioavailable (i.e. accessible to the biota) before it will cause difficulty.

Synthetic organic chemicals, e.g. organochlorines Synthetic organic compounds are also likely to
enter the estuarine ecosystem. Some of these compounds such as pesticides and PCBs are harmful and
may have a significant impact on the biota. Usually licences are not issued to discharge these wastes, and
they seem to enter the estuaries via leachate (from, for example, landfill sites or dumps) or through illicit
dumping.

Thermal waste The origin of thermal water is from cooling water in industry and power stations. This
will increase turbidity due to an increase in suspended solids in the waste and can also lead to greater
oxygen demand by other waste effluents. The increased water temperatures can also support some unusual
assemblages of organisms (often of semi-tropical origin in temperate estuaries) that are not usually found
under the normal climatic conditions.
292 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

6.7 MARINE POLLUTION

The sea is a major sink or reservoir for all pollutants, covering as it does over 70 per cent of the surface of
the globe. Pollutants entering the sea may be degradable or non-degradable and are similar to the range
found in other aquatic environments (Table 6.10).
Pollutants enter the sea directly from outfalls and sometimes from coastal towns, but most frequently
they enter from estuaries. Pollutants also reach the sea indirectly from rivers, which receive many
pollutants from their drainage catchments, as discussed earlier. Particulate atmospheric pollutants may
enter the sea directly as fall-out while non-particulate pollutants enter the sea through precipitation.
Atmospheric pollution tends to be more regional or even global in scale than the previously mentioned
inputs. The total global input of lead to the sea from natural and man-made sources is estimated to be
about 400000 t/yr. Of this about half is derived from vehicle exhausts containing lead petrol additives
which reach the atmosphere and are then rained out (Clark, 1992). In addition to the above, there are also
some offshore inputs of pollutants. These include chronic inputs from ships, resulting from emptying of
bilge tanks, ballast water, etc., or acute inputs resulting from shipwrecks or losses of cargo during storms,
etc.
We can recognize five very broad categories of pollutant which are dealt with separately below.

6.7.1 Sewage and Other Oxygen Demanding Wastes

Man has been aware of the need to control the ‘nuisance’ value of sewage for more than a century. In
addition to the reduction in oxygen levels caused by the high BOD levels of sewage, as discussed earlier,
sewage pollution also can lead to eutrophication, a process that has already been described for freshwaters
and estuaries. In the marine environment, a frequent sign of eutrophication is the growth on the shore of
the green algae Enteromorpha and Ulva, which turn parts of the beach bright green. An increase in the
incidence of red tides (caused by blooms of red algae) has also been attributed to organic enrichment of
coastal seas, although the precise factors initiating blooms of these toxic phytoplankton species are not
known. These red tides can be economically destructive to fisheries by being toxic in themselves and also
through the bans on shellfish sales during these periods. A number of conditions have been diagnosed in
birds and other organisms known as paralytic shellfish poisoning which is brought about by red tide
toxins and is fatal to organisms.
While sewage was traditionally discharged directly into the sea, most countries now insist on some
form of physical/biological treatment (See Chapter 12). The end product after secondary treatment is an
inert sludge and a clear liquid effluent. The sewage sludge has generally been dumped at sea. The sludge
is not particularly toxic to marine life and the currents generally prevent deoxygenation of the seabed.
Nevertheless, the buildup of fine material blankets the bottom and kills most of the natural organisms, so
that only a low diversity fauna develops, characteristically dominated by species of worm of the genus
Capitella (Reish, 1957). In the Firth of Clyde, sludge has been dumped for more than a century at a site at
Garroch head. The dump site was relocated to a new site, about 5 km from the old site, in 1974. The new
site received about one and a half million tons of sludge per year (Clark, 1992). Such sites are effectively
the same as waste tips or dumping grounds on land. Examination of the old site has shown that the fauna
does gradually return to normal, but the sediments remain heavily contaminated with metals. In many
countries, sludge dumping at sea is now prohibited. By 1995 sea dumping of sludge had virtually stopped
internationally.
One other problem associated with sewage is the presence of bacteria and viruses hazardous to
human health. Faecal contamination of seawater is usually measured by counting the numbers of the
bacterium Escherischia coli. This is called the coliform count. E. coli is always present in the human
intestine and is not pathogenic (disease causing). It is merely a good indicator of the degree of faecal
contamination of the seawater. In general people do not drink seawater, which therefore only becomes
a
 WATER POLLUTION: ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES 293

hazard to bathers if it is heavily contaminated. The major risk from contamination is from contaminated
seafood. Shellfish, which routinely filter large quantities of seawater in the feeding processes, may as a
result harbour pathogenic bacteria and viruses (and also accumulate heavy metals). To counteract the
hazard, public health authorities generally forbid the commercial gathering of mussels, clams, etc., from
foreshores contaminated with sewage. All shellfish, even from less polluted areas, must be depurated
(cleansed) before sale, usually by keeping them for a period of time in clean water, circulated over a weir
irradiated by UV light. It is right that the public should be protected in this way, but somewhat unjust that
fisherman should bear the cost of shellfish decontamination, when the root cause is inadequate sewage
disposal by the same authorities that impose the regulation. Little is known about the fate of viruses in the
sea, but these are in many ways more dangerous than bacteria. They are more difficult to depurate, and
whereas bacteria need to occur in moderate numbers to cause disease, infection can result from a single
virus. It has been noted that the highest incidence of lymphocystis (a cancer possibly induced by viruses)
in fish, especially flatfish, is in estuaries (Mulcahy et al., 1987) and it is these that tend to have the highest
pollution load.

6.7.2 Oil
Crude oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons which must be refined before it is available for any of its
multiple uses (lubricating, combustion, pharmaceuticals, etc.). Oil enters the sea from a variety of sources
(Table 6.16).
Oil is a natural product which results from plant remains fossilized over millions of years, under
marine conditions. It is not surprising, therefore, that all components of oil are readily biodegradable by
bacteria, although different components degrade at different rates, tars being one of the slowest. When oil
is spilled on the sea, being light, it spreads over the surface as a slick. The lightest components, which are
also often the most toxic, either evaporate or dissolve in the water. Immiscible components become
emulsified and dispersed in the water, while heavy residues form tar balls. The immiscible fraction forms
a water-in-oil emulsion called ‘chocolate mousse’, which contains about 75 per cent water. This forms
sticky brown masses when it comes ashore and causes major problems on tourist beaches. Tar balls float
and are common in ocean waters, particularly along shipping routes.

Table 6.16 Estimated world input of

petroleum hydrocarbons to the marine
environment (m t/yr)

Source Estimated input

Transportation
Tanker accidents,
bilge and fuel oil 0.5
Fixed installations
Offshore production
Terminal operations 0.2
Coastal refineries
Other anthropogenic sources
Municipal and industrial wastes
Runoff (river and urban)
Atmospheric fall-out 1.4
Ocean dumping
Natural inputs
Underwater seepage 0.2

Total input 23,

Modified from Clark, 1992

294 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

While oil at sea was a cause for concern, oil pollution did not impinge much upon public awareness,
and hence received little scientific attention until the first shipwrecking of tankers carrying crude oil. The
earliest were the Zampico Maru in 1957 off Baja, California, and the Torrey Canyon in 1967 off Cornwall.
The Torrey Canyon was wrecked in March, off Lands End, and large quantities of oil came ashore on the
beaches of Cornwall. Many of the oil-contaminated beaches in Cornwall were tourist beaches and
authorities were desperate to try to rehabilitate the beaches before the oncoming tourist season.
Dispersants were used in an effort to remove the oil, and the resulting damage to the beaches was a result
of the use of the dispersants rather than the direct effects of oil. The principal damage was to grazing
animals such as limpets, which were eliminated. In both Cornwall and Baja, California, the elimination of
herbivores allowed the rapid growth of green and brown algae which changed the appearance of the shore
from one of open rocks with limpets and barnacles to one dominated by seaweeds. This change also
occurs when the dominant grazers are killed by other causes such as red tides (Southgate ef al., 1984). The
return of grazers occurs gradually but may take up to ten years (Southward and Southward, 1978).
The early dispersants were soon replaced by less toxic products. Modern dispersants are up to a
thousand times less toxic than those used on the Zorrey Canyon oil, although they cannot be said to be
non-toxic. Dispersants act by breaking up oil into very fine particles, thus increasing the surface—volume
ratio and allowing bacteria to degrade the oil much more rapidly.

Cleaning of beaches Beaches can be cleaned in three ways.

Mechanical cleaning Stranded oil in embayments can often be pumped ashore into a tanker. On shore,
however, mechanical removal is usually only possible on sandy or pebble beaches. In these environments
the use of dispersants is contraindicated because the dispersed mixture simply drains downwards to
appear again at a later date. The use of heavy mechanical plant does of course damage the fauna and flora
and the integrity of sandy beaches can be put at risk by the excessive use of bulldozers. Where there are
large quantities of oiled seaweeds, they may need to be removed from beaches and require disposal. Small
quantities can be ploughed into the land where bacterial activity will slowly break the oil down. Large
quantities are generally simply tipped into waste dumps, an unsatisfactory but unavoidable solution.
Absorption Large quantities of straw may be scattered on to a beach to absorb the oil. After a period of
time this can be collected for removal. In theory this is the most environment-friendly approach, but it is
very labour intensive and generally somewhat limited in its use (eg. access to site, complexity of terrain,
etc.) and the problems of disposal of the oiled straw remain.
Dispersants As already mentioned, these products have relatively low toxicity if used correctly (with
large volumes of seawater). After use the shore should be doused with large quantities of seawater. Where
possible, application can be carried out from tugs or barges standing off from the shore. There is some
evidence that juvenile stages of some shore animals, e.g. barnacles, may be adversely affected by
dispersants (Myers et al., 1980).

The ecological impact of oil pollution The most emotive impact of oil on marine life is the oiling of
birds. Oiled, dying seabirds are the first and often only marine organisms to receive media attention.
Seabirds are at risk because they come into contact with oil floating on the sea surface. The damage is
caused more by the physical attributes of the oil than by its toxicity (when ingested) (Cox, 1993). It clogs
the feathers, replaces the air normally trapped by the feathers between them and the skin and so reduces
the ability of the birds to maintain their body temperature. Birds may drown if the plumage waterlogs or
may die of hypothermia. Seal pups are occasionally reported as being badly oiled, but in general adult
seals, sealions and whales do not appear to be at high risk from oil on the sea, since their body is insulated
by thick layers of subcutaneous fat. Sea otters along the Pacific coast of the Americas insulate their body
with thick fur in much the same way as birds do with feathers. These are at serious risk from floating oil
and more than a thousand were killed by oil from the Exxon Valdez in 1989 (Miller, 1992):
In the intertidal zone, the effects of an oil spill are generally more marked on the high shore than on
the middle and lower shores. This is doubtless because oil is pushed up the shore with each rising tide,
 WATER POLLUTION: ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES 295

Table 6.17 Numbers of % cover/0.25 m? of three key organisms at

three sites in Bantry Bay in July 1978 and July 1979

Organism Site July 1978 July 1979 Decrease (%)

Barnacles (number) Cooskeen Cove 1872 925 51
Mussels (%) Eagle Point 56 29 48
Dereenacarrin 72 38 47
Limpets (number) Dereenacarrin 287 83 7\

After Myers et al., 1980

causing an accumulation in the high tide region.

In January 1979, the French tanker Betelgeuse exploded in Bantry Bay, Ireland, pouring 2000 tons of
crude oil into the bay (Cross ef al., 1979). A study of three key rocky shore species (limpets, mussels and
barnacles) showed a marked drop in the numbers of these three species between July 1978 prior to the
incident and July 1979, following the incident (Table 6.17).
These data might have been compulsive, if circumstantial, evidence for a significant effect of oil
pollution. An analysis of data collected on a monthly basis between these two dates, however, revealed
that the drop in numbers of mussels and barnacles could be attributed to the predatory effects of dog-
whelks, and that the limpet numbers dropped prior to January 1979 when the oil pollution occurred
(Myers et al., 1980). Rarely does an oil pollution incident occur at a site coincident with an active
intertidal marine research project. The above data reveal how careful one must be in assessing the results
from a typical environmental impact survey using data collected ‘before and after’. Natural changes occur
all the time. Indeed, we should be more surprised if there were no change in the relative numbers of
organisms in a community from season to season or from year to year. The magnitude of these changes
may be so great that the background noise conceals the signal that we hope to perceive.

Commercial damage from oil pollution Particularly at risk are man-made installations at the sea
surface. This includes aquaculture installations such as fish cages. One of the problems of oil pollution is
its unpredictability and hence it is difficult to guard against. Where possible, floating booms can be used
to protect aquaculture installations and it is also sometimes possible to move cages to another and
unaffected site, although when cages contain fish, they must be towed very slowly to avoid damage to the
fish. An indirect effect of oil pollution is the tainting of the flesh of fish and shellfish. This may continue
long after the pollution incident, from the leaching of oil residue from oiled equipment. Oily flavours are
generally repulsive to human taste and while not necessarily hazardous to human health, avoidance of
seafood by the public after a spill may seriously affect the market and hence the livelihood for both the
fishing and aquaculture sectors.

Public health and oil pollution Oil includes polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), some of which
are known to be carcinogenic. It was at one time feared that these might accumulate in food chains and
that consumption of animals high in the food chain, such as carnivorous fish, might pose a health hazard
to humans. There now seems to be little evidence for the accumulation of PAH in marine organisms.

6.7.3 Heavy Metals

Metals are known to be essential for living organisms. They are used in respiratory pigments (iron,
copper, vanadium) enzymes (zinc), vitamins (cobalt) and other metabolic processes. Only when normal
concentrations are exceeded do heavy metals become potentially toxic (see the discussion in Chapter 5).
Marine organisms tend to accumulate heavy metals from the environment and are adapted to handle
296 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

Table 6.18 Natural and anthropogenic inputs of

heavy metals to the marine environment

Natural Anthropogenic

Coastal supply Direct processes

Rivers Mining
Glaciers Smelting
Wave action Refining
Erosion
Deep sea supply Indirect processes
Volcanism Electroplating
Tectonic activity Catalysts
Chemical processes in sediments Petrochemical Industry
Atmospheric Atmospheric
Particles Fossil fuel burning
Vapour (mercury)

normal fluctuations in intake. In the sea, the concentrations of heavy metals are so low that they are
readily increased to levels that marine organisms have never previously encountered. The natural and
artificial sources of heavy metals are listed in Table 6.18.
The following subsections discuss several of the more important heavy metals in the marine
environment.

Mercury The first indication that mercury in the marine environment could be a hazard to human life
came in the late 1950s when more than a hundred people in Minimata Bay, Japan, were killed or
disabled through eating fish and shellfish contaminated with methyl mercury. While the toxicity of
mercury was well known, this was and still is the only pollutant introduced into the marine environment
known to be directly responsible for human deaths. The Minimata Bay mercury had been released into
the environment from a factory using it as a catalyst to manufacture acetaldehyde from acetylene. Since
1965, mercury contamination has been recorded in several European countries, particularly in Swedish
lakes and rivers, as well as in parts of Canada and the United States. Mercury is taken up by shellfish,
especially bivalve molluscs, and by fish. Cod taken from the sound between Denmark and Sweden
which is heavily contaminated with mercury contain up to 1.29 ppm mercury, while those from the
North Sea 0.15—0.2 ppm (Clark, 1992). Large oceanic fish such as tuna, swordfish and marlin have
high levels of mercury in their muscles. When first discovered it was thought that this indicated that
mercury pollution had reached a global status. However, examination of mercury levels in the muscles
of preserved specimens in the British Museum from the last century showed that high mercury levels in
these fish was quite normal. These fish swim continuously and routinely pass large quantities of water
through their open mouths. The result is a large uptake of metals which they cannot excrete and so
concentrate in their tissues.
Both birds and sea mammals concentrate mercury—birds in their feathers and liver, mammals in
the liver. Interestingly, marine mammals can accumulate quite large quantities without coming to harm.
Selenium antagonizes the toxic effect of the mercury. Mercury selenide in the liver of dolphins appears
to be a detoxification product of the methyl mercury taken in from their food.
Mercury is now recognized as a potential hazard on a regional scale and following a
recommendation by the World Health Organization (WHO) of a maximum tolerable consumption in
food of 0.3mg of mercury, standards for the maximum permitted levels of mercury in seafood have
been set in many countries. In the European Union a uniform standard of 0.3 g/g has been adopted.
Sweden initially introduced a limit of 0.5 ug/g but discovered that most of the fish from the Baltic and
inland lakes already exceeded this, so were forced to increase the limit to 1.0 ug/g. They advised the
public not to eat more than two fish meals per week (Clark, 1992).
 WATER POLLUTION: ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES 297

Cadmium Cadmium levels are quite high in some coastal waters such as the Severn Estuary in
Britain and the Hardanger Fjord in Norway. In the former case the contamination is natural; in the latter
it is due to smelter wastes. Nevertheless, no ecological effects have been reported. Molluscs are known
to accumulate large concentrations of the metal and in Tasmania the consumption of oysters with high
concentrations of cadmium led to nausea and vomiting in people consuming them. Cadmium can cause
permanent damage to the kidney and can give rise to nephrii proteinum, where proteins are lost in the
urine.

Lead That lead levels are increasing globally in world seas is apparent from records from annual ice
layers in Greenland. Lead aerosols are distributed world-wide in the atmosphere and enter the sea
through rain. Local levels may be enhanced by sludge dumping or other special circumstances.
However, lead does not appear to be particularly toxic to marine organisms and is known to be
accumulated in some species without apparent harm. In the contaminated Sorfjord in Norway seaweeds
and plants contain levels up to 3000 ppm. Lead is responsible for serious damage to the health of
humans and birds (O’Halloran et al., 1988) but does not at the moment appear to be a problem in the
marine environment. Interestingly lead nitrate actually enhances the growth of some diatoms.

6.7.4 Man-made Organic Poisons

These include an array of pesticides based on organochlorine or organophosphorus compounds, PCBs
and synthetic herbicides.

Organochlorine pesticides Unlike some early pesticides like nicotine, pyrethrum and rotenone that
are obtained from plants, DDT and its relatives are organic compounds devised by man and synthesized
from petrochemicals and chlorine. The commonest breakdown product reaching the sea is DDE, which
is very persistent and fat soluble. Although technically a proscribed insecticide in developed countries,
DDT is still in use illegally and in the Third World.
Minute amounts of DDT have been shown to reduce photosynthesis in phytoplankton, so nsing
levels in the sea could theoretically affect overall primary productivity. Dietry DDT levels of 2 to
5 ug/g body weight caused 30 to 100 per cent mortality in shrimp, crab and fish within 2 to 10 weeks
in toxicity tests. Current recorded levels of DDT in some estuaries are around 0.01 to 0.2 ug/g body
weight (Myers er al., 1980). Hardy animals concentrate the residues while they live and pass even more
potent doses on to predators higher up the food chain. The evidence of the damaging effects of
organochlorines on predatory birds was outlined in Chapter 2. In the marine environment smaller fish-
eating birds appear to have been less affected, but a chemical factory near Rotterdam manufacturing
Dieldrin and Endrin was thought to be responsible for the decline in the size of a Sandwich tern colony
from 20000 to 650 in 1965. When measures were taken to prevent the discharge of effluent from the
factory, the numbers of terns rose to 5000.

Organophosphorus compounds These biocides include Malathion, Parathion and Dipterex. Like
DDT they are nerve poisons used to control insect pests on crops. They are very toxic to fish, although
less so than DDT, but unlike DDT they are not retained but are slowly inactivated and excreted.
Warning signals exist, however. In 1964, fish were found to be dying in an area around a marine outfall
of a Danish factory manufacturing Parathion (Clark, 1992). Lobsters were affected over a much wider
area. The factory effluent was found to be lethal to lobsters at a dilution of 1:50 000.

Herbicides Early herbicides were based on common plant hormones (auxins), but now a variety of
artificially synthesized compounds are used. Most of these are much less stable than organochlorines
and have not yet been recorded as causing damage to the marine environment. It should be borne in
298 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

mind, however, that algae, including phytoplankton, react to herbicides in a similar way to terrestrial
plants.

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) PCBs have been used in industry since the 1930s and are
complex mixtures of chlorobiphenyls, each characterized by the substitution of the biphenyl nucleus
equally or unequally by one or more chlorine atoms. Unlike most other pollutants, PCBs were in the
environment long before their presence or role as pollutants was recognized. PCBs are virtually
insoluble in seawater and particularly stable at temperatures which would decompose almost all natural
and many synthetic organic compounds. Their stability to chemical. reagents is also high. Not
surprisingly, therefore, once introduced into the environment, including the seas, these compounds
are exceedingly persistent. Being fat soluble they move readily through the environment and within
tissues or cells. Whatever the sampling locality, PCBs are always in greater concentrations than other
chlorinated hydrocarbons, in a variety of organisms such as shrimps, plankton, pelagic and demersal
fish and marine mammals (Safe, 1987). As second-order carnivores, seals have been shown to acquire
the highest tissue levels of PCB of any marine mammals. PCB levels in the blubber of seals from the
North Sea, Irish Sea and the Baltic are very much higher than those from the Arctic, Antarctic and
Pacific Oceans (Nixon, 1991). There is no evidence that seals in a healthy condition are affected by
these residues, but when fats are mobilized during periods of poor feeding the higher concentrations in
the remaining fat could have a detrimental physiological effect, although there is currently no
supporting evidence for this.

6.7.5 Radioactivity
Like heavy metals, radioactivity occurs naturally in seawater, principally from potassium-40, although it
also contains other decay products. Radionucliides tend to accumulate in sediments and in some parts
of the world reach quite high natural levels. At one popular bathing beach near Rio de Janeiro, visitors
are exposed to a dose rate of 20 wGy/h (Clark, 1992). A gray (Gy) is the amount of radiation causing
1 kg of body tissue to absorb 1 J of energy. The principal anthropogenic inputs of radioactivity into the
oceans are from nuclear weapons testing and liquid wastes from nuclear power stations and fuel
reprocessing plants.
The ecological effects of radioactivity have been investigated, particularly in relation to the
discharge from Sellafield, in the United Kingdom. Radionucliides can be biomagnified in food webs
(see Chapter 2), with bottom-living fish receiving some of the highest loads. Experimental plaice tested
up to two and a half years after release had required a mean dose of 3.5 wSv/h, where Sv are sieverts,
the dose equivalent. The minimum dosage which results in measurable physiological or metabolic
disturbances to plaice in the laboratory is 100 wSv/h.
The human population is exposed to natural and man-made radiation continuously. Exposure to
radiation from the sea is from the consumption of seafood or from radioactive sediment on beaches.
Unless massive doses of radiation are received, the chronic effects are not manifested for considerable
periods of time. Furthermore, they may only manifest themselves in the offspring through genetic
deformities. The effects of exposure to radioactivity are thus difficult to quantify.

6.7.6 Heat

Cooling waters from power generating stations, for example, are often discharged into the sea at high
temperatures. The large volume of receiving water usually results in relatively modest increases in sea
temperatures in the vicinity of the outfall, usually less than 2°C. In temperate regions this has little
effect on the communities, although breeding seasons may be extended. In enclosed areas such as
docks, the survival of exotic organisms may be enhanced (Chapman and Carlton, 1991). In tropical
 WATER POLLUTION: ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES 299

waters, the effects of heating may be more severe, since many tropical organisms, such as corals, are
already living near their thermal upper limit. A rise of sea temperature by as little as 2°C may kill
many tropical corals, sponges, crustaceans and molluscs. The bleaching of corals in the Galapagos and
the Caribbean after modestly raised temperatures following an El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
event is testimony to this (Glynn, 1993).

6.8 PROBLEMS

6.1 How would you define water quality? Why is the maintenance of water quality so important in water
management?
6.2 On the basis of field observations and information from the local authority and water suppliers,
identify the major consumer processes utilizing your local river system. What possible conflicts
could arise and how might these conflicts be rationalized?
6.3 What is an ‘oxygen sag curve’ and outline its importance in understanding the effects of organic
pollution?
6.4 Compare and contrast the causes and effects of acidification with cultural eutrophication of

Flow

freshwater ecosystems.
6.5 How would you rate the water quality of the river from which the following invertebrate sample was
taken? Is the same conclusion reached using the various biotic assessment indices?
6.6 The map above represents a stream system in an intensively farmed catchment. A serious fish kill
occurs in summer between points | and 2 and fish populations do not recover to normal levels until
point 3. Explain in detail how you would attempt to locate the source and identify the nature of the
problem.
6.7 Compare and contrast the causes and consequences of pollution in estuaries and freshwater
ecosystems.
300 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

6.8 Imagine you are a planner and have to site a new paper/pulp factory. Given the choice, where would
and
you locate it—on an estuary, on a river or on land? Explain the possible problems in each case
justify your decision. .
6.9 What procedures are generally used’ for cleaning up oil spills? Which are the most biologically
friendly?
6.10 What are the ecological consequences of sewage input to the marine environment?
6.11 In what way do man-made organic poisons affect marine organisms?

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

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Bayne, B. L. (1978) ‘Mussel watching’. Nature, 275, 87-88.
Bryan, G. W., P. E. Gibbs, L. G. Hummerstone and G. R. Burt (1986) ‘The decline of the gastropod Nucella lappilus around south-
west England: evidence for the effect of tributyl tin from anti-fouling paints’. Journal of the Marine Biological Association 66,
611-640.
Carpenter, S. and J. Kitchell (eds) (1993) The Trophic Cascade in Lakes, Cambridge Studies in Ecology, Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge.
Chapman, D. (ed.) (1992) Water quality assessments, Chapman and Hall, London.
Chapman, J. W. and J. T. Carlton (1991) ‘A test of criteria for introduced species: the global invasion by the isopod Synidotea
laevidorsalis (Miers, 1881)’. Journal of Crustacean Biology, 11, 386-400.
Chave, P. (1990) ‘Waterways of the future: the role of biological assessment in protecting our aquatic environment’. Biologist, 37,
129-131.
Clark, R. B. (1992) Marine Pollution, 3rd edn, Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Clements, W., D. Cherry and J. Van Hassel (1992) ‘Assessment of the impact of heavy metals on benthic communities at the Clinch
River (Virginia): evaluation of an index of community sensitivity’, Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 49,
1686-1694.
Cox, G. W. (1993) Conservation Ecology, Wm C. Brown Publishers, Dubuque, Iowa.
Cross, T. FE, T. Southgate and A. A. Myers (1979) ‘The initial pollution of shores in Bantry Bay, Ireland, by oil from the Tanker
Betelgeuse. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 10, 104-107.
Cummins, C. P. (1986). “Effects of aluminium and low pH on growth and development in Rana temporaria tadpoles’, Oecologia, 69,
248-252.
Cummins, C. P. (1988) ‘Effect of calcium on survival times in Rana temporaria embryos at low pH’, Functional Ecology 2, 297—
302.
EC (1980). Council Directive relating to the quality of water intended for human consumption. 80/778/EEC.
Edwards, R. W., J. H. Stoner and A. S. Gee (eds) (1990) Acid Waters in Wales, Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Hague.
Environmental Research Unit (ERU) (1989) Cork Harbour Water Quality, Environmental Research Unit, Dublin, 113pp.
Environmental Research Unit (ERU) (1992) Water Quality in Ireland 1987-1990, Environmental Research Unit, Dublin.
Fryer, G. and O. Forshaw (1979) ‘The freshwater crustacea of the island of Rhum (inner Hebrides): a faunistic and ecological
survey’, Biological Journal of the Linnaean Society, 11, 333-367.
Gee, A. S. and J. H. Stoner (1989) ‘A review of the causes and effects of acidification of surface waters in Wales and potential
mitigation techniques’, Archives, Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 18, 121-130.
Giller, P. S., J. O’Halloran, R. Hernan, N. Roche, C. Clenaghan, J. Evans, G. K. Kiely, N. Allott, M. Brennan, J. Reynolds, D. Cooke,
M. Kelly—Quinn, J. Bracken, S. Coyle and E. Farrell, E. (1993) ‘An integrated study of forested catchments in Ireland,’ Irish
Forestry, 50, 70-88.
Glynn, P. W. (1993) ‘Coral reef bleaching: ecological perspectives’, Coral Reefs, 12, 1-17.
Harriman, R. and B. R. S. Morrison (1982) ‘Ecology of streams draining forested and non-forested catchments in an area of Central
Scotland subject to acid precipitation’, Hydrobiologia, 88, 251-263.
ca ee D. E. Wells (1985) “Cause and effect of surface water acidification in Scotland’, Journal of Water Pollution Control

Haslam, S. M. (1978) River Plants, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Hedin, L. O., L. Granat, G. E. Likens, T. A. Buishband, J. N. Galloway, T. J. Butler and H. Rodhe (1994) ‘Steep declines in
atmospheric base cations in regions of Europe and North America’, Nature, 367, 351-354.
aie M. (1986) Biological Indicators of Freshwater Pollution and Environmental Management, Applied Science Publishers,
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Henderson-Sellars, B. and H. R. Markland (1987) Decaying Lakes, John Wiley, Chichester.
 WATER POLLUTION: ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES 301

Hildrew, A. G. and P. S. Giller (1994) ‘Patchiness, species interactions and disturbance in the stream benthos’, in Aquatic
Ecology, Scale, Pattern and Process, P. Giller, A. Hildrew and D. Rafaelli (eds), Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford,
pp 21-61.
Hornung, M. and M. D. Newson (1986). ‘Upland afforestation influences on stream hydrology and chemistry, Soil Use Management,
2, 61-65.
Howells, G. D. (1986) The Loch Fleet Project—Report of the Prevention Phase 1984-1986, Central Electricity Generating Board,
Leatherhead, 74pp.
Hynes, H. B. (1960) Biology of Polluted Waters, Liverpool University Press, Liverpool.
Hynes, H. B. N. (1975) ‘The stream and its valley’, Verhandlung der International Vereinigung fur Limnologie, 19, 1-15.
Institute of Hydrology Research Report (1987). 1984-87, Great Yarmouth, UK.
James, A. and L. Evison (1979) Biological Indicators of Water Quality, John Wiley, New York.
Jorgensen, S. E. (1980). Lake Management, Pergamon, Oxford.
Krebs, C. J. (1985) Ecology. 3rd edn, Harper and Row, New York.
Lacroix, G. L. and D. Townsend (1987) ‘Response of juvenile Atlantic salmon stocks to episodic increases of some rivers in Nova
Scotoa, Canada’, in Ecophysiology of Acid Stress in Aquatic Organisms, H. Witters and O. Vanderborght (eds), Annals of
Royal Society of Zoology, Belgium, Vol. 117, Supplement 1, pp. 197-307.
Lansdown, R and W. Yule (1986) The Lead Debate: The Environment, Toxicology and Child Health, Croom Helm, London.
Likens, G. E., F. H. Bormann, R. S. Pierce, J. S. Eaton and N. M. Johnson, (1977) Biogeochemistry ofa Forested Ecosystem,
Springer-Verlag, New York.
McLuskey, D. S. (1981). The Estuarine Ecosystem, Blackie and Son, Glasgow.
Maitland, P. S. (1990). Biology of Fresh Waters, 2nd edn, Blackie and Son, Glasgow.
Mason, C. F. (1991). Biology of Freshwater Pollution, 2nd edn, Longman, Harlow.
Mason, C. F. and W. O’Sullivan (1992) ‘Organochlorine pesticide residues and PCBs in otters (Lutra lutra) from Ireland’, Bulletin of
Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 48, 387-393.
Miller, G. T. (1992) Living in the Environment, 7th edn, Wadsworth, Belmont, California.
Moss, B. (1988) Ecology of Freshwaters. Man and Medium, 2nd edn, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford.
Mulcahy, M. F., E. Twomey, A. Petersen and C. T. Maye (1987) ‘Pathobiology of estuarine fish and shellfish in relation to pollution’,
in: Biological Indicators of Pollution, D. H. S. Richardson (ed.), Royal Irish Academy, Dublin, p. 210.
Myers, A. A., T. Southgate and T. F. Cross (1980) ‘Distinguishing the effects of oil pollution from natural cyclical phenomena on the
biota of Bantry Bay, Ireland’, Marine Pollution Bulletin, 11, 204-207.
National Rivers Authority (NRA) (1990) Toxic Blue-Green Algae, Water Quality Series 2, National Rivers Authority, London,
125pp.
Nixon, E. (1991) ‘PCBs in marine mammals from Irish coastal waters’, Irish Chemical News, 7, 31-38.
O’Halloran, J., A. A. Myers and P. F Duggan (1988) ‘Lead poisoning in Mute Swans Cygnus olor in Ireland: a review’, Wildfowl
Supplement, 1, 389-395.
O’Halloran, J., S. D. Gribbin, S. J. Tyler and S. J. Ormerod (1990) ‘The Ecology of dippers Cinclus cinclus in relation to stream in
upland Wales: time activity budgets and energy expenditure, Oecologia, 85, 271-280.
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west Ireland’, Biology and Environment, Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, 93, 25-31.
Ormerod, S. J., N. S. Wetherley and A. S. Gee (1990) ‘Modelling the ecological changing acidity of Welsh streams’, in Acid
Waters in Wales, R. N. Edwards, J. H. Stoner and A. S. Gee (eds), Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Hague, pp. 279-298.
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Phillips, D. J. H. and D. A. Segar (1986) ‘Use of bio—indicators in monitorining conservative contaminants’, Journal of Marine
Biological Association, 17, 10-17.
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origin’, in US Public Health Service Biological Problems in Water Pollution, Cincinnati, pp. 195-200.
Safe, S. (1987) Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs): Mammalian and Environmental Toxicology, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
Smith, R. V. (1977) ‘Domestic and agricultural contributions to the inputs of phosphorus and nitrogen to Lough Neagh’, Water
Research, 11, 453-459.
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bloom of the dinoflagellate Gyrodinium aureolum’, Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 64,
485-492.
Southward, A. J. and E. C. Southward (1978) ‘Recolonisation of rocky shores in Cornwall after use of toxid dispersants to clean up
the Torrey Canyon spill’, Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada, 35, 682-706.
Spellerberg, I. F. (1991). Monitoring Ecological Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
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Works Association and Water Pollution Control Federation. L. Clesceri, A. Greenberg and R. Trussell (Eds).
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302 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

Townsend, C. R., A. G. Hildrew and J. Francis (1983) ‘Community structure in some southern English streams: the influence of
physicochemical factors’, Freshwater Biology, 13, 521-544.
United Kingdom Acid Waters Review Group (UKAWRG) (1986). ‘Acidity: in United Kingdom freshwater’s, Interim report,
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443-447.
 CHAPTER

SEVEN
WATER QUALITY IN RIVERS AND LAKES: PHYSICAL PROCESSES

7.1 INTRODUCTION

Chapter 11 discusses the water quality parameters with respect to drinking water. Chapter 12 similarly
discusses water quality parameters of treated wastewater being discharged to either fresh or saline water
bodies. Water bodies as in streams, lakes and estuaries support a variety of fish life, whose ability to
survive in their natural habitat may be inhibited if the water quality is unsatisfactory, as discussed in
Chapters 5 and 6. The quality of water to sustain aquatic life differs from species to species. For
instance, coarse fish can survive in freshwaters with dissolved oxygen levels greater than about 3 mg/L.
However, pelagic fish may need twice this amount. Other water uses such as water abstraction for
human consumption set a further series of water quality standards on a lake or river. Recreational use
may set further standards, e.g. low coliform counts for bathing waters. As such, there are a host of
parameters relevant to water quality at different levels (see Table 11.3). However, probably the most
significant parameter relating to the sustainability of fish life is dissolved oxygen (DO). A parameter
intimately tied up with DO is biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), described in Chapter 3 with the test
detailed in Standard Methods (1992); BOD is generally applied to a wastewater quality. It is a measure
of the potential of the wastewater to reduce the oxygen levels of the receiving water body. Of course,
the greater the dilution of the receiving waters, the less the negative impact of a discharge. As discussed
in Chapter 12, wastewater is most often characterized by its effluent BOD strength. This BOD strength
is diluted by the receiving water and if the resulting receiving water body BOD is impaired then the
BOD effluent strength has been too high. The most relevant lotic water quality parameters are:

e Dissolved oxygen (DO)

e Suspended solids (SS)
¢ Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
e Temperature
® pH

e Nutrients, especially N and P

e VOCs

303
304 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

e Metals, e.g. Hg, Pb, Cd, etc.

e Pesticides

As mentioned, the DO level is significant to aquatic life, as is the level of suspended solids. The
latter increase turbidity and over time settle out on the bottom, increasing the nutrient, metal and toxic
levels of the settled sediments. It also can cause a sediment oxygen demand (SOD). Higher
temperatures cause lower densities and also cause lower saturated dissolved oxygen levels. Nutrients,
especially P and N, can lead to eutrophication of freshwaters and saline waters respectively. Volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) can be toxic to either fish or humans as can excess metals or pesticides, all
discussed qualitively in Chapter 6. The purpose of this chapter is to examine quantitively the physics of
the more significant water quality parameters.

7.2 PARAMETERS OF ORGANIC CONTENT OF WATER QUALITY

The organic content of a wastewater effluent or a streamwater is determined using either of the following
tests:

e BOD;—biochemical oxygen demand

e COD—chemical oxygen demand
e TOC—total organic carbon

When an organic waste is discharged to a stream, the organic content of the effluent undergoes a
biochemical reaction, i.e. assisted by micro-organisms, as follows:

micro—organisms new
Organic
vomiige 2 TUS ee al CO7— 150 stable (7)
products

This is an oxidation reaction and consumes O, from the water body. If the oxygen demand of the waste
(BOD) is high enough, it may deplete the O, and the worst-case scenario is an anaerobic water body.
BOD is defined as the amount of oxygen required by living organisms in the stabilization of the
organic matter of a water/wastewater. As the saturation concentration of O, in water at 20°C is
9.2mg/L in the BOD test, dilution of a wastewater sample with BOD-free, oxygen-saturated water is
necessary if the BOD of the wastewater is > 3 mg/L. A sample of wastewater is diluted with a seeded
water and is placed in an airtight bottle, measuring the concentration of DO at day 0 and again at day
5. The difference in DO is the BOD;. The standard test uses a 300ml BOD bottle and incubation is
performed at 20°C over 5 days in a light-excluded environment. The various dilutions of 1, 5, 10, 20,
50, 100, etc., are now readily available as given in Standard Methods (1992). The BOD test is fully
described in Standard Methods (1992) and readers are recommended to read it.

Example 7.1 The results from a BOD test, diluted by 100, are given in columns 1 and 2 in the table
below. Compute the BOD.

BOD, = p(DO,; — DO,;) (2)

where p = dilution of the sample in the BOD bottle, (e.g. 100)
DO,, DO; = the initial and final DO concentrations
 WATER QUALITY IN RIVERS AND LAKES: PHYSICAL PROCESSES 305

Solution Column 3 contains the BOD volumes for the seeded sample.

Diluted sample BOD

Time DO (calculated)
(days) (mg/L) (mg/L)
0 7.95 —
l 315) 420
2 3.45 450
3 2.75 520
4 25 580
p) 1.80 615

BOD, = p(DO, — DO,)

= L00(7-95' 1-8) ="615 me/L
In addition to the oxygen demand by the wastewater sample, the seeded dilution water is likely to exert
some oxygen demand of its own, however small. Therefore, if the above method were used, uncorrected,
the BOD; would be too high. This is accounted for in the corrected BOD; defined as follows:

BOD; = p|(DO, — DO,) — (B; — By)f] (7.3)

where p = dilution factor
B,, Bs = initial and final DO concentrations of the seeded diluted water (blanks)
jf = ratio of seed DO in sample to seed in blanks
% seed in DO,
~ seed
% in By

Example 7.2. Use Example 7.1 with corresponding DO values for the blank to determine the
corrected BODs.

Solution Column 3 contains the given values for the DO of the blank and column 5 the corrected
BOD values.

Diluted sample Blank BOD BOD

Time DO seeded sample (Example 7.1) corrrected
(days) (mg/L) DO (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)
0 7.95 8.15 — —
1 3a15 8.1 420 415
2 3.45 8.05 450 440
3 275 8.00 520 505
4 2.15 2s 580 560
5 1.80 e9) 615 590

_ % seedinDO, 99% _ 0.99

~ %seedinB, 100% ©
BOD; = p[(DO, — DOs) — (B, — Bs)f]
= 100[(7.95 — 1.80) — (8.15 — 7.90) x 0.99]
= 590 mg/L
306 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

In discussing water quality, we consider the rate of decomposition of organic matter to be proportional to the
amount of organic matter available. This relationship is formulated as a continuous first-order reaction:
dL, 2 esadic: (7.4)
dt
where , = BOD, i.e. BOD remaining, mg/L
K, = BOD deoxygenation rate coefficient, day!
Integrating, therefore, between L, and L;, we get

L,=L,e*" 5)
where L, = BOD,, i.e. ultimate BOD (or ultimate carbonaceous BOD)
(or initial BOD of effluent at point of discharge to a stream)

With reference to Fig. 7.1, there is

BOD, = BOD, — BOD, (7.6)
when BOD, = BOD exerted at time ¢ (or oxygen demand)
BOD, = BOD remaining at time ¢
BOD; = 1, — 4,
=e Leen
Therefore

BOD sya cm) (7.7)

It is important to note that the BOD; is not the ultimate BOD, and BOD; is always less than BOD,.

AS

BOD,= Lo(1 —e-*1")

BOD,

remaining
BOD

——» Time

L,=Loe*it

B BOD,
= Lo(1 —e-K i")
exerted
BOD

(b) days ——» Time

?

Figure 7.1 (a) Idealized BOD,, (b) idealized BOD,.

(a) Idealized BOD,. The organic sample has an initial BOD = L,, and when exposed to an oxygen source, the BOD
decreases exponentially.
(b) Idealized BOD,. The oxygen demand by microbes in the process of stabilization or organic content
of water or
wastewater sample.
 WATER QUALITY IN RIVERS AND LAKES: PHYSICAL PROCESSES 307

Table 7.1 Typical K, values

Environment K, (to base e)

Untreated wastewater 0.35—0.7

Treated wastewater 0.10—0.25
Polluted river 0.10-0.25

Example 7.3 If Example 7.1 has a deoxygenation rate coefficient of 0.15 day| determine the
ultimate CBOD (carbonaceous BOD) i.e. BOD, or Ly.

Solution

BOD, = L,(1 — e*"')

For t = 5 days, BOD, =L(1 «1.~)
Therefore
_ _ BOD,
of Sere
615
037
and so Le= 1165 me/U
Table 7.1 gives values for a range of different BOD constants. The effect of higher rate constants is to
achieve higher BOD, values, but note that the BOD, is independent of the rate (see Fig. 7.2).
Temperature has an effect on K, and is related by
Ky = Kon0 a) (7.8)

where Ky = the rate at temperature T(°C)

K59 = the rate at 20°C (known)
1.047 for 20 26. <2) 2330 ©
6 = coefficient ~ teas for 4°C =< T = 20°C

When a carbonaceous waste biodegrades, it exerts an oxygen demand. Note that BOD is often
synonomous with CBOD (i.e. the carbonaceous biochemical oxygen demand). In addition there can also
be an oxygen demand exerted by the oxidation of nitrogenous compounds. The nitrogen cycle is

Qa (K,>0.3)

BO

(K,<0.1)

days ———> ‘Time

Figure 7.2 Influence of K, values on BOD.

308 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

NBOD

CBOD

ek
days ——» Time
Figure 7.3 Relationship of CBOD and NBOD.

discussed in Chapters 3 and 10. Suffice to say here that ammonia is oxidized to nitrite and nitrite is
oxidized to nitrate in the following microbial assisted reactions:
Nitrosomonas
2NH; +30, ————> 2NO,~ + 2H*t + 2H,O (7.9)
Nitrobacter
2NO,~ +0, ———> 2NO,~ (7.10)
These two reactions are termed nitrification. The oxygen demand associated with the oxidation of
ammonia to nitrate is called the nitrogenous biochemical oxygen demand (NBOD). Typically the NBOD
occurs later than 5 days and does not show up in the CBOD test. This is sketched in Fig. 7.3.

Example 7.4 From the data of Example 7.1, determine the total oxygen demand if the sample
contains 25 mg/L of nitrogen.

Solution
From Example 7.1: BODs | 615 mg/L

From Example 7.3: BOD, = 1165 mg/L

NH, + 20, SE NO,” + Ht +H,O
Nitrification : 1 mole 2 moles 1 mole l1mole 1 mole
17g/mole 16g/mole

Therefore
1 mole of NH; requires 2 moles of O,

and NBOD = 25 x 2PRS ~av) = 114 mg/L

Thus Total oxygen demand = CBOD + NBOD
= 1165 + 114 = 1279 mg/L
If the concentration of nitrogen as organic nitrogen and ammonia nitrogen is known then it is
possible to directly determine the NBOD. It is
DSW
NBOD = TKN x Gall)
14
Therefore
NBOD = TKN x 4.57
where TKN = total Kjeldahl nitrogen
he: Each 10 mg N/L exerts a 45.7 mg O,/L oxygen demand
 WATER QUALITY IN RIVERS AND LAKES: PHYSICAL PROCESSES 309

Hence the importance to perform nitrification of wastewaters as discussed in Chapter 12.

Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a much used parameter, particularly as it can be completed in
about 2 h. (using the titrimetric or colorimetric method) and also because it takes into account those —
organics that are not readily biodegradable. COD is a measure of the total organic carbon with the
exception of certain aromatics such as benzene which are not completely oxidized in the reaction. Some
organic materials such as cellulose, phenols, etc., resist biodegradation along with pesticides and PCBs
which are toxic to micro-organisms and these materials are oxidized in the COD test. A chemical
oxidizing agent is used instead of micro-organisms as is the case in the BOD test. The result is a COD that
is always higher than the associated BOD. In municipal wastewaters,
COD ~ 1.6 BOD,
As such, when wastewater characteristics are consistent over time, they can be calibrated; thus, if the
COD is determined we can generally infer the BOD.

7.3 DISSOLVED OXYGEN AND BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND IN STREAMS

The Streeter and Phelps (1925) model of the relationship of BOD and DO is still valid. They considered
that when biodegradable waste was discharged to a stream or river it consumed oxygen, and the latter was
only renewed by atmospheric reaeration. The process is
dDO
a Kh a hEDO— hal .cae =k DO (GB)

where DO = saturation DO deficit, mg/L

or the difference between saturation
(maximum DO) and the actual DO, in mg/L.
LE, =CBOD, mg/L
K, =deoxygenation rate, day!
K, =reaeration rate, day'

The reader is referred to Chapter 21 for a fuller mathematical description. The solution of Eq. (7.12) is

DO(t) Oe rcem a
K,L,
= ———— (e—Kit
“" —e —Kyt
“?) )+DO,
+ DO, e—Kyt (7.13)
where L, = oxygen demand at ¢ = f,, (or the BOD)
DO, = dissolved oxygen deficit at t = 1,
DO(t) = dissolved oxygen saturation deficit at any time ¢

Equation (7.13) is the Streeter-Phelps oxygen sag formula and is sketched in Fig. 7A.
From Chapter 21, the time (and also the distance downstream) of the occurrence of the minimum DO
or the maximum dissolved oxygen deficit DO, is obtained by differentiating Eq. 7.13 with respect to ¢ and
setting it equal to zero. Then
1 K, DO,(K, — K,)
t= nf f KL, i (7.14)

and Ke
DO — Fe (7.15)
310 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

DO saturation, C,

DO sag curve

(mg/L)
DO
“*— Reaeration
a: Deoxygenationh

:
Co le ——¥ Time (or distance downstream
of waste discharge point)

Figure 7.4 Dissolved oxygen sag curve in a river downstream of an effluent discharge point located at x.

Equation (7.15) is obtained by setting Eq. (7.12) equal to zero. The maximum oxygen deficit is also
obtained by setting the value obtained from Eq. (7.14) into Eq. (7.13).

Example 7.5 A wastewater with a BOD of 25mg/L is discharged through an outfall to a

freshwater stream of mean velocity 0.1 m/s. The DO upstream of the outfall is 8.5 mg/L. Assuming the
deoxygenation rate K, = 0.25 d-! and the reaeration rate K, = 0.4 d~', determine (a) the time and
distance downstream (x,) where DO is a minimum and (b) the minimum DO.

Solution
Saturation DO = 9.2 mg/L

Initial DO = 8.5 mg/L

Initial deficit DO, = 9.2 — 8.5 = 0.7mg/L
(a) The time at which DO, is a minimum from Eq. (7.15) is

1 K> DO,(K2 — Ky)

i In 1
Ko —K, Ky KGa
if 1 tn 0.4 fe 0.7(0.4 — 0.25)
0:40.05 105 0.25 x 25
Therefore
t, = 3.02 days
% = Ut, = 0.1 x 3.02 x 24 x 3600 x 10-3 = 26.1 km

(b) The maximum deficit DO, from Eq. (7.15) is

= V5)
04 xe ~0.25x3.02

Therefore
DOR =r one ie
 WATER QUALITY IN RIVERS AND LAKES: PHYSICAL PROCESSES 311

Thus the minimum value of DO is

DOmin = DOs — DO, = 9.2 — 7.3 = 1.9mg/L

(which is too low to support even coarse fish life and would be considered seriously polluting).

7.4 TRANSFORMATION PROCESSES IN WATER BODIES

Constituents in water bodies are subjected to a range of transformation processes. Those pertaining to a
specific constituent will depend on whether the constituent is conservative (which means the constituent
does not react in water, e.g. metals) or non-conservative. The constituents of key interest in water
quality are:

DO and BOD (mg/L)

Temperature (°C)
Salinity (mg/L of Cl)
Algae as chlorophyll-a
Nitrogen as organic N
Nitrogen as ammonia N
Nitrogen as nitrate N
Nitrogen as nitrite N
Phosphorus as organic and dissolved
Coliforms
Dissolved solids or salts
Metals
Organics
The transformation processes in water bodies include:

Influent ‘clean’ flows improve DO

Influent ‘waste’ flows disimprove DO by adding BOD
Biological oxidation of carbonaceous and nitrogenous organic matter
Reaeration of surface layers—oxygen source
Reduction of BOD by solids settling (sedimentation)
Photosynthesis—oxygen source
Respiration—oxygen sink
Oxygen diffusion into benthic zone—SOD (sediment oxygen demand)—oxygen sink
Increase in BOD of resuspended benthic sediments
Bacterial cell mass decay
Volatilization (VOCs)
Chemical oxygen demands (organic chemicals)
Adsorption (chemical constituents)

In addition to the transformation processes, the transportation processes also impact on water quality
constituents. The key transportation processes are:

Advection
Diffusion
Buoyancy
312 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

The general one-dimensional conservation of mass equation as described in Chapter 21 for a water body
is

aC Oa aC a(UC)
ot
Se
ax ( é x)
= ax
=F us (7.16 )
dispersion advection _source/sink

where C = concentration of a constituent (mg/L)

D,, = longitudinal dispersion coefficient (m?/s)
U = mean of longitudinal velocity (m/s)
S = source or sink terms
To evaluate the fate of a constituent, information is required about the specific transformation and
transport processes that it is subject to. Probably the most commonly studied constituent is DO as it is this
constituent that determines the quality of water body and its ability or inability to support fish life. The
following sections examine some of the transformation and transportation processes. The longitudinal
dispersion coefficient is discussed in detail in Fischer et al. (1979).

7.4.1 Influent ‘Clean’ and ‘Waste’ Flows

The quantity of oxygen in an incoming flow is typically specified as an initial condition in Eq. (7.16) as it
was in Example 7.5 (DO; = 8.5 mg/L). The waste flow BOD is also typically specified as an initial
condition, again as in Example 7.5 (BOD; = 25 mg/L). For instance, in lake water quality it may be that
the incoming river flows have a higher DO; and contribute to raising the level of DO in the lake. Water
quality in lakes is discussed briefly in a later section and in Chapter 21.

7.4.2 Biological Oxidation of Carbonaceous and Nitrogenous Organic Matter

Sometimes this transformation is simply called deoxygenation. The rate of deoxygenation is assumed to
be a first-order reaction process; i.e. the rate of deoxygenation is proportional to the remaining BOD:
fo hak CELT)
where r, = deoxygenation rate constant, d7'
L, = BOD remaining after time t, mg/L

Also Loew.
L, = BOD of initial mixture of wastewater and streamwater
Therefore

a Sie (7.18)
Ifa pollutant of flow rate Q,, and BOD strength Ly is discharged to a river which has a flow rate Q, anda
BOD strength L,, then the initial BOD strength L, of the mixture is determined from mass balance.

n= Q;J be.
Ss ae Ovhw

On On
 WATER QUALITY IN RIVERS AND LAKES: PHYSICAL PROCESSES 313

where Q, = flow in stream, m?/s

Q,, = flow of wastewater discharge, m?/s
L, = BOD of stream, upstream of discharge, mg/L
L,, = BOD of wastewater discharge, mg/L

There is no distinction made in the above equations between the rates for CBOD and NBOD. The rate K;
is a ‘lumped’ parameter, deemed adequate in many case’. Values for K; range from 0.1-0.25d_' for
polluted river to 0.35-0.7d~' for untreated wastewater (see Table 7.1).

7.4.3 Reaeration of Surface Layers of Water Bodies

As in deoxygenation, the rate of reaeration is assumed to be a first-order reaction, dependent on the
current DO deficit, D, as

rp = K,D (7.19)
where D= DO deficit = DO, — DO, mg/L
DO, = DO saturation value, mg/L (9.2 mg/L at 20 °C)
DO = actual DO, mg/L
K, = reaeration constant, d7'

The rate K> may vary over one order of magnitude, typically slow moving lakes with K> as low as 0.1 and
riffle areas of fast moving rivers-with K values ~ 1.0. Typical values of K> are reproduced in Table 7.2.
O’Connor and Dobbins (1958) suggested a generalization for K of
1/2
Be)

where U = mean longitudinal velocity, m/s

H = water depth, m

Readers are referred to O’Connor and Dobbins (1958) for further details and also Tchobanoglous and
Schroeder (1987).

Example 7.6 If a stream flows at 30 m wide x 2.0m deep with a velocity of 0.1 m/s, compute its
reaeration rate constant. If the river now goes into flood, again at 30 m wide but now at 3 m deep and an
average velocity of 2.0m/s, what is its new reaeration rate constant?

Table 7.2 Typical reaeration constants, K,

Range of K>
Environment at 20°C (d_')

Small ponds and backwaters 0.1-0.23

Sluggish streams, large lakes 0).23-0.35
Low velocity rivers 0.35—0.46
Average velocity rivers 0.46-0.69
Fast rivers 0.69-1.15
River rapids on os )

Adapted from Tchobanoglous and Schroeder, 1987

314 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

Solution Using

3.90"
OS ee
SU 1
(a) K, = aa = 9-436
39 20 ei
(b) Ke ed

7.4.4 Reduction of BOD by Solids Settling (Sedimentation)

Suspended solids discharged in wastewater to streams may eventually settle to the bottom of the river or
estuary. In doing so they reduce the contaminant load in the receiving water. The rate of settlement is
directly proportional to the concentration of suspended solids and to the settling velocity:
v
lis == Hi Cz
(720)
where r, = rate of settling by suspended solids, mg/L day
v = settling velocity, m/day
C,, = concentration of suspended solids, mg/L
H = depth of flow, m

As settling velocities are very low, laboratory tests are often used and values are of the order of 0.1 to
10m/day (Metcalf and Eddy, 1991). The contribution of sedimentation to the mass balance equation
(7.16) is not often included.

7.4.5 Photosynthesis and Respiration

If phytoplankton algae are present in a water body (typically lakes but sometimes slow moving rivers or
estuaries) they produce oxygen (photosynthesis) during daylight hours and use up oxygen (respiration)
continuously. This is shown schematically in Fig. 7.5.

S Photosynthesis
a
°

5
S +0,
=)
Mo)
2
a i l l agers
12 6 12 18 24 Time (h)
Noon

Sit aap
Respiration
re)
i=
2
a
=
5
=
}
O

Figure 7.5 Photosynthesis and respiration of phytoplankton.

 WATER QUALITY IN RIVERS AND LAKES: PHYSICAL PROCESSES 315

The growth of phytoplankton is dependent on the nutrient input, and for low nutrient supply the
photosynthesis production of O; can be in balance with the respiration consumption of O,. However,
higher levels of nutrients lead to excess phytoplankton growth and a net consumption of oxygen. The
photosynthesis—respiration requirement for O has been described by Orlob (1981) as

O7= Ky (UpP)yV — Ky (r,P)V

photosynthesis respiration
(7.22)
where V = volume (of lake or water body), m*
O, = oxygen concentration, mg/L
K,, = biota activity coefficient, dimensionless
P = phytoplankton concentration, mg/L
Lt, = growth coefficient, de
ry = Tespiration coefficient, d-!
y = stoichiometric oxygenation factor for algae growth, mg/mg

Some of these parameters are quantified in manuals of computer programs, e.g. QUAL2 (as
described in Chapter 21). If phytoplankton photosynthesize oxygen during the day, in a water en-
vironment which does not have a significant oxygen deficit, then the oxygen produced may achieve
saturation levels and the excess is lost to the atmosphere. It is in this situation that a net loss of oxygen
may occur, although typically photosynthesis produces about 1.5 times the oxygen required for respira-
tion. O’Connor (1960) suggested the following expression for oxygen release during photosynthesis:

P(t) = "—_., hei: S42 (7.23)

pT
where P(t) = rate of oxygen release
P., = maximum rate of release over the period p

Under bloom conditions Nemerow (1985) reported that from 0.5 to 0.96 g of O2 could be produced by
photosynthetic action per square metre per day.

7.4.6 Oxygen Diffusion into the Benthic Zone—SOD

This is often referred to as the sediment oxygen demand (SOD) and occurs when wastewater organics
settle on the river bottom and biodegrade, thereby representing another dissolved oxygen sink. The zero-
order rate model of SOD is
Ksop
"soD == yy 7.24
(7.24)
where rsop = tate of O, consumption, mg/L day
Kgop = oxygen uptake in sediment, mg/m? day
H = depth, m

In areas of significant sediments, the SOD may be a significant sink in the oxygen mass balance. Table 7.3
reports typical Kgop values.

7.4.7 Modified Streeter-Phelps Oxygen Sag Model

Section 7.3 discussed the original oxygen sag curve from Streeter and Phelps (1925) based on the two
processes of BOD oxidation and surface reaeration. This section extends that development to include
316 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

Table 7.3 Typical Kgop values

Description of sediment Ksopt(mg/m? day)

Municipal sludge near outfall —4

Aged municipal sludge — 5
downstream of outfall
Estuarine mud =—1°5
Sandy bed — 0.5
Mineral bed — 0.07

+ Note the different units of Ksop and KA, and K3.

Adapted from Tchobanoglous and Schroeder, 1987

for SOD and other parameters of significance. The Streeter and Phelps model assumes a constant
pollution load discharged at a single point in a river with constant flow rate and uniform cross-section.
This of course is not very real as typical wastewater BOD loads vary with time (diurnal) and a river
may be subject to a series of discharge points with loads of different magnitude. Also, the flow rates of
rivers vary with time and cross-sections are rarely uniform or constant. In the Streeter and Phelps
model, the lateral and vertical DO and BOD concentrations are assumed uniform throughout each
section, i.e. essentially a plug flow assumption. Also the deoxygenation and reaeration rates are
assumed first order with constant rates. This may be too simplistic for delicate water bodies. The many
additional potential processes are listed in Sec. 7.4 (besides deoxygenation and reaeration), some of
which are included in more detailed one-dimensional models (such as QUAL2) or in two-dimensional
models. Recall that Eq. (7.12) for dissolved oxygen 1s

dDO
hr
rF K,DO (7.12)
2
deoxygenation —_—reaeration

Considering that some of the BOD may be removed by sedimentation, Orlob (1983) writes for BOD,

apt a rak (7.25)

where K, = rate constant for BOD removal by sedimentation, d7!
Thus
ies ag (7.26)
ae,
and DO@= — Biko 5 .~(K+K,) P. eat] 4+. DO,e7*2!
0 (7.2
K, — (K, + Ky)
In the above two equations, which are modifications to Eqs. (7.12) and (7.13), it is assumed that no DO is
drawn from the sediment and that there is no photosynthesis (Orlob, 1983).
Further modifications by Camp (1963) for the BOD and DO profile equations include

dL : ‘
oi ES B (7.28)
t BOD from sediment

ane KG K,DO te
dr ORS nae photosynthesis CE

where B = the addition of BOD to the water body from the benthic deposits, mg/L day
 WATER QUALITY IN RIVERS AND LAKES: PHYSICAL PROCESSES 317

The analytic solution to Eqs (7.28) and (7.29) is

L(t) = (xae jee B

KK. [ane on)
and DO(t) = s (x B [eK +K)t Katy
Kah eR)\° K+
+
Ki ( B P
K \K, +K, x) t= ez) —Kyt + DOze —Kyt
(7.31)

If the BOD is exerted in the water body by the benthic deposits but there is no BOD reduction by settling,
(i.e. K, = 0), Eqs (7.30) and (7.31) reduce to

B B
L(t) ae ai re (7.32)

K B :
DO(t) =— *— (L ae ae
e eae: ak ay
BP
+ (1 —e *) + DO,e* (7.33)
Ds

An almost endless series of modifications can be accounted for, even including the mixing process. The
reader is referred to the concise descriptions by Orlob (1983).

Example 7.7 Consider the case in Example 7.5. If in addition to deoxygenation and reaeration,
assume the process of BOD removal by sedimentation is occurring with K, = —0.05d~' determine:
(a) the equation for the time to attain DO, in,
(b) the actual time to attain DO, j,,
(c) the actual distance to attain DO, in,
(d) the maximum DO deficit.

Solution

Deets ji 1 s
te
For convenience set K; + K, = K,*. Then

Ge “a
a ~ = LEG KteK"! + Kye-™!) — KoDO,e*"
dDO
paestae = ()
dt
(i.e. where DO is a minimum, f = &

K\L,
e
+ Kpe~*2") = KyDO
a ae pe| ek ie
GUE (Fre 1)= DO,

K,Va
— kf| 2
318 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

e(Ka-Kit — DO,(K2 — Kf) Kr | Ko

Rilke Kf kf
(Ky —K})t ae Ky ie DO, Kk = =)

: W Gulheu diy ae
Taking the natural log (In) of both sides:

(K — KPe =n LOM
FI 28h
Ae as)
ae

Therefore

Se 1 in Ko 1 2 (et)

© Ko —Kf Kf Ly Ky
replacing Kj by K; + Ks. Therefore

Da (RoR
f= (pee ISe (S-2*)] (7.34)
Ky —(Ki + Ks) Ki +Ks |Be Ky

1 0.4 0.7 [0.4 — (0.25 — 0.05)

(b) ai n 1
O14 (0125 20.05) 0.0592 005 25 0.25
= 6.82 days (> 3.02 days of Example 7.5)

(c) The distance to location of maximum deficit, assuming U = 0.1 m/s is

eo — Ut

= 0.1 x 6.82 x 3600 x 24 x 107-3 = 58.9 km

KL
— DOs(t = 6:82) eK Ct DO ee
& Ky — (Ki + Ks)

= 0.25 x 25 ( —0.3x6.82 __ ene noe2) ae 0.7e—0-4%6.82

~ 0.4 — (0.25 — 0.05)

Therefore DO, = 4.04mg/L

i.e. the maximum deficit is 4.04mg/L and saturation O, is 9.2 mg/L, so there is still a dissolved
oxygen level of 5.16mg/L, enough to support coarse fish life but not enough to support salmonoids,
so allowing BOD removal by sedimentation makes the water quality viable.

7.5 TRANSPORT PROCESSES IN WATER BODIES

The key transport processes (of a solute) in water bodies, be it a river, a lake or an estuary are:
e Advection (by the mean velocity of the water body) and
¢ Diffusion (molecular and turbulent)
 WATER QUALITY IN RIVERS AND LAKES: PHYSICAL PROCESSES 319

The general one-dimensional conservation of mass equation as described in Chapter 21 for a water
body is

aC OO aC a
D :
ot Ox L =) a! == 8h
dispersion advection

The previous equations for DO/BOD assumed rates of reaction only with no transport. If longitudinal
mixing is also considered then the DO/BOD profiles are more complex. Camp (1963) described the
profiles for a constant BOD source as:

BOD profile:

D L ae
dy2 U af
dx (K,+K,)L+B=0
fae alte a Wed
(7233)

DO profile:
dDO | dDO
ae + K,(DO, — DO) —K,L+P+0 (7.36)
dx? dx

where D,, = dispersion or longitudinal turbulent mixing coefficient, m?/s

U = average stream velocity, m/s
DO = dissolved oxygen, mg/L
DO, = dissolved oxygen saturation, mg/L

These equations were further simplified by O’Connor (1960) who considered longitudinal mixing as
insignificant, lateral mixing as significant to the dilution process. Further details are developed in the
modelling in Chapter 21.

7.6 OXYGEN TRANSFER BY INTERPHASE TRANSFER IN WATER BODIES

While O; is the gas of key interest in water quality, other gases including nitrogen, methane, hydrogen
sulphide and VOCs etc., are of interest also. The ease or difficulty by which a gas becomes absorbed by
water depends principally on the solubility of the gas in water. Ammonia, which is highly soluble in water,
readily becomes absorbed by the water, while oxygen or carbon dioxide, which are weakly soluble in
water, are less readily absorbed by the water (refer to Chapter 3 for solubility coefficients). There are also
gases that are somewhere between being strongly soluble and weakly soluble in water; determination of
the mass transfer for these gas types is more complex than that of the other two.
Where a gas interacts with a liquid, there is an assumed gas/liquid interface. On the gas side of the
interface there is a thin ‘gas film’, within which there is no convective mixing. On the bulk gas side of this
thin film, rapid convective mixing is assumed. This is shown schematically in Fig. 7.6. In considering a
specific gas, there is a partial pressure gradient across the thin gas film, represented as P, — P;, where P; is
the partial pressure of the gas at the interface, and P, is the partial pressure of the ‘bulk gas’. In the same
way, on the liquid side of the interface, there is a thin ‘water film’, within which there is no convective
mixing. In the bulk water phase outside this water film, there is rapid convective mixing once the
concentration of, say, O» in water is constant. Across the water film, there is a gradient of concentration of,
say, O», represented by C; — C,, where C; is the concentration (of O) at the interface and C; the
concentration (of O2) in the water body (C; > C,).
The basis of this theory of gas absorption is the two-film model as detailed by Lewis and Whitman
(1924). The assumptions are essentially:
320 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

Interface

Bulk gas Gas film Water film Bulk water

Ag Al |

Rapid No i :
convective convective No convective Rapid
mixing mixing isp sunk convective
(turbulent (laminar (laminar flow) mixing
ee
Sore
eae
flow) flow) C, (turbulent flow)

CL

Figure 7.6 Schematic of air—water interface.

1. Steady state conditions exist.

2. Laminar flow exists in the gas and water films.
3. Instantaneous equilibrium is established at the interface.
The mechanism of gas transfer is assumed to be purely by diffusion (no turbulence). The rate of gas
transfer is thus dependent on the resistance of either the gas film or the water film to diffusion. Diffusion
through the gas film (from the bulk gas towards the interface) goes at a rate proportional to the solute (O2
in air) concentrations in the bulk gas and in the gas film. Diffusion through the liquid water film is
controlled by the difference in concentration between C; and C,. In the gas film, there are much fewer
molecules of gas by comparison with the tightly packed water molecules in the water film. The diffusional
resistance encountered in the liquid film is greater than that in the gas film.
According to Lewis and Whitman (1924), the amount of solute (O> in air) absorbed per unit time by
diffusion through the two films is

1dw
Viean => Aer = P;) = kG; 1 CL) (7.37)

where W = weight of solute, mg = CV

A = interfacial area, m?
k, = gas diffusion coefficient (or mass transfer coefficient)
k, = water diffusion coefficient
P,, P, = partial pressure of solute in bulk gas and at the interface, atm
C,, C, = solute concentration in bulk water and at the interface, mg/L

Therefore
ke(P, — Pi) = k(C, — Cy) (7.38)
From Henry’s law, the interface concentration C; is at equilibrium with the gas-phase partial pressure P;:

C; = HP; (7.39)
where H = Henry’s law constant, mg/L atm
 WATER QUALITY IN RIVERS AND LAKES: PHYSICAL PROCESSES 321

For highly soluble gases in water (e.g. ammonia)

Ss = PP (7.40)

since the concentration in the gas phase at the interface is very small as the gradient across the gas film is
very large. As such, once the gas (ammonia) reaches the interface, it is rapidly sucked through the liquid
film. The gas film is thus the controlling limitation.
For weakly soluble gases in water, e.g. oxygen,

where C; of Eq. (7.37) is replaced by C,. This is so because there is very little partial pressure gradient
across the gas film because P, ~ P;. Therefore the value of C; is the same as that of a liquid saturated with
oxygen (or other weakly soluble gas ) at P, and may be expressed as C, and in this case k, = Ky, as
defined by Eq. (7.44).
For intermediately soluble gases,
1dw
pap hee a = CC) (7.42)

where K,, K, are overall coefficients, Ky < ky, Ky <k;:

Higk,
a ee (7.43)
Hk, + ky
K,

The time rate of solution of a gas in water or the flux of gas into water is then (O2, weakly soluble)

So= Kya(Cy = C) = KalCy- G) (7.45)

Intergrating, we get ecimee = Ko at "hot (7.46)
Cre,
Aj
ay
where C, = saturation concentration, mg/L
C, = initial concentration, mg/L
C, = concentration after time ¢, mg/L
A, = interface area, m°
V = volume of liquid, m*
K,, = liquid film mass transfer coefficient, uP

In relation to reaeration of water bodies, the reaeration coefficient K> (often quoted as Ka) is

Ai Ky, (7.47)
Ka=k,=K,a= KUT, ria

where H = depth of water body

322 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

A wide range of estimates for Ka are to be found in Orlob (1983). Typical values were quoted in Table 7.1.
Equation (7.46) becomes
Sree eer (7.48)
C, -C,
Therefore
C=C, —e ™) + Cie (7.49)

Example 7.8 If the saturation concentration of O» in water is 9.2 mg/L and the initial concentra-
tion C, is 2.1 mg/L, determine the time it takes for the concentration C, to become 7.5 mg/L if K> is
0.25/day'. What is the time required for C, to be 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0 and 9.0 mg/L?

Solution
C, -—C,
In e 2 = Kyt
Cy —C¢,
LEG CG
t =—In—
K, C, —C,

1 9.2 —2.1
F = 755
OP tee ganes 1D 8 t = —— |ln———_—
250 Ooms = 5.7 d
e
Similarly,

C, (mg/L) Time t (days)

5 Dal
6 3)
7 4.8
Ws Sail
8 1|
8.5 9.3
9 14.3

Therefore, if left to molecular diffusion alone, it is seen that several days are required for reaeration or
reoxygenation to occur. However, in most riverine systems, there is water flow and so some element of
turbulent diffusion occurs in addition to molecular diffusion. So the realistic reaeration time is
significantly less than the above would indicate.

7.7 TURBULENT MIXING IN RIVERS

If the flow in a river or water body is turbulent, it will actualize much more aeration through turbulent
mixing than it will through Fickian diffusion. However, diffusion may be the prime ‘aerator’ of quiescent
water bodies. In rivers, mixing can be imagined as occurring in the vertical, lateral (horizontal) and
longitudinal axes. For instance, Fischer et al. (1979), suggested the following mixing coefficients:
Vertical:
&, = 0.067 du* (7.50)
Transverse :
& = 0.15 du* CTS)
 WATER QUALITY IN RIVERS AND LAKES: PHYSICAL PROCESSES 323

~ (0.01 — 0.2) du* for straight reaches

~ (0.4 — 0.8) du* for real channels
Longitudinal :
& > 0.15 du* (7,52)
where d = depth of water body
and

u* = shear velocity ~ \/gds (7.53)

where s = channel bed slope
g = gravity

The above coefficients vary, depending on the channel type or estuary. Fischer e¢ al. (1979) also indicated
that for spreading plumes the concentration at the centre-line can be approximated by

Cmax =
QC) l= (7.54)
Ud ./4nex/U
where O = flow rate, m?/s
C, = initial concentration, ppm
x = distance downstream
U = mean velocity, m/s
Fischer et al. (1979) also give the downstream length for complete mixing for a discharge at the centre-
line of a river estuary as

L=O010W Te, (7.55)

where W = the width of the river

For complete mixing, for a discharge from the sidewall of a stream, the length L is twice that given in
Eqs(7.55):

Example 7.9 Determine the shear velocity, the transverse mixing coefficient and the downstream
length of complete mixing for a sidewall discharge of wastewater, of 0.5 m°/s with an initial BOD
concentration of 30 mg/L, if the bed slope is 0.001 and the depth = 5m. Also determine the maximum
concentration 1.5 km downstream if the river is meandering and has a width of 100 m and a mean velocity
of 0.5 m/s.

Solution
Shear velocity u* = ./gds
= /9.81 x 5 x 0.001 = 0.22 m/s
Transverse mixing coefficient ¢, & 0.6 du*
= 0.6 x 5 x 0.22 = 0.66 m’/s

Downstream length for complete mixing L = 0.2UW? /e,

~ 0.2 x 0.5 x 1007/0.66
io kin
324 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

, OC) 1
Maximum concentration at 1.5 km downstream C,,,, = Ud EAT,

055030 1
: ~ 0.5x5 J4n x 0.66 x 1500/0.5
C = 0.04 mg/L

The reader is encouraged to refer to Fischer ef al. (1979) for an excellent treatise on mixing in inland
and coastal waters.

7.8 WATER QUALITY IN LAKES AND RESERVOIRS

Water quality in lakes and reservoirs was discussed in Chapter 5 from an ecological perspective. This
section introduces some of the numerical concepts and further modelling concepts are dealt with in
Chapter 21. Water quality problems in reservoirs are often due to cultural eutrophication which is caused
by:
Municipal sewage discharges
Industrial wastewater discharges
Urban runoff
Agricultural runoff with natural or artificial fertilizers causing high nutrient loading
Biocides from aquaculture
In most developed countries the first three items are generally insignificant due to the wealth of
environmental legislation that encouraged the upgrading of treatment facilities. However, in the 1990s,
nutrient-rich agricultural runoff is by far the most common problem left to deal with. It is a difficult
problem as the sources are diffuse and solution techniques, by way of changes to land use practices, are
slow and complex to implement. /n situ lake solutions via mechanical aeration are sometimes used in
small lakes. Lakes and reservoirs are characterized by long residence times of maybe 3 months to tens of
years. In the latter case, the inflows have the insignificant flushing effect on water quality. The inflow if
they are rich in nutrients is undesirable. The key physical parameters affecting water quality in lakes are:

e Wind movements
e Temperature changes
e Inflows/outflows

Examining the main lake parameters over the annual cycle typically in the northern hemisphere we
have (see Fig. 7.7):

e Reduced inflows in summer months with corresponding reduced water depths

e Increased solar radiation in the summer months with corresponding elevated water temperatures,
particularly closer to the surface
e Reduced dissolved oxygen values in the summer months, due to increased temperature and reduced
depths.

Three distinct zones can be set up in a lake and these are sketched in Fig. 7.8. The summer temperature
profile is most profound; in the spring and autumn, the vertical temperature profile will vary between both
the winter and summer extremes. Water at great depths is usually 4°C where the density is 1000 kg/m’,
The deeper depths are called the hypolimnion, where the temperature and density do not change
throughout the year. The surface volume, known as the epilimnion, is very dependent on solar radiation.
In the winter, the temperatures may go to freezing, as shown in Fig. 7.8. In summer, the epilimnion
 WATER QUALITY IN RIVERS AND LAKES: PHYSICAL PROCESSES 325

Lake water level

Temperature contours (°C)

Solar radiation

SS SS +t ate
Jan March May July September November
Northern hemisphere
year
Figure 7.7 Schematic of trends in water level, temperature and solar radiation over the year in a moderately quiescent lake.

temperatures may go up to 20°C. Between the epilimnion and hypolimnion there is a depth of water
where a significant temperature gradient occurs, particularly in summer.
Lakes are defined with respect to stratification by their densiometric Froude number as
V inertial fo
Froude number F = gedit a (7.56)
./Dg — gravitational force

=. : V
Densimetic # = Fp = (Ges)
A
ap)
Po

where P. =teference density

Ap = density change over depth D
(if Ap > 0.01 g/m? = strong stratification)
If Fp > 0.32 = no stratification
0.01 < Fp < 0.32 > moderately stratified
Fy < 0.01 => strongly stratified

Winter to
ee Summer to
pe Autumn

Epilimnion

Large AT
Small Ad
Hypolimnion
Summer
Depth Winter

Temperature (°C) Summer occurrences

Figure 7.8 Temperature profiles in stratified lake.

326 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

Lakes are also defined with respect to stability by their Richardson number:
ieee PE
Ke
—! g(Ap/AZ)AZ
5 p(Au?/AZ)
_ ~8(Ap/AZ) (7.58)
p(Au? /AZ?)

where PE = potential energy

and KE = kinetic energy
A
If a5 = 0 = neutrally stable (or meta stable)
A
If = < 0 = stable
Ap
If Az=0 => unstable
tabl

where AZ is a change in height and u is a mean velocity

Example 7.10 Determine the stratification category for a lake if its length by width by depth is
10km x 2km x 25m. The summer discharge is 10 m?/s. The surface temperature in the summer is 25 °C.

Solution
Lo 10
V =2x 104 m/s
~ BD 2000x 25

Psurtace = 997 kg/m?

Po = 1000 kg/m?
V 7 De Or?
Therefore Fp = = 2300 10s. <0
J(Ap/p))Dg — \/{(1000 — 997)/1000]25 x 9.81
Therefore this lake is strongly stratified (i.e. Fp < 0.01).
The water quality in lakes has a trophic state depending on the value of several parameters, as
indicated in Table 7.4. Chlorophyll-a, one of the green pigments involved in photosynthesis, is related to
the total phosphorus concentration by
log(chlorophyll-a) = —1.09 + 1.46P
where chlorophyll-a is concentration in mg/L and P is the total phosphorous concentration in mg/L. It
can be seen from Table 7.4 that there is not a wide variation in several of the parameters between

Table 7.4 Trophic lake quality

Parameter Oligotrophic Mesotrophic Eutrophic

Total P, pg/L < 10 10-20 > 20

Chlorophyll-a, g/L <4 4-10 > 10
Seechi depth, m >4 2-4 <2
Hypolimnion O, % saturation > 80 10-80 <10
 WATER QUALITY IN RIVERS AND LAKES: PHYSICAL PROCESSES 327

Table 7.5 Diffusion coefficients in lakes

Diffusion coefficient
Diffusion type (cm?/s)

Eddy diffusion 10m 102

Molecular diffusion IO 10)
Thermal diffusion 10m =10e°

oligotrophic and eutrophic. Chlorophyll-a and, and total P are parameters of significant interest. Models of
lake dynamics usually incorporate total P (or other P components) and chlorophyll-a.
The diffusion in lakes varies significantly and the magnitudes can be identified as in Table 7.5.

7.8.1 Simple Phosphorus Balance in a Lake

As phosphorus is one of the most common limiting nutrients for lake eutrophication, many research
papers have looked at enumerating its significance (Vollenwerder, 1975; Fischer et al., 1979; Imberger,
1982; and Havis and Ostendorf, 1989). A simple mass balance of phosphorus is sketched in Fig. 7.9 and
is given below:
mass rate in — mass rate out — mass of P settling in lake + mass generation = rate of accumulation
fi; VAC, SF 0 =
QinCpin = Oop
dt
(E59)
In this case, assume there is no generation of phosphorus within the lake. Also assuming steady state

conditions —— = 0. The phosphorus concentration leaving the lake is assumed to be equal to the

phosphorus concentration in the lake (well mixed) and the outflow rate is assumed to be equal to the
inflow rate; therefore equation (7.59) becomes

CELEOE TLE.
= ©,(Q + VAs)
Lake P (concentration) C, = Dawe
QC,
(7.60)

Example 7.11 A 20km* lake (surface area) has an inflow from streams of 10m°/s with
Cp, = 0.01 mg/L. A municipal wastewater plant discharges its treated effluent with a flow rate of
0.05 m?/s and a C,, of 10mg/L. Determine the steady state concentration of phosphorus in the lake.
Assume the settling rate V, ~ 20 m/year (0.6 x io m/s). Determine the permissible wastewater influent
concentration if the maximum C, allowable in the lake is 0.01 mg/L.

Assumption of well-mixed
Qout
lakes
G= phosphorus
concentration in lake
V, = settling velocity
Go=G
out

Figure 7.9 Mass balance of lake phosphorus.

328 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

Solution
QC,
Equation (7.60) C, = One

O = 10 +0.05 = 10.05 m*/s

QC, = 10 x 0.01 +.0.05 x 10 = 0.6 g/s
VA, = 0.6 x 10-° x 20 x 10° = 12 m’/s
Therefore
0.6 ,
C,
P~ =——>—
10.05 + 12 = 0.027 g/m
= 0.027 mg/L > 0.01 mg/L

The wastewater influent concentration needs to be reduced in P concentration:

OC,,, =Op(Q + VA.)

—0.01(10.05 + 12) = 0.2205 g/s
0.2205 = 10 x 0.01 +.0.05 x C,,
Therefore
C,,, = 2-41 mg/L

Thus the acceptable wastewater discharge concentration of P should be less than 2.41 mg/L.

7.9 GROUNDWATER QUALITY

As discussed in Chapter 4, groundwater is a major resource in terms of freshwater. Groundwater typically

moves slowly, its rate of movement being defined by the hydraulic conductivity K which was indicated in
Table 4.19. Coarse gravel has a K value of ~ 6.4 x 10~?m/s while that of shale is ~ 1.2 x 10~'* m/s.
Thus groundwater moves at rates substantially different for different bed material. The rate of movement
is also complicated by the fact that K is three dimensional, K,, K,, K-, and these may vary as material is
rarely homogeneous. Further complications arise from the fact that heterogeneity is ubiquitous and K
varies from one field to the next. The determination of groundwater movement and the associated
movement of contaminants can be studied by simplistic models or extremely complex models and these
are briefly introduced in Chapter 21.
Groundwater may be contaminated by either point sources or diffuse sources. Typically in rural
farmyards where there are water wells, there is always the possibility of wastewater runoff and other
agricultural contaminants entering the groundwater. The spreading of fertilizers and pesticides on land are
potential diffuse sources of pollution. Accidental spillages of oil or leaking oil tanks in petroleum depots
is a potential source of point pollution. When the pollution has occurred it is the task of the engineer and
the scientist to quantify the pollutant and track its progress. Modelling the future plume development may
then lead to remedial measures.
The mass transport processes determine the extent of plume spreading and the geometry of the
distribution of concentration. Some pollutants may attenuate or aggregate depending on the biological,
chemical or nuclear processes occurring. The transport process is essentially advection, with diffusion
and/or hydrodynamic dispersion being insignificant. The magnitude and direction of transport are
governed by:

e The three-dimensional hydraulic conductivity, K

e The water table and its gradient
 WATER QUALITY IN RIVERS AND LAKES: PHYSICAL PROCESSES 329

e The existence of sources (underground streams) or sinks (limestone caverns)

e The shape of the flow domain

The most simple model of decay of a contaminant plume is to assume the decay to be a first-order
reaction, i.e. r = — kC. Thus,

Cra Ce" (7.61)

where C, =concentration at time ¢, mg/L
C, =concentration at time zero, mg/L
Pine.
k = first-order decay coefficient, usually determined from site investigation

Example 7.12 A confined sandstone aquifer of 5 per cent porosity, 15 m thick, has two monitoring
wells in it, spaced at 1 km. If the hydraulic conductivity is 5.8 x 10~’ m/s and the gradient between the
two wells is 10m, determine the time it takes a contaminant plume to travel from the upstream well to the
downstream well.

Solution
dh 10
radient —-— =
Gradient = i000
—— = 0.01

dh
Fl ow ratete qg = Kh—
di

==45:8 al On aloo 10s

gq = 87 x 10°? m’/s
: dh
Darcy superficial velocity v = K aL

So MO eile
= 5.8 x 10’ m/s
58 lO
Average linear or pore velocity v, = ae = 116x 10° m/s

1000
Travel time t = Sear 107° s

Therefore t = 274 years

As such there is not too much concern about contaminant movement in this highly impermeable
strata.

Example 7.13 For Example 7.12, determine the concentration of a contaminant plume at the
downstream well if the upstream concentration is 80 mg/L. Assume a decay coefficient k~ 1Omeecam

Solution
Ca Ce
kt =10-* x 274 x 365 = 10.0
Therefore C,=80 ee
= 0.004 mg/L
330 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

The one-dimensional dispersion advection equation as described in Chapter 21, for a contaminant
plume is

Oso CACra salXG

a ar ™ Ae

The Ogata-Banks (1961) solution for the one-dimensional case, presented in more detail in Chapter 21, is

cal (Jaz)+0(o) * (Zan) )

Creal
at = erfenl
x Sa
— vt vx
eer
(*+ vt (7.62

where C, = concentration at time ft, mg/L

C, =concentration at time zero, mg/L
X = distance, m
T =time, days
D =hydrodynamic dispersion, m/s.

The reduced form is

CG. il x—vt
=—erfc 7.63
C, 2 (a ee

Example 7.14 A conservative tracer is discharged through a vertical soil layer, 100 cm in depth,
with a velocity of 10 * cm/s. If the ratio C,/C, is 0.33 after 1 hour, determine the hydrodynamic
dispersion, D.

Solution

Gaal x— vt
=—erlc
Cae ( =I
1 100 — 10-2 x 3600
0.33 = ~erfc
D ( 4D x 3600 )

0.66 = erfc (=)

VD
0.53
From erfc tables
VD
= ——== 0.31

Therefore 18) = 2ENS iiy/S

The reader is referred to Domenico and Schwartz (1990) and Bear and Verruijt (1992) for further
reading.

7.10 PROBLEMS

7.1 Define the water quality parameters BOD, COD, DO and NBOD, using figures where necessary to
explain your answer.
 WATER QUALITY IN RIVERS AND LAKES: PHYSICAL PROCESSES 331

7.2 The results of a BOD test, diluted by 10, are given below. Determine the BODs.

Time DO of diluted sample

(days) (mg/L)
0 8.9
1 47
2 4.4
3 37
4 3.1
5 2.8

13 For Problem 7.2 determine the corrected BOD; if the corresponding blank seeded sample DO is
given as follows:

DO
Time blank seeded sample
(days) (mg/L)

0 9.05

co oO

eB
aA
wWhN

7.4 Explain with the aid of a sketch the relationship between BOD; and BOD,.
tig)If the sample of Problem 7.2 contains 15 mg/L of nitrogen, determine the total oxygen demand.
7.6 Sketch and explain the dissolved oxygen sag curve.
Jud A wastewater with a BOD of 10 mg/L is discharged through an outfall into a freshwater stream. The
mean velocity of the stream (at low flow) is 0.2 m/s. The upstream DO is 8.3 mg/L. Assuming a
deoxygenation rate of k; = 0.20 d_' and a reaeration rate of 0.35d~', determine:
(a) the time and distance downstream when the DO is a minimum,
(b) the maximum DO.
7.8 Describe and quantify how you would engineer the outfall to have minimum impact on the stream
dissolved oxygen values.
Teo Write out the conservation of mass equation in one-dimension as it pertains to a pollutant discharged
into a river environment. Explain the terms diffusion, dispersion and advection.
7.10 Review the paper ‘Mechanisms of reaeration in natural streams’, by O’Connor and Dobbins (1958).
Ta Review the paper ‘A study of the pollution and natural purification of the Ohio River’, by Streeter
and Phelps (1925).
END For Problem 7.7, if in addition to the deoxygenation and reaeration processes there is also a BOD
sedimentation rate of K, = —0.07y_', compute:
(a) the time to attain the minimum DO,
(b) the distance to minimum DO,
(c) the value of the maximum DO deficit.
CPA) Determine the vapour density of water in air at 25°C.
7.14 Explain the physical chemical phenomenon of using a water tower to absorb ammonia into water
from an ammonia pollution air source. Write the mass balance equation for a structure with influent
and effluent gas and influent and effluent water. The influent gas and effluent water are at the bottom
of the tank while the others are at the top.
Hien Review the paper ‘Principles of gas absorption’ by Lewis and Whitman (1924).
332 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

7.16 Explain the difference between molecular diffusion and turbulent diffusion. Give examples of when
each process is true.
7.17 Determine the maximum concentration 2.5 km downstream of a sidewall discharge of concentration
25 mg/L and flow rate 0.02 m?/s. Assume the river is straight with a width of 50m and a low flow
velocity of 0.25 m/s.
7.18 Explain with sketches the terms epilimnion, thermocline and hypolimnion.
7.19 Consider a shallow lake to be a continuous flow stirred reactor. Determine the mass balance
equation for a pollutant of concentration C. Solve this equation.
7.20 For Problem 7.17, determine the time required for a lake to reduce the concentration of an influent
pollutant to 10 per cent of an initial concentration C, of 250mg/L. Assume the lake volume is
5x 10°m and an influent stream has a flow rate of 200m°/s. Assume first-order decay with
k = 0.01 day'.
7.21 Review the paper ‘Approximate dynamic lake phosphorous budget models’ by Havis and Ostendorf
(1989).
7.22 Explain with sketches, where necessary, the physical, chemical and biological processes involved in
the movement of a pollutant through the vadoze zone.
7.23 If the water wells spaced at 5km in a 20m thick confined aquifer are used to monitor groundwater
quality and the upstream well detects a pollutant of concentration 100mg/L. Assuming a decay
coefficient of k~ 10~* d~! and a hydraulic conductivity of 10~*m/s, determine the concentration
in the downstream well.

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

American Public Health Association and American Water Works Association (1990) Standard Methods for the Examination of Waste
and Wastewater, 17th edn.
Bear, J. and A. Verruijt (1992) Modelling of Groundwater Flow and Pollution. Theory and Applications of Transport in Porous
Media, D. Reidal Publishing Co., Dordrecht, Holland.
Bingham, D. R. and T. H. Feng (1980) “Mathematical modelling of recovery of a eutrophic lake’, Report Env.E.65-80-1, Department
of Civil Engineering, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Mass.
Biswas, A. K. (1981) Models for Water Quality Management, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Camp, T. R. (1963) Water and Its Impurities, Chapman and Hall, London.
Camp, T. R. and R. L. Meserve (1963) Water and Its Impurities, Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross Inc.
Camp, T. R. and R. L. Meserve (1974) Water and Its Impurities, Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross Inc.
Casamitjana, X. and G. Schladow (1993) ‘Vertical distribution of particles in a stratified lake’, ASCE Journal of Environmental
Engineering, 119(3), May/June.
De Pinto, J. V., W. Lick and J. F. Paul (1994) Transport and Transformation of Contaminants near the Sediment Water Interface,
Lewis Publishers.
Domenico, P. A. and F. W. Schwartz (1990) Physical and Chemical Hydrogeology, John Wiley, New York.
Eckenfelder, W. (1970) Water Quality Engineering for Practicing Engineers, Barnes and Noble Inc., New York.
Eckenfelder, W. (1989) Industrial Water Pollution Control, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Fischer H. B. (1976) ‘Mixing and dispersion in estuaries’, Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, 8.
Fischer, H. B., E. J. List, R. C. Y. Koh, J. Imberger and N. H. Brooks (1979) Mixing in Inland and Coastal Waters, Academic Press,
New York.
Grady, W. G. (1986) ‘Physics-based modelling of lakes, reservoirs and impoundments’, ASCE Report.
Harbold, H. S. (1979) Sanitary Engineering Problems and Calculations for the Professional Engineer. Ann Arbor Science, Illinois.
Havis, R. N. and D. W. Ostendorf (1989) ‘Approximate dynamic lake phosphorous budget models’, ASCE Journal of Environmental
Engineering, 115(4), August.
Havis, R. N., et al. (1983) ‘A mathematic model of phosphorus in completely mixed lakes with special application to Lake Warner,
Mass’, Report Env.Eng. 78-83-9, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Mass.
Hocking, G. C. and J. C. Patterson (1991) ‘Quasi-two dimensional reservoir simulation model’, ASCE Journal of Environmental
Engineering, 117(5), September/October.
Imberger, J. (1982) “Reservoir dynamic modelling’ in Prediction in Water Quality, E. M. O’Loughlin and P. Cullen (eds), Australia
Academy of Science, Canberra, pp. 223-248.
Kay, D. (1992) Recreational Water Quality Management, Ellis Horwood, Chichester.
 WATER QUALITY IN RIVERS AND LAKES: PHYSICAL PROCESSES 333

King, I. P. (1990) ‘Modelling of flow in estuaries using combinations of one and two dimensional finite elements’, Hydrosoft, 3(3).
Kirby, M. J. (1978) Hillslope Hydrology, John Wiley, New York.
Lamb, J. C. (1985) Water Quality and Its Control, John Wiley, New York.
Lewis, W. K. and W. C. Whitman (1924) ‘Principles of gas absorption’, J. Ind. Engng. Chem., 16.
Logan, B. E. and G. A. Wagensoller (1993) ‘The HBOD test: a new method for determining biochemical oxygen demand’, Water
Environment Research, 65(7).
McGauhey, P. W. (1968) Engineering Management of Water Quality, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Mason, C. F. (1991) Biology of Freshwater Pollution, Longman Scientific and Technical, London.
Masters, G. M. (1991) Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Metcalf and Eddy Inc., (1991) Wastewater Engineering—Treatment, Disposal and Reuse, G. Tchobanoglous and F. Burton (principal
authors), McGraw-Hill, New York.
Meybeck, M., D. Chapman and R. Helmar (1990) Global Freshwater Quality—A First Assessment, WHO and UNEP, Blackwell,
Oxford.
Miazaki, T. (1993) Water Flow in Soils, Marcel Dekker Inc., New York.
Ministry for the Environment (New Zealand) (1992) Water Quality Guidelines, No. 1.
Nemerow, N. L. (1985) Stream, Lake, Estuary and Ocean Pollution, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
O’Connor, D. J. (1960) Oxygen Balance of an Estuary. J. Son. Eng. Dio ASCE, Vol 86. SA3. pp 35.
O’Connor, D. J. and W. E. Dobbins (1958) ‘Mechanisms of reaeration in natural streams’, Transactions of the ASCE, 123, 641-666.
Ogata, A. and R. B. Banks (1961) ‘A solution of the differential equation of longitudinal dispersion in porous media’, USGS
Professional Paper 411-a, Washington D.C.
O’Kane, P. (1980) Estuarine Water Quality Management with Moving Element Models and Optimization Techniques, Pitman
Advanced Publishing, London.
Orlob, G. (1981) ‘Models for stratified impoundments’, in Models
for Water Quality Management, A. K. Biswas (ed.), McGraw-Hill,
New York.
Orlob, G. (1983) Mathematical Modelling of Water Quality: Streams, Lakes and Reservoirs, John Wiley, New York.
Parisod, J. P. and E. D. Schroeder (1978) ‘Biochemical oxygen demand progression in mixed substrates’, Journal of Water Pollution
Control Federation, July.
Peavy, H. S., D. R. Rowe and G. T. Tchobanaglous (1985) Environmental Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Pedersen F. B. (1986) Environmental Hydraulics: Stratified Flows, Lecture Notes on Coastal and Estuarine Studies, Springer-Verlag,
Berlin.
Schroeder E. (1977) Water and Wastewater Treatment. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Snoeyink V. L. and D. Jenkins (1980) Water Chemistry, John Wiley, New York.
Streeter H. W. and E. B. Phelps (1925) ‘A study of the pollution and natural purification of the Ohio River’, US Public Health
Bulletin 146.
Tchobanoglous G. and E. Schroeder (1987) Water Quality, Addison Wesley, Reading, Mass.
Thanh N. C. and A. K. Biswas (1990) Environmentally Sound Water Management, Oxford University Press, Delhi.
Thibodeaux L. J. (1979) Chemodynamics: Environmental Movement of Chemicals in Air, Water and Soil, John Wiley, New York.
Thoman R. V. and J. A. Mueller (1987) Principles of Surface Water Quality Modelling and Control, Harper and Row, New York.
Vesilind P. A., J. J. Peirce and R. Weiner (1988) Environmental Engineering, Butterworths, Oxford.
Vollenwerder R. A. (1975) ‘Input—output models with special reference to the phosphorous limiting concept in limnology’, Schweitz
Z. Hydrol., 37, 53-83.
Vreugdenhill C. B. (1989) Computational Hydraulics. An Introduction, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
World Resources Institute, UNEP and UNDP (1992-3) World Resources, Oxford University Press.
Wrobel L. C. and C. A. Brebbia (1991) Water Pollution, Modelling, Measuring and Prediction, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Wroebel L. C., T. R. Buge and J. H. Prodanoff (1989) ‘A study of river pollution using the QUICKEST finite difference algorithm’,
Hydrosoft, 2(4).
fee ee
CHAPTER

EIGHT
a
AIR POLLUTION

8.1 INTRODUCTION

The reported deaths of 4000 people from the London ‘smog’ in 1952 was the catalyst for the introduction
of the UK Clean Air Act in 1956. In the United States, the Air Pollution Control Act was introduced in
1955. In the decades prior to the 1950s, air pollution was a problem in highly industrialized urban areas
where coal was burned as an industrial and domestic fuel. The pollutants from coal include particulates
(black smoke), carbon dioxide and unburnt hydrocarbons.
In 1986 the EC stated that ‘several of the traditional causes of air pollution, such as smoke and
particulates, were now under control in the European Community (EC, 1987). This improvement in local
urban air quality is due to the replacement of coal in industry and households by natural gas, oil and
nuclear power. While great advances have been made in the reduction of ‘coal’-type pollutants in the
European Community and the United States, little progress has been made in Eastern Europe or other
lower income countries. While coal is still a significant energy source, the pollution potential of large coal
burning power stations has been reduced by the addition of wet/dry scrubbers to the exhaust gases prior
to emission. Significant air pollutants still exist in the urban air environment due to transportation.
Approximately 70 per cent of the total carbon monoxide pollution is due to transportation as is ~ 10 per
cent of unburnt hydrocarbons and 10 per cent of nitrous oxides.
The improvement in air quality may be regarded as a great environmental success as noted by the fact
that 80 per cent of the United States (urban areas) now meet the National Ambient Air Quality Standards
(NAAQS). However, the South Coast Air Quality Management District (in Los Angeles) in 1990
introduced 160 rules so as to further clean up the air in the Los Angeles Basin. Of course Los Angeles is
unfortunate in its basin-type topography. Continuing major problems occur and are growing with the
growth of the super cities where, by the year 2000, many cities will have populations in excess of 25
million. These include Mexico City, Cairo and Beijing. According to the EC (1992a), some progress has
been made towards reducing emissions of sulphur dioxide, suspended particulates, lead and CFCs
(chlorofluorocarbons) at European Community level, but serious problems persist. These are particularly
with greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, atmospheric ozone and methane. The

334
 AIR POLLUTION 335

concentration and combined (synergistic) effect of pollutants gives cause for concern in most towns and
cities due to the increasing emissions from motor vehicles.
Broadly there are two sets of air quality standards:

e Those for ambient air quality

e Those for industrial emissions
A general rule to be used with caution is that an emission limit for criteria pollutants would be of the order
of 30 times the ambient air standard. This attempts to take into account the potential of an emission to be
diluted in the air environment. Clearly the ability of the ambient air to dilute an emission will depend on
many factors, including ambient air quality and density of emissions. The more polluted the ambient air
environment, the less capable it is of diluting an emission. The emission flow rate is also important and
the higher the emission rate, the lower the emission standard.
The key references for both ambient and emission standards are:
¢ WHO (1987)—Air Quality Guidelines for Europe
e TA Luft (1987)—Technical Instructions on Quality Control, Germany
e EC Directives (see Table 8.1)
® USEPA (1990)}—National Air Quality Standards

EC air pollution standards began in 1970 with emission standards for petrol vehicles. Prior to 1970,
individual EC countries had their own standards. The United Kingdom had its Clean Air Act in 1956.
Ireland had ‘some’ air quality standards since 1906 under the Alkali Act, now repealed and replaced by
the Air Pollution Act of 1987. In the United States, the Air Pollution Control Act was introduced in 1955.
Although it provided funding for research and not control, it was a key legislative instrument. This was
followed in 1963 by the substantial legislative Clean Air Act. In 1971 the Canadian Clean Air Act was
passed. In the 1990s all of the original documents have been repealed, superseded or updated as new data
unfolds and new and more stringent air quality standards and emission limits are set.
Table 8.1 lists the significant Directives/Acts on air quality standards and emissions in both the
European Community and the United States. For further details, the reader is referred to Chapter 2 and the
References.
Table 8.2 lists the trace species concentrations in clean and polluted air. The units are given in parts
per billion.
Table 8.3 lists broadly the sources of major air pollutants. It is seen that traffic and power stations are
key contributors to air pollution. The trends in air pollution and the sources are covered in Sec. 8.4.

8.2 AIR POLLUTION SYSTEM

An atmospheric condition in which substances exist at concentrations higher than normal background or
ambient levels is said to be polluted if it has measurable effects on humans, animals, flora or materials
(e.g. acid rain on buildings). A block diagram from Seinfeld (1986) depicts an air pollution system in Fig.
8.1.
An air pollution source might be a coal burning power station. The source control might be flue gas
scrubbers prior to emission. The detectors might be continuous monitors for SO. The receptors might be
a biological indicator, i.e. lichens. When the detector or receptor shows unacceptable emissions, an
automatic control response might result, i.e. reduce the emission rate. An unacceptable emission may be
activated
pursued by legislation, forcing modifications to the emission or source control, i.e. installation of
carbon filters for the flue gas.
336 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

Table 8.1 Some EC and US regulatory items on ambient air and emission standards

EC Directives—decisions and resolutions United States regulatory items

70/220/EEC on air pollution from petrol vehicles \ 1955—Air Pollution Act

72/306/EEC on air pollution from diesel vehicles 1963—Clean Air Act
75/716/EEC on sulphur content of certain liquid fuels 1965—Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Control Act
76/611/EEC and 85/210/EEC on lead in petrol 1967—Air Quality Act
Resolution—30 May 1978—on fluorocarbons in the
environment 1970—Clean Air Act Amendments
Resolution—15 July 1980—on transboundary pollution by
SO, and PM;o 1974—Energy Supply and Environmental
80/779/EEC on ambient quality and guidelines on SO, and Coordination Act
PMio 1977—Clean Air Act Amendments
Decision—80/372/EEC and 82/795/EEC on
chlorofluorocarbon in air USEPA regulations on implementation of the Clean
Decision—8 1/462/EEC on long-range transboundary air Air Act include:
pollution 40 CFR Part 50—National Primary and
Decision—82/459/EEC on reciprocity of data on air Secondary Ambient Air Quality Standards
pollution between Member States 40 CFR Part 53—Ambient Air Monitoring
82/884/EEC on lead in air Methods
84/360/EEC on air pollution from industrial plants 40 CFR Part 60—New Source Performance
85/203/EEC on air quality standards for NO» Standards
Regulation—3528/86 on forest protection against air 40 CFR Part 61—National Emission Standards
pollution for Hazardous Air Pollutants
88/77/EEC on gaseous emissions from diesel vehicles
88/609/EEC on air emissions from large combustion plants 1990—Clear Air Act Amendments
89/369/EEC on air pollution from new municipal waste Air Toxics—National Emissions
incinerators Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants
89/429/EEC on air pollution from existing municipal 1990—Clean Air Act Amendments
waste incinerators
Proposal—19 March 1992—on incineration of hazardous 1992—Clean Air Act Amendments
waste

Table 8.2 Trace species concentrations in clean and polluted air

Concentration (ppb)
Approximate
Parameter Clean air Polluted air residence time

Particulates >100 g/m?

CO 120 1 000-10 000 65 days
CO; 320 000t 400 000 15 years
SO, 0.2-10 20-200 40 days
NO 0.01-0.6 50-750 1 day
NO, 0.1-1 50-250 1 day
HNO, 0.001 1-8
HNO; 0.02-0.3 3-50 1 day
O3 20-80 100-500
NH; 1-6 10-25 20 days
CH, 1500 2500 8-10 years
NO 300 10-150 years
H2S 0.2
Pb 5x 1073 yg/m? 0.5-3 pg/m*

+ Carbon dioxide is not a pollutant in the strict sense, as its damage is to the upper stratosphere
and not to
the air quality at ground level.
Adapted in part from Seinfeld, 1986. Copyright © 1986. Reprinted by permission
of John Wiley & Sons
Inc.
 AIR POLLUTION 337

Table 8.3 Major air pollutants and their sources

Pollutant Sources or activity

Manufacturing
Power Domestic Oil Quarrying, Chemical, metals, Waste
stations Traffic heating refining mining pharmaceutical etc. incineration Agriculture
Particulates
y yi 4
n 2

SSeS
S ES
ee
pe SSS
“
Heavy metals
Pb SAREE
Hg NA —
Cu
Cd
Zn SARS
Radionuclidest
CFCs SSSASS
RES
EER
SSE
SSESSRESS
S
+ For example Sellafield reprocessing plant (UK).

8.3 AIR POLLUTANTS

‘Primary pollutants’ are those emitted by an identifiable source. The more significant of these are:

SO>

CO
NO,
SO,
Particulates
Hydrocarbons
Metals

Corrective
automatic
control

Detector

Emission Source Atmosphere

source control Humans
animals,
flora,
materials
Legislative
action

Figure 8.1 Air pollution system (adapted from Seinfeld, 1986).

338 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

‘Secondary pollutants’ are those formed in the atmosphere by chemical reactions and include:
e O;
e Other photochemical oxidants—peroxyacetyl nitrate
e Oxidized hydrocarbons
The ‘criteria pollutants’ as defined by the USA, EC and WHO include:

CO
NO,
O3
SO,
PM-10 (particulate matter of diameter < 10 um)
Lead
Other pollutants such as some of the hydrocarbons have been dropped from the American list. All
these standards undergo periodic review and the lists and the standards change. For instance, black smoke
(particulate matter) was traditionally a winter problem in Dublin due to domestic coal fires. However, due
to the introduction of ‘natural gas’ and ‘smokeless coals’, black smoke is no longer an air pollution
problem. It is probable that in the near future there may be no need for a ‘black smoke’ standard in the EC.
However, it is a persistent problem in Eastern Europe.

8.3.1 Ambient Air Quality Standards for Criteria Pollutants

Table 8.4 shows the Ambient Air Quality Standards for the United States, California, the European
Community, WHO and Germany. Where no standard in the EC exists for a particular pollutant it is
common for countries to adopt the TA Luft or WHO standard. Table 8.5 shows the properties and
pollution significance of the criteria pollutants.
The criteria pollutants may be considered as likely to exist in all urban areas. Their concentrations
will vary depending on the level of industrial and traffic activity and the degree of sophistication of
control. Besides the six criteria pollutants, hundreds of other pollutants may also be emitted to the
atmosphere. These latter tend to be industry specific and not as ubiquitous as the criteria pollutants. These
‘non criteria’ pollutants are discussed in Sec. 8.7.

8.3.2 Units of Concentration

The different ways of expressing concentrations of air pollutants are:

© ppm (v/v)
° ppb (v/v)
¢ mg/m
e mg/Nm* (Nm? = normal dry m’, ie. at STP, temp =-0°C, pressure = 1013 mb)
The ‘normal cubic metre’ is important if the emission temperature is greater than ambient as one mole of
the emission gas does not occupy 22.4 litres. At non-standard temperatures and pressures, corrections
have to be made.

At STP (0°C and 101.3kP,), 1 mole of an ideal gas occupies 22.4L

At NSTP (non standard), 1 mole = 22.4 x

Tf Wolpe
773k a
where T is the gas temperature in degrees kelvin and P is the gas pressure in kPa
 AIR POLLUTION 339

Table 8.4 International Ambient Air Quality Standards for criteria pollutants

WHO Air
USA Federal quality TA Luft,
USEPA California EC Directives guidelines Germany
Pollutant Averge time (ug /m’) (ug/m”) (ug/m°) (ug/m”) (ug/m*)
CO (carbon monoxide) 15 min 100 000
30 min 60.000
lh 40 000 23 000 30000 30000
8h 10000 10.000 10.000 10.000
NO) (nitrogen dioxide) lh 470 200 400 200
24h 150 80
Annual 100

O3 (ozone) lh 235 180 200

8h
24h 65
100 day 60
SO, (sulphur dioxide) 10 min 500
lh 655 350
3h 1300 400
24h 365 105 250-350 125 140
Annual 80 80-120 40-60 60
Particulates (PM-10) 24h 150 50 250 125 150-300
Annual 50 30 80 50
SO, + PM-10 24h 100-150
Annual 40-60 60-90
Pb (lead) 1 month ie65)
3 month 1108)
Annual 2 0.5-1 2

Total suspended 24h 260

particulates (TSP) Annual iS

HC 3h 160 (non-CH,)

Table 8.5 Properties and pollution significance of criteria pollutants

Pollutant Properties Pollution significance

Carbon monoxide —_Colourless, odourless gas Formed during incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons.
Causes greenhouse effects and climatic changes
Nitrogen dioxide Brown-orange gas Significant component of photochemical smog and acid
deposition
Ozone Highly reactive A secondary pollutant, produced during formation of
photochemical smog. Damages flora and materials
Sulphur dioxide Colourless, choking gas, soluble in HO to Principal component of acid deposition. Damages humans,
produce sulphurous acid, H,SO3 flora, fauna and materials
PM-10 Particulate matter < 10 ym in diameter— Coal burning power station, traffic, domestic coals,
black smoke quarrying, incineration. Can cause respiratory problems
Lead Heavy metal, bioaccumulative Principal source leaded petrol. Also from lead pipes,
quarrying, incineration. Damages humans and fauna
when in excess

Adapted from WHO, 1987

340 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

22.4 x 298
If the gas temperature is 25°C, then | mole = aig 24.5L

2A 1273
If the gas temperature is 1000°C, then 1 mole = ee = 104.5L

It is therefore important to be aware that the standards are written for STP conditions.

Example 8.1 From Table 8.4, it is seen that the 1 h standards according to WHO (1987) for CO,
NO, and SO, are 30 mg/m’, 400 ug/m° and 350 yug/m> respectively. Compute these concentrations in
ppm at STP.

Solution One mole of an ideal gas at standard temperature (0°C) and pressure (101.325 kPa)
occupies 22.4 litres.
fae [conc]g/m? ie 5
Borel iu
esa) m> L_ (molwt)g/mol x Vea Vane €
where ppmvy = parts per million by volume
and ppmm = parts per million by mass = [conc]g/m?>

(a) mol wt of CO = 12+ 16 = 28 g/mol

Therefore
_ 30 x 10-%g/m?
x 22.4 x 10°-3m?/mol
pian 8 g/mol
= 24 x 10°-°g/g = 24 ppm
(b) mol wt of NO2 = 14+2 x 16 = 46 g/mol

Therefore

_ 400 x 107° g/m?

x 22.4 x 10-7m?/mol
a 46 g/mol
= 195 x 10 ’g/g = 195 ppb = 0.195 ppm
(c) mol wt of SO, = 3242 x 16 = 64 g/mol

Therefore

_ 350 x 10°°g/m?
x 22.4 x 10°-3m3/mol
SO: 64 g/mol
= 0.125 ppm = 125 ppb

8.4 CRITERIA POLLUTANTS

8.4.1 Carbon Monoxide—CO

Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless, tasteless gas that is the most abundant of the criteria
pollutants with a per capita per annum emission in excess of 100 kg. It is a product of incomplete
 AIR POLLUTION 341

combustion of carbonaceous fuels, giving CO instead of CO,. About 70 per cent of all CO comes from
mobile sources (see Tables 8.6 and 8.7), with practically all of that from motor vehicles. It has adverse
effects on human health, replacing oxygen in the bloodstream and forming carboxyhemoglobin (COHb).
If the percentage of COHb exceeds about 2 per cent, health is temporarily impaired, and this level occurs
in people engaged in heavy physical activity if the ambient CO level is greater than about 30 ppm. It has
been shown by Petersen and Allen (1982) that subjects in moving motor vehicles were exposed to far
higher levels of CO than fixed site monitors of ambient air CO indicate. Table 8.6 shows the total CO
emissions on a per capita basis. This indicates that EC levels are at approximately 100 kg per capita, while
those in the United States are approximately 300kg per capita. Table 8.7 shows the total annual CO
emitted from mobile and stationary sources. In the European Community and the United States, mobile
sources still account for about 70 per cent of all CO. These tables also show that while the United States,
Germany and the Netherlands reduced their output by approximately half from 1970 to 1980, both the
United Kingdom and Ireland have increased their output. Figure 8.2 shows the trend of five countries
from 1970 to 1989. In 1984 the United States still had almost three times the per capita load of the EU
countries. It is interesting to note that levels since 1980 have not shown any improvement.
Natural CO production is about 25 times that of the anthropogenic sources. The major source of
natural CO is the oxidation of methane in the troposphere. Thus the cycles of CO and CHy are
interdependent.

8.4.2 Nitrogen Oxides—NO,

The oxides of gaseous nitrogen include:
NO—nitric oxide
NO,—nitrogen dioxide
NO3—nitrogen trioxide
N,O—nitrous oxide
N,O;—nitrogen pentoxide

The acids of nitrogen include:

e HNO,—nitrous acid
e HNO;—nitric acid

Table 8.6 Total carbon monoxide emissions per capita

Carbon monoxide (kg CO/capita/year)

West
Year USA Germany Netherlands UK Ireland

1970 495 240 148 87 —

1975 389 226 140 83 122
1980 350 195 100 86 146
1981 337 Was 91 86 145
1982 311 162 87 89 142
1983 318 151 85 89 135
1984 303 152 84 90 131
1985 250 146 80 94 131
1986 268 148 78 98 —
1987 262 143 76 103 129
1988 260 141 76 106 _
1989 244 133 78 114 —
a

Data from EC, 1992b with permission

342 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

Table 8.7 Total carbon monoxide emissions—mobile (M) and stationary (ST) sources

Carbon monoxide (1000 t CO)

USA West Germany Netherlands UK Ireland

sleds 3 De See eee en Se a EE
Year M ST M ST M ST M ST M ST
1970 74 400 27 000 8920 5620 1490 438 3097 1747 — =
1975 65 000 19 100 10 152 3835 1495 423 3508 1157 331 57
1980 56 100 23 500 8813 3193 1043 369 3896 933 420 77
1981 55 400 22 100 7768 3001 938 360 =: 3938 893 421 79
1982 52 900 19 400 7355 2620 919 331 4109 884 408 85
1983 52 400 22 100 6900 2394 896 321 4161 854 384 88
1984 50 600 21200 6746 2577 859 346 4335 750 366 98
1985 47900 21800 6314 2580 806 SS )7/ 4431 887 355 107
1986 44 600 19 400 6599 2416 780 353 4658 877 — =
1987 43 300 20900 6539 2238 765 B52 5074 818 388 119
1988 41 200 23 800 6477 2194 768 358 5395 785 — =
1989 40 000 20900 6 100 2172 795 357 5792 730 — =

Data from EC, 1992b with permission

NO, are produced during the combustion of fossil fuels i.e. oil, coal, timber and gas, via two
processes. ‘Fuel NO,” are produced in the oxidation of nitrogen containing compounds in the fuel.
Negligible amounts of fuel nitrogen exist in natural gas but up to 3 per cent by weight of nitrogen
compounds may exist in coals and oils. In liquid fuels, fuel NO, contributes 80 to 90 per cent of the total
NO,, for fuel nitrogen contents of 1 to 2 per cent (Martin et al., 1979). ‘Thermal NO,’ are produced in the
oxidation of atmospheric molecular N> at high temperatures of combustion in the presence of oxygen
(Seinfeld, 1986). Most of the NO, emissions are in the form of NO which rapidly oxidizes to NO> in the
presence of O, or O; according to:
2NO + O, + 2NO, (8.1)

Corrective
automatic
control

Emission Source
Atmosphere
source control
Humans,
animals,
flora, Response
materials
Legislative
action

Figure 8.2 Total carbon monoxide emissions per capita, 1970-1989.

 AIR POLLUTION 343

NO), is heavier than air and is soluble in water. NO» may in turn dissociate to NO or be further oxidized to
HNO; or HNO, according to:

2NO, + H,O > HNO; + HNO, (8.3)

3NO, + H,O > 2HNO, + NO +0, (8.4)
Furthermore, NO may react with organic compounds to produce peroxyacetyl nitrates (PAN) or with
hydrocarbons in the presence of sunlight to produce smog:
HC + NO, + sunlight + photochemical smog (8.5)
Significant health and environmental effects are caused by NO,. NO» can cause respiratory
problems. NO and NO, can cause smog, which can cause pulmonary and bronchial diseases. PAN
during smog can cause eye irritation while ozone can produce respiratory effects. Ozone is acutely
damaging to crops, inhibiting crop yield. Table 8.8 shows the NO» emissions per capita per annum. It is
seen that values in the European Community are about 40 kg (per capita, per year) by comparison with
80 kg in the United States. Table 8.9 shows that the NO> emissions are related to mobile and stationary
sources. Here it is seen that about 40 to 70 per cent comes from mobile sources and the values for all
countries has been relatively stable since about 1970. Figure 8.3 is a plot of the per capita emissions,
which have changed little since 1970.

Example 8.2 Compute the annual production of NO, from the 50 000 vehicles in Cork City, if the
NO, emission rate is 2.0 g/km per vehicle.

Solution Assume the annual travel is 20000 km per vehicle. Then

Each vehicle produces 20000 x 2 g = 40 kg NO,
50000 vehicles produce 40 x 50000 kg = 2000 tonnes NO,
Note With 1 million vehicles in Ireland travelling an average of 20000 km per year, this accounts
for an annual mobile NO, production of 40 000 tonnes, which is of the order of the 1987 figure for Ireland
as shown in Table 8.9.

Table 8.8 Total nitrogen dioxides emissions per capita

Carbon monoxide (kg CO/capita/year)

West
Year USA Germany Netherlands UK Ireland
EE ee Ee oe ee ee eee
1970 89 3) 35 45 —
1975 89 42 34 43 19
1980 90 48 39 43 20
1981 89 47 38) 42 19
1982 84 46 38 4] 18
1983 81 47 38 4] 18
1984 83 48 38 4] 17
1985 83 48 38 42 19
1986 83 49 39 44 --
1987 78 48 39 45 32
1988 80 47 40 46 —
1989 — 44 3y 47 —

Data from EC, 1992b with permission

344 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

Table 8.9 Nitrogen dioxides emissions—mobile (M) and stationary (ST) sources
Nitrogen dioxide (1000 t NO2)

USA West Germany Netherlands UK Ireland

Year M sill M ST M ST M Sil M Sr

1970 7700 10 600 1059 1322 PALI 244 943 1567 — =

1975 9000 10 200 1308 1263 258 206 997 1430 16 44
1980 9300 11 100 1604 1376 340 218 1056 1386 20 47
1981 9400 11 000 1570 1326 336 216 1034 1325 21 43
1982 9000 10 600 1593 1271 333 211 1050 1272 20 44
1983 8500 10 500 1626 1277 333 207 1079 125i0 19 44
1984 8600 11 100 1687 1278 340 214 1141 1152 18 43
1985 8800 11 000 1730 1229 335 212 1160 1242 19 49
1986 8500 10 800 1818 1199 345 220 1199 1276 — —
1987 8400 11 100 1830 1097 350 228 1289 1289 54 61
1988 8100 11 700 1849 1010 365 220 1378 1264 — —
1989 = — 1837 870 346 204 1460 1230 —= =

Data from EC, 1992b with permission

8.4.3 Sulphur Oxides—SO,,

Sulphur oxides are the product of fossil fuel combustion, usually oil and coal. The dominant gaseous
emission of sulphur is as sulphur dioxide with small amounts of sulphur trioxide. Fuels contain significant
quantities of sulphur (<1 per cent) as inorganic sulphides or organic sulphur and, on burning, SO, and
SO; are released. The following reactions show how sulphuric acid is produced on release of SO3:
SO, + OH- > HOSO,~ (8.6)
HOSO) 2 Os SO mt Ose (8.7)
SO; — + H,O =- H,SO, — (8.8)

Sulphate particles (SO,°~ )are found either as dry deposition or wet deposition. In wet deposition water
vapour combines with H2SO, to produce acid rain droplets. The pH of rainfall is normally about 5.7 (see
Chapter 3). By definition rainfall is acidic if the pH is <5.5. Acid rain is common in the central and more
particularly the eastern part of the United States. It is also common in Europe, particularly mainland
Europe, with countries such as Germany and further east being worst affected. The negative impact of

——m——_ USA
—’z— West Germany
—e— Netherlands
So Wk
—ee—_ Ireland

NO,
kg
capita
per

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989
Year
Figure 8.3 Total nitrogen dioxide emissions per capita, 1970-1989.
 AIR POLLUTION 345

SO levels is on ESET and plants. Impaired bronchial functioning is noted at ambient levels or
approximately 25 mg/m? for 10 minute exposures. Forest growth is inhibited at levels as low as 50 g/m’,
(see Table 8.4 for ambient air standards).
Table 8.10 and Fig. 8.4 show the annual levels in kg of SO, per capita per year. It is seen that
mainland European countries produce about 30 kg per person per year while the United Kingdom and the
United States produce about 60 and 90 kg respectively. Table 8.11 shows the SO, emissions for mobile
and stationary sources. Clearly SO, is a stationary source problem, with 66 per cent of total SO) coming
from the power generating industries using coal and oil, while 25 per cent comes from other industries
producing their own power using fossil fuels. A further 7 per cent comes from oil refineries and only 3 per
cent from transport sources. Emissions from domestic sources are now considered insignificant (except in
eastern Europe still), but were primarily responsible for the London smog of 1952.

8.4.4 Particulate Matter—PM-10

Airborne particulate matter represents a complex mixture of organic and inorganic substances typically
divided into two groups as shown in Table 8.12. Terms used to describe particulate matter include:
suspended particulate matter, total suspended particulates, black smoke, inhalable thoracic particles
(which deposit on the lower respiratory tract, below the larynx), PM-10 (the term used by the USEPA
indicates particulate matter of aerodynamic diameter less than 10 zm). Analytical methods include ‘black
smoke’ measurements, represented by the darkness of staining on white filter paper through which air has
been drawn. Total suspended particulates are measured by gravimetric methods with concentrations for
this method about 2 to 3 times that of the black smoke method. This is so because gravimetric methods
also measure larger particles of 2 to 10 wm, which are not seen in the smoke method.
Particulate matter is emitted in urban areas from power plants, industrial processes, vehicular traffic,
domestic coal burning and industrial incinerators. Table 8.13 shows values for rural and urban areas.
Table 8.14 and Fig. 8.5 show that PM has decreased substantially since 1970 and is now at about 5 kg per
capita per year in the European Union. Table 8.15 shows that stationary sources emit about three times
that of mobile sources. It is also noted that in Ireland stationary sources emit about ten times more PM
than mobile sources. This is due to the presence of coal, peat and oil fired power plants which up to 1995
did not have state of the art flue gas scrubbing systems.

Table 8.10 Total sulphur dioxide emissions per capita

Sulphur dioxide (kg SO2/capita/year)

West
Year USA Germany Netherlands UK Ireland

1970 139 62 62 115 _

1975 120 54 31 96 59
1980 103 52 35 87 64
1981 98 49 33 79 55
1982 92 47 28 TS) 45
1983 89 44 22 69 40
1984 91 43 21 66 37
1985 88 39 19 66 39
1986 86 37 19 69 —
1987 82 32 18 68 49
1988 83 20 18 67 _—
1989 83 16 15 65 —

Data from EC, 1992b with permission

346 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

—s— USA
—*z—_ West Germany
—e— Netherlands
—_o— UK
—ea— Ireland
SO,
capita
kg
per

= a a aaa Tal Ne} CS 2 ron

= ie S i) ioe) oe) a) oO ea) ie) ta) oe)
ron ron ox rox ox ox ron ox rox ox a D

Year

Figure 8.4 Total sulphur dioxide emissions per capita, 1970-1989.

Table 8.11 Sulphur dioxide emissions—mobile (M) and stationary (ST) sources

Sulphur dioxide (1000 t SO2)

USA West Germany Netherlands UK Ireland

Year M ST M ST M ST M ST M ST
1970 607 27 800 155 3588 47 760 199 6224 — a=
1975 650 25 200 133 3201 4] 388 153 SyI4) 3 183
1980 889 22 500 107 3087 38 453 117 4777 5 212
1981 884 21700 107 2932) 33 435 117 4316 5 184
1982 824 20 600 103 2765 34 360 116 4092 A 151
1983 784 20.000 101 2589 33 286 101 3760 5 135
1984 825 20700 94 2509 32 270 106 3613 - 125
1985 864 20 200 87 2309 32 237 102 3617 5 133
1986 869 19 800 98 2165 34 239 103 3792 _
1987 884 19500 90 1843 36 231 97 3801 7 167
1988 938 19 800 73 1164 37 222 105 3707 — —
1989 952 _— 74 927 32 186 121 3578 a a

Data from EC, 1992b with permission

Table 8.12 Particulate matter size

Particle size

Group description | Composition WHO USEPA (PM-10)

Coarse Dust, earth, crust matter >2.5 um >10 um

Fine Aerosols, combustion particles, <2.5 um < 10 um

recondensed organic and
metal vapours (primary and
secondary pollutants)
 AIR POLLUTION 347

Table 8.13 Typical values of black smoke and PM

concentrations

Annual concentrations

Black smoke Suspended particles by

Location (ug/m*) gravimetry (ug/m*)

Rural 0-10 0-50

Urban 10-40 50-150
Maxima 100-150 200-400

Table 8.14 Total particulates per capita

Total particulates (kg PM/capita)

West
Year USA Germany Netherlands UK Ireland

1970 90 19 14 19 —
1975 49 10 11 12 24
1980 37 8 12 10 28
1981 35 8 11 10 28
1982 31 7 10 10 28
1983 30 7 9 9 29
1984 31 7 8 9 32
1985 30 7 7 10 33
1986 29 6 7 10 =
1987 30 6 Wl 9 30
1988 28 2) 7 9 os
1989 28 5 5 9 —

Data from EC, 1992b with permission

—a— USA
—*z— _West Germany
—e— Netherlands
——_ UK
—es— Ireland
PM
kg
capita
per

Year

Figure 8.5 Total particulates per capita, 1970-1989.

348 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

Excessive concentrations of SO, black smoke and total suspended particulates are associated with
increased HSE Ns morbidity and pulmonary difficulties. It has been noted that 24 hour values in excess
of 500 zg/m®* for combined SO, and smoke result in increased morbidity. The EU ambient limit standard
for the 24 hour period is 100 to 150 ug/m* for combined SO, and smoke and is 40 to 60 ug/m> for the
annual period, as shown in Table 8.4.

8.4.5 Volatile Organic Compounds—VOCs

Organic air pollutants comprise hydrocarbons and other substances (about 50 per cent hydrocarbons).
Many are reactive (excluding CH,) in the air environment and have considerable environmental and
health implications. The most abundant HC is methane with ambient concentrations of | to 6 ppm. The
less abundant but more reactive volatile organic compounds include: ethylene oxide, formaldehyde,
phenol, phosgene, benzene, carbon tetrachloride, CFCs and PCBs. These are almost all manufactured and
are known or suspected carcinogens. Many are precursors for photochemical oxidants and react with NO,
and O, with sunlight to produce smog and aerosol pollution. They may irritate the eye, throat and lungs
and inhibit plant growth. VOC emissions come from a wide range of sources as shown in Table 8.16 and
Fig. 8.6. This table is incomplete as some countries include methane while others do not. Typically VOCs
are sourced, 27 per cent from road transport, 17 per cent from the solvents industry, 15 per cent from coal
mining, 17 per cent from landfilling (CH,4), 10 per cent from gas distribution, 12 per cent from natural
sources (forests, etc.) and 2 per cent others. The total VOC emissions for 1985 were 30 to 90 kg VOC per
capita. Ambient air quality standards do not impose limits to VOCs. This is so because there is no safe
limit for most of these compounds. For instance, benzene is a known carcinogen, with no known safe
threshold limit. WHO (1987) states that an air concentration of benzene of 1 ug/m°* imposes a lifetime
risk of leukaemia of 4 x 10°. However, regulatory authorities set emission limits for specific industries
as discussed in Sec. 8.8.

8.4.6 Hydrocarbons—HC
Hydrocarbons are one species of VOC emissions. They are organic compounds containing only carbon
and hydrogen. Typically these are petroleum products and are classified as shown in Table 8.17.

Table 8.15 Particulates—mobile (M) and stationary (ST) sources

Particulate matter (1000 t PM)

USA West Germany Netherlands UK Ireland

Year M ST M ST M ST M ST M ST
1970 1200 17300 84 1084 18 165 104 945 — —
1975 1300 9 300 61 581 21 128 114 574 6 69
1980 1300 7200 64 453 30 133 123 447 8 86
1981 1300 6 800 65 412 30 126 116 424 9 88
1982 1300 5 800 66 365 30 lS} 121 417 8 90
1983 1300 5 800 67 342 31 94 128 392 8 92
1984 1300 6 100 68 344 32 78 139 342 8 104
1985 1400 5700 70 327 34 68 145 410 10 107
1986 1400 5 400 74 308 36 62 159) 426 -- —
1987 1400 5 600 73 271 38 60 170 368 10 97
1988 1400 5500 71 249 4] 57 188 345 — —
1989 — —= 72 214 21 54 202 310 — —
Data from EC, 1992b with permission
 AIR POLLUTION 349

Table 8.16 VOC emissions per capita for 1985

Total VOC emissions (kg VOC/capita)

West
Source E@i2 Germany Netherlands UK Ireland
Road transport 16 19 15 14 |
Solvent evaporation 10 18 1] 12 a]
Solid fossil fuel
Mining 8 17 a 16
Landfilling 10 29 — 12
Distribution of gas 5 4 — 7 ~8
Production process <a) <0.1 il 4
Combustion industry <0.5 <0.1 <1 <1 <a
Oil refineries << {0)5) <0.1 <I << =|
Heat for commerce, 2.0 <0.5 =) <a
residential and
institutional
Nature
Miscellaneous 7 4-3 1 IES) il

Total ~ 60 ~95 ~29 ~ 69 Sil

Data from EC, 1992b with permission

100 - -
(_] Nature

(J Distribution of gas
WB Landfilling
HB Solid fossil fuel mining
L_] Solvent evaporation

BB Vehicles

VOC
kg
capita
per

Hen? West Germany Netherlands UK Ireland

Figure 8.6 VOC emission per capita for 1985.

Table 8.17 Hydrocarbon classification

Group Sub-group Reactivity Example

Aliphatic Alkanes Inert Methane

Alkenes (olefins) Highly reactive Ethylene + NO, — PAN, O3
Alkynes Reactive Rare

Aromatic Benzene Not very reactive PAHs

(related to benzene) Benzo(a)pyrene
Benz(e)acephenanthrylene one :
Benzo(j)fluroanthene tobe ae
Benzo(z)pyrene
Benz(a)anthracene
 350 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

The most common hydrocarbon is methane, as was mentioned in the previous section. Because it is
inert it is not a serious tropospheric pollutant. However, it is now deemed significant as one of the
greenhouse gases and is produced by animals, forestry, boglands, landfill sites, vehicles, etc. Its damaging
influence to the ozone layer is only now being recognized. The alkenes (or olefins) are highly reactive;
when combined with NO, ethylene produces peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) and ozone. The intimidating
hydrocarbons belong to the aromatic or benzene group. While not very reactive, several of the benzene-
related compounds are carcinogenic or suspected carcinogenic. These include polynuclear hydrocarbons
and the benzene compounds.
The major sources of man-made hydrocarbons include traffic, organic chemical production, transport
and processing of crude oil, and distribution of natural gas. Table 8.18 and Fig. 8.7 show that the HC
production varies from 30 to 90kg HC per capita per year. Table 8.19 shows that in the EC the HC
production is about 50 per cent from mobile sources and 50 per cent from stationary sources, while in the
United States, the HC from stationary sources is about twice that of mobile sources; HC production is
only gradually decreasing since 1980. Gas leakages were a significant source of HC production in both
Ireland and the United Kingdom up to about 1985.

Example 8.3 Compute the HC discharged from a population centre of | million if:
e 300000 vehicles travel 12000km per annum emitting 1 g/km each
e The per capita consumption of oil-based paint is 2 litres per annum with a HC content of | kg per litre
e The per capita HC from dry cleaning solvents is 1 kg per annum

Solution

Vehicles : 300000 x 12000 x a = 3600 tonnes

Paints : 10° x 2kg = 2000 tonnes

HC solvents : 10° x 1 kg = 1000 tonnes
Total = 6600 tonnes
= 6.6kg per capita per year

Table 8.18 Total hydrocarbon emissions per capita

Hydrocarbons (kg HC/capita)

West
Year USA Germany Netherlands UK Ireland

1970 128 48 41 31 —
1975 102 45 4] 31 15
1980 98 45 35 33 18
1981 91 43 33 34 18
1982 84 43 32 34 18
1983 87 43 31 34 18
1984 9] 43 30 34 18
1985 83 43 29 34 18
1986 79 44 28 34 --
1987 78 43 27 35 30
1988 74 42 27 35 =
1989 — 42 Ay 36 —
Data from EC, 1992b with permission
 AIR POLLUTION 351
140

—a—_ USA
—a—_ West Germany
D ro) —e— Netherlands
—o—_ UK
40
capita
HC
kg
per —ee— Ireland

20

0)
~
S
a
Cc
he
%aS x
Maer
$6
N
Se
foe)
BS oa Ba bo 3 D
Q ox a ox ox ox ron ox 3} on

Year

Figure 8.7 Total hydrocarbon emissions per capita, 1970-1989.

8.4.7 Ozone—O,
Ozone is considered a ‘criteria pollutant’ because of its association with urban smog. However, it is a
secondary pollutant. Nitrogen oxides and various hydrocarbons in the presence of sunlight initiate a
complex set of reactions that produce secondary pollutants or photochemical oxidants. The most abundant
oxidant is ozone (O3). The formation of smog is simplified as
Hydrocarbons + NO, + sunlight — photochemical smog
The source of HC and NO, in urban areas is primarily from vehicles. The irradiation of air containing
hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen leads to:

e Oxidation of NO to NO,
e Oxidation of HCs
e Formation of O;

Table 8.19 Hydrocarbon emissions—mobile (M) and stationary (ST) sources

Hydrocarbons (1000 t HC)

USA West Germany Netherlands UK Ireland

Year M ST M ST M ST M ST M Sil
1970 11 100 15 100 1030 1851 289 Pail 403 1347 = —
1975 9 200 12 800 1210 1598 289 266 447 1286 29 19
1980 7400 14900 1310 1444 236 266 606 1281 37 25
1981 7200 13 700 1242 1419 218 256 619 1274 38 25
1982 6 800 12 800 1258 1379 217 246 639 1273 36 27
1983 6700 13 800 1266 1366 215 232 632 1271 34 28
1984 6 800 14700 1287 1364 212 217 648 1259 32 32
1985 6 400 13 600 1269 B55) 203 23} 646 1280 32 32
1986 6 200 13 200 1322 1339 202 202 664 1293 — —
1987 6000 13 600 1329 1304 202 196 697 1287 65 43
1988 6 100 12 400 1334 1269 207 189 729 1284 — =
1989 os — 1273 1263 213 186 788 1287 — —

Data from EC, 1992b with permission

352 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

Table 8.20 Lead emissions from vehicles per capita

Lead (kg Pb/capita)

Year USAt Netherlands UK Ireland

—
1970 0.64 0.12 — —
1975 0.46 0.18 — —
1980 0.22 0.09 0.13 0.295
1981 0.18 0.09 0.12 0.252
1982 0.18 0.09 0.12 0.245 se
1983 ORS) 0.09 0.12 0.144
1984 OR) 0.09 0.13 0.137
1985 0.05 0.08 0.11 0.130
1986 0.02 0.05 0.05 0.048
1987 — 0.023 0.05 0.048
1988 — 0.023 0.05 0.048
1989 -- 0.02 0.04 0.048

+ USEPA (1988a).
Data from EC, 1992b with permission

Clean tropospheric background levels of O3 are 20 to 80 ppb, while urban polluted areas may
reach concentrations of up to 500 ppb. High levels of ozone are associated with health effects of chest
constriction and irritation of the mucous membrane. It is also associated with deterioration of rubber
products (tyres) and damage to vegetation. USEPA ambient standards are set at 235 ug/m? for the 1
hour limit. WHO limits are recommended for Europe at 150 to 200 ug/m> for | hour.

8.4.8 Lead—Pb
The heavy metals of cadmium, lead and mercury are significant air pollutants. Lead is a bluish-grey
soft metal with a melting point of 327.5°C and a boiling point of 1740°C. Organic lead compounds
such as tetraethyl and tetramethyl lead are extensive fuel additives. They are colourless liquids and are
less volatile than most petrol components. As such, they tend to become concentrated when petrol
evaporates. Prior to 1986 80 to 90 per cent of lead in ambient air was from the combustion of leaded
petrol. The mining and smelting of lead is also a source but is site specific. Secondary lead smelters
and refining and manufacture of compounds containing lead as well as waste incinerators also produce
lead emissions. Background levels of lead in air are about 5x 10~° wg/m*. Environments with high
traffic densities have polluted concentrations of 0.5 to 3jg/m*. The annual ambient air quality
standards are set internationally at 2 ug/m”.
Lead in ambient air is of particulate matter of size <3 jum. Lead is also found in water and food.
Lead is bioaccumulative and 30 to 50 per cent of inhaled lead lodges in the respiratory system with the
remainder absorbed into the body. Elevated levels in blood lead to haematological problems,
particularly at blood levels in excess of 0.2 ug/ml. Since the introduction of unleaded petrol, Table
8.20 and Fig. 8.8 show that the Pb emissions reduced from 640 to 20 g/capita in the United States from
1970 to 1986. This is one of the great improvements in air quality. Typically Pb emissions into urban
air are 20 to 60 g/capita. Table 8.21 shows that in 1991, of petrol used in West Germany and Denmark,
about 60 per cent is unleaded, while the corresponding figure for Spain and Italy is less than 5 per cent.
A substantial improvement on the 1991 figures for lead in petrol had occurred by 1995.
 AIR POLLUTION 353

J
ie | sr
—e—_ Netherlands

—>-— UK
Pb
kg
capita
per
“= —$—aw— Ireland

0
=) a) =) = on] og) + w”
im é oO ioe) 90 ra) oo es % oO D
3) D a fox rox rex ex ex a a ron a

Year

Figure 8.8 Lead emissions from vehicles per capita, 1970-1989.

Table 8.21 Percentage of automotive

gasoline (petrol) deliveries
(unleaded) in 1990

Country %

USA =
West Germany 68
Netherlands 42
UK 34
Ireland 19
France 15
Spain 1
Italy 5
Denmark 57

8.4.9 Summary of Criteria Pollutants

Figure 8.9 shows a plot of the summation of CO, NO2, SO2, PM-10 and HC on a per capita basis for the
United States, West Germany and Ireland. In 1984 the US emissions were 600 kg in comparison with
West Germany’s 300 kg and Ireland’s 250 kg. A dramatic improvement is seen in US levels from 1970 to
1984. A gradual and continuing improvement is seen in West German levels for 1970 through to 1989.
Almost no improvement in levels is seen in Ireland since 1975. Ireland has undergone extensive
industrialization since 1975, particularly with the chemical, pharmaceutical, computer, agriculture and
power industries. As such, gains in environmental quality have been offset by increased industrialization.
However, Ireland is particularly polluting with regard to particulates, which is due in part to new fossil
fuel power installations.

Example 8.4 Consider a thermoelectric power plant of 915 MW total capacity with a load factor
(or annual capacity) of 72.5 per cent and an efficiency of 40 per cent. Determine the amount produced of
particulates, CO, and SO, if coal is used. The ultimate analysis and calorific value of coal is as follows:

Moisture Ash Carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen Sulphur Oxygen Calorific value

8% 7.7% 77.0% 3.0% 1.25% 1.0% 2.05% 29.7 MJ/kg

354 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

1000

900

800

700

600 —a— USA

Nn(j=)iS
—tz—._ West Germany
400
—eas— Ireland
300.

9,HC)
SO,
NO,, 200
(CO,
kg
PM,
100 ai

0
S) va) (=) sal (os) (aa) +t Vay Ne) li lo,2)} a

Bee 8 8 a) Se SRS 8 a ae
Year

Figure 8.9 Sum of CO, NO», PMjo and HC per capita, 1970-1989.

See Chapter 14 for an explanation of ultimate analysis.

Solution:

Power 915 MW = 915 x 10°kW

= 915 x 10° x 10°J/s
= 3294 x 10° MJ/h
3294 x 10° x 0.725
Coal required = = 2010 t/h
0.4 x 29.7
Assume 80 per cent of ash is as fly ash or particulates:

Particulates = 0.8 x 0.077 x 201 = 12.4t/h

Sulphur dioxide = SO, = S+ O,
Atomic mass = 32 + 32 (equal parts of S and O,)
Sulphur at 1% = 0.01 x 201 = 2.01 t/h
Sulphur dioxide = S + O, = 2.01 + 2.01 = 4.02 t/h
Carbon dioxide = CO, = C+ O,
Atomic mass = 12 + 32
Carbon'at 77.0%)= 077 x20 e155 t/h
Carbon dioxide = C + O,
32
= 155.06 +55 x 155.06 t/h = 568t/h
The annual production is as follows:

Particulates = 108 x 10°t

SO, = 35 x 10°t
COv—= 5, 0naiat
 AIR POLLUTION 355

While SO, and CO) are emitted into the atmosphere, the particulates are captured by flue gas cleaning
devices, generally by electrostatic precipitators (ESP). If an ESP removes 99.5 per cent of particulates,
compute the amount of particulate emissions:
’ OS
Particulates = T00 NZD) == Oi Siiy/ln

= 565 t/annum

Note Other emissions of VOC, HC, NO, and others may be released in lesser quantities, but their
magnitudes depend on power plant technology. Modern thermal power plant technologies can achieve
almost insignificant NO, emissions.

Example 8.5 Consider the thermoelectric power plant of Example 8.4, of total capacity 915 MW
with a load factor of 72.5 per cent and an efficiency of 40 per cent. Determine the amount of particulates,
CO, and SO; if oil is the fuel source. The ultimate analysis and calorific value is as follows:

Nitrogen
Moisture Ash Carbon Hydrogen +oxygen Sulphur Calorific value

0.3% 0.04% 85.2% 11.3% 0.36% 2.8% 40.5 MJ/kg

Solution:

Power 915 MW = 3294 x 10° MJ/h

3294 x 10° x 0.725
Oil required = = 147t/h
4 x 40.5
Assume 80 per cent of ash is as fly ash or particulates:
0.04
Particulates = 0.8 x Too + 147 = 0.047t/h

Additional particulates are generated from the oil during the combustion process and this may double the
emission rate. However, the actual emission rate will depend on the boiler technology:
Sulphur dioxide = S + O,
Atomic mass = 32 + 32
2.8
Sulphur at 2.8% = a0 147 = 4.1t/h

Sulphur dioxide = 4.1 + 4.1 = 8.2t/h

Carbon dioxide = C + O,
Atomic mass = 12 + 32
85.2
Carbon at 85.2% = nook. (47 = 125.2t/h
32
Carbon dioxide = 125.2 + 2 125.2 = 459 t/h

The total annual production is as follows:

Particulates = 412t
SO, = 72 x 10°t
CO, = 4.02 x 10°t
356 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

Example 8.6 Consider the thermoelectric power plant of Example 8.4, of total capacity 915 MW
with a load factor of 72.5 per cent and an efficiency of 33 per cent. Determine the amount of particulates,
CO, and SO) if milled peat is the fuel source. The ultimate analysis for milled peat is as follows:

Nitrogen
Moisture Ash Carbon Hydrogen +oxygen Sulphur Oxygen Calorific value

50% 2.5% 27.3% 2.6% 0.7% 0.3% 16.6% 14.5 MJ/kg

Solution:

Power 915 MW = 3294 x 10° MJ/h

3294 x 10° x 0.725
Milled peat required = = 500t/h
0.33 x 14.5
Assume 80 per cent of ash is as fly ash or particulates:
IES)
Particulates = 0.8 x T00 < D000 10th

Sulphur dioxide = S + O,
Atomic mass = 32 + 32
0.3
Sulphur at 0.3% = T00 x00 15.t/h

Sulphur dioxide = 1.5 + 1.5 = 3 t/h

Carbon dioxide = C + O,
Atomic mass = 12 + 32
Ze
Carbon at 27.3% = T00 x 500 = 13655.t/n
32
Carbon dioxide = 136.5 ie x 136.5 = 500.5 t/h

Using an ESP with an efficiency of 99.5 per cent the particulate emissions reduce to

Particulates = = <1.0:= 0050/8

= 439 t/annum
The total annual production is as follows:

Particulates = 87.6 x 10°t

SOs = 263 salt
CO, = 4.4 x 10°t
If particulates are reduced by flue gas filters with an efficiency of 99 per cent, compute the emission rate
of particulates:
1
Particulates = T00 * 87.6 x 10° = 876 t/annum
 AIR POLLUTION 357

Example 8.7 The thermoelectric power station of 915 MW capacity and a load factor of 72.5 per
cent uses natural gas as its fuel source and a plant efficiency of 40 per cent. Determine the annual
production of CO3, water vapour, and NO,. The natural gas parameters are as follows. Composition is per
cent by volume. There are no particulates or SO> emissions.

Density
CO, No CH, CoHg CsHs C4H 9 (kg/m?) Calorific value

0.1% 0.6% 98% 1.0% 0.2% 0.1% 0.72 40 MJ/kg

Solution

Power 915 MW = 3294 x 10° MJ/h

: 40
Natural gas calorific value = Eh 55.5MJ/m?

3294 x 10° x 0.725

Gas required = pi CAEATedEEOS Aa 149.3 t/h
0.4 x 40
CH, at 98% = 0.98 x 149.3 = 146.3 t/h
Stoichiometrically :CH, + 20, — 2H,0O + CO,
Atomic mass: 16 64 36 44
44
Carbon dioxide = 16 x 146.3 = 402.3 t/h
36
Water vapour (H,O) = 16 «x 146.3 = 329.2t/h
; 0.60
Nitrogen N, at 0.60% = T00 xe149:3)5=10.9t/h

Stoichiometrically: N, + 20, = 2NO,

Atomic mass: 28 64 92
92
Nitrogen dioxide = re O02 960 n

The total annual production is as follows:

Particulates > 0
CO, = 3.5 x 10°t
SO, > 0
H,O (water vapour) = 2.9 x 10°t
NO, = 7900 t
CO > 0

It is relevant to note that very significant amounts of water vapour (H2O) are produced, in fact almost as
much as CO>. Water vapour is also a greenhouse gas, of greater numerical significance than CO. But
because it is in the atmosphere naturally from evaporation, we tend not to notice it (see Example 8.8).
358 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

8.5 ACID DEPOSITION

Figure 8.10 shows the mechanism of acid deposition. Emissions of sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides and
hydrocarbons from industry, transport, households and power production are transformed in the atmo-
sphere into sulphate or nitrate particles. When combined with sunlight and water vapour, a complex
chemical reaction results in mild sulphuric acid or nitric acid. These acids in turn return to the earth as
dew, drizzle, fog, sleet, snow or rain. The deposition of acids is eitheras dry deposition, which may be in
particulate or gaseous form, or a wet deposition in rain or snow. Normal ‘clean’ rainwater has a pH ~ 5.7.
In areas of northern Europe (Scandinavia) and the eastern parts of the United States, the pH in
rainfall has been monitored regularly below 5.0, sometimes 4.0 and on rare occasions at 3.0. Acid
deposition has a serious negative effect on forest land, on aquatic life and on some natural stone building
materials.
Much of the acid deposition is transnational. For instance, 77 per cent of sulphur deposited in the
Netherlands was from other countries, as was 64 per cent in Denmark (EC, 1987). Similarly, much of
Canada’s acid deposition is from the United States and SO per cent in central Ontario is from the United
States midwest (Henry and Heinke, 1989). It is obviously desirable to reduce NO, and SO, emissions.
However, while there was significant reduction in NO, and SO, from 1970 to 1985 (see Figs 8.3 and 8.4),
there has been almost no improvement in the past decade.

8.6 GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE—GREENHOUSE GASES

The major greenhouse gases in order of greenhouse contribution are CO, CFCs, CH, and N2O and O3.
These gases have the effect of absorbing incoming short-wave solar energy (at wavelengths <4 um).
They also have the ability (when in the atmosphere) of absorbing some of the outgoing earth’s radiated
energy of long wavelength ( > 4 um). Each ‘greenhouse gas’ has its own ideal wavelength bands at which
it absorbs solar or earth’s radiation energy best. Figure 8.11 shows these wavelength bands. For instance,

Chemical
transformation
PAN
NO,/HNO,
SO,/SO,

Hydrocarbons NO, SO, Dry deposition Wet deposition:

acid rain
Emissions to the atmosphere y \ H.SO HNO
0
WV, 00
3
5g
0
. Gases °° 0°
oG.0 0 o, 00
sas 4 )
2 0 ie)
Particulates 0 0

[ea hy el
Industry ae Electricit
r= generation ;
Transport Domestic
Figure 8.10 The formation of atmospheric acidity and acid deposition (adapted from EC, 1992b).
 AIR POLLUTION 359

6000 K 290 K
(Sun) (Earth)

Intensity
(normalized)

Ultraviolet Visible Infra-red

= a ae eae [ca ae enertes aE

Oh CeyO? O28 Os Tks) 2 3 5 IQ ies 2Q XO 50 100
Wavelength (Um)
(a)
Wavelength (Um)
1 Stenooe 00)

Detail ; |
of H,0 CH,
spectrum 0
Absorption Ne
coefficient
(relative
scale)
meas ince tn |

O, and O;

ro)

Absorptivity CO,

0.1 0.2 0304 0.60.81 52 S45 6) 810 20 30

Wavelength (um)
(b)
Figure 8.11 (a) Normalized black body radiation curves for the sun and earth. (b) Atmospheric absorption on a clear day (adapted
from Fleagle and Businger, 1963. Reprinted by permission of Academic Press).

CO, absorbs thermal radiation in at least three bands, 2.3 to 3.1, 4.1 to 4.5 and 13 to 18 4m. CH, absorbs
radiation in at least two narrow bands, centred at 3.2 and 8 um. Water vapour (HO) absorbs in bands
centred at 0.95, 1.1, 0.4, 1.9, 2.7, 6.2 and above 20 um. As such, several of the greenhouse gases absorb
radiation at the same wavelengths. While some of the above-mentioned gases absorb radiation both above
and below 4m, the term greenhouse gases is reserved for those gases that absorb radiation at
wavelengths > 4m, i.e. gases that absorb the long wavelength earth radiation. They therefore trap
much of the outgoing earth’s radiative energy, therefore heating the atmosphere and subsequently
radiating this energy back to earth and out to space. These greenhouse gases have the effect of acting
like a thermal blanket around the globe, raising its temperature.
360 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

Table 8.22 Total CO, and per capita emissions

USA West Germany Netherlands UK Ireland

Total Per Total Per Total Per Total Per Total Per
(10°t) capita (10°t) capita (10°t) capita (10°t) capita (10°t) capita
Year (t) (t) (t) (t) (t)

1960 791 4.38 Dail 8.7 75 5 619 10.5 10.5 3

1965 624 10.3 99 6.6 663 11.6 13.5 38)
1970 741 2a 131 8.7 675 11.8 19.1 5)
1975 709 11.6 134 8.9 599 10.5 20.6 5.9
1980 809 13}2 154 10.2 583 10.2 DSP: WD
1985 718 11.8 145 9.7 561 9.8 eid 7.8
1986 719 11.8 156 10 567 a 28.3 8.1
1987 1224 5.03 709 ley 155 10.3 583 10.2 30.1 8.6
1988 706 27 153 10.2 577 10.1 30.3 8.7
1989 689 11.3 155 10.3 579 10.1 30.9 8.8

Data from EC, 1992a with permission

8.6.1 Carbon Dioxide

Carbon dioxide is not a pollutant in the conventional sense. It is a normal component of the atmosphere
(0.033 per cent) and is essential for plant growth. Fossil fuel combustion, including coal fired thermal
power stations and forest fires, have increased the background levels of CO, from ~ 315 ppm in 1960 to
350 ppm in 1990. It is now believed that man-made CO, is the most significant of the greenhouse gases.
Table 8.22 and Fig. 8.12 show the total emissions of CO, from five countries and the per capita emissions
from 1960 to 1989. The production of CO, in the developed world is approximately 5 to 10 t/capita per
year. In 1987, 5.6x 10’t were emitted globally into the atmosphere with the US contribution being
1.2 x 10° t. Forest clearing is another source of CO , as the exposed soil degrades and unlocks and emits
the CO, into the atmosphere. Estimates of the biomass CO, contribution vary from 0 to 1 x 10’t.

8.6.2 Chlorofluorocarbons—CFCs

CFCs are man-made molecules that contain chlorine, fluorine and carbon. They absorb radiation in the
atmospheric radiative window range of 7 to 12 ym. In the atmosphere they have long residence times and

L—s— USA

—s— West Germany

—e— Netherlands

—
WIS
CO,
capita
tonnes
per

—a— Ireland

Figure 8.12 Total CO emissions, tonnes per capita 1960-1989,

 AIR POLLUTION 361

are inert and non-water soluble. Chlorine is freed from CFCs by the process of photolysis by short-wave
radiation and drifts upwards to damage the ozone layer. The significant CFCs are CFC-11 (trichloro-
fluoromethane) and CFC-12 (dichlorofluoromethane). The EC 1990 production of CFC-11 and CFC-12
was 210 x 10° t, down from a high of 376 x 10°t in 1987. The use of CFCs in the European Community
for 1988 was as aerosols (~ 45 per cent), foam plastics (~ 40 per cent), refrigerants (~ 10 per cent) and
solvents (~ 5 per cent). Other CFCs are CFC-113, CFC-114 and CFC-115, which had an EC production
of 75 x 10°t in 1990. CFC-113 is a solvent used in the electronics industry. CFCs are to be phased out as
per the Montreal Protocol of 1987. Because of their long residence times, the 50 per cent cut still assumes
that the ppb level of CFC will increase almost linearly with time, going from 0.4 ppb in 1986 to 1.0 ppb
by 2010.

8.6.3 Methane—CH,
Methane is a naturally occurring gas that is produced under anaerobic conditions. This occurs in swamps,
rice fields, cattle stocks and in the production and consumption of fossii fuels. Like the CFCs, CH, has a
long residence time of about 10 years, after which it may be oxidized with OH radicals. It is estimated that
concentration in the atmosphere has increased in the past 200 years, in correspondence with a population
increase. It absorbs thermal radiation at narrow-band wavelengths around 3.2 and 7.6 um.

8.6.4 Nitrous Oxide—N,O

Nitrous oxide (NO) absorbs thermal radiation at the same wavelength as methane ~ 7.6 ym. It is
produced in the nitrogen cycle via nitrification, i.e. NH4—> N2— N20. It has a residence time of about
150 years and is about 200 times as potent a greenhouse gas as CO). The quantities of NoO produced are
insignificant by comparison with CO . Emissions arise from wastewater treatment plants, industrial
sources and gas combustion.

8.6.5 Water Vapour—H,O

Water vapour (HO) is often ignored as a greenhouse gas. The examples on power plant emissions (Sec.
8.5) show that the amounts of HO produced are similar to the amounts of CO. Also the long wavelength
energy radiated by the earth is absorbed not only by CO2, N2O and CH, but also by H20. Figure 8.11
shows that water vapour absorbs energy over several bands within the range of 1 to 8 um. However,
although the anthropogenic quantities of HO emitted are comparable to those of CO, they are miniscule
in comparison with the natural quantities from evaporation, as shown in Example 8.8.

Example 8.8 Compute the annual global natural emission of water vapour by evaporation from the
earth’s land and ocean surface. Compare this to the amount of water vapour emitted by industrial power
plants. State the assumptions made.

Solution From Brutsaert (1982, p. 3):

Evaporation from land (global average) = 0.45 m/yr
Land area = 1.49 x 108 km?
Therefore water vapour for land evaporation = 67 x 10? m3 /yr
Evaporation from oceans ~ 1.3 m/yr
Ocean area — 3.6 x 10° km?
362 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

Therefore water vapour evaporated from oceans = 468 x 10!? m?/yr

and total evaporated water vapour from earth surface = 535 x 10!? m?/yr
Density of water vapour = 0.8 kg/m?

Therefore total evaporated water vapour from earth’s surface = 420 x 10° t/yr

In Sec. 8.6.1, it was mentioned that ~ 6 x 10’ t/yr of CO, were emitted anthropogenically and that the
emission of water vapour from man-made sources is about this order also. Therefore:
Anthropogenic water vapour emission ~ 6 x 10° t/yr
This is approximately 1.4 per cent of the natural emission values.

Note This is an order of magnitude analysis only.

8.7 NON-CRITERIA POLLUTANTS

The criteria pollutants of CO, NO2, SO, PM-10, VOCs, HC and Pb are listed in Table 8.4 along with the
international standards for each and its associated exposure time. The criteria pollutants are regularly
found in urban environments, and the standards are set to uphold the quality of air for urban dwellers, the
flora, fauna and materials of that environment. In addition, there are many other air pollutants for which
emission limits from industry are set. The so-called non-criteria pollutants listed by WHO (1987) are set
out in Tables 8.23 and 8.24. The ambient air quality standards as set by WHO are set for both organic and
inorganic substances. Many of these are carcinogenic, mutagenic and damaging to the central nervous
system (CNS) as well as having a host of other negative health effects. Some of the air pollutants are man-
made synthetic chemicals such as 1,2-dichlorethane, while others such as radon are naturally occurring in
the background from the earth’s crustal geology. From those pollutants listed in Tables 8.23 and 8.24,
most, however, are the products of industry and more specifically the chemical, pharmaceutical and
petroleum products industries. The heavy metals of Cd, Cr and Hg are ubiquitous in the manufacturing
and chemical industries, particularly electroplating, plastics, paints, chlorine and chemicals.

8.8 EMISSION STANDARDS FROM INDUSTRIAL SOURCES

Generally emissions are from point sources, though line and areal sources may also occur. Fugitive
emissions are another significant industrial source, the control of which is legislated for in the United
States. Emissions standards are usually set by the local licensing authority whose task it is to consider the
impact of new and existing emissions. In Europe, the German TA Luft standards are referred to widely.
Irish industrial air emission licenses frequently refer and use these standards. The procedure is as follows:
1. Identify the emission substances by name and, from Annexe E (in TA Luft), determine whether they
are Class I, II or III. There are 145 substances listed alphabetically in this Annexe and classed. Class I
substances are those with the most severe emission standard and Class III the least severe.
2. The Class I substances should not exceed a concentration of 0.1 mg/m? at a mass flow rate of 0.5 g/h
or more.
3. The Class II substances should not exceed a concentration of 1 mg/m* at a mass flow rate of 5 g/h or
more.
4. The Class III substances should not exceed 5 mg/m? at a mass flow rate of 25 g/h or more.
5. If substances of Classes | and II exist, then the concentration should not exceed 1 mg/m’, If Classes I
and III or I and III exist, the mass concentration should not exceed 5 mg/m’.
 AIR POLLUTION 363

Table 8.23 Some non-criteria pollutants

WHO ambient
Pollutant Description and source Health effects guidelines

Acrylonitrile (AN) Volatile, flammable, colourless liquid, soluble in water. Carcinogen No safe level
Man-made, used in acrylic fibre and resins
Benzene (C¢Hg) Colourless clear liquid, slightly soluble in water. Carcinogen No safe level
Component of petrol and petroleum products
Carbon disulphide Colourless, volatile, inflammable liquid. Used in Brain damage, muscle 100 um/m?, 24h
(CS2) viscose rayon production, about 20g CS, to 1 kg atrophy
viscose
1,2-Dichlorethane Flammable colourless liquid, soluble in water. Man- Mutagen, liver, lung, 700 ug/m*, 24h
(CH4Cj2) made, used in synthesis of other chemicals kidney damage
Dichloromethane Non-flammable, clear liquid, highly volatile. Paint Carcinogen (animals) 3000 wg/m*, 24h
(CH2Cj2) remover, solvent, polyurethane foam blowing agent
Formaldehyde Common aldehyde at room temperature is a gas. Carcinogen (animals) 100 yg/m?, 30 min
(HCHO) Intermediary in CH, cycle. Insulating material
PAH Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons group of synthetic Carcinogen No safe level
chemicals from incomplete combustion of organic
materials
Styrene (CgH;CH) Volatile, colourless liquid used in manufacture of Suspected mutagen 70 wg/m*, 30 min
polymers, reinforced plastics and polystyrene
Tetrachloroethylene Non-flammable compound, insoluble in HO. Solvent Toxic to CNS and 5mg/m*, 24h
(C2Cj4) in dry cleaning and metal cleaning, etc. liver
Toluene Non-corrosive volatile liquid. Sourced at petroleum Toxic to CNS 7.5mg/m*, 24h
refinery and styrene production, etc. In paint
thinners, inks and adhesives, some cosmetics
Trichloroethylene Man-made from ethane or dichloroethane. Degreasing Neurobehavioural, 1mg/m?, 24h
(C,HC);) fabricated metals, dry cleaning, printing, paint liver and kidney
production, adhesives, carpet cleaners, etc. effects
Vinyl chloride (VC) Colourless gas from VC production, PVC facilities, Carcinogen No safe level
landfills

Data in part from WHO, 1987 with permission

The ‘mass flow rate of x g/h’ is defined as the total emission occurring for 1h of operation of a facility
under operating conditions which are most unfavourable to the maintentance of air quality.
The ‘mass concentration’ of air pollutants in the waste gas is defined such that:
1. All daily means shall not exceed the emission standard mass concentration.
2. Of all half-hourly means 97 per cent shall not exceed six-fifths of the established mass concentration.
3. All half-hourly means shall not exceed the established mass concentration more than twice.

Table 8.25 lists the carcinogenic substances and their classes and some non-carcinogens and their
classes.

8.8.1 Emission Standards from Waste Incinerators

The most up to date EU emission standards for waste incinerators are set down in the EU directive on
incinerators of hazardous waste. Table 8.26 shows a comparison of EU limits and those for Germany and
the Netherlands. In comparing these 1992 emission limits with the TA Luft limits (1986) it is seen that
new emission limits are many times more stringent than the ‘old’ limits. For instance, the ‘new’ limit for
HCI is 5 times lower than its previous value. The ‘new’ limit for CO is 50 mg/m?*, which is only 5 times
that of the WHO (1987) ambient standard.
364 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

Table 8.24 Some non-criteria pollutants—inorganic substances

WHO ambient
Pollutant Description and source Health effects guidelines

Arsenic (As) Ubiquitous in nature—metallic and non-metallic volcanic Carcinogen No safe level
activity, smelting of metals, fuel combustion pesticides
Asbestos Group of naturally occurring fibrous serpentine or Carcinogen No safe level
amphibole minerals. Used in building industry, heat
insulation. Fibres <3 ym inhalable »

Cadmium (Cd) Soft silver white metal, by product of zinc production. Animal carcinogen <20 mg/m*
Metal electroplating, plastics, etc.
Chromium (Cr) Grey hard metal. Cr°*, Cr°*. Ubiquitous in nature and Cr°* carcinogen No safe level
soils. Used in tanning industry
Hydrogen Colourless gas, soluble in water and alcohol. Formed from Intoxicant—eye 150 ug/m*, 24h
sulphide organic matter in absence of O°. In viscous industry, irritant
(H2S) wastewater treatment, oil refining, tanning, pulp
industry.
Manganese Earth crust’s fifth most abundant metal. Used in Toxic at high levels to 1 ug/ m>, annual
(Mn) metallurgy processes, alloy constituent, fertilizer, CNS and lungs average
leather, textile, glass industry
Mercury (Hg) Metallic, mercurous or mercuric (—3) states. Inorganic Bioaccumulative— 1 ug/m°, indoor
mercury — methyl mercury by microbes. Mining, CNS damage, annual average
chloralkali plants, paint preservative, batteries, medical kidneys
equipment, etc.
Nickel (N1) Silver-white hard metal found in earth’s crust. Used in Carcinogen No safe level
steel production, electroplating, coinage, etc.
Radon (Rn) Radioactive noble gas in several isotropic forms. Risk of lung cancer 100 Ba/m? in
Background level is about 3 Bq/m*. Uranium mining, buildings
from soils and rocks, in groundwater and air
Vanadium (Va) Ubiquitous bright white metal. Used in metallurgy, coal Bronchitis, 1 ug/m?, 24h
combustion, fuel combustion pneumonitis, upper
respiratory tract
effects

Data in part from WHO, 1987 with permission

Table 8.26 includes emission limits for dioxins and furans of 0.1 mg/m’. Dioxins represent a family
of chemicals referred to as TCDD or 2,3,7,8-tetrachlordibenzopara-dioxin. This chemical occurs as an
impurity in the manufacture of many chemicals and pesticides having a trichlorophenol base. When
plastics are burned, small amounts are released to the atmosphere, as from pulp and paper mills, pesticide
plants, vehicles, forest fires and cigarette smoke. Corresponding chloro-substituted isomers of the parent
molecule dibenzofuran (PCDF) also occur and are about one-tenth as toxic as TCDD. Dioxins are formed
optimally in the temperature range 180 to 400°C as by-products during the synthesis of certain herbicides,
PCBs and naphthalenes (Heffron, 1993). Degradation is not yet possible biologically but molecular
destruction does occur in liquid injection incinerators operating at temperatures in excess of 1200°C.
Toxic contamination from TCDD or PCDF is exhibited by chloracne and related dermal lesions. It is a
suspected carcinogen, but not a genotoxic agent.
Table 8.27 shows the acceptable level of daily intake of 2,3,7,8-TCDD by different agencies. These
limits are set because 2,3,7,8-TCDD is found in the air, in food (butter, meat, fish, eggs, etc.), in cigarette
smoke, in vehicle exhaust fumes, etc. The limits are set in pg (picogram = 10 |g) per kg of body
weight per day. USEPA values on dioxins were dramatically reduced in 1995. Evidence from Seveso, Italy,
is now indicating that dioxins are more hazardous than originally considered.
 AIR POLLUTION 365

Table 8.25 TA Luft emission classes

Class Carcinogenic substances Some non-carcinogenic substancest

I Asbestos Acetaldehyde
I Benzo(a)pyrene Chloromethane
I Beryllium Formaldehyde
I Dibenz(a,h)anthracen Nitrobenzene
I 2-Napthalen Phenol, etc.
Il Arsenic Chlorobenzene
Il Chromium (V1) Acetic acid
Il Cobalt Carbon disulphide
I 3,3-Dichlorobenzidine Naphthaline
Il Dimethyl sulphate Propionic acid
II Ethyleneimine Vinyl acetate
II Nickel Xylenes
Ill Acrylonitril Acetone
Ill Benzene Chloroethane
Ii 1,3-Butadiene Ethyl acetate
Il 1-Chloro-2,3-epoxipropane Pinenes
I 1,2-Dibromemethane Paraffin HCs
ll 1,2-Epoxipropane Methyl benzoate
Il Ethylen oxide Dichloromethane
Ill Hydrazine Trichlorofluoromethane
ll Vinyl chloride

+ For detailed list refer to Annexe E of TA Luft (1987).

Reproduced with permission

Table 8.26 Emission limits from waste incinerators

EC
Averaging Directive
Time Germany Netherlands 1994
Pollutant (hours) (mg/m?) (mg/m’) (mg/m?)
Total dust (PM-10) 24 10 5 10
Total organic carbon (TOC) 24 10 10 10
Inorganic chlorine 24 10 10 10
Compounds HCl
Inorganic fluorine 24 1 1
Compounds HF
Sulphur oxides (SO) 24 50 40
Carbon monoxide (CO) 24 50 50
Cadmium (Cd) \ 30 min-8 h 0.05 0.05
Thallium (Ti) 30 min-8 h
Mercury 0.05 0.05
Total other heavy metals 0.54 0.5 0.5
(Sb+As+Pb+Cr+Co+C,+Mn-+Ni+
V+ Sn)
Dioxins + furons 6-16h 0.1ng/m? 0.1 ng/m? 0.1 ng/n*

Data from EC, 1992 and EC 1994, with permission

366 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

Table 8.27 Acceptable daily intakes of 2,3,7,8-TCDD

by different agencies

Acceptable daily intake

Agency (pg/kg/day)
Canada 10
Netherlands 4
USEPA 0.006
WHO Europe (1991) 10 .
Germany 1-10

8.9 AIR POLLUTION METEOROLOGY

When a gaseous or particulate emission, be it from a vehicle exhaust, an industrial stack or other source, is
released into the atmosphere its fate is almost impossible to predict. This is so because of the complex
factors that influence its subsequent pathways. The influencing factors are primarily:

e Meteorological
e Source
e Process

The meteorological factors of interest are:

Wind speed and direction
Temperature and humidity
Turbulence
Atmospheric stability
Topographic effects on meteorology
Air pollution emissions are of interest at three scales:
e Microscale—of the order of 1 km (e.g. chimney plumes)
¢ Mesoscale—of the order of 100 kms (e.g. mountain-valley winds)
e Macroscale— ~ thousands of km (e.g. highs/lows over oceans or continents)
These scales are also time related and since wind speeds are ~ 5.0m/s, the microscale meteorological
effects occur at durations of minutes to hours, the mesoscale from hours to days and the macroscale at
days to weeks.
For instance, after the Chernobyl nuclear explosion of 1986, the plume on a microscale very
seriously affected the local region within hours of the emission, while the highlands of Wales were
affected with wet deposition approximately four days later. For air pollution transport with sources such as
power station plumes, industrial plumes or plumes from accidents, most transport interest is within the
atmospheric boundary layer (ABL). The ABL is the lower (500 to 1000 m) layer of the earth’s atmosphere,
which is influenced by the earth’s surface shearing and heating effects. Dispersion of pollutants within the
ABL is controlled by turbulence which varies strongly with stratification. In the unstable or convective
boundary layer (CBL), turbulence is characterized by large coherent eddies with scale of the order of the
CBL or ~ 1 to 2km. In the stable boundary layer (SBL), turbulence is much weaker with eddy size of the
order of tens of metres or less. These differences lead to widely different dispersion rates. For example, in
the CBL, a tall stack plume can be brought down to the earth’s surface within a few kilometres of the
source. In the SBL, elevated plumes may remain aloft with negligible surface impact for tens of
kilometres (Weil, 1988). In the troposphere (i.e. the layer closest to the ground extending to an altitude of
 AIR POLLUTION 367

10 to 15 km), the temperature decreases with height at a rate of approximately 9.8°C per km. This vertical
temperature gradient sets up convective currents or eddies where warm air rises and cool air falls.
Wind speed at the earth’s surface is zero due to friction of the surface roughness. Remote from this
surface, the wind speed increases with distance due to the earth’s motion. In the near surface atmospheric
boundary layer, random fluctuations of wind speed (and direction) are set up due to the surface roughness.
In this zone, an instantaneous velocity measurement will have a mean and a fluctuating component. (Of
course, wind speed is three dimensional, but the vector wind direction will for a specific location have a
dominant direction.) This is represented by
U=ut+u'
where U = instantaneous velocity
u = mean velocity component
and u’ = fluctuating component

The mean component of velocity is due to the earth’s motion, while the magnitude and sign of the
fluctuating component is due to the presence and complexity of surface roughness (i.e. city buildings, a
forest, etc.). The fluctuating velocity component superimposes eddy-type fluid structures on the mean
velocity. This fluctuating velocity phenomena with eddies is called turbulence and because of surface
roughness is called mechanical turbulence. Mechanical turbulence is partly responsible for air pollution
dispersion.
Turbulence is also produced by the vertical temperature gradient. The heated surface of the earth
causes the hot air or ‘thermals’ to rise, producing currents of air with hot air rising and cool air falling.
This turbulent motion is called thermal turbulence or buoyancy. The opposite to buoyance may also occur
on cold clear nights, when the ground radiates its heat away from the earth. The cold ground in turn cools
the air above it, leading to sinking density currents. Figure 8.13 shows typical vertical profiles of
temperature and wind speed. Both vary significantly in the ABL from day to night.

8.9.1 Ambient and Adiabatic Lapse Rates

In the lower troposphere, the temperature of the ambient air usually decreases with altitude. The rate of
temperature change or gradient is known as the ‘lapse rate’. A balloon equipped with a thermometer,
when released, will move upwards through the atmosphere and record the temperature of the ambient air.
This temperature gradient is known as the ‘ambient lapse rate’, and it varies from day to day, day to night,
season to season. Most of the time the ambient lapse rate decreases with altitude, but there can be
occasions when the reverse occurs.

600,

) £ =)S

i) S
Height
(m

0 _
AOQM2 34567 8 9igil Wil 2s 42S © 7 & Siow
Temperature (°C) Wind speed (m/s)

Figure 8.13 Examples of variation of temperature and wind speed with height.
368 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

Pasquill classes
Highly unstable
Unstable
Slightly unstable
Neutral
Slightly stable
Stable subadiabatic
7mMoOAwW>
Stable
1.0

Dry Stable inversion

(km)
Altitude
adiabatic

Unstable

Superadiabatic Very stable

Unstable

Temperature (°C)

Figure 8.14 Pasquill-Gifford stability classes—vertical temperature profile.

The reference lapse rate by which the ‘ambient lapse rate’ is compared is the ‘dry adiabatic lapse
rate’ (DALR). Under adiabatic (i.e. without the addition or loss of heat) conditions, a rising warm parcel
of air behaves like a rising balloon. The air within the parcel expands on meeting air of lower density. It
will expand until its own density is equal to the density of the surrounding air. Dry air expanding
adiabatically cools at a rate of 9.8°C/km or ~ 1°C/100m. Figure 8.14 shows the relationship of the
variety of possible ambient lapse rates to the dry adiabatic lapse rate as corresponding to the Pasquill
stability classes.

8.9.2 Atmospheric Stability

A ‘neutrally stable’ atmosphere occurs when the ambient lapse rate (ALR) is equal to the dry adiabatic
lapse rate (DALR); i.e. the rate of cooling with altitude is ~ 1°C/100m. In this case, if a parcel of air is
moved upwards or downwards, its temperature adjusts to that of its surroundings. In any new position, it
experiences no forces that encourage it to further adjust its position. It is stable in its old position and
stable in its new position.
An ‘unstable’ atmosphere occurs when the ambient lapse rate exceeds the dry adiabatic lapse rate,
i.e. the rate of cooling with altitude is > 1°C/100m. This steeper temperature gradient encourages
greater thermal turbulence. In this case, if'a parcel of air is moved upwards (say by mechanical turbulence
or updraughts near a building complex), within itself it cools by ~ 1°C/100m, so it is warmer than its
new surroundings. Due to buoyancy it will continue to climb. Similarly, if a parcel of air is moved
downwards (say by a downdraught due to topography), it is cooler and denser than its surroundings and
will thus continue to sink. This ambient condition is said to be ‘unstable’ with a ‘superadiabatic’ lapse
rate.
A ‘stable’ atmosphere occurs when the ambient lapse rate is less than the dry adiabatic lapse rate, ice.
the rate of cooling is <1°C/100m. The temperature gradient is less steep and thus responsible for less
turbulent activity. A variant of this condition is the isothermal class where there is no variation of
temperature with height. Ifa parcel of air is moved upwards, it will within itself cool at ~ 1°C/100 m. It
 AIR POLLUTION 369

Table 8.28 Percentage of time in each stability class (Ireland)

Occurrence-hourly observations (%)

Stability class Cork 1980-87 Dublin 1963-88

A Highly unstable 0.1 0.3

B Unstable It] ee
C Slightly unstable 5.0 shi
D Neutral 79,1 Wee?
E Slightly stable 6.8 8.6
F Stable Ths} 7.9

will find itself cooler than the surroundings and therefore be forced to sink. Similarly, if a parcel of air is
moved downwards it will heat at ~ 1°C/100 m. It will find itself warmer than its surroundings and due to
buoyancy will be forced back upwards. As such, the parcel of air does not want to move up or down from
its ‘stable’ position. The ambient condition is said to be ‘stable’ with a ‘subadiabatic’ lapse rate.
A ‘stable inversion’ condition is a variant of the stable atmosphere. Here, the temperature increases
with altitude. If a parcel of air is moved upwards it will within itself cool at ~ 1°C/100m. It will find
itself much cooler than its surroundings, and so will be forced to sink. If a parcel of air is moved
downwards, it will heat at 1°C/100m. It will find itself warmer than its surroundings and due to
buoyancy will be forced back upwards. An inversion temperature condition is a very stable condition,
forcing air pollutants to remain trapped in the atmosphere for long periods.
The occurrence of the different stability classes depends on meteorological conditions. Table 8.28
lists the percentage of time in each stability class at two locations in Ireland (1980 to 1987). Typically in
Ireland, neutral conditions may apply for about 80 per cent of the time. Neutral conditions are likely to
occur with overcast conditions. Dispersion in this case is aided by mechanical turbulence rather than by
thermal turbulence as in an unstable condition.
Table 8.29 is a relationship of stability class and wind speed. These classes were described earlier as
the Pasquill stability classes. They are also dependent on the strength of the incoming solar radiation and
the extent of cloud cover. If Ireland has an extensive cloud cover with slight to moderate incoming solar
radiation, it is seen that the dominant neutral condition occurs with wind speeds ranging from 3 to 6m/s.

8.9.3 Variation of Wind Speed with Altitude

Wind speed is recorded at a standard height of 10m and is called U,o. Wind speed varies with height,
from a low of zero at the ground surface to a maximum at some height above the influence of buildings
and topography. This is called U.,. The height at which U,, occurs depends on the terrain. In level rural
country U,, occurs at a height of about 250m, while the corresponding height is > 500m in urban

Table 8.29 Pasquil stability classes

Solar radiation Night time

cloud cover fraction

Wind speed
Uio (m/g) Strong Moderate Weak > ¢ <}

2) A A-B B = =
2-3 A-B B (€ E F
3-5 B B-C C D EB
5-6 ‘ C-D D D D
>6 ( D D D D
370 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

complexes. To determine the magnitude of U,, i.e. at any height, a power law relationship is sometimes
used:

=
Ae
eeu (8.9)
2 U0(7 =
where U, = wind (horizontal) speed at height z (required)
U9 = wind speed at 10m
Z = height Z (stack tip height)
Zio 0m
p = exponent

The exponentp varies with terrain and also with stability class, from about 0.1 to 0.4. Table 8.30 shows
some typical urban/rural values. Z., is the height of the boundary layer, typically ~ 250 m in rural terrain
and 600 m in high urban areas. Other relationships for wind speed and height are used and are covered in
Seinfeld (1986), Stern (1976) and Hanna ef al. (1982).

Example 8.9 Use the power low veiocity profile equation to determine U9, Uso, Uio0, U200 if
Uio = 5m/s and the terrain is on the bounds of rural/urban.

Solution Assume stability class D—neutral. From Table 8.30, assume p = 0.2:

It is relevant to note that while U- increases with altitude, it does so only by 15 to 80 per cent in this
example, over a height change of 20 to 200 m.

8.9.4 Variation of Wind Direction with Altitude

A time series plot of the ‘along’ wind direction of a plume would show that the ‘mean’ along wind
direction is longitudinal. However, superimposed on this is a fluctuating lateral wind direction. This

Table 8.30 Exponent p power low velocity profit

Forest Urban Urban

Stability class Smooth rural Za = 400m Liverpool Zoe 00m

A-B-C 0.07-0.10 0.15—0.2

D 0.14-0.16 0.28 0.21 0.4
E-F 0.2-0.33 0.21-0.33

Adapted in part from Stern, 1976

 AIR POLLUTION 371

A Vertical
upward

Lateral
sh Longitudinal
ag aac
‘ %

/ wind direction /%
%
Downward
y

Plan Elevation

Figure 8.15 Definition of og and oy standard deviations of wind direction.

fluctuation is termed ‘standard deviation of lateral wind direction’. This is defined in Fig. 8.15. It varies
with atmospheric stability class and to a lesser extent with height. Obviously, the more unstable the
condition, the greater the standard deviation of the lateral wind direction, ¢0. This is shown in Fig. 8.16 to
vary from ~ 0 (stable) to 25°C (unstable). In the same way, the along wind direction defined in Fig. 8.15
has a vertical standard deviation, o~. This is shown in Fig. 8.17 to vary from 0 (stable) to 15—25°C
(unstable). Again, o@ varies with height. The impact of the magnitude of o@ and c@ on the ability of the
atmosphere to disperse a pollutant is significant, as explained in the following sections.
A very unstable atmosphere with ¢@ ~ 25°C will cause greatest dispersion in the lateral direction. It
will also cause dispersion in the vertical wind direction. Lateral dispersion is usually desirable. Vertical
dispersion upwards is also desirable. However, vertical dispersion downwards may not be desirable if the
contaminant plume contacts the ground surface. Buoyancy or thermal turbulence does not change with
altitude for neutral or stable conditions, but increases significantly, with altitude, for unstable conditions.
Mechanical turbulence impacts most at very stable conditions at low heights. Mechanical turbulence
expires at heights above building or topographical complexes, above which buoyancy is the mechanism of
turbulence.

8.9.5 Lapse Rates and Dispersion

If the ambient temperature profile is known (i.e. ambient lapse rate) and is compared to the adiabatic lapse
rate, it is possible to estimate the fate of an air pollutant emission. Stack emissions produce plumes which
vary with atmospheric stability class. Figure 8.18 shows the types of plumes developed for unstable,
neutral and stable conditions. In Fig. 8.18(a), the unstable or superadiabatic ambient lapse rate produces a

jt eli T i! foo
oi ol ' ' '
Tol fo: I ' ' '
Teh Gg ' o!

[50-1 os! oe fe
n Nn Le |

o' oO! ' a! wp

=
Aikvo 8s 5= Sc
E te 3 o 3
>
= 100 = Z. 3S
XS 5 Oo
2oD ise)
3 =
(at =

30) |=

0 ; |
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Standard deviation of lateral wind direction
6, (deg)
Figure 8.16 Vertical variation of the standard deviation of the lateral wind direction og (adapted from Seinfield, 1986. Copyright ©
1986. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.).
372 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

250
)
Te,
cs
200 V1\2

5\\2
Qi} a>

150
ane
Sis

Height
(m)
100
giz
\

50

0) 5 10 15 20 25
Standard deviation of vertical wind direction
5, (deg)

Figure 8.17 Vertical variation of the standard deviation of the vertical wind direction o4 (adapted from Seinfield, 1986. Copyright ©
1986. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.).

plume that is characterized by a ‘looping’ longitudinal elevation. From Fig. 8.17, it was seen that
oy ~ 20°C for the unstable condition. However, og might be either vertically upwards or downwards at a
particular instant so the plume will be forced upwards and downwards by thermal turbulence. In Fig.
8.18(b), the neutral ambient lapse rate produces a plume with a characteristic ‘coning’ longitudinal
elevation (and plan). In terms of vertical dispersion, ap ~ 5 °C, as seen in Fig. 8.17. This causes a reduced
vertical dispersion, in both the vertically upwards and downwards directions. The plume is unlikely to
impact on ground in the near stack environment, but will at some distance downwind, depending on stack
height and topography. In Fig. 8.18(c), the stable ambient lapse rate produces a plume with a characteristic
‘fanning’ longitudinal elevation. Vertical dispersion is almost nil since ag ~ 0°C, from Fig. 8.17

Discontinuities in atmospheric stability Figure 8.19 shows three possible discontinuities in the vertical
temperature profile. Close to ground level, on clear winter nights, the earth radiates its heat back to space,
causing the air close to the ground to be cooler than the air above it. Nocturnal inversions begin at dusk
close to the ground and extend upwards as the night progresses. The inversion clears during the day.

Dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR)

Ambient
a oe

a_—__ Adiabatic

Looping

Fanning
Figure 8.18 Chimney stack plumes for different stability classes: (a) unstable, (b) neutral (c) stable
 AIR POLLUTION 373

Adiabatic (DALR)

“s S
‘it Lofting

\
(b) z \

ip Trapping

Fumigating
Temperature
profiles

Figure 8.19 Chimney stack plumes for discontinuous stability classes: (a) inversion below, neutral aloft, (b) inversion aloft, neutral
below, (c) inversion aloft, neutral below.

Figure 8.19(a) shows the profile of a very stable inversion below the stack tip and neutral conditions aloft.
In this case there is mild mixing in the vertical, above the discontinuity. Below the discontinuity, there is
no mixing and the plume remains aloft. Such plumes are called ‘lofting’. Figure 8.19(b) shows a profile
with near neutral conditions below the stack tip and a very stable inversion aloft. The latter inhibits any
mixing above the stack height, while the near neutral condition below the stack tip encourages mixing in
the vertical downwards direction. As such, the plume impacts the ground at some distance downwind.
Such plumes are called ‘trapping’. Figure 8.19(c) shows the profile of a plume resulting from neutral
conditions below the stack tip and an inversion aloft. The discontinuity is closer to the ground than in Fig.
8.19(b). The result is that the plume impacts the ground much closer to the stack. Such a plume is called
‘fumigating’.

8.9.6 Terrain Effects on Dispersion

It may be required to investigate the dispersion of a pollutant over a variety of terrain of topographical
features including:
e Heat islands
e Land/sea interfaces
e Valleys or hillslopes
A heat island might be natural or man made. In an urban complex for instance, heat is absorbed and re-
radiated at higher rates than in rural areas. Vertical convection currents are set up which are superimposed
on the prevailing meteorological condition. As such, there is less atmospheric stability over such a feature
and urban chimney plumes are more likely to impact on ground more rapidly than rural plumes.
374 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

At the interface of land and sea, convection currents are set up with opposite rotation from day to
night. At night time, the land mass cools quicker than the sea mass, so cool air from the land at ground
level flows towards the warmer area over the sea, which due to buoyancy rises and sets up a circulation.
The reverse occurs during the day period. As such, at the interface area a nocturnal inversion is produced,
creating a ‘fanning’ plume.
Valleys produce their own microclimate. Urban valleys produce unique dispersive plume character-
istics. The sides of valleys are warmed by solar radiation. They in turn radiate heat, and particularly at
night warm the ‘cool’ air in the valley thus setting up convective currents. in the absence of wind flowing
through the valley, flushing of plumes may not occur as frequently as it does in open terrain. The
convective valley currents then may be responsible for trapping plumes and increasing ground level
impacts.

8.10 ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSION

Plume dispersion from a chimney stack is a convenient phenomena to discuss atmospheric dispersion,
although many other areas are also of interest, e.g. fugitive emissions from pipes and vents, vehicle
exhaust emissions, plumes from fires or explosions and emissions from dump sites. In an effort to predict
concentrations of pollutants remote from the source, many techniques of air quality modelling have
evolved. These include:
Gaussian
Numerical
Statistical
Empirical
Physical

Traditionally, ‘physical modelling’ utilizing wind tunnels was used. However, only a few centres in
the world had adequately sized wind tunnels to investigate urban pollutant plumes. To overcome scaling
effects, models of urban areas required to be of adequate size so as to properly represent the variation in
vertical velocity and temperature profile. Physical modelling is desirable in multisource emissions on a
complex terrain.
‘Statistical or empirical’ techniques are used if inadequate information on the physicochemical
processes exists to satisfy input requirements of numerical or Gaussian modelling. Such modelling will
tend to produce information to assist with understanding of the fundamentals of the air quality problem.
Such an evaluation may require the data monitoring to assist with understanding of the problem.
‘Numerical modelling’ requires the solution of the equations for conservation of mass, energy and
momentum in three dimensions. Such modelling capability is most desirable but is as yet not readily
available. This is due to the complexity of fluid and mass transport and particularly the turbulent terms in
these equations which are yet not fully amenable to solution.
‘Gaussian’ modelling is the more widely used technique for estimating the impact of non-reactive
pollutants (USEPA, 1986). Gaussian modelling is far from being exact, as some of the model assumptions
compromise accuracy. These assumptions include:

1. There is no variation in wind speed and direction between the source and the receptor.
2. All effluent remains in the atmosphere and no provision is made for wet or dry deposition or chemical
conversion. Any plume impacting on the ground is totally reflected.
3. Dispersion does not occur in the downwind direction. It only occurs in the vertical and cross wind
directions. The dispersion is stochastic and is described exactly by the Gaussian distribution.

4. Emission rates are assumed constant and continuous.

 AIR POLLUTION 375

8.10.1 Chimney Plume Characteristics

Figure 8.20 is a schematic elevation of a plume concentration profile from a chimney stack. The stack
height is H,. The pollutant is emitted with a flow rate Q and an exit velocity W. The plume, due to exit
velocity and buoyancy, will gain in vertical height, before being turned into the downwind direction by the
prevailing atmospheric wind speed. The gain in plume height is called plume rise AH. The effective
plume height is then
H, =H,
+ AH
As the plume progresses in the downwind direction, it is assumed to diffuse and the concentration profile
takes on a Gaussian distribution. If the atmospheric condition is neutral, then a ‘coning’ plume will
develop. The concentration at the centre-line of the plume will be greatest close to the stack and will
decrease in a downwind direction. As the downwind direction increases, the extremities of the plume may
impact on the ground as shown in Fig. 8.20. As the plume development is three dimensional, the
dispersion prediction model must be able to account for changes in the x, y, z positions. The concentration
of a pollution at any point is such that

(uy.
2)x9
Cony;
]
OG

1
U (U is wind speed) (8.10)

QO (Q is the emission flow rate) (8.11)

G (G is normalized Gaussian curve in the yz plane) (S12)

8.10.2 Gaussian Distribution

Figure 8.21(a) shows the normal (Gaussian) curve, used to describe an occurrence governed by
probability. The height of the central ordinate is called the ‘mean’ and the width of the curve is described

Vertical
concentration
profiles

Plume
Point (x, 0, z) 4
centre-line

Wind velocity y e es eee | Peo ee ee as

———

Figure 8.20 Schematic elevation of plume concentration profile.

376 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

Area within 16 of
general ordinate is 98.3%
of total area under the curve

Ko | General ordinate
One standard
20 deviation

Two standard deviations

(a) Typical (b) Variation of o

Figure 8.21 Normal (Gaussian) distribution curve.

in ‘standard deviations’. For instance, 68.3 per cent of the total area under the curve resides within ‘one’
standard deviation of the centre, 95.5 per cent corresponds to ‘two’ standard deviations and 99.75 per cent
corresponds to ‘three’ standard deviations. The Gaussian distribution in the lateral y direction is described
by
in

1 .
= x eeeI ff(ee
ay
270, oN GC:

Similarly in the z direction

l Uiae\
Ga ex
J 216, Eee? 0,

As the distance downwind increases, the peak centre-line concentration decreases as the plume spreads
out wider in the y and z directions. Figure 8.21(5) indicates that o increases as the distance downwind
increases. Figure 8.22(a) shows a plan of the plume being tracked at different times. At any instant, the
plume shows a meandering boundary. At time 10 min or | h, the boundaries extend and with it, the peak
centre-line concentrations decrease, as shown schematically in Fig. 8.22(d).

ary
ounda :
yp averags 2
ar
10min average boundary

y Instantaneous boundary
: Mean wind direction SL
; SS == Time meanmaniso’e
axis of plume =

eT eal pf le

(a) Plan view (b) Relative concentration

Figure 8.22 Time series development of plume (after Seinfield, 1986).
 AIR POLLUTION 377

8.10.3 Diffusion Equation

The concentration of a pollutant plume at any x, y, z location can be computed from the diffusion equation
below.

Coty. Q I Y/ feted51 (*)

|ai, ;
Gaya)2) = 2na,o,0° 5 (") exp (8.13)

For the coordinate system : x = 0 at stack

0 at plume centre-line
g= at ground level
If the effective stack height is H, then the z coordinate of the plume centre-line is (z — H), where z is
measured upwards from ground level:
2 2
Q 1 ey; il [[s¢— TAI
CO);2) =——— il ae 14
9:2) 2n0,0,U ray 2\G, PEED C, ae

In the conservation of mass assumption, that all plume contact with the ground is totally reflected, a
second term must be added to account for this. This is shown schematically in Fig. 8.23. Then Eq. (8.14)
becomes:
2 2 2
rf Q Lee,
= 1/z—H aot.l/z+H 8.15
Be, 2n0,0,U selma. \c. le Nera pa22 |e 0, >)

The appropriate units are:

QO = any property per unit time, e.g. kg/s, m?/s
C = that property per unit volume, e.g. kg/m’, m?/m? or ppb
0,, 0, = diffusion coefficients, inm, as functions of downwind distance x

4 eee HZ
Saas Centre-line of imaginary plume 4 y_
~

Figure 8.23 Coordinate system and ground reflection of plume development.

378 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

Figures 8.24 and 8.25 are the Pasquill-Gifford curves for a, and o,. Knowing the downwind distance x
and the stability criteria, o, and o, can be read from the figures.
Most interest is in ground level concentrations (z = 0), so Eq. (8.15) reduces to
2 2
Q isy, Ny iiei
= —={— —=~|{— 8.16
oe) 100,U Ue) Oy ied eo C, a)

The maximum ground level concentration occurs at the plume centre-line, dt v= 05.80

Q 1 (HY
(C.D) SS ——|(— 8.17
oe) 10,0,U Peal ae G, ae

104
SSS ate ie ree eee
RD
aze
ABzZ
etobaian mPaba5
| ea | | 25|S e LA
Ozb'as4
2
ani avalBz

2 iH

dispersion
Horizontal
coefficient
(m)
q A-Extremely unstable
B—Moderately unstable
C-Slightly unstable
D—Neutral

=
E-Slightly stable
F—Moderately stable

ESS
—_
SENSIS
ae
eS
4x 10°
l

Distance from source (m)

Figure 8.24 Correlations for a, based on the Pasquill stability classes A-F (Gifford, 1961). These are the so-called Pasquill—Gifford
curves.
 AIR POLLUTION 379

108

i)

102

Gc

coefficient
dispersion
Vertical
(m)
03
Z\
en eal
Ai

A-Extremely unstable
B—Moderately unstable
C—Slightly unstable
D-Neutral
E-Slightly stable
F—Moderately stable
aa

10°Hitt ail
102 A 5 10 ine) 5 105
Distance from source (m)

Figure 8.25 Correlations for a, based on the Pasquill stability classes A-F (Gifford, 1961). These are the so-called Pasquill—Gifford
curves.

8.10.4 Ground Level Emission

Equation (8.15) for ground level emissions, such as fires or explosions or fugitive gases or smouldering
landfill sites, becomes

D 2
Q y Z
CCDS
(v2) =)
oe exp = S/Sa exp = 2} (8.18 )

For ground level concentrations, z = 0:

2
C(x, 9,0) =—* exp —= 2) (8.19)
380 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

The maximum ground level concentrations are along the plume centre-line where y = 0:

COAO0) = (8.20)
d,0,U

Example 8.10 A dumpsite fire emits 3 g/s of NO,. Determine the NO, concentration at 2km
downwind if the windspeed U;) = 5m/s and the stability is class D. What is the maximum concentration
at ground level and also at 50m above ground?

Solution

@ 70) — 8.20)
(aera) 10,0,U (

From Figs. 8.24 and 8.25, for x = 2km,

o, = 150m
G, = 0m

3 x 10°
Therefore C(x = 2km, y = 0,z = 0) = = 25.5 wg NO,/m>
7 << ISO x SO «KS

6 == Ores
= = ne x — 1 (2)
= ——

Sore: me 10,0,U abe?! 0,

eS eae
“ax 150x50x5 | 2\o,
Il 15.5 ug NO,/m>

8.10.5 Plume Rise

When a chimney stack emits a pollutant plume, it does so with an exit velocity. This exit velocity
(momentum) and buoyancy forces the emission upwards into the atmosphere before adapting to the
direction of the prevailing wind direction.
The height of rise is called plume rise, AH. Briggs (1969) reviewed the phenomenon of plume rise
and the many formulae and methods used to determine AH. Plume rise can have an effect on the ultimate
ground level concentrations, reducing them significantly. Plume rise increases the effective stack height by
10 to 200 per cent. Early work on plume rise produced the Holland or Oak Ridge formula (US Weather
Bureau, 1953):

2V. T,. —T
AH = 8 [1s+ 2.68 x te Sop (8.21)

where V., = stack exit velocity, m/s

r, = Stack tip radius, m
U = wind speed, m/s
P
atmospheric pressure, kPa
|
a ; = Stack temperature, K
T, = air temperature, K
 AIR POLLUTION 381

This equation includes a term for momentum and a term for buoyancy, where the latter was based on
photographs of plume behaviour at Oak Ridge. Since then, many other formulae have come into existence
and the recommendations of Briggs (1969) are most comprehensive.
For ‘neutral’ or ‘unstable’ conditions (A-B-C or D stabilities):
One —eor

ING 6
ony,
U (8.22)

where X- = downwind distance to final plume rise, m

U = wind speed at stack tip, m/s
F = buoyancy flux parameter
Then
T, — T,
F= Vee) m*/s? (8.23)
Vi

and
2G os for H, < 305 m (8.24)
8 Gr

: 674°4 for H, > 305 m (8.25)

For x > Xp:

1.671327 : oe
Yep ema Oe 0.4+0.64% +2.2(*) (:+08") (8.26)
U Xr X¢ Xf

For fossil fuel power plants with heat emissions > 20 MW (Briggs, 1969),
1.6F1/3 2/3
Siamese for x< 10 H, (3:27)
ze U
1.6F'3(10H,)°?
a S for x> 10 H, (8.28)

For ‘stable’ conditions (E—F):

AH =2.4 tO\ i (8.29)

SSNS ,
where S is a stability parameter:
g_ (AT, 6
S=2=
i ce PTCA
0.01°C
") le
8.30

Example 8.11 For the 915 MW power plant of earlier examples, compute the effective stack height
for neutral or unstable conditions, using (a) the Holland equation, and (b) the Brigg’s equation. If the
‘stable’ condition is such that
a
= 2°C/km, then determine (c) the plume rise using the appropriate
Brigg’s equation.

Stack tip radius = 4m

Stack height = 250m
Ambient temperature = 20°C (293K)
Exit gas velocity = 15m/s
382 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

Exit gas temperature = 140°C (413K)

Atmospheric pressure = 100 kPa (1000 mb)
Stack tip wind speed = 5m/s

Solution

(a) Holland’s equation:

2hr Ly emes ys
NEL = ae + 2.6 x 10 (2 )ar,|

54054263 107(= 28]= 1m

Ss

2x15x4 (413— 293

eS : —_—__——}8| = 181

(b) Brigg’s equation for neutral or unstable conditions:

6H xe
Sere:
T,— T,
F = eh,7
T,
413
— 293
= 9.81 x15~x a2 ( 413
9.81 )= 684 m*/s°

u = 216F (He

— 2.16 x 684°* x 250°° = 807m

1.6 x 6841/3 x 8072/3
Nip : s Foun
Therefore for neutral or unstable conditions, Brigg’s equations give AH = 244m
(c) For stable conditions (F or F’) we have Eq. (8.29)

1/3
an =2.4(7)
US
eae Ae
S= r (G +001)
9.81
= Fy (0.002
+0.01) = 4 x KO
684?
AH
= 2.4 —_———__] =
(5x 4x =) on
It is noted that the plume rise is about the same order of height as the stack height.

Example 8.12 A 915 MW power plant with a load factor of 72.5 per cent and an efficiency of 40
per cent uses coal as a fuel source. The coal has a | per cent sulphur content and a calorific value of
30 MJ/kg. The stack tip is 200 m high with a diameter of 7 m. If neutral conditions prevail, determine the
maximum ground level concentrations of SO2 at 1, 10 and 100km from the plant. U,;o = 4m/s,
Te— 150°C. 7, =20°Ciands)2:— om) s"
 AIR POLLUTION 383

Solution:

Power 915 MW = 3294 x 10° MJ/h

2 3294 x 10° x 0.725
Coal required = = ||
3 0.4 x 30 earls
i
Sulphursate|
ulphur a’ oe
0 ————
100 * EIS) == SID)
il, yn

Sulphur dioxide SO, = S + O,

Atomic mass 3
Sulphur dioxide = 1.99 t/h + 1.99 t/h = 3.98 t/h
Emission rate of SO, = 1.1 kg/s

Wind speed at stack tip U, = U (a)

For rural terrain p ~ 0.16

Plume rise by Brigg’s formula:

Po=— Tf
Buoyancy flux F = ke (: = :)
Ss

APB — 293
=98x9.8 x 15 Sy
x 3.5%( 43 )= 553 m*/s°

Distance to full plume rise x, = DG Te

S16 53 200, = 648m
1.6F°x,7/?
a
For x = ||km : AH =

4 GO 5< S58) 1/3 x 648 2/3 mG eosin

6.5
1.6F'? x (10H.
s)
Forx = 10km (>10H,): a
Baie 1/3
50372000 2/3 ete
6.5
For x = 100 km: AH = 320m

Maximum ground level concentrations at 1, 10 and 100 km:

Q LED
ON PN read rae
eZ,
Boe be

At 1 km: Hee He AH = 200+" 150 = 350m

From Figs 8.24 and 8.25:

J, = 75m

G7— 33m
384 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

;
Therefore
hee val 1 (=)
exp] —={ ——
CY= =—
5 SIO We eS
= 8.2 x 10-7 pe/m"

At 10 km: H = 200 + 320 = 520m

From Figs. 8.24 and 8.25:
6, =550m
o, = 140m

Therefore

eae nal 1 al
exp | —— |——
We = VS = eS LOR |) DAC
= 0.71 pg/m*

At 100 km: Jal = Sillwa

From Figs 8.24 and 8.25:

dy = 4000 m
o, = 450m
Therefore

Bea AITENe ie Sele 520/

ira 4000
450 065 ee 50
= 15.3 ng/m?

Recall that the WHO SO, standards for ambient air are ~ 40 yg/m°* for the annual exposure to
~ 500 g/m? for the 10 min exposure. In the above example, if the plume behaved strictly under neutral
conditions, the local landscape around the plant would have negligible negative impact. Different
atmospheric conditions plus rainfall would produce a very different result. As this example shows, the
maximum concentration at ground level increases with distance from the stack. A 200m stack height is
considered very tall and ensures maximum atmospheric dispersion before ground impact. However, there
may be local or source effects that negatively impact on such idealistic dispersion. These source effects are
covered in the following section. Readers are referred to Turner (1970) for more detailed worked
examples. The reader is encouraged to plot the above results and carry out further computations to
identify at what distance downward the maximum ground level concentrations will occur.

Example 8.13 Determine the stack height for an industry source emitting 150kg/day of 1,2-
dichloroethane (C4H,4Cl,) if a residential complex is sited 1.5 km downwind and the ambient limit should
not exceed 700 g/m°. The neutral conditions (D) occur 85 per cent of the time and this is to be the
design atmospheric condition. The characteristics are:
Gas exit velocity = 15 m/s
Gas exit temperature = 150 °C
Stack tip diameter = 3m
Ambient temperature = 20 °C
 AIR POLLUTION 385

Uy) =4m/s (assume U, ~ 6m/s)

O= 150 ke/day =1.7 g/s

Solution From Figs. 8.24 and 8.25, at 1.5km, o, = 100m and o, = 33 m. Therefore
2
G6 skin = 0 0) os (2
TO yez 2

700 x 107°=
ileal HY
medpase
Me | acl

e §0)|| == 1 ||==
(HY = 25.625.
ANG,

ex ag HY = 546
dh ON BE oe
H? = 2178 In 25.6
Therefore
H =84m
Effective plume H = 84m=H,+ AH

From this, H, ~ 30-60m

To determine H,, iterate the following Brigg’s equations:
1.6F'? x (10H,)*"
AH =
U
ie
i = 2/7, A Fr =

423 — 293
SUR ci ee
=
ear 423
= 102
1.6 x 102!/3 x 5007/3
If H, = 50m: Nei ee : S — 156
m(too high)
1.6 x 102!/3 x 3002/3 ;
If H, = 30m: pee . = = 111 m (too high)
1.6 x 102!3 x 1002/3
ie 210m: Wg 3 ==
52 i

i14@- H = 10+52 = 62m < 84m (thus too low)

liv 15m: Ane= 691m
TiN)
69 — 34m

Therefore

Minimum stack height required H, = 15m. These computations are elementary. See Seinfeld (1986),
Stern (1976) for more detailed references.
386 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

A Plume centreline

Figure 8.26 Downwash phenomenon—chimney stack downwind of buildings.

8.10.6 Source Effects on Plume Behaviour

Power plant stacks and incinerator chimneys are usually tall, as are many industrial gaseous venting
structures. Similarly, cooling towers for power plant water vapour (H2O) are also tall. In these cases, the
venting structure is well above ancillary buildings to eliminate or reduce source effects. However, many
industries use short vents on building roofs and low-level boiler chimneys. In these situations, as well as
on residential and commercial structures, short exhausts are susceptible to interference by adjacent
buildings. ‘Downwash’ is the term used to describe the phenomenon of a plume being drawn downwards
after emission. It occurs if there is low pressure in the wake of a chimney stack. It is shown schematically
in Fig. 8.26. If K/U>1.5 (where K = stack emission velocity and U = horizontal wind speed),
downwash does not normally occur.
Figure 8.27 shows the flow patterns around a bluff body. As the flow impinges on the upstream face,
it creates a stagnation point, above which flow moves upwards and below which flow moves downwards.

Separation zone

Reattachment
—

ae ACCOM
—_——_ Cavity zone ———>

MCL Ook
Flow lines Vortex shedding

(a) Plan

Reattachment

SN
aie,
Flow lines

Stagnation
point Cavity

=:
alee
(b) Elevation

Figure 8.27 Schematic of flow around a bluff body.

 AIR POLLUTION 387

On the roof and side walls, the flow separates from the building at the corners and reattaches on the roof
(and side walls) further downstream. Between the separation point and reattachment points is a separation
or cavity zone, with little exchange of air flow. Similarly, on the downwind face, the flow separates at the
comers, creating a cavity zone for a short distance downwind. Again, in this cavity zone, little exchange
of air occurs. There are therefore zones around buildings where air pollutants may gather and concentrate.
Emission vents should account for such potential hot spots and be properly located and given adequate
height to minimize the impacts. In locating emission sources upwind of buildings, it has been found
(Hanna et a/., 1982) that if the source is > 2H upstream and if H, > 3 Hf,,, the plume will tend to rise over
the building face. Parts of the plume at heights < $ Hi, will be caught in the downwash in the frontal eddy
for the lower part of the building. If the building length (L) is short, reattachment will not occur on the
roof or walls and the plume will be deflected above the wake cavity. However, if the building is long,
reattachment occurs and high concentrations are found at the roof locations and some of the plume
becomes partially trapped in the building wake. If this occurs, recirculation at ground level of the pollutant
occurs. A rule of thumb often applied is to keep the emission source at 2.5 times the building height. In
many cases this is relaxed. Briggs (1973) developed methodologies to ascertain building effects on
plumes.

8.11 PROBLEMS

8.1 An industry emits SO, at 24h concentrations of 10, 60, 48, 57, and 11 ppm from Monday to
Friday, 2-6 May 1994. On what days is the standard of 140 yg/m* exceeded?
8.2 If methane is found in the atmosphere at 1.5 ppm by volume, determine the concentration in ppm
by mass.
8.3 Ifthe total mass of particulates in the atmosphere from all sources is 10° tonnes and if it is assumed
to be distributed entirely within the boundary layer 1 km high, compute the average concentration in
ppm.
8.4 Prepare a table for the ambient air quality standards for the criteria pollutants for your particular
legislative area (state or country) and compare to WHO (1987) recommendations.
8.5 Sketch a map of your part of the world and locate on it the power stations (excluding hydro).
Identify whether the power is from nuclear, gas, coal or other sources.
8.6 From Table 8.6, estimate the amount of CO that is emitted per vehicle kilometre.
8.7 If Los Angeles has 10 million cars that are driven 20 000 km per year, compute the amount of CO
and NO, that they discharge into the Los Angeles Basin.
8.8 Fora significant coal burning power station in your area, compute the annual output of particulates,
SO, and CO,. What technology does this plant use for particulate scrubbing.
8.9 Ifthe power station of Problem 8.6 was to be replaced by a natural gas plant, for gas quality 98 per
cent CH4, determine the annual output of particulates, SO, and CO .
8.10 From your map of the power plants in your area (country) and knowing the power output, compute
the amount of CO, emitted annually. How would you as a legislator plan to reduce this carbon load
by 50 per cent by 2020?
8.11 Compute the annual evaporation from the land area assumed in Problem 8.8. Compare the natural
and anthropogenic emissions of water vapour.
8.12 Use the power law to compute and draw the vertical velocity profile for an urban area and a flat rural
area if Uj) = 8.5m/s in both cases. Draw the profile up to 100m in height. Comment on the
differences.
8.13 With respect to Table 8.28, determine for your area the percentage occurrences of each of the
stability classes. What is the dominant stability class for dry desert conditions?
8.14 Ifa particular day was cloud free at midday, with a wind speed of 1.8 m/s at 10 m above the ground,
what is the stability class?
388 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

8.15 For Problem 8.14, determine the wind speed at 180m above the ground.
8.16 Derive the diffusion equation if it is assumed that there is no ground reflection.
8.17 An industrial plant has an emission raté of 0.11 kg/s of SO” from a stack of height 40 m. The tip exit
velocity is 10m/s. The gas exit temperature is 100°C and the ambient temperature is 20°C.
Compute the ground level concentration at distances of 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, Oy WS, 2 gral AS saa
downwind of the stack. Draw a longitudinal profile of the concentrations.
8.18 For Problem 8.14, sketch the shape of the concentration profile for the atmospheric stability classes
of highly unstable and highly stable. Explain your answers.
8.19 A source located in a rural area emits 0.5 kg of SO per s from a 30 m high stack. The average plume
rise is assumed to be 20 m and the wind speed at 10 m is 4.5 m/s. Determine the average maximum
ground level concentration in ug/m?.
8.20 For Problem 8.17, determine the maximum concentration in ppm. How far downwind does the
maximum concentration occur.

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

American Conference of Government Industrial Hygienists (1990) Advances in Air Sampling, Lewis Publishers.
An Foras Forbartha (1987) EEC Environmental Legislation. A Handbook for Irish Local Authorities, AFF, Dublin.
Benarie, M. M. (1980) Urban Air Pollution Modelling, Mcmillan Press Ltd, New York.
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Briggs, G. A. (1973) Diffusion Estimates for Small Emissions, ATDL Contribution File 79, US Atomic Energy Commission.
Brookings, D. G. (1990) The Indoor Radon Problem, Columbia University Press, New York.
Broome, J. (1992) Counting the Cost of Global Warming, The White Horse Press, Cambridge, UK.
Brutsaert, W. (1982). Evaporation into the Atmosphere, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Holland.
Carras, J. N. (1989) ‘Some implications of measurements of plume characteristics for Gaussian models’, Journal of Clean Air. May.
Carras, J. N. and D. J. Williams (1984) Measurements of plume dispersion coefficients during convective conditions at various sites
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Corbitt R. A. (1989) Standard Handbook on Environmental Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Davis, M. and D. Cornwell (1991) Introduction to Environmental Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Duffy, N, and D. Cunningham (1992) Lecture Notes to Postgraduate Diploma in Environmental Engineering, University College
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Fleagle, R. G. and J. A. Businger (1963) An Introduction to Atmospheric Physics, Academic Press, New York, 346pp.
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Hanna, S. R., G. A. Briggs and R. P. Hosker (1982) Handbook on Atmospheric Diffusion, US Department of Energy.
Harrison, R. (1990) Pollution Causes, Effects and Control, Royal Society of Chemistry, London.
Heffron, J. J. (1993) A review of the toxicity of dioxins and furons, Proceedings of Ist Irish Atmospheric Conference, University
College Cork, Ireland, February.
Henry, J. G. and G. W. Heinke, (1989) Environmental Science and Engineering, Prentice-Hall, N.J., USA.
Heskith, H. E. and F. L. Cross (1989) Odor Control Including Hazardous/Toxic Odors, Technomic, Lancaster, PA, USA.
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Jackson, M. H., G. P. Morris, P. G. Smith and J. F. Crawford (1990) Environmental Health Reference Book, Reed International/
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Martin, G. B, R. E. Hall and J. S. Biomin (1979) ‘Nitrogen oxides control technology for stationary area and point sources and
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 CHAPTER

NINE

NOISE POLLUTION

9.1 INTRODUCTION

It is mainly in the highly industrialized countries, characterized by high volumes of traffic, that noise is
perceived as a serious environmental nuisance. As with all pollutants, it reduces the ‘quality of life’ and
causes a significant health hazard. For example, people living adjacent to busy roads tend to have higher
blood pressure. High noise levels at work or at home can exacerbate existing health conditions. In addition to
the risks to human health, noise pollution has negative ecological impacts on species sensitive to noise.
Noise is defined as unwanted sound, consequently it can be considered as the wrong sound in the wrong
place at the wrong time. The degree of ‘unwantedness’ is frequently a psychological matter since the effects
of noise can range from moderate annoyance to permanent hearing loss, and may be rated differently by
different observers. Therefore it is often difficult to determine the benefits of reducing a specific noise. Noise
does affect the inhabitants, humans, fauna, etc., in the natural environment. Although the impact of a
particular noise source is limited to a specific area, noise is so pervasive that it is almost impossible to escape
from it. Community social surveys almost always rate noise among the most annoying environmental
nuisances. Common noise sources include traffic, industry and neighbours, the latter being often the most
annoying although industrial noise is usually the source of most noise complaints.
High noise levels of sufficient duration can result in temporary or permanent hearing loss. This is
generally associated with those working in industrial plants or operating machinery but can also occur at
discotheques or close to aircraft on the ground if the exposure period is long enough. However,
measurable hearing damage from most industrial sounds requires daily exposure for several years. On the
other hand, environmental noise intrusions such as traffic noise can interfere with speech communication,
disturb sleep and relaxation and interfere with the ability to perform complex tasks.

9.1.1 Sources of Noise Pollution

Noise can be emitted from a point source (electric fan) an areal source (discotheque) or a line source
(moving train). Noise diffuses rapidly from its source and at an adequate distance from the source the
noise is not felt. Noise pollution comes from a wide variety of sources, including:

ree
oe el
 NOISE POLLUTION 391

Traffic—the main source

Industrial equipment
Construction activities
Sporting and crowd activities
Low-flying aircraft

9.1.2 Levels of Noise in the Environment

The following statement is taken in total from the EC document on The State of the Environment in the
European Community (EC, 1987) with permission:
Because of the strong subjective component in the perception of noise, physical measurements of noise pollution
provide only a partial picture of the real problem. One of the most reliable indicators of the problem is therefore public
opinion; the opinion poll on the environment conducted by the European Commission in 1982, for example, showed
that noise was seen as the second most important (environmental) problem at the local level. Similarly, the incidence of
official complaints by the public about noise nuisances give a useful measure of the extent of the problem. According
to this barometer, the problem is getting worse [as Fig. 9.1 illustrates]: numbers of complaints in England and Wales
have doubled between 1975 and 1985. In France, in 1986, approximately 25% of the population were exposed to an
average daily noise level of more than 65 dB(A); in Germany the figure is 15—20%.
Among the different sources of noise, traffic is undoubtedly the most important. Aggregated data on traffic,
however, do not provide a particularly sensitive or reliable index of noise generation, because different components of
the traffic have different emission levels. Cars, for example, produce relatively little noise, and in any case have
increased relatively slowly in numbers in recent years. Conversely, lorries are a much more important source of noise,
and these have increased much more rapidly, with a rise of 20 per cent in total freight volumes between 1973 and 1981.
[Figure 9.2 shows the range of noise levels for different vehicle types.]
In addition to noise from road traffic, public complaints indicate concern with noise from several other sources,
including industrial plants, building sites, aircraft landing and taking off, low-flying military aircraft and sporting
activities. Undoubtedly, air passenger traffic has expanded considerably since 1970, though improvements in engine
design have meant that noise emissions may not have risen proportionately. In general, however, there are too few data
on these other sources of noise to make valid assessments of the situation in the European Union.

Domestic

Road works and demolition

Industrial and commercial

complaints
of
Number
inhabitants
million
per

0
(OFS SST NS TORS Si OSS

Figure 9.1 Official complaints about noise pollution in the United Kingdom 1973-83 (adapted from EC, 1987). Reprinted by
permission of the Commission of the European Communities).
392 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

Noise level dB(A)

70 80 90 100
cool Saas ae ae T
—————— Moped

—————_— Motorbike

-—_+—_4 Car (petrol)

-—_++— Car (diesel)

[SSS Delivery van (petrol)

1 Delivery van (diesel)

SS Bus

H—+——H1 Lorry (<105 kW)

-—-+——— Lorry (<150 kW)

SS | Lorry (>150 kW)

Note: bars show mean noise levels

and 5—95% range

Figure 9.2 Noise emissions from vehicles in Germany (adapted from EC, 1987). Reprinted by permission of the Commission of the
European Communities).

On the basis of the available evidence, it is stated that about 25 per cent of the total population complain about
noise pollution. About 15 to 25 per cent of the population are probably exposed to a noise level that is sufficient to pose
a significant health threat. It is not possible with the available data to determine whether the measures already taken are
reducing the scale of the problem in the European Union, but as far as road traffic is concerned it seems that the
problem is in fact getting worse. The situation seems to be deteriorating, particularly in urban areas, despite the more
widespread construction of noise barriers along roads.
In the future, significant reductions in noise are likely to come mainly from the reduction of vehicle noise by
more rigorous controls and by the introduction of quieter vehicles. Certainly this is possible, for the technology
already exists to produce lorries with noise levels 10 dB(A) less than those currently on the road. On this basis, 20 of
the new lorries would produce no more noise than one existing vehicle of similar size and capacity. The same is true of
motor cycles. The adoption of such technology would inevitably increase the price of the vehicles, but this must be set
against the costs of the passive measures of protection that would otherwise be needed (or the damage costs if no
preventive action is taken). At the same time, improvements in the situation are also likely to be achieved by the
application of environmental impact assessments. By requiring environment effects of infrastructural developments
to be taken into account at the planning stage, these will encourage better design against noise from major projects
such as road and industrial developments.

9.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOUND

9.2.1 Sound Waves

Sound is defined as any pressure variation that the human ear can detect. The simplest sound pressure
variation (caused by a pure tone) produces the sinusoidal wave pattern shown in Fig. 9.3. Some of the
elemental noise terms are:

e Amplitude (A)—the maximum or minimum pressure

e Wavelength (A)—the distance between successive troughs or crests
¢ Period (P)—the time between successive peaks or troughs
 NOISE POLLUTION 393

Pressure
maT FT Wavelength
(A) Amplitude
(A)

Figure 9.3 Parameters of a sinusoidal wave pattern.

¢ Frequency (/)—the number of complete pressure variations or cycles per second

e Speed of sound (c)

Period and frequency are related by

| ee (9.1
ef )

Wavelength and frequency are related by

c
A=-; (92)
The speed of sound in air at sea level at 20°C is approximately 340 m/s. Sound waves result from the
vibration of solid objects or the separation of fluids as they pass over, around or through holes in solid
objects. Vibrations are characterized by their frequency, amplitude and phase. Since noise generally
consists of a large number of frequencies combined in random phase, the phase characteristics are
generally not important and can be ignored. Only some mechanical vibrations can be perceived by the
hearing mechanism of the human ear. They must be of a certain amplitude to be audible and the frequency
must be within certain limits. Such audible vibrations occur in the hearing range which varies from person
to person and is also dependent on age, extent of hearing loss and even physiological condition. The
hearing range extends from a frequency of about 20 to 20000 Hz.
Most sounds are not the purely sinusoidal vibrations as shown on Fig. 9.3. They vary both in
frequency and magnitude over time. To quantify their magnitude over a measurement time 7} the root
mean square (r.m.s.) sound pressure (P;ms) 18 defined as follows:

a /2 ine Me
Prms = (2°) = Eiproar| O22)

The r.m.s. sound pressure is therefore obtained by squaring the value of the pressure (amplitude) at each
instant in time, summing the squared values over the measurement time 7, dividing by 7 and taking the
square root of the total.

9.2.2 Sound Power and Intensity

The rate at which energy is transmitted by sound waves is called the sound power (W) measured in watts.
The average sound power per unit area normal to the direction of propagation of a sound wave is termed
the acoustic or sound intensity (/). For example, if a small noise source, such as a vibrating or pulsating
394 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

the acoustic
sphere, radiates a sound power of W watts in a spherical manner in a non-dissipative medium,
intensity at a distance r is

= — watts /m? (9.4)

Arr?
Also, at a sufficient distance away from the noise source, it can be shown that the intensity is proportional
to the square of the sound pressure. The exact relationship is as follows:
2
jg tee (9.5)
pec
where I = acoustic intensity, W/m?
p = sound pressure (r.m.s. value in pascals, Pa)
p = density of the medium, kg/m?
(air = 1.185kg/m? at 20°C at standard pressure)
c = speed of sound in the medium, m/s

: IN-—m
Notes. liwatt — ljoule/sec
sec
9.2.3 The Decibel
An enormous range of sound pressures are perceived by the human ear. The ratio of the weakest sound
power to the largest perceived without pain is approximately one to one million. Also, the hearing
mechanism responds to changes in sound pressures in a relative rather than in an absolute manner.
Consequently, a scale based on ten times the logarithm of the ratios of the measured quantities to specified
reference quantities is used for noise measurement purposes. The reference power level is 10~'2 watts
and the sound power level in decibels (dB) is defined as follows:
W
Ips, = i) logio 9-12 (9.6)

where Ly = the sound power level in dB for 10~!7W

W =the sound power of the noise source, watts (W)

Since sound power is proportional to the square of the sound pressure, the sound pressure level in decibels
is defined as follows:
2
P P
=P 10 logio— ap = 20 logi9 — (9.7)
9.7

where Ly = the sound pressure level in decibels, dB

p = the measured pressure (r.m.s. value in Pa)
Py = the reference pressure (20 Pa)

The reference pressure is taken as the threshold of hearing, i.e. the weakest sound that the ear can detect.
Such a sound would have a sound pressure level of zero decibels. However, sound pressure levels less
than 25 decibels are not normally encountered except in specially constructed rooms such as broadcasting
studios. Sound level meters measure the sound level in decibels and the lowest sound that can be
measured by conventional equipment is about 38 dB. Typical sound pressure levels are shown on Fig. 9.4.
It should be noted that the term level denotes a relative measurement. The given quantity has a
certain level above a specified reference value. For most practical purposes the sound power level is
independent of the environment in which the noise source is located. The sound pressure level depends on
both the power output of the noise source and the environment of the measurement position.
 NOISE POLLUTION 395

9.2.4 Combining Sound Pressure Levels

Decibel values cannot be added directly because they are logarithms.

Example 9.1 If a sound source has a pressure of 2000 Pa at 10m distance, compute:
(a) the sound pressure level in dB,
(b) the sound intensity in W/m’,
(c) the sound power in W.

Solution

(a) From Eq. (9.10) sound pressure L, = 20 log

0
2000 x 10-6
7 20 080( 20 x 10-6 )
= 40dB
2
(b) From Eq. (9.5) sound intensity J ae
pc
= (2000 x 10-6)
1.185 x 340
= 9.9 x 10-°W/m?

(c) From Eq. (9.4) sound power 3 W = 4nr°I

SA el0e OO 10.”
SDS Oro

If two similar sound sources are added the power and intensity are doubled but not the pressure (dB).
However, since the received sound pressure is proportional to the square root of the intensity, the new
sound pressure would equal the original pressure multiplied by /2.

Example 9.2 _ If two sound sources have equal pressures of 2000 Pa, determine the sound pressure
in dB.

Solution

From Eq. (9.10) sound pressure L, = 20 logo

Po
2000 x 10-6
=2 ologv3(ke
eat!ee )
= 43 dB

Therefore doubling the existing sound source results in an increase in the sound pressure level of
3 dB. Similarly if ten equal sound sources were present instead of one, the sound pressure level would
increase by 10 dB. Figure 9.4 shows a comparative scaling of sound pressure levels and decibels.
For noise pollution work, sound levels should be rounded to the nearest whole number. To simplify
calculations the approximate addition rules (accurate to about 1 dB) shown in Table 9.1 may be used. If
there are a number of noise sources to be combined, they should be added two at a time, starting at the two
lowest values and adding on the next highest value to the result.
396 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

Sound pressure Sound pressure level

pee SPs 140 db Threshold of pain

(25 mi distance) 0191000 000
130 Jet take-off
(100 m distance)
120
10.000 000
110
Rock musi¢ ————_>—
100 «—— Pneumatic chipper
1 000 000
90,
Heavy tuck———<_——— ~=<—_—— Average street traffic
80
100 000
70
<<) Business oifice
Conversational 60
te
speech 10.000
50
ijt) —$—$$
<< —— — 40 Living room
(no TV or radio, etc.)
1000
30
Bedroom ——————>— 20

100
10

20 0 Threshold of hearing

Figure 9.4 Comparative scaling of sound pressure levels and decibels.

Example 9.3 Determine the sound pressure level from combining the following four levels: 58, 62,
65 and 68 dB.

Solution Select the two lowest levels, 58 and 62 dB. Their difference is 4dB and means adding 1
(or 1.5) to the higher, i.e.

58 dB + 62 dB = 63 dB
63 dB + 65 dB = 67dB
67 dB + 68dB = 71 dB
A graph for solving decibel addition is shown in Fig. 9.5

9.2.5 Frequencies
Sounds of a single frequency, called pure tones, rarely exist except under artificial conditions. Most
environmental sounds consist of a large number of frequencies. Audible sound frequencies range from

Table 9.1 Decibel addition (approximate)

Difference in sound pressure

levels (dB) Add to higher level
0 or 1 3
2 or 3 2
4to 9 1
10 or more 0
 NOISE POLLUTION 397

Ww i)

Increment
Ae WAS) WS SNF Itsy SI AXO;
2.0 Difference

ii

1 2 3 AD oy 4 CoO Ome Ie 12
Difference in decibels between two levels to be added

level
higher
decibels
in
Increment
added
be
to
Figure 9.5 Graph for solving decibel addition problems (adapted from Davis and Comwell, 1991. Reprinted by permission of
McGraw-Hill, Inc.).

0.015 to 15kHz. At frequencies less than 0.015kHz the sound is not generally audible, although if
sufficiently strong it can be felt as a vibration (infrasonic frequencies). Sound of frequencies greater than
15 kHz often cannot be heard by older listeners (ultrasonic frequencies). Between these two extremes,
vibrations can be heard if they are of sufficient magnitude. The human voice contains frequency
components between 0.08 and 8 kHz but is mainly concentrated in the range from 0.5 to 2 kHz (the piano
contains frequencies from 0.0275 to 4.168 kHz). In practice sounds with a frequency greater than 8 kHz
are not often commonly encountered and are not likely to give rise to complaints. Consequently sounds of
frequencies above 8 kHz can usually be ignored in environmental noise monitoring.
For noise control purposes it is often necessary to identify the frequency components or spectra of
sounds. The wide range of audible sound frequencies is divided into octave bands. An octave band is the
frequency interval between a given frequency and twice that frequency. Thus the frequency intervals
0.05—0.1 kHz, 0.1-0.2 kHz and 1—2 kHz are all octave bands. For noise analysis a number of fixed octave
bands are internationally recognized. These are centred on 0.0315 kHz as shown in Table 9.2.
Octave band analysis requires an octave filter set which may be incorporated with the sound level
meter. All sound frequencies outside the selected band are rejected by electronic filters. When it proves
difficult to identify an offending noise source, octave band analysis can be used to compare the measured
noise frequency spectrum with those of different types of machinery. For remedial analysis of machinery a
more refined analysis involving one-third octave or narrow-band frequency analysis is required.

Table 9.2 Octave bands

Octave band centre Octave band frequency

frequency (kHz) limits (kHz) Human sensitizing

0.0315 0.022—0.044 Infrasonic

0.063 0.044—0.088
0.125 0.088—-0.176 Audible
0.250 0.176-0.353
0.500 0.353-0.707
1.000 0.707-1.414
2.000 1.414-2.825
4.000 2.825-5.650
8.000 5.650-11.300 Ultrasonic
16.000 11.300-22.500
398 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

9.2.6 Classification of Sounds

Sounds are classified as:

e Continuous
e Intermittent
e Impulsive
A continuous sound is an uninterrupted sound level that varies less than 5dB during the period of
observation. A typical example would be a household fan. Intermittent sound is a continuous sound that
lasts for more than one second but then is interrupted for more than one second, e.g., a dentist’s drill. Ifa
sound is of short duration, less than one second, it is classified as an impulsive sound. Typewriter or
hammering noises are typical impulsive sounds. A more rigorous classification of impulse sound would
require a change of sound pressure of 40 dB or more within 0.5 second with a duration of less than one
second. Gunfire would be an example of the latter, where the noise level may go from background of, say,
50 dB to 100 dB ina fraction of a second. It should be noted that special sound level meters are required to
measure impulsive sounds, as their duration is only fractions of a second.

9.3 NOISE AND PEOPLE

The perception of sound by the human ear is a very complicated process and is not completely
understood. The ear is divided anatomically into three sections, the outer, middle and inner ear. The outer
and middle ear convert the sound pressure variations to vibrations and also protect the inner ear. The
perception of sound is by nerve fibres in the inner ear. The hearing process consists of a number of
separate processes. It should be noted that no simple and unique relationship exists between the physical
measurement of sound and the human perception of the same sound. For further details, the reader is
referred to Anderson and Anderson (1993).

9.3.1 Loudness

Loudness is a person’s perception of the strength of a sound and to some extent is subjective. It varies with
both the magnitude (sound pressure level) and pitch (frequency). Based on a large series of laboratory
psychoacoustical experiments, a set of internationally agreed equal loudness level contours has been
produced. These contours show how the loudness level of pure tones,with constant sound pressure, vary
with frequency. However, since it is unlikely that this type of analysis is ever required in environmental
noise abatement it is not considered further here.
As well as varying with frequency, loudness varies with the sound pressure level in a non-linear
manner. If the physical intensity of a sound is increased so that the sound appears twice as loud, the
increased sound pressure level is about 10 dB. Consequently, an increase of 10dB approximates to a
doubling of subjective loudness. Similarly a 10 dB decrease is considered as halving the noise. A 1 dB
difference is the smallest discernible difference between two sounds identical in frequency and character
but a difference of 2 or 3dB would be required before people would notice differences. A difference of
5 dB is definitely perceptible.
Two sounds with the same sound pressure level in decibels but at different frequencies will be heard
as different loudness levels. As previously noted, the range of audible frequencies is from about 20 Hz to
about 16 kHz. However, young people and women have an upper limit of about 20 kHz. As one gets older,
from the age of about 20, the top end of the range is reduced. The ear is most sensitive to frequencies in
the range | to SkHz. Therefore a sound at this frequency would be rated much louder than one at the same
sound pressure level at a frequency of, for example, 50 Hz or 10 kHz. To compensate for the frequency-
dependent sensitivity of the ear, sound level meters incorporate electronic weighting networks which
 NOISE POLLUTION 399

| ons

Relative
(dB)
response

20 200 2000 20.000

Frequency (Hz)

Figure 9.6 Frequency responses of A and C weighting networks.

correspond to the ear’s response. Two principal weighting networks have been established, A and C, as
shown in Fig. 9.6. The most important is the A network since there is general agreement that traffic,
machinery, industrial and neighbourhood noise can be appropriately measured using this network. Sounds
at higher frequencies (1 to 5 kHz) are given considerably more weight on the A network. Sound pressure
levels measured on the A scale are referred to as dB(A) or dBA and are usually called sound levels. It is
useful to note that the C network incorporates little modification by frequency, i.e. almost no filtering.
Consequently if a measured sound level is much higher on the C scale than on the A scale, much of the
noise is likely to be at low frequencies. Table 9.3 lists the internationally agreed weightings for the A and
C networks.

9.3.2 Hearing Damage

The hearing damage potential of a given noise source depends not only on its level but also on its
duration. It is generally accepted that a sound environment below 75 dB is not harmful (although much
lower levels can cause annoyance and disturb sleep), while a single sound above 140 dB may produce
permanent hearing damage. Between these two levels, the amount of hearing damage varies with the
sound level, the length of exposure and the individual’s susceptibility to noise. Other contributing factors
are the number and length of quiet periods between exposures, the type of sound (continuous, intermittent
or impulsive) and its frequency distribution. Sounds with most of their energy in the speech frequencies
are more damaging. Hearing loss may be either temporary or permanent. Exposure to high noise levels for
a short period of time can result in a temporary loss of hearing (temporary threshold shift) which may last
for several hours depending on the duration and noise level. A ringing in the ears (tinnitus) may also
occur. Repeated exposure to high noise levels may result in permanent hearing damage (permanent
threshold shift). Permanent hearing damage can occur before the individual becomes aware of difficulties
in communication. However, sounds that do not result in temporary hearing loss after two to eight hours
of exposure tend not to produce permanent hearing loss if continued longer.
Hearing tests are carried out with an audiometer which produces a frequency related graph called an
audiogram. The audiogram compares the individual’s hearing against a reference standard. To determine
the effects of exposure to a specific noise, a baseline audiogram, taken before the exposure, is essential in

Table 9.3 A and C network weighting values

Octave band centre frequency (Hz)
< <
Weighting
network 35 63 125 250 500 Ik 2k

A (dB) = B94) = 26.2 = ilo! = tho = 32 0 Ned 1.0 eae |

C (dB) 3) = 0.8 02 0 0 0 202 —0.8 = 3.0
400 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

order to distinguish the impact of the noise from other hearing impairments such as ageing. Consequently,
industrial workers and others exposed to high noise levels require hearing checks at regular intervals.
However, environmental noises are seldom high enough to cause hearing damage and such tests are
unlikely to be necessary for the general public.
The EC Directive (86/188/EEC) on the protection of workers from the risks related to exposure to
noise at work is incorporated into the laws of EC member states (Commission of the European
Communities, 1986). It specifies that certain actions must be taken where the daily personal exposure
(eight hour equivalent) of a worker to noise is likely to exceed 85 dBA or where the maximum value of the
unweighed instantaneous sound pressure is likely to be greater than 200 Pa, equivalent to 140 dB.

9.3.3 Speech Interference

The quality of speech communication depends on the noise level and the distance. It may also vary
with the individuals involved. For normal conversation at about one metre distance, the background
noise should not exceed 70dBA. Shouted conversations at the same distance are possible up to about
85 dBA. To permit normal conversation at distances of about five metres would require a background
noise level below 50 dBA. Satisfactory telephone conversations need background levels less than about
80 dBA.

9.3.4 Work Interference

When work does not involve spoken communication it is difficult to determine the effects of noise levels
on performance. High noise levels may reduce the accuracy of the work being undertaken rather than the
quantity. Steady noises appear to have little effect on work performance unless the A-weighted noise level
exceeds about 90 dB (Davis and Cornwell, 1991). However, irregular noises, such as bangs or clicks, may
interfere with performance at lower noise levels. Consequently, it is desirable to remove such features
from the background noise.

9.3.5 Annoyance
The annoyance caused by noise varies greatly between people. For example, what is considered music by
one person may be noise to another. The extent of annoyance from a given sound depends not only on the
sound level and its duration but also on the listener and on the activity being undertaken at that time. The
type of sound (continuous, intermittent or impulsive) and the time of day are also significant. Sounds at
night are often considered twice as loud as the same sound during the day. To determine the overall
community annoyance at a particular sound involves the sociological, political and demographic
characteristics of the community in addition to the characteristics of the sound. It is not possible to
state noise levels below which no one will be annoyed and above which everybody will be annoyed.
According to a WHO task group, daytime noise levels of less than 50 dBA outdoors cause little or no
serious annoyance in the community (OECD, 1986). However, lower complaint thresholds have been
reported by Herbert et a/. (1989) and a significant proportion of the community may be annoyed at levels
below 50 dBA.
Sleep interference by noise causes great annoyance to many people. Intermittent or impulsive noises
are particularly disturbing. Because of differences between people and locations, it is difficult to
determine the noise level below which sleep interference will not occur.
 NOISE POLLUTION 401

9.3.6 Pattern of Noise Exposure Over the Day

Figure 9.7 shows broad bands to the levels of generalized individual noise exposure over 24 hours. It is
seen that at night time, the levels go from about 35 dBA in suburban areas to levels of about 52 in urban
areas. The commuting periods in busy roads causes exposure of about 80 dBA. The type of work or
school activity determines the exposure during daytime hours and this can range from lows of 55 dBA in
quiet offices to 90 dBA in noisy factories.

9.4 NOISE CRITERIA

As previously explained, the loudness of a sound is determined by its sound pressure level and its
frequency. There is general agreement that environmental or community noise can be appropriately
measured indBA units which closely replicate the loudness perceived by the ear. However, noise levels
often vary over time and criteria are required to quantify such varying levels. The severity of a noise
problem can then be determined by the amount that the noise level exceeds a threshold or standard value
of the specified criterion. The principal requirement of a noise criterion is that its values should correlate
reasonably well with the perceived community annoyance at different noises. It should also be easy to
measure and predict. Ideally a noise criterion should be simple to comprehend and applicable to any noise

Factory
90K

Play outside, shop

(urban)
70 Play outside, shop
(suburban) records
Listen
to

Work, play in home

60
Urban
environment
Office
50
Hourly
level
sound
(dB)
average

40
Suburban
environment

dress
Eat, play
school,
Work TV
watch
relax,
J
12 L a 12 3 6 9 12
Midnight Noon Midnight

Hour of day

Figure 9.7 General individual noise exposure patterns (adapted from Corbett, 1989. Reprinted by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc).
402 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

source. Because of the wide differences in peoples’ responses to noises it is unlikely that any single
criterion would fulfil all the above requirements. A number of different criteria have been proposed
(including those in ISO 1996) (1971) and the most commonly used criteria are:

v Daeg

© Lar
@ Lan

9.4.1 Laeq, The Equivalent Continuous Level

The equivalent continuous level, Leg, can be applied to a fluctuating noise source. It is the constant noise
level over a given time period that produces the same amount of A weighted energy as the fluctuating level
over the same time frame.

= (0! —|L ("p(ty

—~—dr 9.8
Breet e817, Pe ce
= WiNopg |Pye mele0.1L ae (9.9)
T Jo

where T = time period over which Laeg is determined

p(t) = the instantaneous A-weighted sound pressure
Po = the reference sound pressure (20 Pa)

If the sampling methodology is discrete then La.g becomes

1
lye LOlogio( 310°" (9.10)
i=1
where n = number of samples
L; = noise level in the ith sample
t; = the fraction of total time

Example 9.4 An air conditioner generates a noise level of 75 dB for five minutes every hour. If the
background noise level is 55 dB, compute the Leg.

Solution
17

T Jo
where If = Worn
1
Lacg = LOlogio| 510°" Ar + 107)

where AT; = 5 min and HLiy = WS GIBYN

and AT> = 55 min and Lf — SHI BA

Ih = LOtgio| (0 see iG ss)

= 64.3 dBA
 NOISE POLLUTION 403

9.4.2 Lar, The Sound Exposure Level

The sound exposure level (SEL) is the constant level in dBA lasting for one second which has the same
amount of A weighted energy as a transient noise. It may be used to express the energy of isolated noise
events such as aircraft flyovers..It can be measured using some sound level meters.

Lp” pity
10 i R pe ( )

where to = the reference duration (1 second)

Further examples can be found in BRE and CIRIA (1993).

9.4.3 Lan, The Sound Level Exceeded for N% of the time indBA
This parameter is a statistical measure that indicates how frequently a particular sound level is exceeded.
Time-varying noise may also be quantified in terms of the levels exceeded for different percentages of the
measurement duration. The required percentile levels are derived from a statistical analysis of the noise.
Measurements should be made using the fast response time setting of noise meters. Percentile levels
reveal maximum and minimum noise levels and are often used in baseline studies taken prior to the
introduction of new industrial or highway noise sources. Commonly used percentile levels include the
Laio, the sound level exceeded for 10 per cent of the time, which is sometimes used to represent
maximum noise levels. The Laso is the level exceeded for 50 per cent of the time. The Lago is the level
exceeded for 90 per cent of the time, and is often used to represent the background noise level.
Alternatively, maximum levels may be represented by the La; or Las and background levels by the Lags.
Percentile levels may be used as a complement to the Lac, as they provide information on the noise
variation range. However, there is no direct relationship between the Laeg and the Lay. An empirical
relationship between the Leg and the Lao has been established for traffic noise where the traffic volume
is in excess of 100 vehicles per hour. Over the 12 hour time period, 08.00 to 20.00 hours, the Lajo is
approximately 2 dBA higher than the La., and 3 dBA higher for the 18 hour period 06.00 to 24.00 hours.
In addition to the three basic quantities defined in ISO 1996 (1971), other noise rating systems used
in some countries include the day—night level, Lan, a long-term measure of the Lae, with a 10 dB penalty
applied to night time levels from 22.00 to 07.00 hours and the noise pollution level, Lp, which is defined
as follows:
Lyp = Laeq + Ko (9.12)

where K is a constant usually taken as 2.56 and o is the standard deviation. For traffic noise evaluation the
traffic noise index (TNI), which correlates well with subjective annoyance, is sometimes used:

TNI = 4(Laio0 — Laso) + Laoo — 30 (9.13)

Apart from the Lacg, the Lag or selected values of Lay, a number of different rating systems are used for
aircraft noise monitoring These take the frequency spectrum associated with aircraft into account. For
example, the perceived noise decibel, PNB, is a complex rating requiring one-third octave band analysis.
However, for many purposes it is sufficiently accurate to measure directly in dBA and add 13.
There is an international trend towards the use of the Lag, supplemented by various Lay levels, for
the evaluation of community noise nuisance. However, impulsive sounds are particularly annoying and
sound level meters equipped with an ‘I’ time weighting are required to determine the maximum levels of
such sounds. Because of the very short rise time (less than 50 us) sound level meters will not accurately
determine the peak levels from small firearms and special equipment is required to determine the hearing
hazards involved with noise from such weapons.
404 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

9.5 NOISE STANDARDS

Noise standards or thresholds are commonly specified as part of the planning permission (consent) for
proposed developments. The specified values vary with the existing land use, the background noise level
in the area and the type of development. There are often significant differences between the noise
standards specified by different planning authorities. Specified external noise standards at nearby
residences or at site boundaries can vary from an Leg of 40 to 70 dBA by day and from 35 to 60 dBA by
night. Typical values for residential areas would be at the lower end of this range.

9.5.1 EU Noise Directive

The EU Directive (86/188/EEC) is on the protection of workers from the risks related to exposure to
noise at work. The objective of the directive is to reduce the level of noise experienced at work by taking
action at the noise source. Two exposure levels are used:

e Daily personal noise exposure of a worker, Lep.a:

ih
Lep.a = Leg, T. ae logio h

where ike SOLS

We eal dt
aca eof=|
T. Jo Es
Lp)
T. = daily duration of a worker’s exposure to noise
To = 8h
Pa = A-weighted instantaneous sound pressure in Pa

e Weekly average of the daily values, ep:

]
Lep.w = LOlogio} Sy jor |

k=1

where (Lepa)x =the values of Lgpq for each of the m working days in the week being considered
The EU directive specifies that when the daily exposure level exceeds 85 dBA, the worker is to be advised
of the risks and trained to use ear protectors. If the daily exposure level exceeds 90 dBA, a progamme to
reduce levels should be put in place.

9.5.2 US Department of Labour Permissible Noise Exposure Levels

The US Department of Labour (1971 to 1979) defined the maximum permissible duration of exposure to
noise levels which are reproduced in Table 9.4.

9.6 NOISE MEASUREMENT

9.6.1 Sound Level Meters

Although sound power cannot be measured directly, sound intensity can be measured with modern
instrumentation (ISO 9614). Sound level meters are used to measure the sound pressure level. Noise
meters are classified as follows:
 NOISE POLLUTION 405

Table 9.4 US Department of

Labour permissible
occupational noise levels

Sound level (dBA) Duration (h/day)

90 8
92 6
95 4
OF, 3
100 2
102 ]
105 l
110 0.5
115 < 0.25

Type 0 For laboratory reference situations

Type 1 Precision grade, used for accurate field measurements
Type 2 Industrial grade, for non-critical survey work
Type 3. Survey grade are low cost sound level indicators

Construction tolerances for various functions of the instrument system are specified in International
Electrotechnical Committee (IEC) publications IEC 651 (conventional sound meters) and IEC 804
(integrating sound meters) and also in similar national standards such as BS 5969 and BS 6698, ANSI
S1.4, etc. Each part of the instrument is controlled and tests specified to ensure compliance. The overall
accuracy at specified reference conditions are 0.7 dB for type 1, 1.5 dB for type 2 and 2.5 dB for type 3. It
is recommended that type | instruments be used for industrial measurements and for environmental
measurements involving legislation.
The microphone is one of the most important elements of the sound level meter system and it
typically determines the type of instrument. It must be protected from mechanical damage, moisture and
low-frequency turbulence from wind. A special windshield and rain cover fitted over the microphone
should be used whenever possible (even indoors) to shield the microphone from dust and dirt as well as
from wind noise.
Sound level meters usually incorporate A and C weighting networks and provide both ‘fast’ and
‘slow’ settings. The slow setting is used for manually recorded observations only. Other features which
may be provided include digital displays, impulse and peak level measurement, automatic calculation of
the Laeg, Lan, etc. Most types of 1 and 2 sound level meters include a standard RS-232 connection for
data transfer to computers or printers. Sophisticated computer-based analysis programs which permit the
determination and presentation of a wide range of data are common. Octave or one-third octave filtering
and outputs for graphic level recorders or tape recorders are also available. It should be noted that tape
recorders must match the frequency of the sound level meter used. However, tape recording is seldom
necessary unless a specific analysis of the noise measurements that is not available with the measuring
instrumentation is required (e.g. octave band analysis) or where it would be useful to demonstrate
annoying sounds in legal court proceedings.
Digital audio tape (DAT) systems are available which can be used to record sounds directly in the
field (instead of using sound level meters). All analyses and calculations of noise parameters are carried
out by subsequent computer analysis. For example, narrow-band frequency analysis can be carried out.
Full compliance with type 1 measurement specifications is provided by such systems. Available computer
programs can give simultaneous audio and graphical outputs which can be useful for those involved in
Judging noise nuisances.
406 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

An individual worker’s exposure to noise can be measured by a personal noise dose meter. Since the
microphone is attached to the worker’s clothes or headgear, a noise dose meter gives sound levels that are
about 3 dB higher than the level that would be recorded in the absence of the worker, because of reflection
effects. 1

9.6.2 Calibration

Sound level meters must be calibrated by a pistonphone or a sound level calibrator both before and after
use. These provide a known acoustic signal at one or more frequencies. A thorough annual calibration
either by the instrument manufacturer or by an acoustical test laboratory qualified to perform calibration is
also necessary. A record of each annual calibration and of all calibration adjustments should be kept for
each noise meter.

9.6.3 Measurement Procedure

The recommended procedure varies with the purposes of the noise measurement. For example,
measurement of workplace sound pressure should preferably be made in the undisturbed sound field in
the workplace (the person concerned being absent), with the microphone located at the position normally
occupied by the ear exposed to the highest value of exposure (EC, 1986). Similarly, environmental noise
measurements are normally taken at locations where the maximum noise nuisances are likely to occur.
This is usually assumed to be at the nearest adjacent residences.
The microphone is often placed at a height of 1.2m above the ground surface. The presence of
adjacent sound reflecting surfaces must be taken into account. When noise intrusions are being measured,
it is recommended that the background noise level should be at least 10 dB lower than the intrusive noise
level. For the purposes of the Noise Insulation Regulations for housing in the United Kingdom, traffic
noise is assessed at a reception point located | m in front of the most exposed part of an external window
or door (EU Directive 86/188/EEC). However, where there are significant non-traffic noise sources
present a different microphone position is specified.

9.6.4 Physical Conditions for Measurement

The wind speed and direction relative to the microphone must be noted. Valid measurements can be taken
in wind speeds up to 5 m/s. At higher wind speeds turbulent noise caused by the wind may mask the noise
source being measured. However, measurements may be acceptable with wind speeds up to 10m/s. In
general the peaks of wind noise should be at least 10dB below the noise source being measured.
Windshields should always be used for outdoor measurements.
Humidity levels up to about 90 per cent and pressure variations of +10 per cent have neglible
effects on noise measurements. Unless the temperature is below —10°C or above 50°C measurements
are usually not affected. However, sudden changes in temperature may lead to condensation on the
microphone. Sound level meters are relatively insensitive to vibration while magnetic or electrostatic
fields have negligible effects. Wet road surfaces give increased noise levels; consequently traffic noise
measurements are normally taken when the road surface is dry.

9.6.5 The Noise Measurement Report

Environmental noise data are often used in legal proceedings and it is essential that the conditions of the
measurement be carefully documented in a formal measurement report. According to Bruel and Kjaer
(1992), the following items should be included in a noise report:
 NOISE POLLUTION 407

1. The model type and serial number of the sound level meter used.
2. The date of the last laboratory calibration.
3. A statement of on-site calibration before and after the measurements (including the calibration
equipment used).
4. The weighting networks and meter responses (fast or slow) used.
5. A description of the area and of the sound sources, including the type of sound (continuous,
intermittent, impulsive, pure tones).
6. A sketch of the measurement site showing the locations of the microphone and the sound sources.
7. The time and date of the measurement.
8. A description of the meteorological conditions.
9. The background noise level if measuring noise intrusions.
10. The names of the people involved.
11. A general description of the measurements, including a summary of the levels of the various
noise criteria for the relevant time periods. Special note should be made of the presence of pure
tones (e.g. whistles) or impulsive sounds such as bangs, clanks, etc., which would have a
startling effect.

In addition to the above items, environmental noise measurement reports typically include tabular
values of the noise criteria levels for each hour of the measurement period and graphs showing the
variation of these criteria throughout the measurement period. An example of an environmental noise
measurement report is shown in the following section.

9.6.6 Case Study: Report on Noise Measurements at the ABC Sand and Gravel Plant

Plant noise source description The principal noise sources are the compressor plant and the sand and
gravel screening plant. Other occasional noise sources are from the ripping of rock and the loading of
lorries with stone and gravel by overhead tipping. The plant location in a former quarry ensures complete
protection from noise emissions for all adjacent residences on the south side of the river. There are no
residences directly across the river which are not shielded by ground contours except that of Mr Newbury
who operates a farm unit adjacent to his residence. However, the noise originating from this farm unit
(about 64 dBA) completely masks any noise from the ABC plant.

Overall noise description The maximum noise level within the site during full operation is about
70 dBA adjacent to the sand and gravel screening plant. At the inland boundary of the site the noise
reduces to 50 dBA or lower due to the screening effect of the rising ground. No pure tones were noted but
occasional impulsive noises resulted from the tipping of stones into trucks from overhead bins.

Noise measurements Two sets of noise measurement were taken:

e From 17.00h on Wednesday, 24 February to 17.00h on Thursday, 25 February

e From 17.00h on Thursday, 25 February to 17.00h on Friday, 26 February
The microphone was positioned 30 m from the office building at a height of 1.2m above the ground. On
day 1, the wind was fresh to moderate. On day 2, the wind was moderate. Equipment used was an
integrating sound level meter, Cirrus model type CRL 702, an outdoor microphone type MK 425 and a
sound level calibrator type 5.11D. The instrument was set to sample the A-weighted sound levels at 16
times per second.
408 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

Results The results for day 1 are shown in Table 9.5 and Fig. 9.8. Analysis of Table 9.5 gives:
24h fgg — 23-1 dBA
Daytime: 17 h-20h Leq = 56.0 dBA
Intermediate time: 6h—7h and 20h-22h Leqg = 40.4 dBA
Night-time: 22 h-6h [br sk CE Ie\

The lower level of detection of the meter was 35 dBA. During the night-time hours from 22 h to 6h, it is
seen from Fig. 9.8 that wind gusts raise the noise level from 38 up to.50 dBA even though the L., night-
time reading was 38.3 dBA. Wind can raise the background level of noise appreciably.
The results for day 2 are shown in Table 9.6 and Fig. 9.9. Analysis of Table 9.6 gives:

24h L555 dBA

Daytime: 17h-20h Leg — 28.5 dBA
Intermediate time: 6h-7h and 20h-22h Veg= 32 90dBA
Night-time: 22 h-6h Leq= 35-00dBA
As the night-time had only moderate winds, the L., night-time reading was 35.6 dBA. This compared with
38.3 dBA for the previous night. However, the L., daytime reading on day 2 was 58.3 dBA by comparison
with 56.0 dBA on the previous day. Generally, both days gave similar results on the long averaging times.
However, it is visible from the traces in both figures that instantaneous values exceeded 70 dBA, but this
was as a result of impulsive noises of the loading of trucks.

Table 9.5 Noise measurements for day 1, at sand and gravel quarry
site, all dBA

S Ly Lio Los
Period (standard maximum ~ subjective ~ background
(h. min) Leg deviation) levels annoyance noise

eo, 55.2 10.5 61.5 SES 40.5

18.27 35.6 0.1 35.7 35.6 35.6
19.27 41.8 5.8 50.3 45.3 35.6
20.27 40.6 5.0 50.3 42.0 35.6
Dy Pai 35.6 0.2 36.2 35.6 35.6
IPD Dy 36.1 1.0 41.0 36.1 35.6
23.27 36.5 1.4 42.2 37.4 35.6
0.27 37.6 23 44.9 40.2 35.6
ea 38.8 3.0 48.4 40.8 35.6
2.27 41.9 3.8 49.2 45.1 Bali
B27, 37.0 19 43.7 39.0 35.6
4.27 39.0 322 47.3 41.9 35.6
D2] 36.1 ell 40.8 36.0 35.6
6.27 39.2 3.9 50.9 375 35.6
V2 52.8 10.6 63.3 56.0 35.6
8.27 2) 3.0 64.3 56.6 51.0
Oi, 55.9 Ds) 62.9 58.0 52.6
10.27 Siisil Bal 65.0 60.0 52.8
27 57.8 2.8 64.9 60.2 53.8
12.27 a92 DB) 64.7 61.3 Sp)
MS} 27/ 58.9 2 70.2 60.5 51.8
14.27 55.9 3a 65.0 Se 51.8

Overall Leg: 53.1 dBA

 NOISE POLLUTION 409

dBA

Figure 9.8 Noise measurement trace for day | at sand and gravel quarry.

9.7 OUTDOOR PROPAGATION OF SOUND

9.7.1 Geometrical Spreading

The sound pressure level received by a listener at a point due to a noise source with sound power W watts
must frequently be estimated. Consider sound that spreads spherically from a source that may be regarded
as a point. This can be assumed to occur when there are no nearby solid surfaces or fluid boundaries and

Table 9.6 Noise measurements for day 2, at sand and gravel quarry
site, all dBA

S Ly Ly Los
Period (standard maximum ~ subjective ~ background
(h. min) en deviation) levels annoyance noise

16.29 58.0 23 63.4 60.1 54.8

2S) 56.3 6.2 63.0 59a 47.3
18.29 40.1 4.5 a2 37.8 35.6
19.29 359 0.8 40.1 S57) 35.6
20.29 315).1/ 0.4 36.9 35.6 35.6
21e29) 35.6 0.1 38).7/ 35.6 35.6
2229 35.6 0.0 35.6 35.6 35.6
23.29 35.6 0.0 35.6 35.6 35.6
0.29 35.6 0.0 35.6 35.6 35.6
129 35.6 0.1 35.6 35.6 35.6
2.29 35.6 0.1 35.6 35.6 35.6
3.29 35.6 0.1 35.6 35.6 35.6
4.29 35.6 0.1 35.6 35.6 35.6
SS) 35.6 0.1 35.6 35.6 35.6
6.29 65.1 Dal 45.8 Sy) 35.6
Te29) 55.4 4.0 62.0 58.0 49.9
8.29 58.0 D5 64.8 60.1 54.5
9.29 58.7 De) 65.1 60.9 55.1
10.29 60.5 4.4 72.8 61.9 54.1
129 60.2 DS 653 62.7 56.5
12.29 59:5 Boll 65.5 62.0 5)
13.29 58.7 3) 67.1 61.0 54.1
14.29 61.2 2.4 66.2 63.6 57.4
15229) 58.0 2.4 64.1 60.2 54.6

Overall Leg: 55.5 dBA

410 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

80

70

60
<
= 50

40

39 La pt tt
< = com: | ee cm
So i= st ioe) fos \o
N = =

Figure 9.9 Noise measurement trace for day 2 at sand and gravel quarry.

when the dimensions of the sound source are small relative to the distance to the receiving point. As
shown previously, the acoustic intensity (/) at a distance r metres is
Ww
= watts /m? (9.4)
4nr-

Consequently, the acoustic intensity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance. This is the
inverse square law. The sound pressure level in decibels, L,, as previously defined, is

Ly = 10 logy 2
0
Since the acoustic intensity (/) is proportional to the square of the sound pressure, the sound pressure
level received at a distance r metres from the point source of W watts is
W /4nr?
TeaMlon ees (9.14)
Wo
Ww ‘
= 10 logyo WwW. 10 logy9 47° (9°15)
0

= Lw — 20logr — 11 (9.16)

where Wy = the reference power level, 10~'* watts

Lw = the sound power level in dB for 10~!* watts

It should be noted that the sound power level is independent of the environment (it depends entirely on the
noise source). The sound pressure level depends on the power output of the source, on the characteristics
of the transmission path and on the environment of the measurement position.
Using Eq. (9.14) it can be shown that, if the sound power from the source is doubled, the resulting
increase in the sound pressure level at distance r would be approximately 3 dB. Similarly, if there are ten
identical sound sources instead of one, the resulting increase would be 10 dB. Ifthe distance from a point
source is doubled, the resulting decrease in the sound pressure level as determined from the above
equation is approximately 6 dB.

9.7.2 Directivity
Most sound sources do not radiate sound uniformly in all directions. This occurs because of directional
characteristics of the sound source (which may be frequency dependent) or because of external constraints
 NOISE POLLUTION 411

by nearby surfaces. Directivity data for industrial sounds are seldom available and may have to be
measured or estimated for each individual source. The directivity index (dB) in a specific direction is the
difference between the measured sound power level and the value based on the assumption of uniform
radiation in all directions.
The directivity effects due to surface constraints may be estimated by examining the position of the
source. Examples of the latter include sound sources located close to the ground or those located remote
from the ground close to a wall. Instead of spherical sound radiation, a hemispherical radiation pattern
occurs. Consequently, the surface area through which the sound spreads is halved and the sound intensity
is twice as high as for spherical radiation. The 4zr* term in the above equation is replaced by 2mr* and the
sound pressure level at distance r becomes

Ly = Ly — 20 logr — 8 (ENT)

The sound pressure level is therefore 3 dB higher than for the unconstrained situation.

9.7.3 Non-point Sound Sources

Noise sources cannot be assumed to be point sources unless the distance to the receiving point is large
compared with the dimensions of the source. However, many environmental or community noise sources
may be taken as point sources, e.g. a small machine or a car at distances greater than 20 to 30m. An
example of a non-point source is an infinitely long source which radiates sound waves that are cylindrical
in shape. The surface area through which the sound radiates at a distance r from the source is 27r per unit
length. Therefore the sound pressure level at distance r is

Ly = Ly jm — 10 log 2xr (9.18)

=a — L0loer7—8 (9.19)
where Lw/m = sound power level per metre

From the above equation the noise decrease due to a doubling of the distance from the source is 3 dB
(compared with 6 dB for a point source). The noise from a motorway or a long train approximates to such
a source, giving a reduction of about 3 dB for doubling of distance.

9.7.4 Acoustic Near Field

The near field in noise means distances less than twice the maximum linear dimension of the noise
source. Outside this distance, the position is considered as the far field. In the near field, the sound
pressure level fluctuates with distance, and does not obey the inverse square law. Generally environmental
noise measurements are not usually concerned with the near field.

9.7.5 Attenuation

The sound pressure level received from a non-directive source at a distance greater than the near field is
attenuated by geometrical spreading and also by the environmental conditions between the source and the
receiving position.

Attenuation due to distance As previously described, the extent of geometrical spreading depends on
the type of source and on the presence of nearby boundaries. Doubling of distance gives a 3 dB reduction
for a line source or 6 dB for a point source.
412 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

Atmospheric attenuation Energy is always dissipated by transmission through a fluid due to heat
conduction, viscosity, etc. The rate of sound absorption with distance depends on the frequency of the
noise source. It also varies with the temperature and humidity, but pressure variations have little effect. As
the temperature increases to about 20°C (depending on the sound frequency) absorption increases, but
above 25°C the rate of absorption decreases. For a frequency of 1 kHz and a temperature of 10°C, the
reduction is approximately 3 dB per km. The rate of loss is larger for higher frequencies and for lower
relative humidity values. Atmospheric attenuation is often relatively small compared with that from other
factors except for the higher frequencies. Table 9.7 gives atmospheric attenuation values for the centre
frequencies of the lowest third octave of each band. Frequency values in brackets are the octave band
centre frequencies. When making calculations in octave bands, the one-third octave data quoted above
may be used.

Attenuation due to meteorological conditions Relatively little information is available on the

attenuation due to rain, mist, fog or snow. A value of 0.5dB/km in fog has been quoted (Davis and
Cornwell, 1991). These effects are frequently ignored in noise level predictions. However, variable
temperature or wind speed gradients can result in large variations in noise levels at distances greater than
100m from a noise source. When upwind of the source or when the temperature decreases with height,
the sound waves are refracted away from the ground, resulting in decreased sound levels. The opposite
occurs when downwind or when there is a temperature inversion. The effects of temperature inversions
are negligible for short distances but may exceed 10dB at distances over 800m (Davis and Cornwell,
1991). Typically, meteorological attenuations range over +6dB up to a frequency of 0.5kHz and
+ 10 dB above 0.5 kHz (Herbert et al., 1989). Environmental noise evaluations frequently omit wind and
temperature effects because of their variability.

Ground surface effects Acoustically soft ground surfaces like grass, cultivated land or gravel absorb
sound energy and reduce the received sound levels. Acoustically hard surfaces, such as concrete or water,
reflect sound waves and absorb little sound energy. The extent of the sound attenuation from acoustically
soft surfaces varies with frequency and with the heights of the noise source and receiver. Both should be
less than about 10m above ground and the grazing angle of the ground reflected ray should be less than
about 3° for significant effects and less than about 0.5° for the maximum benefit (Herbert et al., 1989).
Because of significant frequency effects, it is difficult to give any general absorption data for acoustically
soft surfaces; attenuations range from 0 to more than 20dB per 100m. However, grass gives high
attenuation values at low frequencies (0.3 to 1 kHz) where noise control is usually more difficult. Further
information is available elsewhere (Herbert et a/., 1989; Piercy et al., 1977, and Attenborough, 1982).

Table 9.7 Atmospheric absorption values, dB/km

at 10°C

Relative humidity (%)

Frequency (Hz) 60 70 80 90 100

50 (63)* 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0

100 (125) 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
200 (250) 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.6
400 (500) 1.7 17 lee 1.7 1.6
800 (1000) 3.0 3,1 3h Bl a2
1600 (2000) Tee. 6.2 6.2 6.0 5.9
3200 (4000) 235) 17.8 17.8 16.3 SZ
6300 (8000) 82.3 62.4 62.4 55.9 50.9

*Those numbers in brackets are the octave band centre frequencies

Adapted from Herbert er al., 1989)
 NOISE POLLUTION 413

Sound attenuation by trees Contrary to popular opinion, little sound reduction is provided by thin belts
of trees. A wide (more than 50m) and dense planting with foliage down to ground level is required for
significant sound absorption. A reduction of about 0.1 dB/m thickness may be achieved.

Effect of ground topography This varies with the closeness of the sound waves to the ground surface;
all ground attenuation may be lost across a valley. No generalized information into the effects of
topography is available and site measurements are normally required.

Reflecting surfaces and noise barriers The sound level near a hard smooth vertical surface such as a
building facade is the result of both direct and reflected sound waves. Immediately at the surface the
combined effects give an increased sound level of 6 dB, reducing to about 3 dB within about 1 m of the
surface. The effect of the vertical surface decreases as the measuring point is moved away and become
neglible at distances greater than about 10m.
A sound shadow is created when the line of sight from a noise source to a receiver is cut by a barrier.
However, sound shadows are not clearly defined like light shadows because the wavelengths of sound are
comparable with the dimensions of practical noise barriers. Consequently, sound waves tend to bend
around the top and the ends of a barrier. The extent varies with frequency; the lower the frequency the
greater the diffraction and the smaller the resulting noise attenuation. To be effective barriers must be as
close as possible either to the noise source or to the receiver. They must also be sufficiently high and long
to ensure that noise cannot get around the ends. Sound transmission through a barrier must also be
minimized. Typically the barrier material requires a minimum mass per unit area of about 10 kg/m”. This
permits the use of lightweight materials such as asbestos sheeting or chipboard. However, earth mounds
are often preferable on appearance or convenience grounds. It is important to ensure that no cracks or gaps
are present in a noise barrier or the expected attenuation may not be achieved.
The effects of barriers are complex functions of the difference between the direct and deflected noise
path lengths and of the wavelengths of the sound. The estimation of the sound attenuation from finite
length barriers is outside the scope of this text. The approximate attenuation from a point source by an
infinitely long thin barrier of sufficient mass to ignore direct transmission can be determined as follows
(Attenborough, 1991):

A = 10log,9(3 + 20N)
path difference
where N=+——_—___
wavelength

and A =attenuation in dB

More detailed information is available elsewhere (HMSO, 1988; Herbert er a/., 1989). It should be noted
that the attenuation due to ground effects are largely lost when a barrier is inserted because of the raised
level of the new effective noise source (top of the barrier). Practical attenuations from noise barriers
seldom exceed 10 to 15 dB.

9.7.6 Outdoor Noise Level Prediction

The sound pressure level received at a point depends on the source sound power level, including its
directivity and location relative to nearby surfaces, and on the attenuation along the transmission path.
The presence of surfaces close to the reception point may also affect the sound pressure level. The sound
pressure level received from a point source can be estimated by the following equation:

Ly = Lw + D — 20 loge 1] A, A> Ay Ag+R (9.20)

414 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

where Ly = sound pressure level, dB

Lw = sound power level of source, dB for 10~'? watts
D = the directivity index, dB; for a source located near
a hard flat surface + 3 dB must be added
r = direct distance from source to receiving point, m
A, = atmospheric attenuation, dB
A> = attenuation by meteorological conditions, dB
A3 = attenuation by ground, dB
A4 = attenuation by barriers, dB
R = increase due to sound reflection at receiving point, dB

Where the source sound power level (in dB for 10~'? watts) is available for each octave band centre
frequency, the attenuation should be calculated separately for each octave band. The resulting sound
pressure level should then be calculated by combining the different dB levels as previously explained.

Example 9.5 A house is separated from a proposed new industrial building, first by a garden 10m
in length with a 2.0 m high hedge and then by 20 m of a level surfaced parking area. The noise from a fan
located at a height of 1.8m on the nearest wall of the proposed new building is given below. Estimate
whether this additional noise source will cause an increased noise level at the house. The existing ambient
noise level is 55 dBA.

Octave band centre 63 125 250 500 1k 2k 4k 8k

frequency (Hz)

Sound power level (dB) 96 104 103 98 91 86 84 79

Solution (Using Eq. (9.20)):

Lp = Ly + D — 20 logr — 11 —4A,; — A. —A3—Ag+R

The atmospheric absorption will be insignificant for the distance involved and the variable effects of the
meteorological conditions are ignored. Since the grassed area is short, little attenuation will be available,
while no attenuation will be provided by the hard surfaced parking area. The hedge will not provide any
noise barrier effect. Reflection effects are initially ignored.
Given r=30m and D=34dB for a hemispherical radiation pattern (no specific directivity data is
provided), Eq. (9.20) reduces to,

Ly = Ly +3 — 20]og 30 — 11
2 Be SES)

Octave band centre 63 125 250 500 1k 2k 4k 8k

frequency (Hz)

Ly (dB) 96 104 103 98 91 86 84 79

Ly =Ly = 37.5 58.5 66.5 65.5 SOs Se 485 465 Aas
A-weighting (dB)* —26.2 —16.1 —8.6 —3.2 0 i 10 —-1.1
A-weighted L, 32.3 50.4 SO yee SS OTIS) 40.4
* Use Table 9.3 or Fig. 9.6.
 NOISE POLLUTION 415

The resulting sound pressure level is next calculated by combining the different A-weighted L, levels
(added two at a time, starting with the two lowest values) using Table 9.1 to give a level of 63 dBA.
Combined with the existing ambient noise level of 55dBA, the expected noise level is 64dBA
(63 dBA + 55 dBA = 64 dBA). Reflection effects close to the house facade could increase this to 67 dBA
or more. Therefore there is a significant increase in the noise level at the house (55 dBA — 67 dBA).

9.8 NOISE CONTOURS

Many proposed developments require knowledge on what level of noise might be expected in the
surrounding area. Figure 9.10 shows typical noise contours at an airport runway. Table 9.8 shows the land
use guidance (LUG) zones for large airports. It is seen from Fig. 9.10 that the noise level at the airport
boundary is approximately 75 dBA. As per Table 9.8, this noise level is between normally unacceptable
and clearly unacceptable. At this range, positive noise abatement is essential. The noise levels as shown in
Fig. 9.10 are defined as being the day—night average, La,. Here, daytime is defined as 7 a.m. to 10 p.m.
and night-time is the remainder of the 24-hour period. The partial Lg, values are calculated for each
significant noise intrusion. They are then summed according to the following equation to obtain the total
Lan due to all aircraft operations.
Lan = 10 logyy ¥>Y> 100: Zan.) (9.21)
cae

Typical land use guidance zones

and noise impact areas for a large
airport

Letters refer to LUG zones

Airport boundary

contour map (adapted from Airport-Land Use Compatibility Planning FAA Advisory Circular
Figure 9.10 Typical noise
150/5050-6, 1977).
416 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

Table 9.8 Land use guidance chart for various levels of airport noise

Lan Day—night Noise

Land use Noise average sound assessment Suggested noise
guidance zones exposure class level guidelines controls

A Minimal 0-55 “Clearly No special

exposure acceptable’ consideration
B Moderate 55-65 ‘Normally Land use
exposure acceptable’ controls
G Significant 65-75 ‘Normally Controls
exposure unacceptable’ recommended
D Severe Sip ‘Clearly Controls
exposure unacceptable’ recommended

Adapted from FAA advisory circular 150/5050-6, 1977)

Computer programs for noise prediction developed by the FAA are available in the public domain,
including the integrated noise model (INM). Noise contours are important for proposed developments
around existing ‘noisy’ sources so as to limit the amount of development, i.e. new houses near motorways.

9.9 NOISE SECTION OF AN ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

A formal environmental impact assessment statement (EIS) is required for larger proposed developments
under EU legislation (see Chapter 19). Such assessment should also form part of the design process for
other proposed developments. The noise section of an EIS should include the following.

9.9.1 Baseline Noise Survey

The objective of this survey is to record the noise climate in the potential impact area prior to the
construction of the proposed development. It would normally include the measurement of the Lac, to
indicate the overall noise level and selected Ly values to represent the maximum and background noise
levels—typically, either the La, or the Las to represent maximum levels and the Laos for background
levels. For road proposals the Lajo is frequently used to represent maximum traffic noise levels. The
minimum acceptable measurement period would be at least 24 hours on a weekday. However, where there
are significant daily noise variations, a longer period would be required. Overall, daytime and night-time
(and perhaps intermediate-time) values of the selected noise criteria are normally determined. Hourly
values of each criteria are also produced. The number of positions at which noise measurements are
required depends on the locations of adjacent residences or other noise-sensitive areas relative to the likely
noise sources.

9.9.2 Probable Noise Emission Levels

The potential noise sources, their sound power levels and their exact location within the proposed
development are identified and the likely external emission levels at the site boundary, at nearby
residences and at other noise-sensitive locations are calculated. The presence of any noise-reducing
features either within the proposed development site or along the transmission path to the noise-sensitive
locations would be included as part of the noise prediction process. Any impulsive noises or pure tones
should be clearly noted. Potential noise emission levels are predicted for at least daytime and night
periods. Consequently, the hours of operation of the various noise sources must be taken into account. The
 NOISE POLLUTION 417

probable hours of operation of the proposed development, including any weekend working, should be
clearly stated.

9.9.3 Statement of Probable Impact

The likely noise impact of the proposed development on residents and other users of the surrounding area
is summarized. The predicted noise levels are compared with the existing levels and with acceptable
values of the noise criteria used.

9.9.4 Proposed Remedial Measures

Where the predicted noise levels at noise-sensitive areas are considered excessive, recommendations on
methods for reducing the noise levels should be made.

9.10 NOISE CONTROL

When the noise level received is excessive, the solution may involve attention to one or all of the three
elements involved:
Source —> transmission path —> receiver

1. Source The source could be modified by the acoustic treatment to machine surfaces, design changes,
etc. This is a specialized area which is outside the scope of this chapter. However, an offending noise
source could be stopped or its operation limited to certain times of the day.
2. Transmission path The transmission path could be modified by containing the source inside a sound
insulating enclosure, by the construction of a noise barrier or by the provision of absorbing materials
along the path.
3. Receiver The protection of the receiver by altering the work schedule or by the provision of ear
protection is mainly applicable to those working with noisy machinery and is not considered here.

9.10.1 Sound Insulation Provided by Buildings

Environmental noise levels are typically specified at building facades due to large differences in the sound
insulation provided by individual buildings. External sound will enter a building through the weakest
transmission path, which is often through the windows. Consequently, the amount of insulation provided
by the different building elements is of interest and is briefly considered in the following paragraphs.
When sound pressure waves meet a wall or another building surface they exert a fluctuating pressure,
causing it to vibrate. Sound is then radiated by the vibrating surface into the space on both sides of the
surface. Part of the sound energy is reflected, part is absorbed by the surface and the remainder is
transmitted. All building elements, walls, ceilings, windows, etc., will vibrate to some extent, but the
vibrations will be larger at certain frequencies, the lowest of these being called the natural frequency of the
element. The natural frequency depends on the weight, suface area and rigidity of the building element.
Since the natural frequencies of floors and walls tend to be low, it is much more difficult to insulate
against noise with predominantly low frequencies.
The amount of sound stopped by a building element such as a door is known either as the sound
reduction index or as the transmission loss. The amount of sound reduction is dependent on the frequency
of the sound (more for higher frequencies) but depends primarily on the weight and rigidity of the
418 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

Table 9.9 Sound reduction indices of building elements

Element Sound reduction index (dB)

Walls ®
Concrete blocks (hollow, unpainted) 37
Brick (228 mm, plastered both sides) 50
Reinforced concrete (200 mm) 50
Stud partition (plasterboard + plaster on both sides) 35

Doors
Panel (hollow core) 14
Hardwood 26
Acoustic 44

Floors
Timber (with plasterboard ceiling + plaster skim coat underneath) 37)
Reinforced concrete
100 mm 45
200 mm 50
300 mm oy)
Windows
Single open 5-10
Single closed 15-20
Double glazing
50 mm cavity 30
200 mm cavity 40

building element. The sound reduction index is measured in 16 one-third octaves from 100 to 3150 Hz
and is quoted in one-third or octave bands in dB. It is often quoted as a single figure, e.g. 26 dB hardwood
door. This is the arithmetic average of the 16 one-third octave values. Some typical sound reduction
indices are shown in Table 9.9. However, it must be borne in mind that the actual sound reduction
achieved may be less, due to cracks, ventilators or other leakage around the edges, etc.

9.11 PROBLEMS

9.1 If a sound source has a pressure of 3000 Pa at 10m distance, compute:

(a) the sound pressure level in dB
(b) the sound intensity in W/m?
(c) the sound power in W.
92 Repeat Problem 9.1 for a sound pressure source of 3000 Pa at a distance of 20m.
93 If two sound sources have equal pressures of 3000 Pa, determine the sound pressure in dB.
9.4 Determine the sound pressure level from combining the following four levels: 56, 68, 71 and 48 dB.
SH) If an industrial fan generates a noise level of 65 dB for 10 minutes out of every hour compute the
equivalent continuous level (Leg) if the background level is 55 dB.
9:6 Repeat Problem 9.5 for a fan that runs for 20 minutes of every hour and 30 minutes of every hour.
Plot your results and comment on the relationship.
O37. Locate a reference in your library detailing the physiology of hearing noise and write a brief report
with sketches of the mechanism of hearing.
9.8 An industrial complex operates at 80dB for 5 hours per day and at 65dB for 3 hours per day.
Compute the Lypg.
 NOISE POLLUTION 419

9.9 A fan unit of an industry is located at 40m from a house. Adjacent to the fan is a 20m length of
concrete paved area. At 20m, there is a 2 m high, 0.3 m thick concrete wall. The 20 metres adjacent
to the house is a grassed garden. The noise from the fan is given as:

Octave band centre frequency (Hz) 63 125 250 500 Ik 2k 4k 8k

Sound power level (dB) 89 97 98 92 88 81 78 77

Determine the increased noise level at the house if the existing ambient noise level is 56 dB.
9.10 Go to your local planning authority and collect data on a noise pollution problem that was created by
new development, either residential, industrial or traffic. Describe briefly the problem and the
solution if it was identified. How would you have solved the noise problem?

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Anderson, J. S. and M. B. Anderson (1993) Noise, Its Measurement, Analysis Rating and Control, Avebury Technical.
Ashford N. and P. H. Wright (1992) Airport Engineering, 3rd edn, John Wiley, New York.
Attenborough, K. (1982) ‘Predicted ground effect for highway noise’, Journal of Sound and Vibration, 81 1982.
Attenborough, K. (1991) ‘Noise pollution’, chapter 9 in Highway Pollution R. S. Hamilton and R. M. Harrison (eds), Elsevier,
Amsterdam.
BRE and CIRIA (1993) Sound Control for Homes, Building Research Establishment, Watford, UK.
Bruel and Kjaer. Environmental Noise Measurement, 2850 Naerum, Denmark.
Commission of the European Communities (1986) “Council Directive on the protection of workers from the risks related to exposure
to noise at work’, 86/188/EEC.
Corbett R. (1989) Standard Handbook on Environmental Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Davis M. L. and D. A. Cornwell (1991) Introduction to Environmental Engineering. McGraw-Hill, New York.
EC (1986). The State of the Environment in the European Community, Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg.
Faulkner L. L. (1976) Handbook of Industrial Noise Control. Industrial Press Inc.
Foreman, J. E. K. (1990) Sound Analysis and Noise Control, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
Herbert, A. G. et al. (1989) ‘Sound and vibration analysis and control’, Kempe’ Engineering Yearbook.
HMSO (1988) Calculation of Road Traffic Noise, HMSO, London.
INM (1982) Integrated Noise Model, Version 3, Users Guide, Prepared by CACI Inc. Federal Aviation Administration, FAP-EE-81-
17, October.
INM (1989) Integrated Noise Model, PC Version, Contour Plotting Program, Release 2, Prepared by Unisys. Federal Aviation
Administration, FAA-EE-90-02, November 1989.
ISO 1996 (1971), Assessment of Noise with Respet to Community Response, International Standards Organisation, Geneva,
Switzerland.
ISO 9614 (1993), Instrumentation for Noise Measurement. International Standards Organisation, Geneva, Switzerland.
Magrab, E. B. (1975) Environmental Noise Control, John Wiley, New York.
OECD (1986). Environmental Effects of Automotive Transport, The OECD Compass Project, OECD, Paris.
Piercy, J. E., et al. (1977) ‘Review of noise propagation in the atmosphere’, Journal of Sound and Vibration, 61(6).
Thumann, A. and R. K. Miller (1976) Secrets of Noise Control, The Fairmont Press, Atlanta, Georgia.
US Department of Labour (1971-79) Occupational Noise Exposure. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 29, Part 1926, US
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
 CHAPTER

TEN
AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION

10.1 INTRODUCTION

Since the introduction of the USEPA in 1972, great progress has been achieved in identifying pollutants
and their associated environments. With identification came the application of technology to remedy the
pollution, methods which are detailed in the chapters of Part Three of this text. Pollution from industry
and municipalities, while still not eliminated, is being addressed with greater and greater success as we
march towards the twenty-first century. However, pollution from agriculture into the air, water and soil
environments has not been addressed with the same level of success as that from industry. Pollution from
agriculture is to a large extent non-point source (NPS) pollution and this makes the task of identification
and characterization difficult. Additionally, politicians internationally have not had the will to legislate
against agriculturally sourced pollution. However, the impact of Rachel Carson and such organizations as
the Sierra Club have fostered a community environmental movement that has also put the agricultural
industry on notice re its pollution activities. Thus aspects of environmental legislation in both the
European Union and the United States now address agricultural pollution.
The objectives of this chapter are to examine:
The biogeochemical cycles relevant to agriculture
Aspects of soil physics and soil chemistry
Farmyard wastes
Nutrient losses
Chemical wastes
Environmental legislation of relevance

The production of food and fibre by an industry called ‘agriculture’ is an essential and strategic
component of any society. Throughout history, civilizations unable to feed their people have vanished.
Conversely, societies that have advanced and developed have done so only by first achieving high food
and fibre production efficiencies. In developed countries, only a small percentage of the population is
involved in agricultural production, freeing most of the populace for other pursuits, such as commerce,
science, the arts and manufacturing. Intensification, using external inputs (energy, crop protection
chemicals, fertilizers, etc.), has been the critical factor in agriculture achieving such success in producing

420
 AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION 421

food and fibre. However, undesirable side effects on environmental quality have been correlated with the
development of modern agricultural systems. The impact of modern agriculture on the environment can
be minimized. However, agricultural pollution control does require techniques and strategies that are quite
different from those used in other industries. This chapter introduces key concepts about agricultural
practice and pollution. Chapter 17 is an introduction to agricultural pollution control techniques and
strategies.

10.2 NUTRIENT CYCLES IN AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS

Agriculture produces food and fibre. Plants are the basic output from agriculture, whether produced for
direct consumption by humans, used as a food source for animals or processed into fibres and other
organic products. The soil is the basic medium for plant production. It is itself a non-homogeneous system
having widely varying physical, chemical and biological properties (Sec. 10.3).
A major facet of any agricultural production system involves managing nutrients, primarily nitrogen
(N) and phosphorus (P). N and P are essential for all living systems. These also are the two nutrients most
often associated with agriculture as water pollutants. An important objective of land-based agricultural
systems is to achieve a balance between nutrient inputs (e.g. purchased feeds, fertilizers and organic
wastes) and nutrient outputs (e.g. milk, meat and wool) while minimizing nutrient ‘leaks’ to the
environment and meeting production targets. Achieving this objective at farm level is difficult, however,
as agriculture operates in an ‘open’ production environment, and the system must accommodate
uncontrolled weather events and soils having variable characteristics (see Chapter 17).
When animals are involved in the production system, nutrient management is even more difficult.
Animals retain only approximately 15 per cent of the nutrients contained in feedstuffs by converting them
into animal product; the remaining 85 per cent are excreted. Therefore, animal wastes contain significant
quantities of nutrients that must be managed in an environmentally acceptable way. Animal wastes
typically are managed by recycling them to the land that produced the feedstuffs consumed by the
animals. However, doing so in the open environment (as distinct from a closed factory environment)
creates certain pollution risks, which are amplified by practical management and technological problems
associated with land spreading of wastes. On intensive pig and poultry farms, nutrient management
difficulties are magnified further because nutrient inputs (feeds) are produced on other farms and
purchased by the animal producers. This creates a large nutrient surplus on pig/poultry farms which
requires significant land areas for spreading wastes to avoid overapplication of nutrients, particularly P.
Management of N and P cannot be accomplished without cognizance of the transformations of the
nutrients that occur in nature, represented conveniently as N and P ‘cycles’ (Figs 10.1 and 10.2
respectively). In agricultural systems, these transformations largely occur in the soil and are a function of
complex interactions between the atmosphere, soil particles, soil bacteria, plant and animal life, and soil
water.

10.2.1 Nitrogen Cycle

Inorganic nitrogen is an ubiquitous element, having nine different chemical oxidation states. Soil bacteria
are responsible for most nitrogen transformations in the soil; plant uptake also plays a role. Therefore,
microbial activity and plant growth govern the rates at which N transformations occur, which, in turn, are
determined by a number of environmental variables. These variables include soil moisture content,
temperature and oxygen concentrations, all of which depend upon the weather.
Globally, most N exists as elemental nitrogen gas, No, in the atmosphere, and it is to this stable form
that N from various compounds always tends to return. In agricultural systems, elemental N can be
transformed into organic forms by leguminous plants and certain bacteria and algae.
422 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

L Atmospheric N, Atmospheric N, Atmospheric N,

ehh wl |
oe Manufactured
NH, Volatilization Organic N ean ne = fertilizers
j animal protein Volatilization Aas N a ;
electrical
of NH, discharge
Bacterial
Pe reduction
2 ixation
Organic N Denitrification
Faeces
and plant
urine protein

Plant decomposition 1
Bacterial |
decomposition Plant uptake Plant uptake

Organic N
microbes and soil
organic matter

Figure 10.1 Nitrogen cycle.

Organic N (in plant remains and soil microbial biomass) is the largest ‘pool’ of N in the soil. A
typical mineral soil in temperate climates contains 3000 to 5000 kg N/ha in the upper 0.3 to 0.5 m. Plants
cannot utilize organic N. However, this N is mineralized, or changed into inorganic forms that are plant
available, by soil bacteria at an approximate rate of 2 to 3 per cent annually. Mineralization is an oxidative

eee P
eee
animal

Organic P
plant products
Faeces
and
urine tS

Mineralization
Phosphates 4 Minerals and
Plant ma
7
P hydrous al fixed P

Organic P
ph
Labile Non-labile
microbes and Soil Solution P P P
humus

Figure 10.2 Phosphorus cycle.

 AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION 423

process; therefore, in well-aerated soils there is a tendency for N (whether from fertilizers, wastes or soil
organic matter) to be transformed to nitrate N (NO; —N) by soil micro-organisms. Nitrate N remains in
the soil solution and, if not taken up by plants, can leach downwards through the soil with drainage water,
ultimately reaching groundwater. Nitrate leaching is especially likely from free draining soils (e.g. sands
or gravels). This form of N loss from agriculture is both an economic and environmental concern; nitrate
in groundwater used for human consumption can cause health risks when present in high concentrations
(> 50 mg/L). Immobilization, the reverse process of mineralization (changing inorganic N to an organic
form), is also accomplished by soil micro-organisms and plants as they incorporate inorganic N into
microbial and plant tissue respectively.
Elemental N from the atmosphere can be transformed into inorganic forms naturally by lightning or
artificially by energy-intensive manufacturing processes, the latter being far more important for
agriculture. Inorganic N (NO; —N, NH,‘—N), either converted from organic forms by mineralization or
added as supplemental fertilizer, is available to plants for uptake and for biological and chemical
transformations in the soil. In very wet soils, where oxygen in the soil atmosphere is limited, heterotrophic
bacteria can transform NO; —N into gaseous N through a reduction process called denitrification. The
products of denitrification are gases, nitrous oxide (NO) and elemental N (N2), which are released to the
atmosphere. Gaseous losses of N as ammonia (NH3;—N) can also occur through a process called
volatilization when the ammonium ion (NH4*—N) is added to the soil either as chemical fertilizers,
animal wastes or as the result of other transformations. Denitrification and volatilization provide ‘short
cuts’ for nitrogen in agricultural systems to return to the atmosphere.
Animals consume organic N in plants (as protein), incorporate a portion of the nutrient into tissue
and bone, and excrete the remainder as waste products (faeces and urine) in both organic and inorganic
forms. Mineralization and chemical processes (hydrolysis of urea in urine) convert organic N in animal
wastes into inorganic forms usable by plants (NH, —N and NO; —N). Urea N in urine is converted
almost immediately to NH4*—N. Conversely, as a general rule, approximately 50 per cent of the organic N
in animal wastes is converted to NH4*—N in a period of 12 months, but the actual transformation rate is
dependent on environmental conditions. Subsequently, 50 per cent of the remaining organic N will be
converted per year in a typical decay series.

10.2.2 Phosphorus Cycle

Like N, the behaviour of P in agricultural systems is complex. Phosphorus exists in the soil either in
dissolved or solid form, but the latter is dominant. Dissolved P is typically less than 0.1 per cent of total
soil P, usually existing as ortho-phosphates, inorganic polyphosphates and organic P. Phosphorus in solid
form (particulate P) can be classified as :

e Adsorbed P (attached to soil particles)

e Organic P (in dead and living plant material and organisms)
e Precipitate P (P that has reacted with calcium, aluminium and iron in the soil) and
e Mineral P (in soil minerals)

In a mineral soil as little as 33 per cent to as much as 90 per cent of the total P is in the inorganic
form. Both organic and inorganic P are involved in transformations that release water-soluble P from solid
forms (and vice versa). Only soluble P is used by plants.
Organic P compounds undergo mineralization and immobilization (analagous to N transformations)
with the aid of soil bacteria and growing plants. Transformations of inorganic P are related to the ease
with which various forms become soluble, soil pH, and the presence and amounts of soluble aluminum,
iron and calcium.
The direction (i.e. whether mineralization or immobilization) and magnitude of P transformations
determine the physical and chemical status of P in the soil and, in turn, the potential of the soil system to
424 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

supply P to plants or to contribute to phosphorus pollution. A key difference between N and P in soil is
the fact that P attaches strongly to soil particles, particularly clay-sized particles, whereas N (especially
NO; —N) does not. For this reason, P does not leach through the soil profile (except from organic soils
such as peats or very sandy soils). Phosphorus is lost from agricultural systems in runoff either in soluble
or adsorbed forms. Where soil erosion occurs, P losses generally are associated with eroded soil particles
as adsorbed P. Where soil erosion is not a problem, P is transported by runoff to rivers and streams in
soluble form.
More complete discussions of the N and P cycles in soil are given elsewhere (Alexander, 1977).

10.3 SOIL PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Transformations of N and P in agricultural systems are very much soil-related, as indeed are waste
degradation processes (mineralization of organic matter). Soil physical, and to a lesser extent chemical,
properties also control the movement of air and water through soil. The importance of soil physics and
soil chemistry for nutrient movement in soils cannot be overstated. However, as with other topics in this
chapter, complete texts and comprehensive courses are available on soil physics and soil chemistry (Jury
et al. 1991, Hillel, 1980). The treatment of these topics in this chapter only provides a cursory explanation
of basic concepts. Further discussion is given in Chapter 17.
It is important to distinguish between soil and the soil system. The latter is a living, non-homogeneous,
biological entity consisting of soil, soil fauna (microbes and macroinvertebrates), and soil flora. In sanitary
and environmental engineering parlance, the soil system is, in fact, a biological reactor.
As a component of this complex system, soil is a mixture of inorganic minerals that have developed
from bedrock, organic matter, air and water. The term ‘soil’ is applied to the top 1 to 2m of the regolith
(Fig. 10.3). The distinguishing characteristic of soil is the relatively high concentration of organic matter,
compared to that of the lower regolith. The organic matter derives from decomposed plant, animal and
microbial life that inhabit the soil. Soils are broadly classified as mineral (having generally less than 10
per cent by weight organic matter) and organic (having more than 10 per cent organic matter by dry

; -——® Pore space 50%

Organic matter 5% :

45%

Regolith

eS) Solid fraction B4

LD @ 50%

Soil horizons
Bedrock

L
Figure 10.3 Soil and soil composition.
 AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION 425

weight). In mineral soils, the concentration of organic matter decreases rapidly as depth below the surface
increases.

10.3.1 Soil Physical Properties

In any given volume of a mineral soil, there is an approximately equal proportion of solids and pore space
(Fig. 10.3). The former typically consists of 45 per cent minerals and 5 per cent organic matter and the
latter consists of water and air. For waste treatment, as well as for crop production, the proportion of air
and water should be approximately equal so as to create favourable conditions for biological activity (both
microbial and plant).
Air and moisture movement through the soil are important factors in the decomposition of organic
matter and crop growth. The relative ease with which water moves into and through the soil also
influences the extent to which leaching (N losses) and runoff (P losses) occur, and thereby the potential for
ground and surface water pollution respectively. Soil texture and soil structure are key determinants
affecting the movement of both air and water through the soil profile.
Soil texture refers to the proportion of minerals of varying sizes that comprise the solid fraction of
the soil. Well-defined classification schemes exist for categorizing soil particles according to size and, as
there is no world-wide standard, result in some overlap among different systems in the size ranges that
encompass the various particles. In the United Kingdom, sand includes particles with mean diameters
between 60 and 2000 jum, clay particles have mean diameters less than 2 zm and silt particles are those
with mean diameters between 2 and 60 um. Textural classification schemes generally categorize soils
based on the mixture of sand, silt and clay particles (primary particles) through use of a ‘textural triangle’
(Fig. 10.4). See also Chapter 4.
Soil texture is related to both hydraulic conductivity and water retention, two key properties that
influence leaching and runoff. Coarse textured soils, having high sand contents, possess higher hydraulic
conductivities and lower water retention capacities than fine textured soils, which have high silt and clay
contents. Hydraulic conductivity is the constant in Darcy’s law of liquid movement through porous media
and expresses the readiness of the media (in this case, soil) to allow flow at any particular hydraulic

Medium clay

Light clay

Silty clay
Clay loam loam
Clay loam
Sandy clay loam 80
Loam Silt loam

loam
ES
40 20 80 60 40 20
80 60
A
—<—_§_§_§___—_—_
Per cent sand 60-2000 um Per cent sand 50-2000 1m
(b) USA
(a) UK
Figure 10.4 Textural classification triangles: (a) UK, (0) US.
426 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

gradient. Thus, coarse textured soils with high hydraulic gradients allow water to move freely (rapidly)
through the profile (see Fig. 4.16).
Soil structure refers to the way in which individual primary soil particles (i.e. sand, silt and clay) are
arranged and held together as more or less distinct, recognizable units. At one end of the structural
spectrum are single grains (such as sand particles) and at the other extreme are groups of particles that
have been packed tightly together into a seemingly continuous mass (massive structure). In the former, air
and water move freely; in the latter, air and water movement is severely restricted. Within this spectrum
are soils with more or less well-defined segregations of soil particles and pore spaces that afford varying
degrees of air and water movement characteristics.
The stability of these soil structural units (i.e. their resistance to destruction by climatic influences,
cultivation or animal traffic) determines the extent to which soils retain their abilities to transmit air and
water and, consequently, their abilities to degrade wastes or facilitate the movement of pollutants. This is
because the stability of pores that separate the units, the sizes of these pores and the degree to which the
pores are interconnected influence hydraulic conductivity and water retention, which, in turn, influence
leaching and runoff potential. Infiltration capacity, which controls the rate of entry of water into the soil
profile, also influences leaching and runoff potential. Infiltration capacity is controlled by soil texture and
structure, as well as by the presence and type of vegetation, degree of slope and soil moisture status.

10.3.2 Soil Chemical Properties

In addition to imparting physical characteristics to soil, the mineral and organic fractions also determine
chemical properties of soil. It is these fractions that hold most of the soil’s nutrients, in forms that are not
plant available. Nutrients that are not plant available generally do not pose a threat to environmental
quality (unless soil particles or organic matter are eroded and transported to receiving waters). Nutrients
that are plant available are also available to cause water pollution. Soil chemical properties, especially
cation and anion exchange capacities, tend to mitigate this potential, however.
Cation exchange capacity (CEC) defines the ability of a soil to retain positively charged ions, or
cations. CEC is measured in terms of milliequivalents per 100 gram of soil (meq/100 g) and ranges from
2 to 3meq/100g for sand and silt to 100 to 200 meq/100g for organic matter. Clay-sized inorganic
particles and humus (colloidal organic matter) are responsible for most of the chemical properties of soil.
Both clay and humus have a net negative electrical charge that can attract, and to varying extents adsorb,
positively charged cations from the soil solution. The negative charges of the colloidal fraction of soil
derives from:

¢ Replacement of trivalent by divalent cations within clay minerals

e From unsatisfied electrical charges at the edges of broken clay particles and
e From dissociation of protons (hydrogen) from organic acids and hydrous oxide surfaces

The latter is pH dependent; consequently the capacity of some soils to ‘adsorb’ and retain cations
increases as pH increases. Important cations that are adsorbed by electrostatic attraction are Na, K, Mg
and Ca, approximately in that order.
Anion exchange capacity (AEC) describes the ability of soil to retain anions and is relatively small
compared to cation exchange capacity. Some clay and humic colloids (especially Fe, Al and Ca clays and
humus containing Fe and Al hydroxides) have considerable ability to retain anions, particularly the
phosphate ion. Anion adsorption results from either a chemical interaction, in which the anion becomes
co-ordinated with a metal ion, or an electrostatic attraction between a positively charged colloid and the
negatively charged ion. Chemical interaction is specific and strong, as for the adsorption of the phosphate
anion. Electrostatic attraction tends to be non-specific and weak, as for the nitrate and chloride anions.
Selectivity for anion exchange is generally in the order phosphate, molybdate, sulphate and nitrate.
 AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION 427

Soil reaction (acidity and buffering capacity) is an inherent chemical property influencing crop
uptake of nutrients and the mobility of some potential pollutants (such as metallic ions found in some
wastewater sludges). Soil reaction is expressed by pH and is controlled by the amount of exchangeable
calcium and magnesium and amount of free calcium carbonate present in the soil profile. Some soils are
naturally rich in calcium and magnesium because of their parent materials and require little or no pH
adjustment; lime is added to other soils to achieve appropriate pH levels.
The optimum pH at which soils should be maintained depends on the crop to be produced and
whether the soil is mineral or organic. Soil pH affects the concentration of ions in soil solution that are
available for uptake. To optimize nutrient uptake, and thereby minimize nutrient pollution risks, soil
reaction must be managed carefully. Most agricultural advisory services publish recommended soil pH
levels and liming rates. Soil pH affects the chemical form and therefore the mobility of heavy metals,
which may be added to the soil in land-applied wastewater sludges. Generally, heavy metal mobility
increases as soil pH decreases. Maintaining soil pH at 6.0 to 6.5 or greater minimizes potential leaching of
heavy metals from soils used as receptors for wastewater sludges.

10.4 WASTE PRODUCTION ON FARMS

While the agricultural industry includes all facets of agribusiness from the production of basic materials
to the processing of final products, this discussion of waste generation is confined to that which occurs at
farm level. Pollutants from farms can be classified as physical (e.g. eroded soil, gaseous emissions),
chemical (e.g. nutrients) or biological (e.g. bacteria). The sources of these pollutants are varied: animal
wastes, silage effluent, contaminated runoff from farmyard areas, dairy washings, pesticides and fuel oil.
Animal manures are by far the most significant of these, especially in Western Europe. Within the
European Union approximately 8 tonnes of animal wastes are produced per hectare of utilizable
agricultural land annually, with a range of from 2.6 t/ha in Greece to 42 t/ha in the Netherlands (Lee
and Coulter, 1990). An estimated 87 million tonnes of manure are produced annually in Ireland alone
(Table 10.1); of this, almost 30 million tonnes are produced indoors and require management. Animal
wastes that require management include all pig and poultry manure and the manure produced by grazing
animals during the indoor winter feeding period. If not utilized properly, these wastes have significant
potential to cause both air (in terms of ammonia volatilization and nuisance odours) and water pollution.
Excreta (faeces and urine—excreta from animals on a forage diet will consist of approximately 65
per cent faeces and 35 per cent urine on a volume basis) consist of the partially digested remains of the
animal’s feed intake diluted with varying quantities of water. Excreta include a range of materials from
undigested food remains to the primary components of plant tissues, carbon dioxide, minerals and water
combined with microbes from the animal’s digestive tract. The microbial contents of animal wastes make
them biologically active materials, one of their important characteristics. Microbial activity is responsible
for the mineralization of nutrients in the organic matter.

Table 10.1 Estimated annual manure production

from livestock and the quantity requiring
management in Ireland

Production Requiring management

Animal type (kilotonne/annum) (kilotonne/annum)

Bovine 76000 28 327

Ovines 8258 454
Pigs 1 804 1804
Poultry 227 Di
Total 86919 30812
428 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

10.4.1 Mineral/Nutrient Composition of Farm Slurries

The nutrient composition or fertilizer value of slurry is influenced by the type of animal, the animal’s diet,
waste storage conditions and the extent of the dilution with either water, bedding or litter. An indication of
the mean nutrient composition of various slurries is given in Table 10.2. The nutrients include significant
quantities of N, P, potassium (K) and sulphur (S). They also contain, in smaller quantities, calcium,
magnesium and trace elements. Cattle slurry compared with pig slurry is high in K and low in P. This
reflects the differences in nutrient concentrations between the grass and the cereal diets of cattle and pigs
respectively. Extra mineral P is added to pig diets to satisfy growth requirements because of their inability
to absorb sufficient P from the diet’s cereal component. The apparently higher nutrient concentration in
poultry compared with either cattle or pig slurry reflects the higher dry matter content of the former. Due
to the high variability of nutrient concentrations in animal wastes, individual analyses are required on a
given farm for an accurate determination of the nutrient value of animal wastes.

10.5 POLLUTION POTENTIAL OF FARM WASTES

Animal wastes are high-strength wastes and have potential to cause serious water pollution problems.
Table 10.3 compares various animal wastes (at 4 per cent dry matter) to the composition of typical raw
(i.e. untreated) domestic sewage.
As evidenced by the high concentrations of both BOD; (biochemical oxygen demand) and COD
(chemical oxygen demand), animal wastes have considerable amounts of organic matter and reactive
inorganic species (e.g. ammonium) that will exert excessive oxygen demands on surface waters. These
high oxygen demands also preclude treating animal wastes by conventional processes, as is done with
domestic sewage and other industrial wastes. Consequently, land application is an economically viable
and environmentally sustainable method of ‘treating’ animal wastes. The application of animal wastes to
land will not result in soil pollution when applied at agronomic rates and at the correct times of the year
(Chapter 17). Application to land of some high-strength wastes at very high rates may cause the soil to
become temporarily anaerobic due to the oxygen demand of the wastes.
Repeated heavy applications of animal wastes to soil also can cause a buildup of soil P levels,
although instances where phytotoxic P levels have been reached are very rare. Increased soil P levels are
more often associated with increased potential for release of water-soluble P and the resulting increase in
potential for water pollution. In freshwater systems, minute concentrations of soluble P (0.01 mg/L) are
sufficient to cause algal blooms if other environmental conditions are satisfactory. These blooms, in turn,
reduce oxygen levels in water to levels that result in fish kills, increase water treatment costs (if the water

Table 10.2 Dry matter and nutrient composition of animal

manures

Composition of farm slurry (kg/10 t)

Dry matter Se ee SS LE ee eee
Manure type (g/kg) Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium

Cattle slurryt 69 36 6 43
Pig slurryt 32 46 9 26
Dungstead manuret 17 35) 9 40
Farmyard manuret 20 45 10 60
Poultryt
Deep litter 70 260 90 120
Layers 24 140 50 60
+ O’Bric et al. (1992).
{ Tunney and Molloy (1975).
 AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION 429

Table 10.3 Composition of various animals’ manures (4 per cent dry

matter) and raw domestic sewage

Water source (mg/L)

Component Dairy cattle Beef cattle Swine Poultry Humans

Total solids (TS) 40 000 40 000 40.000 40 000 500
Votatile solids (VS) 29 700 31 000 31 600 31 100 350
BOD; 6 000 6 700 12 800 9 800 200
COD 36 200 35 600 32 800 36 000 450
Nitrogen as N 1 600 1 900 2500 2900 30
Phosphorus as P 300 400 950 1100 10
Potassium as K 860 1100 1400 1100 10

US Department of Agriculture, 1975

is used for public drinking supplies) and are aesthetically unacceptable. In saltwater systems, small
concentrations of N can stimulate algae growth.
Odours are the most recognizable air ‘pollutant’ arising from animal wastes; usually these emissions
are associated with the land application process. While less noticeable to laypersons, the volatilization of
NH; from animal wastes has been identified as a serious air pollutant in some regions (e.g. the
Netherlands). Strict legislation has been passed in these areas to control gaseous N losses. In confined
buildings (i.e. animal housing) where animal wastes are stored below the buildings, the release of both
ammonia and hydrogen sulphide can be health-threatening air pollutants for both the animals and humans.
Proper building and manure store design features can reduce NH; emissions to acceptable levels; H2S
levels generally are not a problem until the animal wastes are removed from the buildings. At these times,
animals must be removed from the buildings and workers must take special care and use protective
breathing devices to avoid health risks.

10.6 NUTRIENT LOSSES

Nutrients from fertilizers or wastes not utilized by plants may ‘leak’ from agricultural systems to either
ground or surface water. These losses are economically and environmentally undesirable. Nitrogen and
phosphorus are the two nutrients of major agricultural importance that have the greatest potential to create
water pollution. Both nutrients can be either:

e Taken up by growing plants

e Move to surface water in runoff (P)
¢ Move to groundwater in leaching (N)
e Be immobilized in the soil/organic matter pool
In addition, N from fertilizers or wastes can be lost as a gas to the atmosphere. Figure 10.5 illustrates
the pathways for nutrient losses from agricultural systems.

10.6.1 Nitrate Leaching

Leaching of nitrate N is the major pathway by which N leaks from agricultural systems. Although N is the
preferred form of nitrogen by plants, it is only weakly adsorbed by the soil and remains in the soil
solution, making it a highly mobile anion that can readily move downwards (leach) through the soil
profile. Whether nitrate reaches groundwater is influenced by many factors: abundance of the ion,
carbon-nitrogen ratios, soil type, depth to groundwater, type of plant, time of year and climatic variables.
430 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

(2) Gaseous losses (N)

Leaching
—»/ Soil \«— of nitrate (N)
(5) pool
Sa K NA

Groundwater

Figure 10.5 Potential pathways from land-based agricultural systems.

In soil, there is a tendency for N from all forms to be converted to nitrate N by soil microbes. When
wastes are applied to soil, the rate at which this occurs is dependent on waste characteristics, especially
the ratio of carbon to nitrogen (C:N ratio) or the C:N ratio of the soil-waste mixture if the waste is
incorporated. When C:N ratios are 20:1 or greater, soil micro-organisms will use the relatively abundant
carbon supply as an energy source to support rapid growth and multiplication. As a result, most of the N
will be immobilized as it is incorporated into microbial biomass. This minimizes the potential for nitrate
leaching, at least in the short term. Nitrogen applied as inorganic fertilizers (urea, ammonium or nitrate) or
in wastes with low C:N ratios will tend to be converted rapidly to nitrate, providing a supply of nitrate for
crop uptake as well as leaching.
Soil type (texture and structure) influences nitrate leaching by controlling the rate and amount of
water moving downwards (leaching) through the soil profile as well as the aeration status of the profile.
Freely draining sandy, gravelly and karst soils transmit large quantities of water rapidly, together with
dissolved substances such as nitrate. In addition, these soils tend to be well aerated, providing conditions
favourable for the conversion of N forms to nitrate. Conversely, clay soils, with smaller pores, tend to
transmit water less readily and have lower oxygen concentrations in the pores. Nitrate leaching from these
soils is usually not a problem. In fact, anaerobic soil conditions can easily occur in soils with high clay
contents, resulting in a loss of N as a gas to the atmosphere through denitrification. Soil water retention
capacities for various soils are on the order of clay > loam > sand (Chapter 17). For a given amount of
precipitation, nitrate will move to greater depths in a sandy soil compared to a clayey soil. Similarly, the
risk of nitrate leaching to groundwater is greater for soils with shallow water tables, all other factors being
equal, than for soils with deep water tables.
Plants exert an influence on the extent of nitrate leaching through their N uptake patterns. Crops with
long growing seasons, such as grasses, have a greater opportunity for N uptake than do crops with short
growing seasons, such as spring-sown cereals. Growing season length is especially important considering
the continual mineralization of inorganic N from soil organic matter, which supplies N for plant uptake or
leaching irrespective of N added by either fertilizers or wastes. Spring cereals, for example, cease N
uptake in June, while mineralization of N in the soil continues to some extent throughout the year.
Consequently, nitrate tends to leach to groundwater from free draining soils where a large amount of
cereal production occurs. Application of fertilizers or wastes to soils on which spring cereals are grown
exclusively tends to exacerbate nitrate leaching problems.
Nitrogen uptake patterns of plants strongly influence the availability of nitrate for leaching.
Therefore, applying fertilizer or wastes at times that make N available when plants need it is critical for
minimizing nitrate leaching potential. In Ireland, grass begins to incorporate N actively in mid to late
February and continues through late August, providing large N uptake potential and minimal nitrate
leaching risk. Each crop has a characteristic N uptake pattern, which should be matched by N applications
 AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION 431

(timing and amount) with due consideration for N supplied by the soil. Agricultural advisory services in
most countries provide fertilizer recommendations for agronomic and horticultural crops and grassland.
Because water is the transporting agent for nitrate, the occurrence of soil water draining through the
profile and the availability of nitrate in the soil profile determine the extent to which nitrate will leach. In
general, the net movement of water downwards through a soil profile occurs when precipitation exceeds
evapotranspiration plus soil moisture storage. This condition is usually reached when plant activity is low
(late fall, early spring) or non-existent (winter).

10.6.2 Phosphorus Runoff

In contrast to N, P is lost from agricultural systems in runoff. Runoff is the amount of precipitation in
excess of infiltration, interception and depression storage. Losses of P in runoff tend to be higher from
‘heavy’ soils (with high clay contents) than from ‘light’ soils (with high sand contents) because the former
have lower infiltration capacities and thus are more likely to generate runoff. Leaching of P from mineral
soils generally does not occur, although P can be lost via leaching from highly organic (especially peat)
soils and from very sandy soils.
Phosphorus in runoff can be either in soluble (dissolved) or ‘attached’ (adsorbed to soil particles)
form. The concentration of P in the soil solution within the upper 1 to 3mm of soil can be diluted by
precipitation, permitting more P to be released into solution from the labile (slowly available) pool of soil
P. For this reason, soils with high concentrations of soil P pose a greater risk, in general, of P losses in
runoff than do soils with lower P contents. Highly erodible soils also are susceptible to P losses in runoff
and must be managed so that soil particles carrying attached P do not leave the site and reach surface
waters.
Losses of P in runoff can be high where organic wastes have been applied to soils at the application
site that are prone to generate runoff. Such sites would have low infiltration capacities, high soil moisture
contents, high water tables or other restrictions to absorption of precipitation. In these situations, the
timing of runoff relative to the application of wastes is an important determinant in the extent to which P
losses will occur. In general, as the time between runoff and waste application increases, losses of P (and
BOD,) decline exponentially. Where erosion is controlled, losses of P in runoff occur mainly in the
soluble (ortho-phosphate) form. While not all P lost from a site in runoff actually reaches receiving waters
(being assimilated along the way in intervening land uses), minimizing P losses is crucial given the
minute concentration (0.01 mg/L) of soluble P required to stimulate algae growth in surface waters.

10.7 OTHER WASTES AND POTENTIAL POLLUTANTS

A variety of wastes other than those from animals are applied to agricultural land. In the best
circumstances, these wastes are applied at rates and using techniques that minimize the risk of pollution
and maximize the uptake of nutrients by plants. In the worst circumstances, wastes are applied according
to a ‘disposal’ strategy that ignores soil and agronomic principles, resulting in elevated pollution potential.
The variety of wastes that are applied to agricultural land is too large for an exhaustive listing and
characterization. Sludges from industrial, domestic and combined wastewater treatment facilities (as well
as treated wastewater) and wastes from food processing factories (blood, paunce, whey, residuals from
wastewater treatment) are dominant on a volume basis. In most cases, these wastes contain only organic
matter and inorganic nutrients, though the relative amounts of each vary widely for different wastes.
Pollution potential is mitigated by the same soil physical, chemical and biological processes described
above for strictly agricultural wastes.
In the case of sludges, particularly those of industrial origin, heavy metals and other potential
micropollutants (dioxins, PCBs) may be an environmental concern. Sludges from secondary sewage
432 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

treatment facilities are generally 3 to 7 per cent dry matter. The types and concentrations of heavy metals
depends on the nature of the industries producing the sludge. Careful chemical analyses are essential for
characterizing any sludge prior to applying it to land. In addition, when agricultural land is utilized for
sludge application, agronomic principles must be respected to schedule sludge applications into other
farm operations. It is prudent to keep accurate records of the amounts of characterization of all sludge
applications to agricultural land. Guidelines for sludge utilization on agricultural land typically are
available from agricultural research and advisory agencies, universities and regulatory authorities.

10.7.1 Pesticides

Crop protection chemicals (pesticides) are an integral part of intensive arable agriculture, responsible in
part for helping produce abundant food supplies that keep consumer food costs relatively low. With these
benefits are associated certain environmental risks, since by formulation most pesticides are toxic
materials. Most pesticides are synthetic organic compounds, the physical and chemical properties of
which vary widely, resulting in very different behaviours of pesticides in the environment. Soil properties
(especially texture and organic matter content), application techniques (foliar applications versus surface
application or soil incorporation) and environmental conditions (soil moisture, temperature and aeration)
also influence pesticide behaviour.
Three pesticide characteristics are especially critical in influencing the potential of a pesticide to be
‘lost’ from an application site in runoff or by leaching. The soil sorption index of a pesticide measures the
tendency of the chemical to attach to soil particles and organic matter. Soil sorption indices are defined by
a chemical relationship, K,., which measures the relative degree to which pesticides are ‘sorbed’ by soil
and organic matter from an aqueous solution. Solubility in water is an inherent property of the active
ingredient of a pesticide, and defines the amount of the pesticide that can be dissolved in water. A
pesticide’s half-life in soil is the time in days required for its original concentration in soil to be degraded,
or reduced, by one-half. Unlike solubility, pesticide half-lives are not a constant value, being influenced by
soil temperature and soil moisture (see also Chapter 3).
Pesticides most likely to leave an application site in runoff are those that are foliar or surface applied
without incorporation, have high sorption indices (K,, greater than 1000), low water solubilities and long
half-lives. Pesticides likely to leach from an application site are those that are incorporated in the soil and
have low sorption indices, high water solubilities and long soil half-lives. Chemicals with short half-lives
tend to be degraded before they can contaminate surface or ground waters, but even these chemicals can
move from the application site if heavy precipitation occurs shortly after application.

10.8 LEGISLATION (EU)

Public interest in environmental protection is increasing all over the world, but especially in developed
countries that have the social, financial and technological resources to address pollution issues. In
addition, demographic changes in these countries are increasing the size of the non-farm population,
while the farm population is continually declining. One result of these two important social changes is that
agriculture in developed countries has come under scrutiny for contributing to environmental pollution.
The European Union has issued several directives to protect environmental quality. The legislation
sets a minimum standard for environmental protection that must be adopted by all member countries. One
of the most important of these is the ‘Drinking Water Directive’ (80/ 778/EEC), which sets maximum
concentrations of various contaminants that are allowed in public drinking water. Similar legislation
(Directive 78/659/EEC) sets water quality limits for the protection of fish habitats. Together, these
directives afford a general means by which to control water pollution from a variety of sources, including
agriculture.
 AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION 433

Legislation designed specifically to protect groundwater from agricultural sources of nitrates is the
‘Nitrates in Ground Water Directive’ (91/676/EEC). The directive reaffirms a maximum allowable
concentration (MAC) of nitrate in groundwater at 50mg/L which was established by Directive
80/778/EEC. In addition, the legislation directs that codes of good agricultural practice will be
established by member countries, to be implemented on a voluntary basis by farmers.
Agricultural land is becoming a favoured receptor for wastewater sludges, prompting the passage of
regulations to control the use of sewage sludges so as to prevent harmful effects to soil, vegetation,
animals and humans. Directive 86/278/EEC establishes maximum sludge application rates and stipulates
that sewage sludge should be applied to land in accordance with codes of good practice to avoid pollution
of waters and emissions of nuisance levels of odours.
Odours and other atmospheric contaminants (e.g. ammonia) generally have not been addressed by
EU legislation. However, several EU member countries have passed regulations to do so. For example, in
Ireland, the Air Pollution Act 1987 (No. 6 of 1987) provides the statutory framework for controlling air
quality. By this Act, it is illegal to cause or permit an emission in a quantity or in such a manner as to be a
‘nuisance’. Determining whether or not a nuisance exists is the responsibility of courts of law. A ‘good
defense clause’ affords potential offenders legal protection if they have used the best practicable means to
prevent or control emissions.
Similarly, ammonia emissions from agriculture have been addressed by specific legislation in some
EU countries. In the Netherlands, for example, ammonia emissions from agriculture must be reduced
by 30 and 70 per cent of 1980 levels by the years 1994 and 2000 respectively, under the National
Environmental Policy Plan.
In the United States, laws passed by the Congress have the same effect in the various states as do EU
Directives in member countries, by establishing minimum standards for environmental protection. Control
of water pollution by agriculture (as well as by other pollutant sources) is mandated by the Water Pollution
Control Act Amendments of 1972 (PL 92-500) and its successor, the Clean Water Act (PL 95-217).
Generally, only large confined animal feeding facilities are specifically included in the legislation;
however, the Acts establish minimum water quality standards that are applicable to all potential pollution
sources. Agriculture and other diffuse sources of pollution are coming under more rigid controls under PL
95-217, which directed the implementation of ‘nonpoint source’ pollution programmes. The 1990 Farm
Bill (the major US agricultural legislation) required specific measures for environmental protection on
farms that intended to participate in federal agricultural assistance programmes. As in the European
Union, individual US states and localities can, and do, pass environmental legislation that is more
restrictive than federal law (see Chapter 13 for details of rule 503, 1995).

10.9 SUMMARY

Land-based agricultural production utilizes large land areas and occurs in the presence of uncontrolled
and unpredictable weather events. Consequently, agriculture has the potential to cause both water and air
pollution. Soil pollution typically is not an issue due to the nature of agricultural pollutants, which are
organic matter and nutrients (and eroded soil in some instances). Nitrogen is usually lost from agricultural
systems by leaching, volatilization and denitrification. Phosphorus is typically lost by runoff, as is organic
matter and eroded soil. Environmental legislation addressing agricultural sources of pollution exists
mainly to protect water resources rather than air quality.

10.10 PROBLEMS

10.1 Contrast the pathways by which nitrogen and phosphorus are lost from agricultural systems. At what
times of the year would one expect each pathway to be most important?
434 POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTS

10.2 Texturally, compare a clay loam with a sandy loam. What hydraulic differences would be expected
between the two soils?
10.3 Why are animal wastes so different in character from human wastes? What implications do the
differences in waste characteristics have for animal waste management?
10.4 Soil behaves as a fixed-film biological reactor. Describe key differences between the soil and (a)
trickling filters and (b) activated sludge basins in terms of wastewater treatment.
10.5 A freshwater lake suffers eutrophication from excess phosphorus runoff. Consider a catchment with
a series of streams, leading to a river which outfalls from the catchment via a lake. Describe how
you would go about doing a mass balance on the nutrient phosphorus.
10.6 Write a brief two page report on the possibilities, advantages and disadvantages of using anaerobic
digestion to alleviate farm pollution. Refer to Chapter 13.
10.7 Explain why farmyard wastes have a much higher COD value than BOD value.

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Alexander, M. (1977) Introduction to Soil Microbiology, 2nd edn. John Wiley, New York.
Archer, J. (1988) Crop Nutrition and Fertiliser Use, 2nd edn, Farming Press, Ipswich.
ASAE (1990) Standards, Engineering Practices and Data, 37th edn, American Society of Agricultural Engineers, St Joseph,
Michigan.
Barth, C. L. (1985) ‘The rational design standard for anaerobic livestock lagoons’, in Agricultural Waste Utilization and
Management: Proceedings of the Sth International Symposium on Agricultural Wastes, American Society of Agricultural
Engineers, St Joseph, Michigan.
Department of Agriculture, Ireland (1985) Guidelines and Recommendations on Control of Pollution from Farmyard Wastes
(revised), Department of Agriculture and Food, Dublin, Ireland.
Grundy, K. (1980) Tackling Farm Waste, Farming Press, Ipswich.
Halley, R. J. and R. J. Soffe (1988) The Agricultural Notebook, 18th edn, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford.
Hillel, D. (1980) Fundamentals of Soil Physics, Academic Press, New York.
Hudson, N. (1981) Soil Conservation, 2nd edn, Comell University Press, Ithaca, New York.
Jury, W. J., W. R. Gardner and W. H. Gardner (1991) Soil Physics, Sth edn, John Wiley, New York.
Lee, J. and B. Coulter (1990) ‘A macro view of animal manure production in the European Community and implications for
environment’, in Manure and Environment Seminar—VIV Europe, Utrecht, the Netherlands, 14 November.
McCuen, R. H. (1989) Hydrologic Analysis and Design, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
MAFF (1991) Code of Good Agricultural Practice for the Protection of Water, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, London.
MAFF (1992) Code of Good Agricultural Practice for the Protection of Air, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, London.
Merkel, J. A. (1981) Managing Livestock Wastes, AV1 Publishing, Westport, Connecticut.
Midwest Plan Service (1985) Livestock Waste Facilities Handbook, 2nd edn (MWPS-18), Midwest Plan Service, Iowa State
University, Ames, lowa.
Novotny, V. and G. Chesters (1981) Handbook of Nonpoint Pollution, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
O’Bric, C., O. T. Carton, P. O’Toole and A. Cuddihy (1992) ‘Nutrient values of cattle and pig slurries on Irish farms and the
implications for slurry application rates, /rish Journal of Agricultural Research, 31(1), 89-90.
Schwab, G. O., D. D. Fangmeier, W. J. Elliot and R. K. Frevert (1993) Soil and Water Conservation Engineering, 4th edn, J. Wiley,
Somerset, New York.
Shaw, E. M. (1988) Hydrology in Practice, 2nd edn, Chapman and Hall, London.
Teagasc (1989) Farmyard Wastes and Pollution, Agriculture and Food Development Authority, Dublin, Ireland.
Teagasc (1992) Miscellaneous data (unpublished), Johnstown Castle Research and Development Centre, Wexford, Ireland.
Tunney, H. and S. M. Molloy (1975) ‘Variations between forms of N, P, K, Mg and dry matter composition of cattle, pig and poultry
manures, /rish Journal of Agricultural Research, 14, 71-79.
US Department of Agriculture (1975) Agricultural Waste Management Field Manual, Soil Conservation Service, US Department of
Agriculture, Washington, D.C.
USEPA (1975) Land Treatment of Municipal Wastewater Effluents: Design Factors IJ, US Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, D.C.
Wesseling, J., W. R. van Wijk, M. Fireman, B. D. van’t Woudt and R. M. Hagan (1957) ‘Land drainage in relation to soils and crops’,
in Drainage of Agricultural Lands, J. N. Luthin (ed.), American Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wisconsin.
 7 Seer

THREE
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES
 CHAPTER

ELEVEN
WATER TREATMENT

11.1 INTRODUCTION

The objectives of this chapter on the purification and treatment of raw water to bring it to drinking water
standards are:

e To understand the differences in standards of raw water and purified water

e To examine the various physical—chemical treatment processes involved
Natural waters are rarely of satisfactory quality for human consumption or industrial use and nearly
always need to be treated. The level of treatment required will depend on how acceptable or ‘pure’ the
natural water is.
Raw freshwater is abstracted from rivers, lakes or underground sources and treated to standards
acceptable for human consumption or industrial requirements. In the United States and the United
Kingdom, by far the most common sources of raw freshwater are rivers and lakes, though in recent
decades more sources of groundwater are being utilized. On the European mainland groundwater is used
extensively. Some groundwater sources are so pure that no treatment is necessary, although when used for
public supplies, local water authorities (public and private) tend to apply a disinfection process, but this 1s
primarily for disinfection purposes of the distribution network. Some upland river or lake sources may
also be relatively pure and again need little treatment. At the other end of the scale, when downstream
reaches of rivers are used for abstraction, extensive treatment may be needed, particularly if the
abstraction is downstream of urban, industrial or agricultural developments. In piactice, all public water
supplies undergo some form of treatment, with the degree of that treatment being dependent on the quality
of the raw water supply. The quality of treated water is now almost standardized in the developed world,
with treatment facilities having to satisfy many water quality parameters on a frequent monitoring basis.
The objectives of water treatment are to produce:
e Water that is safe for human consumption
e Water that is appealing aesthetically to the consumer and
e Water at a reasonable cost

437
438 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

These objectives are readily met in the developed world and the technology of treatment is similar
world-wide. Water treatment technologies are, however, constantly undergoing research, not only to
improve the end water product but also to find ways of treating water that was once deemed unsuitable as
a raw source. Advanced water treatment processes are often required by industry, e.g. the beverage or
pharmaceutical industries. Such industries may have higher standards than those for potable supplies.
Advanced methods are also used by public waterworks to remove contaminants such as organics.

11.2 AMOUNT OF WATER REQUIRED

Public water supplies normally service the requirements of:

e Domestic households
e Fire fighting
e Industrial
e Commercial

The demand for water varies with the end user and also with the country. For instance, the average daily
per capita (ADPC) water consumption varies in the United States from a low of 130 to a high of 2000
litres. The European average is approximately 225 litres, with some countries in northern Europe (e.g.
Denmark and Germany) consuming less than 200 litres. In the design of a new water treatment plant or
upgrading of an existing one, surveys and metering of supply pipelines determine the values of per capita
consumption. Fire services always require a minimum water volume to be on hand and to be available at
an adequate pressure. This demand in urban areas can be serviced by reservoirs that also service the
domestic requirements. In small urban areas, special water reservoirs may be required to meet the fire
service demands. Commercial and industrial volume requirements are industry specific, but the
availability of an adequate water supply infrastructure is a priority for attracting new industry to a locality.
Water is also consumed by ‘leakage’, a major problem in urban areas with old distribution networks.
Water quality also reduces if sent through old distribution networks, particularly lead and iron pipes.
Tables 11.1 and 11.2 show examples of water use and consumption rates for the United States.
Further details are given in McGhee (1991) and Cunningham and Saigo (1992). It is clear that as a
public, we abuse water use, e.g. car washing and garden sprinklers with expensively treated water.
Northern Europe, particularly Denmark, is making great strides in water reduction. In some areas, this is
being achieved by charging consumers the real cost of water. In parts of Denmark the 1995 domestic
water rate is approximately ECU 175 per household per annum. However, the above figure is only for
domestic water supply. On top of this, domestic consumers pay an additional ECU 350 for wastewater
treatment. The connection fee for water is approximately ECU 1200 and the connection fee for

Table 11.1 Examples of water use

Consumption
Category Description (litres)

Home Bath 100-150

Shower per 5 min 100
Clothes wash 75-100
Cooking 30
Toilet flush 10-15

Industry US automobile 400 000

1 kg steel 250
Newspaper 500-1000
 WATER TREATMENT 439

Table 11.2 US projected water

consumption by year 2000

Consumption
Use (litres /capita/day)

Domestic 300
Public 60
Leaks 50
Industry 160
Commercial 100

Total 670

wastewater is approximately ECU 3000 (Mortensen, 1993). Hence conservation of water is encouraged by
requiring households not only to pay for (metered) water but also to pay for wastewater.

11.3 WATER QUALITY STANDARDS

In discussing water quality, two sets of standards exist:

e One for the quality of raw water and
e The second for the quality of the treated potable water
The quality of raw water is governed in the European Union by two directives. Firstly, for raw surface
water, Directive 75/440/EEC is known as the ‘surface water directive intended for abstraction of drinking
water’. Secondly, for raw ground water, Directive 80/68/EEC is known as the ‘groundwater protection
directive against pollution by dangerous substances’. The drinking water directive (80/778/EEC) relates
to the quality of treated water intended for human consumption. The above three directives address water
quality at source and at the point of delivery to the public. Throughout the developed world, similar
legislation exists, driven to some extent by the World Health Organization. Guidelines for Drinking Water
Quality was published by WHO in two volumes in 1984. In the United States, the EPA published a series
of reports in 1980 on ‘quality criteria for water’. The USEPA primary drinking and secondary drinking
water regulations set standards for the United States. Also applicable are the USEPA advisories on direct
and indirect additives as well as the USEPA drinking water health advisories. The Safe Drinking Water
Act (1974) and the Surface Water Treatment Rules (1989) set the standards at national level in the United
States. As well as the federal guidelines in the United States, there are a myriad legislative pieces
concerning drinking water quality at state level.
The EU water quality parameters are discussed in detail by Flanagan (1992) with regard to methods
of analysis, occurrence or origin of parameter, the health or sanitary significance, background,
information, comments and criteria for recommended or mandatory limits. A summary of the parameters
is shown in Table 11.3, with the maximum admissible concentration values listed. In some cases, the
guide value is listed. Raw water quality in the European Union is defined in one way by the degree of
treatment that is needed. For instance, category Al water only requires simple physical (filtration) and
disinfection treatment. Category A2 water requires normal physical and chemical and disinfection
treatment. Poor quality water is category A3 and requires intense physical and chemical disinfection
treatments. These categories are defined in Directive 75/440/EEC.
The testing of water for the water quality parameters are not detailed in this chapter. The reader is
referred to Standard Methods in Greenberg ef al. (1992). The parameters to be monitored in the EU
drinking water directive are described in the following paragraphs and listed in Table 11.3. All the tests
mentioned are detailed in Standard Methods (Greenberg et al., 1992).
440 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

11.3.1 Organoleptic Parameters

Raw water will usually have impurities quantified in colour, turbidity, odour and taste. These are called
organoleptic parameters, i.e. as sensed by the human organs of eye, nose and throat. Colour in water
means that the water will absorb light in the visible spectral range (400 to 700 nm). Clear water is
colourless. Colour in water is caused by dissolved minerals, dyes or humic acid from plants. The latter
causes a brown-yellow unsightly colour. Traditionally, it was thought that this colour was harmless, but
recently some correlation has been identified between colour and the formation of haloforms in the
chlorination of drinking waters (Dojlido and Best, 1993). Colour is measured in units of mg/L on the
platinum cobalt (Pt/Co) scale. Raw water is of very good colour quality at values less than 10 mg/L, is
acceptable at 100mg/L and is unacceptable at levels greater than 200mg/L. In the same way,
disinfectants are most effective when used on low turbidity waters.
Turbidity is due to the presence of particulate matter and is a measure of the ability of water to scatter
light. It is caused by the presence of very fine suspended or clay particles. Turbidity is measured in
nephelopmetric trubidity units. Water is of very good turbidity quality if turbidity is less than 0.1 NTU. It
is of acceptable turbidity if levels are less than 1 NTU and considered unacceptable if the value is greater
than 5 NTU. Turbidity is sometimes described as the cloudiness of water. Colour in water is best
measured when there is no turbidity as the latter will mask colour.
Odour and taste in water are caused by the presence of the by-products of plant and animal micro-
organisms, especially hydrogen sulphide. Basic water treatment processes address the elimination of
colour, turbidity, odour and taste and in the ‘process’ improve the quality of other parameters (e.g.
microbiological).

11.3.2 The Physicochemical Parameters

Depending on its source, raw water may need particular treatment to satisfy eleven parameters listed in
Table 11.3. The maximum admissible concentrations of these parameters for drinking water are specified.
Sometimes the raw supply needs pH correction. Peaty upland water tends to have a pH ~4.5. The
presence of photosynthetic algae sometimes raises the pH to ~ 10. The presence of chlorides is indicated
by a salty taste and may suggest a sewage-polluted water source. High calcium values increase hardness,
which may be beneficial for health (Pocock ef al., 1981). Magnesium also contributes to hardness.
Hardness is a measure of the potential scaling effect on boilers, etc., and is identified by the presence of
cations, i.e. Ca**, Mg’. High levels of potassium may suggest artificial fertilizer pollution. Excessive
levels of aluminium may be associated with Alzheimer’s disease (Craig and Craig, 1989).

11.3.3 Parameters Concerning Substances Undesirable in Excessive Amounts

Nitrogen with its ten oxidation states has MAC values attached to four states. Of principal health concern
is nitrate. The infant disease methanoglobinaemia (blue baby syndrome) is due to excessive levels of
nitrate. Other nitrogen states, particularly ammonia nitrogen, may indicate organic pollution. The presence
of hydrogen sulphide indicates decomposed organic matter. The presence of phenols, which are toxic in
extremely low doses, is attributed to road and roadworks runoff and some industrial effluents. The
presence of zinc, copper, iron, manganese, barium and silver are likely to be due to background geology
or industrial effluents. Excessive levels of iron and manganese are common, particularly in groundwater,
although while not specifically a health hazard they lead to brown staining of sanitary ware. Fluoride is
not often found in raw water, but, if so, it can in excess amounts lead to mottling of teeth (see Sec. 11.10
on fluoridation).
 WATER TREATMENT 441

11.3.4 Parameters Concerning Toxic Substances

Eleven parameters are mentioned in this category (see Table 11.3) including arsenic, cadmium, cyanide,
chromium, lead, mercury, nickel, antimony and selenium. Their presence may be from background
geology, but if found in excessive amounts are most likely due to industrial discharges. Pesticides and
related products are undesirable as some of them are categorized as synthetic carcinogens. Polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons or PAHs are synthetic carcinogens and are the products and by-products of soot,
tar, car exhausts and benzenes.

11.3.5 Microbiological Parameters

The presence of undesirable pathogens (bacteria, viruses, etc.) is due to human and animal excreta. In
water treatment, raw water is not routinely analysed for bacteria, viruses, etc., because of the great
expense and huge variety of these pathogens. The usual analytical process is to use indicator organisms
which will confirm the presence of pathogens if they exist. This is a simple test process and while six
parameters are listed in the EU Directive, most of the time it is satisfactory to look at only two: total
coliforms and faecal coliforms. As discussed in Chapter 3, most waterborne pathogens are introduced to
water through faecal contamination, and the strain of bacteria known as Escherichia coli is an ideal
indicator organism in that it has a long survival time in a water environment. Faecal coliform organisms in
themselves are not pathogenic. Statistical methods are used to determine the most probable number
(MPN) of coliform bacteria in 100 m/L of the water sample. The maximum admissible concentrations are
given in Table 11.3. See Tchobanoglous and Schroeder (1987) for further details.

11.3.6 Minimum Required Concentration for Softened Water

Total hardness is set at a minimum concentration of 60 mg/L as CaCO3. Excess hardness scales water
boilers. Levels of the order of 200 are considered desirable for health purposes. Hard water has been
positively correlated with reduced heart attacks. The bicarbonate, sulphates and chlorides of calcium and
magnesium cause hardness. It is a measure of the presence of the cations, Ca** and Mg’*. Water for
industry is usually further softened if hardness levels exceed 100 mg/L, due to the scaling of boilers and
plumbing equipment and unacceptable taste. Further details on hardness are given in Chapter 3. Alkalinity
is defined as a measure of the water’s ability to neutralize acids. It is not a measure of its acidity, as in pH.
It is computed from the presence of carbonate species anions, HCO; _, CO,;?~ and OH —. Further details
are given in Chapter 3.

11.3.7 Monitoring Frequency

The 55 water quality parameters mentioned in the previous section are required to be monitored in
different frequencies depending on the source and quality of the raw water. The monitoring proposals
dictate that the sampling and analysis increase with the population being served. The three categories are:
minimum monitoring (C1), current monitoring (C2), periodic monitoring (C3) and occasional monitoring
in special situations or accidents. The minimum frequencies are set out in Annexe II of the Directive, but
the Member States have latitude as to the setting of the frequencies. More specifically the monitoring
frequencies are related to population size and volume of water produced per day. For instance, for a
population of 150 000 the frequency of C1 is 180, C2 is 18 and C3 is 3 samples per year. The undesirable
parameters, nitrates, nitrites and ammonia are in the C2 monitoring group. The reader is referred to
Annexe II and Table B of Directive 80/778/EEC.
442 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Table 11.3 EU drinking water directive parameters

Maximum admissible
Group Group description Parameter concentration (MAC) Commentst
ee ee ee ee

A Organoleptic Colour 20 mg/L Pt/Co scale

parameters Turbidity 10mg/L SiO,
Odour Dilution of 2 at 12°C
Taste Dilution of 2 at 12°C

B Physicochemical Temperature 252

parameters pH 6.5 <pH <8.5 GV
Conductivity 400 wS/cm GV
Chlorides 250 mg/L Cl GV
Sulphates 250 mg/L SO4
Calcium 100 mg/L Ca GV
Magnesium 50 mg/L Mg
Sodium 150 mg/L Na
Potassium 12mg/L K
Aluminium 0.2 mg/L Al
Total dry residues 1500 mg/L

(c Parameters Nitrates 50 mg/L NO;

concerning Nitrites 0.1 mg/L NO?
substances Ammonium 0.5 mg/L NH4 0.05 mg/L GV
undesirable Kjeldahl N l1mg/L N
in excessive Oxidizability Smg/L O;
amounts Hydrogen sulphide Undetectable ng/L
Substances extractable No increase 0.1 mg/L dry
in chloroform above background residue in GV
Hydrocarbons 10 ug/L
Phenols 0.5 ug/L C5HsOH
Boron 1000 ng/L B GV
Surfactants 200 g/L (lacryl sulphate)
Organochlorines 1 pg/L GV
Iron 200 ug/L Fe
Manganese 50 ug/L Mn
Copper 100 ug/L Cu GV
Zinc 100 ug/L Zn GV
Phosphorus 5000 pg/L P205/L
Fluoride 1000 ug/L F
Suspended solids 0
Barium 100 pg/L Ba GV
D Parameters Arsenic 50 ug/L As
concerning Cadmium 5 ug/L Cd
toxic Cyanides 50 ng/L Cn
substances Chromium 50 ug/L Cr (Total)
Mercury 1 ug/L Hg
Nickel 50 ug/L Ni
Lead 50 ug/L Pb
Antimony 10mg/L Sb
Selenium 10 mg/L Se
Pesticides 0.1 ug/L
PAHs 0.2 ug/L
E Microbiological Total coliforms MPN < 1/100 mL
parameters Faecal coliforms MPN < 1/100 mL
Faecal streptococci MPN< 1/100mL
Sulphite reducing clostridia MPN < 1/20 mL
18 Minimum required Total hardness > 60 mg/L as CaCO,
for softened Alkalinity > 30mg/L HCO;
water

+ GV = guide value.
 WATER TREATMENT 443

Example 11.1 Calculate the hardness in mg/L CaCO; of the following water sample.

Concentration Equivalent
Cation (mg/L) weight

Na® 35 23
2+
Mg 9 22
Cay 48 20
Ka 1 39

Hardness is computed on the presence of Mg”* and Ca?*:

Mg?+(mg/L) x 50 mg/meq
Hardness, IL (CACO, =
tHe ware eq wt Mg?+
fiCa?+(mg/L) x 50 mg/meq
eq wt Ca?+
_ 9x50
48x50
q ee 20
Hardness = 156.9 mg/L CaCO;

Further details on hardness are found in Chapter 3.

11.3.8 US Primary Drinking Water Standards

Some of the US primary drinking water standards are shown in Table 11.4. The parameters shown are
divided into organic and inorganic chemicals, radionuclides, microbiological and other substances. The
contaminants (parameters), the health effects, the parameter sources and the maximum concentration level
(MCL) are included in Table 11.4 and in more detail in Table 11.15 of Sec. 11.12. This is somewhat
comparable to the EU drinking water directive with variations on some parameters. The MCL is a USEPA
enforceable regulation. Another term used is MCLG, which is the maximum concentration level goal and
is a non-enforceable health goal.

11.3.9 Forms of Water Impurities

Raw water may contain impurities in several forms including:
Particulate (size > 10~ ' mm) ~ dust
Suspended (10~* mm < size < 10~' mm) ~ turbidity
Colloidal (10~ ° mm < size < 10 * mm) ~ clay minerals
Dissolved (size < 10~ °mm) ~ humic/tannic acid, colour

It is the objective of the water treatment industry to reduce these impurities to acceptable levels. The forms
of the impurities will define the type and level of treatment used, as detailed in Sec. 11.4. Figure 11.1
shows the breakdown of these impurities.

11.4 WATER SOURCES AND THEIR WATER QUALITY

Water for treatment and subsequent public consumption is normally sourced from:

e Rivers: upland and lowland

e Lakes and reservoirs
¢ Groundwater aquifers
444 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Table 11.4 Excerpts from US primary drinking water standards

Contaminants Health effects MCL (mg/L)

i aaa ee a RS DN ee te ee
Inorganic chemicals
Cadmium Kidney 0.005
Chromium Liver/kidney, skin and digestive system 0.1
Copper Stomach and intestinal distress; Wilson’s disease sy
Fluoride Skeletal damage 4
Lead Central and peripheral nervous system damage; kidney; highly toxic to ant
infants and pregnant women
Mercury Kidney, nervous system 0.002
Nitrate Methanoglobinaemia, ‘blue-baby syndrome’ 10
Nitrite Methanoglobinaemia, ‘blue-baby syndrome’ 1
Total (nitrate and nitrate) Not applicable 10

Microbiological
Giardia lamblia Stomach cramps, intestinal distress (Giardiasis) lal;
Legionella Legionnaires’ disease (pneumonia), Pontiac fever 0h
Total coliforms Not necessarily disease-causing themselves, coliforms can be indicators of
organisms that can cause gastroenteric infections, dysentery, hepatitis,
typhoid fever, cholera and other diseases. Coliforms also interfere with
disinfection
Turbidity Interferes with disinfection 0.5-1.0 NTU
(nephelometric
turbidity unit)
Viruses Gastroenteritis (intestinal distress) slate

Other substances
Sodium Possible increase in blood pressure in susceptible individuals None (20 mg/L
reporting level)

+ TT =treatment technology required.

The selection of the source is governed by many factors, including proximity to the consumer, economics,
long-term adequacy of supply and raw water quality. The first three factors tend to be site specific and are
not discussed further in this section. For further details refer to Twort et al. (1990) and Linsley and
Franzini (1979). A typical required basic analysis of a raw water is listed as follows:

{+
Raw water
impurities

Physical Chemical Biological

Dissolved Suspended Inorganic Organic

i
Plant Animal Protista

Coarse
|
Fine Colloidal

Figure 11.1 Forms of water impurities.

 WATER TREATMENT 445

e Physical/Chemical
— pH
— Acidity
Alkalinity
Suspended solids
— Colour
— Turbidity
Dissolved oxygen
@ Biological
— Total coliforms (37°C, 24h)
— E. coli (37°C, 48h)
e Aesthetic
— Colour
— Taste
— Odour
Raw water quality varies with the source and if the source is surface water, the quality will vary
seasonally, particularly with flooding. Tables 11.5 and 11.6 show a typical analysis of raw water quality
from different sources. Table 11.7 highlights some differences between surface water and groundwater
quality.
It is seen from Table 11.7 that the selection of a raw water source based on quality requires the
investigation of many parameters. Traditionally, water sources were primarily surface water and not much
groundwater was used. However, in recent decades, groundwater is becoming the favoured source not
least because treatment costs are much less. Groundwater is most likely to be of better quality than surface
water. Fears of surface water pollution and public disquiet about man-made reservoirs and dams have led
to recent extensive developments of groundwater sources. In the United States, groundwater is becoming
more important since:

Table 11.5 Typical raw water analysis

Deep well Moorland River Arid zone Brackish

Parameter water water water water well Seawater

Colour Clear Slightly yellow Turbid Turbid

Conductivity, uS/cm 580 150 915 1000-7000 2250 51000
pH 7.3-7.9 6.5-7.2 7-8 7.58.5 7.45 1S
TDS, ppm 410 105 640 700-5000 1500 36 200

Cations mg/L as CaCO;

Cae 250 30 200 250-1500 60 350
Mg?t 75 15 iS 150-500 73 1330
Nat 25 35 200 150-2000 257 10300
KGa 15.4 350
Mn* 0.002
Fe* 0.06
Anions mg/L as CaCO;
Cia 40 30 125 < 2000 502 20 500
SO, ~ 500 15 175 < 1500 162 2850
FO 2.05
Sin 6 10 10-20 24.5 20
HCO; 250 30 125 170
NO; 10 5 50

Adapted from LORCH, 1987

446 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Table 11.6 Typical analyses of raw water quality

Upland Lowland Chalk Sandstone/gravel/clay

Parameter catchment river aquifer aquifer, Davis, Calif.*

pH 6.0 US a2 7.8
Total solids, mg/L
(suspended and dissolved) 50 400 300 523
Alkalinity, mg/L 20 175 110 —
Hardness, mg/L CaCO; 10 200 200 346
Colour, mg/L SiO 70 40 <5 23}
Turbidity, NTU 5 50 <<) 0.1
Coliforms, MPN/100 mL 20 20 x 10° 5 Detectable in 1.2% of
1993 samples

*1994 Annual Report from Davis City Council

Table 11.7 Comparison of surface water and groundwater quality

Parameter Surface water Groundwater

Temperature Varies with season Relatively constant

Turbidity and suspended solids Varies and is sometimes high Usually low or nil
Mineral content Varies with soil, rainfall, effluents, etc. Relatively constant at high value
Divalent iron and manganese in solution Some Always high
Aggressive carbon dioxide None Always some
Dissolved oxygen Often near saturation, except when Usually low, requires aeration
polluted
Ammonia Only in polluted water Levels found to be increasing
Hydrogen sulphide None Usually some
Silica Moderate levels
Nitrate Generally none Levels found to be increasing due to
agricultural pollution
Living organisms May have high levels Usually none

e 50 per cent of the US population use groundwater for drinking water

e Groundwater makes up 95 per cent of US freshwater resources
e 75 per cent of US cities use groundwater in some way
e 95 per cent of US rural dwellers use groundwater

However, groundwater is not immune to pollution, as was described in Chapters 3, 4 and 9, and therefore
aquifer protection schemes (Chapter 4) are essential. A major concern in the adoption of groundwater is
the leaching of nitrates from agricultural activities. Excessive agricultural contamination of groundwater
has led to the abandonment of some groundwater sources in northern Europe, as has industrial and
military pollution in the United States, Europe and the former USSR.

11.5 WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES

There are four classes of water treatment outlined in Table 11.8.

Many single family rural dwellings and small rural conurbations, taking their water supply from
boreholes, have no treatment. This is generally considered acceptable when there is a very short line of
supply from source to user.
In class B, where borehole water or occasional upland water is used for public supplies, disinfection
is practical to maintain purity along the supply pipeline. However, much debate is ongoing about the
 WATER TREATMENT 447

Table 11.8 Classes of water treatment

Class Description Source

A No treatment Some borehole water

Occasional upland water
B Disinfection only Some borehole water
Occasional upland water
G Standard water treatment Lowland rivers and reservoirs
D Special water treatment Some rural supplies (Fe and Mn)
Colour removal
Trace element removal
Industrial water
Electronics industry requirement
Algae removal
Organics removal

Treatment Groundwater Standard Special

categorization supply water treatment water treatment
Class B Class C Class D

Intake Intake | Intake |

[ Coarse screening Screening

Fine screening Pumping
Pumping Storage
Pre-treatment Storage ROU Oy
Equalization Neutralization
Neutralization Aeration
Aeration Softening
Chemical
i i ent Algae removal

Primary —- and mixing Coagulation and mixing

treatment Flocculation Flocculation
Sedimentation Sedimentation

Secondary |
treatment Filtration Filtration

Disinfection Disinfection [ Disinfection | Disinfection

Adsorption
Activated carbon
Advanced Membrane processes
treatment Fe and Mn removal
Halogenated compounds
removal

Fluoridation [ |Fluoridation | Fluoridation | Fluoridation |

Distribution [ | Yes “| | Yes | Industry

network

Figure 11.2 Flow chart outline of unit process in different raw water classes.
448 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

widespread use of chlorine disinfection for such purposes and alternatives to chlorine are now being
adopted. In northern Europe, there is the tendency not to disinfect borehole water but to maintain
intensive analytical vigilance over the microbiological quality as delivered to the consumer. This is
because of the chemical reaction of chlorine with organics producing trihalomethanes (THMs). However,
not disinfecting must be balanced with the potential waterborne diseases that may become pipe borne. In
water of class B, aeration is sometimes used to eliminate hydrogen sulphide odours and tastes and
increase the oxygen levels in the water.
Class C is what is internationally known as standard water treatment-and is applied to water sources
from lowland areas and reservoirs. A typical chart of the processes in this form of treatment is shown in
column 3 of Fig. 11.2. Each of these processes is detailed in later sections. In general, the processes
include pre-treatment, standard treatment (sedimentation and filtration), disinfection and possibly
fluoridation.
Class D is special water treatment and is used when the source is downstream of urban developments
or when industries (e.g. pharmaceutical) require high-quality water. Additional processes include
membrane technology, iron and manganese removal, chemical oxidation, carbon adsorption, etc.

11.5.1 Selection of Treatment Processes

The selection of the set of treatment processes is preceded by detailed raw water quality analysis. The
analyses should run over a period of a minimum of one year and, where possible, longer. It should sample
the raw water at periods of low, medium and high flows from a surface water source. The parameters to be
looked at should be all those listed in the EU drinking water directive (or equivalent legislative
document). The report on the raw water quality analysis should then be evaluated in conjunction with
other engineering reports on site regarding suitability, availability and continuity of water supply,
proximity to the consumers and available land and its suitability for structures.
The treatment processes selected will depend on the water quality report. Table 11.9 is a brief outline
of the general processes and their suitability for removing particular impurities. For instance, turbidity,
which is a measure of the very fine suspended or colloidal impurities, is treated by the processes of
coagulation and sedimentation and also filtration. Pathogens are normally removed by the processes of
pre- or post-chlorination. However, other processes, including disinfection by chloramines, ozone or
ultraviolet irradiation, are gaining popularity over chlorination.

Table 11.9 Recommended treatment for specific impurities

Parameter Treatment process

Floating matter Coarse screens, fine screens

Suspended matter Microscreens
Algae Microscreens, pre-chlorination, carbon adsorption, rapid filtration
Turbidity Coagulation, sedimentation, post-chlorination
Colour Flocculation, coagulation, filtration
Taste and odour Activated carbon
Hardness Coagulation, filtration, lime softening
Iron and manganese
> 1mg/L Pre-chlorination
<1mg/L Aeration, coagulation, filtration
Pathogens, MPN/100 ml
< 20 Post-chlorination
20-100 Coagulation/filtration/post-chlorination
> 100 Pre-chlorination
Coagulation/filtration/post-chlorination
Free ammonia Post-chlorination
Adsorption
 WATER TREATMENT 449

11.6 PRE-TREATMENT OF WATER

If the raw water is of adequate quality, it may be pumped directly to the standard treatment processes of
flocculation/coagulation and sedimentation. However, generally there are some steps that are required
prior to this. They may include:
e Screening: equalization and neutralization
e Storage: equalization and neutralization
e Aeration
¢ Chemical pre-treatment: softening, algae removal and pre-chlorination

11.6.1 Screening
Coarse screens, typically inclined bars of 25mm diameter and 100mm spacing prevent large floating
material from entering the treatment plant. Raking is facilitated by the inclination of the bars. Velocities
are usually limited to about 0.5 m/s through the screens, which may be manually or automatically raked
down.
If storage is not provided, fine screens are fitted after the coarse screens. If there is storage then fine
screens are placed at the outlet of the storage tanks. Fine screens are typically mesh with openings about
6mm diameter or square. Proprietary forms of fine screens are now conventionally used and these are
usually automatically cleaned. They tend to be either of a circular drum type or a travelling belt (as in a
vertical escalator). Screens introduce a head loss across the screen and this must be accounted for in
hydraulic calculations.
A third type of screening used in water treatment is microscreening, where the mesh openings range
from 20 to 40 um. Such screens are used only as the main (physical) treatment process for relatively
uncontaminated waters and moderately coloured waters. They have also been used upstream of slow sand
filters to allow filter runs (2 to 6 months) and flow rates to be increased. For further details on design and
proprietary screens, refer to Pankratz (1988).

11.6.2 Storage, Equalization and Neutralization

If raw water is abstracted from a river it is prudent to provide raw water storage tanks. They serve as a
safety line in the event of the river becoming polluted. They also serve as reservoirs in times of low flow.
Storage may be an open impoundment on a fast stream or a smaller reservoir to balance the flows going to
the treatment plant. In the event of low river flows, it might not be possible to provide an ‘equal’ (or
consistent) flow to the plant. The storage tanks alleviate this problem by always having a minimum
volume for supply to the plant and the design selection (and operation) of water pumps is then more
consistent. Storage tanks also assist in the treatment process as water allowed to sit in tanks will permit
some of its suspended settleable matter to begin to settle. As such, storage tanks may act as initial settling
tanks (type I settling, see later sections). Storage should be equivalent to 7 to 10 days of the average water
demand. This period may be adequate to reduce most pathogens by exposure to daylight. The period
should not be long, so as not to encourage the growth of other organisms, including undesirable algae.
Water allowed to settle for some days in a storage tank will be cheaper to treat at the plant. However, the
cost of building storage tanks is expensive and their maintenance (bed load silt removal) is also expensive.
Therefore, in the design of an overall treatment plant, detailed cost analyses are required to optimize the
benefit that storage tanks will provide. Another type of storage system is when tanks provide a storage
time of about 12h. This is commonly used to reduce pumping costs and of using pumping at more
economical night-time electricity rates. In this situation, no settling benefits occur. An example of how to
compute the size of an equalization basin is given in Chapter 12.
450 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

11.6.3 Aeration
quality
Aeration is the supply of oxygen from the atmosphere to water to effect beneficial changes in the
process for groundwater and less common for surface waters.
of the water. It is a common treatment
Aeration is used:

1. To release excess HS gas which may cause undesirable tastes and odours.
2. To release excess CO) which may have corrosive tendencies on concrete materials.
3. To increase the O, content of water in the presence of undesirable tastes due to photosynthetic algae
(fishy smell), which release volatile oils on decomposition.
4. To increase the O> content of water which may have negative taste, colour and stain properties due to
the presence of iron and manganese in solution. The addition of oxygen assists the precipitation of
iron and manganese.
Aeration can be a simple mechanical process of spraying water into the air and allowing it to fall over a
series of cascades (waterfalls), while absorbing or desorbing (stripping) oxygen in its journey. For further
details on oxygen transfer to water and in particular other gas transfers (including chlorine or ozone for
pathogen removal), the reader is referred to Montgomery (1989) and Reynolds (1982).

11.6.4 Chemical Pre-treatment

Chemical pre-treatment to remove undesirable properties of water (algae or excess colour) is a more
expensive process than chemical post-treatment. In pre-treatment, greater amounts of chemicals are
required to effect the same result as some of the chemical is masked and absorbed by turbidity in the
water. For instance, pre-chlorination may be at doses five times greater than post-chlorination. Only two
chemical pre-treatment processes are discussed here:
e Pre-chlorination
e Activated carbon

Pre-chlorination is used on low turbidity water with a high coliform count. The chlorine is injected
into the water stream and over the period that it stays in the settling tanks, it oxidizes and precipitates iron
and manganese. It also causes pathogenic kill and reduces colour. Doses as much as 5 mg/L are used,
(distinct from 1 mg/L in post chlorination) and this is expensive. Water authorities tend to use pre-
chlorination at times of the year when the surface water supply is likely to be polluted from agricultural or
industrial sources or when excess organic matter is transported during flooding. Pre-chlorination is also
beneficial in the reduction of ammonia in both surface and groundwater supplies. Chlorine may also be
added by the dissolution of chlorine gas in water by the process of gas absorption, but this technique is
preferable for post-chlorination. Chlorination is discussed in Sec. 11.9.5.
The addition of activated carbon as an adsorbent is used for many purposes including:
¢ Removal of photosynthetic algae
¢ Improvement of colour and odour
* Removal of selective organic compounds.
Activated carbon can be used either as powdered activated carbon (PAC) or granular activate carbon
(GAC). PAC was the traditional choice in water treatment but increasingly GAC is required where tastes
and odours in water have an industrial base. PAC has a lower capital cost but also a lower efficiency than
GAC. PAC, in slurry form, is usually added prior to coagulation orjust before the sand filters. Doses may
vary from 3 to 20mg/L. The mechanism is that the PAC is deposited in the sand filters and the water
impurities causing the undesirable tastes and odours are adsorbed to the PAC during filtration. The longer
the filter runs (time between cleaning of filters—backwashing) the more efficient the PAC. Typically runs
in excess Of 4h are satisfactory. However, if the filter runs are shorter, it is necessary that the PAC be
 WATER TREATMENT 451

added prior to the coagulation process. PAC is only normally used for intermittent control of taste and
odour problems. Where the problem is persistent GAC is used. GAC consists of a specifically
designed
GAC filter bed which is used in either the upflow or downflow modes. However, the use of GAC beds
are
more applicable to advanced water treatment processes in the production of very high quality water and
are discussed further in Sec. 11.11.3.

11.7 SEDIMENTATION, COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION

Standard treatment is the set of unit processes that reduce colour, turbidity and particulate impurities to
acceptable levels. In doing so, additional benefits occur, such as iron and manganese reductions, algae
reductions, pathogenic reductions, etc. Standard treatment can be considered to consist of the following
unit processes:
Sedimentation
Coagulation and flocculation
Sedimentation of flocculent particles
Filtration

11.7.1 Sedimentation—General

Sedimentation by definition is ‘the solid—liquid separation using gravity settling to remove suspended
solids’ (Reynolds, 1982). In water treatment, sedimentation processes used are:
Type I. To settle out discrete non-flocculent particles in a dilute suspension. This may arise due to the
plain settling of surface waters prior to treatment by sand filtration.
Type II. To settle out flocculent particles in a dilute suspension. This may arise after chemical coagulation
and flocculation where the non-discrete particles are chemically assisted to coagulate.
Other types of settling are combinations of I and II.

Sedimentation of discrete particles—type I Settling tanks are of two types: rectangular and circular. A
rectangular settling tank is shown in Fig. 11.3. They tend to have a length—width ratio of about 2 and a
depth of the order of 1.5 to 6m. A sludge draw-off well is located at the upstream base, and the sludge is
drawn to this by a travelling scraper board.
Figure 11.4 shows a circular settling tank. Dimensions typically are 10 to 50 m in diameter and 2.5 to 6m
in depth. Water enters to the central well either at the top or up through a central pipe. As the influent
water settles, it spreads out and a sludge scraper moves the sludge towards a central sludge withdrawal
hopper at bed level. The clarified water exits over a weir along the perimeter of the tank at surface level.
The key parameters and typical values in the design of settling tanks are:
© Surface overflow rate ~ 20-35 m?/day/m*
© Detention times ~ 2—8h ,
© Weir overflow rate ~ 150-300 m?/day/m

The above values vary depending on whether the water treated is raw water for potable treatment or
coagulated raw water. Similar settling tanks are used in wastewater treatment. Refer to Reynolds (1982) or
Metcalf and Eddy (1991) for further details.
In type I settling, the particles settle out individually and it is assumed that there is no flocculation or
coagulation between the particles. Such sedimentation may typically be the first physical process of
surface waters where discrete organic and grit particles are given adequate time to settle. This type of
settling is somewhat similar to grit channel settling (for wastewater) described in Chapter 12. The design
452 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Sludge hopper
Scum trough
under
decanting channel

Influent
Scraper —* Effluent
board

box
(a) Plan

Scum trough
Scrape/scum board
Influent
Effluent

Sludge Sludge scraper Sloping flow

withdrawal
Sludge hopper

(b) Section

Figure 11.3 Schematic of rectangular settling tank.

Effluent
channel

Water in

Central
inlet
well

(a) Plan

Discharge

Sludge scraper

Influent well
Water in i
Sludge withdrawal

(b) Section

Figure 11.4 Schematic of circular settling tank.

 WATER TREATMENT 453

of such tanks is based on a knowledge of settling velocity as described in the following text. In type I
settling, a particle will accelerate vertically downwards until the drag force Fp equals the impelling force
F, and thereafter the particle settles at a constant velocity known as Stokes’ velocity V;:

The impelling force.

Ey Woy, eh (11.1)
where Ys = weight density of solid particles p,g
and Yw = weight density of water p,,g
V., = volume of particle
The drag force
y2
Fp = CyA,Pwy (3) (11.2)
where Cp = drag coefficient ~ 0.4 for spheres
24
Cp = =. for laminar flow for Re < 100 (11.3)
Ss

A, = sphere section area orthogonal to velocity vector

V, = settling or Stokes’ settling velocity
v = kinematic viscosity = p/p
Equating

fo, AV 5 (*)
IsValid ==Vd 4dp, (i2 (11.5)
(7s VF
Solving
Ve.= 7g,Sp — Dd? (11.6)
where S,, = specific gravity of particles
or
Vee
Sars 18u Ps (pump Pw ayds (11.7)
:

This is known as Stokes’ law for settling velocity of discrete particles and applies for Re < 0.5. A tank for
preliminary settling of raw waters is assumed to behave as follows:
1. Type I settling applies.
2. The flow entering and leaving the tank is uniform.
3. There are three zones within the tank (see Fig. 11.5):
(a) an inlet zone,
(b) an outlet zone,
(c) a sludge zone.
4. The particle distribution throughout is uniform.
5. The particles, on entering the sludge zone, stay there until scraped off the bottom.
Such an arrangement is shown in Fig. 11.5.
For a rectangular tank:
iL
Retention time t = — = V (11.8)
454 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Free water
surface

Outlet
zone

Sludge
zone

V = horizontal velocity V. = Stokes’ settling velocity W = width

L = tank length H = tank height - sludge depth

Figure 11.5 Elevation of type | settling tank.

Note that L>2W and L> H.

; Q
Horizontal velocity V = ——
ae 11.9
(11.9)

1 a WOE 8 (11.10)
iQ
Therefore

tee! (1111)
OF.
ene De
Ng Ae 7.
F (11.12)
12

However,

£ = surface overflow rate @1:13)

p
where A, = plan area

Therefore, the settling velocity, V,, is equal to the surface overflow rate for a rectangular tank. The same is
true for a circular tank.
The question remains as to what percentage of discrete particles are removed. From Fig. 11.5 it is
seen that a particle entering the tank at point a, if it settles at V,, then leaves the tank at point e. Similarly, a
particle entering at point b, settling at V;, leaves the tank at point f. It is also seen (in a vector sense) that
V, < V,. The percentage of particles (settling with V,) removed is then:
ee CO
(11.14)
ae mailer
Note that a particle entering at point a (larger than the particle of the previous paragraph), if settling at V,,
will exit the tank at point f. So all particles with a settling velocity greater than V, will settle out.
Therefore, if all the particles were of one size (all entering at point a) and settling at V, then theoretically
100 per cent settling could be removed. However, a water usually has a range of particle sizes and proper
design of settling tanks requires a particle size distribution analysis or a settling column test (described in
the next section).
 WATER TREATMENT 455

Typically, a cumulative distribution of particle settling velocity is computed for a water sample. A
schematic of such a curve is shown in Fig. 11.6. In any settling tank, all particles with a settling velocity
> V, will settle, plus an additional as yet unknown fraction of those smaller particles with a settling
velocity < V.. The total fraction that settles is then
MG V
x= 0-x%) +] eae (11.15)
0 Vs
where (1 — X,) is the fraction of particles with settling velocity greater than V, and
Xs
| pu = fraction of particles removed with velocity less than V;
OMS

The discrete settling equation (11.15) becomes

1
X,= (1X5)
+S EVAX (11.16)
Example 11.2 Size a square type I settling tank to treat 36 400 m*/day of raw water, with a surface
overflow rate of 12 m*/day/m? and a detention time of 6h. If the particle size distribution is given below,
determine the overall removal when the specific gravity is 1.15.

Particle size mm 0.1 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.04 0.02 0.01

Weight fraction % 10 15 35 65 90 98 100

V,, mm/s 0.81 0.52 0.40 0.30 0.13 0.03 0.008
Re 0.08 0.042 0.028 0.018 0.005 0.000 6 0.00008

Solution

Stlace'area requicd ——
at Q
overflow rate
36 400
> = —>— = 3033 m?
12
= lif = SS inn, sayy OW) x¢ OL
Depth H = Vt

However, the settling rate equals the surface overflow rate (SOR):
36 400
Actual SOR = 50 x 60 = 10 i@,1l

Therefore
6
Jil =O
= MO x A m

Say
jal = Doi

Check the weir overflow rate (WOR):

WO R=—y
Q

_ 36 400
60
= 606 m?/day/m
456 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

To stay within a WOR of <300m’/day/m the width should be close to 120m.

Recall Re = K d/V where V=kinematic viscosity.

Particle size, mm 0.1 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.04 0.02 0.01

Weight fraction greater than, % 10 15 35 65 90 98 100

The settling velocity from Stoke’s law, with particles of specific gravity of 1.15 is:
iS 2
V,4 = ——(p.
18, (7s — Pw) p,,)d
a 9.81 (1.15— 1.0)a?
~ 18 x 1.002 x 10-3
= 81.64?
As Re <0.5, Stokes’ law applies. All particles will be removed that have a settling velocity greater than
the actual surface overflow rate (SOR) (plus another fraction):

SOR = 10.1 m*/day/m?

= 10.1 m/day
= 0512mmiy/s

From the above table it is seen that slightly more than 90 per cent of the particles (by weight fraction) or
greater than about 0.04 mm in size are removed. To determine the precise number, a cumulative particle
settling curve can be prepared (Fig. 11.6).

Sedimentation of flocculent particles—type II As defined in Sec. 11.7.1, type II settling is settling of

flocculent groups of particles. Flocculent particles are those particles that are chemically assisted to come
together and produce large particles, and thus settle. Coagulation is the first process of adding the
coagulated chemical which changes the particles’ electric charge and is then amenable to aggregation.
Flocculation is the second process of getting the ‘coagulated mix’ to form larger flocs. While the particles
are settling, they are also flocculating and so increase in size and mass during the settling process. This
phenomenon occurs in settling of chemically coagulated potable waters and wastewaters. Primary settling
of wastewaters (Chapter 12) is also type II settling. Because the mass/size increases with depth, the
process does not lend itself to direct analyses as was the case for type I settling. Instead, to determine the
settling rates, laboratory tests are carried out using a batch settling column shown in Fig. 11.7. This

remaining
fraction
Weight
V
lk —_ |eSey] am
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Settling velocity (mm/s)

Figure 11.6 Typical discrete particle settling curve.

 WATER TREATMENT 457

column has openings at different points, where samples are withdrawn at regular time intervals and the
suspended solids concentration is determined. The column is typically 100 to 200 mm in diameter with a
height equal to the proposed settling tank height (~1 to 3m). The column is filled initially with a well-
mixed sample of known total solids concentration, such that initially the same solids concentration exists
for the full depth. For the samples taken during the settling process, the percentage removal (of solids) is
computed and plotted as shown in Fig. 11.7, with equi-percentage removal curves, Ra, Rp, etc. The
overflow rates (equal to the settling rates) are
H
= eS scale-up factors CEI?)
xX

The reader is referred to Reynolds (1982) for further details.

11.7.2 Coagulation
Raw water, after screening, has impurities in suspension and in solution. Particulate matter in suspension
has a particle size range of 10’ to 10 'mm. Inorganic clay colloids range in size from 107° to
10 *mm and form the dominant component of particulates in suspension. The minor component is that
of organic colloids or micro-organisms. Because of the very small size, the suspended matter has
negligible settling velocity, whether it is organic or inorganic. One of the objectives of water treatment is
to promote the settlement of suspended particulate matter. Settlement of particles occurs when their
settling velocity is adequate to cause settling in a short (economic) time period.
The coagulation process utilizes what is known as a chemical coagulant (aluminium or iron salt) to
promote particle agglomeration. Before identifying the ideal coagulant, specific properties of the
suspended particles (impurities) are identified. These are: its classification and electric charge.
Classification determines whether a particulate in suspension has an affinity for water adsorption or
not. Particles with an affinity for water adsorption are hydrophilic and those that do not adsorb water
are termed hydrophobic. Most suspended particles are of a negative electrostatic charge. This means
that they repulse each other and thus stay in suspension. Particles that remain in suspension are said to
be stable. If their electrostatic charge can be changed, they would become destabilized, attract each

WL

=0:5 m

80% %TSS
removal

—_——+» Time

Figure 11.7 Schematic batch settling column of settling diagram for type II.
458 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Speed indicator Drive shaft

Spe es eee eeeee

oe
oe
Speed control Beaker

Figure 11.8 Jar test instrument.

other, agglomerate and settle. Further details on particle agglomeration are described in Chapter 13 on
sludge treatment.
Chemical coagulants (e.g. aluminium sulphate or ferric sulphate) are added to the raw water and for a
brief period (20 to 60s) rapid mixing is carried out. This is done in tanks of a variety of designs, with the
objective of producing a microfloc. The latter is produced as a result of the destabilization of the initially
stable suspended impurities, followed by the interparticle bridging.
Having produced the microfloc (itself not yet very settleable), the objective is then to produce a floc
of adequate size that will settle under gravity. The next process is to subject the microfloc ‘solution’ to a
slow flocculation procedure. This is carried out in tanks over a time period of 20 to 60 min at very slow
agitation rates. If the flocculation mixing rotor is too fast, there is the risk of breaking up the initial
microfloc and thus negating the process. Depending on the raw water quality, microfloc promotion may be
inadequate by chemical coagulants alone and may require the addition of coagulant aids, also known as
polyelectrolytes. These are added, after the coagulant in a small rapid mixing tank and before flocculant
mixing. Coagulation and flocculation processes may be accomplished in a variety of geometrical tank
configurations, which are discussed in the following section.
The amount of chemical coagulant and/or polyelectrolyte required for a particular raw water quality
can be determined using the laboratory jar test, although more sophisticated bench scale/pilot studies are
more desirable. The jar test instrument is shown in Fig. 11.8. The jar test is a simple test made up of
several one litre beakers with samples of the raw water. To each is added a different and increasing
amount of coagulant and rapid mixing is followed for 20 to 60s. The samples are allowed to settle and
that sample with the best settlement characteristic is selected as the coagulant. If the settlement or
microfloc generation is inadequate, the coagulant may be assisted with a polyelectrolyte (at varying
doses). After a series of tests, it 1s possible to ascertain the best-dose combination of coagulant and
polyelectrolyte that promotes the optimum floc size. Further details of the test are described in Barnes et
al. (1986).

Coagulants The three most common coagulants are:

e Aluminium sulphate (alum)
e Ferrous sulphate (ferric)
e Ferric chloride
As aluminium sulphate is corrosive on its own, it is packaged with HO. When alum is added to raw
water, the following reactions take place:
 WATER TREATMENT 459

Als(SO4)3 -14H2O0 + 3Ca(HCO3), —> 2AI(OH), + 3Ca(SO4)+ 14H2O + 6CO, (11.18)

itive calcium aluminium calcium
;
bicarbonate hydroxide
M 4 sulphate
oc

The object is the production of a floc, and in the above case this is an aluminium hydroxide floc. However,
if there is insufficient alkalinity in the water, alkalinity is added by means of lime (calcium hydroxide)
addition. This reaction is as follows:

Als(SO4)3 -14H»O + 3Ca(OH), —> 2Al(OH), + 3Ca(SO4) + 14HO (11.19)

ali calcium aluminium calcium
hydroxide hydroxide sulphate
floc

The optimum pH range for aluminium hydroxide floc formation is 4.8 to 7.8, as within this range this floc
is insoluble. Different water treatment plants use different coagulants and combinations of coagulants and
coagulant aids. For more details, refer to Montgomery (1989). The constant production of a satisfactory
floc at treatment plants is a process of continuous review, as the raw water quality may vary seasonally.
Different coagulants/coagulant aids or different doses may be required during flood periods when the raw
water may be high in turbidity and high in colour.
Coagulants are sometimes assisted with further chemicals, known as coagulant aids. They essentially
are:
e Polyelectrolytes
e Lime alkalinity addition
¢ pH correction: lime, sulphuric acid

Polyelectrolytes are long-chain synthetic organic chemicals (SOC) which are used to optimize
coagulation. They can be cationic, anionic or polyampholites and the huge range and strengths available
allow almost every conceivable coagulant requirement to be satisfied. The dose range of polyelectrolytes
is 0.05 to 0.5 mg/L, by comparison with a dose range of 5 to 100 mg/L for alum. Polyelectrolytes are very
expensive by comparison with alum. The optimum dose of coagulant plus coagulant aid (including the pH
correction dose) can be determined using the jar test.
Table 11.10 indicates the initial selection process of coagulant/coagulant aid for a raw water based
on its level of turbidity and alkalinity. High turbidity and high alkalinity water are easy to treat, as flocs
form readily. High turbidity and low alkalinity water may need lime to improve the alkalinity and optimize
coagulation. Low turbidity and low alkaline water is difficult to treat, requiring alkalinity correction with
lime and high doses of high molecular weight polyelectrolyte. The addition of alum causes a reduction in

Table 11.10 Coagulant and polyelectrolyte uses for turbidity treatment

Water class water description Alum Ferric Polyelectrolyte

A High turbidity > 5 NTU Effective if Effective if Not required

High alkalinity > 250mg/L HCO; pH is 5-7 pH is 5-7
(easy to treat)
B High turbidity Effective if Effective if
Low alkalinity <50mg/L HCO3 pH is 5-7 pH 1s 5-7 Not required
+ lime + lime
c Low turbidity Polyelectrolyte Polyelectrolyte

High alkalinity aid essential aid essential Essential

D Low turbidity <1 NTU Only possible Only possible

Low alkalinity <50mg/L HCO; with lime and with lime and Essential
(difficult to treat) polyelectrolyte polyelectrolyte
460 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

by the
the pH of the water. In lowland waters, this pH reduction needs to be counteracted, which is done
addition of soda ash.

Example 11.3 Determine the daily requirement of alum, lime and polyelectrolyte to coagulate a
flow of 200L/s, if the jar test indicates that optimum coagulation occurs when | litre of water is dosed
with 3 mL of 10 g/L alum solution, 1.8 ml of 5 g/L suspension of lime and 0.2 mg/L of polyelectrolyte.

Solution:
Daily flow rate = 200 x 60 x 60 x 24 = 17.28 x 10° rE
Alum requirement 3 mL of 10 g/L = 30mg/L x 17.28 x 10°L = 518.4kg/day
Lime requirement 1.8 mL of 5 g/L = 9mg/L x 17.28 x 10°L = 155.5 kg/day
Polyelectrolyte = 0.2 mg/L x 17.28 x 10°L = 3.46kg/day

Example 11.4 How much alkalinity will be destroyed if 110mg/L of bulk ferric sulphate is
applied to the water at a water treatment plant? Assume that bulk ferric sulphate is 20 per cent by weight
ey

Solution

Fe?+ +3HCO; —> Fe(OH)3* + 3CO,

1 mole 3 moles

Molecular weight: 55.8 g/mol 61 g/mol

The equivalent weight of CaCO; is 50 mg/L, so 3 x 50 = 150 mg of alkalinity react with 55.8 mg of Fe?*.
20
The amount of iron applied = 100 eNO imeje

1
The alkalinity reacted = 22 x a = Se sllimnayib

Coagulation and flocculation infrastructure The water treatment plant infrastructure required for
coagulation/flocculation typically consists of:
e¢ Coagulant dosing and rapid mixing unit
e Polyelectrolyte preparation tank and dosing unit
e Flocculation basin

Coagulant rapid mixing unit Several different types of tank or pipe configuration are used to inject the
coagulant and produce rapid mixing over the short time period of 20 to 60s. Very high velocity gradients
of 700 to 1000 m/s/m achieve the rapid mixing. This high shear environment can be: a hydraulic jump,
jet injection, propeller mixer or paddle mixers or combinations. Details of configurations and their design
are given in Reynolds (1982).
Polyelectrolyte mixing unit The polyelectrolyte is first prepared in a mixing basin to achieve the right
concentration. It is then added to the treatment process a short distance downstream of the coagulant rapid
mixing unit.
Flocculation basin Before arrival at this stage, the water has been coagulated, and so microflocs have
been produced. The object now is to encourage the microflocs (pin flocs) to agglomerate and produce
larger flocs. As such, detention times of 20 to 60 min are now required and therefore the flocculation basin
is about 50 times larger than the rapid mixing unit. Gentle agitation is required in this unit to promote
 WATER TREATMENT 461

thorough mixing. However, mixing should not be so strong as to cause break up of the weak influent
microfloc. Flocculation basins are categorized as being either axial flow type (hydraulic) or cross flow
type (mechanical), as shown in Fig. 11.9.

Example 11.5 Peoeuune the basin dimensions of a uniform depth axial flow flocculation basin to
treat 8 MGD (36 400 m°/day). The detention time is 50 min. Assume the basin width is 25m consisting of
five equal width units separated by perforated concrete walls.

Solution

36 400 50
Basisin volume
] 74
V = —_. xxX —
60 = 1264 4m?
m

1264
Long section area 4 = OE 50.5 m?

Lengh x depth = 50.5 m?

If the cross-section of each unit is square, i.e. 5m x 5m, i.e. depth =5m, then
50.5
Length = Pe 10.1m

Therefore Basin dimensions = length x width x depth = 10.1m x 5mx 5m

Example 11.6 A water treatment plant consists of the following unit processes: coagulation,
flocculation, sedimentation, filtration and disinfection. The suspended solids concentration of the raw
water is 500 mg/L and the plant treats 36 400 m°/d (8 MGD). Alum [Al,(SO,4)3-14H2O] is used as a

Influent Influent

Plan

(a) Axial flow type (b) Cross flow type

Publishing Company).
Figure 11.9 Flocculation basins (adapted from Reynolds, 1982. Reprinted by permission of PWS
462 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

of
coagulant with a dose rate of 50 mg/L. Compute the sludge solids produced daily if complete reaction
alum to aluminium hydroxide occurs and 98 per cent total solids are removed by sedimentation/ filtration.

Alum

Treatment 3
Es 3 = 0.42 m°/s

Raw water Treated water

=5 Co0 = 0.02
Gana: Sludge C,= 10 mg/L
qyG

Solution Materials balance for suspended solids:

Accumulation = Input — output + generation — consumption
within system within system within system
0 = input — output + 0 =0

Therefore

Input = output
OC; = QCy + GC,
qC, = O(C; — Co) = 0.42 x 490 x 10? mg/s = 206 g/s

Stoichiometric materials balance for aluminium hydroxide:

Alo(SO3)-14H,O + ? —>2Al(OH), + ? + ?
molecular weights 594 g/mol + ? —>+156g/mol + ? + ?

1.e. 594g of alum produces 156g of alum hydroxide (sludge)

1 g of alum produces 0.26 g of sludge

Using 50 mg/L alum = 50 x 10° mg/m?

= 50 x 10° x 0.42 mg/s = 21 g/s
21 g/s of alum — 21 x 0.26g/s of sludge
= 5.46 g/s

Therefore

Total solids = suspended solids removed + alum hydroxide sludge

= 206 g/s + 5.46 g/s
aie ey AS
= 18 274kg/day
Total solids = 18.3 t/day

Example 11.7 For the water treatment plant of Example 11.5, design the flash mixing unit for
flocculation.
 WATER TREATMENT 463

Solution Assume a detention period in the flash mixer of 40s.

Tank size required = Vol = Qt

36 400
40
~ 24 x 60 x 60
Vol = 16.85 m?
Tank size ~ 2.5m x 2.5m x 2.5m

Example 11.8 For example 11.6, design the flocculation basin.

Solution Assume a detention time of 40 minutes.

Tank size required = Vol = Qt

_ 36 400
x 4
~ 24x 60
Vol Ol im
For a 4m basin, the surface area (SA) required is

SA = 252.7 m
Choose | tank with dimensions 16m x 16m.

11.7.3 Sedimentation Infrastructure for Flocculent Particles

Sedimentation of flocculent particles (settling or clarification) allows adequate time in a basin for flocs to
settle and be ultimately drawn off as sludge. There are two principal methodologies, as shown in Fig.
1ee10)
The traditional US practice is to have separate flocculation and settling tanks, while the UK practice
has been to promote flocculation and settling in one basin. In the case of separate flocculation/settling, the
flocculation tank normally runs into the settling tank, and so they are usually of the same width (for
rectangular tanks only).

11.7.4 Upflow Sludge Blanket Clarifiers

As mentioned in Sec. 11.7.3, it is more common in the United Kingdom to use a combined
flocculation/settling tank, called a sludge blanket clarifier. There are two types: either flat-bottomed or
hopper bottomed. A schematic of a flat-bottomed unit is shown in Fig. 11.11.
Water enters the tank at the bottom and is distributed through a series of perforated pipes laid close to
the floor. The necessary agitation to provide effective flocculation is provided by turbulence caused by
discharging the inlet downwards, assisted in the case of the flat bottomed tank by a device designed to
create uneven flow conditions. The upflow flocculated water flows through a zone of suspended sludge
affording the opportunity for further contact and aggregation of floc particles. The upper level of this zone
is controlled by providing a quiescent zone which creates a density gradient, causing the sludge to flow in
the direction of the central sludge withdrawal cone. Sludge is bled (withdrawn) regularly to ensure that the
sludge blanket is maintained at the right density and the sludge blanket produced is at the optimum
thickness, thereby reducing the amount of wastewater. The flat-bottomed unit provides true upflow while
the hopper unit does not, as it sets up undesirable weak circulation patterns. As such, the flat-bottomed
unit can be operated at twice the upflow rate of the hopper unit. When sludge blanket clarifiers are
464 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Raw
To filtration
Rapid Flocculation Settling
mix unit tank tank

Coagulant Polyelectrolyte
addition addition
(a)

Raw
Flocculation and To filtration
Rapid
mix unit sedimentation tank

Coagulant Polyelectrolyte
addition addition
(b)

Figure 11.10 Primary water treatment: (a) US practice, (b) UK practice.

Clarified water
decanting channels

Ciaticd ante: t Freeboard 1—2 m

Sludge blanket 1-2 m

*inlet twater 7
Inlet zone 1-2 m
Bo OY ee SS Oe EG A
A Inlet V; = settling velocity
B Sludge blanket V, = inflow upflow velocity
C Sludge withdrawal cone
Figure 11.11 Schematic of upflow sludge blanket clarifier—flat bottom.
 WATER TREATMENT 465

operated to capacity or in excess, the sludge blanket top level is liable to tise and some water with floc
may be decanted with the clean water. This is extremely undesirable as the floc contains aluminium
hydroxide. Overloaded plants sometimes have this problem.

The particle settling velocity V, = rani -- De aa

m

The inflow upflow velocity V; = 2

P
where QO = the inflow rate
and A, = the plan area
In the limit Ve Vay

and so Vy = a
Ap
Particles will be removed only if the settling velocity exceeds the upflow velocity.
In the case of upflow sludge blanket clarifiers the principle of sedimentation is type III. This type is
when settling occurs, but is hindered, in this case by upflow velocity. Additionally, settling occurs in
zones, in this case the top of the blanket is most dense while the bottom is weakly defined. The settling
velocities are highest at the top and lowest at the bottom. This is shown schematically in Fig. 11.12. Refer
to Reynolds (1982) for further details of type III settling.

11.8 FILTRATION

Filtration is the process of passing water through a porous medium with the expectation that the filtrate
has a better quality than the influent. The medium is usually sand. Filtration has been in use since the
nineteenth century when the process of slow sand filtration was generally the only water treatment
process. Slow sand filtration is credited with improving the aesthetic quality of water and also with the
removal of pathogens. The latter benefit was not known in the nineteenth century. A classical example of
the effectiveness of slow sand filtration is recorded when in 1892 in Hamburg 8500 people died in a
cholera epidemic. Hamburg used untreated water from the River Elbe. Its ‘suburb’, Altara, treated its
water by sedimentation and slow sand filtration and did not experience the cholera epidemic.

Highest settling velocity

(slope = velocity, m/h)

Reducing settling velocity Dense SB

Zero settling velocity Heeeeeereeererennige

Peper
eee eee

Height ee Weak SB

COO TA
Prepeteeeeeeee tees

————> Time Settling column

SB = sludge blanket

Figure 11.12 Concept of upflow sludge blanket settling.

466 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

There are many classifications of filtration systems and they include:

© Gravity or pressure
e Rapid, slow or variable filtration rates
e Cake or depth filtration
Gravity filtration is the process where the water goes through the filter unassisted except by gravity.
Pressure filters are usually contained in vessels and the water is forced through the filter media under
pressure. Pressure type applications are usually for industrial use rather than municipal use. Slow sand
filtration operates with filtration rates ranging from 0.1 to 0.2m/h, while rapid filters have rates from
about 5 to 20 m/h. Cake filtration is the process of filtration in slow sand filters where a filter cake builds
up on the filter surface (sand/air interface) and filtration through this surface is by both physical and
biological mechanisms. Depth filtration is where most of the depth of the filter medium is active in the
filtration process and filtrate quality improves with depth, as in rapid sand filters.
The most common type is the rapid gravity depth filter. This took over almost exclusively from the
slow sand filter (gravity cake) in the 1930s. However, the slow sand filter (SSF) has widespread
application in small rural communities. The exception is London, where still in the 1990s all the surface-
derived water is treated and slow sand filtered. This type of filter is undergoing a renaissance, as it has
recently been shown to have excellent abilities in improving the microbiological water quality. Slow sand
filters have removal rates of up to 99.9 per cent for Giardia and Cryptospiridium cysts. Slow sand
filtration may become popular again as Giardia cysts are known to be somewhat resistant to chlorination.

11.8.1 Slow Sand Filtration

A schematic of a slow sand filter is shown in Fig. 11.13. Typically it is a rectangular concrete open box
structure containing:

e Supernatant layer of raw water

e Bed of fine sand, supported on a thin layer of gravel
e System of under drains
e Inlet and outlet structures
The inlet structure allows the water to flow on to the schmutzdecke layer without damaging it. This layer
is at the top of the sand bed and is composed of living and dead micro-organisms. The inlet structure also
facilitates the drainage of the supernatant water during the cleaning process. The supernatant water
provides a head of water sufficient to drive the water through the sand filter while creating a detention
period of several hours for the raw water. The filter bed is usually of fine sand of size 0.15 to 0.3 mm with

pion SANS
pe
Lh IEA (ITN KN A ARN BERN EN IN 2,
!
DN ary BN (NN
!
I= fA Sam PEN A
Supernatant water

As _A A AAA A A A AA A AA A AAA A A A ~{ Schmutzdecke

oe
Inlet
structure Sand filter bed

GHG) ES SS CS Cc SS sS SS Ce CSS at System of underdrains

Figure 11.13. Slow sand filter.

 WATER TREATMENT 467

a uniformity coefficient no greater than 2. Some design criteria as used in the United States and United
Kingdom are shown in Table 11.11.

Filtration Mechanisms and Performance The removal of impurities is thought to be primarily in the
schmutzdecke layer. The mechanisms are thought to be both physical and biological, the latter
contributing to the fact that many microbiological parameters improve significantly on flowing through
the slow sand filter. The effective sand size is usually of the order of about 0.2 mm and this effectively
contains all particles greater than about 0.02 mm. Giardia cysts are about this size and thus would be
filtered out in the schmutzdecke. Some conflicting evidence exists as to whether the schmutzdecke is
essential in removing Giardia as some research has shown their elimination still occurs in slow sand filters
without a fully developed schmutzdecke. A review of slow sand filtration in the United States by Logsdon
and Fox (1988) indicated significant improvement in other water quality parameters. Total coliform
bacteria removal was 99.4 per cent or better. This removal rate depended on the bed depth and decreased
as the bed depth decreased. Cyst particles of sizes of the order of 7 to 12 um had removal rates of 96.8 per
cent or better. Total particulate removal for particle sizes of 1 to 60 um was 98.1 per cent or better. Colour
removal is not significant in slow sand filters, with removal rates only of the order of 25 per cent. Turbidity
removal parallels removal of other particulates with high removal rates and values being reduced to 0.5
NTU and sometimes as low as 0.1 NTU. However, water with very fine clay particles from mountain
runoff is found to have turbidity removal rates of only about 25 per cent. Slow sand filters have filter runs
varying from 2 to 6 months. Cleaning means scraping off the top surface or schmutzdecke and starting
again about two days later.

Example 11.9 Design a slow sand filter (SSF) to treat a flow of 800 m? /day.

Solution Assume a filtration rate of 0.15 m/h. Therefore

8 1
Required tankarea =<
24 «0.15
= 222 m?

Table 11.11 Design criteria for slow sand filters

Parameter UK recommended level US range and (average)

Design life 10-15 yr

Period of operation 24 h/day
Filtration rate 0.1-0.2 m/h 0.044 m/h(0.1)
Filter bed area 5-200 m?/filter
(minimum of 2
filters)
Height of filter bed
Initial 0.8-0.9m 0.46-1.5 m (0.9)
Minimum 0.5—0.6m
Sand specification 0.15—0.3 mm 0.15—0.4 mm (0.3)
effective size
Uniformity coefficient <3} 1.5-3.6 (2)
Height of under drains 0.3-0.5m 0.15—0.9m (0.5)
including gravel layer
Height of supernatant 1m 0.74 m (1.2)
water
tee a
Adapted from Visscher et al., 1987 with permission
468 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Choose a tank 23m long x 10m wide. From Table 11.11, the height of tank required is:
(a) System underdrain ~ 0.5m
(b) Filter bed ~ 0.9m
(c) Supernatant water~ | m

Therefore
Total height ~ 2.5m

and Tank size = 2.5m high x 23 m long x 10m wide.

11.8.2 Rapid Gravity Filters

Since the 1930s rapid gravity filters have taken over almost exclusively from slow sand filters, except in
the case of small rural conurbations. In the latter case, slow sand filtration is commonly used without any
prior coagulation. The popularity of rapid gravity filtration is due to its enhanced filtration rate of 5 to
20 m/h by comparison with 0.1 to 0.2 m/h for slow sand filters (a factor of about 50).
Rapid gravity filtration (RGF) is used to filter chemically coagulated water and so produce a high
quality drinking water. Filtration removes suspended particles (turbidity) by the simple physical method of
filtration. Some biological activity may occur in the breakdown of ammonia to nitrate as in nitrification:
Nitrosomonas
d
NH,+4 aS+20 2 a NO;~ + 2H+ ++ H,O
} DS ar Hy (11.20)

een Nitrobacter ™™*°

bacteria

The solids removal mechanisms in filtration are a combination of settlement, straining, adhesion and
attraction. Thus particles, much smaller than the interstitial spaces between sand grains, are removed.
Both RGF and SSF operate in a mode where the water filters vertically down through the media under
gravity. As mentioned in Sec. 11.8.1, the filter runs on slow sand filters are two to six months. However,
because of the increased filtration rate, filter runs on rapid filters are 20 to 60 hours. Cleaning is achieved
by agitating the bed either mechanically or with compressed air and washing water upwards through the
bed to the surface, from where it is decanted as wastewater. This ‘backwash’ water is then wasted or
returned to the beginning of the plant for treatment.
Rapid gravity filters may be of three possible media types:
e Single medium, usually sand or anthracite
© Dual medium, usually sand and anthracite
¢ Multimedia, usually garnet, sand and anthracite

Table 11.12 shows the media characteristics in the single, dual and multimedia filters. In the latter two, the
top media is the coarse material of anthracite, followed by sand and the final material of garnet.
Figure 11.14 is a schematic of a rapid gravity filter in filtration (downflow) and backwash (upflow)
modes. Filtration operates with a head of about 1m of water. As filtration proceeds, the turbidity
particulates lodge on the filter media and reduce efficiency over time. To maintain the same filtration rate
the head of water would have to be increased, which is not possible. In filtration mode, once the filtration
rate drops below a predetermined value (or time) the system stops and performs a backwash. This is
where water or compressed air from the bottom is sent up through the media, dislodging the particulates
and sending them into a suspension of contaminated water, which is overflowed to the central backwash
channel as waste (see Fig. 11.14b). Usually this water is recycled through the plant. Filtration operates on
hydraulic principles and the Darcy—Weisbach and Rose equations are used in the design of filter units.
 WATER TREATMENT 469

Table 11.12 Rapid gravity filter media characteristics

Parameter

Effective Filtration
Depth size Unifority rate
Medium (m) (mm) coefficient (m/h)

Sand 0.7 0.6 <2 10

or anthracite 0.7 0.7 <2 10

Dual Anthracite and 0.6 1.0 <p)

sand 0.15 0.5 <2
12
Multi Anthracite, 0.5 1.0 <<)
sand and 0.2 0.5 29)
garnet 0.1 0.2 <1)
15

The backwash velocity is usually > 0.3 m/min and less than 10D¢9 for sand and less than 4.7D¢60 for
anthracite, where D¢o is the 60 per cent size in mm. The velocity just to fluidize the bed from McGhee
(1991) is
Vie= Vx f* (11.21)
where V; = minimum fluidization velocity
V, = terminal velocity to wash medium from bed
f = porosity

Influent

Water head

Coarse material

Fine sand

System of underdrains with effluent clarified water

(a) Filtration mode

Initial water level

Backwash water level

Backwash to waste
(b) Backwash mode

Figure 11.14 Schematic of rapid gravity dual media filter: (2) downflow filtration mode, (6) upflow backwash mode.
470 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Sand has a specific gravity of 2.65 and anthracite 1.55. The velocity to (fluidize and) backwash is

Vo(T) = Voorn) x up” (11722)

where Lr = the viscosity
V,(20) = 0.1 V, for sand
= 0.47 Deo for anthracite

Example 11.10 Design a rapid gravity filter to treat 36 400 m°/day.

Solution Assume a filtration rate of 12 m/h (from Table 11.12).

Surface area = oN
7A D 126 m2

Choose | tank 10m wide x 13m long. From Table 11.12, the depth should be:

(a) System underdrain ~ 0.5m

(b) Filter bed ~ 0.7m
(c) Water head ~ 1.0m

Therefore

Tank size = 2.2m high x 13m long x 10m wide.

This compares to 77 tanks of the same size for the slow sand filter. The filtration rate of the RGF is 80
times that of the SSF.

Example 11.11 Determine the terminal velocity and the minimum fluidization velocity of a sand
filter of effective size 0.60 mm, with a uniformity coefficient 1.6, a specific gravity 2.65 and a porosity of
0.44. Determine also the backwash rate at 10 and 20°C.

Solution

Terminal velocity V; = 10 Deo

= 10x 16x 0:6
= 9.6 m/min
Fluidization velocity Ve = Vi, x f 9
= 06 x 0:44-—
= 0.24m/min
Backwash velocity Vir) = Vaao) Xx fied :
Hioec = 1.31
Therefore
Voioy = 0.96 x 1.31713
= 0.87 m/min
 WATER TREATMENT 471

11.9 DISINFECTION

As practised in water treatment, disinfection refers to operations aimed at killing or rendering harmless,
pathogenic micro-organisms. Sterilization, the complete destruction of all living matter, is not the
objective of disinfection. Figure 11.15 shows the reduction of waterborne diseases at the beginning of the
twentieth century by water treatment, e.g. typhoid eradication.
The other treatment procedures like coagulation and filtration should remove > 90 per cent of
bacteria and viruses. Also the lime softening process is an effective disinfectant due to the high pH
involved. However, to meet the standards given by water standard directives, such as the European Union
(EU) the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) or the World Health Organization (WHO), and to
provide protection against regrowth, additional disinfection has often been practised. The requirements of
a good disinfectant are that it should:
e Be toxic to micro-organisms at concentrations well below the toxic threshold to humans and higher
animals
e Have a fast rate of kill
e Be persistent enough to prevent regrowth of organisms in the distribution systems
The rate of destruction of micro-organisms is often postulated as a first-order chemical reaction
(Chick’s law):
dN
—EF = —kN, t (il 23})
NM,
In—
ae = —kt

N= No e (11.24)
where N, = number of organisms at time ¢
N, = number of organisms at time zero
and k = rate constant characteristic of the type of disinfectant,
micro-organism, and water quality aspects of system

The rate determining step is the diffusion of the disinfectant into the cell of the micro-organism. This must
be completed before the water reaches the consumer. Complete disinfection cannot be accomplished

Typhoid
20s death rate

Treated water
population
of
Millions
treated
with
people
and
water
| |
100000
death
fever
typhoid
population
rates,
per 1900 1905 1910 1915 1920
Year

Figure 11.15 Typhoid reduction with use of treated water.

472 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

because N,, the number of organisms remaining at time ¢, will approach zero asymptotically as time
increases, as shown schematically in Fig. 11.16. However, since N, should be small, 99.9 per cent kill can
be affected in a reasonable time.
The model type of a disinfection curve is shown in Fig. 11.16. It has three ‘zones’. The initial lag
phase is followed by the exponential die-off rate. The final phase is the slow phase where little extra
benefit is achieved.
The following factors can result in low efficiency of disinfection:

e Turbidity
e Resistant organisms (Giardia)
e High amount of organic material
e Deposits of iron and manganese
e Oxidizable compounds
Viruses are more resistant to disinfectants than bacteria and need additional exposure time and higher
concentrations. Turbidity producing colloids, and iron and manganese deposits can shield organisms and
use up the disinfectant. The most commonly used industrial scale disinfectants are:

e Chlorine dioxide
e Chloramines
e Ozone
e UV radiation
e Chlorination

Chlorine is by far the most commonly used disinfectant. Because its application involves a series of
disadvantages, (not least the production of THMs) the use of other disinfectants should be considered.
However, it must be stated that no disinfectant is perfect—all have advantages and disadvantages for a
given water. The distinct advantage of a reliable disinfection of pathogenic micro-organisms must be
weighed very carefully against all the possible disadvantages. Cryptospiridium outbreaks in the western
world (particularly the US since 1990) have occurred in public water supplies, many of which use
chlorination as the disinfectant. Recent reports indicate that the cryptospiridium cysts are not always
removed in filtration systems, although some evidence suggest that rapid gravity filters are successful.
This success is not necessarily due to the filter design or media, but more to the rate of water throughput.
Chlorine, chlorine dioxide and monochloramine have all been found to be ineffective. Ozone is however
known to effectively reduce the cyst numbers to non infective levels.

11.9.1 Chlorine Dioxide

With regard to disinfection, chlorine dioxide possesses theoretically 25 times greater oxidizing power than
chlorine. At normal conditions it is a yellowish or yellow-green or reddish gas that liquefies at

Initial lag

Fast rate of kill

&

Asymptotic to zero

of
Log
survival
organism

Figure 11.16 Model type disinfection curve.

 WATER TREATMENT 473

approximately 10°C. The solution in water is not stable and degrades, especially when exposed to light.
At higher temperatures it is explosive. Therefore chlorine dioxide must be produced on site before
application. The properties of chlorine dioxide in comparison with chlorine are:
1. Its application does not cause any deterioration of taste and odour.
2. Its disinfection efficiency is largely pH dependent.
3. The formation of trihalogen methanes (THM) can be neglected (although other chlorinated compounds
can also be formed).
4. It does not react with ammonia.

In contrast to other disinfectants in use, chlorine dioxide forms toxic inorganic compounds. It has been
established that 50 per cent of the used ClO), is transformed into chlorite (CIO,~) and chlorate (C103
_).
These substances may provoke methanoglobinemia in babies (like nitrates NO3_) if concentrations in
drinking water exceed the value of 0.1mg/L. Studies of mutagenic activities indicate that at
concentrations of <1 mg chlorine dioxide per litre, no increase in the mutagenic activity in drinking
water occurs, whereas there is a significant increase in mutagenic activity at higher doses.

11.9.2 Chloramines
When chlorine and ammonia (NH3) are both present in water, they react to form products collectively
known as chloramines. As opposed to ‘free chlorine’, the chloramines are referred to as ‘combined
chlorine’. The inorganic chloramines consists of three species:
NH, + HOC] = NH2Cl + H2O (monochloramine) (E25)

NH>Cl + HOCI = NHCI, + HO (dichloramine) (11.26)

NHCL + HOC! = NCI, + H2O (trichloramine) (11.27)

The species formed as a result of the combination of chlorine and ammonia depend on a number of
factors, including the ratio of chlorine to ammonia-nitrogen, chlorine dose, temperature, pH and alkalinity.
As higher ratios of chlorine to ammonia-nitrogen are reached, the ammonia is eventually oxidised to
nitrogen gas, a small amount of nitrate (NO3_) or a variety of nitrogen containing inorganic oxidation
products. If ammonia is present, either as a natural constituent of the raw water or as a chemical
deliberately added to produce combined chlorine rather than free chlorine, a hump-shaped breakpoint
curve is produced (see breakpoint chlorination, Fig. 11.18). Compared to chlorine dioxide or chlorine,
chloramines:

Are less effective disinfectants

Have an algicidous effect
Have a detrimental effect on taste and colour
Show an efficiency that is heavily dependent on the pH value, a higher efficiency having been observed
at lower pH values
Do not react with organic material or phenols
e Are persistent and provide continued protection against regrowth in the distribution system

11.9.3 Ozone
Ozone is a bluish gas with an unpleasant smell. It is one of the most powerful oxidizing agents that is
practical for water treatment. It can be produced in a high-strength electrical field from oxygen in pure
form or from ionization of clean dry air:
30, + energy > 203
474 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Because ozone is chemically unstable it must be produced on site and used immediately. Substantial
amounts of energy are required to split the stable oxygen bond to form ozone. Energy consumptions of |u
to 20 kWh per kg ozone are necessary to produce the typical dosages ranging from 1 to 5g/m’.
Therefore, costs of ozonation are 2 to 3 times higher than the costs for chlorination. Ozone is able to break
down large molecules of organic material such as humic or fulvic acids. It degrades such health impairing
compounds as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), phenols and chlorophenols. However, not all
organic compounds can be reduced or even mineralized. Some of the properties of ozone as a disinfectant
are:
Especially effective in killing viruses
Improvement of odour and taste
Transformation of almost non-degradable substances into easily degradable ones
Microflocculation effect
Largely pH independent
Regrowth of micro-organisms within the water supply system due to the production of more easily
degradable substances
e Formation of a number of toxic compounds
e No remaining residuals (of disinfectant)
Studies on the mutagenic activities of ozonized drinking water gave conflicting results. Because of the
regrowth of micro-organisms, the treatment of water with ozone as the (last) disinfection step does not
occur very often. Since no residual remains, it is necessary to use small amounts of chlorine after
ozonization to provide continuous protection against regrowth in the distribution system.

11.9.4 UV Radiation

Irradiation with UV light is a promising method of disinfection. Although it leaves no residuals, this
method is effective in disabling both bacteria and viruses. UV light spans the wavelength of 200 to
390 nm. The most effective band for disinfection is in the shorter range of 250 to 280 nm. This is the
range where the UV light is absorbed by the DNA of the micro-organisms which then lead to a change in
the genetic material so that they are no longer able to multiply. Light of this wavelength range can be
generated with low-pressure mercury vapour lamps which emit peak light radiation at a wavelength of
254 nm. The properties of UV radiation as a disinfectant include:
e Necessity of having clear water (turbidity free) and thin sheets of water
® No residual
e Photo-oxidation of compounds may occur
¢ No odour, or taste problems
¢ No chemicals added

11.9.5 Chlorination

The application of chlorine for disinfection of drinking water goes as far back as the nineteenth century.
By the year 1800 sewage had already been treated with chlorinated lime in England and France. The
large-scale technical application of chlorination to drinking water was first performed in the United States
at the beginning of this century. It replaced the slow sand filtration in use at that time. During the past 50
years, it has developed into the most widely used procedure for the treatment of surface water. In many
countries it is still performed as a ‘breakpoint’ chlorination following sedimentation and filtration (see
Fig. 11.18). However, the application of high doses of chlorine run the risk of developing large amounts
of potentially carcinogenic and/or mutagenic by-products.
 WATER TREATMENT 475

Under natural conditions, chlorine (Cl,) is a yellow-greenish gas showing high toxicity to humans
and animals. Due to its high reactivity, it does not occur naturally as Cl), but forms many compounds
found on earth such as the well-known NaCl (common salt). Most chlorine is produced on a large-scale
industrial process known as the chlor-alkali electrolysis. Chlorine can be liquefied at room temperature.
Therefore, it can be stored and transported. It is a very efficient oxidizing, bleaching and disinfecting
agent. In water, chlorine reacts as follows:
Cl, + H,O = Ht + Cl” + HOCI (11.28)
HOC is hypochloric acid. Depending on the pH value of the water, HOCI can dissociate to hypochlorite:
HOC! = Ht + OCI- (11229)
Hypochloric acid and hypochlorite ions represent the ‘free chlorine residual’ which is the primary
disinfectant employed. Experiments have shown that the undissociated HOC] molecule is the most
effective compound for the disinfecting process. Its efficiency is considered to be 80 times as high as that
of the hypochlorite ion (OCI). Figure 11.17 shows the dissociation of HOCI as a function of the pH
value. At a pH <5, the reaction equilibrium is shifted to the left, i.e. the lower the pH value the greater the
quantity of Cl, occurring in the water. At a pH > 5, the concentration of OCI increases until it reaches
100 per cent at a pH of 10. The optimum pH range for disinfectant application lies in the range 6 to 8.
The mechanism of pathogen kill is considered to be:
e A penetration into the cell of micro-organisms with subsequent blocking of an essential enzyme
e Destruction of cell walls
Factors affecting the process are:

Chemical form of chlorine

pH
Concentration
Contact time
Type of organisms
Suspended solids
Temperature
Most of the chlorine feed systems in use are gas-to-solution systems, implemented only for
indirect chlorination. Indirect chlorination means the preparation of a chlorine solution from Cl, gas
and water on site, which then serves as the disinfectant. Instead of adding Cl, gas to the water it is also
possible to use chlorine in an ionized state, e.g. as the compounds Ca(ClO) or NaClO . This procedure
is chosen particularly when small amounts of water are to be treated with a relatively small expenditure

100
HOCI OGs
S 80
e
&
= 60
19}
3 Cl,
a 40

20

0 2 4 6 8 10
pH value
Figure 11.17 Dissociation of HOCI as a function of pH value.
476 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

on technical equipment. Another consideration for choosing hypochlorites is for safety reasons.
Chlorine gas is very toxic and its handling requires extreme care. In spite of the relatively safe
injections systems, chlorine gas cylinders have to be transported, stored and changed when empty.
Since chlorine gas is heavier than air, it spreads slowly at ground level. Therefore, in highly populated
areas, the use of hypochlorites may be advantageous. Hypochlorite solutions in water are alkaline,
which is a disadvantage as the disinfection efficiency is less at higher pH values, as seen in Fig. 11.17.
There is some difficulty involved in dissolving Ca(ClO),. This compound contains approximately 70 to
80 per cent available chlorine. It is often used on a short-term basis in the form of ‘Chlorine’ tablets at
special locations, i.e. water storage containers or after some minor works on the distribution system.
NaClO, solutions are more commonly used. The solution contains only 15 to 17 per cent chlorine and
is not very stable. It degrades with time, particularly when exposed to light. The application of both
hypochlorites is much more expensive than the application of chlorine gas.
The accurate measurement of chlorine is a very important control tool for efficient but careful
dosage of chlorine. In the German Drinking Water Directive, a residual of at least 0.1 mg/L must be
detectable after the disinfection step. The maximum level must not exceed 0.3mg/L (except for
extraordinarily occurring events: 0.6 mg/L are allowed over a short period). These relatively low levels
take into account the disadvantages associated with chlorination and seek to minimize these. In the case
of some groundwater supplies, the water is naturally free from pathogens. Either there is no chlorination
at all or the addition of chlorine is performed on a very low level (about 0.02 mg/L detectable). This
procedure is not a disinfection, only a ‘conservation precaution’ to ensure the microbiological quality of
the water during the distribution step.
A method used for the minimization of the chlorine application is the measurement of the redox
potential. The target is to use the smallest amount possible to fully disinfect, while avoiding side
reactions, i.e. associated with unpleasant taste and odour of chlorine and the formation of undesirable
compounds. The redox potential is determined by the Nernst equation:

FE =E,+RT/nF in (Ox)/(Red) (11.30)

where E = redox potential
E, = potential against normal-hydrogen electrode
R = gas constant
F = Faraday constant
n = number of electrons transferred
Ox = concentration of oxidized compounds
Red = concentration of reduced compound
T = absolute temperature, K

The equation (11.30) shows the dependence of the redox potential on the concentrations of red/ox pairs.
This means that if strong oxidants like oxygen, chlorine, etc., are present, the redox potential is high and
positive. Groundwater containing no oxygen would have a negative value. The advantage of determining
the redox potential lies in the fact that it gives information about the disinfective ability of water. There
may be waters with a high concentration of the disinfectant. However, this quantity might not be available
for the disinfection process, because of the presence of chlorine using impurities. All the chlorine would
be used for oxidation rather than disinfection. Due to the fact that the redox potential measures the
relation of both oxidizing and reducing compounds it gives a reliable statement about the still available
disinfection power within a water (see also redox potential, Chapter 3).
Especially at low levels, the redox potential is more sensitive than the chlorine analysis. Positive
experience was found with the measurement of the redox potential in the Bremen Water Works (Baxter,
1992). During the ‘conservational’ chlorination mode, it was sometimes not even possible to detect the
 WATER TREATMENT 477

chlorine by analysis. However, studies of the continuously measured redox potential gave information on
the microbiological quality at any time and helped the setting of the chlorine dose. Later, when no
chlorination was performed at all, the level of the redox potential remained greater than 600 mV. This
assured the good microbiologial quality of the water. It was empirically derived that at a redox potential
value of 600 mV bacteria cannot survive. The pH value and temperature influences must be considered.
Due to its reactivity, chlorine reacts with a multitude of inorganic and organic materials present in the
water. In some cases, it is used as an oxidizing agent first to break down these materials. This type of
chlorination is called ‘breakpoint’ chlorination. Due to the high dosages of chlorine normally employed,
this procedure is no longer performed in Germany, but is still widely used in the United States and other
countries that predominantly use surface water as the potable water source.
Figure 11.18 shows a generalized curve of chlorine added versus chlorine residual, obtained during
breakpoint chlorination. The oxidizable materials (even small amounts of BOD) consume chlorine before
it has a chance to react as a disinfectant. At the breakpoint, these reactions are complete and it is only then
that disinfection can take place. Continued addition of chlorine past the breakpoint will result in a directly
proportional increase in the free available chlorine (unreacted hypochlorite).
The by-products of organics oxidized by chlorine are often undesirable. Minute quantities of
phenolic compounds react with chlorine to form severe taste and odour problems, due to the formation of
chlorophenols (‘medicinal’ smell and taste). A concentration as low as 1:20 000000 can still be detected
by the human nose. Materials (e.g. glue) used during work in wells or pipes can sometimes contain
phenolic compounds. To avoid customer complaints, it is recommended that the materials used in pipeline
repairs be tested in advance or that the repair areas be thoroughly cleaned afterwards by rinsing with
unpolluted water.
Another important reaction is the formation of halogenated hydrocarbons, including the trihalogen
methanes (THM). The most important classes of by-products are:
Trihalogen methanes
Chlorinated phenols
Halogenated methanes, ethanes and ethenes
Halogenated polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons
Chlorinated aldehydes and ketones

Destruction
of chlorine Destruction of
residual chloramines and Formation of free chlorine and
by reducing Formation of chloro-organic chloro-organic presence of chloro-organic
compounds compounds and chloramines compounds compounds not destroyed
0.6

a Wes
aob
= 0.4
s

ac) :
05 03: Free residual
o
gS
6
mi OZ

Combined residual
v . .

0.1

= | awl | | | |
0 0.1 0.2 Os 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

Chlorine added (mg/L)

Figure 11.18 Breakpoint chlorination.

478 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

All these products carry a carcinogenic and/or mutagenic risk to human health and their reduction is
therefore highly undesirable.

Example 11.12 To obtain a free residual of chlorine of 0.5 mg/L, a dose of 10 mg/L is added to a
36400 m?/day water treatment plant. Calculate the amount of Cl, and NH; required to achieve this.

Solution
Cl, required = 36 400 x 10 x 10° x 10° = 364kg/day (11.31)

Stoichiometrically : NH; + HOC] — NH>Cl + HO

1 mole of NH; reacts with 1 mole of HOCI to produce NH2Cl (monochloramine). However, if this dose is
applied 1:1, then the reaction also proceeds to form dichloramines (NH>CI) as in
NH,Cl + HOC] > NHCl, + H,O (11.32)
Dichloramines are undesirable in taste and odour. It is more common to apply Cl,/NH3 dose ratios of
about 3:1 or 4:1 but not 1:1 (Montgomery, 1985) to prevent the formation of dichloramines. Therefore
NH; required = 0.5 mg/L x 0.25 = 0.125 mg/L
= 36 400 x 0.125 x 10-7 = 4.6 kg/day
Table 11.13 indicates some chlorine residual values and associated water pH and contact times.
The method of application of chlorine to a water system is significant in relation to efficiency of
micro-organism kill. Typically the chlorine gas is injected into a tank or pipe and undergoes rapid mixing
at high turbulence (Re > 10°) for a few seconds. This is somewhat similar to coagulation using rapid
mixers followed by slow mixing in a downstream tank. The injection of chlorine to a system is typically
achieved by a diffuser inserted into the path of the water flow or directly to a rapid mixing propeller for
instantaneous diffusion. Once injected, the rapid mixing can be achieved via several different hydraulic
methods, including hydraulic jumps in open channels, venturi flumes, pipelines, pumps, static mixers, etc.
Once the initial rapid mixing has taken place, so as to achieve full diffusion, the mixed chlorine solution is
allowed to sit in a chlorine contact tank for periods of 10 min to | h. The contact time is a function of pH,
required free chlorine residual and microbiological water quality. See Montgomery (1985) for further
details.

11.10 FLUORIDATION

Fluoride is a natural trace element, found in small but widely varying amounts in waters. Groundwaters
are more likely to have a higher fluoride content. However, most surface waters have negligible amounts.

Table 11.13 Chlorine residuals, pH and contact time

Contact time Free residual Combined

pH (min) (mg/L) residual

6-8 10 0.2
8-9 10 0.4
9-10 10 0.8
10+ 10 = 10)
6-7 60 1.0
7-8 60 125
8-9 60 1.8
9+ 60 > 1.8
 WATER TREATMENT 479

The presence of fluoride in water was identified in the United States in the 1950s to improve the dental
health of growing children. The relationship between dental caries (tooth decay) and dental fluorosis
(discolouration or mottling of teeth) and fluoride levels is shown in Fig. 11.19. This figure shows the
results of research in the 1960s.
At the optimum concentrations in potable water, fluoride reduces dental caries from 20 per cent to 40
per cent among children who ingest the water from birth. Evidence of the effectiveness of fluoridation is
world-wide (from 1950 to 1980). However, in the past decade, the relative beneficial impact of
fluoridation is masked as other sources of fluoride have appeared, e.g. fluoride toothpaste, fluoride tablets,
etc. Fluoride has been added to water in different forms:
e Sodium fluoride
e Sodium silicofluoride
e Hydrofluosilicic acid
The procedure in countries that have fluoride public water supplies is to add it in doses of 1 mg/L, and
this is now mostly in the form of hydrofluosilic acid. In Eire, all public water supplies are fluoridated (by
law). In the United States, several states do not fluoridate. In the United Kingdom, the level of fluoridation
is decreasing and local water authorities decide regionally whether to fluoridate or not. In northern
Europe, almost no areas practice fluoridation.

11.11 ADVANCED WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES

The purposes of advanced water treatment processes are:

e To take a water treated by standard processes and to improve it to an exceptionally high quality as often
required by particular industries, e.g. beverage, pharmaceutical
e To treat a water containing specific chemical or microbiological ‘contaminants’ to an acceptable
standard, e.g. the removal of iron and manganese, the removal of blue-green algae, the removal of
specific organics
There is a wide range of physical, chemical and microbiological techniques that can be utilized to achieve
the above objectives. Some of these include:
e Iron and manganese removal
e Jon exchange and inorganic absorption

10.0 100

8.0

6.0

4.0
fluorisis
dental
by

2.0
affected
population
of
Percentage
experience
Caries
child
dmf
inper
teeth
0.0 1.0 20 mes0 4.0 5.0 6.0
Fluoride levels (ppm)

Figure 11.19 Dental caries and dental fluorosis in relation to fluoride levels in public water supplies (adapted from Dunning, 1962).
480 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

e Adsorption of organics
e Membrane processes including reverse osmosis
e Oxidation including chemical oxidation

11.11.1 Iron and Manganese Removal

Traces of iron and manganese are found in many waters. Quantities can range from pg/L to mg/L. Both
metals are often found to occur together, but there are also waters with only iron and more rarely just
manganese. The natural occurrence of iron on earth is large: 4.7 per cent of the earth crust consists of
iron, making it the fourth most common element. Manganese occurs as commonly as carbon, taking a
share of 0.08 per cent of the earth’s crustal solids. Therefore in water the concentration of iron is usually
higher than that of manganese. Both elements are essential trace elements for all living creatures. Iron, for
example, plays an important role in the formation of the red blood colour haem (together with protein it is
called haemoglobin). Manganese in animals is important for growth and healthy functioning of the
nervous system. In spite of this fact, excessive quantities of both elements must be removed from water, as
otherwise disturbance and damage within the distribution system would occur.
To understand how Fe and Mn manage to get into the water the occurrence of micro-organisms in the
ground is examined. Bacteria use organic material as food, converting it ultimately to CO2 and H;O. For
that purpose, they need oxygen. The easiest way to obtain oxygen is to take it out of water. Therefore, a
raindrop, for example, gradually loses its oxygen on its way through the soil towards the groundwater
table. After having used all oxygen in the water, the micro-organisms look for another source of oxygen.
This is obtained by scavenging the oxygen from commonly occurring metal oxides, like FezO3 and MnOp>.
Iron and manganese are therefore reduced to ferrous and manganous (Fe** and Mn**) compounds, which
dissolve in the water. Groundwaters that do not contain any oxygen are called ‘reduced’ groundwaters.
The properties of this kind of water are:

e Clear, colourless
© Metallic smell and/or taste
e Free of oxygen
e Sometimes a smell of H2S

When a ‘reduced’ water comes in contact with air, it is aerated easily and the Fe is oxidized after a short
time. This is seen clearly in the formation of brown flocs which then precipitate. Manganese is not
oxidized purely by aeration alone, in the normally occurring pH range.

Forms of iron and manganese in groundwater When reduced to their + 2 state, Fe and Mn can form
ionized compounds like hydrogen carbonates (bicarbonates), chlorides, sulphates, etc. These are the
forms which are easily oxidized (Fe) by oxygen. In the presence of humic acids, Fe can also form
complexes. Complexes are stable, geometrically arranged, large molecules with a positive charged centre
atom, here Fe** or Fe*t, which is surrounded by electronegative ligands. The stability of complexes is
often very high.

Forms of iron and manganese in surface water For reasons discussed above, Fe** compounds are not
found in natural surface waters. The iron (Fe*') there can be dissolved by the formation of colloids
consisting of Fe** hydroxide molecule groups.

Undesirable properties of iron and manganese Iron is not harmful, but undesirable on aesthetic
grounds, making the water unpalatable. When water containing a lot of iron is used for laundry it causes
brown stains which are difficult to remove. Even small amounts of iron and manganese can lead to the
accumulation of large deposits in a distribution system. As well as being unacceptable to the customer,
 WATER TREATMENT 481

such deposits can give rise to iron bacteria, which in turn cause further deterioration in the quality of the
water by producing slimes with objectionable odours. Also, other types of bacteria use these deposits to
adsorb and start breeding, which then leads to a regrowth in the distribution system. The EU Directive
recommends a guide level of 0.05 mg/L Fe and a maximum concentration of 0.2 mg/L. It should be
noted, however, that derogations from the EU Directive can be granted to take into account the nature of
the ground from which the supply emanates. This takes into account the good quality groundwaters which
are acceptable in all other respects but can contain more than 0.2 mg/L Fe. For manganese the guide level
is 0.02 mg/L and the maximum concentration should not exceed 0.05 mg/L.
The principal method of removing iron from these waters is to oxidize the ferrous ion to ferric iron, which
can be done by aeration, and to provide a suitable filter or other method to remove the precipitated iron
compound.
It has been shown that oxidation of Fe7* by oxygen is slow and is therefore the rate determining step.
The whole process consists of several reactions but can be satisfactorily described by the following
equation:

2Fe?+ + 0.50) + (x + 2)H)O — Fe,0; -xH,O + 4H+ (11.33)

Removal procedures for low concentrations of iron If the amount of iron in a water is fairly low
(< 1 mg/L), the removal of iron is often achieved in a pressure filter containing the usual bed of sand, but
sometimes incorporating a layer of proprietary material such as ‘Polarite’ or an iron core which acts as a
catalyst. As the amount of oxygen required is small, it is provided merely by introducing air into a space
of the filter shell. Much faster rates can be used for this type of filtration than are possible for waters where
chemical coagulation precedes sand filters: rates > 50 m/h have been successfully used. As an alternative
to sand filtration, it is possible to use semi-calcined dolomitic limestone (‘Akdolit’) as the filter medium
(contains Ca/MgCO; and oxides). This material can be effective for the removal of low concentrations of
soluble iron by precipitating ferric hydroxide at its alkaline surface and the material can help render the
water less aggressive. Furthermore, it can increase the amount of magnesium in the water which is
believed to have beneficial effects on health.

Removal procedures for high concentrations of iron Where the amount of iron is large (> 10 mg/L),
the traditional practice was to treat the water as a surface water (where the iron is dissolved as a colloid)
providing a coagulation step before rapid sand filtration. That is, however, not always necessary and
should be avoided because of the high demand in equipment and personnel. It is now possible to decrease
filtration rates to approximately 5 m/h or use a sedimentation tank to allow a large proportion of the ferric
hydroxide to settle out. Multimedia filtration, involving the use of a filter containing several layers of
different materials, has proven to be highly effective. Raw water with about 15mg/L Fe and high
concentrations of humic acids can be treated at filtration rates of 15 m/h.

Poorly buffered waters Waters which are described as being difficult in terms of removal of iron are
often poorly buffered; i.e. the amount of hydrogen carbonate is low. As seen from Eq. (11.33), there is the
formation of protons during the oxidation process. In well-buffered waters these H* do not cause
problems, but poorly buffered waters may suffer acidification. During aeration of water, a lot of carbon
dioxide is removed, the pH rises and iron begins to be oxidized. The H* produced reacts with HCO; to
give more CO). In poorly buffered waters the pH will finally reach a low point where the reaction stops
(self-inhibition). Because there is still a large amount of Fe** left, it was thought necessary to complete
the reaction by adding oxidizing agents. This was later identified to be wrong, because after that it was no
longer possible to destabilize the Fe’* during the following filtration. The reason lies in the formation of
stable colloidal solutions in which destablilization is just possible when there is still enough Fe** left.
Coagulation takes place only in a definite pH range which becomes narrower as the amount of buffer
present decreases. Above and below this range very stable colloidal solutions exist formed by equally
482 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

positive or negative charges. The stability is often so high that destabilization by filtration succeeds only
in a very thin layer on the filtration material.

Removal of manganese Manganese occurs in natural waters as Mn?~. There is no way to oxidize it by
aeration in the normal pH range even if the amount is 10 mg/L or higher. The pH has to be 9 or 10 before
oxidation by oxygen takes place. This can be achieved only with strongly alkaline filter materials. The
processes going on during the oxidation are even more complicated than for iron, as Mn can occur in
different oxidation states (II, III, IV occur naturally, V, VI, VII can,be produced artificially). For the
removal of Mn?* in practice it has proven favourable to add a KMnO, solution as a conditioning agent
prior to the filtration step without changing the pH. The stoichiometrically evaluated value of
1.9kg KMnO, per kg Mn is often found to be too high (or too low), depending on simultaneously
occurring reduction and oxidation processes. The addition of KMnO, has to be carried out for several
days (3 days to | month) before the process works on its own.
Figure 11.20 is a schematic of a groundwater treatment plant in Germany for the removal of iron and
manganese. Initial levels of iron are 8000 ug/L and manganese 250 ug/L. The iron is removed by
multimedia pressure filters. The manganese is removed by multimedia gravity sand filters. The final levels
of iron and manganese are < 10 ug/L (Eberhardt, 1980).

11.11.2 Water Softening by Chemical Precipitation

As mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, hardness in water is caused by the presence of any
polyvalent metallic cations but principally Ca**, Mg?” and, less so, Fe?* and Mn*~. Total hardness is
usually computed based on the concentration of Ca>* and Mg*~ and is expressed in mg/L as CaCO3.
Hardness is more commonly associated with groundwater than with surface waters. Table 11.14 classifies
the scale of hardness.
The characteristics of the water source will predetermine the softening process. Four processes are
listed by AWWA (1990):

fe See Goes air

ld aa
I\ ben
| | |
wove
Water reservoir Breed
Bad ae a
Water table
draw down

Recirculation loop for O, enrichment

Pre-filters
h for
2 CO, stripping/aeration tower Filters for Antipressure
WJ the remoy al Mn removal surge vessel
Wells with —
submersible
pumps

Figure 11.20 Schematic of groundwater treatment plant for the removal of iron and manganese (adapted
from Eberhardt, 1980).
 WATER TREATMENT 483

Table 11.14 Classification of hardness

Hardness
(mg/L as CaCO3) Description

0-75 Soft
75-150 Moderately hard
150-300 Hard
> 300 Very hard

1. The single-stage lime process is used when the raw water has high Ca** hardness and low Mg**
hardness (< 40 mg/L as CaCO;) and no non-carbonate hardness.
2. The excess lime process is used when the raw water has high Ca** hardness and high Mg** hardness
and no non-carbonate hardness.
3. The single-stage lime-soda ash process is used when the raw water has high Ca** hardness and low
Mg** hardness and some calcium non-carbonate hardness.
3. The excess lime-soda ash process is used when the raw water has high Ca** hardness and high Mg”*
hardness and some non-carbonate hardness.

Example 11.13. A groundwater analysis indicated the following quality. Determine the lime dosage
if straight lime softening is used.
pees
Ca** = 150mg/L as CaCO;
Mg’* = 20 mg/L as CaCO;
Alkalinity = 200 mg/L as CaCO3

Solution
Lime dose = carbonic acid concentration + calcium carbonate hardness
Bicarbonate concentration:

[HCO;] = 200 x os1072 x a

= 4.0 x 10-3 mol/L

The dissociation constants for carbonic acid at 10°C (Eq. (3.42)) are

ky = HEIHCOS7
[H2CO3 ]
= 4.47 x 10-7 mol/L at STP
[H*][CO377]
[HCO3"]
= 4.8 x 107!! mol/L at STP (Eq. (3.44))

The total carbonic species concentration is

CI COE INCO27 14-1037

Ca =
[HCO;_]
T 0;
484 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

1
where
os Teenie = K,/(H)
= Nee
~ 1+ 10-75 /(4.47x 10-7) + (4.8 x 10-1)/10-75
a 410m
= 4.29 x 107? mol/L
ee053
[H,CO, ] = Cy — [HCO] — [C0377]
= 4.29 x 1073 — 4.0 x 10°? = 0.29 x 107? mol/L
= 29 mg/L as CaCO;

Therefore
Lime dose = 29 + 150 = 179 mg/L as CaCO3
i
= 9x = = 133 mg/L as Ca(OH),

Further and more detailed examples are given in AWWA (1990, Chapter 10).

11.11.3 Ion Exchange

Hard water (> 50mg/L CaCO;3) contains an excess of calcium and magnesium cations. The process of
water softening, i.e. reduction of hardness, but not its elimination, can be carried out by exchanging the
undesirable calcium and magnesium cations with sodium. Ion exchange is this process. If Na)R is an
exchange sodium resin (R is the complex base) then water softening is represented by
Mg?+ + Na2R = MgR + 2Na* (11.34)
Ca7t-e Na RY— Cake 2Na- (11.35)
Ion exchange processes are reversible and the direction of the reaction depends on the concentrations
and the level of saturation of the sodium resin. A water softening unit consists of a bed of the medium
about 0.5 to 2m high with a ‘filtration’ rate of about 4L/sm?. The process of water softening does not
remove all the hardness, as minimum values are required for health purposes. The softening capacity of
exchange resins varies from 100 to 1500 eq/m? (equivalents).

Example 11.14 A synthetic zeolite with a capacity of 400 eq/m? and a ‘filtration’ rate of 4L/s m?
is used to soften water with a flow rate of 10 L/s and a hardness of 4meq/L (250 mg/L as CaCO;). The
bed depth is 1.5m and an 85 per cent exchange utility rate is achieved before ‘breakpoint’. Determine the
medium diameter and the volume of water passed through before regeneration is required. Also determine
the regeneration time required.

Solution

Arearea = QV= =—
10 =2.5 ;
4 m

Vessel diameter @ = 1.78m

Bed volume = 1.5m x 2.5m = 3.75 m?
Total energy capacity = 3.75 x 400 = 1500 equivalents
Required exchange capacity = 85% of 1500 = 1275 equivalents
 WATER TREATMENT 485

12
Volume of water passed before regeneration = = x L013 18 750 1

318 750
On-line time between regenerations = = 1968/5 = 224h

Ion exchange processes are also used for the removal of other undesirable cations including barium,
strontium and radium—and undesirable anions including fluoride, nitrate, humates, silicates, chromates,
cic;

11.11.4 Adsorption
Some undesirable contaminants can be adsorbed on to solid adsorbents. Adsorption is both the physical
and chemical process of accumulating a substance at an interface between the liquid and solid phases.
Adsorbents used in the water treatment industry include:
e Activated carbon—PAC or GAC
e Activated alumina
® Clay colloids
e Hydroxides
e Adsorbent resins

Activated carbon is commonly used to adsorb organics that cause taste, odour, colour and microbiological
problems. It is used to adsorb algae which can be the cause of undesirable tastes, colours and odours. PAC
can be fed (in slurry form) to the water stream either at coagulation stage or just prior to filtration. Dose
rates range from 1 to 100g/m’. In this application, the PAC produces additional sludge and is not
available for regeneration.
GAC is sometimes used as a final filter bed after sand filtration. It produces a very high quality water
and can reduce chlorine levels. Some industries receiving municipal water will treat it with GAC prior to
use, e.g. pharmaceutical industry.
For PAC the significant properties are bulk density and filterability, the latter meaning that they will
eventually be filtered out in the sand filter backwash. Bulk density means that since mass is proportional
to adsorption capacity, the higher bulk densities have higher adsorption capacities. For GAC the
significant properties are hardness and particle size. The harder the particle, the less is lost by attrition.
Also, the smaller the particle, the greater the availability of macropore space and also less head is
required.

11.11.5 Chemical Oxidation

Chemical oxidation is the resultant reaction when two or more chemical species are added with the
purpose of increasing the oxidation state of one. The processes of oxidation and reduction occur in the
same reaction. For one chemical species to increase its oxidation state (lose electrons) the other
chemical(s) in the reaction must be reduced (gain electrons). The following equation is where Fe’? is
oxidized by HOCI:
2Fe?+ + HOC! + 5H)O — 2Fe(OH), + Cl- + SH* (11.36)
The ferrous ion increased in oxidation state from +2 to +3, ie. it lost one electron. Chlorine was
reduced from Cl'* to Cl'~, i.e. it gained two electrons. For compatibility two iron atoms are oxidized for
each hypochloric acid atom reduced.
In water treatment, natural oxidation occurs in several areas. Chemical oxidation is also carried out in
a number of areas. Natural oxidation can occur in open water bodies, such as lakes, storage basins and
486 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

settling tanks. The oxidation process is essentially microbiological but may also be photochemical
assisted. Iron and manganese can be oxidized as well as natural organics.
Chemical oxidation is a common practice within water treatment plants. Traditionally chlorine was
used but in recent years attention is focused on chlorine alternatives, because of the production of
trihalomethanes (THM) when chlorine reacts with natural organics. Oxidants are used for the following
purposes:
e Oxidation of iron
e Oxidation of manganese
e Colour removal
e Improvement of taste
e Improvement of odour
e Flocculent aid
The alternatives to chlorine as an oxidant are:

e Chloramines
e Ozone
e Potassium permanganate
e Chlorine dioxide

Further reading on chemical oxidants is in AWWA (1990).

11.11.6 Membrane Processes Including Reverse Osmosis

Membrane separation techniques include:
e Microfiltration (MF)
¢ Ultrafiltration (UF)
e Reverse osmosis (RO)
e Electrodialysis (ED)

These are broadly sophisticated filtration techniques used to ‘filter’ out minute impurities. MF and UF
separate molecules according to their size and molecular mass. Figure 11.21 is a schematic of the particle
size and associated separation technique.
Microfiltration allows macromolecules (107*to 10~* mm) to flow through the membrane. Bacteria
that are larger than 10 *mm are prevented from passing through the membrane wall. The wall pores in
these units are 10~* to 10. *mm. Generally, as in conventional filtration techniques, the retained particle
size is approximately one order of magnitude smaller than the particle/pore size of the filter. For
ultrafiltration the cut-off threshold lies in the range of 10° to 10-*mm pore size.

10-7 mm 10-© mm 10> mm 104 mm 10° mm 10-2 mm 107! mm

- oo e —~° & ee —_e—

—=—_— a —K—____—_——_>

<= > LS >

Reverse Ultrafiltration Microfiltration Conventional

Osmosis (UF) (MF) filtration
(RO) (CF)
Figure 11.21 Separation processes and associated particle sizes.
 WATER TREATMENT 487

Osmotic flow Osmotic equilibrium Reverse osmotic

\W/ Osmotic head

(pressure)

=—

Salt Pure Salt Salt

solution water solution solution

SM SM SM
SM = semipermeable membrane
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 11.22 Schematic of reverse osmosis (Courtesy of E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Co., 1980).

Reverse osmosis is very different to MF or UF. This is a solubilization diffusion technique that makes
use of a semi-permeable membrane which acts as a barrier to dissolved salts and inorganic molecules. It
also confines organics with molecular weights greater than 100. RO membranes do not have identifiable
pores as in MF or UF (Bilstad, 1992). RO has been used in desalination. The process is shown
schematically in Fig. 11.22. In Fig. 11.22 (c), the pressure that is applied exceeds the osmotic pressure of
the saline solution against a semi-permeable membrane, thus forcing pure water through and leaving only
salts behind, i.e. all the ions are retained on the right side.
Electrodialysis (ED) is an electrically charged membrane process where the ions are transferred
through a membrane from a less concentrated to a more concentrated solution. The flow of pure water is
tangential to the membrane while the flow of ions is perpendicular (Bilstad, 1992).
Membrane processes that were traditionally used in desalination had limited uses. However, today,
because of the vast array of impurities in waters, membrane processes are undergoing a revived interest.
Some of the more recent uses include liquid or liquid effluents from industry where conventional
treatment is deemed inadequate to satisfy standards with respect to complex organics and inorganics.
Applications to solving contamination problems include heavy metals, oily waters, chlorinated
hydrocarbons and also sludges.

11.12 US PRIMARY DRINKING WATER STANDARDS

The US primary drinking water standards are listed in detail in Table 11.15 and most recently updated in
USEPA (1995).
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 WATER TREATMENT 491

11.13 PROBLEMS

iiegt Identify the source of raw water used as potable water in your area. Determine the raw water quality
parameters (similar to, say, Table 11.5). If there is more than one source, compare the water quality
parameters.
Li With the data you have collected for Problem 11.1, determine the hardness (Ca**, Mg**) as mg/L as
CaCOs3. Is the level of hardness soft, moderate, hard or very hard?
3 If the water in your area is hard (> 150 mg/L as CaCO), describe the process used to reduce the
hardness to acceptable levels. After treatment, what level of hardness is still in the water?
A groundwater supply is odorous from the presence of H2S. Describe how you would arrange for this
to be eliminated.
The settling velocity V, is shown in Section 11.7.1 to be equal to the overflow rate. Show that the same
is true for a circular sedimentation tank.
For Example 11.2 in the text, compute the dimensions of a circular sedimentation tank for discrete
particle settling.
Ute For Example 11.2 in the text, prepare a circulative particle settling curve to determine the precise
( > 90 per cent) weight fraction of solids removal.
Determine the daily requirement of alum, lime and polyelectrolyte to coagulate a flow of
36 400 m°/day, if the results of the jar test indicated optimum coagulation when 1 litre of water
was dosed with 5 ml of a10 mg/L alum solution, 2.0 ml ofa 10 g/L suspension oflime and 0.3 mg/L
of a commercial polyelectrolyte.
For Problem 11.8, compute the amount of chemical sludge due to the use of alum, lime and
polyelectrolyte only.
11.10 An alternative coagulant to alum is ferric sulphate. Explain stoichiometrically the impact of adding
ferric on pH and alkalinity. If a raw water has an alkalinity of 80 mg/L as CaCO3, determine the final
alkalinity if S50 mg/L of ferric sulphate is added as a coagulant. Assume that bulk ferric sulphate is 20
per cent by weight Fe.
1 Design a slow sand filter to treat a water supply rate of 20 000 m? /day. Also size a rapid gravity filter
for the same supply. If the filter is required as an extension to a land-locked urban treatment plant,
which filter do you recommend?
Tisl2 Explain the process of backwashing in a rapid gravity filter. How frequently is this carried out?
113 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using chlorine as a disinfectant.
11.14 Explain in detail the process of UV disinfection.
L115 Calculate the amount of Cl, and NH; required to disinfect a supply of 20 000 m*/day with a free
residual of 1mg/L if the chlorine dose is 10 mg/L.
11.16 Explain the process of ‘breakpoint’ chlorination.
Lael7, Fluoridation of drinking water supplies is no longer utilized in many areas around the world. Explain
why this is occurring, using references to support your comments.
11.18 A raw water contains 220 mg/L Ca, 65 mg/L Mg, 160 mg/L HCO; and 180 mg/L CO), all expressed
as CaCO3. Determine the lime softening dosage required without removing magnesium. What will
the ultimate hardness be?
ee) If the water of Problem 11.18 is to be softened to a final 100 mg/L as CaCO; and not to contain more
than 35 mg/L Mg as CaCOs, find the required lime dosage.
11.20 Review the paper ‘Chemical products and toxicological effects of disinfection’ by Benjamin (1986).
re I Review the paper ‘Surface water supplies and health’ by Craun (1988).
Aiea2 Explain the process of reverse osmosis using figures to aid your explanation.
123, A water softening unit is made of a synthetic zeolite with a capacity of 300 eq/ m? and a filtration rate
of 5L/s m, to soften water with a flow rate of 20 L/s and a hardness of 4meq/L. The bed depth is
1.8m and a 75 per cent exchange rate is achieved before breakthrough. Determine the medium
diameter and water volume throughput before regeneration is required.
492 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) (1969) Water Treatment Plant Design, American Water Works Association.
American Water Works Association (AWWA) (1990) Water Quality and Treatment, McGraw-Hill, New York.
and
Barnes, D., P. J. Bliss, B. W. Gould and H. R. Valentine (1986) Water and Wastewater Engineering Systems, Longman Scientific
Technical, London.
College Cork,
Baxter, K. L. (1992) Lecture Notes on Water Treatment, Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, University
Eire.
Benjamin, W., et al. (1986) ‘Chemical products and toxicological effects of disinfection, Journal of the American Water Works
Association, 78 (11), 66
Bilstad, T. (1992) Membrane Processes, Industrial Water Pollution Technology Course in London, Technomic Publishers, London.
Byrne, R. (1988) Water Treatment Lecture Notes, University College Cork, Eire.
Craig, F. and P. Craig (1989) Britain's Poisoned Water, Penguin Books, Harmondsworth.
Craun, G. F. (1988). ‘Surface water supplies and health’, Journal of the American Water Works Association, 80 (2), 40.
Cunningham, W. P. and B. W. Saigo (1992) Environmental Science—A Global Concern, Wm C. Brown Publishers, Dubuque, Iowa.
Degremont (1991) Water Treatment Handbook, Vols | and 2, Lavoisier Publishing, France.
Dojlido, J. R. and J. A. Best (1993), Chemistry of Water and Water Pollution. Ellis Horwood/Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey, New York.
du Pont Company (1982) Permasep Engineering Manual Tech. Bulletin 502, Wilmington, Delaware, USA.
Dunning, J. M. (1962) Principles of Dental Public Health, Harvard University Press, Cambridge Mass.
Eberhardt, M. (1980) DVG Schriftenreiche Wasser No. 206. Enteisung und Entmanganung. Removal of Iron and Manganese. 17-1.
Feacham, R. G., D. Bradley, H. Garelick and D. Mara (1980) Appropriate Technology for Water Supply and Sanitation, World Bank,
December.
Flanagan, P. J. (1990) A Handbook on Implementation for Sanitary Authorities, Environmental Research Unit, Dublin.
Flanagan, P. J. (1992) Parameters of Water Quality, Environmental Research Unit, Dublin.
Graham, N. J. D. (1988) Slow Sand Fltration—Recent Developments in Water Treatment Technology, Ellis Horwood, Chichester.
Greenberg, A. E., L. S. Clescori and A. D. Eaton (1992) Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, American
Public Health Association.
Humenick, M. J. (1977) Water and Wastewater Treatment. Calculations for Chemical and Physical Processes, Marcel Dekker, New
York.
Jackson, M. H., G. P. Morris, P. G. Smith and J. F. Crawford (1989) Environmental Health Reference Book, Butterworth-Heinemann,
Oxford.
Linsley, R. K. and J. B. Franzini (1979) Water Resources Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Logsdon, G. and K. Fox (1988) Slow sand filtration in the US, in: Slow Sand Filtration, N. J. H. Graham (ed.), Ellis Horwood, Chichester.
Lorch, W. (1987) Handbook of Water Purification, John Wiley, New York.
McGhee, T. J. (1991) Water Supply and Sewerage, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Mackereth, F. J. M., J. Heron and J. F. Talling (1989) Water Analysis, Freshwater Biological Association. Ambleside, Cumbria, UK.
Matthew, R. (1993) Water Treatment Lecture Notes, University College Cork, Eire.
Metcalf and Eddy, Inc., G. Tchobanoglous and F. L. Burton (1991). Wastewater Engineering Treatment, Disposal and Reuse, 3rd edn.
McGraw-Hill, New York.
Montgomery, J. Consulting Engineers (1985) Water Treatment. Principles and Design, John Wiley, New York.
Mortensen, E. (1993) Private Communication, Reno Sam, Denmark.
O'Neill, P. (1991) Environmental Chemistry, Chapman and Hall, London.
Pankratz, T. M. (1988) Screening Equipment Handbook—for Industrial and Municipal Water and Wastewater Treatment, Technomic
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Peavey, H. S., D. R. Rowe and G. Tcholbanoglous (1985) Environmental Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York.
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 CHAPTER

TWELVE
WASTEWATER TREATMENT

12.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter is meant to be an introduction to wastewater engineering. The objectives in studying this
chapter on wastewater treatment are:

To understand the effluent quality standards required for both domestic and industrial wastewaters
To be able to quantify the hydraulic loads that arrive at a treatment plant
To be able to determine the composition and concentrations of the influent to a treatment plant
To be able to design a primary treatment (sedimentation) facility and quantify its performance
To understand the secondary biological treatment process and to be able to design a secondary
treatment and final clarifier facility
¢ To understand what processes are required in tertiary and advanced treatment
Domestic wastewater is sewage only and does not include rain runoff. Urban (or municipal—the
traditional term) wastewater is defined as domestic wastewater or a combination of domestic and
industrial wastewater, with or without rain runoff. The words ‘urban’ and ‘municipal’ are synonymous in
this text. The EU Directive 91/271/EEC, ‘Concerning Urban Wastewater Treatment’ sets down the
effluent standards to be achieved in member countries for the treatment of wastewater. The significant
parameters are shown in Table 12.1. Wastewater is first treated in settling tanks where the solids which
settle are removed. The partially treated wastewater is then processed in a biological treatment plant,
where micro-organism’s degrade the organic water to biomass (sludge) and water (plus gases). Further
settling follows. This biological treatment is by far the most common treatment process for municipal and
industrial wastewaters.
It is significant that the two key effluent parameters of BOD; and TSS at concentrations of 25 and
35 mg/L respectively are almost identical to the standards set out in the UK Royal Commission Standards
(8th Report, 1912) as 20mg/L BODs and 30mg/L TSS. The 20/30 standard, as it was known, was
adopted world-wide. However, the new EU standards of 25/35 are to be complied with in all cases, but
the competent authority i.e. local water authorities, may adopt more stringent standards where the effluent
discharges into sensitive waters. This is commonly the case in parts of northern Europe including
Denmark and Germany. It is not uncommon for standards of 10/10 to be set by the local water authorities.

AOQ2
494 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Table 12.1 EU requirements for urban wastewater

Minimum
Concentration reduction (%) Comments
Parameter

BOD} (at 20°C without nitrification) 25 mg/L 70-90 All plants

COD 125 mg/L 75
TSS 35 mg/L
(p.e. > 10000) 90
60 mg/L
(p.e. < 10000) 70
P (total phosphorus) 2mg/L P
(p.e. 10 000-100 000) 80 Sensitive areas only*
1 mg/L P
(p.e. > 100000)
N (total nitrogen) 15mg/L N
(p.e. 10 000-100 000) 70-80 Sensitive areas only
10mg/L N
(p.e. > 100 000)
* Sensitive waters ecologically.
+ BOD=BODs.
{ p.e. = population equivalent, defined as contributing 0.06 kg BODs per person per day.
Adapted from EC Directive 91/271/EEC

To achieve these standards, advanced wastewater treatment processes or long detention times are used in
treatment processes.
The BODs, or biochemical oxygen demand (discussed in Chapters 3 and 7), is a measure of
biodegradable organic carbon. The COD, or chemical oxygen demand, is a measure of the total organic
carbon in a wastewater. For each wastewater treatment plant receiving consistent waste loads, there will be
an approximate relationship between BOD, and COD. Typically for urban wastewater, COD is about 1.5
BODs. This of course depends on whether the load is purely domestic or domestic with rain runoff or
domestic plus industrial. The TSS, or total suspended solids, is a measure of the suspended material (non-
settleable), mostly of organic content, though colloidal clay minerals may also form part. It is one of the
indicators of pollution potential of wastewater and its percentage reduction is a measure of the efficiency
of the wastewater treatment plant.
When effluents are discharged into sensitive areas, they must also comply with nutrient standards.
Sensitive areas are broadly defined as those water bodies that may intermittently suffer eutrophication.
Two additional important parameters are total phosphorus (P) and total nitrogen (N). The standards for P
are set at 1-2 mg/L and for N are set at 10-15 mg/L. Again some countries in Europe abide by more
stringent nutrient standards. Nutrient removal from wastewater only became a major issue in the past
decade, though wastewater processes were already in operation in South Africa in the 1960s for nutrient
removal from wastewater.
Urban wastewaters typically have raw influent BODs values ranging from 150 to 400 mg/L. In the
United States, typical BODs influent values are closer to 150 mg/L and this is due to the large dilutions
as domestic consumption of water is typically up to 1000L/person/day by comparison with
250 L/person/day in the European Union. Raw influent values for TSS range from 150 to 400 mg/L.
It is important to note that these are the raw unsettled values. The raw settled values are about 50 per cent
of the raw unsettled values (i.e. equivalent to primary treatment). Typical raw untreated wastewater values
for P range from 5 to 15mg/L P and for N range from 40 to 80 mg/L N.
The objective in wastewater treatment is to protect the quality of the receiving waters and this is
achieved by wastewater plants designed (among others) to:

e Reduce the BOD;

e Reduce the TSS
 WASTEWATER TREATMENT 495

e Reduce N and P
e Reduce faecal coliforms

There are other objectives regarding the quality of the effluent and these depend on the type of water body
to which the effluent is discharged. For instance, in the European Union, quality compliance may be
required to the EU Bathing Water Directive, which sets particular standards on microbiological quality
should an effluent be discharged to the vicinity of a bathing area. Some of the EU Directives which may
pose additional requirements on wastewater treatment are listed in Table 12.2.
In the United States, the compliance standards are the ‘Effluent National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System’ (NPDES). They are intended to protect and preserve the beneficial uses of the
receiving water body, based on water quality criteria or technology-based limits, or both. The receiving
water quality criteria are based on the 7 day (consecutive), 10 year, low-flow regime. These criteria define
the permissible release of conservative and non-conservative pollutants. The national minima are termed
secondary treatment equivalent and for municipal effluent discharge from publicly owned treatment works
(POTWs) are shown in Table 12.3.
The whole effluent toxicity is determined by bioassay that measures both the acute and chronic
toxicity of the effluent to the aquatic specimens, e.g. fathead minnows or daphnia (ASCE and WEF,
1991). Comparing Tables 12.1 and 12.3, it is seen that EU standards are very similar to US standards.

12.2 WASTEWATER FLOW RATES AND CHARACTERISTICS

Depending on the country, two distinct wastewater treatment policies have evolved. One is where
municipal wastewater is treated independently of industrial wastewater, as is the case in Ireland. The other .

is where municipal wastewater is treated in combination with industrial wastewater, as is more often the
case in the United Kingdom. In many countries a combination of both policies is adopted.

12.2.1 Domestic Wastewater Flow Rates

Sewer networks (the underground piping collection system) are of three types:

e Separate sewers—transporting only wastewater

¢ Combined sewers—transporting wastewater plus stormwater
e Partially combined sewers
The objective in the design of new systems is to install separate sewer systems as this leads to the
minimum amount of water that will be treated in the wastewater treatment plant. However, existing
networks are usually combined or partially combined. It is a design task to ‘offload’ the excess stormwater

Table 12.2 EC water quality directives relevant to

effluents from wastewater treatment plants

Directive number Title

91/271 /EEC Concerning Urban Wastewater Treatment

76/160/EEC Bathing Water Directive
76/464/EEC Dangerous Substance Directive
78/659 /EEC Freshwater Fish Directive and Salmonoid Waters
79)/223/EEC Shellfish Directive
80/68/EEC Groundwater Directive
75/440/EEC Surface Water Directive
80/778 /EEC Drinking Water Directive
496 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Table 12.3 US minimum national performance standards for

POTWs
7 day average

Secondary treatment Trickling filters and

Parameter activated sludge process stabilization ponds

BOD; 40-45 mg/L 60-65 mg/L

SS 45 mg/L 65 mg/L
pH 6-9 6-9
WET Site specific Site specific
(whole effluent toxicity)
Faecal coliforms 400 400
(MPN/100 ml)

in a storm event, via storm overflows to rivers, so that the treatment plant does not become overloaded
with ‘clean’ stormwater.
The components of domestic wastewater flow are:
e Wastewater from homes and commerciai premises
e Infiltration wastewater that enters the pipe sewers from groundwater and underground sources (e.g.
streams)
e Water from rain runoff

Wastewater flow rates from homes and commercial premises Wastewater flow rates are used in the
hydraulic design and also in the process design of the treatment plant. However, it is easy to overdesign a
wastewater plant on a hydraulic basis and so have no hydraulic overload problems. However, this same
hydraulic overdesign can lead to inefficient process operation, which may not be realistic. Plant
breakdown may then occur due to insufficient food substrate for the micro-organisms in the secondary
treatment biological plant. It is imperative that the process design be realistic so that the micro-organisms
are operating at optimum conditions producing optimum degradation of the organics in the wastewater.
Traditionally, the hydraulic design of the plant based on wastewater flow rates was given more attention
than the process design. The process design is now considered inseparable from hydraulic design and
designers plan systems based on the dynamic nature of the process.
Figure 12.1 is a schematic of the possible variation of hourly flow over the 24 hours into a typical
municipal plant (no rain runoff, no industrial flow). The flow varies from lows in the night-time (22.00 to
06.00 h) to highs in the daytime. The peak hourly flow rate is about twice the minimum hourly flow rate
and about 1.5 times the 24 hour mean value. The shape of this curve depends on the community being
serviced. If there is no commercial, institutional or industrial activity, then peaks will occur around 9 a.m.
and 6 p.m. with slightly lower values around mid-day. In the latter case, the peaks tend to be higher (up to
twice the daily mean) than those of a single peak shown in Fig. 12.1. Ideally, in designing a plant, an early
objective is to collect the local data and compose such a curve for the specific community being serviced.
Figure 12.1 is schematic and each urban catchment has its own individual response. Figure 12.1 shows the
typical flows (m/s) and also the waste load in kg/BODs/s. The relative ratio of peak to mean is higher
for waste load than for flow rates.
In Europe, hydraulic flow rates are defined, using the term dry weather flow (DWF), i.e. the flow rate
in sewers without rain runoff. DWF is about 225 L/head/day. Again, this rate is general and specific
surveys of existing sewer networks will vary. The above rate is taken to include infiltration/exfiltration. In
Denmark DWF is less than 200 and in parts of the United States the figure exceeds 1000.

Infiltration, exfiltration flow rates The values of flows in sewers due to underground sources is site
specific. In the design of new plants, utilizing existing sewer networks, it is possible by surveying a
 WASTEWATER TREATMENT 497

1. Maximum hourly flow ~ 0.06 average daily flow

2. Minimum hourly flow ~ 0.03 average daily flow

Waste load kg BOD./s

Flows m3/s

S Average daytime flow

ee ea 24 h mean
(m?/s)
Flows Average night-time flow

4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Midnight Midday Hours

Figure 12.1 Schematic of hourly variation in flow and waste load rates.

number of sewer lines, at varying flow rates, to determine the infiltration and exfiltration rates. Suggested
values for infiltration in new sewer lines are about 10m°/ha/day for sewered areas less than 50 ha
(Metcalf and Eddy, 1991). These rates can be reduced if additional care during construction of sewer lines
is taken to adequately seal the joints.

Rain runoff flow rates Rain runoff in urban areas was examined briefly in Chapter 4, where the
elementary rational method was used to determine urban flow rates. This method is a static analysis and
should be used only as an initial guide. It is now desirable to use dynamic analysis for efficient and
thorough design of sewer networks and the hydraulics of wastewater treatment plants. Traditionally, rain
runoff flow rates were related to DWF. Typically storms might produce runoff events equivalent to some
multiplier of DWF, e.g. 6 DWF, 12 DWF, 30 DWE, etc., increasing with storm return period. The
combined sewers transported the full stormflow towards the treatment plant. Along its way, excess flow
was discharged to rivers via storm overflows. It was usual that treatment plants would be designed to treat
3 DWE, with holding tanks for a further 3 DWF, and those flows in excess of 6 DWF were overflowed,
untreated, to the receiving water. If discharge was to sensitive areas (e.g. a beach) maybe the treatment
plant capacity was designed for 6 DWF and holding tank facility for a further 6 DWF. Again, discharge in
excess of 12 DWF was overflowed. In this methodology, DWF was equivalent to 225 L/head/day. Once
the decision was taken to treat, say, 3 DWF, then overflow structures were designed to carry in excess of 3
DWE. Different design conditions may impose different multipliers of DWF than those quoted above.
Dry weather flow (DWF) is simply a definition, and in the United Kingdom it is sometimes defined
as:
DWF=LP+I+E (12.1)
where L = per capita consumption
P = population
] = infiltration (rain runoff)
E = industrial effluent contribution

When using the term DWF, the reader should know which definition is being used.
A further question is, for what return period should a sewer network be designed? Typically a flow
commensurate with a specific return period was selected, though if urban areas contained buildings with
498 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

basements the return period could be 50 years or for new separate sewer networks in housing
developments a 2 year return period was deemed adequate. This type of analysis was static; 1.e. a single
value of flow, e.g. Qsm°/s, was adopted and each pipeline within the network was designed (for gradient
and pipe size) to accommodate this.
A more detailed flood routeing analysis is required today, based on detailed rainfall and runoff
characteristics. Most often the critical flows in sewer networks result from the short intensive summer
rainstorm and not the protracted winter rains. As such, knowledge of the rainstorm profile is essential, and
in particular its degree of peakedness. If there are substantial records of rainstorms giving flow
hydrographs, the latter are routed through the network in a dynamic analysis, identifying where flow
attenuation and backwater effects occur. Such analysis is possible with the computer program MOUSE,
from the Danish Hydraulics Institute (1990), or MICRODRAINAGE, from Hydraulics Research,
Wallingford (1985), or with SWMM from the United States (EPA, 1988).
As mentioned earlier, it is not really possible in wastewater treatment plant design to separate the
hydraulic analysis from the process analysis. An attraction of the computer packages now available is that
hydraulic and process analysis can be carried out together. In other words, it is possible with MOUSE, for
instance, to view a longitudinal section of a pipeline with a water surface profile of a storm event together
with a profile of pollutant loads in terms of BOD;, COD and SS. Other rain runoff contaminants
including hydrocarbons from roads can alse be analysed as to quantity and concentrations.
It is important in the 1990s to reduce, where possible, the volume and pollutant load going to a
treatment plant. Areas that afford consideration in conservation plans are:
e Regulation of domestic consumption
e Reduction of leaks/infiltrations
e Provision of porous pavements for rain runoff and so reduce the rain runoff component to the sewers

12.2.2 Domestic Wastewater Characteristics

The characteristics of wastewater are physical, chemical and microbiological, as shown in Table 12.4.
Domestic wastewaters are not usually as complex as industrial wastewaters, where specific toxic and
hazardous compounds may exist, i.e. phenols and toxic organics. Table 12.5 shows a typical major
pollutant composition of a raw domestic wastewater.
The non-specific parameters of SS, BODs, etc., are of limited use. To be able to design the required
wastewater treatment processes, more detailed knowledge is required. The solids can be further broken
down as shown in Fig. 12.2, using typical values of 225 L/h/day and 800 mg/L total solids concentration.
Figure 12.3 defines particle sizes in relation to solids. Organic materials in wastewater form the bulk of
wastewater constituents. As such, the dominant treatment process is biological which degrades the
organics over time. A further classification was detailed by Levine et al. (1985) for organics and is shown
in Table 12.6.
Suspended solids make up about 40 per cent of the total solids or a concentration of about 350 mg/L.
Of this, 200 mg/L is normally settleable and removed by physical processes; i.e. primary settling removes
about 60 per cent of suspended solids if given adequate settling time (one to two hours). The remaining
100 mg/L is non-settleable and requires either chemical or biological processes for its removal. The most
common secondary treatment process is biological. In a physical/biological sequence of processes, most
of the settleable suspended solids (organic and inorganic) are removed, as is the organic fraction of the
non-settleable solids. What is left after secondary treatment is a small fraction of inorganics of the non-
settleable solids. Thus the treatment process reduces the suspended solids from about 300 mg/L to about
25 mg/L.
There is also a substantial component of solids called the dissolved fraction which is about 450 mg/L
of the total 800 mg/L solids. As this fraction is dissolved or in solution, it is not conventionally regarded
as ‘true solids’. Its existence and treatment is taken as being ‘part’ of BOD; or COD. This means that the
 WASTEWATER TREATMENT 499

Table 12.4 Classification of some wastewater

parameters

Class Parameter

Physical Total solids

Total suspended solids
Temperature
pH
Colour
Odour

Chemical Carbohydrates
Proteins
Lipids Organic
Fats, oils, grease
BOD;, COD, TOC, TOD
Alkalinity
Grit
Heavy metals
Nutrients N, P
Inorganic
Chlorides
Sulphur
Hydrogen sulphide
Gases

Microbiological Bacteria
Algae
Protozoa
Viruses
Coliforms

Total s olids
0.18 kg/h/d
300 mg/L

Suspended Colloidal Dissolved

0.07 kg/h/d 0.013 kg/h/d 0.10 kg/h/d
300 mg/L 60 mg/L 440 mg/L

Settleable Non-settleable
0.045 kg/h/d 0.025 kg/h/d
200 mg/L 100 mg/L

Organic Inorganic Organic Inorganic Organic Inorganic Organic Inorganic

0.034 kg/h/d 0.011 0.019 0.006 0.011 0.002 0.032 0.068 kg/h/d
150 mg/L 50 16 25 50 10 140 300 mg/L

Figure 12.2 Solids classification in a typical municipal wastewater.

500 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

wastewater
Table 12.5 Typical major pollutant characteristics of a raw domestic
Concentration by phase (225 L/h/d)

Soluble* Particulate* Total

Parameter Total load
type Parameter (kg/h/d) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)

Physical Suspended solids

Volatile ~ 80% 240
Inert ~ 20% 60
Total ~ 0.07 kg/h/d 300
Dissolved solids
Volatile ~ 40% 175
Inert ~ 60% 265
Total ~ 0.10 kg/h/d 440
Temperature 10-20 °C
Colour Fresh—grey
Old—black

Chemical BOD; ~ 0.06 kg/h/d (30%) 65 (70%) 135

COD ~0.11 kg/h/d 130 370
TOC
Total nitrogen 0.01 kg/h/d 2 IS
Organic N
Free ammonia
Nitrites
Nitrates
Total phosphorus 0.002 kg/h/d 5
Organic
Inorganic
Alkalinity
FOGst
Microbiological Total coliforms 100-1000
million MPN/L
Faecal coliforms 10-100
million MPN/L
Total viruses 1000-10 000
infectious units/L

+ FOGs = fats, oils and grease.

physical/chemical/biological treatment processes that are designed to reduce BOD;/COD are in fact also
reducing the dissolved solids fraction. The dissolved solids are made up of, in large part, carbohydrates, as
seen in Table 12.6. The latter also shows that it is the soluble fraction of total solids (i.e. carbohydrates)
that is most amenable to biochemical oxidation. Additionally, part of the dissolved solids fraction is
actually solids in concentration, similar to the background concentrations in rivers. As such, parameters
like calcium, magnesium and nutrients are part of this. The variation of pollutant load (BOD) over 24
hours parallels the flow rate curve shown in Fig. 12.1. The maximum hourly load is about 8 per cent of the

10-3 mm 10-7 mm 106mm 10°mm 10¢+mm 103mm 102mm

—e o 93 ° —_——e— +o ——e—

Colloidal
solids
Dissolved Suspended
solids solids

Figure 12.3 Solids particle size classification.

 WASTEWATER TREATMENT 501

Table 12.6 Composition of municipal wastewater organics

Classification by Size

Soluble Colloidal Settleable

Parameter <10°°mm 10~* to 10-'mm >10-'mm

COD (% of total) 25 15 26 34
Organic composition
(% of total solids)
Grease 12 51 24 19
Protein 4 25 45 25
Carbohydrates 58 7 11 4
Biochemical oxidation rate 0.39 0.22 0.09 0.08
kd!

Adapted in part from Levine et al., 1985

average daily load. The minimum hourly load is about 2 per cent of the average daily load. As such, the
pollutant load varies from low to high by a fraction of 4, by comparison with a factor of 2 for the flow
rates (see Fig. 12.1).

12.2.3 Industrial Wastewater Flow Rates and Characteristics

More precise flow rates can be determined from industry using continuous processes than from industry
using batch processes. Many chemical and pharmaceutical industries operate batch processes for periods
as short as one week. In this event, not only the flow rates change on moving to the next batch product but
also the pollutant loads. Each industry is individual, and a waste survey is obligatory to determine flow
rates and pollution load.
It is desirable to develop a flow duration curve and also a pollution load duration curve (like Fig.
12.1) at specific points along the waste streams. The latter may be defined by SS or BOD; or COD or
some other chemical parameter. Figure 12.4 is a schematic of a flow and waste load duration curve. In Fig.
12.4, it is seen that the flow is less than 180 m°*/day for 99 per cent of the time and is only less than
70 m?/day for 50 per cent of the time. Similarly, the BOD; is less than 600 mg/L for 99 per cent of the
time and is only less than 120 mg/L for 50 per cent of the time. The selection of the chemical parameter
depends on the product and waste type being generated. The value duration curves take time to complete
and may be required on each of a number of different waste streams before they enter the wastewater
treatment plant. It may be adequate to establish the flows, once per day for a period of one year, and then
compute the flow duration curve. However, with automatic continuous flow recorders, the sample
intervals can be set much smaller than one day, in fact as low as one minute. However, the task of
producing a pollution load—duration curve is expensive in time and labour. Chemical sampling equipment
can be placed on line or expensive autosampling—autoanalytical equipment can be used to produce
satisfactory pollution load—duration curves.
In industrial complexes, as with municipal wastewater, rain runoff and infiltration may also be
required to be accommodated. Many industries operate on a 5-day week and equalization basins of raw
influent are used to even out S-day flows over seven days. It is important that gaps in flow data and
pollution loads be part of waste survey analysis.

Industrial wastewater characteristics It is not possible to enumerate wastes from all industry types as
many wastes are specific to particular industries. Eckenfelder (1989) cites the following among
undesirable waste constituents and their negative effect:
502 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

BOD — 600

200 E Flow

a So | a Ss
=
(m3/d)
Flow
(mg/L)
SS
and
BOD

5 be ee
| | | | | eases)
0.01 0.1 1 in ay 20) CO) 8 SO EY YOO) wee
Percentage of time value is equal to or less than

Figure 12.4 Schematic of flow and pollution load—duration curves.

e Soluble organics Deplete DO

e Suspended solids Ultimately deplete DO and release undesirable
gases
e Trace organics Affect taste, odours and toxicity
e Heavy metals Are toxic
e Colour and turbidity Affect aesthetics
e Nutrients (N and P) Cause eutrophication
e Refractory substances resistant to biodegradation Toxic to aquatic life
e Oil and floating substances Unsightly
e Volatile substances H.S and other VOC cause air pollution

The levels of the above parameters that are acceptable in influents to streams or rivers are governed in the
European Union by Directives and in the United States by EPA regulations. Table 12.7, from O’Sullivan
(1991), itemizes some industries, mainly food processing, their dominant pollutant and their range of
BODs.

Mass balance for industrial wastewater Because of the uniqueness of most industries, waste flow
diagrams or mass balances of waste flows and characteristics are carried out prior to the design of a
wastewater treatment plant. The survey involves:

Identifying the distinct processes from start to finish

Identifying the liquid waste streams
Computing flows of all waste streams
Determining pollutant loads of all waste streams
Analysing the pollutant loads in terms of the most suitable parameters for the type of waste stream, i.e.
BODs, COD, SS, VSS, etc.

The reader is referred to AWWA (1992) for further details on mass balances for municipal plants and to
Eckenfelder (1989) for industrial plants.
 WASTEWATER TREATMENT 503

Table 12.7 BOD, range for some typical industries

BOD;
Industry Principal pollutants range (mg/L)

Dairy, milk processing CEPI 1000-2500

Meat processing SS;P 200-250
Poultry processing SS,P 100-2400
Bacon processing SS;P 900-1800
Sugar refining SS,C 200-1700
Breweries GP 500-1300
Canning, fruit, etc. SS,C 500-1200
Tanning SS,P, sulphide 250-1700
Electroplating Heavy metals Minimal
Laundry SS,C, soaps, oils 800-1200
Chemical plant SS, extremes of acidity 250-1500
and alkalinity

+ C, carbohydrate; F, fat; P, protein.

Adapted from O’Sullivan, 1991

Table 12.8 lists the approximate wastewater flow rates and per capita BOD; values for a range of
water users. As the figures are based on US uses, they are likely to be higher than comparable European
figures. These figures should be of use as guidelines and not for design. Precise figures for use in design
should be obtained from specific surveys, as the range of values below can be wide.

Example 12.1 Determine the average daily wastewater flow rate and the BODs concentration for
an urban area composed of:
(a) Population = 150000
(b) Hospital (1000 bed)
(c) 40 restaurants serving 40 customers per day (each)
(d) One 15000 student college with cafeteria
(e) An equivalent 30000 student high school without cafeteria

Table 12.8 Approximate wastewater flow rates and BOD; (per day)

Range Average BOD;

Utility Unit (L/day) (L/day) (kg/day)
Domestic
US Per capita 250-1100 630 0.1
EU Per capita 22s) 0.1
Schools
Boarding Per student 180-370 280 0.1
Day schools with cafeteria Per student 40-80 60 0.03
Day schools without cafeteria Per student 20-60 40 0.02
Restaurants Per patron 20-40 30 0.03
Hotel Per guest 160-240 200 0.1
Hospitals Per patient 300-1000 600 0.14
Offices Per employee 30-80 60 0.02
Department store Per employee 30-50 40 0.02

Adapted in part from Benefield and Randall, 1980

504 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Solution Using the rates from Table 12.8 we get:

Flow rate BOD;

Utility Flow rate (m*/day) BOD; (kg/day)
Population 150000 x 0.225 33 750 150000 x 0.10 15.000
Hospital 1000 x 0.6 600 1000 x 0.14 40
Restaurants 1600 x 0.03 48 1600 x 0.03 48
College 15.000 x 0.06 900 15000 x 0.03 450
Schools 30000 x 0.04 1200 30000 x 0.02 600
¥ = 36498 m*/day = 16 238kg/day

Example 12.2 Determine the average BOD; concentration of a municipal wastewater if the results
at the influent for 12 consecutive days are as listed below.
Also, what are the standard deviation, the 90 percentile and 50 percentile concentration?

BOD;
Day (mg/L)
525
350
475
200
250
300
300
PWN
ONAN SHS)
9 425
10 525
11 475
12 400

Solution Rearrange the values in ascending order. Determine the plotting position of each of the
following values from plotting position (m — 0.5)/n x 100, (see hydrology examples, Chapter 4),
where m = rank of value
and n = number of observations

Plotting
Rank BOD; position

1 200 4.17
2 250 12S
3 300 20.8
4 300 2972
5 350 SHES)
6 375 45.8
7 400 54.2
8 425 62.5
g) 475 70.8
10 475 192
11 525 87.5
1 525 95.8
 WASTEWATER TREATMENT 505

90 percentile
500

400 eT Ag a
50 percentile a !
eC itheee Gl MAN SeeK Ae Se lel MO i ae Nt
3b
&
hon
}
om
:
9' 8
'
4
' J

aa 3
350 eh ! ' ' y
'
ie} Filter aesames pela na
ea paler ea aT er

300 (Pe era AE

10 percentile iy rata
DSO eeceeicr
aero pes cessor =nee= ie nape pate

200 ge CE Ne
Linear oe es ea ae
scale Ses
eee Ste aenes Me
Log scale 1 2 Ss i) 20 BO) 50 70 80 90 95 98 99

Percentage equal to or less than

Then plot the points on logarithmic probability paper and trace the line of best fit.

Average = 383 mg/L

The 90 percentile value = 510 mg/L
The 50 percentile value = 380 mg/L
The standard deviation = $ (90 percentile — 10 percentile)
= 7 (510 — 255)
s.d. = 170mg/L

Note: This is somewhat similar to examples of flood flow determination used in Chapter 4.
506 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

12.3 DESIGN OF WASTEWATER NETWORK

Wastewater in urban areas is collected via a series of underground pipelines, usually of concrete
construction. The pipes are usually laid about 1 to 3m below the road surface (depending on their
gradient). Pipelines usually start out collecting wastewater from a group of houses with an initial pipe size
of 0.15 m diameter, as this is the smallest practicable size. As the number of houses (or industries) grow,
so do the pipeline sizes. On the perimeter of urban areas, pipe sizes start out at about 0.15m but by the
journey’s end, having collected the wastewater from, say, 100000 houses and many industries, plus road
runoff, pipeline sizes increase to several metres in diameter. For instance, the proposed outfall pipe for the
Boston wastewater plant into the sea is 8.3 m in diameter. It is not unusual to find sewer pipelines in urban
areas that are 1 or 2 or 3m in diameter. The pipes are laid at depths below road surfaces, depending on the
geology and road surface loading.
The design of the pipe network to carry sewage and other flows is best understood by means of an
example. Today, such design is via routine computer programs and uses real time rain data but Example
12.3 is prepared manually for the benefit of understanding the methodology. The example is adapted from
Brassil (1978). The student is referred to the Wallingford procedure for Hydraulics Research (1985).
In the design of foul sewers, the following are usually adopted:

1. Minimum pipe velocity, for flushing > 0.75 m/s.

2. Maximum pipe velocity to prevent scouring and separation of liquids from solids < 3.5m/s.
3. In the design of foul sewers only, use a flow rate

Oy = 3DWF (at 700 L/person/day). (12.2)

to account for peak flows and infiltration to the pipeline from rainwater/groundwater.
4. For combined sewers use a flow rate equal to

Qc = 3DWF+I+E (1223)
where I = storm runoff
E = industrial flow
5. For industrial contributions, unless the flows and pollutant loads are known specifically, flows may be
estimated from the following:

Light industry 2 L/s per ha

Medium industry 4 L/s per ha
Heavy industry 8 L/s per ha
These figures assume no recycling and no water conservation. Good practice, as is the case in
Germany, has comparable figures of 0.5L/s for light, 1.5L/s for medium and 2L/s for heavy
industry.
6. For domestic flows, assume a habitation factor of 4, i.e. 4 persons per house, so
Q per house = 4 x 0.225 = 0.9 m3 /day/house
The values given above are guides only and specific local authorities or consultants will use their own
guideline values. Readers in Europe should refer to the Wallingford method (UK Hydraulics Research at
Wallingford) for a simplified treatment or the D.H.I (Danish Hydraulics Institute) for computer software.

Example 12.3 Consider a foul sewer network layout as shown in Fig. 12.5. This example is
reproduced from Brassill (1981). There are seven blocks of developments, housing mixed with
industry.
In block | there are 200 houses and 0.3 ha oflight industry. The sewer pipe is a single line of 120
m length
at a gradient of 1/180. The other six development blocks are downstream of block 1. The task is to design
 WASTEWATER TREATMENT 507

each pipeline to satisfy the requirements of Sec. 12.3. Use the Colebrook—White equation to compute the
velocity in each pipe:

k 2.5lv
Vee 2) 22DS, lo |, | (12.4)
3 DIED 2eDS.

Houses—200
Industry—0.3 ha (light)
O® Block | -

2s |) UATR®)
i)
ro)
3

Houses—280
A Industry—0.5 ha (medium)

Block 2
Ww

83 1/120

Houses—140 B
Industry—1.1 ha (heavy)

aS)
\ Block 3 S| Houses—200 Houses—110
3 | Industry—1.8 ha (heavy) Industry—0.9 ha (light)

=|
>/ Block 5
S
Houses—160
Industry—2.3 ha (medium)

1/100
Block 7\ Houses—350
Industry—2.1 ha (heavy)

Figure 12.5 Sewer layout for Example 12.3 (adapted from Brassil, 1981, by permission).
508 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

where D = pipe diameter, m

S> = hydraulic gradient, m/m
k, = roughness height, m
v = kinematic viscosity = 1.003 x 10-6 m*/s at 20°C
Use a roughness height of 0.3 mm for concrete pipes.

Solution Prepare a table into 17 columns, as shown in Table I2ee

Column (1) Identifies the (new) area of contribution

Column (2) Identifies previous area of contribution
Column (3) Identifies the total area contributing
Column (4) Identifies flows from upstream
Columns (5—10) Identify the number of houses and type of industry and flows from each
Column (11) Identifies the total flow from housing and industry
Column (12) Is the total flow from (11) plus upstream flows
Column (13) Is the pipe gradient
Column (14) Is a guess of size of pipe diameter
Columns (15 and 16) Are capacity and flows from either hydraulic tables or Colebrook—White
equation. If the first size is inadequate, the next size up is tried
Column (17) Makes remarks

The flow rates of column (12) are compared to the actual capacity of column (15) and the capacity then
deemed adequate or not. If not, the pipe is increased in size, etc.

12.4 WASTEWATER TREATMENT PROCESSES

Municipal wastewater is primarily organic in content and a significant number of industries including
chemical, pharmaceutical and food industries have high organic waste loads. This means that the main
treatment processes are geared towards organics removal. In a typical treatment plant, the wastewater is
directed through a series of physical, chemical and biological processes each with a specific waste load
reduction task. The tasks are typically:
e Pre-treatment Physical and/or chemical
e Primary treatment Physical
e Secondary treatment Biological
e Advanced treatment Physical and/or chemical and/or biological.

Table 12.10 is a flow chart of possible unit operations (unit processes) for three wastewater types:
domestic, chemical and food. In some countries like the United Kingdom and parts of the United States,
industrial wastewater is treated to a standard acceptable at publicly owned treatment works (POTWs)
where it is further treated before discharge as effluent to a receiving water body. Municipal wastewater
treatment processes treat water with influent values (typically) of 300/400 for BOD;/SS and produce an
effluent with values of 20/30 for BODs/SS. Industrial influent values may be high in BOD, and low in
SS and high in metals or organics. Some industrial wastes may have high COD but low BOD values. As
such, pre-treatment, both physical (e.g. air stripping of ammonia) and chemical (oxidation/reduction for
heavy metals), is normally required prior to biological treatment. The most common biological treatment
process is ‘activated sludge’, which is capable of removing BOD;/SS of a wide range of particle sizes.
Dairy processing usually requires roughing biofilters to reduce its influent BOD; of about 2000 mg/L to
values of 300 to 400 mg/L before being treated in activated sludge systems.
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510 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Table 12.10 Flow chart outline of unit processes in domestic and typical
industrial wastewater treatment

Treatment Municipal Chemical industry Milk processing

categorization wastewater wastewater wastewater
ee Se ee
Physical Equalization Equalization
pre-treatment Coarse screening Coarse screening
Fine screening Air stripping Fine screening
Grit removal Oxidation/reduction Grit removal
Flotation Flotation

Chemical a)
pre-treatment Neutralization Neutralization

Primary treatment Primary treatment Primary clarification

Secondary treatment Biological treatment Biological Biotowers

Activated sludge Activated sludge Activated sludge
or Trickling filters
or Aerated lagoons
or RBC
Secondary clarification

Nutrient removal Biological (N)

Chemical (P)
Biological (P)

Tertiary treatment Sand filters Sand filters Sand filters

Adsorption
Chemical oxidation
Ozonation

Advance wastewater Ion exchange

treatment
Sludge treatment
and disposal Yes Yes Yes

+ See Chapter 13.

Figure 12.6 is a more detailed flow chart of the processes in a municipal wastewater treatment system.
There are two end products: sludge solids and liquid effluent. The processes are identified and the
approximate extent of treatment in terms of BOD;/SS reduction is found. The influent characteristics are
about 300 mg/L BODs and 400 mg/L SS. The values after primary clarification are about 200/200. The
primary clarification (typically) removes about 30 per cent of the BOD; and about 60 per cent of the SS. The
secondary treatment process of activated sludge and secondary clarification (sedimentation) further reduces
the BODs/SS to 20/30. Therefore it is possible in well-managed plants to produce an effluent after secondary
clarification good enough to meet international standards for discharge to most watercourses. Sand filtration
may be added as an advanced treatment step if the effluent is being discharged to a sensitive area and so
reducing values to 10/10. Nutrient removal (N and P) is achieved by a combination of biological and
chemical processes, although purely biological processes are also possible.
A liquid-solid sludge is produced from several of the unit processes. The ‘sludge’ from screens and
grit channels may be separated and the grit stone recycled in part with the excess going to landfill. The
primary sludge (which is very different to secondary sludge in composition) is sometimes anaerobically
digested (as it is still high in organic content) or mixed with secondary sludge and waste activated sludge.
It is then conditioned, thickened and dewatered for further disposal. The sludge effluent or supernatant is
usually returned to the primary clarifier in a further cycle. Chapter 13 contains details of sludge and its
disposal.
 WASTEWATER TREATMENT 511

Wastewater
influent
300/400

Screening
Coarse y Screening to landfill
Fine or recycle

Grit
removal & Grit to landfill or recycle

—_~¢ -
4 Returned sludge liquors
Primary ;
clarification Primary
120/130 sludge

Returned activated
Activated sludge (RAS)
sludge
Returned
filter
backwash

Secondary Secondary
clarification sludge
20/30 Waste activated sludge
(WAS)

Sludge
Sand treatment
filtration Conditioning
10/10 Thickening
Dewatering

Effluent Sludge
waters to solids
receiving disposal
water body

Figure 12.6 Unit processes in municipal wastewater treatment *300/400 means 300 mg/L of BOD and 400 mg/L of SS.

12.5 WASTEWATER PRE-TREATMENT

By definition, pre-treatment is the process or processes that prepare a wastewater to a condition that it can
be further treated in conventional secondary treatment biological processes. In municipal wastewater it
means the removal of floating debris and grit and the removal of oily scums. These pollutants would
inhibit the biological process and possibly damage mechanical equipment. Ideal influent parameters for
municipal activated sludge, the principal biological treatment processes are in the range 100 to 400 mg/L
for BOD; and SS. There may be occasions when municipal wastewater (if also taking industrial effluents)
may have a pH either too acidic or too alkaline for optimum biological degradation and may thus need pH
correction. This may be achieved by the addition of sulphuric acid (H2SO,) or lime. There may also be
requirements when the flow rate is inconsistent (e.g. five day week industrial effluent) that flow balancing
 §12 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

in a storage tank be provided. This balancing or equalization tank may also be used to balance the organic
loading if that varies substantially. If a wastewater is deficient in nutrients, essential for biological
treatment, then nutrients may be added in the pre-treatment stage. Pre-treatment for municipal wastewaters
is normally only physical, i.e. flow balancing, screenings removal and grit or oily scum removal. Industrial
influents may additionally require chemical pre-treatment in the form of air stripping (ammonia removal),
oxidation, reduction (heavy metal precipitation) and air flotation (oil removal). Figure 12.7 shows some
pre-treatment processes used for industrial effluents. Figure 12.8 shows some of the pre-treatment
processes required for municipal effluents. If industrial effluents are further treated in a municipal plant,
they would usually first undergo the processes shown in Fig. 12.7. Details on industrial wastewater pre-
treatment are well covered in Eckenfelder (1989) and Eckenfelder ef al. (1992).

12.5.1 Screenings
The objective of screens is to remove large floating material (e.g. rags, plastic bottles, etc.) and so protect
downstream mechanical equipment (pumps). There are four types of screens in normal use:

1. Coarse screens with openings greater than 6 mm that remove large material.
2. Fine screens with openings in the range 1.5 to 6mm, which are sometimes used as a substitute for
primary clarification (e.g. when activated sludge is used).
3. Very fine screens with openings in the range 0.2 to 1.5mm, which reduce the SS to primary
clarification levels.
4. Microscreens with openings in the range 0.001 to 0.3 mm, which are used for effluent polishing as a
final treatment step. These are not used in pre-treatment except as a single one step treatment process
for predominantly inorganic wastewater, e.g. quarry washings.

Industrial process
wastewater

Organic
chemicals

Oxidation Air
Oxidation
reduction stripping

Precipitation Adsorption

net hes
-——
Filtration

Primary treatment

Figure 12.7 Typical chemical pre-treatment of industrial effluents.

 WASTEWATER TREATMENT 513

Grit
facilities

FOG
flotation

Balancing
pH, organic,
nutrients,
flow

To
primary treatment

Figure 12.8 Typical physical pre-treatment of municipal and combined municipal/industrial wastewater.

Comminutors are a traditional method of screening and shredding the retained material and then
allowing it back into the flow. They are no longer recommended since items like plastic pieces can find
their way to the biological plant creating inhibition conditions for the microbial population. Screens are
designed to accommodate through flow velocities greater than 0.5m/s and less than 1.2m/s with
maximum head losses of about 0.7 m.

12.5.2 Grit Channels

Grit is inorganic sand or gravel particles of size about 1mm which are washed into sewer collection
systems from roads and pavements. Grit usually does not exist in industrial process wastewater but is part
of municipal systems where the collection systems combine foul water and stormwater. Grit is removed
(after screenings) because its inclusion within the system can abrade mechanical equipment and also
because it can settle out in the biological treatment plant, reducing its space efficiency.
The two common types of grit collection devices are:
¢ The helical flow aerated grit chamber
@ The horizontal flow grit channel
Figure 12.9 shows a schematic of the helical flow aerated grit chamber. Air is introduced along one side of
the channel near the bottom and this causes a spiral motion perpendicular to the main flow direction. The
heavier grit particles settle while the lighter organic matter remains in suspension and is carried on to
primary clarification. The design philosophy is based on an adequate retention time in the basin of about
3 min. Aerated grit chambers have proved more efficient than the horizontal flow type and the grit tends to
be ‘cleaner’.
The more traditional grit chamber is of the horizontal flow type. The design philosophy is based on a
minimum through-flow velocity of about 0.3 m/s and a detention time of about | min. They are typically
514 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Influent

Outlet
channel
over weir

Grit

Figure 12.9 Helical flow pattern in aerated grit chamber.

designed to remove grit particles greater than 0.15mm with associated settling velocities of about
0.01 m/s. The reader is referred to sedimentation in Chapter 11 for details of settling processes.

Example 12.4 Design a horizontal flow grit chamber to remove grit of size greater than 0.2 mm if
the through flow is 10000 m*/d. The specific gravity of the particles is 1.9.

Solution From Stokes’ law,

Settling velocity V, =
&(Pp — Py)d? (12.5)
18
9.81(1.9 — 1.0)d?
~ 18 x 1.002 x 10-3
= 490d?
= 490 x 0.2? = 19.6 mm/s
say V; = 0.02 m/s

Assume the depth is 1.5 times the width and the through-flow velocity = 0.3 m/s. Thus

Cross-sectional area d4 = W x D= 1.5 W2

meu,
Vy
=
10 000 ay 2
56005a24 6005 Mme aacah
Therefore W = 0.51m and (D = Os 7oi00

Chamber length L = Vy x tg
 WASTEWATER TREATMENT 515

Detention time tg =

Therefore Viet — 03938

= 11.4m

and dimensions are 11.4m x 0.51 m x 0.76m

12.5.3 Flotation

Sedimentation is the gravity unit process of separating solids from liquids. Flotation is the buoyancy unit
process of separating ‘solid’ particles from a liquid phase. In municipal works, the solids are typically fats,
oils and greases (FOGs), although in many municipal plants their amount is insignificant and so flotation
is not an essential unit process. In industrial plants the ‘solids’ may be waste oil products. The milk
producing industry usually has fats and grease among its liquid wastes. The process of separation involves
introducing air bubbles at the bottom of a flotation tank. These air bubbles attach themselves to the
particulate matter and their combined buoyancy encourages the particles to rise to the surface where they
can be removed by skimming. Flotation is used when suspended particles have a settling velocity so low
that they are not settleable in sedimentation tanks. The particulates may settle if chemically assisted by a
coagulant, as is the case in the removal of suspended particles in potable water treatment. Flotation
systems include:

* Gravity flotation
e Vacuum flotation
e Electroflotation
e Dissolved air flotation (DAF)
e Air flotation

Gravity flotation is accomplished by what is known as a “grease trap’ or a series of them. They are
common in very small industries and automobile garages. The waste liquid flows through a series of
chambers and in the process the grease or oil particles, being lighter than water, rise to the surface and are
mechanically removed. A hydraulic retention time of about 30 min and a flow-through velocity of 4 to
6m/h are required for successful operation. They are not suitable for urban wastewater treatment plants
because of the large tank size required.
Vacuum flotation consists of saturating the wastewater with air in an aeration basin and then applying
a partial vacuum to a covered tank. Minute bubbles are released from the liquid and become attached to
the suspended particles which then migrate to the surface where they are removed. The flotation procedure
is common with the US fruit and vegetable processing industry.
Electroflotation is the process where electrodes placed towards the floor of a tank produce
microbubbles when the liquid in the tank is electrolysed by means of a direct current. The bubbles of
oxygen produced at the anode end rise and attach themselves to the suspended particulates, producing a
surface scum which can be removed. This process has a high cost of electrode replacement.
The most successful method is dissolved air flotation. Usually (but not always) part of the effluent is
recycled from a point downstream of the DAF unit. Recycled flow is retained in a pressure vessel for a
few minutes where mixing and saturation of the flow with air occurs. This recycled effluent is added to the
DAF unit where it is mixed with the incoming raw effluent. As the pressure returns to atmospheric, the
dissolved air comes out of solution, forming fine bubbles, which rise to the surface bringing grease matter
516 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Steel scraper belt with rubber tips

.on =| | |
|
Wastewater =a W303 ce Vane WW ait
inlet Surface grease scum
Air/water Float
inlet DAF scum

cally 8) ineta

Steel baffle

Figure 12.10 Dissolved air flotation (DAF) unit.

with them, where they are removed. The design upward flow velocity is in the range of 4 to 6m/h and the
air to solids ratio by weight is in the range of 1 to 5 per cent. Figure 12.10 is a schematic of a DAF unit.
Air flotation is a variation of DAF where air is directly introduced to the flotation tank by means of an
impeller.

12.5.4 Equalization
In order that a wastewater treatment plant receives an effluent that it is capable of handling without
distress, equalization (balancing) may be required. This may include one or more of the following:
e Flow equalization
e Organic equalization
e Nutrient balancing
e pH balancing (neutralization or pH correction)
Flow balancing is common in industries that operate a 5 day week. Here the flow is balanced or spread out
equally over 7 days so that the flow arriving into the plant is the same for each of the 7 days. Similarly, in
the case of organic or pollutant load balancing, industry may at different times during the week have a
high COD effluent, lasting only a few hours. If this were sent directly through the treatment plant it may
cause a shock load with consequent problems. It is therefore usual to balance the high load such that a
more even load is sent to the plant for treatment. This is done by retaining the pollutant load in a balance
or equalization tank, prior to treatment. Nutrient balancing is where nutrients may be added to the influent
wastewater should the wastewater be deficient in nutrients. pH balancing (neutralization) may be required
should an influent to a wastewater treatment plant be too high or too low in pH for optimum secondary
treatment of that waste. It is desirable that the pH be in the range of 6.5 to 8.5 for activated sludge
treatment systems. Many industrial wastewaters are not within this range and therefore need to be
‘corrected’ or balanced. The objectives of balancing may be summarized as:
e Equalization of flows to minimize flow surges
e Equalization of organic loads to dampen fluctuations
¢ Neutralization of pH variations to bring it to the range 6.5 to 8.5
e Provision of continuous influent to the plant
e Provision of continuous effluent from the plant to the receiving water body
¢ Control of high toxicity loads
Equalization and neutralization are achieved by the provision of a tank, usually after screenings and
grit removal and prior to primary sedimentation. Two layouts are common: the in-line system shown in
Fig. 12.11 and the side-line system of Fig. 12.12. With in-line equalization, all the flow passes through the
 WASTEWATER TREATMENT 517

To primary
wastewater sedimentation

Screens Grit removal Equalization Flow control

Figure 12.11 In-line equalization (adapted from ASCE and WEF, 1991).

equalization basin, resulting in a significant flow and load (BOD;) dampening. With side-line
equalization, only that flow greater than, say, 1 DWF goes to the equalization basin. Less effective
dampening occurs but pumping costs are much less than for the in-line system.
The type of tank equalization facility used may be of two kinds:
e A tank with minimum mixing to inhibit septicity
e A tank with sufficient mixing to act as a pre-aeration unit
Both types of facility are beneficial to consequent primary sedimentation and secondary biological
treatment. However, the provision of aeration (either mechanical or diffused air) has extra benefits to the
later treatment processes. Using pre-aeration results in pre-flocculation of some suspended solids and
improves the settling characteristics. Equalization benefits biological treatment by providing an almost
steady waste flow and load, thereby allowing the biological system to operate at near steady state
conditions. As such, optimum operation occurs. In-line aeration equalization may provide up to a 20 per
cent BOD; load reduction to the biological system.
Equalization may be used to upgrade existing plants or can be provided in new plants. The design
decision to be made is whether it is more economical to include equalization basins or to increase slightly
the size of downstream unit processes (primary clarification and biological secondary treatment).
According to the AWWA (1992), equalization facilities may not be economical for municipal plants if the
peaking factors (peak flow/average flow) are less than 2.
Equalization facilities generally may be of three types:
¢ Constant flow, variable waste strength
¢ Constant waste strength, variable flow
e Constant flow, constant waste strength
With some industries, flow rates are small but waste strengths vary significantly. In this case it may be
desirable to produce a constant waste strength by equalization and permit the small flow to remain

Overflow
structure

To primary
- ——
wastewater A sedimentation
Screens Grit removal

Equalization Flow control

Figure 12.12 Side-line equalization (adapted from ASCE and WEF, 1991).
518 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

variable. However, in providing an equalization facility to produce a constant flow, some benefits of
dampening the waste strength also occur.

Example 12.5 Design the size of an equalization tank to balance flow rates from a municipal
wastewater as given in columns (1) and (2) ‘of Table 12.11.

Solution Columns (1) and (2) are the given hourly increments and associated flow rates. coum
(3) shows the associated hourly flow rates. Column (4) shows the cumulative flows in m> from
midnight to midnight. The average flow rate is computed ,from the cumulative flow as
12 000 m?/24h x 3600 s=0.1388m*/s. If the averaged flow is computed over an hour, this equals
500 m°. AS such, if 500m? is sent through the system every hour then after 24 hours, a total flow of
12 000 m? is processed. Column (7) shows the difference between the cumulative flow and ue cumulative
equalized flow. The equalized flow exceeds the cumulative flow by a maximum of 1260 m>. This then is
the size of the equalization basin required to process the equalized flow of 500 m°/h. It is of course
prudent to design for a space capacity of, say, 20 per cent, giving the design volume size of the
equalization basin as 1260 x 1.2 at 1500m’.
These calculations are shown graphically on a plot of time versus cumulative flow. The inflow
cumulative mass diagram is a curve. The equalized cumulative flow is a straight line. The differences
between the two lines shows when an equalization basin is required. This is shown schematically in
Bigs 1243:

Table 12.11 Municipal flow rates to assess equalization basin size

Equalized
Flow flow Column
Time OF Volume cumulative Oeics cumulative (6) — (4)
(h) (m°/s) (m°/h) (m’) (m°/s) (m’) (m’)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

0-1 0.13 468 468 0.1388 500 32

1-2 0.12 432 900 0.1388 1000 100
2-3 0.11 396 1296 0.1388 1500 204
344 0.10 360 1 656 0.1388 2000 344
4-5 0.08 288 1944 0.1388 2500 556
5-6 0.06 216 2 160 0.1388 3000 840
6-7 0.08 288 2448 0.1388 3500 1052
7-8 0.10 360 2 808 0.1388 4000 1192
8-9 0.12 432 3 240 0.1388 4500 1260
9-10 0.14 504 3744 0.1388 5 000 1256
10-11 0.16 576 4320 0.1388 5500 1180
11-12 0.18 648 4968 0.1388 6000 1032
12-13 0.20 720 5 688 0.1388 6 500 812
13-14 0.19 684 6372 0.1388 7000 678
14-15 0.18 648 7020 0.1388 7500 480
15-16 0.17 612 7 632 0.1388 8 000 368
16-17 0.16 576 8 208 0.1388 8 500 292
17-18 0.15 540 8 748 0.1388 9 000 252
18-19 0.16 576 9 324 0.1388 9500 176
19-20 0.17 612 9 936 0.1388 10.000 — 64
20-21 0.18 648 10584 0.1388 10500 — 84
21-22 0.16 576 11 160 0.1388 11000 — 160
22-23 0.127 456 11700 0.1388 11 500 — 200
23-24 0.107 384 12000 0.1388 12000 0
Average
0.1388
 WASTEWATER TREATMENT 519

14. 000

12 000
ae!
a
Equalized as
= 10000
mass curve i
:
S
%> 8000

z
Sal quired
Require a
= 6000 equalized volume Bauer
5 = 1260 me
Oe Bioeh, Tangent at lowpoint
5 4000

2000

0 : Inflow mass curve

eA aA
| a) pe
| | |
2 4 6 8 IK) eile. ifs Op yt
Hours of day
Figure 12.13 Mass diagram for equalization basin.

12.6 PRIMARY TREATMENT

Primary treatment is often called clarification, sedimentation or settling. This is the unit process where the
wastewater is allowed to settle for a period (~*~ 2h) in a settling tank and so produce a somewhat clarified
liquid effluent in one stream and a liquid-solid sludge (called primary sludge) in a second stream. The
objective is to produce a liquid effluent of suitably improved quality for the next treatment stage (1.e.
secondary biological treatment) and to achieve a solids separation resulting in a primary sludge that can
be conveniently treated and disposed of. The benefits of primary treatment include:
e Reduction in suspended solids
e Reduction in BOD;
e Reduction in the amount of waste activated sludge (WAS) in the activated sludge plant
e Removal of floating material
e Partial equalization of flow rates and organic load
Primary treatment is quiescent sedimentation with surface skimming of floating matter and grease, and
bed level collection and removal of settled sludge. Sedimentation is carried out in a variety of tank
configurations including:
e Circular—most common
e Rectangular
e Square

They may be flat bottomed or hopper bottomed. Wastewater enters the tank, usually at the centre, through
a well or diffusion box. Figure 12.14 shows a cross-section of a typical circular primary clarification tank.
The tank is sized so that retention time is about 2h (range 20 mins to 3h). In this quiescent period, the
suspended particles settle to the bottom as sludge and are raked towards a central hopper from where the
sludge is withdrawn. The clarified water is discharged over a perimeter weir at the surface of the tank, at a
rate known as the basin overflow rate or surface overflow rate (SOR). The units of SOR are m?/ day /m?.
The last m? is the plan area of the tank. The SOR is different to the weir overflow rate (WOR). The units
of the WOR are m*/day/m. The last m is the length (perimeter) of the weir.
Primary sedimentation is among the oldest of wastewater treatment processes. According to the
AWWA (1992), money spent on primary treatment often provides the greatest return on the investment in
terms of dollars per kg of pollutant removed. Traditionally, the design criteria were:
520 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Trapped Overflow weir for

floating clarified water
oe
Clarified water
matter
er = Sere ee een ee aes era ee Decant
a ee a
WOIOO© channel
ile el
|~~ OY ~
~~

4 ~ i Diffusionbox
- — o v N\W ee ,

Sw

4 ne Pag -
chai i ie Concrete or
es Sludge settling | steel walls

Sludge rake Setting Vv.

Ae velocity

Concrete floor—sloping
Sludge well =
Influent pipe
Sludge withdrawal

Figure 12.14 Typical circular primary settling tank.

Basin overflow rate (surface loading m?/day/m”)

Depth
Surface geometry
Hydraulic retention time
Weir rate (m° /day/m)
These criteria are physical and while they may be adequate for the design of the tank they say nothing
about the performance and operation of the sedimentation process. Therefore, additional parameters,
called performance criteria, were established to monitor and improve the day-to-day performance. These
criteria include:
e Influent flow rates and their variation (daily variation)
e Influent waste strength rates and its variation
e Recycle influent streams:
— From activated sludge or septage
— Supernatants from sludge dewatering
— Washings from tertiary filter processes

The above may vary from hour to hour or from day to day. The flow rates may have peaks several times
the daily average, and waste strengths may vary accordingly. Recycle streams can come from several
sources and in hugely varying waste strengths. Septage, for instance, may have a BOD, value 30 times
greater than municipal raw wastewater. Supernatants from anaerobic digestion processes or filtrate
backwashings may also be very high in waste strength. As such, the performance of a primary
clarification is not solely dependent on influent flow variations. For instance, plants that may have been
overdesigned for flow may find that the retention time in the tank is not the 2 hours of the original design
but several times that. Excessive retention time leads to septicity as there is no mixing in primary
sedimentation. It is also possible that where the operation and maintenance of primary tanks is poor (i.e.
long retention times and infrequent sludge withdrawals) the quality of clarified water is no improvement
on the influent wastewater. However, with good performance management, removal rates of 50 to 70 per
cent for suspended solids and 25 to 40 per cent for BOD; can be achieved. Figure 12.15 shows the
 WASTEWATER TREATMENT 521

percentage removal rates versus surface overflow rates. Surface overflow rates range from 32 to
48 m? /day /m? at average flow rates. Based on peak flow rates, the corresponding values are 80 to
120 m°/day/m*. When waste activated sludge from activated sludge treatment is recycled through
primary settling tanks the overflow rates are approximately 75 per cent of the above. The depth of tanks
varies from about 2.5 to 5m (refer to Chapter 11 for further details on sedimentation tanks).

Example 12.6 Design a primary settling tank to remove 60 per cent ofthe SS if the average flow is
5000 m?/day with a peak factor of 2.5. What is the corresponding BOD, reduction?

Solution From Fig. 12.15, we see that to achieve a 60 per cent SS reduction a surface overflow rate
(SOR) of 35 m?/ day/m? is required. This also affords a 32 per cent BOD; reduction.

oO Q = 5000m3/d =
ea= SOR
Surface area required 35m ede 143m 2

Using a circular tank,

Required diameter = 13.5m
Assuming a side wall depth of 3 m,
Volume = 143 x 3 = 429m?

K 429 m3 x 24
Detection time = 2 = dre
eee oes 2.06 h
Q 5000 m3/m?/day
2.5 x 5000
At peak flows, SOR = a = 87m?/m*/d

This gives a detention time of 50 min and an SS removal rate of 38 per cent and a corresponding BOD;
reduction of 20 per cent.
For further details on the principle of sedimentation the reader is referred to Chapter 11.

12.6.1 Chemically Enhanced Primary Sedimentation

The addition of coagulant chemicals (iron salts, lime, alum) before sedimentation promotes flocculation
of fine suspended matter into more readily settleable flocs. This increases the efficiency very substantially

60

(%)
40
Removal

=e = —
20 40 60 80 100
Surface overflow rate (m3/d/m2)

Figure 12.15 Surface overflow rate and percentage removal (adapted from McGhee, 1991).
522 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Table 12.12 Comparison of pollutant removal

efficiencies for primary sedimentation with
and without coagulation
Removal efficiencies of primaryssettling

With coagulants Without coagulants

Parameter (%) (%)

TSS 60-90 40-70

BOD; 40-70 25-40
COD 30-60 20-30
Te 70-90 5-10
Bacteria 80-90 50-60

Adapted from Harleman, 1991

of SS and BOD; removal rates. Table 12.12 shows a comparison of removal efficiencies using primary
sedimentation with and without chemical coagulation.
Chemical enhancement sustains the high removal efficiency over a wide range of removal rates. In
conventional primary sedimentation tanks, as the surface overflow rate increases, the removal efficiency
decreases. With chemical coagulants, the removal efficiencies are almost constant over an SOR range of
20 to 80 m°*/m?/day (Heinke and Tay, 1980). A disadvantage of chemical coagulants is an increase in
primary sludge which is a chemical-type sludge quite different to the biological sludge, from primary
sedimentation. The chemical sludge is difficult to dewater as is known from water treatment chemical type
sludges (Chapter 13).
The mechanism of chemically enhanced primary sedimentation is to use an aeration tank prior to the
settling tank. The chemicals are added to the aeration tank. One such set up is shown in Fig. 12.16 from
Canada, where the chemical coagulant and coagulant aids are added continuously to a pre-aeration tank.
In several plants in Scandinavia, the total treatment process is pre-aeration with coagulant addition,
followed by sedimentation. No secondary biological treatment follows. It is possible to satisfy most
international water quality standards using this process. However, this process is not popular in Western
Europe or the United States. This process deserves consideration particularly for upgrading of existing
plants, where space and cost may be limiting conditions. For further details refer to Harleman (1991).

12.6.2 Sludge Quantities from Primary Settling

The amount of sludge produced during primary settling will depend on the throughflow, the total
suspended solids and the efficiency of solids removal. This quantity can be readily determined from:

Ferric
Anionic
chloride
polymer
14 ppm
0.3 ppm

36.400 m*/day Sedimentation

Influent parameters tanks Effluent parameters
TSS = 150 mg/L TSS = 24 mg/L
BOD, = 150 mg/L BOD, = 60 mg/L
TP = 5.6 mg/L TP = 0.8 mg/L
Figure 12.16 Ontario, Canada, wastewater treatment facility (adapted from Harleman, 1991).
 WASTEWATER TREATMENT 523

SOs UI S78 kg/day (12.6)

where QO = throughflow, m?/day
TSS = total suspended solids, mg/L
E = removal efficiency
and Sm = sludge quantity, kg/day

Example 12.7

(a) Determine the amount (in kg/day and m?/day) of primary sludge solids generated in a domestic
treatment plant for a p.e. of 20000, with an efficiency of (TSS) removal of 60 per cent.
(b) What is the density of primary sewage sludge if it is 2 per cent dry solids (i.e. 98 per cent water)?

Solution

(a) Assume per capita flow = 225 L/day

Therefore Q=20000 x 225 = 4500 m?/day
Assume TSS concentration = 300 mg/L
Therefore
103
Sm = 4500 m?/day x 300 mg/L x 0.6 x —~
10°
= 810 kg/day
2250 ; < 3
or = 4500 kg/m-/day = 0.18 kg/m” /day

Assuming the density of sludge (p,) to be 1000 kg/m? (py, = 1000 kg/m?), then the volume of sludge
generated daily is
M _ 810 kg/day
V= = = 0.81 m?/day
p, 1000 kg/m?
Chemically enhanced primary settling may increase the above values by 50 to 100 per cent. Typically,
unaided treatment produces about 0.15kg/m? while chemically assisted with lime, alum or ferric
produce produces, 0.4, 0.25 and 0.25 kg/m? respectively.

(b) Density of water p,, = 1000 kg/m?

(Assume) particle density of sludge p, = 1700 kg/m°
M
Particle density is defined by p, = at
P
where M, = mass of particles (solid)
V, = volume of particles (no air, no water)

This sludge is composed of 98 per cent water +2 per cent sludge particles. A mass balance gives

M water + M sludge — Moral

(Drs Vy t Pp Vy = pT Vtotal

Wh
008 TiO 1100
524 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Therefore

pr = 1014 kg/m?
The sludge (water+ particles) density is not much more than the density of water. Therefore, the
assumption in part (a) of taking the sludge density to be the same as water density is safe enough. Even at
dry solids as high as 20 per cent, the density of the sludge is still only 1140 kg/m’.

12.7 SECONDARY TREATMENT

Municipal wastewater pollutants are summarily described by the following parameters:

e Total solids—suspended (40 per cent), colloidal (10 per cent) or dissolved (50 per cent);
organic (50 per cent), inorganic (50 per cent)
e Biochemical oxygen demand
e Chemical oxygen demand
e Nutrients—nitrogen and phosphorus
In Sec. 12.6, it was seen that primary settling removed about 60 per cent of the suspended solids and
about 30 per cent of the BOD. About 65 per cent of the solids removed (settleable) are organic and the
remainder inorganic. Figure 12.17 shows a typical parameter set for a municipal wastewater prior to
secondary treatment.
From Fig. 12.17, it is seen that the main purpose of secondary treatment is to reduce the BODs value
which does not benefit as much as SS from primary settling. In other words, secondary treatment should
be a process that is capable of biodegrading the organic matter into non-polluting end products, e.g. H2O,
CO, and biomass (sludge). The end product liquid effluent should be well stabilized or well oxidized so
that it does not provide a food source for aerobic bacteria in the receiving water body. Then the discharge
to a water body should lead to little or no removal of dissolved oxygen by bacterial action. To produce a
well-oxidized liquid effluent a vast array of biological processes exist, some general and some proprietary,
that are capable of removing the organic matter from the wastewater.

12.7.1 Principles of Biological Oxidation

The mechanisms of removal of organic matter include:
e Biodegradation
e Air stnpping
e Adsorption
Adsorption of non-degradable organics onto biological solids is not significant, but it does occur for
particular organics including the pesticides, e.g. lindane. Heavy metals will adsorb on to biomass and
bioaccumulate, resulting in end product sludges containing heavy metals.

After screening Primary To secondary

and grit removal settling treatment
Desired
Influent Effluent EU standard
TSS = 300 mg/L TSS = 120 mg/L TSS = 35 mg/L
BOD, = 300 mg/L BOD, = 210 mg/L BOD, = 25 mg/L
= 10 mg/L TP=9 mg/L TP =2 mg/L
TN = 40 mg/L TN = 36 mg/L TN = 10 mg/L

Figure 12.17 Typical municipal wastewater parameters before and after primary Settling.
 WASTEWATER TREATMENT 525

Air stripping of volatile organic carbon (VOC) occurs in aerobic systems. The breakdown of
carbonaceous material by aerobic degradation emits CO and other VOCs into the atmosphere.
Biodegradation is the dominant mechanism of organics removal for municipal and most industrial
wastewaters. Most treatment plants now use the activated sludge system for this purpose. Figure 12.18 is a
schematic of the activated sludge system. It comprises of two ‘box’ structures, the aeration tank and the
secondary clarification tank. The aeration tank, while having many possible configurations, basically
retains the influent wastewater for a number of hours (or days) in a well-mixed/aerated environment,
before forwarding the effluent for further settling to the secondary clarification tank. The end products of
the clarification tank are clarified liquid effluent, ready for discharge to open water bodies, and a liquid—
solid sludge. A fraction (about 20 per cent) of the sludge is returned to the aeration tank and is called
returned activated sludge (RAS). The sludge contains a high density of live microbial biomass and, in
returning part of it, an active population of microbes are always maintained in the aeration tank. The
influent wastewater is the food source for the resident microbes in the aeration tank. The microbes
biodegrade this feedstock into new microbial cells in the presence of aerated water. Other end products
include CO, NO; , and SO,_. In the clarifier, the excess biomass settles out as sludge and about 80 per
cent of this is removed for further treatment and subsequent disposal.
The mixed ‘liquor’ suspension in the aeration tank contains wastewater, living and dead micro-
organisms and inert biodegradable and non-biodegradable suspended and colloidal matter. The particulate
fraction of the mixed liquor is called the ‘mixed liquor suspended solids’ (MLSS). This value is generally
of the order of 2000 to 4000 mg/L for a healthy microbial suspension in the aeration tank. The MLSS of
the RAS is of the order of 10000 to 20000 mg/L. This is a measure of the microbial population and
essential to keep the MLSS in the aeration base > 2000 mg/L; otherwise the microbial population is not
large enough to biodegrade the incoming organics.
The understanding of the activated sludge process, since it was first introduced in Manchester by
Arden and Lockett (1914), has made significant advances. The process is governed by the micro-organism

Evo Secondary
ee Wastewater Aeration tank clarifier
came = AAinaali (biological reactor) (solid-liquid etfGent
separator)

; Waste
turned activated
Returned activated slud
sludge :
GWAR). |Gctivated

sludge

Plan

From Aeration mixing a

; Liquid
primary
settling daMient effluent

<— WAS
Section

Figure 12.18 Typical layout of activated sludge system.

526 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

characteristics and the physical configuration of the aeration basin (plug flow, completely mixed, etc.,
explained later). As such, the biological kinetics and the process kinetics are inseparable, as the process is
dynamic. Whether a secondary treatment system is of the suspended growth type (e.g. activated sludge) or
fixed film type (using a medium, e.g. stone, plastic, etc., on which to grow organisms) will depend on the
same biological principles; i.e. a microbial population is used to biodegrade carbonaceous matter.

12.7.2 Bacterial Growth in Pure Cultures

The bacterial population (e.g. in an aeration tank) is expressed as either the number of cells (NV) per unit
volume or the mass of cells (MM) per unit volume. They are not directly translatable unless it is known
where they reside on the growth curve of Fig. 12.19. At different points on this curve the cells may have a
different size and a different mass of sorbed substrata. Figure 12.19 is a schematic of the growth curve for
a typical bacteria cell culture.
Bacteria reproduce by binary fission and a significant parameter is called the regeneration rate or
doubling time. This varies depending on the position on the growth curve. When a bacterial innoculum is
placed in a closed vessel with ideal conditions and excess food, the growth and decay of the bacterial cell
numbers follows the curve of Fig. 12.19. During the acclimation period, there is no growth as the
organisms acclimate to their new environment. This acclimation period may be up to six weeks for some
complex industrial wastes. This phase is followed by an exponential growth, when the cells reproduce at
their optimum regeneration times. The doubling time is typically 20 to 60 min, although it may take a few
days in exceptional environments. In the stationary phase the population remains constant with the rate of
new cell synthesis equal to the death rate of old cells. Around this time, the substrate (food) is becoming
limited or exhausted or there is a nutrient deficiency. The following phase, called the endogenous phase, is
where the bacteria are surviving off their own stored energy and consuming the dead cells. The number of
cells begins to decline and there is then an accelerated death phase when there is no biodegradable
substrate. This schematic is atypical of the real microbial population of activated sludge systems, where
the population tends to be complex, interrelated mixed populations with each species having its own
growth curve. Most organisms in activated sludge are single-cell bacteria with soil origins. The objective

=
lip aera PQ lyeod
' \ 131 ' o
6 1 ' Tse a —|
1 1 \ 1a —
a ' t 1SiS a
> 1 Ou o 11 nw
=a 5 Picci a
Ss 1O1rm G 3 =|
for}
o ' os)
[ay p= ibidt
oD °
—
o nA! 1 a. t 1S oO
¢s) 4 Si Bul oa ene io) —
a a! amtul ean aig iS)
a So =) e's ac)
in on, St & URS =
SYR 3! oO! Pe ie Roel (eal 4
2) = well! = io) oO
§ ' iy (avy gain |
— ' oO! * ' ' 1
op 2 ae ea] aa? a) =
[e) ' ' ' ' '
rs \ 1 1 1 1
' 1 1 1 '
I ' If ' ' ! =]
' 1 ' '
' i} 1 1
Tr ere a TF
! ' ' ' '

aa
1Y ' ' ' ' '
Gel elegy Ee \ 4

c= ' ' '

' ' '
Bit ' 1 ' =|
iy
oD ;! ‘ i'

20
iS)
-|
3
eI
Qa.
4
2

Time

Figure 12.19 Characteristic growth curves of cultured micro-organisms

(adapted from Monod, 1949).
 WASTEWATER TREATMENT 527

in operating the activated sludge system is to try to retain the mixed population within a desirable range
on the growth curve for optimum performance. Outside the range there may be an excess of organisms or
a deficiency, and both lead to operational problems.

12.7.3 Kinetics of Bacterial Growth

When a biodegradable organic food source is supplied to a heterotrophic (utilizing organic materials for
energy, as distinct from autotrophic which use CO, as the carbon source) micro-organism population in a
well-aerated environment, the response is as follows, adapted from Ekama and Marais (1984):
1. The readily soluble biodegradable COD goes through the cell wall and is metabolized quickly.
2. The slowly biodegradable particulate COD is adsorbed on to the organisms and stored. This quick
reaction removes all the particulate and colloidal COD. Over time the stored COD is broken down by
extracellular enzymes, transferred through the cell wall and metabolized. The rate limiting step in the
overall synthesis is the enzymatic breakdown at rates about 10 per cent of the readily biodegradable
COD rate.
3. Some of the COD metabolized is converted to new cells, while the remainder is lost as heat in the
energy process required for the new cell synthesis. Oxygen externally supplied is used up in this
energy process, such that the amount of oxygen utilized is proportional to the COD lost.
4. At the same time, there is a net loss of live biomass, termed endogenous mass loss, where some of the
organisms utilize as food their own stored food materials and dead cells. This endogenous degradation
is continuous and relatively constant at about 10 to 20 per cent per day.
The biochemical equation for bacterial cell respiration and synthesis in using organic matter as
substrate in the activated sludge process is:

Organic : bacteri
acteria + new ghee
ates +O,+ nutrients —, CO, +NH3+ iidenase + end (27)
products
For mixed cultures, as in activated sludge, biomass is the parameter of interest, rather than the number of
organisms. In the log growth phase of Fig. 12.20, the rate of biomass increase is proportional to the initial
biomass concentration and is represented by the first-order equation:
dX
—=
Ay 12.8
(12.8)

dX
where ae growth rate of biomass, mg/L/day

X = concentration of biomass, mg/L

= specific growth rate constant, d7!
(mass of cells produced/mass of cells
present per unit time)
Letting Xo represent the biomass at time f= 0, integration of Eq. (12.8) is
neve In Xo ae

|mn s
Xi est
=== —

X = Xo - exp (ut) (12.9)

The growth rate that follows Eq. (12.9) is called the exponential growth rate. It is assumed that Eq. (12.9)
holds as long as there is no change in the biomass composition or environmental conditions. However,
528 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

ne Hy

2
3S

2= 5)
ab a! eee eo
S) i)

4S '

(S) '
o '
a t
nN 1
1
'
i)
;

Ke §
Substrate concentration

Figure 12.20 Substrate concentration versus specific growth rate.

this cannot always be the case. For instance, a batch culture will incur environmental change during its life
time.
In mixed cultures, it is not yet possible to measure ju. Typically, there are essential requirements for
microbial growth including availability of substrate or nutrients. If an essential requirement is limited,
growth slows or ceases. Monod (1949), noting that the growth rate (dX/dt) was a function of organism
concentration (X) and also of a limiting nutrient concentration, showed experimentally that

SI
= — 12.10

where S = concentration of limiting substrate, mg/L

lm = Maximum growth rate, d~!
K, = half-saturation constant, i.e. the concentration
of S when pw = ,,/2 (mg/L) as shown in Fig. 12.20

Equation (12.9) assumes only growth of micro-organisms. However, there is growth of one set of
organisms and die-off of another set, occurring simultaneously. To take account of die-off, an endogenous
decay (rate =k) is used, so Eq. (12.8) becomes

dX

Biomass production : = = (Hm x kgX (12.11)

dt K,+S ;

If all substrate (S) could be converted to biomass (X) then the rate of substrate utilization is

Ideal: == SS CB AN2))

(Similar to the energy analogy, dissipation = production)

However, such an idealization cannot occur due to inefficiencies in the conversion process and a yield
coefficient (Y<1) is introduced such that the rate of substrate utilization is in excess of the rate of
biomass generated:

Real: $5 282 ha STS

a dime’ di (12.13)
 WASTEWATER TREATMENT 529

where Y = fraction of substrate converted to biomass,

mg/L of biomass/mg/L of substrate
typically 0.4 to 0.8 in aerobic systems and
0.08 to 0.2 for anaerobic systems
he
ds
Substitution into Eq. (12.12) becomes
Sccgeus Gy It //Wie SC
Substrate utilization : Ae = a G= =) (12.14)

Equation (12.11) for biomass production and Eq. (12.14) for substrate utilization are the fundamental
biological process design equations for different reaction configurations. They are used later in the mass
balance equations for complete mix and plug flow activated sludge systems. They are also the principal
equations in anaerobic digestion (Chapter 13) (see Moletta et al., 1986).

12.7.4 Secondary Treatment Systems

Secondary treatment systems are broadly categorized as:
e Suspended growth
e Attached growth
e Dual biological suspended and attached growth
Suspended growth systems are defined as those aerobic processes that achieve a high micro-organism
concentration through the recycle of biological solids. The bacterial organisms convert biodegradable
organic wastewaters and certain inorganic fractions into new biomass and other (non-polluting) end
products (e.g. water and carbon dioxide). The biomass is removed as sludge and the liquid after settling is
removed as clarified effluent. The gases are air stripped. Suspended growth systems and, in particular, the
conventional plug flow activated sludge system are the most common processes for treating both
municipal and industrial wastewaters.
Attached growth systems or fixed film reactors allow a microbial layer to grow on the surface of the
media (stone, plastic) while exposed to the atmosphere from where it draws its oxygen. The microbial
layer is sprayed (from above) with the wastewater. In so doing, the microbial layer converts the
biodegradable organic wastewaters to biomass and by-products. The trickling or percolating filter is
common for treating municipal wastewaters which already have been through primary settling. Rotating
biological contactors and biofilters are in operation for higher strength wastes than municipal. They are
sometimes used as roughing filters with subsequent activated sludge or stone media trickling filters for
further treatment.
Dual process systems utilize two stage arrangements of fixed film and suspended growth processes
with the objective of achieving very high quality effluent standards. Figure 12.21 itemizes some of the
different secondary treatment processes.

12.7.5 The F/M ratio

The F/M (food to microbes) ratio is the most useful design and operational parameter of activated sludge
systems. The activated sludge system is a continuous process with growth and decay of micro-organisms.
A system achieves equilibrium when the food substrate and the micro-organisms consuming it are in
balance. Out of balance can mean too much substrate, too little substrate, too many organisms, too little
organisms, etc. The equilibrium parameter is known as the F/M ratio or the food to microbes ratio. This
530 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Biological
secondary treatment

Suspended
i
Attached Dual biological
growth growth treatment
(a) Types of secondary treatment systems

Y ee Y Y
Activated Stabilization Aerated Containment Constructed
sludge ponds lagoons ponds wetlands
(b) Types of suspended growth systems

Fe ae epee eat) meet

Plug Complete Oxidation Contact Sequencing
flow mix ditch stabilization batch reactors
(c) Types of activated sludge systems

'
Conventional
'
Extended
Y
High
Y
Step
'
Tapered
aeration rate feed aeration
(d) Types of plug flow activated sludge systems

Figure 12.21 Secondary treatment systems.

ratio controls the rate of biological oxidation and the mass of organisms, by maintaining microbial growth
in either the log, declining or endogenous phase (Gray, 1990).
The type of activated sludge system can be defined by its F/M ratio (see Fig. 12.22)
e Extended aeration 0.03 < F/M <0.8
© Conventional 0.8 < F/M <2
e High rate F/M > 2

The F/M ratio is defined as

__ BOD of sewage (kg/m?) x Influent flow (m3/d)

F/M =
/ Reactor solids (kg/m?) x reactor volume (m3)

Es70)
XV
Therefore
So
F/M =
px (12.15)
where So = Concentration of influent BOD, (kg/m?)
Q, = Influent flow rate, (m?/day)
X = concentration of reactor solids i.e. MLSS, (kg/m?)
V = reactor volume, (m*)
p = hydraulic retention time, (days)
 WASTEWATER TREATMENT 531

100 (- Endogenous | Declining Accelerated

growth | growth ; growth

@ | |
Fe
vo ' 1

iS 90 [- ! 1
E
2

: ! 3
fa) H i

; High-rate
Extended | Conventional ' activated
80;- aeration | activated sludge t sludge
! '

0.03 0.8 2
F/M ratio (kg BOD./kg MLSS d)

kg BOD./m3
F/M={—-——>__} /day
kg MLSS/m3
Figure 12.22 Schematic of F/M ratio (not to scale).

In the log or accelerated growth phase there is an excess of substrate, characterizing a high f/m ratio
(> 1.0). In the endogenous phase the f/m ratio is low at values generally less than 0.4 and ideally at
around 0.2 for plug flow and 0.1 for complete mix systems. Removal rates of BOD are then highest, and
this is conventionally called extended aeration (see Fig. 12.22).

12.7.6 Sludge Settlement Parameters

In the process design of activated sludge, a principal feature is the use of recycle sludge. This is where a
fraction of the sludge that has settled in the secondary clarifier is used as biomass feedstock for the
aeration basin. Note that the secondary clarified sludge is low in organic content and is not a food
substrate. It is high in biomass content and is therefore suitable for recycle. If the aeration basin did not
receive this recycle sludge, it would ultimately become deficient in micro-organism population. One
parameter used in the control of the amount of recycle sludge is the sludge volume index (SVJ),
determined in a laboratory test, using a | L inverted conical flask:

SVI = x 1000 (12.16)

MLSS

where SVI = sludge volume index, mL/g

SV = volume of settled solids in 1 litre cylinder
after 30 min, ml/L
MLSS = mixed liquor suspended solids, mg/L

SV is taken from a sample of mixed liquor taken near the exit weir of the aeration basin. MLSS is from a
similar sample and is dried out and weighed. A sludge has good settling characteristics if the SVI range is
80 to 120 for an MLSS range of 2000 to 3500 mg/L. As the MLSS increase, the solids loading is higher,
producing a lower SVI. An alternative to a lower SVI is to increase the aeration basin size.

12.7.7 Nitrification and Denitrification

The previous sections discussed the stabilization of carbonaceous matter, traditionally the singular
objective of wastewater treatment. The nutrients, nitrogen and phosphorus, contribute to eutrophication of
532 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

lakes and slow moving waters. Therefore, most countries legislate for the removal of nitrogen and
phosphorus. As discussed in Chapter 10, the nitrogen cycle in simple terms is
ammonia N nitrite N (12.17)
i —>N
Naig7 Cran > (NEE IN)
——
Oi (NO ee
Nitrification Denitrification

The objective of the wastewater processes of nitrification/denitrification is to stabilize the organic N and
ammonia N in wastewater, first to nitrate N and secondly to nitrogen gas. Nitrogen in wastewater is
generally in the forms of organic N and ammonia N in both soluble and particulate forms. Wastewater
contains insignificant amounts of nitrite N and nitrate N. Organic N and ammonia N are undesirable in
wastewater effluents since they both have a nitrogenous oxygen demand and ammonia N is toxic to fish
life (see Chapters 3 and 7).
Nitrification is the biological process, using nitrifying bacteria (nitrosomonas and nitrobacter) to
convert ammonia N to nitrate N in two process steps as follows:
nitrosomonas
NH4* +302 NO,~ + 2H* + H,O (12.18)
bacteria

1 nitrobacter
NO3~ (12.19)
bacteria

Generally, many environmental authorities are satisfied if wastewater is treated to the level of nitrification.
However, the end product of nitrification, nitrate N, still has potential negative impact on receiving water
quality. Nitrate N leads to the stimulation of algae growth and is also associated with the infant disease of
methanoglobinaemia. As such, many water authorities now require a denitrification process to reduce
nitrate N to the inoffensive nitrogen gas (N>). This process is called denitrification and like nitrification
can be attained by biological means, although with some difficulty.
The operation of biological nitrification/denitrification is dependent on maintaining a healthy
population of nitrifying/denitrifying bacteria. Each of these bacteria requires different ‘climatic’
conditions. Conventional activated sludge processes did little for nitrification and usually nothing for
denitrification. Extended aeration, however, because of its long hydraulic retention time (HRT) and low
oxygen levels (near to anoxic state) towards the downstream end of the oxidation ditch achieves a level of
nitrification. As indicated in Sec. 12.10, nutrient removal, not only of nitrogen but also of phosphorus, is
achievable purely by biological processes.
In fixed film systems (e.g. percolating filters, see Sec. 12.9) it is also possible to design the process
for biological nitrification, but biological denitrification and phosphorus removal have not yet been
economically achievable for trickling filters.

12.8 ACTIVATED SLUDGE SYSTEMS

The more common activated sludge systems are:

Complete mix
Plug flow
Oxidation ditch
Contact stabilization
Sequencing batch reactors
 WASTEWATER TREATMENT 533

12.8.1 Complete Mix Reactors

The complete mix reactors have uniform characteristics throughout the entire reactor. They tend to be
circular or square in shape and rarely rectangular. Aeration can be provided by surface aerators with
adjustable outflow weirs used to vary the depth of submergence of the aerator or by submerged bubble
diffuser aeration systems. The effluent quality is the same as the wastewater quality in the basin. As such
only a low level of food is available to the microbes. The operating food substrate to microbes ratio (F/M)
ranges from 0.04 to 0.07. The volumetric loading is typically less than 1 kg BOD;/day/m*. Dissolved
oxygen (DO) levels are maintained throughout at not less than 2 mg/L. The latter is difficult to maintain,
particularly in large-diameter tanks remote from the surface aerator. Generally the returned activated
sludge (RAS) from the clarifier is fed directly to the aeration basin where it is completely mixed with the
existing contents. A less desirable route for the RAS is to join with the influent stream and mix in the
influent pipe before entry to the aeration basin. Advantages of the complete mix system include the ability
to withstand shock loads, due to the low F/M ratio, and good flexibility in being able to utilize a wide
range of loads. It is particularly suitable for high organic industrial wastewater. Figure 12.23 is a
schematic of the complete mix system.
Using the nomenclature of the AWWA (1992), the system of Fig. 12.23 consists of the following:
Influent stream
Aeration basin
Secondary clarifier
Clarifier effluent
Sludge waste
Sludge return to aeration basin
where QO = flow rate, m*/d
S = substrate food concentration, kg/m? or mg/L
X = biomass concentration (biological solids), mg/L
V = aeration tank volume, m?*
For Fig. 12.23, mass balance equations for biomass production (Eq. (12.11)) and for substrate utilization
(Eq. (12.14)) are as follows:
1. Mass balance of biomass production This uses the control volume of the aeration tank and clarifier
(shown by dashed lines in Fig. 12.23):

Influent biomass ___ effluent sludge wasted

biomass production ~ biomass biomass
dx (12.20)
OrX Vt (5 *. One Oe

Aeration basin Clarifier

in
1

Influent Effluent 0-0,

Qo, So, Xo ee

Control volume
a of aeration basin
f and clarifier
1

Mi nieae e oate eae he As Ory ae

Returned activated sludge Waste activated sludge
(RAS) (WAS)
Figure 12.23 Typical complete mix activated sludge system.
534 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Substitute Eq. (12.11):

SX
OXo ie r(o2 7 kX) = (Qo = OQw)Xe ot OWwXw (12-21)
K,+8

Assume that the biomass in influent and effluent levels is negligible, i.e. X,=X-=0:

ee gE oe, (12.22)
Is eI5) VX
2. Mass balance of food substrate This uses the control volume of the aeration tank and clarifier:

Influent sulpsies ___ effluent sludge wasted

substrate * aes = substrate ~ substrate (12723)
QoSo ar (Qo ia Ow )Se OwSw

Substitute Eq. (12.14):

1 f u,XS

Assume that all reactions take place in the aeration basin so that the substrate in the aeration basin is of
the same concentration as the substrate in the clarifier and in the effluent (i.e. S.=S,=S).
Rearranging Eq. (12.24) we get

PmS _ Qo¥ -
Bey aei) OK Soe) (2225 )

Combining Eggs. (12.22) and (12.25):

OwXw QoY
ie k = = (12.26)
~

Define the hydraulic retention times (HRT) of influent in the aeration basin:
y
o= 0,” units of time (1227)
te)

Define the mean cell residence time (MCRT) of micro-organisms in the system, also called the solids
retention time (SRT) or sludge age, as ¢:

$, = total biomass in basin/biomass wasted per unit time

VX
Oe = maw units of time (12.28)
OwXy
As a fraction of the sludge from the clarifier is returned to the aeration, basin, &, > @. Equation (12.26)
becomes
Ve
oe = 35yo — 9) (12.29)

Rearranging:

Pe So Ka S

Equation (12.30) is the concentration of biomass solids in the aeration basin or the mixed liquor
suspended solids (MLSS).
 WASTEWATER TREATMENT 535

A term commonly used is the F/M ratio, or the ratio of food to micro-organisms. Low F/M ratios
(introduced in Sec. 12.7.5) as occur in complete mix systems are resistant to shock loads. It is determined
as follows:
From Eq. (12.15),
S
F/M = ox mg BOD applied/mg MLSS/day

F/M=a Ene
So
we
mol ONS
(12.31)

Example 12.8 In a completely mixed activated sludge system determine:

(a) The aeration basin volume V
(b) The hydraulic retention time (@)
(c) The sludge volume wasted daily Q,,
(d) The mass of sludge wasted daily O,.Xy
(e) The fraction of sludge recycled QO,/Q,
(f) The F/M ratio

Given:

Population equivalent 50000 (11250 m?/day)

Influent BOD; (S,) = 200 mg/L
Required effluent BOD; #10 mg/L
Yield coefficient Y= 0.6
Decay rate kg =0.06 d-'
Assume:

e MLSS in aeration basin (X )= 3500 mg/L (3.5 kg/m?)

e MLSS in clarifier sludge (X,,) = 15000 mg/L (15kg/m’*)
e Mean cell residence time (#,)= 10 days

Solution

(a) Aeration basin volume

So —S
Equation (12.30): yes te(A=)
dc
: V
Equation (12.27): i= 0.
0)

Therefore
Tod
V 1+ kad,
ee, Sven
and Saree eee
Consistent units of m*, kg, day:
ml0ra11 25050-65740. 2— 0.01
sy 3.5 1+ 0.06 x 10
= 2290 m?
536 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

(b) Hydraulic retention time

V 2290
OQ, 11250
Therefore
gb = 0.2 days = 4.9 hours

(c) Volume of sludge wasted daily (Ow)

Equation (12.28): =

Therefore

2200 5
S GE
= 53.4 m?/day
(d) Mass of sludge wasted daily (O,X\)
OgNXe = 53-450 80 ikeyd
(e) The fraction of sludge recycled (Q,/Q,)

A biomass mass balance around the clarifier (only) gives

(Qo + O)X = (Qo — Ow)Xe + OuXw

= (Qo = Ow) Xe at (QO; AP Ow )Xw

Assume that the biomass concentration in the effluent is zero (X¥.=0) and rearranging that
a) = OX = OwXw

: Xy —X
11250 x 3.5 — 801
—= 15235 — 3354 3 m’/d

QO, 3354
— = —— = 29.89
Onn 50 s
(f) The F/M ratio

Gi Os
Equat
quation( P2731)) F/M
if a

_ 11250 x 0.2
m 229035
= 0:28

12.8.2 Plug Flow Reactors

Plug flow means that a ‘plug’ of substrate influent to an aeration basin is moved forward, without too
much interaction with the ‘plug’ that went before or after it. This means that satisfactory mixing occurs in
 WASTEWATER TREATMENT 537

the lateral direction, but none in the longitudinal direction. Figure 12.24 is a schematic of a plug flow
reactor. There is a (BOD) concentration gradient from entry to exit.
The plug flow system is characterized by a high organic loading at the influent end of the basin,
reducing as the outfall weir is approached. The aeration basin is typically rectangular or elongated with
oval returns (see Fig. 12.26). At the influent end there is an excess of food substrate corresponding to the
log growth phase and a high F/M ratio. At the downstream end, there is a shortage of food substrate and
the micro-organisms are in the endogenous phase. Through the aeration basin the food substrate
decreases while the micro-organism concentration increases. This makes the analysis of kinetics more
complex than the complete mix system and in the past, simplifying assumptions were introduced. These
include the assumption that the concentration of micro-organisms in the influent to the basin is equal to
that in the effluent from the basin. Advantages of plug flow include the ability to treat fully all influent
and allow no ‘plugs’ to go untreated. This is so because the influent typically stays in the aeration basin
for much longer periods than in the case of the complete mix system. Dimensions of units tend to be long
rectangular with length to width ratios of about 10 to 1 and depths about 2 to 4m. Figure 12.25 is a
layout of a plug flow activated sludge system. As with the complete mix system, the nomenclature is that
of the AWWA (1992).
As with the complete mix system of the previous section, it is possible using mass balances of the
biomass and the substrate to determine the design and operating parameters. However, this is only
possible with the introduction of the simplification that the biomass concentration of influent and effluent
of aeration basin is the same, X. The resulting parameters for plug flow with recycle from Lawrence and
McCarty (1970) are:

tes @ ied
X =—
\i+kd.
Y{| ———
oe
1D 2

nae eS vay) (1233)

- (So —S) + (1 — &) [Ke In(Si/5)]
where a = recycle ratio
So + aS
Sir
= ive (12.34 )
influent BOD after dilution with recycle flow

Further details are in Schroeder (1977) and Benefield and Randall (1980).

Oxidation ditch A typical plan configuration of an oxidation ditch is shown in Fig. 12.26. The aeration
basin is usually a ‘racetrack’ configuration with cage or brush aerators at one or more locations. The

Plug
Influent Effluent

Macro-organisms (MLSS)

Oxygen (mg O,/L)

Concentration
Substrate (BOD;)

—————»> Length

Figure 12.24 Schematic of plug flow system.

538 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Aeration basin Clarifier

Influent Effluent

V constant
XG

RAS Qw Xw
Returned activated sludge Sludge waste
Figure 12.25 Typical plug flow activated sludge system.

influent enters the basin just upstream of the aerator and moves forward as a ‘plug’, from a location of
high oxygen levels to a zone of low oxygen levels. The effluent leaves the basin upstream of the influent.
Sludge is recycled, as is typical with activated sludge. Oxidation ditches are characterized by long HRTs
(~ 24h) and long SRTs or MCRTs (20 to 30 days). High-quality liquid effluents are also characteristic of
oxidation ditches, but a disadvantage is a thin sludge which is difficult to thicken.
Extended aeration, which can be adopted with complete mix systems, is more common with
oxidation ditch systems. Extended aeration means long HRTs (16 to 24h), enabling variable flow rates
and flow strengths to be handled. The endogenous phase is the operational phase of the micro-organisms
and while nitrification is common, it is also possible to achieve denitrification.
Extended aeration in complete mix reactors is only used for small plants due to the increased size of
aeration basin. Primary clarification is omitted as the key objective is to minimize the amount of sludge
generated. Ideally, all substrate removal is converted to energy and then oxidized so that no excess
biomass is generated and so no sludge handling is required. In practice, some sludge is generated. Based
on zero growth then:

“ae 0 12.35

where the subscript ‘g’ is for generation. Benefield and Randall (1980) derive the equation for the
“ >

extended aeration tank volume as

YQo(So— S)
i= Yka (12.36)

Example 12.9 Determine the size of an extended aeration basin to treat 30000 m*/day if the
influent BOD is 300mg/L. The effluent BOD concentration is expected to be 5mg/L. Given
X=4kg/m*, Y=0.4, kg=0.03 day|.

RAS
od Sludge

Influent Cage aerator

=
Effluent

Treated effluent SESE Ome lsh

Cage aerator

Figure 12.26 Typical layout of an oxidation ditch system.

 WASTEWATER TREATMENT 539

Solution

0.4 x 30000 (300 — 5)

VA =
4000 x 0.03
= 29500 m?

Contact stabilization This system (Fig. 12.27) is a form of activated sludge where aeration is carried
out in two phases in two different tanks. In the contact tank the suspended organic matter is adsorbed
by the microbial mass and the dissolved organic matter is absorbed by the biomass. The retention time
is 30 to 60 min. The second tank, called the stabilization tank, with a 2 to 3h retention period, is where
the solids have been removed in a settlement zone and are further stabilized by re-aeration before being
combined with the influent wastewater. The MLSS tends to be about 2000 mg/L in the contact tank and
up to 20000 mg/L in the aeration basin.
The aeration volume requirements are typically 50 per cent lower than conventional plug flow, the
model on which it is based. The BOD removal efficiency is in the range 80 to 90 per cent. This system
is used for expansion of existing systems (where space is a limitation) and also in package plants
(Metcalf and Eddy, 1991).

Sequencing batch reactors (SBRs) A sequencing batch reactor is a complete mix activated sludge
system without a secondary clarifier. Within the single aeration basin, five different sequences are
followed, as shown in Fig. 12.28. Aeration and clarification are carried out in one tank. The sequences
are as follows:

e Fill The basin fills with influent

e React The basin is aerated when 100 per cent full
© Settle The basin is allowed to settle where sedimentation and clarification occurs
e Draw The effluent is withdrawn from the top of the tank
e Sludge waste The sludge is wasted from the bottom of the tank

The tank volume, cycle times, cycle purposes and cycles of aeration are also shown in Fig. 12.28. The
cycle length varies from 4 to 48h with SRTs from 15 to 80 days (AWWA, 1992). The F/M ratio varies
with cycle length and may range from 0.03 to 0.18. An advantage of the SBR system is that there is no
need for a sludge recycle period. Details of SBRs are found in USEPA (1986).

Contact tank Clarifier

Influent Effluent

Sludge recycle Sludge waste

Aerator tank
Figure 12.27 Layout of contact stabilization system.
540 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

paear yo Purpose Operation

Volume Cycle
time = Fill
25—-100% 25% i :
Add substrate Air on/off

= |
React

35% Aeration/reaction time Air on

100%

Settle

100% 20% Clarification Air off

Draw
Effluent
LOS 35a aSOn 1 ei ne Effluent withdrawal Air off
SS
eee,

oe ae Idle
35 > 25% Ship SUNS eS Ras Sludge wasting Air on/off
WASTECiMel|| kta: vaxaaeare
ane wees

Figure 12.28 Typical configurations for an SBR (adapted from USEPA, 1986).

12.9 ATTACHED GROWTH SYSTEMS

When organic wastewater is ‘sprayed’ over stones or plastic, a microbial slime layer develops on the
surface. This layer has the effect of reducing the BOD; of effluents. Traditionally the stones were grouped
in a shallow, open-topped cylinder about 1 m deep. The stones were of the order of 25 to 100 mm in size.
In more recent times, plastic media have been used instead of stones to encourage the growth of the
microbial layer on media with very high surface area to volume ratios. This type of aerobic process is
called the attached growth or fixed film system. The earliest version which is still widely used is the
percolating or trickling filter. Other systems are the rotating biological contactor, which is used for both
low strength and high-strength wastes. In Ireland, effluents from the dairy milk producing industry
(BOD; ~ 2000 mg/L) predominantly use biofilters with plastic media. The latter are often called high-
rate biofilters, and are used as roughing filters to reduce the BODs from about 2000 to 300 mg/L, after
which it is treated in a conventional activated sludge system. Some of the biofilters are made up of a very
lightweight synthetic media called flocor, with media heights up to 6 m. Other variations include the more
recent adoption of the aerated biofilter.

12.9.1 Percolating Filters

Percolating or trickling filters were traditionally cylindrical or rectangular boxes of concrete or steel,
containing stone media. The media tended to be angular rather than rounded and, as such, limestone was a
popular choice. Tank dimensions ranged from | to 2.5m deep and 5 to 50 m in diameter. The floor of the
tank has an underdrain system for collecting the treated wastewater. Near the floor of the perimeter walls
are openings, to allow an updraught of air for aeration. A schematic is shown in Fig. 12.29. The treated
 WASTEWATER TREATMENT 541

effluent passes to a secondary clarifier. In principle, since the biomass layer is fixed to the stone media,
there is no need for recycle sludge as in activated sludge. At the stone media/biomass/air interfaces,
aerobic degradation of the substrate takes place. At deeper levels, there may also be biodegradation due to
anaerobic processes. As the organic load continues to be sprayed on the media, a buildup of biomass
occurs, in excess of the most efficient levels. At this point, some biomass gets washed forward with the
effluent. This is known as biomass ‘sloughing’ and is identified in high BOD, readings in the effluent.
Recycling of effluent through the filters improves the end quality effluent and, in the case of low-rate
units, achieves nitrification.
Maintaining a healthy community of micro-organisms in the trickling filter is essential as it is
activated sludge. The significant micro-organisms are essentially facultative bacteria, but fungi, protozoa,
algae, worms, insects and snails also reside in the habitat. The bacteria residing at the surface of the filter
process the BOD reduction. The nitrifying bacteria resident at lower depths process nitrification.
The factors affecting operation of the process and design are identified by the AWWA (1992) as:
e Wastewater composition and treatability
¢ Media type and depth
e Hydraulic and organic loading
e Recirculation ratio and arrangement
e Temperature
e Distributor operation

Trickling filters are versatile systems, being able to treat low-strength wastes to advanced standards or to
act as a roughing filter to high strength wastes. However, if there is a high recirculation ratio, it is
theoretically possible to treat high-strength wastes also to advanced standards. As retention times in
trickling filters are short by comparison with conventional activated sludge, it also happens that slowly
degradable wastes are partly treatable by trickling filters. This can be the case of wastes with non-
flocculent type suspended solids. However, the system is capable of treating soluble organics efficiently
and as such is suited to many industrial wastewaters, i.e. milk wastes. The media type varies from dense
stone media with shallow depths of about | m to lightweight plastic media with depths up to 6m. The
stone media are typically used for low-strength wastes such as municipal and the plastic media typically
for industrial wastes, although stone media were used in the past. The hydraulic loading and organic
loading vary, depending on the type of filter. Some loading rates and other characteristics are shown in
Table 12.13.
Recirculation will normally be the case for all trickling filters except the low rate and the roughing
filter. Recirculation ratios may vary from 0.4 to 4, depending on the quality of treatment required.
Recirculation may be directly from the effluent of the trickling filter or from the secondary clarifier.
Recirculation may re-enter the influent pipe before the filter or directly on to the filter. Which system is
chosen will depend on the waste characteristics, loadirgs, effluent standards and economics.

Table 12.13 Characteristics of trickling filters

Design Low rate— Intermediate High Super Roughing

characteristics conventional rate rate rate filter

Media Stone Stone Stone Plastic Plastic/Stone

Hydraulic loading 10 000— 40 000— 100 000- 150 000— 600 000-
(m?/d/m?) 40 000 100000 400 000 900 000 1 800.000
Organic loading i=3} 3-6 6-12 < 30 > 20
(kg BODs/d/m”)
% BOD removal 80-85 50-70 40-80 65-85 40-85
Nitrification Yes Some No Little No

Adapted from AWWA, 1992

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542
 WASTEWATER TREATMENT 543

Temperature, as with other secondary treatment processes, affects performance. At low winter
temperatures, reduced efficiencies occur. At higher summer temperatures efficiency increases due to
increased bacterial activity. Filter efficiency and temperature are expressed in the empirical equation
EF, = E).a* 2337))
where E, = filter efficiency at temperature tf
Er = filter efficiency at 20°C
a = constant of 1.035

Traditionally, the operation of the distribution arms were at rates of about 1 rev/min with spraying about
every 30 s. It has since been established that more efficient operation occurs at spraying frequencies of
> 30 min with much slower distributor rotations. In the latter case, problems with flies on the surface and
microbial ‘sloughing’ are reduced.
Process modelling of trickling filters is not well advanced, particularly for stone media, because of
the irregularity of the media. More precise process modelling exists for synthetic media. In practice one or
other of the many available empirical models is used when designing trickling filter systems. Two
particular empirical models are:
1. The National Research Council (US) Model (1948):
100
= % 12.38
1+ 0.448 /W/VF ; ee)
where E = efficiency of BOD removal
W = influent BOD, kg/d
V = filter removal, m?
F = recirculation factor = (1 + R)/(1 + 0.1 R)?
R= (Q,/Q = recirculation flow/wastewater flow

2. The British Manual of Practices Model (1988):

Tip : (12.39)
Doe (luce Kata (As /O"))
where L, = influent BOD, mg/L
L, = settled effluent BOD, mg/L
K =rate coefficient (0.02 for stone, 0.4 for plastic)
As™ = media surface area and coefficient, m? /m>
(m = 1.41 for stone, 0.73 for plastic)
QO” = volumetric loading rate and coefficient m?/m?/d
(n = 1.25 for stone, 1.4 for plastic)
a = temperature coefficient (1.111)
t = temperature of wastewater, °C

Example 12.10 A municipal wastewater has the following characteristics:

Influent BOD; = 360 mg/L
Required effluent standard = 25 mg/L
Population equivalent = 20000 at 225 L/h/d
Wastewater temperature = 20°C
544 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Determine the volume of a single-stage stone trickling filter if the recirculation ratio is 1:1 and 2:1. Use
the NRC equation.

Solution

Efficiency of BOD removal required = E

= 25
= eee) = 93%
360

Using the NRC equation:

ike i
oe k= ile Recirculation factor F =
(ea0IRy a(i Oy
BODs influent loading = 20000 x 225 x 360 x 10° = 1620 kg/d
100
NR tion E =
IN ec RI aiid
ee 100
1 + 0.448,/1620/V(1.65)
on 100
~— 14:14.04./1/V
V = 34793 m3
If efficiency was 80% then V = 43 491 m?*
2
HOt Ka— or Recirculation factor F = =a =2.083
(1 + 0.2)
1
NRC equation 93 = See ae
1 + 0.448,/1620/V (2.083)
V =27550m?

If efficiency was 80 per cent then V=31212m/? or say 8 units of depth 2.5m and diameter 40 m.

12.9.2 Biotowers

Biotowers use plastic media and achieve a superior hydraulic and organic loading rate to stone trickling
filters. They are used primarily for high-strength industrial wastes and are in common use in the dairy
milk industry. The design can be based on the following equation (Eckenfelder and Barnhart, 1963):

Se
<= :
exp*?/2" (12.40)

where S. = effluent substrate concentration, BOD;, mg/L

S o = influent substrate concentration, BODs, mg/L
D = depth of medium
Q = hydraulic loading rate, m?/m?/s
k = treatability constant
n = medium characteristic constant
 WASTEWATER TREATMENT 545

12.9.3 Rotating Biological Contactors

A cylinder with its axis horizontal rotates into and out of the semicircular wastewater holding tank, as
shown in Fig. 12.30. The rotating cylinder or reactor is made of high-density plastic. As the cylinder
rotates, it builds up on its surface a film of biomass. The wastewater comes into contact with the biomass
and with the air. The wastewater trickles down the surface of the contactor and absorbs oxygen from the
air. The micro-organisms in the biomass remove organic matter from the wastewater film. The process
gained favour in the 1960s and 1970s but has recently fallen out of favour due to problems with excess
biomass buildup and structural problems of shafts and media.

12.10 NUTRIENT REMOVAL

In discussing nutrient removal from wastewater, nitrogen and phosphorus are the key nutrients as they
cause ‘pollution’ of the receiving water body. As nitrogen travels through the N cycle it is a water
pollutant in four of its oxidation states, which are biochemically interconnectable:
Organic N — ammonia N —> nitrite N — nitrate N
It is desirable (and regulated) to reduce the ‘total nitrogen’ (in municipal wastewaters from ~ 40 to
~ 10mg/L) as defined by
Total nitrogen = organic N + ammonia N + nitrite N + nitrate N
and Kjeldahl N = organic N + ammonia N

In wastewaters, there is almost no nitrite and no nitrate, so the total N can be approximated by the
Kjeldahl N. However, the process of wastewater treatment, activated sludge, etc., does oxidize the organic
N and ammonia N to the higher oxidation states of nitrite and nitrate. Nitrite N is rather unstable and
oxidizes easily to nitrate N. It is desirable to further oxidize the nitrate N to nitrogen gas (N2), which is
generally inoffensive. The process of conversion of ammonia N to nitrate N is called nitrification, and
takes place in secondary treatment wastewater systems in the presence of nitrifying bacteria
(nitrosomonas and nitrobacter). The process of conversion of nitrate N to nitrogen gas (N>) is called
denitrification and takes place in the presence of denitrifying bacteria. Nitrification and denitrification will
only work in ideal conditions, specific to each one. Both require different (oxygen level and bacterial)
environments, though possibly in the same tank but at different times. The ideal conditions are
characterized by:

1-2 rev/min

Rotating surface
Exposed to air with film of
environment for O, micro-organisms

Wastewater —SZ_ Water level

passed radially or
axially through
tank
Microbial film
Semi-cylindrical material shed from
holding tank rotating surface
and suspended in
wastewater

Figure 12.30 Schematic of a rotating biological contactor.

546 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

e Dissolved oxygen ievels

e Organic loading availability
Like nitrogen, the nutrient phosphorus also has a cycle, as discussed in Chapter 10. Phosphorus
occurs in solution, in particles or detritus or in the bodies of micro-organisms, as:
e Ortho-phosphates (PO,> ,HPO,’ ,H2PO4 ,H3PO4_ )
e Polyphosphate (P07)
© Organically bound P wastewater phospho
ah 70 per cent t of of wastewater phosphorus

The sources of phosphorus include:

e Detergents, domestic and commercial
e Land fertilizers
e Potable water treatment additives
e Human excreta in sewage
e Food residues in sewage
Like nitrogen, phosphorus is a water pollutant if it exists in a growth-limiting water environment. It can
stimulate the growth of photosynthetic algae, thereby causing eutrophication of lakes or slow-moving
rivers. As such, it is desirable to reduce the ‘total phosphorus’ in municipal wastewaters from ~ 10
to <2mg/LP. Traditionally, phosphorus was removed from wastewaters by chemical precipitation
resulting from the addition of metal salts, i.e. ferric chloride. Currently phosphorus removal by
biological processes is more desirable.
Biological treatment, such as conventional activated sludge converts most P to the ortho-phosphate
forms (H,PO,~, HPO,?~ and PO,?~). These forms are then removed by chemical precipitation, using
calcium, aluminium or ferric, such as

3HPO,?- + 5Ca*t + 40H- — Cas(OH) (POs); + 3H20

HPO,?- + A+ — Al POg + Ht
HPO,2- + Fe** — Fe PO, + H+
When lime is used as the calcium source, precipitation normally follows biological treatment. With alum
or iron as the precipitant, treatment may be effected in the activated sludge operation itself or even in the
primary clarifier (Bailey and Ollis, 1986).

12.10.1 Biological Nutrient Removal

Biological nitrogen removal is a two-step process:
e Nitrification in an aerobic environment
e Denitrification in an anoxic environment

Biological phosphorus removal is a one-step process in alternating anaerobic and aerobic environments.
Chemical phosphorus removal is a one-step process.
The more common systems include biological N removal with chemical P removal. While biological
N with biological P removal systems exist, they tend to be assisted in part by chemical P removal. Many
of the bio-N/P removal systems are patented.

12.10.2 Nitrification

Nitrification or ammonia oxidation depends on the population of nitrifying bacteria, which depend on
temperature, ammonia concentration, organic substrate, pH, DO concentration, system mean cell
 WASTEWATER TREATMENT 547

residence time and the presence of nitrifying inhibitors. From AWWA (1992), for each kg of ammonia
oxidized to nitrate the following occurs:
4.18kg of O2 are consumed
14.1 kg of alkalinity as CaCO are destroyed
0.15 kg of new cells are produced (extra sludge)
0.09 kg of inorganic carbon are consumed
This shows that more oxygen, more alkalinity and more carbon are consumed along with the production
of more micro-organism cells. The process design equations for nitrification are detailed in AWWA
(1291):

12.10.3 Denitrification

Denitrification follows, on completion of nitrification. It is achieved biologically under anoxic conditions,

i.e. in the absence of oxygen. The energy required for denitrification comes from the organic content of
the wastewater. As such, the siting of the anoxic zone within the process should be such that adequate
internal carbon sources still exist. In the event of carbon being low, external sources such as methanol are
added. This is rarely required for municipal plants but may be required for some industrial wastewaters.
The denitrifying organisms are primarily facultative heterotrophs (use organic carbon for all cell tissue)
that reduce nitrate (NO3 ) in the absence of molecular oxygen (DO~0.0mg/L). The overall
denitrification process is summarized from AWWA (1992) as:

NO; -N>N>
Oxygen recovery is 2.86kg O2/kg NO3 -N reduced
Alkalinity recovery is 3.0 kg CaCO3/kg NO3 -N
Biomass production is ~0.4kg VSS/kg COD removed
It is therefore seen that denitrification recovers oxygen and alkalinity and produces more VSS.
Therefore, to proceed from nitrification on to denitrification is an economic step regarding oxygen
consumption. Typically about 25 per cent less oxygen is used in fully nitrified/denitrified plants. Because
denitrification requires a degradable carbon source, this is mostly supplied by recycling a large amount of
nitrified effluent to the anoxic basin at the head of the process (see Fig. 12.31).

12.10.4 Combined Nitrification—Denitrification System

Rather than having to use an external carbon source for denitrification and to exploit the oxygen-saving
advantages of denitrification, several nitrification—denitrification systems have evolved. Figure 12.31 is
the simplest arrangement.

Anoxic Aerobic Secondary

Raw tank tank clarifier
wastewater
or Oxidation and
Denitrification
Primary nitrification Effluent
influent

Return nitrate
Wasted
Return sludge sludge

Figure 12.31 Two-stage biological nitrogen removal.

548 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

In Fig. 12.31, the raw wastewater or primary clarified effluent is first passed through an anoxic tank
where there is no aeration (no mixing). Here no carbon oxidation takes place but denitrification does take
place. In the first tank the characteristic of the influent is high BOD, high ammonia and high nitrate levels.
Without oxygen, the bacteria for carbon oxidation and ammonia reduction to nitrate do not proliferate.
The denitrifying bacteria proliferate in an environment rich in carbon and low in oxygen. In the anoxic
tank there will be a minimum of mixing to obviate septicity and to maintain a forward flow. The effluent
from the anoxic tank is fed to the aerobic tank where levels of oxygen are maintained in excess of 2mg/L
throughout. Here the environment is suitable for carbon oxidation with a plentiful substrate supply, a high
oxygen level and dense biomass of heterotrophic bacteria. With an adequate hydraulic retention time,
carbon oxidation is completed in the aerobic tank. With a slightly longer hydraulic retention time, the
same aerobic environment is suitable for nitrifying bacteria where nitrification of ammonia to nitrate is
completed. The well-nitrified, well-oxidized effluent from the aerobic tank is fed to the secondary clarifer
for final settlement. An essential return cycle of nitrified effluent is returned to the anoxic tank for
denitrification. Figure 12.32 is a schematic of the oxidation ditch for biological nitrogen removal.
Downstream of the aerators, an aerobic zone (DO > 2 mg/L) is maintained. This ‘reduces’ to an
anoxic zone just upstream of the aerator (DO ~ 0.0 mg/L). The influent wastewater is fed to the anoxic
zone where the extensive carbon source of the waste is used as the energy source for the denitrifying
bacteria. The effluent is removed at the end of the aerobic zone. Nitrogen removals can be improved by the
addition of a second anoxic zone, as in the Bardenpho process (see Fig. 12.35). Process design equations
are referenced in Metcalf and Eddy (1991).

12.10.5 Biological Phosphorus Removal

Biological phosphorus removal is based on the idea of forcing the micro-organism to accumulate more
phosphorus than is required for cell growth. Typically, wastewater biomass has bacteria cells composed of
mainly carbon (~ 50 per cent), oxygen (~ 20 per cent), nitrogen (~ 15 per cent), hydrogen (~ 10 per
cent) and phosphorus (3 per cent). In other words, there appears to be a limit to the amount of phosphorus
that can be taken up by the bacteria. Conventional secondary treatment processes remove about 20 per
cent of phosphorus influent levels and primary treatment removes about 10 per cent. Raw influent total
phosphorus levels are about 10 mg/L for municipal wastewater and regulated standards for effluent total
phosphorus are at < | mg/L. Conventional treatment processes are inadequate to meet the standards and
so chemical precipitation of phosphorus was common until the development of biological P removal
systems. Bio-P removal was developed when it was identified that enhanced phosphorus storage by
bacteria was possible when they were exposed to alternating anaerobic and aerobic environments. A
typical phosphorus content of microbial solids is about 1.5 to 2 per cent on a dry weight basis. A system

Return sludge

Effluent Wasted sludge

Influent

Anoxic zone
Mechanical
aerators Aerobic zone ) Effluent

Oxidation ditch Secondary

clarifier
Figure 12.32 Schematic of nitrification—denitrification in an oxidation ditch.
 WASTEWATER TREATMENT 549

Anaerobic Aerobic Secondary

tank tank clarifier

Influent Effluent

Return sludge

Wasted sludge

Figure 12.33 Two-stage biological phosphorus removal (A/O process).

with an anaerobic zone followed by an aerobic zone results in the selection of a population rich in
organisms capable of taking up phosphorus at levels above the stoichiometric requirements for growth. In
this environment the biomass accumulates phosphorus to levels of 4 to 12 per cent of the microbial solids.
When these solids are wasted, 2.5 to 4 times more phosphorus removal occurs than for conventional
systems. The mechanism of phosphorus removal is via the bacteria Acinobacter sp. in the anaerobic
environment in the absence of nitrates and dissolved oxygen. The influent to secondary treatment has
phosphorus levels reduced by 10 per cent by primary settlement. Biological phosphorus removal systems
can further reduce the levels by 70 to 80 per cent. This means that P levels can be reduced from 10 mg/L
to 2-3mg/L by biological P methods. Further reductions often required for sensitive waters are
achievable by chemical precipitation. Levels can be reduced to 0.6 to 1 mg/L by the addition of 3 to 6mg
iron/L of wastewater. This compares with 25 mg iron/L for conventional chemical precipitation. Figure
12.33 is a schematic of a two-stage biological phosphorus removal system with hydraulic retention times
of 1 to 3h in the tanks, with the aerobic tank being somewhat longer.
The system shown in Fig. 12.33, called the A/O process, is for combined oxidation and phosphorus
removal. Nitrification can be accommodated by an adequate detention time in the aeration basin. In the
anaerobic tank, the phosphorus in the wastewater is released as soluble phosphates. The phosphorus is
then taken up by the biomass in the aerobic zone and the performance of the system depends on the
BOD, /P ratio of the wastewater. If the ratio is > 10, effluent P levels of < 1 mg/L can be achieved. If the
ratio < 10, metal salts may need to be added to achieve low effluent P values (Metcalf and Eddy, 1991).
An alternative bio-P removal system is shown in Fig. 12.34. This system, called the PhoStrip
process, removes the phosphorus not in sludge form but in a phosphorus-rich supernatant which can be
later chemically precipitated. In the PhoStrip process, some of the waste activated sludge from the
secondary clarifier is sent through an anaerobic phosphorus stripper with a retention time of 8 to 10h. The
phosphorus is released in the supernatant while the phosphorus-poor sludge is returned to the aeration
tank. The supernatant is chemically ‘post’ precipitated with lime to produce a sludge and a supernatant
which is returned to the aeration basin.

12.10.6 Combined Biological Nitrogen and Phosphorus Removal

Nutrient removal by biological methods is one of the exciting areas of wastewater research in the past two
decades. As such, many proprietary processes have developed throughout the world, with leading designs
from South Africa, the United States and Europe. Figure 12.35 is a schematic of the five-stage modified
Bardenpho process. Details of other processes and references are listed in Randall et al. (1992), AWWA
(1992) and Metcalf and Eddy (1991).
AWWA (1992) discusses the design information of seven such plants in the United States. Effluent
levels for TKN range from 3 to 7 mg/L and for TP range from 0.5 to 3 mg/L. In the modified Bardenpho
process, the split of the five tank volumes varies, but those with the best performance are arranged as
shown in Fig. 12.35. As with conventional systems, there is also a recycle (liquid) from the end of the first
550 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Secondary
clarifier
Aeration tank
Influent Effluent

Return sludge
ee
Wasted sludge

: Anaerobic
Lee Rhesphonis Spi aes phosphorus
return sludge stripper

Phosphorus-rich
supernatant
Lime tank
' Supernatant :
(Ht Seca Se See eee ose eeeue chemical
return precipitation

Wasted lime
phosphorus
sludge

Figure 12.34 PhoStrip bio-P removal process.

aerobic tank to the beginning of the anoxic tank. Process design equations for the many systems are given
in Randall et al. (1992).

12.11 SECONDARY CLARIFICATION

Retention time in primary clarifiers is typically about 2 hours. Longer than this may produce septicity.
Shorter than this can result in inefficient treatment, particularly of suspended solids. The retention time in
secondary clarifiers is similar. The function of secondary clarifiers is: clarification and thickening. It is
important that no solids should ‘escape’ in the clarified effluent. This is because the solids are biological
and can exert an oxygen demand on the receiving water body. The design parameter of interest for
clarification is the surface overflow rate (SOR):

—
1
|
'
Anaerobic Anoxic Aerobic ' Effluent
Anoxic ' Aerobic
'
'
'
Th
~10% ~20% ~40% ~20% <10%
Tank volume (%)

>
Return sludge Wasted sludge
containing P
Figure 12.35 Modified Bardenpho process for nitrogen and phosphorus removal.
 WASTEWATER TREATMENT 551

Overflow weir for

Scum well
clarified water

Buffer depth

Sludge settling Sludge settling

Clarification
depth ~2.5m

Sludge settling |~!™

depth Sludge blanket

Sludge rake net Sludge well

shown for clarity studee hopper

Influent Sludge withdrawal

Figure 12.36 Schematic of secondary clarifier.

SOR = -~ 30-40 m3 /m?/day (12.41)

“Sludge thickening’ is required so that the returned activated sludge (RAS) to the aeration basin is high
enough in concentration to maintain a sufficiently high MLSS concentration in the aeration basin. The
design parameter of interest for sludge thickening is the solids loading rate (SLR):
MLSS — ¢ =)
SLR = SOR x (12.42)
1000 ~ OQ
where SLR = solids loading rate, kg/m* day
SOR = surface overflow rate, m?/m*/day
MLSS = mixed liquor suspended solids, mg/L
RAS = returned activated sludge, m? /day
QO = influent flow rate, m*/day

The SLR will depend on the SVI. As the SVI increases, the SLR decreases.
Figure 12.36 is a schematic of a secondary clarifier (similar in construction to primary clarifiers) and
Table 12.14 shows the values of some important parameters.

Table 12.14 Maximum typical

parameters for design of secondary
clarifiers

Parameter Value

Sludge loading rate 50-300 kg/in?/d

Surface overflow rate 20-40 m?*/m?/d
Depth 3-5 m
Detention time 1.5—2.0h
Shape Mostly circular
§52 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

The two functions of clarification (of liquid effluent) and sludge thickening are interdependent. The
sludge thickening is provided by a ‘deep’ tank with adequate settling time. Clarification is produced by
ensuring steady state conditions. The design procedure as identified by AWWA (1991) is as follows:

1. Based on F/M, SRT and effluent quality, select MLSS (1000 to 4000 mg/L).
2. Identify the range of MLSS SVI and use the value not exceeded 98 per cent of the time—typically, 100
to 250 mg/L or preferably 150 mg/L.
3. Provide a returned activated sludge (RAS) pumping capacity of 20 to 100 per cent of Q or > Q for an
oxidation ditch.
4. With SVI and MLSS, determine the maximum solids loading rate (SLR) from a mass balance around
the aeration tank and clarifier.
5. Based on influent flow rates, select a surface overflow rate (SOR) to give the desired clarification (TSS)
standard.
6. Select tank geometry with a depth of about 4 to 5m, to include 0.7 to 1.0m for thickening, | m for
buffering and 2.4m for clarification as per Fig. 12.36.

12.12 ADVANCED TREATMENT PROCESSES

The EU Directive on urban wastewater states that ‘more stringent requirements than... 25 mg/L BOD,
35mg/L SS and 2mg/LP...shall be applied where required to ensure that receiving waters satisfy any
other directive’. It also states that ‘sensitive areas be subject to more stringent treatment... * This means
that engineers are often required to design plants for standards better than conventional secondary
treatment. Lower effluent concentrations of BOD;/SS may be required to satisfy local water quality
standards. Sometimes, trace pollutants such as heavy metals or refractory organics may need to be
reduced because of toxicity to aquatic life or interference with downstream potable water supplies.
Advanced wastewater treatment addresses:
e Effluent polishing (improving 25/35 to 10/10 for BOD/SS)
e Toxics removal

Nutrient removal is discussed in Sec. 12.10. For effluent polishing and toxics removal the more readily
available processes are:
Granular media filtration
Adsorption
Chemical treatment
Air stripping
Chlorination

Secondary treatment achieves effluent standards with BOD; values around 20mg/L and
corresponding SS concentrations around 30mg/L. Sometimes long retention time processes, as in
oxidation ditches, achieve better standards, but this can also be dependent on low loaded systems.
Standards can deteriorate under high loading rates. Effluent polishing is the term used to improve effluent
quality from 20/30 to, say, 10/10. Table 12.15 shows achievable standards for some advanced wastewater
treatment processes including filtration and/or carbon adsorption.
It is seen from Table 12.15 that typical activated sludge effluents in BOD;/SS can be reduced from
20/30 to 5/5 by the addition of filtration. Turbidity values also improve greatly. Bio-N—bio-P activated
sludge with filtration produces an effluent of 5/5 for BOD;/SS and better than 2/1 for N/P, with greatly
improved turbidity. It is important to have turbidity improvement prior to disinfection processes as turbid
waters may mask organisms (pathogenic).
 WASTEWATER TREATMENT 553

Table 12.15 Advanced wastewater treatment levels

Effluent parameter

SS BOD, TKN NH3-N PO,-P Turbidity

Treatment process (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (NTU)

Activated sludge 20 30 15-35 15-25 4-10 5-15

Activated sludge 4-6 < 5-10 15-35 15—25 4-10 0.3-5
+ filtration
Activated sludge <3 <1 15-30 15-25 4-10 0.3-3
+ filtration
+ carbon adsorption
Activated sludge: < 5-10 < 5-10 3-5 1-2 <1 0.3-3
nitrification—
denitrification
+ filtration
Bio N-bio P activated <10 <5) 25) <9) << 0.3-3
sludge + filtration

Adapted from Metcalf and Eddy, 1991. Reprinted with permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.

12.12.1 Granular Media Filtration

Filtration is applied where the effluent SS must be < 10mg/L. Filtration units are not unlike filtration
processes used in potable water treatment described in Chapter 11. They may be downflow (most
common) or upfiow. They may be dual or multimedia. They may be of natural or synthetic media and they
may be pressure or gravity. Figure 12.37 shows a typical layout of a system including filtration. Filtration
follows secondary clarification, which in turn may be followed by disinfection.
As SS influent to filters is low, it may be required to assist filtration by chemical coagulants such as
polyelectrolytes. These may be added in doses of 0.5 to 1.5 mg/L to the secondary clarifier influent or in
doses of 0.05 to 0.15 mg/L to the filter influent. The media of dual type tends to be anthracite on top of
sand, with total depths of 1 to 2m, with filter rates of 5 to 25 m/h. For multimedia filters of anthracite,
sand and garnet, the filter depths are 1 to 2 m with filter rates of 5 to 25 m/h. Multimedia filters produce a
higher quality filtrate. See AWWA (1991) and Metcalf and Eddy (1991) for further details.

Backwash recycle
Backwash
storage

Primary Secondary
sedimentation clarification

Influent Biological Clarified effluent

>
treatment

oludee Granular
Return activated Flration
sludge
Wasted sludge
—e
Figure 12.37 Typical layout of a wastewater system including filtration.
554 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

12.12.2 Activated Carbon Adsorption

Organic compounds in wastewater may be removed by either powdered activated carbon (PAC) or
granulated activated carbon (GAC) as described in Chapter 1!1. Organics are not usually a problem in
municipal wastewaters only but may be ah issue if municipal wastewaters are contaminated with industrial
organics. Soluble organics (mostly removed by secondary treatment) cause depletion of dissolved oxygen
in receiving waters. Toxic organics include: benzenes, chlorinated benzenes, chlorinated ethanes,
chlorinated ethers and phenols, dichorobenzenes and PAHs. In the United States they are classified as
priority pollutants and some are listed in Chapter 11; and a full list is given in Eckenfelder (1989).
Activated carbon when contacted with water containing organic matter will selectively remove these
compounds by the following processes:
e Adsorption of the less polar molecules
e Filtration of the larger particles
e Partial deposition of colloids on to external surfaces of activated carbon

Carbon adsorption types include:

e Upflow columns
e Downflow columns
e Fixed and expanded beds
The design of a carbon adsorption facility takes account of contact time, hydraulic loading rate,
depth of carbon and the number of contactors. Typical values to these parameters are shown in Table
12.16. Typically two or more units are used, sometimes in series to remove the spent carbon. The carbon
bed is cleaned by backwashing.

12.12.3 |Chemical Treatment

Chemicals may be used for many different problems in wastewater, including:
e Enhancement of sedimentation by metal salts or polyelectrolytes
e Reducing or masking odour
¢ Chemical precipitation of phosphorus
e Reducing activated sludge problems such as sludge bulking
e pH correction
e Disinfection
Some of the above problems are covered in earlier sections of this chapter. The reader is referred to
AWWA (1991), Metcalf and Eddy (1991) and Hosketh and Cross (1989) for further details. Chemical
precipitation of phosphorus was briefly dealt with in Sec. 12.10.

Table 12.16 Carbon adsorption parameters

Parameter Value

Contact time 15—20 min for effluent COD of 10-20

30+ min for effluent COD of 5-15
Hydraulic loading rate 2-7 L/m*/s—upflow
2-7 L/m?/s—upflow
Depth of column 3-12m
Height/diameter > 2
 WASTEWATER TREATMENT 555

12.12.4 Ammonia Removal by Air Stripping

Many food and pharmaceutical industries produce effluents high in ammonia. Effluent standards are often
set for ammonia limits as well as BOD;/SS limits. If ammonia levels are high, it may not be possible to
reduce them by conventional biological nitrogen removal processes. The ammonia stripping process
involves raising the pH to a range of 10.8 to 11.5 where the ammonia nitrogen is converted to ammonia
gas and released to the atmosphere.
Ammonia nitrogen may also be removed from wastewaters by the addition of chlorine, but only in an
effort to polish the effluent and not to remove large amounts of ammonia. When chlorine is added to an
ammonia nitrogen wastewater, it produces chloramines in a reaction with hypochlorous acid. With the
further addition of chlorine past the ‘breakpoint’, the chloramines are converted to nitrogen gas.

12.13 WASTEWATER DISINFECTION

Wastewater disinfection is uncommon in most European practice, particularly where treated effluent is
discharged to freshwaters, whereas disinfection of potable water supplies is an obligatory requirement.
However it is widespread in the United States and to a lesser extent in France. There may be a need to
disinfect wastewater if the effluent discharges to:
e Waters used for bathing
e Waters used for shellfish farming
e Waters used for potable water abstraction
These three ‘areas’ are covered in the EC by the Directives:
e Bathing Water Directive 76/160/EEC
e Shellfish Directive 79/923 /EEC
e Surface Water Directive 75/440/EEC

As discussed in Chapters 3 and 11, the objective of disinfection is to eliminate pathogenic organisms.
While specific organisms are not routinely monitored, the indicator organisms of faecal and total
coliforms are used. The presence of faecal coliforms in a receiving water is indicative of recent pollution
by human (sewage) or animal wastes. If non-faecal (non-E. coli) coliforms are present, the contamination
is from the soil. Untreated domestic wastewater has a total coliform count in the range 10° to 10”
MPN/100 ML. Table 12.17 is a summary of the regulated maximum admissible concentrations of faecal
coliforms in various waters, by comparison with MAC (maximum admissible concentration) of zero for
drinking water.

Table 12.17 Faecal coliforms standards

in the EU and California

EU MACt California
total coliform total coliform
EC Directive MPN/100 ml MPN/100 ml

Surface water
Al water 1000
A2 water 5 000
A3 water 40000
Bathing water < 1000 2300
Shellfish <300 700
Drinking water 0

+ Flanagan (1990)
556 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

of beaches.
In California a principal concern of wastewater discharge to coastal areas is the fouling
Since the 1940s, the standard for total coliforms at 2300/100 mL was initiated. A total coliform count
of 2300 is about equal to a faecal coliform count of 400. By comparison , the California standards that
have been in existence since 1945 are more stringent than the EU Bathing Water Directive requirement .
In the EU and in California, 80 per cent of the samples are not to exceed the given standard. This
means that a limit of 400 sets to 230 as the median. In Europe, very little disinfection of wastewater is
provided. By comparison many plants in the United States use disinfection procedures, most commonly
chlorination.
The disinfection procedures for wastewater include:

e Chlorine
e Ozone
e Chlorine dioxide
e Ultraviolet radiation

The methodologies of disinfection for wastewater are similar to those described in Chapter 11 for
potable water. As potable water is free of BODs and SS, disinfection by chlorine or other oxidant is
usually successful, because there is little oxidizing required prior to effecting a residual. In the case of
wastewater, because of BOD;/SS values of, say, 20/30 after secondary treatment, the disinfectant is
also an oxidant and will first oxidize BOD; before being effective as a disinfectant. As such, to
disinfect wastewater effluent, it is usual to first carry out advanced treatment of the wastewater effluent.
Advanced treatment methods for BOD;/SS reduction are described in Sec. 12.12.
Dosages of chlorine for disinfection purposes vary widely depending on the type of wastewater.
Typically, domestic wastewater requires about 10 to 12 mg/L. If the wastewater is septic, Cl, demand
may be 30 to 40 mg/L. If there is industrial wastewater from tanneries or wineries, Cl, demand may be
40 to 50 mg/L. Typically, chlorine requirements are about 10 times more than those for potable water
requirements. Detailed information on wastewater disinfection is found in White (1992).

12.14 DIFFUSERS FOR WASTEWATER

When wastewater is finally treated to the required standards it is discharged to either a freshwater or
seawater environment. Where discharge volumes are low, the discharge may be simply a pipe
discharging from the bank of a river. However, for adequate dilution it may be relevant to design
and locate a properly engineered outfall. Outfalls may be either of a round jet design or a continuous
slit in the pipe or a variation on these two, and may be positioned a distance from the land surface. A
jet discharging into an ambient fluid of equal density is shown in Fig. 12.38.
A round jet has a diameter d and an initial exit velocity V,. At any distance, z, from the exit point,
the maximum velocity is v,. The velocity at a distance z from the exit and a lateral distance x from the
centre-line is (from Roberson et al. (1988))

For z/d > 10): Vin = 6:2 Vo (D/z) (12.43)

FOZ
V = Vm EXp |-87() (12.44)
and Mean dilution D = 0.282 iG (12.45)
The plane jet has a width at the outfall of b.
 WASTEWATER TREATMENT 557

wane om | =
Ambient | (0 .
water | Gaussian distribution of

ca ee
| pollutant concentration

A p™“™

D or bo

Pipe outfall
Figure 12.38 Definition sketch for wastewater effluent jet discharging into an ambient fluid (freshwater or estuarine) of non-equal
density (jet may be horizontal or vertical).

As for the round jet, the corresponding equations for the velocity are
b 1/2
Vm = 2.41 vo (*) (12.46)

2
V = Vn EXP |-74(*) (12.47)
Zz.

and the mean dilution D =0.5(?/5,) (12.48)

The student is referred to Fischer et a/. (1978) and Roberson et a/. (1988) for further details.

12.14.1 Diffuser Plume Flow

A plume is flow that is mainly driven upwards by buoyancy, either in the atmosphere as a smoke plume or
in a river/estuarine as a liquid pollutant plume. Buoyancy is the density difference between the exit fluid
(wastewater) and the ambient fluid (freshwater or seawater). Two actions occur when a plume is
discharged. One, the initial momentum on exit, causes mixing. Secondly, the buoyancy thereafter causes
mixing:
A
For the round plume B = e( \o= 20 (12.49)

A
For the plane plume B = «(oa =o (12750)
ww
558 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

where B = buoyancy
g = gravity, 9.81 m/s?
Py = density of wastewater, kg/m?
pestis, <4,
fy, = ambient water density, kg/ m?
q = discharge per unit length, m?/s/m
Q = pipe discharge, m?/s
For round plumes, the equations, including buoyancy, from Roberson (1988) are
1/3
pyar @ (12.51)
74,

(12.52)
2
m8 exp]—100(5)
qe Bua (12.53)
Q
For the plane plume, we have
Vm = 1.66 BI? (12.54)
2
Ve ya exp |-74(2) (12.55)
pj — 2:38 Bie (12.56)
q

12.14.2 Diffuser Design

The task in the engineering design of a diffuser is to provide adequate dilution and to ensure that the
discharged effluent moves on downstream in the case of freshwater or out to sea in the case of seawater.
Also the diffuser should be set at an adequate depth to optimize dilution by the time the effluent reaches
the surface. A round diffuser typically is a pipeline sitting on the bed with a number of ports over a length
of the pipeline. There should be an adequate number of properly spaced ports along the top of the pipeline
to ensure a uniform dilution. The sizing of the diffuser pipeline and the ports should be such as to
maintain an adequate velocity (not too high, not too low) so that solids do not separate in the pipeline. The
pipeline should also be long enough that the wastewater is not returned to shore. The diffuser should also
be placed closer to midstream in a river situation so that no wastewater concentrates along the river bank.
Traditionally, there have been many problems associated with diffusers. This was in the time when
wastewater could legitimately be discharged to seawaters without treatment (typically, only screening).
Since environmental regulations internationally now require that all wastewaters be treated to at least
secondary level, the requirements for diffusers and their dilution ability may be less stringent. Problems
associated with diffusers in the past have been with the untreated sewage returning to land, pipe and ports
clogging, solids separation in the pipeline, differential settlement of pipelines on the bed of coasts,
damage during earthquakes, etc.

Example 12.11 A wastewater treated to secondary level is being discharged to the coastal zone.
Legislation requires that a dilution of 100 be achieved. The population serviced is 150000 people
equivalent. The temperature of the effluent is 20 °C with a density of 0.998 kg/L, and the density of the
seawater is 1.022 kg/L. At what depth (z) should the diffuser be installed if it is a plane diffuser of length
50m?
 WASTEWATER TREATMENT 559

Solution Assume 225 L/person/day.

Flow rate Q = 150000 x 0.225 = 33 750 m3/day
= 0.39 m?/s

Bey
ayaa vs 0078 m°/s/m

For a plane diffuser, the dilution, from Eq. (12.56) is

ee 3 80 ez
D = ———_
q
Rearranging, &
228
“0.38 BIB

ra (
From Eq. (12.50), the buoyancy for a plane diffuser is

Ap
Pww
1.022 — 0.998
(
S253) |||
=a 0.998 = Jo0s 0078

=a s4ea10

Phen tore 168m

100 x 0.0078
0.38(1.84 x 10-3)!
= 7m
12.15 PROBLEMS
12.1 Identify a geographic area in your country or state and classify the freshwater and saline water bodies
into ‘sensitive’ and ‘non-sensitive’ areas. Explain briefly your reasons for categorization.
122 For a municipal wastewater treatment plant in your area collect the data from management and prepare
a graph of hourly rates for flow and waste load (similar to Fig. 12.1). Try to find a plant that treats
municipal waste only.
13 For the plant you examined in Problem 12.2, determine the watershed area contributing to the plant.
Subdivide the watershed into sewage contributing areas. Identify the population statistics.
From this survey, using 22 L/head/day, determine the dry weather flow (average daily). How does
this compare to your answer to Problem 12.2?
12.4 From your results for Problem 12.3, compute a synthetic hourly flow and waste load rates curve.
12.5 If the BOD, of a municipal wastewater is 310 mg/L and the BOD, is 340 mg/L, determine the BOD
reaction rate constant (refer to Chapter 7).

Day Flow BOD; SS

number (m? /day) (mg/L) (mg/L)

1 26 000 260 200

10 36 000 360 310
20 48 000 480 440
30 45 000 450 410
40 42 000 420 375
50 55 000 550 560
60 63 000 630 650
70 58 000 580 590
80 47 000 470 470
90 42 000 420 400
100 31000 310 250
560 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

12.6 What are the mean and standard deviations of flow, BOD; and SS for Problem PSH
and an SS of
128 Design a primary settling tank for an industrial wastewater with a BOD; of 600 mg/L
400 mg/L to achieve a 60 per cent SS reduction. The flow rate is 35 000 m* /day.
plant are
12.8 Design an equalization basin (for flow) if the flow rates to a municipal wastewater treatment
as follows:
IQ) Review the paper, ‘Chemically enhanced wastewater treatment—an appropriate technology for the
1990s’ by Harleman (1991).

Time On
(h) (m’/s)
0-2 0.32
244 0.18
46 0.16
6-8 2
8-10 0.8
10-12 1.4
12-14 iL
14-16 0.6
16-18 1.8
18-20 QD
20-22 1.6
22-24 0.6

12.10 Explain with the aid of sketches the two principal, activated sludge methodologies of complete mix
reactors and plug flow reactors.
12 In the complete mix activated sludge process, from the starting point of the equations of Sec. 12.8.1,
derive Eq. (12.27) for the effluent organic solids concentration.
AZ For a complete mix activated sludge system, determine the aeration tank volume, the hydraulic
retention time, the sludge wasted daily, the mass of sludge wasted daily, the fraction of sludge recycled
and the F/M ratio for the following conditions: population equivalent 15000,
influent BOD; =300mg/L, effluent BOD? =20mg/L, yield coefficient =0.55 and a decay
rate=0.05d~'. Assume also that the MLSS in the aeration basin is 4kg/m/*, in the clarifier
sludge is 18 kg/m* and the mean cell residence time is 12 days.
12713 Explain briefly the phenomenon of washout with the aid of schematic graphs (suggest refer to
Schroeder, 1977).
12.14 Review the paper “Unified basis for biological treatment, design and operation’, by Lawrence and
McCarthy (1970).
195!le) Compute the size of an extended aeration basin to treat wastewater from a population equivalent of
150.000, with a BOD influent of 250mg/L and a BOD effluent of 10 mg/L, if the MLSS in the
aeration basin is 4000 mg/L, the yield coefficient is 0.03 and the decay rate is 0.02 day‘. Explain
why extended aeration systems do not need primary clarification.
12.16 Determine the volume ofa stone media trickling filter to treat municipal wastewater with a flow rate of
30000 m?/day with an influent BOD of 3000 mg/L and an effluent BOD of 20mg/L if the
recirculation ratio (Q,/Qo) is 0.1 and 2. The water temperature is assumed to be 20°C.
127 Why is there typically almost no nitrate and nitrite in influent wastewaters to treatment plants? Explain
clearly with sketches one method for biological nutrient removal.
12:18 For a wastewater treatment plant treating 30000 m*/day compute the total sludge production if a
conventional complete mix activated sludge system is used. The influent SS is 350 mg/L and the
effluent SS is 40 mg/L.
1219 For Problem 12.18, if chemically assisted primary sedimentation is the only treatment, using ferrous
sulphate in loads of 10 kg per 1000 m* determine the total sludge generated.
 WASTEWATER TREATMENT 561

12.20 For Example 12.2, what are the 90, 50 and 10 per cent of BOD, values if a ranking system
like that of Chapter 4, Examples 4.3 and 4.9, is used?
12.21 For Example 12.3, repeat the exercise if the storm runoff is included. Use the rational formula
(Q=0.278cIA) to compute the storm flows, when c0.8, /=rain intensity of 20mm/h over
1 hour and 4 is the tributary area in km? (refer to Chapter 4).
12.22 Compute the density of four sludges if it is made up of the following four dry solids fractions:
DS = 10, 20, 30, 40 per cent. Assume that the particle density is 2000 kg/m? (refer to Example 12.6).
12.23 Determine the depth at which a sea outfall diffuser must be set if it is to obtain a dilution of 50. The
flow rate q is 0.02 m?/S/m for a round pipe. Assume Ap = 25 kg/m’.

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) and Water Environment Federation (WEF) (1991) Design of Municipal Wastewater
Treatment Plants, Vols. | and II, Alexandria, Virginia, USA.
American Water Works Association. (AWWA) (1992) Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 18th edn.
Apogee Research Inc. (1987) ‘Report on wastewater management’, National Council on Public Works, May 1987, USA.
Arden, E. and W. T. Lockett (1914) ‘Experiments on the oxidation of sewage without the aid of filters.’ J Soc. Chem. Ind. 33, pp.
B23, 122,
Bailey, J. E. and D. F. Ollis (1986) Biochemical Engineering Fundamentals, 2nd edn, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Barnes, D. and F. Wilson (1978) The Design and Operation of Small Sewage Works, E&FN Spon, London.
Barnes, D., P. J. Bliss, B. W. Gould and H. R. Valentine (1981) Water and Wastewater Engineering Systems, Longman Scientific and
Technical Publishing, London.
Barnes, D., C. F. Forster and S. E. Hrudey (1987) Surveys in Industrial Wastewater Treatment. Vol. 1: Food and Allied Industries,
Vol. 2: Petroleum and Organic Chemical Industries, Vol. 3: Manufacturing and Chemical Industry, Longman Scientific and
Technical Publishing, London.
Benefield, L. D. and C. W. Randall (1980) Biological Process Design for Wastewater Treatment, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey.
Brassil, L. (1981) Foul and Surface Water Sewer Design. Lecture to Cork—Kerry region of Institution of Engineers of Ireland, Cork.
Curi, K. and W. Eckenfelder (1980) Theory and Practice of Biological Wastewater Treatment, Sijthoff and Noorohoff, The
Netherlands.
Danish Hydraulics Institute (1990) MOUSE.
Department of Health (1992) Public Health Guidelines
for the Safe Use of Sewage Effluent and Sewage Sludge on Land, Department
of Health, New Zealand.
Eckenfelder, W. W. (1989) Industrial Water Pollution Control. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Eckenfelder, W. W. and W. Barnhart (1963) ‘Performance of a high rate trickling filter using selected media’, J Water Pollution
Control Federation. 35, 1535.
Eckenfelder, W. W., A. L. Downing, C. J. Appleyard, P. W. Langford, J. L. Musterman and T. Bilstad (1992) Industrial Water
Pollution, Control Technology, Technomic Publishers. London.
Eikelboom, D. H. and H. J. J. Van Buijsen (1983) Microscopic Sludge Investigation Manual, TNO Research, The Netherlands,
March.
Ekama, G. A. and G. R. Marais (1984) ‘Biological nitrogen removal’, in Theory, Design and Operation of Nutrient Removal
Activated Sludge Processes, Water Resources Commission, Pretoria, South Africa.
Fischer, H. B., E. J. List, R. C. Y. Koh, J. Imberger and N. M. Brooks (1979), Mixing Inland and Coastal Waters, Academic Press,
San Diego, California, USA.
Flanagan, P. (1992) Parameters of Water Quality. Environmental Research Unit, Dublin.
Gray, N. (1990) Activated Sludge Theory and Practice, Oxford Science Publishers.
Harleman, D. R. EF. (1991) ‘Chemically enhanced wastewater treatment—an appropriate technology for the 1990s’, in Water
Pollution, Modelling Measuring and Prediction, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Haug, T. R. (1980) Compost Engineering. Principles and Practice, Ann Arbor Science, Michigan, Illinois.
Heinke, G. and J. A. Tay (1980) ‘Effects of chemical addition on the performance of settling tanks’, . Water Pollution Control
Federation, 52 (12).
Hing, C. L., D. R. Zenz and R. Kuchenrither (1992) Municipal Sewage Sludge Management: Processing, Utilization and Disposal,
Technomic Publishers, London.
Horan, N. J. (1990) Biological Wastewater Treatment Systems Theory and Operation, John Wiley, New York.
Hosketh, H. E. and F. L. Cross (1989) Odour Control—Including Hazardous and Toxic Odours, Technomic Publishers, London.
562 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Hydraulics Research (1985) Design and Analysis of Urban Storm Drainage, The Wallingford Procedure V1 and V2. Wallingford,
UK.
Institution of Water and Environmental Management (1988) Unit Processes Biological Filtration—Manuals of British Practice in
Water Pollution Control, London, UK.
Lawrence A. W. and P. L. McCarthy (1970) ‘Unified basis for biological treatment design and operation’, J. Sanitary Engng. ASCE,
96 (SA3), 757.
Levine A. D., G. Tchobanoglous and T. Asano (1985) ‘Characterisation of the size distribution of contaminants: treatment and reuse
applications’, J. Water Pollution Control Federation, 57 (7), July.
McGhee T. (1991) Water Supply and Sewage, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Metcalf and Eddy, Inc. (1991) Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, Disposal and Reuse, T. Tchobanoglous and F. Burton (eds),
McGraw-Hill, New York.
Moletta R., D. Verrier and G. Albagna (1986) ‘Dynamic modelling of anaerobic digestion’, Water Research, 20 (4), 427-434.
Monod J. (1949) ‘The growth of bacterial cultures’, Annual Review of Microbiology, 3.
Mudrack K. and S. Kunst (1986) Biology of Sewage Treatment and Water Pollution Control, Ellis Horwood, Chichester.
National Research Council (1946) ‘Trickling filters in sewage treatment at military installations, Sewage Works J, 18 (5).
O’Sullivan G. (1991) ‘Wastewater treatment and disposal’, in Proceedings of Ist Irish Environmental Engineering Conference,
University College Cork, Ireland, May.
O’Sullivan G. (1992) Lecture Notes to Postgraduate Diploma in Environmental Engineering, University College Cork, Ireland.
Pankratz T. M. (1988) Screening Equipment Handbook for Industrial and Municipal Water and Wastewater Treatment, Technomic
Publishers, London.
Randall C. W., J. L. Barnard and H. D. Stensel (1992) Design and Retrofit of Wastewater Treatment Plants for Biological Nutrient
Removal, Technomic Publishers, London.
Reynolds T. (1982) Unit Operations and Processes in Environmental Engineering, PWS—Kent, Boston, Mass.
Roberson, J. A., J. J. Cassidy and M. H. Chaudhry (1988) Hydraulic Engineering, Haughton Mifflin Co., Boston, MA, USA.
Schroeder E. D. (1977) Water and Wastewater Treatment, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Sterritt R. M. and J. N. Lester (1988) Microbiology for Environmental and Public Health Engineers. EXFN Spon, London.
Thomas G. and R. King (1990) Advances in Water Treatment and Environmental Management, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
US Code of Federal Regulations, 40 CFR, Part 33, 1991.
USEPA (1986) Sequencing Batch Reactors, EPA/625/8-86/011, Cincinatti, Ohio, October.
USEPA (1988) Barnwell, T. Stormwater Management Model, USEPA, Athens, Georgia, USA.
Water Pollution Control Federation (WPCF) (1990) Operation of Wastewater Treatment Plants, Manuals of Practice, Vols. I, 11 and
Ill, WPCF, Alexandria, Virginia, USA.
Water Pollution Control Federation (WPCF) (1991) Wastewater Biology: The Microlife, WPCF.
White, G. C. (1992) Handbook on Chlorination and Alternative Disinfectants 3rd edn, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, USA.
Wilson F. (1981) Design Calculations in Wastewater Treatment, E&FN Spon, London.
 CHAPTER

THIRTEEN

ANAEROBIC DIGESTION AND SLUDGE TREATMENT

13.1 INTRODUCTION TO ANAEROBIC DIGESTION

The unit treatment process of anaerobic digestion is used world-wide for the treatment of industrial,
agricultural and municipal wastewaters and sludges. In recent years it is also being applied to the
treatment of municipal solid wastes. By definition, anaerobic digestion (A/D) is: ‘the use of microbial
organisms, in the absence of oxygen, for the stabilization of organic materials by conversion to methane
and inorganic products including carbon dioxide’:
Organic anaerobes New
fates POO CHa COD St iomass tS eed heal (isan)
The process is often used for a first-stage treatment of high-strength organic wastes. The objective is to
use A/D to reduce the high organic loads to magnitudes of COD that can be accommodated in
conventional aerobic processes, most typically activated sludge. As such A/D is not a complete processor
of wastewaters on its own. It is an addendum to existing conventional aerobic processes. The wide range
of industrial wastes treated by A/D include:
e Breweries
e Dairy industries
© Food processing
® Chemical industries
e Pharmaceuticals
e Wineries, etc.

Agricultural wastes include those from

e Pigs
® Chickens
© Cattle
e Farmyards

563
564 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

e Waste products——crop residues, etc.

e Offal
Municipal wastes treated include:
e Sludges—principally
— Raw sewage
— The organic fraction of municipal solid wastes (OF MSW)

Several locations and studies have combined different feedstocks, e.g. primary sewage
sludge + industrial yeast waste+ abattoir waste (Sugrue ef al., 1992). Great strides have been made in
Europe, particularly, into A/D research, funded by the EC (Wheatley, 1991; Ferranti et al., 1987).
Extensive applications exist in agriculture and industry. According to Wellinger et al. (1992), there are in
excess of 500 plants in Europe operating on agricultural farms. Sometimes the term biogas plant is used
instead of anaerobic digestion plant and is used interchangeably in this chapter. Typical solids contents for
low solids digesters are 3 to 10 per cent, and typically 10 to 30 per cent for high solids digesters. The
COD reduction ranges from 75 to 90 per cent. As such, an agricultural waste with, say, an initial COD of
20000 mg/L will still have a COD content of ~ 3000 mg/L after anaerobic digestion. It therefore needs
further treatment, usually aerobically. The benefits of using A/D include:
Reduction of pollution potential of waste
Elimination of pathogens and weed seeds (if mesophilic or thermophilic)
Improvement in fertilizer/fuel value of waste product
Production of biogas as an energy source

13.2 MICROBIOLOGY OF ANAEROBIC DIGESTION

An excellent critical review of the kinetics of anaerobic treatment is by Pavlostathis and Giraldo-Gomez
(1991), from which some of this section is adopted. Four different trophic microbiological groups
(bacteria) are recognized in A/D, and it is the cumulative effect of all of these groups that ensures process
continuity and stability. The four metabolic stages required for the production of methane from organic
wastes are outlined in Fig. 13.1.
Initially, the complex polymeric materials such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, fats and grease are
hydrolysed by extracellular enzymes to simpler soluble products of a size small enough to allow their
passage across the cell membrane of the micro-organisms. These simple compounds of amino acids,
sugars, fatty acids and alcohols are fermented to short-chain fatty acids, alcohols, ammonia, hydrogen and
carbon dioxide. These short-chain fatty acids not in acetate form are converted to acetate, hydrogen and
carbon dioxide. The final stage is methane production from hydrogen by the hydrogenophilic
methanogens and from acetate by the aceticlastic methanogens (Pavlosthatis and Giraldo-Gomez,
1991). Gujer and Zehnder (1983) organized the anaerobic process into seven subprocesses as follows:
Hydrolyses of complex particulate organic matter
Fermentation of amino acids and sugars
Anaerobic oxidation of long-chain fatty acids and alcohols
Anaerobic oxidation of intermediary products
Acetate production from CO, and H,
Conversion of acetate to methane by aceticlastic methanogens
Methane production by hydrogenophillic methanogens using CO, and H;0O.

The biological agents of anaerobic digestion are bacteria but fermentative ciliate and flagellate protozoa
and some anaerobic fungi may play minor roles in some systems (Colleran, 1980). The activities of the
 ANAEROBIC DIGESTION AND SLUDGE TREATMENT 565

Complex polymers

Proteins — Carbohydrates Lipids

Hydrolytic Hydrolysis
bacteria Fatty acids, alcohols Process

Intermediate products:
Acidogenic propionate, butyrate, Acidogenesis
bacteria valerate process

Methanogenesis
process
Aceticlastic Hydrogenophilic
methanogens methanogens
Methane
Co,

Figure 13.1 Stages in methane production from organic waste.

four trophic groups are briefly described as follows (Colleran, 1980; Wheatley, 1991).
Some typical bacterial species present in the various stages and ranges of respective populations are
given in Table 13.1. The huge range of genera and species indicates the complex nature of the microbial
population and in each of the stages the population densities (in sewage sludges) range from 10° to 10°
per mL. The bacteria involved in anaerobic digestion have a pH range of 6 to 8 with values close to 7 for
optimum activity. Volatile fatty acids depress the pH unless there is sufficient bicarbonate alkalinity
present to neutralize the acids. Bicarbonate is formed when CO3;, which is soluble in water, reacts with
hydroxide ions to form bicarbonate ions, HCO, ~. It is important that sufficient alkalinity is available at all
times, up to a level of ~ 3000 mg/L, for sufficient buffering to be maintained.

13.3 REACTOR CONFIGURATIONS

The basic (complete mix—no media) reactor process is shown in Fig. 13.2. The low-rate conventional
system shown is made up of several layers. The influent sludge enters the tank close to the top at the
location of the supernatant layer (a partially purified liquid layer). Below this is a layer of actively
digesting sludge and at the bottom of the tank sits the stabilized sludge, ready for abstraction
(withdrawal). Conventional or low-rate digesters are characterized by intermittent mixing, intermittent
sludge feeding and intermittent sludge withdrawal (Reynolds, 1982). When mixing is not being carried
out the digester contents become stratified, as shown in Fig. 13.2(a).
High-rate digesters are characterized by continuous mixing, except at times of sludge withdrawal.
High-rate digesters have HRTs about one-half those of low rate and gas production is as much as twice.
The following figures show the many variations of this basic process, including gas recirculation, fixed
media or fluidized media, etc.
Reactors can be classified as:
1. First generation type, meaning that the hydraulic retention time is equal to the solids retention time,
that is @ = ¢, (defined later). As shown in Fig. 13.3, they include:
566 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Table 13.1 Some bacterial species in anaerobic digestion

Population in Mesophillic
Stage Genera/species sewage sludges

Hydrolytic acidogenic Butyrivibrio, Clostridiums

Ruminococcus, Acetivibrio,
Eubacterium, Peptococcus, 10°-10° per ml
Lactabacillius, Streptococcus
etc,

Acetogenic
Homoacetogenic Acetobacterium, Acetogenium, =~ 10° per ml
Eubacterium, Pelobacter,
Clostridium, etc.
Obiligate proton Methanobacillus omelionskii,
reducing acetogens Syntrophobacter wolinii,
Syntrophomonas wolfei,
Syntrophus buswelii, etc.

Methanogenic’ Methanobacterium (many species),

Methanobrevibacter (many species),
Methanococcus (many species), = 10° ml
Methanomicrobium (many species),
Methanogenium (many species),
Methanospirillium hungatei, etc.

*The methanogenic bacteria are usually the limiting population.

Adapted from Wheatley, 1991, and others

——> Gas
abstraction abstraction

5-15%
tank volume

SlbGee boa ssssseesecesac

influent
Active
Supernatant
abstraction
mixing

sludge

Stabilized
sludge

Sludge
Digested withdrawal
> sludge

(a) Low rate (b) High rate

Figure 13.2 Basic anaerobic digestion process.

 ANAEROBIC DIGESTION AND SLUDGE TREATMENT 567

(a) the batch digester,

(b) the plug flow digester,
(c) the continuously stirred tank reactor (CSTR),
(d) the anaerobic contact reactor.
2. Second generation type, meaning that the solids retention time is greater than the hydraulic retention
time, that is @, > ¢. As shown in Fig. 13.4, they include:
(a) the upflow—downflow anaerobic filter,
(b) the downflow stationary fixed film reactor,
(c) the fluidized bed reactor,
(d) the upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor,
(e) the hybrid anaerobic sludge reactor.
The various configurations have different uses for industrial, agricultural and municipal wastes. For
agricultural wastes the batch process is common while in industry the trend is toward fluidized bed or
fixed media reactors. Most wastes treated by digesters are liquids of about 2 to 6 per cent solids content.
More recently, high solids digesters are being used, particularly for MSW (Kayhanian et al., 1991), where
the solids content is 20 to 30 per cent. Solids retention times are typically 10 to 30 days and this is a
fundamental design parameter. In those reactors where mixing is provided, it is done by either:
¢ Mechanical mixers or
e Recirculation of the gas or
e Recycle of the sludge or slurries
Digesters operate at three possible temperatures:
e Psychrophilic (0O-20°C)
© Mesophilic (36°C)
¢ Thermophilic (50—-60°C)
Early digesters operated at ambient temperatures with long retention times. Most digesters now
operate at mesophilic temperatures where good stability and gas production results (about 2 m> biogas/m*
of digester). Note that biogas = CH, + CO; and is typically 60 per cent CH4. The optimum temperature to

Influent Effluent Effluent

Sludge recyle

(a) Batch digester (b) Plug flow digester with recycle

Gas Biogas
headspace

Effluent Influent Effluent Effluent

Aerobic
Anaerobic

Sludge recyle

(c) CFSTR (d) Anaerobic contact reactor or

contact stirred reactor (CSTR)

Figure 13.3 First generation reactor configurations.

568 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Influent or
effluent

} Fixed media

Influent or
effluent
(a) Upflow/downflow anaerobic filter (b) Downflow stationary fixed film

fGas Gas

Effluent Effluent Effluent

_

Media

Recycle No media

Sludge
Influent Influent Influent

(c) Fluidized bed (d) Upflow anaerobic sludge (e) Hybrid anaerobic
blanket (UASB) sludge reactor

Figure 13.4 Some second generation reactor configurations.

work with is thermophilic where the highest gas production is achieved and pathogen kills are guaranteed.
However, at this temperature the process is the least stable and requires more detailed monitoring. Gas
production depends on configuration, operating temperature, waste type, etc., but typically ranges from 1|
to 5m? biogas per m* of digester volume. COD reduction ranges from 70 to 90 per cent. Loading rates
defined in kg COD/m?/day range from 2 to 40. The methane composition of biogas is typically 50 to 70
per cent.

13.3.1 Process Design

The process design involves several parameters including:

Solids retention time (SRT), days

Hydraulic retention time (HRT), days
Volatile solids loading rate, kg VS /m /day
Solids production rate, kg SS/m? /day
Gas production, m* of CH, of reactor/day
Tank configuration
Mixing systems
Heating systems

Typical design and operating data for anaerobic digestion in the United States as compiled by the ASCE is
shown in Table 13.2. It is notable that the dominant operating temperature is mesophilic (38°C). This is
also true in Europe. Since 1983, anaerobic digestion technology has improved significantly. Many new
plants are now operating at the thermophilic conditions for higher gas production and also at high solids
content. For digestion systems without recycle, the SRT is the same as the HRT. Adequate sludge
 ANAEROBIC DIGESTION AND SLUDGE TREATMENT 569

Table 13.2 Design and operating data for

anaerobic digesters

Variable Mean of responses

Sludge feed type:

Primary (%) 50
Trickling filter (%) 15
WAS (%)t 35
Total solids (%) 4.7
Volatile solids (%) 62
Tank diameter (m) 12-38 m
Tank height (m) 5-19
Sludge loading (kg VSS/m*/d) Ey)
Gas production (m3/kg VS reduced) ~]
Methane (%) 65
Operating temperature (°C) 38

TWAS = waste activated sludge.

Adapted from ASCE, 1983

residence times are provided so as to enable the volatile solids to be fully reduced. SRT and HRT are
defined as
mass of solids in tank, kg
SRT (13.2)
~ rate of solids removed, kg/day

working volume, L
HRT (1373)
~ rate of sludge removed, L/d
Typically, municipal wastewater sludge requires an SRT of no less than about 10 days. This is so because
the limiting microbiological step is that of methanogenic bacterial growth, which requires about 10 days.
Longer periods are often required for mixed sludges, be they municipal, industrial or agricultural. The
working range is typically 15 to 30 days.
The volatile solids loading rate is defined as
volatile solids added daily, kg VS/d
VS loading rate = 13.4
working volume of the digester, m? ( )

Typically values are 2 to 3kg VS/m°/d. Design values may peak at 3.2, because above this ammonia
toxicity or metal toxicity may limit operation (WEF, 1991). Gas production rates range from 0.5 to 1.5 m
of gas per kg of VS destroyed. The rates will depend on the digester temperature and thermophilic rates
are higher. The tank configurations are now primarily cylindrical with diameters of 5 to 50 m and heights
of 3 to 25m. Some digesters have a diameter larger than their height, (e.g. fluidized bed units), while
those using gas recirculation as the mixing mechanism may be taller than their diameter. Tank
construction is now almost always of steel. The mixing and heating systems may have interdependency.
All reactor configurations have thermally insulated containers. Heating mechanisms include external
water baths, external jacketed pipes, internal exchangers, steam injection or direct flame. The heat
required to raise the temperature of incoming ambient sludge to, say, mesophilic (38°C) and keep it at that
temperature is readily computed from WEF (1991) as
H = WC AT
+ UA AT (325)
where H = heat required to heat incoming sludge and compensate for heat losses, kg cal/h
W =mass rate of influent sludge, kg/h
AT = difference between digester temperature and influent sludge temperature
570 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

U = heat transfer through tank walls, kg cal/m? h°C

A = surface area of digester losing heat
C = mean specific heat of feed sludge, approximately 1 kg cal/kg°C

The mixing of digester contents is essential to maintain uniform sludge quality and prevent
blockages of inlet and outlet ports for sludge and gas. The simplest mixing mechanism was reintroducing
the gas to the tank. However, this is uneconomic and mechanical systems are now more readily used. The
more common method is that of recirculation pumping using an internal draft tube. Further details are
given in WEF (1991).
The volume of a batch digester was given in Reynolds (1982) by Fair et al. (1968) as

Vilai ak (13.6)
where Vs = digester volume
V, = initial sludge volume
V; = final sludge volume
t = retention time

13.4 METHANE PRODUCTION

The amount of methane produced will depend on several parameters, but most especially on the waste
type, reactor type, temperature and solids content. Bushwell and Mueller (1952) indicated that the
stoichiometric equation for methane production was
@ iam Gl. wb em @
C .H,O b+ (»ee 4at)
;)TF20 > ee 5+
(5 ae g)€02 + (+3
BA pa 7c ;
(327)

For example, if pure glucose is used, then

Ce6H120¢6 — 3CO> + 3CH4
(mol wt= 180) (mol wt
= 44) (mol wt = 16)

i.e. 1kg of glucose produces 3 x 16/180=0.27m> of CHg. Similarly, 1 kg of carbohydrates produces

~ 0.35 m? of CHy.
For continuous flow stirred tank reactors (CFSTR) the methane production rate is (Tchobanoglous
and Schroeder, 1987)

Mcu, = 9.35(nQ C; — 1.42 rg V) (13.8)

where n = fraction of biodegradable COD converted (~ 0.85)
QO = flow rate, m?/s
C; = COD loading, kg/L
rg = growth rate, g/m?s
V = volume, m3
Mcu, = methane production, m?/s
As a preliminary estimate of gas production, if growth rate is ignored, then

Mcu, © 0.30C, (13.9)

Example 13.1 Determine the volume of a CFSTR required to digest pig slurry from a farm with
2000 pigs. The hydraulic retention time is 15 days.
 ANAEROBIC DIGESTION AND SLUDGE TREATMENT 571

Solution

Assume pig slurry load ~ 5 kg/pig/day (Wheatley, 1991)

Load = 5 x 2000 = 10000 kg/day
Assume density © 1.05kg/L
Therefore
10 000
Fl ow ratete OOQ = ——___=
105 x 103 9.59.5m?
m- /day

Required digester volume V = O¢

= M95 IS
== 42-5.ne
Allowing for gas headspace the V design > 150m’.

Example 13.2 A bench-scale laboratory anaerobic digestion plant of mixed wastes produced the
following results for day 65 of a 100 day programme:

Reactor volume = 2 L
Feedstock CODinr = 97 000 mg/L
CODe = 4000 mg/L
Biogas = 1.13 m>/m?/day
CH ==99 7/6
Daily feed = 55 mL

If growth is ignored in Eq. (13.8), determine the volume of CH, per kg of waste digested, i.e. determine a
in the following equation (1.e. Eq. (13.9)):
Mcu, = anQ C;

Solution

Mcu, = 0.59 x 1.13 = 0.67 m3 /m?day

QO = 55mL/day = 55 x 10~° m3 /day
nC; = 97000 — 4000 = 93 000 mg/L
= 93kg/m?
M cu, = anQ C;
Mcu, = a m?/kg x 55 x 107° m3 /day x 93 kg/m?
=a x 5.12 x 1073 m3 /day
Reactor volume = 2 L
Therefore
Mcu, = a x 5.12 x 1073 m3/day x 0.5 x 10-3 m3
Mcu, = @ X 2.58 m3/m?day
067 =a x 2.55
Therefore

ie Yee =10.26
572 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

that is 0.26m? of CH, per kg of waste digested (i.e. equal to 75 per cent of that from carbohydrates).
Note This ignores the growth rate, which although likely to be small may not be negligible. If
growth were included, a would be larger and therefore closer to 0.35.

Example 13.3. From a municipal wastewater treatment plant calculate the amount of sludge
produced daily, the rate of gas production and the anaerobic digester volume if primary sludge is used as a
feedstock. The sludge is 2 per cent DS and 70 per cent is volatile solids. Assume 60 per cent volatile
solids destruction and a 25 day retention time. The digested solids is 5 per cent DS. The population being
served is 50000.

Solution

(a) From the primary sedimentation tank, assume that 60 per cent of suspended solids is removed. Also
assume both the influent SS and BOD are 300 mg/L. If the flow per person is assumed as 225 L/day,
then
300 x 225
Total solids per person per day = = 67.5 g/person/day
10°
50000
Total solids per day = 67.5 x 0a a 3375 kg/day

60% removal = 3375 x 0.6 = 2025 kg/day

Therefore
Daily sludge = 2025 kg dry solids
= 101 250 kg wet solids (at 2% DS) = 101.3 tonnes/day

(b) Daily gas production. Assume that gas production is 0.15 m*/kg of VS destroyed.
Volatile solids = 2025 x 0.7 = 1417 kg/day
Volatile solids destroyed = 1417 x 0.6 = 850 kg/day
Gas production = 0.15 x 850 = 128 m?/day
Assume gas production is 50 per cent CO, and 50 per cent CH4. Therefore
Methane production = 128 x 0.5 = 64 m*/day
(c) Digester volume
Volume dimensions = 64 x 25 = 1600 m3
Consider two digesters of size 10m diameter x 15m high (allowing headspace)

Example 13.4 Determine the volume of an anaerobic digester to treat waste activated sludge from
a population equivalent of 75 000. The daily (dry) sludge is 0.1 kg DS/day/capita with a volatile content
of 75 per cent of DS. The specific gravity of wet sludge is 1.016 and the sludge is 4 per cent DS. The A/D
process destroys 70 per cent of volatile solids. The final sludge is 7 per cent DS with a specific gravity of
1.028.

Solution Assume mesophilic temperatures of 36°C and HRT~25 days and that the sludge
occupies two-thirds of a tank.

Influent sludge solids = 75 000 x 0.1 = 7500 kg/day

Volatile suspended solids (VSS) = 7500 x 0.75 = 5625 kg/day
Fixed suspended solids (FSS) = 7500 x 0.25 = 1875 kg/day
VSS destroyed = 5625 x 0.70 = 3938 kg/day
 ANAEROBIC DIGESTION AND SLUDGE TREATMENT 573

Mass balance around digester:

Accumulation = inflow — outflow + net growth

Outflow = inflow — loss
Remaining VSS in sludge = 5625 — 3938 = 1687 kg/day
Remaining FSS in sludge = 1875 kg/day
Total solids in sludge = 1687 + 1875 = 3562 kg/day

Influent sludge volume = 7500 kg/day x oe a ae = 184.5 m3 /day

Digested sludge volume = 3562 kg/day x * x = 49.5 m3 /day

1.028
Volume of digested sludge = Vs = [V, — 3(Vi — Vs)]¢
= [184.5 — 2(184.5 — 49.5)] 25
= 2365 m?
However, as sludge occupies the bottom two-thirds of tank, then

Final tank size V = 3550 m°*

13.5 APPLICATIONS OF ANAEROBIC DIGESTION

Anaerobic digestion applications can be broadly listed as:

e Agricultural
e Industrial
@ Municipal

13.5.1 The Treatment of Agricultural Wastes

The use of A/D to treat agricultural waste will probably be the largest single process contributor to the
reduction of agricultural pollution. Cattle produce daily excreta wastes at a range of 10 to 40 kg/animal
with a solids content range of 10 to 14 per cent. Pig wastes are generated at a rate of 5 to 15 kg/animal
with a solids content of 5 to 10 per cent (Wheatley, 1990). These wastes are often diluted with yard or rain
runoff. The chemical composition of animal slurries is similar to primary sewage sludge (Wheatley, 1991)
with higher values of fibre. Three types of digesters have been used:
e Batch
© Continuous flow stirred tank reactor (CFSTR)
e Second generation digesters
— Filter and fluidized bed
— Sludge blanket
— Contact digesters
The CFSTR is the most common digester in agricultural application when the feedstock is available
continuously and there is a corresponding requirement for continuous gas production. In the CFSTR the
solids and liquids have the same retention time as they are well mixed and the time varies from 12 to 30
days. Generally, the methanogenic bacteria have a doubling time of 9 days and this is the time constraint.
Typically, the cattle and pig slurries have their larger solids removed and sometimes diluted down from 5—
15 per cent to 1-2 per cent. The latter is easily digested in a low solids digester. The most common
574 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

operational temperatures are ~ 36°C, but more recently the thermophilic range is being used. The latter
produces a higher biogas output and a more pathogenic free, end product. However, the process is also
more unstable and thus requires more control.

13.5.2 The Treatment of Industrial Wastes

Anaerobic digestion is widespread not only in the food industry but also in the chemical, pharmaceutical
and paper industries. When an industry utilizes continuous processes A/D, may be applicable. However,
some industries, particularly some of the chemical industries, operate in batch mode, changing the
product chemical and thus the composition and character of the waste stream and A/D may then not be
suitable. The continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR) is popular in industry, but more so in the
agroindustry. Usually the waste is pre-treated to remove solids or oils or potential inhibiting agents.
Typical operating retention times are 3 to 12 days with organic loading rates of 1 to 5kg COD/m* /day.
The anaerobic filter is being used more in recent years where the packing material is a lightweight
synthetic (e.g. PVC Flocor). The material has a high surface area and void space. It readily becomes
fluidized and so can be cleaned by downflow (backwashing).

13.5.3 The Treatment of Municipal Wastes

Municipal waste falls into three categories with respect to anaerobic digestion:
e Sewage
e Sewage sludges (refer to Sec. 13.7)
e Municipal solid waste (refer to Chapter 14)
As sewage sludges, their treatment and disposal is the subject matter of the remainder of this chapter, a
brief discussion now relates to anaerobic digestion of raw sewage. Humans produce about 0.5 kg of faeces
and 1.2 kg of urine daily. The excreta is complex and of variable composition, physically, chemically and
organically. It is ~ 70 per cent volatile solids, ~ 35 per cent cellulose, ~ 6 per cent hemicellulose, ~ 19
per cent crude protein, ~ 14 per cent lipids, ~ 34 per cent ash and C/N ratio ~4 to 5. Sewage can be
digested at the three temperature conditions, namely psychrophilic, mesophilic and thermophilic. At
psychrophilic temperatures the required retention time is ~55 days for pathogenic kill. Anaerobic
digestion of raw sewage is commonplace for single family and holiday dwellings (the septic tank) but has
not been used for large installations. When used, the UASB or the Hybrid UASB has been the reactor
type. Murphy (1992), in a laboratory-scale model, used a Hybrid UASB to treat raw sewage (only) at
ambient temperatures. The process was rugged and stable and produced gas at ~ 1 m*/m° of reactor per
day. The SS and COD reduction was ~ 60 to 80 per cent. The UASB process or Hybrids are in small
installations in Brazil where daily ambient temperatures are close to mesophilic.

13.6 INTERNATIONAL REGULATIONS FOR BIOSOLIDS

Biosolids is the semi-solid end product of wastewater purification. Most wastewaters treated are either
municipal or industrial. Sludge produced from municipal plants is termed biosolids. Sludges produced
from industry are also termed biosolids if they are primarily organic in origin. Chemical sludges do not
come within the definition of biosolids. Water treatment plant sludges, even though chemical in nature,
are considered to be biosolids. The volume of biosolids is expected to increase significantly (by ~ 50 pet
cent) as a result of a number of recent environmental developments world-wide, including:
 ANAEROBIC DIGESTION AND SLUDGE TREATMENT 575

1. The Helsinki Agreement called for banning ocean dumping of sludges by 1987. By 1995 most
developed countries had put this ban into practice, e.g. New York and most of the United States by
1992; Australia and New Zealand by 1993; most of the European Union, etc.
2. EU Environmental Directive on Urban Wastewater, requiring better than secondary treatment and in
sensitive areas nutrient removal also.
3. In the United States, ‘Part 503’, the USEPA Standards for the use and disposal of sewage sludge
(February 1993).
4. In New Zealand, the ‘Public health guidelines for the safe use of sewage effluent and sewage sludge on
land’ (Department of Health, New Zealand, 1992).

13.6.1 Problems of Biosolids Disposal

Many countries with population centres on coastlines, e.g. Australia, traditionally disposed of much of
their sludge at sea. For instance, up to 1993, Sydney disposed 60 per cent to the sea, 10 per cent to
agriculture and 30 per cent to compost. Brisbane has had a progressive policy of stockpiling 100 per cent,
where all is being utilized for site remediation and landscaping by the City Council. In New York, where
the ocean disposal route was used for almost all of its sludge, the 1988 ban forced the city to adopt new
policies and stop sea dumping by 1992. It is now operating a three-tier policy including thermal drying,
land restoration (in Texas) and engineered mono-landfilling. Los Angeles has also stopped sea dumping
from its massive Hyperion wastewater plant (O=1.5 x 10°m?*/day). Its current activities include
anaerobic digestion, sludge dewatering by centrifuge, sludge dehydration and combustion. The problem
of disposal of sludge is world-wide. Even Ireland, which ceased sea dumping in 1990, is operating
multioptions for disposal, including land injection, land spreading, silviculture application, mono-
landfills, anaerobic digestion. Some countries which embarked on composting technologies found public
disquiet with fears of heavy metal, microbiological contamination and malodours.

13.6.2 Biosolids Volumes

The amount of biosolids produced depends not only on the population being served but also on the degree
of wastewater treatment.

Example 13.5 Determine the volume of biosolids produced at a plant serving a population
equivalent of 400000 if the suspended solids is 250 mg/L at the influent and 25 mg/L at the effluent.
Ignore sludge from screening and biomass production.

Solution

Through flow = 400000 x 225 = 90000000 L/day

= 90 000 m3 /day
Suspended solids removed = 250 — 25 = 225 mg/L
225
Biosolids per day = zx 90 x 10° = 20.25 t/day
106
x 103
If it is assumed that the biosolids are uniform at 4 per cent DS (dry solids), then

Tonnage = 20.25 t/day at 100 per cent DS

= 506 t/day at 4 per cent DS

Typically, in a multiunit process wastewater treatment plant, biosolids are produced at different dry
solids percentages. For instance, the primary settling tank produces biosolids at ~ 5 per cent DS while the
576 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

secondary clarifier produces at ~ 2 per cent DS. The belt presses and centrifuge dewatering technologies
(discussed later in this chapter) produce biosolids at 15 to 35 per cent DS. According to the above
example, the dry solids production per person is 50.6 g/day. This value can vary significantly, particularly
if chemicals are used in any of the treatment processes. This occurs if pH correction is required for proper
activated sludge operation. Also, polyelectrdlytes are almost always used in the drying presses and other
dewatering equipment and this causes an increase in sludge volumes. Additional sludge is generated from
biomass production. It is important to note that the 50.6 g/person/day is for dry biosolids. Assuming it is
~ 4 per cent DS, the actual wet biosolids is ~ 1.26kg/person/day. Table 13.3 shows typical biosolids
quantities for some wastewater unit processes.
The estimates given in Table 13.3 are based on water consumption of 225 L per person per day. This
is about typical for the European Union although Denmark and Germany consume less than 200 L.
Figures for the United States vary from lows of 300 L to highs of 1000 L. In the United States, the flow
rates to wastewater plants are higher than those in the European Union. However, the higher flows create
higher dilutions and lower SS values. The latter are typically 150 mg/L by comparison with 300 mg/L in
Europe. Those areas in the United States where kitchen grinders are used, however, will have values
>150 mg/L. Vesilind et al. (1986) quote figures of dry sludge production in Europe ranging from 30 to
124 g/person/day. In Metropolitan Seattle, the amount of solids generated per household is 125 g/day
(~35 g/person/day) (Machno, 1992). In the United Kingdom, raw primary sludge produces
52 g/person/day, co-settled activated sludge produces 74 g/person/day and co-settled activated tertiary
sludge produces 76 g/person/day.
The annual biosolids production (in 1990) is shown in Table 13.4. It should be noted that while the
population of each country is given, the population served by wastewater facilities is typically about one-
half of the total. In countries with dense coastal populations (e.g. Australia) such areas were usually only
served with primary treatment.
In computing biosolids volumes, the type of treatment and the form of sewer collection must be
evaluated. For instance, in the United Kingdom many industries currently discharge effluent to foul sewers
which is subsequently treated at a public wastewater plant. If industrial effluent is treated in this way, there
will be an ‘apparent’ high sludge production rate. Also, by improving water quality by going from
primary to secondary treatment, sludge volumes are increased by about a factor of 2. By adding nutrient
removal and more especially chemical phosphorus precipitation, sludge volume production is about 3
times that of primary treatment alone.

13.7 BIOSOLIDS CHARACTERISTICS

The characteristics of a sludge depend on whether it is biological or chemical. They also depend on
whether it is a primary or secondary sludge or a mixture of both. Many wastewater treatment plants mix

Table 13.3 Typical biosolids quantities before dewatering

Specific
gravity of
Unit process Dry solids (%) sludge g DS/person/day

Primary clarifiers ~S§ 105 ~30

Primary clarifiers IS) ~ 1-05 ~ 100
(chemically
entranced)
Secondary clarifiers oil ~ 1.0025 ~ 20
(activated sludge)
Secondary clarifiers 2) SAO ~20
(percolating filters)
 ANAEROBIC DIGESTION AND SLUDGE TREATMENT 577

Table 13.4 Sludge production and methods of disposal in 1990

Population ¢ | 6
(total) Population Sludge produced ee Se)
Country (million) served (%) (TDS x 1000/yr) Agriculture Landfill Incineration Other

Austria 7.8 48 320 13 56 pil 0

Belgium 9.9 33 75 31 56 9 4
Denmark Syl 100 130 37 33 28 2
France 56 64 700 50 50 0 0
West Germany 62 90 2500 25 63 12 0
Greece 10 15 3 97 0 0
Ireland BS) 44 24 28 18 0 54
Italy 57 30 800 34 55 11 0
Luxembourg 0.4 92 KS) 81 18 0 ]
Netherlands 15 90 282 (8711) 44 53 3 0
Portugal 10.3 47 200 80 13 0 7
Spain 39 47 280 10 15 10 30
Switzerland 6.4 80 215 60 30 20 0
UK 57 84 1075 51 16 5 28
Japan 123 42 2440 24 4] 22 13
USA 249 800-1600! 16 43 21 21

TThe production of sludge in the Netherlands is expected to go from 282000 TDS/yr in 1990 to 871000 TDS/yr in 2000, i.e. a
threefold increase to 160 g/person/day.
TA range of 800 million to 1.6 billion wet tons in the United States.
Adapted from Garvey et al., 1992 with permission

the primary and secondary for ease of disposal; however, subsequent treatments may thus be limited. The
characteristics of sludge can further be described as physical, chemical and biological. In the design of an
integrated sludge treatment and management plan, data on sludge sources, characteristics and quantities
are required. The integrated plan usually involves sludge conveyance and conditioning systems and also
thickening and dewatering facilities. Second-stage treatment may involve composting, incineration,
anaerobic digestion, melting, etc., as detailed in Sec. 13.10. Finally, a disposal route is required and with
the ban on ocean dumping, disposal on land, in one or more of the many possibilities, is examined in Sec.
Wa

13.7.1 Primary and Secondary Sewage Sludge

The most common unit process in wastewater treatment is primary sedimentation to remove settleable
solids that can be thickened by gravity settling. The sludge consists of organic solids, grit and inorganic
fines. Because it contains organic matter, it is suitable for further anaerobic digestion. Downstream
thickening is provided by picket fence thickeners (or other), followed by stabilization and dewatering.
Secondary sludge is essentially biological, the result of conversion products from soluble (non-
settleable) wastes from the primary effluent. They are produced as wasted sludge from secondary
clarifiers, after secondary treatment processes, which include activated sludge, percolating filters, RBCs
and variations of these unit processes. The lack of organic matter makes secondary sludge less suitable for
anaerobic digestion.
Mixed sludges are those from combined primary and secondary sludges. This is sometimes used so
that the easily dewatered properties of primary sludges can be used to assist (in dewatering) the more
difficult (to dewater) secondary sludges.
Chemical sludges result when lime, aluminium or ferric salts, etc., are added to improve the
suspended solids removal or to chemically precipitate phosphorus. Water treatment sludges are chemical
sludges. While some chemicals may be beneficial for dewatering (lime), others inhibit dewatering.
578 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

13.7.2 Physical Characteristics of Sewage Sludge

Sewage sludge comprises of lumpy, flaky and colloidal solids interspersed with water. This water consists
of (a) water between pores (non-bonded), (b) free capillary water, (c) bound water and (d) cell water. The
more capillary and bound water there is, thé more difficult it is to dewater. Figure 13.5 shows the volume
reduction of sludge as it moves through the different stages of treatment.
Some characteristics of significant physical parameters and typical values are listed in Table 13.5.
Other characteristics include:
1. Capillary suction time (CST). This is a parameter determined in a laboratory test of a sludge to identify
the dewaterability rate. It is a measure in units of time, usually seconds, for how long it takes a sample
of sludge to rid its water on to a blotting paper and travel a distance of 1 cm. Values for unconditioned
sludges are typically tens or hundreds of seconds. For conditioned sludge, i.e. treated with polymer, the
CST value may be <10 seconds. Further details are given in Vesilind (1988) and Table 13.5.
2. Specific resistance to filtration (SRF) in m/kg. This, like the CST, is carried out on a laboratory sample
using the Buckner funnel test. Sludge is poured into a funnel lined with filter paper and the rate of
filtrate is measured in a collecting graduated cylinder. The time/volume (s/ml) is plotted against
volume of filtrate (mL) and the slope of the line is noted as b. The SRF is then calculated from
2
eRe Z (13.10)
pew

where P = vacuum pressure applied

A = area of Buckner funnel
b = slope as above
Lt = viscosity
w = sludge solids concentration

SRF is defined as the pressure difference required to produce a unit rate of filtrate flow through a unit
weight of sludge cake. A linear relationship between CST and SRF is

SRF = 4.235
+ 0.125 CST (13311)
3. Shear strength of sludge is becoming a more relevant parameter as sludge is more and more being
disposed on land. In the case of landfills (specifically mono-landfill) sludge should have a DS >35 per

1000

Volume
(L)

20 40 60 80 100
Dry substance (%)

Figure 13.5 Volume reduction by water removal (adapted from Solmaz and Groeger,
1992).
 ANAEROBIC DIGESTION AND SLUDGE TREATMENT 579

Table 13.5 Physical characteristics of sludge

Parameter Primary sludge Secondary sludge Dewatered sludge

Dry solids 2-6% 0.5-2% 15-35%

Volatile solids 60-80% 50-70% 30-60%
Sludge specific gravity ~ 1.02 ~ 1.05 NGI
Sludge solids specific gravity ~1.4 lees ~1.2-1.4
Shear strength, (kN/m*) <5 <2 <20
Energy content (MJ/kg VS) 10-22 12-20 25-30
Particle size (90%) < 200 um < 100 wm < 100 um

Adapated from Andreasen and Nielsen, 1992 with permission

cent and a shear strength of > 30 kN/m*. However, there is some doubt as to the ability of sludge to
retain shear strength as some research indicates that sludge loses its strength over time (> 2 years).

13.7.3 Chemical Characteristics of Sewage Sludge

The volatile organic substances of the sewage sludge are either solid or liquid. If the water is totally
removed the remaining organic volatile matter and inorganic matter (ash) are known as dry solids (DS).
The organic volatile matter may be characterized by its net calorific value. Figure 13.6 shows the range of
values for sewage sludge. The calorific value has a wide range.
The inorganic content of sewage sludge also varies widely but is typically about:
Waste activated sludge 20-35 per cent DS
Primary sludge 30-45 per cent DS

The inorganic residues of sewage sludges as found from the ash after incineration (Solmaz and Groeger,
1992) are:
S;O2 AlO3 CaO MgO Fe,03 P20s
40% 14-16% 8-10% 2-3% 7-10% 10-15%
As described in earlier sections, sludge may be either biological or chemical or mixed. However, all will
have chemical properties which may include:
© Metals
e Polymers

value
calorific
Net
(MJ/kg)

Figure 13.6 Net calorific value of sewage sludge versus per cent DS.
580 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

pH
Alkalinity
Nutrients
PCBs, Dioxins

Comparing US and EU standards Tables 13.6 and 13.7, it is seen that the Netherlands 1s imposing a
very restrictive requirement for land application of biosolids. For instance, most limit values for metals are
an order of magnitude less than those accepted for the European Union or the United States. This is due in
part to the sensitive nature of soils in Holland and the current levels of soil and groundwater
contamination. The latter has been accentuated by the long-term land application of pig slurries from
industrial pig farms. However, the severe restrictions on metals (and the banning of ocean dumping) will
necessitate innovation and combustion techniques. Table 13.8 gives a range of chemical compositions of
sludge from USEPA records.
Table 13.9, again from USEPA, gives the mean concentrations of several elements in different sludge
types. Polymers are added to sludge to increase the dewatering rate. Typically they are added in
concentrations of 1 to 10mg/kg of DS. They are long-chain polymers which typically can reduce CST
time from, say, 200 to 5s, thereby decreasing the process turnaround time. However, they are also the
dominant operational cost (about 50 per cent) in dewatering.
PCBs and Dioxins are also found in sludge and their quantity depends on the municipality. For
instance, dioxins may be an issue in urban areas because of incomplete combustion products from heavily
motorized roadways (Steiger, 1992).

13.7.4 Microbiological Characteristics of Sewage Sludge

Like raw wastewater (Chapter 12), sludge may contain bacteria, viruses, protozoa, parasites and other
micro-organisms, some beneficial but some perhaps pathogenic. When wastewater is ‘purified’, the
‘purified’ liquid effluent will contain almost no pathogens. However, during the treatment process of
primary settling, activated sludge, secondary settling, etc., the pathogens become concentrated in the
sludge. Therefore raw sludge contains the same infectious agents as raw sewage, but in significantly
higher concentrations. Further treatment of sludge (conditioning, thickening, dewatering, etc.) to reduce
the water content and so concentrate the solids will also concentrate any pathogens present (Lue-Hing et

Table 13.6 Typical values for metals in biosolids and limit values in the United States

Part 503, 1993

US US USEPA USEPA USEPA
domestic domestic cumulative cumulative USEPA annual
wastewater + industrial ceiling loading annual loading
sludge sludge concentration rate concentration rate
Parameter (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (kg/ha) (mg/kg) (kg/ha)
As 10-50 1S 4] 4] 2
Cd 10-400 90-240 85 39 39 1&
Cr 50-200 260-2650 3000 3000 1200 150
Cu 95-700 960-2300 4300 1500 1500 75
Pb 200-500 760-2790 840 300 300 15
Hg 111.2 2.6—5 57 17 17 0.85
Mo 75 18 18 0.9
Ni 110-400 200-900 420 420 420 21
Se 10-180 100 100 36 5
Zn 1000-1800 800-460 7500 2800 2800 140
Adapted from Jones, 1981 and Part 503 WEF, 1993b with permission
 ANAEROBIC DIGESTION AND SLUDGE TREATMENT 581

Table 13.7 Limits for metals in biosolids (EC)*

Annual limit values Netherlands

Limit value Limit value in sludge for application post-1995 in
in soil in sludge (kg/ha) sludge
Parameter (mg/kg) (mg/kg) based on a 10 yr average (mg/kg)
Cd 1-3 20-40 0.15 25
50-140 1000-1750 12 18)
30-75 300-400 3 30
50-300 750-1200 15 100
150-300 2500-4000 30 300
1-1.5 16-25 0.1 0.75
75
iB)

TEU Directive ‘On the protection of the environment and in particular of the soil, when sewage sludge is
used in agriculture’, 86/278/EEC.

Table 13.8 Range of typical chemical composition of sludges

Anaerobically Aerobically
Parameter Primary sludge digested sludge digested sludge

pH 5-8 OD =i)
Alkalinity (mg/L as CaCO2) 500-1500 2500-3500
Nitrogen (N% of TS) 1.54 1.6-6 0.5-7.6
Phosphorus (P30;% of TS) 0.8-2.8 1.54 Up =s)55)
Fats, grease (% of TS) 6-30 5-20
Protein (% of TS) 20-30 15-20
Organic acids (mg/L as HAc) 6800-10 000 2700-6800

Adapted from USEPA, 1977, 1983

Table 13.9 Concentrations of K, Na, Ca, Mg, Ba, Fe

and Al in sewage sludge

Mean of concentrations (% of dry solids)

Parameter Anaerobic Aerobic All

0.52 0.46 0.4
0.7 Hon 0.57
5.8 3:3 49
0.58 0.52 0.54
0.08 0.02 0.06
1.6 te 1.3
7 0.7 Nee

Adapted from USEPA, 1983

al, 1992). The process of ‘sludge stabilization’ is therefore required to reduce pathogens and
simultaneously eliminate odours. Thus sludge applied to land or water or going into aerosol form may
have the potential to impact negatively on human and biotic health. Micro-organism species and density
of sludge is related to the community from which it was derived, and particularly its pathogenic content.
An important distinction of bacteria and viruses in sludge is that bacteria can increase in numbers in
sludge while viruses cannot (the latter require mammalian host cells for replication). Viruses are now
known to be prolific within algae, so it is likely that sludges with algal content will contain viruses, e.g.
cholera (Colwell and Spira, 1992).
582 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

The processes of aerobic and anaerobic digestion, composting, heat treatment, lagooning, etc., all
effectively reduce pathogens in sludge. Incineration and liming will totally eliminate pathogens. Disposal
of sludge without the above treatments may incur some health risk. The traditional practices (without pre-
treatment), including land spreading, landfilling, soil amending and ocean dumping, may pose risks. The
treatment processes are discussed later in Sec, 13.9, Table 13.10 contains the levels of indicator and
pathogenic organisms in different sludges.

Treated sewage sludge quality requirements The most comprehensive regulations governing quality
of the end product sludges is that of WEF (1993b). To satisfy*these regulations, the pathogenic
requirement of sewage sludges is detailed and explicit. Based on pathogen reduction criteria, sludge is
classified as either Class A or Class B.
Class A pathogen reduction This must meet:

e <1000 MPN faecal coliform per gram of total solids or

e <3 MPN salmonella per four grams of total solids
and one of the following six:
1. Increased treatment time and temperature according to:

Total solids Temperature Time Notes

>7% > 50°C > 20 min No heating of small particles

by warmed gases or liquids
>7% = 50°C =15s Small particles treated
<7% > 50°C 1Ss<t<30min —
<7% SSE > 30min —

2. Alkaline treatment:
PH > 12 for 72h with 12h at temperatures > 52°C
3. Testing of sludge for virus/helminth ova must satisfy the following, if tested before processing or after
processing, for Class A:
Enteric virus < | PFU/4g TS and
Viable helminth ova < i g TS

4. To satisfy Class A, if 3 is not used, then testing prior to sale or disposal must satisfy the same
requirements of 3.
5. PFRP (process to further reduce pathogens).
6. PFRP equivalent.

Table 13.10 Levels of indicator and pathogenic organisms in sludge bacteria and viruses*

Sludge Total Faecal Faecal Salmonella Pseudomonas Enteric

(untreated)+ coliforms coliforms Streptococci species aeruginosa viruses
Primary 10°-108 10°10" ~ 10° 4x 10° 3x 10° 0.002-0.004 MPN
Secondary 10’-10° 10’-10° ~ 10° 9x 10 1 x 10° 0.015—0.026 MPN
Mixed 10’-10° 10°-10° ~ 10° ~Sx 10 ~ 10*-10° _
Note that these populations are ‘averages’ from various publications cited in Lue-Hing ef a/. (1992). The units are the number of
organisms per gram of dry weight (GDW).
‘Untreated means not yet stabilized, dewatered, aerobically or anaerobically digested or composted, ete.
Adapted from Lue-Hing et a/., 1992
 ANAEROBIC DIGESTION AND SLUDGE TREATMENT 583

Class B pathogen reduction This must meet:

e The sewage sludge must be treated to PSRP or equivalent (process to significantly reduce pathogens) or
¢ The mean of seven samples must be: < 2000000 MPN or CFU faecal coliforms per gram of total
solids
and the following site restrictions for sludge application must be satisfied:
For food crops—no harvesting prior to 14 (up to 38) months after application of sludge (depending on
crop)
Feed crops—no harvesting prior to 30 days
Pasture—no animal grazing prior to 30 days
Turf—no harvest prior to one year
Public access—restricted access for 30 days for low exposure areas (up to one year for high exposure)

Vector attraction reduction requirements are met if any of the alternatives in Table 13.11 are met.
Note

. One of 1 to 10 in Table 13.11 must be met when bulk sewage sludge is applied to agricultural land,
forest, public lands or reclamation sites.
. One of 1 to 8 in Table 13.11 must be met when bulk sewage sludge is applied to lawns or home
gardens or when sewage sludge is sold or given away for land application.
. One of | to 11 in Table 13.11 must be met when sewage sludge is landfilled.

No such detailed pathogenic reduction requirements have emerged from the European Union to date.
New Zealand has published microbiological guidelines (Department of Health, New Zealand, 1992) and
categorized the land application in four zones as shown in Table 13.12. However, these regulations, while

Table 13.11 Part 503 sludge quality requirements for vector attraction reduction

Land Surface
Alternative Method Description application disposal Septage

1 Anaerobic/
aerobic 38% VS reduction wf N/
digestion
a Anaerobic If 1 not satisfied + 40 days at
digestion 30-37°C to achieve N/ “if
VS reduction of 17%
3 Aerobic If 1 not satisfied + 30 days at
digestion 20°C to achieve Ni ff
VS reduction of 15%
4 Aerobic SOUR < 1.5 mg O>/h gr Mi J
digestion
5 Aerobic 14 days > 40°C ai) wf
(composting) average temperature > 45°C
6 Alkaline pH > 12 for>2h al Nf
stabilization or pH> 11.5 for 22h
7 Drying 75% DS af NE
8 Drying 90% DS Ry wf
9 Soil injection No surface residue after 1h if! ff Alf
injected within 8 hours (no home use)
10 Incorporation Land applied and incorporated A) Ni xi)
into the soil within 6h
11 Daily cover Daily cover to landfilled sludge nif vf
12 Septage pH > 12 for 30 min N/

Adapted from WEF 1993b

584 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

specific to the form of acceptable treatment for sludge (i.e. digestion, composting, lime stabilization), do
not spell out numerically the required faecal coliform, or salmonella, or enteric viruses, or viable helminth
ova counts as the Rule 503 WEF 1993b does.

13.8 PROCESSING ROUTES FOR BIOSOLIDS

Figure 13.7 is a flow chart of possible routes for biosolids treatment. From a municipal wastewater plant
of secondary treatment quality (or better), primary and secondary sludges are produced. As mentioned in
Sec. 13.7, primary sludge consists of both organic and inorganic solids that settled, unaided, in a primary
sedimentation tank within a retention time of about 1 hour. Secondary sludge is less dense, with smaller
particle sizes than primary sludge. Primary sludge is usually thickened by physical processes.
Secondary sludge can also be thickened or pre-dewatered by a similar process to that of primary
sludge. However, the selection of the ‘thickener’ or ‘pre-dewatering’ unit is likely to be different. This is
detailed in Sec. 13.9.2. The next processes may be aerobic digestion or anaerobic digestion. The latter is
gaining widespread popularity because of the benefits of methane gas production. Aerobic digestion,
unless using covered tanks, is weather dependent and is not suitable for wet climates. Dewatering is the
process of increasing the solid content from about 5 per cent DS to anywhere between 15 and 35 per cent
DS. It always requires the aid of polymers, a process known as conditioning. Stabilization of sludge is the
process of reducing or eliminating the pathogens. If, after dewatering, the sludge is to be landspread or
disposed of, it may be necessary to stabilize the sludge before disposal. This traditionally was done using
lime, to raise the pH to 12. Other processes for stabilization include anaerobic digestion and several
different forms of heat treatment.

13.9 FIRST STAGE TREATMENT OF SLUDGE

We define the following processes as first stage treatment:

¢ Conditioning
e Thickening

Table 13.12 New Zealand recommended microbiological guidelines for sewage sludge on land

Land application option Treatment Controls

Category I
Salad crops, fruit and other Heated digestion Apply to land immediately
crops for human consumption Composting
unpeeled or uncooked Lime stabilization
Category II
Public amenities, sports fields, Heated digestion Store for at least one year
land reclamation Composting prior to application
Lime stabilization
Category III
Fodder crops and pasture Heated digestion Sludge may be applied
Composting immediately
Lime stabilization
Category IV
Forest tree lots, bush and scrub All sludges except nightsoil and Sludge may be applied
land septage—no treatment immediately
 ANAEROBIC DIGESTION AND SLUDGE TREATMENT 585

[ Wastewater treatment plant |

Primary sludge Secondary sludge

Thickener
=
Pre-dewatering unit

im yas
[ Aerobic digestion | |Anaerobic digestion

iv y
mee
|Conditioning and dewatering |

Stabilization

ae Thermal Oil from

atWet air Sludge
Composting Incineration Gasification
drying sludge oxidation melting

Fuel and Oil and Ash and

ash ash liquid waste pies

Figure 13.7 Possible processing routes for biosolids (adapted from Barnett, 1993, with permission).

© Dewatering
e Stabilization

The objective of first stage treatment is to reduce the sludge volume by reducing the volume of water.
Water in sludge may be of the following types:
e Free capillary water
e Bound water
— Intercellular (adsorbed)
— Intracellular (absorbed)

The free water is readily removed from sludges by gravity settling with or without chemicals. The bound
water, in intercellular form, is also removable (in part) but requires the addition of polymers. The
intercellular water is retained by the sludge by chemical bonding, which may be broken by the addition of
polyelectrolytes which cause a change in the electric charges. The intracellular bound water is only
possible to remove if the sludge particle walls can be broken by either heating, freezing or electroinduced
forces. As such, the free water and intercellular water is removed by mechanical dewatering processes.
Dewatering improves the solids content from a range of 2 to 6 per cent to a range of 12 to 35 per cent.
The zeta potential is often used as a measure of the stability of a colloidal particle. It indicates the
potential that would be required to penetrate the layer of ions surrounding the particle for destabilization
(Fig. 13.8). The major source of stability is the existence of an electrical charge on their surface. This
immobile layer of ions which stick tightly to the surface of the colloidal particle is known as the ‘Stern
layer’. Outside this is a diffused layer of counter ions. The inner shell of charge and outer diffused
586 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Negatively
charged
particle

_ Bulk solution

Surface of
shear-stern
layer

- Diffuse layer
of counter ions

Zeta
potential
(mV)

Fixed layer
of ions a
Diffuse layer
of counter ions

Figure 13.8 Zeta potential (adapted from Eckenfelder, 1980, with permission).

atmosphere is called the ‘electrical double layer’ (Eckenfelder, 1980). The higher the zeta potential, the
more stable the particle and the more tightly the water is bound to the particle. For further details, refer to
Eckenfelder (1980) or Schroeder (1977).

13.9.1 Conditioning
Sludge conditioning is the chemical or thermal treatment of sludge to improve the efficiency of thickening
and dewatering. The purpose is to reduce the zeta potential by adding specific ions to change the particle
charge. Most common is chemical conditioning using either inorganic chemicals or organic
polyelectrolytes. The inorganic chemicals used include:
e Ferric chloride
e Lime
e Ferrous sulphate + lime

These are usable principally for conditioning secondary sludge or combined secondary and primary
sludge. Their disadvantage is that for each kilogram of inorganic chemical added, an extra kilogram of
sludge is produced. The dose range of inorganic chemicals is 100 to 200kg/tonne of DS. Organic
polyelectrolytes or polymers are used in all sludge types and have the advantage of producing less
significant increases in sludge volume. The amount of polymer added is in the range of 2 to 100 kg/tonne
of DS, but is most typically about 6kg/tonne of DS.
Organic polymers are long-chain, water-soluble synthetic organic chemicals. They are typically
cationic polyacrylamides to destabilize the ionic charge of sludge solids. They are usually supplied in
liquid dispersion form and are categorized by:
 ANAEROBIC DIGESTION AND SLUDGE TREATMENT 587

¢ Molecular weight (0.5 to 18 x 10°)

e Charge density (10 to 100 per cent)
e Active solids levels (2 to 95 per cent)

Many polyelectrolytes are of high molecular weight (about 10°) and of high charge density. The
latter can neutralize the very fine solids in biomass. The high molecular weight provides the floc strength
to withstand the shear forces produced by the dewatering equipment, e.g. belt presses and centrifuges. The
required dose of polyelectrolyte is critical to the performance of the dewatering equipment and to the cost
of the operation. The dose is determined by pilot plant tests or bench tests and may be required to change
from time to time as the sludge quality changes. Tests used to estimate dosage are mentioned in WEF
(1991) as the:

e Jar test
e Filter leaf test
¢ Capillary suction time test
e Standard shear test
e Buchner funnel test

The choice of polyelectrolyte depends on the dewatering technology, filter presses, filter belts,
centrifuges, etc., and further details are given in WEF (1991) and Metcalf and Eddy (1991).

13.9.2 Thickening
Thickening is the pre-processing of sludge prior to dewatering. Traditionally, the sludge was gently turned
in a cylindrical container encouraging the water to rise to the top and to be abstracted as a supernatant.
The sludge withdrawn from the bottom would typically be half the volume of the sludge before
thickening. Thickeners may be divided into the following types:
e Traditional picket fence thickener
¢ Continuous gravity thickener
¢ Gravity belt thickener plus polymers
e Rotary drum thickener plus polymers
e Dissolved air flotation thickener
e Solid bowl centrifugation thickener

Picket fence thickener The sludge is thickened by gravity settling and consolidation of solids. Settling
may be:
e Discrete settling
e Hindered or zone settling
¢ Compression settling
Figure 13.9 shows a schematic of a picket fence thickener. The purpose of the pickets—a collection
of vertical bars or plates or angles (angle iron)—is to promote thickening through assisting the separation
of liquor from the consolidating sludge and the disengagement of air bubbles (Frost e¢ a/., 1992). In some
units, ploughs are fixed to the underside of the picket ‘gate’ to transport the thickened sludge to the centre
of the vessel. The ploughs may rotate to suit clockwise or anticlockwise movement. The most common
design for the gravity thickener is a circular tank with a side water depth of 3 to 4m and diameters up to
25 m. Floor slopes to the centre are about | in 5 and are steeper than conventional settling tanks. The top
1m of the tank is the quiescent or clarification zone. Below this for a depth of | to 2.5m is a
settlement/consolidation zone. The settling zone sits above the consolidation zone. The bottom | m is the
transport zone of thickened sludge into the sludge central outlet.
588 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

el Feed sludge
reuse

Clarification
zone
~lm

Consolidation |S \ SN NN
zone SX Pickets
~1-2.5m

Transport
zone
im Ploughs

Underflow

Figure 13.9 Schematic of a picket fence thickener.

The picket fence revolves at a peripheral speed of 2 to 6m per minute. Higher speeds generate
turbulence and prevent consolidation. Also the picket fence is reversed 2 to 4 times per day for | to 2 tank
revolutions to clean the sludge from the picket or ploughs. The design parameters are:
1. Floor loading of total solids per unit area per unit time ranges from 25 to 250 kg/m? /day.
2. Supernatant maximum overflow rates in m°?/m*/day. For primary sludges the range is 15 to
30 m?/m?/day. For secondary sludges the rate is halved.

A high overflow rate may produce a carryover of excess solids, so a maximum value is adhered to. On the
other hand, a low overflow rate keeps the sludge in the tank for too long and may produce septicity. This is
sometimes alleviated by the addition of dilution water or clarified effluent water.

Example 13.6 In the design of a treatment plant for a population equivalent of 400 000, compute
the primary sludge, picket fence thickener tank size. Assume that 225 L/person/day is the flow rate and
250mg/L of suspended solids is the influent solids loading. Also assume that 60 per cent of SS is
removed in the primary settling tanks. Assume a solids floor loading of 200 kg/m? /day. Size the tank for a
1 day retention period and a two per cent DS.

Solution

Influent to WTP O = 400000 x 225 = 90 x 10° L

Influent to PFT = Qoiigs = 90 x 10° x (0.6 x 250) = 13.5 x 10° mg/day
= 13.5 x 10° kg/day
13°5°« 103
Oe Siva. 675 x 10° kg/day at 2% DS
= 675m?/day —_ (assume SG = 1.00)
Minimum floor area required (based on total solids):

ae we ee 13.5 x 10° 3 kg/day

(SG of sludge solids = 1.4)
je 200 kg/m? /day
= 94.5 m?
 ANAEROBIC DIGESTION AND SLUDGE TREATMENT 589

Induction period

a Constant velocity

Stalling time Critical solids retention time

blanket
sludge
of
Height

——$———— > Time

Figure 13.10 Batch consolidation curve.

675 m3 /day
Surface overflow rate = = 7.2 m?/m*/day
94.5
This surface overflow rate is adequate to prevent septicity. In the event of septicity water is added.
Tank size = 11m diameter x 3 ~ 4mhigh

Continuous gravity thickeners Traditionally picket fence thickeners operated on a batch process using
the fill and draw system. Usually two tanks were provided. More recently, continuous consolidation using
picket fence mechanisms is more the standard process. Figure 13.10 is a schematic of the height of the
consolidation zone with time. Initially it is tallest and as the water is expunged the height decreases. The
process is sensitive and may not operate at optimum heights due to the presence of gas bubbles. The
consolidation in continuous thickening is more sensitive than in batch thickening. Retention times in
picket fence thickeners is typically:

e | day for primary sludge

e 2 days for secondary sludge
e 7 days for digested sludge

Gravity belt thickeners A recent development to thickening technology is the gravity belt thickener
using the principle of gravity dewatering (Sec. 13.9.3). Figure 13.11 is a schematic of this. The filtrate

oT aa

Figure 13.11 Schematic of gravity belt thickener (reprinted by permission of Bellmer GMBH, Germany).
590 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

runs off through a continuously circulating belt while the solids are retained. While the sludge is on the
belt it is constantly being turned over by collision with streamlined protuberances. Belt speed can be
varied to attain the desired percentage of dry solids. Thin sludges (0.2 to 2 per cent) can be thickened
more readily by the addition of polyelectrolytes to the value of 5 to 15 per cent. The belt porosity is
usually different to that of belts used for dewatering.

Rotary drum thickeners The arrangement for rotary drum thickeners may be cylindrical drums laid
horizontally but stacked on each other. Typically the top drum with impermeable walls is to condition and
mix polymers to the sludge. The lower level drum or drums are of semi-permeable walls and the sludge is
fed through. The filtrate drops through the walls and the thickened sludge is ejected horizontally through
one end.

Dissolved air flotation thickeners In Chapter 12, a dissolved air flotation system was described to
remove fats and oils from wastewater. In a similar technique air is bubbled through sludge in a container
where it is held under pressure. When the pressure is released the bubbles of air attach themselves to
solids and now, with a lower specific gravity than water, they rise to the surface. At the surface, the float
sludge is skimmed off. The heavier settleable soiids are also removed from the floor as in a picket fence
type arrangement. The design parameters are:
e Solids loading ratio
e Hydraulic loading ratio
e Air—solids ratio
e SVI of sludge
Further details are given in Metcalf and Eddy (1991) and WEF (1991).

Solid bowl centrifugation thickener The principles of solids—liquids separation are similar to those of
gravity thickening except that the applied force is centrifugal and about 2000 times gravity. Only
secondary sludges are centrifuged and usually without polymer aids. The outer cylinder is the wall and
does not rotate. The inner rotating bowl forces the ‘thickened’ sludge on to its perimeter wall and the
filtrate (now called centrate) is discharged through a port. A helical scroll rotating at a much lower rate
pushes the thickened sludge forward towards the tapered end where it is discharged. Figure 13.12 is a
schematic of a solid bowl centrifuge. Thickening is achievable to a range of 3 to 6 per cent, but this
depends on the bowl type and loading of sludge as well as the sludge characteristics. Centrifugation is
more commonly used for dewatering and is described in Sec. 13.9.3.

Screw conveyor
Liquid Feed inlet Solid
discharge discharge
(centrate) (cake)
Figure 13.12 Solid bowl centrifuge (adapted from Aqua Enviro, with permission).
 ANAEROBIC DIGESTION AND SLUDGE TREATMENT 591]

13.9.3 Dewatering
Thickening of sludges is defined as taking those thin sludges (0.2 to 5 per cent) and thickening them by
physicochemical means to about twice the dry solids content. Dewatering is a similar process but has the
objective of taking as much water as possible from the sludge. For instance, a primary sludge of 2 per cent
DS can readily be thickened to ~ 4 per cent DS. However, most biological primary sludges can then be
further dewatered from 4 per cent DS to 12 to 35 per cent DS. To achieve this level of dewatering the most
common technologies are:

Belt filter press (single or double)

e Plate/membrane filter press
e Centrifuges
— Solid bowl
= Press
Sludge drying beds
e Sludge lagoons
Sludge freezing beds

Belt filter press This equipment is most common in dewatering municipal sludges, be they primary,
waste activated or digested sludges. There are four stages of dewatering according to Bellmer (1992):
1. After conditioning, the sludge is fed across a horizontal belt (Figs 13.13 and 13.14). The filtrate runs
off here due to gravity filtration.
2. The two circulating belts form a vertical, wedge-shaped chute with a variable opening. Draining is
effected by slowly increasing the pressure from the movement of the belts and the height of the chute.
3. The sludge lying between the two belts is then fed to a dandy roll. Here dewatering is directly to the
outside and additionally to the inside through the perforated roller.
4. In the S-shaped press area, the sludge between the belts is further dewatered by press rollers. The
resulting kneading action frees enclosed liquid and this further increases the final dry matter content.

In the gravity drainage zone and wedge pressure area, most of the water released is free water. The
movement of the sludge through the pressure and shear zone produces high enough shearing action to
release some of the bound (intercellular) water. As the sludge moves forward through the press, the
decreasing diameters of the rollers progressively increase the pressure on the sludge. Typically belt presses
are 1 to 4m wide and 3 to 8m long, with heights of 1 to 3m. The design of a belt press is normally
achieved through pilot studies, looking at different polymers to optimize the dewatering and evaluating
the capacities of different ‘belt’ manufactures.

Figure 13.13 Schematic of Bellmer Winkler press (reprinted by permission of Bellmer GMBH, Germany).
592 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

&
. Pre-dewatering gravity section
with chicanes
2. Wedge-shaped drainage chute with
variable opening
ba
wai
KOa ee Dandy roll, press area with inside and
outside drainage
4. Press rollers with kneading action
M_ Sludge feed F Sludge cake
O Upper belt discharge
U_ Lower belt + Belt tensioning
R_ Belt washing station <> Belt alignment

Figure 13.14 Section through Bellmer Winkler press (reprinted by permission of Bellmer GMBH, Germany).

Example 13.7 Compute the width of a belt press for the following case if the solid loading
capacity is 300 kg/m/h (width). The sludge supplied is primary thickened sludge of 4 per cent DS from a
wastewater plant of 100000 p.e.

Solution

Primary sludge = 100000 x 225 x (0.6 x 250) x 10~°

= 3375 kg/day solids
= 168 750 kg/day at 2% DS
Primary thickened = 84375 kg/day at 4% DS
84 375 kg/day
Width of press = = Wile
24 x 300 kg/m/day
Therefore use three 4m wide presses (plus one for standby).

Plate filter presses While the belt presses can be used for small municipalities, the filter press is more
suitable for large population municipalities. The plate filter presses achieve high dry solids end products
(~ 35 per cent) by forcing the water from the sludge under pressure. Figure 13.15 shows a schematic of a
plate press.
The plate press may be either of fixed volume or variable volume. The fixed volume has many plates held
tightly in alignment. They are pressed together, usually hydraulically, between a fixed end and a moving
end. A filter cloth covers the drainage surface of each plate, providing a filter medium. The sludge is fed
through the press and solids collect in the plate chamber until a low feed rate is reached, about one-
fifteenth or one-twentieth of initial flow rate (WEF, 1991). The feed is then stopped and the plates are
shifted so that the dewatered sludge cake falls down to a collection container. In the variable-volume
press, once the plate chamber is filled with cake sludge, a pressure is applied to produce a higher filter
cake DS. Filter presses are high capital cost items and require significant amounts of polymers. Operating
and maintenance costs are also higher than for belt filter presses.
 ANAEROBIC DIGESTION AND SLUDGE TREATMENT 593

Multiple vertical plates

Support frame

Direction of closing plates

t
Filtrate

a
Hitttt Sludge cake to
collection container

Figure 13.15 Side elevation of plate filter press.

Centrifuges The principal differences between thickening and dewatering centrifuges are the
configuration of the conveyor or scroll towards the liquids discharge and the location and configuration
of the solids discharge ports. Further details are found in WEF (1991, p. 1187). However, sludges can be
dewatered to as high as 30 per cent without too much difficulty. The operational characteristics are shown
in Table 13.14.

Sludge drying beds_ These are outdoor sand bed facilities where the sludge water is dewatered by two
mechanisms:
1. The open surface area is permitted to evaporate.
2. By gravity, the filtrate settles through the sand bed and is collected in a series of under-drains, not
unlike sand filtration in water treatment.
Figure 13.16 shows a section through a sludge drying bed.
This facility is most successful in dry climates with high evaporation rates. However, it also requires
a large land area and as such is not ideal for most urban locations. To determine the requisite areas,
evaporation calculations are carried out.

Evaporation
Sludge layer

io == |

200-450 mm
Concrete wall

200-450 mm

: eae |) - j mm
50-150
Filtrate out pee ( Yj, OG pipes

Concrete floor

Figure 13.16 Sludge drying bed.

594 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Table 13.13 Sludge dewatering performance of freezing pilot plant

Total frozen
Number of depth Initial Final
Sludge type layers applied (cm) (% DS) (% DS)

Anaerobically digested 6 58 6.7 39).3)

Anaerobically digested 15 114 5.4 =
Anaerobically digested 12 89 ill 24.5
Alum sludge 18 99 0.5 82.0

Adapted from Martel, 1992 with permission

Sludge lagoons Sludge lagoons are more common for industrial plants or very large municipalities with
available land space. For instance, food industries, such as the sugar beet process, use large amounts of
water in washing. The sludge is allowed to settle and the supernatant is drained or evaporated. Problems
with odours prohibit the use of lagoons in developed areas. The cycle time of sludge in lagoons varies
from two months to two years, depending on the climate and sludge type. The solids loading of such
structures is very low by comparison with the mechanical dewatering systems.

Sludge freezing beds This is a system that is rarely used but in experimental facilities has been shown
to be extremely successful though not necessarily economic. The performance data reported by Martel
(1992) is reproduced in Table 13.13. The freezing bed was shown to be most effective for alum sludge and
may be a consideration for cold climates. Further details are in the US Cold Regions Research and
Engineering Laboratory, CRREL Report 91-6.

Sludge dewatering review A comparative study of four different types of full scale sludge dewatering
units by Andreasen and Nielsen (1992) is reported in Table 13.14. This study concluded that the more
economical filter press and solid bowl centrifuge produce dewatered sludge with a lower dry solids
content than the more expensive press centrifuge and membrane filter press.

Table 13.14 Comparison of sludge dewatering equipment

Sludge 1 Sludge 2 Sludge 3

Initial Polymer Final Initial Polymer Final Initial Polymer Final

(% DS) (kg/t DS) (% DS) (% DS) (kg/t DS) (% DS) (% DS) (kg/t DS) (% DS)

Return activated sludge from Gravity thickened activated Anaerobically digested sludge
bio-N and P plant with sludge from bio-N and P plant mixed with gravity thickened
simultaneous precipitation with simultaneous precipitation activated sludge from bio-N
Dewatering unit of P by FeSO, of P by FeSO, and P plant
Belt filter press 1 2 DRS 4 3 22 a 2) 24
Solid bowl 1 10 19 4 SP) 18 4 10 PENS)
centrifuge
Press centrifuge
A i 6.2 22 4 4.5 21 4 (33 30.5
B 3.0 24 8.1 20 11 28
Membrane filter 1 4.6 26 4 5.6 19 4 43 33
press

Adapted from Andreasen and Nielsen, 1992 with permission

 ANAEROBIC DIGESTION AND SLUDGE TREATMENT 595

13.9.4 Sewage Sludge Stabilization

Stabilization of sludge is any process that renders the sludge or sludge end products pathogen free. Much
recent legislative emphasis is placed on successfully stabilizing sludge or compost products. In addition to
pathogen reduction, odour reduction and elimination of putrefaction are also achievable by stabilization.
The methods used to eliminate the offending micro-organisms include:
Lime stabilization
Heat disinfection
Anaerobic digestion
Aerobic digestion
Composting
Anaerobic digestion is the most common sludge stabilization method and with composting and heat
drying is covered in Sec. 13.10. The effectiveness of a stabilization process is often measured in the extent
of volatile solids destruction for anaerobic and aerobic digestion and for heat drying. However, the most
common measurement parameter is that of pathogen indicator organism reduction. Typical reductions are
1 to 4 orders of magnitude, depending on the process.

Lime stabilization Lime is added to untreated sludge to raise the pH to > 12. Micro-organisms cannot
survive in this environment. However, recent research has indicated that micro-organism regrowth may
occur. Lime in the form of Ca(OH), or CaO or cement kiln dust has been used. The lime may be added
before or after dewatering. Typically, smaller rural municipalities use lime directly on the thickened sludge
and spread the sludge on land, either as land spread or soil injection (see Sec. 13.11). The use of lime is a
low capital cost operation but may be high in operation costs unless the purchase of the lime, i.e. as
cement kiln dust, is cheap. Lime stabilization is becoming an outdated technique as the weight of the post-
limed sludge has increased by 20 to 40 per cent of its initial weight. This is so because the amount of lime
added ranges from 100 to 200 kg/tonne of dry solids.

Heat drying Heating the sludge to temperatures in excess of 200°C under pressure is a technique now
receiving much attention. This technique not only serves as a stabilizing technique but also as a sludge
conditioner, thickener and dewaterer at different temperatures and pressures. Sludge drying is being used
and expanded in countries like the Netherlands where serious problems occur with sludge disposal on
land. This technique is covered in more detail in Sec. 13.10. Further details on chemical stabilization is
found in Metcalf and Eddy (1991).

13.10 SECOND STAGE TREATMENT OF SLUDGE

After conditioning, thickening and dewatering, this text defines second stage sludge treatment as
involving technologies for:
Anaerobic digestion
Aerobic digestion
Composting (wind-row and in-vessel)
Thermal drying
Incineration
Pyrolysis
Gasification
Wet air oxidation
Sludge melting
596 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

13.10.1 Anaerobic Digestion

This unit process was covered in Secs 13.1 to 13.5. It is now one of those processes that is included in
integrated waste management. The anaerobic digestion of biosolids is commonplace where the gas is
optimized and used as part of the wastewater treatment plant energy budget. The principal feedstock for
municipal wastewater plants is primary sludge as it contains a high amount of organic matter. However,
waste activated sludge can also be digested on its own but is often mixed with primary sewage sludge.
The attractions of anaerobic digestion of sludge are listed by WEF (1991) as:

e Methane production
e 30 to 50 per cent reduction in sludge volume
e Odour-free sludge end product
e Pathogen-free sludge (more so with thermophilic processes)

13.10.2 Aerobic Digestion

Aerobic digestion is somewhat similar to the activated sludge process. Sludge is fed to a tank where it is
mixed aerobically. The main objective of the process is to reduce the solids content for ultimate disposal.
The volatile solids are reduced as in anaerobic digestion and thus a stabilized highly fertilizable humus is
produced. The principles of activated sludge and more particularly of extended aeration govern the
operation of aerobic digestion. Advantages are listed by WEF (1991) as:

e Stabilized end product humus

e Low capital cost
e Easy operation
e Low odour
e Non-explosive gas (CO, and NH3)
e More purified supernatant than in anaerobic digestion

The disadvantages are listed as:

High operation costs for power and oxygen

Reduced performance in cold weather
No methane
Difficult to dewater sludge

The SRT at 20°C is typically greater than 15 days. However, practical operations utilize SRTs of 25
to 40 days. Aerobic digestion is more rugged than anaerobic and will operate even at pH values down to
5.5. The system’s efficiency is temperature dependent and at higher temperatures the micro-organism
activity increases. The volatile solids reduction in anaerobic digestion is typically 60 per cent, while that
for aerobic systems is typically 40 per cent. The reduction of biodegradable solids follows a first-order
reaction rate expression:
dM
a
dt :
where M = concentration of biodegradable volatile solids (BVS) at time t
dM
eS rate of change of BVS

Kq = reaction rate constant, d~!

At 20°C, ka~ 0.1 d7! and at 30°C, ky~0.15 d-!. From Chapter 12, in the discussion of aeration tank
 ANAEROBIC DIGESTION AND SLUDGE TREATMENT 597

sizing in complete mix activated sludge processes, the tank volume (Eqs 12.21 and 12.30) was given as:

y = 2ebeT(Ses
eee x “5
This can be adapted for aerobic digestion:

y —__Qo%i ACID)
X(ka + 1/,)
where V = aerobic digester tank volume, L
Q, = influent sludge flow, L/d
X; = influent BVS, mg/L
II digester average BVS, mg/L
X =
O,—SRId
ka = reaction rate, d~!

Example 13.8 Compute the volume of an aerobic digester to treat activated sludge if the following
are the conditions:
QO, = 100 m?/day = 100000 L/day
X; = influent biodegradable volatile solids
= 15000 mg/L
X = digester biodegradable volatile solids
= 10000 mg/L
ka= 0.104
, = 30 days

Solution

2 ees
~ X(ka
+ 1/¢,)
100 x 103 x 15x 103
~ 10 x 103(0.1
+ 1/30)
Therefore
V =1125000L = 1125 mi?

It is noted from this computation that the tank volume increases as the reaction rate decreases (i.e. as
temperature drops). The tank volume reduces as the SRT (@,) increases. Similarly, the tank increases as
the BVS in the tank decreases. The parameters given in the above example can be computed from
experience or pilot plant studies.

13.10.3 Composting
Composting is a sludge waste treatment process used in varying degrees of sophistication in all countries.
Traditionally, it tended to be a low-cost process with most applications being for single and low-density
development. It has not in the past been attractive for large urban wastewater sludge processing. However,
much progress has been achieved in recent years in defining sludge and compost characteristics, and, as
598 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Sewage sludge
Solids = 1.5%

Thickening

Anaerobic
Ee digestion

Sludge Sludge
conditioning dewatering

Bulking
agent (wood chips)
30%
ids ~~ 30%
Solids
Solids = 55%

Shredder

Mixing

Odour
Composting
control

Air to Solids = 55%

atmosphere

Removal of
screenings

Disposal

Figure 13.17 Integrated compost flow chart schematic (adapted from Barnett, 1993, with permission).

such, areas in South Africa, Australia, the United States and Europe have invested significantly in full-
scale composting facilities.
This section discusses the treatment of dewatered sludge by aerobic decomposition using micro-
organisms. However, anaerobic composting is recently under investigation and has been described by
Kayhanian and Tchobanoglous (1993) for the biodegradable fraction of municipal solid waste.
Composting is a ‘dry’ process, whereas anaerobic and aerobic digestion are ‘wet’ processes. Aerobic
decomposition occurs naturally in soils and composting artificially creates this ‘soil’ environment so as to
accelerate the organic decomposition. The process of composting, like anaerobic and aerobic digestion,
takes about 30 days for complete degradation. If degradation is complete, then the process is irreversible
and the end product compost is ‘fully’ stabilized. However, the reality around the world today is that not
all composting facilities produce a ‘fully’ stabilized product and may not meet standards for pathogen
reduction/elimination. Composting with regard to solid waste is discussed in Chapter 14.
Figure 13.17 is a schematic of an integrated compost flow diagram. Sludge is dewatered to about 35
per cent DS and blended with a bulking agent like wood chips. The ratio is approximately 3 part chips to 1
part sludge. The subsequent heat generated by aerobic decomposition evaporates much of the water and
kills the pathogens. Mixing and turning is required to ensure that all the mass attains the top temperatures.
In colder regions aeration is supplied by under-floor blowers where the air is heated. The chips or bulking
 ANAEROBIC DIGESTION AND SLUDGE TREATMENT 599

agent are recovered by screening after about 20 to 30 days. This is possible because the chips are about
25mm minimum dimension, whereas the true compost is less than a few millimetres.
The process of composting can be either
e Traditional wind-row
e Aerated static pile
e In-vessel composting

These processes are described in Sec. 14.9. The following parameters are relevant to composting:
e Bulking agent
e Operational temperature
Moisture content
e Organic and nutrient content

The purpose of the bulking agent is to dry out the blended mix of sludge and agent. Several bulking
agents are used, including wood chips, sawdust, leaves, papers, solid waste, etc., but wood chips are the
most common. This may be so as it can be screened out of the process at the end and reused several times.
Also, chips are unlikely to be contributing to the metal or pathogen levels.
The operational temperature ranges from 40 to 60°C. If the temperature is too low, the process time
increases and pathogens are less likely to be killed. Temperatures above 60°C may inhibit the composting
micro-organisms. Control of temperature is therefore important, particularly in naturally aerated systems.
The moisture content of dewatered sludges ranges from 70 to 85 per cent. When blended with chips the
moisture content reduces to 40 to 50 per cent. At this level, there is sufficient air space to retain the
aerobic environment. It follows that if the moisture levels are too high, a risk exists of producing an
anaerobic environment.
As described in Chapter 14, minimum organic and nutrient levels are required for optimum
composting. The micro-organisms active in the composting process require carbon for growth and
nitrogen for synthesis of protein. The C/N ratio is the parameter of relevance and at C/N levels greater
than 30, the composting process is inhibited. Also at C/N levels below 20, incomplete composting occurs.
The C/N ratio of dewatered sludge is about 6 and is about 16 for digested sludge. The C/N ratio is
increased by the addition of a bulking agent. For instance, the C/N ratio of leaves is about 60.
Composting is a more robust process than anaerobic digestion and will operate at a wider pH range of 6.5
to 9.5 (anaerobic digestion has a very narrow pH tolerance range of about 6.8 to 7.3).
The environmental parameters of significance to composting are:

e Odour
e Pathogens
e Metals

Odour is usually not a problem in well-aerated, well-managed systems, although problems with odour
have led to the use of in-vessel composting. The major concern for composting is pathogens. The new
sludge regulations, Part 503, in the United States (USEPA, 1993) for composting, place severe restrictions
on pathogen counts. The New Zealand regulations of 1988 as well as those of USEPA are included in Sec.
13.7.4. Composted sewage sludge products are required to meet (WEF, 1993b) Part 503, Class A,
regulations for pathogen reduction. The significant number which the composting industry must achieve
is a faecal coliform count of < 1000 MPN/g TS or a Salmonella sp. count of <3 MPN/g TS.
The problem of odour from the composting process is due to ammonia, hydrogen sulphide and
organic sulphide compounds. Technologies are now readily available to reduce these. For instance,
ammonia gas can be stripped in absorption towers through dilute solutions of sulphuric acid. H2S and
organic sulphide can be removed by their absorption in an alkaline, oxidizing solution which converts
these compounds into non-odorous forms. Details of such technologies have been described in full by
Leder (1992). Control of ammonia emission is further discussed by Rijs (1992) who points out that
600 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Sewage sludge
Solids = 1.5%

Thickening

Solids = 5%

Anaerobic
Biogas
digestion

Sludge Sludge
conditioning dewatering

Solids = 25%

Solids = 95%
Canina Partial
Hoa ombination recycle
pees cyclone and
Sas bag filter

Granules a
Gas cleaning

Gas
'
Disposal
Dust |

Figure 13.18 Schematic of sludge drying flow chart (adapted from Barnett, 1993, with permission).

ammonia emission is about 10 times less in anaerobic in-vessel composting facilities than in aerobic
facilities. It is likely that the future holds good prospects for composting. Traditionally, it was considered a
low-technology process. However, for most likely success, high-technology innovative processes must be
developed to produce a product that will sell, is not offensive (malodorous) and does not contain
pathogens nor is high in heavy metals. A key disadvantage is that aerobic composting is a ‘net’ importer
of energy and anaerobic digestion is a ‘net’ exporter of energy.

13.10.4 Thermal Drying

Figure 13.18 shows a flow chart schematic of the thermal drying process. The pre-treatment involves
thickening, anaerobic digestion, sludge conditioning and dewatering to ~ 25 per cent DS. The biogas
from the anaerobic digester is used as heat supply to the dryer. Sludge drying is a unit operation that
involves reducing the water content of the sludge by vaporization. The result is a dried product of ~ 90 to
95 per cent DS and pathogen free, typically in the form of granules. Conduction, convection and/or
radiation are used in heat transfer in thermal drying. Conditions for effective heat transfer to sludge are:
e A large surface area between the sludge and the thermal carrier (condensing steam, hot air, combustion
gases, superheated water or thermal oil)
e A high heat content of the thermal carrier (about 250 to 500°C gases in a rotary dryer)
e A long contact time between the sludge and the thermal carrier (about 30 min in a rotary dryer)
 ANAEROBIC DIGESTION AND SLUDGE TREATMENT 601

Steam/thermal
~250 °C ki

Off gases
Sludge

Condensate

en heat

Figure 13.19 Indirect drying.

The heat drying technologies include:

e Flash dryer
e Rotary dryer
e Fluid bed dryer
e Disc dryer
¢ Multiple effect evaporator (using oil)

Details of the above are found in WEF (1991) and from equipment manufacturers. Sludge drying
technology is now finding use internationally. For instance, the Netherlands expects to produce about
870 000 t DS/yr by the year 2000. The process techniques have been decided for 500 000 tDS/yr. Of the
latter, 85 000 tDS/yr are to be processed by thermal drying. It is therefore likely that ~ 20 per cent or
more of the sewage sludge is to be processed by thermal drying. The sewage sludge from the city of
Stuttgart in Germany has been operating disc dryers since 1981. Stuttgart has two sludge streams, one
from the primary treatment facilities and the other from the anaerobic digester. Gravity thickening is
followed by dewatering with solid bowl centrifuges. From the centrifuges, the 23 per cent TS sludge is
pumped to the disc dryers which further dewater the sludge to 43 per cent TS. From the dryers, the sludge
goes to the fluid bed reactor incinerator and the waste heat boiler. The sludge at 43 per cent TS burns
unaided. The system is considered to be successful. Part of the new sludge management programme for
New York is to thermally dry approximately 50 per cent of all sludge (Wagner, E.O. 1992). In the EU
there are currently about 35 drying plants (Hall, 1992).
The two methods are principally direct and indirect drying. In direct drying, the sludge is in direct
contact with the drying medium, hot air or gas. The water vapour coming from the sludge leaves the dryer
with the drying medium. The latter flows in the same direction as the sludge as it not only dries the sludge
but also conveys it. Hot air or gas temperatures are in the range 350 to 600°C, which reduces to 80 to
150°C after drying. This method is considered simple, but the drying medium becomes contaminated
with malodorous compounds and so has to be gas scrubbed before recirculation, possibly with a modern
biofilter. As its name implies, in indirect drying there is no contact between the heating medium and the
sludge. The disc dryer is one such case. The party wall between the sludge and heating medium is at a
temperature of 150 to 250°C. The heating medium and the sludge water vapour leave the dryer via
different routes. Figure 13.19 is a schematic.

13.10.5 Incineration
Incineration of sewage sludge is a technical option used to some extent by most developed countries (see
Table 13.4). Incineration with regard to hazardous waste is detailed in Chapter 15. For sewage sludge,
fluidized beds, multiple hearth incinerators and powder burning systems are all used. In the Dutch plans
602 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Sewage sludge

Solids = 1.5%

Thickening

Solids = 5%

Sludge Sludge
conditioning dewatering

Solids = 25%

Combustion air
Incineration
Start-up burner

Hot water Waste heat

Hot air boiler

Ash for Electrostatic

disposal precipitator

Hot gas

Scrubber liquor
to inlet works

Gas emission
via stack

Figure 13.20 Integrated flow chart of incineration (adapted from Bamett, 1993, with permission).

for the year 2000, incineration figures highly with a declared 15 per cent of sludge to be incinerated. A
45 000t DS/yr plant at Dordrecht and a 70 000t DS/yr plant-at Noord-Brabant are in design/construc-
tion. An integrated flow chart is shown in Fig. 13.20. Sewage sludge is first dewatered and can be burned
with auxiliary fuel at 20 to 30 per cent DS. At dried cake values of 30 to 50 per cent DS, sludge will burn
unaided. Incineration of sludge is the high-temperature combustion ( > 900°C) of the combustible sludge
elements—carbon, hydrogen and sulphur in addition to those of grease, carbohydrates and proteins. The
end products of the combustion of sludge with excess air are CO , SO and water vapour. Ash is also
produced. The volume is reduced to about 15 per cent of its original value. The high heating value of
sludge varies from 12 to 18 MJ/kg of dry solids. The total heating value can be determined from

Hawf = 33.8C + 144.7 (H — 0.1250) + 9.428 (13.13)

where C = % carbon
H = % hydrogen
O = % oxygen
S = % sulphur
Hawf = high heating value (awf = ash and water free), MJ
Further details are given in WEF (1991) and Kayhanian and Tchobanoglous (1993). There are
examples of sludge incinerators in co-disposal arrangements as follows:
e Incineration of sludge only
e Incineration of sludge + solid waste
 ANAEROBIC DIGESTION AND SLUDGE TREATMENT 603

e Incineration of sludge + bark waste (Groz, Austria)

e Various other combinations

As described in Chapter 16, significant advances in incineration technology have led to decreased air
pollution emissions. Successful technologies for particulates collection and gaseous entrapment are all
now possible.
Incineration is an integral part of the treatment policies on sludge of most developed countries. For
instance, at Ludwigshafen in Germany, incinerators with the capacity of 120000 t/yr treat both chemical
and municipal sludge. Currently about 3 per cent of sludge in the Netherlands is incinerated with plants at
Dordrecht, Amsterdam and Oyen. Of the technologies already specified, incineration will treat
approximately 15 per cent of sludge from the Netherlands. Japan, as of 1990, had 220 incinerators of
sewage sludge with the favoured methodology being the fluidized bed system.

13.10.6 Pyrolysis
Many organic substances are thermally unstable and upon heating in an oxygen-free atmosphere are split,
through a combination of thermal cracking and condensation reactions, into gaseous, liquid and solid
fractions. Pyrolysis is the term used to describe this process. In contrast to the combustion process, which
is highly exothermic, the pyrolytic process is highly endothermic. Pyrolysis produces:
e A gas stream containing H, CH4, CO, CO, and others, depending on the sludge
e An oil/tar stream
e A char of almost pure carbon

Two forms of pyrolysis under research for sludge are:

@ Oil from sludge (OFS) and
© Gasification
In the OFS process, the organics in the sewage (pre-dried to at least 95 per cent DS) are converted to a
liquid fuel, not unlike medium fuel oil. The principal piece of technology is the conversion reactor. Firstly,
the dried sludge ( > 25 per cent DS) is heated to ~ 450°C without oxygen. Under these conditions, about
half of the sludge is vaporized. These vapours are contacted with the tar residue of the sludge and
aliphatic hydrocarbons are produced. The process produces oil and char, non-condensable gas and water.
It is possible to combust these by-products at > 800°C to produce energy for drying. Typical product data
from dried raw sludge are 30 per cent oil with a heating value of ~ 40 MJ/kg and 50 per cent char with a
heating value of ~ 10 MJ/kg.
Gasification involves taking a dried sludge (> 80 per cent DS) and converting it into a clean
combustible gas which may be converted to electricity or hot water for district heating (as is the case in
Denmark). The main component of the system is a gasification reactor. The dried sludge (in briquette
form) is fed to the reactor and with air is heated to 500°C in the distillation zone and then to 800°C in the
carbonization zone. As the amount of air is controlled, the solids give off their gases without combustion.
The gases then pass through a core with temperatures > 1200°C, where they are cleaned of tars and oils.
The gas then goes to a combined heat and power unit (CHP) to produce electricity and hot water. The two
products of gasification are gas and ash.

13.10.7 Wet Air Oxidation

In contrast to most forms of sludge treatment, the process of wet air oxidation does not require the sludge
to be dewatered. Pre-treatment is adequate if the sludge is thickened to ~ 5 per cent DS. Wet air oxidation
604 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

is a process whereby the sludge organic solids are oxidized in an aerobic, high-pressure, high-temperature
environment. It is a liquid phase reaction between the organic material in water and oxygen. Temperatures
of ~ 175°C and pressures of ~ 10 MPa are used. The subcritical, non-catalytic oxidation of sludge is
represented by Rijs (1992) as

CaHpO.NaS.P; + (at+tb —4e —3d +3e4+3 f)0.—

aCO, + (1b —3d —e —3f HO + dNH3 + eHySO4+fH3PO, (13.14)
The objective of wet air oxidation of sludge is to oxidize a large part of the organic sludge
components, leaving an almost inorganic sludge which can readily be dewatered. The process can be
carried out above ground or below ground. Processes available include: Zimpro, Osaka Gas, Vertech,
Kenor, Wetox and Oxidyne. The Vertech system as installed at Apeldorn (Netherlands) is 1225 m deep
with an outside shaft diameter of 343 mm. The system consists of a series of concentric pipes as shown in
Fig. 13.21. The 5 per cent DS sludge enters the central pipe or ‘downcomer’. At a depth of 300 m pure O2
is added. As the depth increases, the pressure and temperature also increase. At 700 m and a temperature
of 175°C the oxidation process starts and the temperature of the reaction mixture rises to 277°C as a
result of an exothermic reaction. Oxidized sludge leaves the reactor via the ‘upcomer’. In the upcomer,
pressure gradually reduces and some of the heat generated is transferred to the cold influent downcomer.
Outside the two concentric rings is a third and in this annulus a heat exchange medium is transported. The
mixture leaving the riser is split into a gas and a liquid stream. The degassed effluent is passed through
a lamellar separator, where separation occurs to a suspended solids content in the effluent of
~ 200mg TSS/L. The released sludge is further mechanically dewatered to ~ 50 per cent DS. The dry
solids is ~ 90 per cent inorganic (Rijs, 1992).
The Zimpro wet air oxidation system in use in Minneapolis-St Paul treats 100 to 150 tons of wet
sludge daily (Oslas, 1990). The total process consists of:
1. Thickening Primary sludge is gravity thickened to 6 per cent DS. WAS is thickened by DAF to 3.5 to
4 per cent DS.
i). Blending and equalization The sludge is blended: 72 per cent WAS + 28 per cent primary. Volatile
content is ~ 70 per cent.
. Wet air oxidation Eight oxidation units thermally condition the sludge at 190°C and 2.2 MPa.
. Decanting In covered decant tanks, the sludge is thickened to 12 to 18 per cent DS.
. Dewatering Plate and frame filter presses dewater the almost inorganic sludge to ~ 40 per cent DS.
. Combustion Dewater cake is burned in six multiple hearth furnaces.
YW Waste heat recovery Heat is recovered to supply energy to the oxidation units and other plant
NIAAA
processes.

13.10.8 Sludge Melting

This process is comparable to incineration and is most popular in Japan with 14 plants (1990) treating
about 10 per cent of the sludge (Takeshi and Kazuhiro, 1992). Organic sludges are reduced to about one-
thirteenth of their original volume by incineration and to about one-thirtieth by the melting process.
Melting involves several steps, including:
¢ Pre-treatment, i.e. dewatering
Melting
Heat recovery
Waste gas purification
Slag production
 ANAEROBIC DIGESTION AND SLUDGE TREATMENT 605

In the melting stage, the sludge is heated to > 1200°C to evaporate the water and to thermally decompose
and melt the inorganic components. After melting, molten inorganic materials are converted to beneficial
end products, e.g. slag. The characteristics of the final slag will depend on the cooling method used. Rapid
cooling produces a vitreous low-strength slag, while slow cooling produces a high-strength slag. The
types of melting technologies include:

Influent

Effluent
Heat exchanger

Surface casing

Primary casing
(heat transfer tubular)
Primary casing Heat transfer tubular
(oxidation vessel)

Oxidation vessel

Primary casing
at ied Section AA
(oxidation vessel)

=|

Heat exchange
fluid flow |
path connector
Concrete

Vertech wet oxidation installation

Sludge

O59)895 0)ee
— Wet oxidation

Post-treatment Gas Liquid—gas

flue gas separation

i Liquid

Mechanical Suspended solids Polyelectrolyte

Ss
dewatering separator
Decantate

Post-treatment
liquid

Effluent
(to sewage treatment plant)

Figure 13.21 Schematic diagram of Vertech wet oxidation process (adapted from Rijs, 1992, with permission).
606 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

e Coke bed melting furnace

e Reflector melting furnace
e Cyclone melting furnace
These technologies are described in Takeshi and Kazuhiro (1992).

13.10.9 Summary of Second Stage Sludge Treatment Processes

Table 13.15 summarizes the processes described in the previous sections and suggests that operation costs
are about ECU 100 per tonne. Note that capital costs are not included here. For details on these costs refer
to Barnett (1993).

13.11 SLUDGE DISPOSAL

Sewage sludges are produced from conventional wastewater plants with dry solids varying from 0.5 to 95
per cent. At the low end, 0.5 to 4 per cent DS, are those sludges produced directly by wastewater treatment
plants. These sludges still consist of biodegradable organic fractions, pathogens and lots of water. At the
high end, ~ 90 per cent DS, the sludges are typically inorganic, with no biodegradable fractions left, and
are likely to be pathogen free. The operational cost of getting from the low solids content to the high
solids content is approximately ECU 100 per tonne (excluding dewatering costs) for a plant of population
equivalent of 500000. Dewatering from about 3 to 25 per cent DS has operational costs of the order of
ECU 100 per tonne (Andreasen and Nielsen, 1992) for a plant of 50000 population equivalent. For
instance, to treat sludge from a 500000 population equivalent costs are roughly:

Table 13.15 Sludge treatment processes summary

Size for unit

Input sludge cost population Cost per tonne
Process (% DS) Output equivalent (Barnett, 1993)

Anaerobic digestion 6-10 3% DS — —

methane gas
Aerobic digestion 3-6 4-8% DS — ——
reduced biodegradable
fraction by ~ 50%
Composting DS Compost 500 000 ECU 80
Thermal drying 25 95% DS granules, 500 000 ECU 85
waste gas
Incineration 30 Inert ash, 500 000 ECU 90-150
waste gas
Pyrolysis
OFS 95 Usable oil 500 000 ECU 45-120
and char
Gasification 80-85 Usable gas, 500 000 ECU 110
waste ash
Wet air oxidation 5 Inorganic sludge, 500 000 ECU 195
waste gas,
purifiable liquid
Sludge melting 75-90 Recycle gas, 500 000 ECU 145
usable slag

Adapted in part from Barnett, 1993 with permission

 ANAEROBIC DIGESTION AND SLUDGE TREATMENT 607

Assume ~ 3 per cent DS input sludge:

e Construction costs of dewatering equipment ~ ECU 140 per tonne
¢ Operation costs of dewatering equipment ~ ECU 120 per tonne
Output after dewatering is sludge at about 25 per cent DS:
e Thermal drying to 90 per cent DS has a
— Capital cost of ~ ECU 150
— Operating cost of ~ ECU 85
To get a very dry sludge, ~ 90 per cent DS, the capital and operational costs are therefore of the order of
ECU 500 per tonne. There is still sludge to be disposed of. To further treat it by melting and generate a
recycle gas and usable slag (with no residual sludge) has
¢ Capital cost ~ ECU 250
e Operating cost ~ ECU 145
Therefore, to exploit the best technological means on sludge treatment could cost close to ECU 1000
per tonne. This is a huge difference from the ECU 40 per tonne cost of disposal on land as surface
spreading. The latter, of course, was the common traditional disposal route. Technology exists to
completely transform sludge to an inert slag but the cost is up to ECU 1900 per tonne, plus the indirect
environmental costs of the air emissions, etc. Maybe the technology of treatment and disposal has lost
sight of the beneficial uses that can be made of sludge. As such, there are evolving policies internationally
to utilize raw sludge as land application or land injection (see Chapters 10 and 17). The disposal routes for
sludge include the following:
Ocean dumping
Incineration
Land spreading
Soil injection
Land revegetation
Land reclamation (after mixing, etc.)
Land reclamation (from the sea)
Land spreading in forestry
Landfill—co-disposal
Landfill—monofill
Table 13.16 outlines the disposal routes of several countries as of 1990. Many changes are happening
in the 1990s, especially so as to comply with the elimination of sea dumping. Some countries will increase
disposal to land (e.g. United Kingdom, Ireland) while others will reduce disposal to land (e.g.
Netherlands, Japan).

13.11.1 Ocean Dumping

This disposal route was most common for island countries and urban areas on the coast; e.g. New York,
Los Angeles, London, Tokyo, etc., all disposed of most of their sludges out into the seas. The Helsinki
Agreement was signed by most countries to eliminate ocean dumping by 1998. This has been written into
the EC Directive on urban wastewater as 31 December, 1998. However, many countries have already
stopped. The ban on ocean dumping was signed by the US Congress in 1988 and States were given up to
four years to meet the ban. There is therefore no short-term future for ocean dumping.

13.11.2 Incineration

This topic was briefly discussed in Sec. 13.10, where it was considered as a sludge treatment technology
rather than a sludge disposal route technology. It is not discussed in any further detail here except to
608 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Table 13.16 Disposal routes for sludge as of 1990

(x 1000 tons dry sludge p.a.)

Country Agriculture Landfill Incineration Sea dumping

Belgium 8 15 6 0
West Germany 698 1286 196 0
Denmark Si) 39 35 0
France 234 446 170 0
Greece 30 120 0 0
Ireland 7 : 4 0 12
Italy 270 440 90 0
Netherlands 150 81 28 2D,
Portugal 3 if 0 Ils)
Spain 173 28 0 79
UK 524 122 74 225
Sweden 108 12 0 0
Switzerland 113 80 57 0
Austria 57 67 74 0
Japant 200 1400 600 400
USAT 48% 33% 14% 5%

Estimated.
Adapted from McIntosh and Matthews, 1992 with permission

reiterate that dewatered sludge of about 25 per cent DS can be incinerated to totally eliminate water,
organics and pathogens. What is left is an ash (possibly containing some metals). This slag is best
disposed of in a mono-landfill or combined with other materials to produce bricks or road pavements.

13.11.3 Land Spreading and Injection of Sludge

Land application of sewage sludge is here defined as the beneficial application of sludge as a soil
amendment to agricultural land. Due to intensive agriculture, some soils became nutrient deficient.
Sewage sludges or biosolids are derived from an organic source and so can provide a soil amendment that
contains essential plant nutrients in a relatively balanced package. The major nutrient not provided in
significant quantities by sludge is potassium (K). Some soils can be deficient in single elements like Zn,
which may be amended by sludge. The land spreading of sewage sludge is dependent on many parameters
including:
Climate and rainfall
Existing soil nutrient status
Proposed cropping
Sludge characteristics—chemical
Potential for crop contamination
Potential for groundwater (or surface water) contamination
Soil has also been amended with sawdust-stabilized sludge, i.e. one part sludge mixed with two parts
sawdust. Some typical US biosolids characteristics are given in Table 13.17.
The level of nutrients in sewage sludge is significant, as seen in Table 13.17. Nitrogen can be as high
as | per cent. Typical application rates are limited to 10 tons DS/ha or 200 wet tons/ha at 5 per cent DS.
The application rate for sludge is typically designed for either the N or P levels of the crop grown on a
particular soil. The general approach for determining application rates are:
1. Nutrient crop requirement, taking account of carry-over from previous years.
2. N crop needs, Cd limitation and P crop needs.
3. Sludge application is terminated when cumulative metal limits are reached (see Table 13.6 for limits).
 ANAEROBIC DIGESTION AND SLUDGE TREATMENT 609

Table 13.17 Some typical US biosolids characteristics

Parameter (mg/kg)

Rock creed Rock creed

(belt press), stockpiled,
Portland, Oregon Portland, Oregon Willow Lake WWTP,
(Lloyd and (Lloyd and Salem, Oregon
Wilson, 1992) Wilson, 1992) (Cork et al., 1992)
PH 7.8 8.1 a
TS% 14.8 30.5 3}
TVS% 61 84 —
TKN-N (mg/L) 60 874 25 8577 103 075?
NH3-N 9446 4321 42 068
NO3-N 344 120 —
PO,-P 47 065 18 869 61 906
K 2209 1149 17 645
As 9 = =
Cd 4 1 2.8
(re 57 29 93
Cu 821 296 505
Pb 71 32 181
Hg 2, a 4.5
Ni 22 11 35
Ag 32 = 42
Zn 950 338 817
Fe — — 13 000
Ba — _ 366
Mn _ = 185
Al oa 9950
Ca = — 18 500

Na — = 7320

TAIl including and below this parameter are in concentrations of mg/kg.

Adapted from Wilson, 1992, and Cork ef al., 1992

The nitrogen available to plants (N,) in any particular year is the total of:
1. All NO3 present in the sludge.
2. All or a fraction of NH, in the sludge. Typically, if sludge is land applied 50 per cent of NHg is
volatilized. Assume 100 per cent of NH, is available to plants if the sludge is injected.
3. A fraction of organic N, i.e. N, in the sludge that is mineralized in the first year after application.

A summation is made of the N, in the sludge applied during the previous years (if any) which will
mineralize during the year being calculated. Thus
Np = 10S(NO3 + KyNH4 + FyearNo) (13am)
where N, = plant available N for this year
S = sludge application rate, TDS/ha/yr
NO; = % NO; in sludge
K, = volatile factor
NHy = % NH, in sludge
Fyear = factor for No in sludge in year 0-1, 1-2, ete.
No = % No (organic nitrogen)
610 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Example 13.9 Determine the amount of N available from sludge in the first year if 5 TDS/ha is
added. Sludge characteristics are:
N, (organic nitrogen) =3%, NO; — N = 0%, NH, —-N = 1.5%
Ke=05, >“ f=year 02

Solution
NF — 10S(NO; => KS NH, + Fo- 3 N,)

= 50[0 + 0.5(1.5) + 0.2(3)]

= 67.5kg N,/ha
Example 13.10 For the above example, calculate the N, available from this year’s sludge for the
next three years.

Solution
Total N, = 0.03 x 5 x 1000 = 150 kg/ha
Given the mineralization factors as (USEPA, 1983)

Year F

0-1 0.2
(2 0.1
33 0.05

N, mineralized in year 0-1 = 0.2 x 150 = 30kg/ha

N, remaining in year 1-2 = 150 — 30 = 120kg/ha
N, mineralized in year 1-2 = 0.1 x 120 = 12kg/ha
N, remaining in year 2-3 = 120 — 12 = 108kg/ha
N, mineralized in year 2-3 = 0.05 x 108 = 5.4kg/ha

Example 13.11 If the P fertilizer needs of corn is 45 kg/ha, determine the application rate required
to satisfy this if the total P in sludge is 2 per cent. Assume that 50 per cent P is plant available.

Solution
P vailable = (% P in sludge) (50% available)
P, = 0.02 x 0.5 x 1000 = 10kg/t

Application rate S,, =

n3™
|en =
fase 4.5 t/ha
10
The reader is referred to USEPA (1983) for further and more detailed examples. Locations that use
land spreading are many. Traditionally, this was the most common disposal route in many countries for
raw sludges and dewatered sludges.

13.11.4 Land Revegetation

Land in many places that has been overgrazed and that has expended its nutrients may be brought back
into commission quickly by application of sewage sludge. The conditions for application are in this case
 ANAEROBIC DIGESTION AND SLUDGE TREATMENT 611

more metal limited than nutrient limited which was the case of land spreading. While guidelines for
landspreading of sewage sludge on to crop land set a limit of 10 tDS/ha/yr, there is no such limit for land
revegetation. The application rates may vary from 3 to 200t DS/ha/yr. As the application may be a one-
off or may be at five year intervals (or so), then more lenient application rates exist. An application of
revegetation was described by Wagner E.O., (1992). At that time, some of the excess sludge from POTWs
in New York were transported to western Texas to revegetate overgrazed pasture land.

13.11.5 Disturbed Land Reclamation

The application of sewage sludge to revegetate mining sites has been going on for several decades
(Sopper, 1993). As mining is an international practice, the opportunities exist for utilizing large volumes
of sludge to restore these landscapes in almost all countries. Difficulties have been encountered with
revegetation due to low pH of these lands, their low field capacity (unable to hold much water) and the
presence of high concentrations of heavy metals. The lands potentially suitable for restoration in this way
are:
Coal mining areas
Sand and gravel pits
Other mine areas, e.g. zinc, uranium, etc.
Landfill cover areas
Areas blasted for rock, i.e. rock quarries
Beach retention
Desert areas
Slag piles from mining, coal, etc.
The rates of sludge application to revegetate areas is typically one or two orders of magnitude greater
than that for sludge applied to cropland. As such, the potential problems are: leaching of nitrogen to
groundwater; surface runoff of non-soil-bound metals and pathogen transmission. In the design of a
sludge reclamation plan, the same procedures as suggested in USEPA (1983) can be followed. In the latter
document, this topic is named ‘disturbed land’. As the sludge application is one time application (or
maybe at 5-year interludes), a sufficient amount of land should be available for a programme to use up the
available sludge.

Example 13.12 (This example is adapted from USEPA, 1983.) Determine the sludge application
rate to disturbed land if the sludge characteristics are:
TVS % = 54 Pb = 500 mg/kg (0.5 kg/T)
Total N Yo= 1.5 Zn = 2000 mg/kg (2.0 kg/T)
NH,-N % = 0.6 Cu = 500 mg/kg (0.5 kg/T)
Total P %,— 0-5 Ni = 100 mg/kg (0.1 kg/T)
Total K % = 0.1 Cd = 50 mg/kg (0.05 kg/T)

The site characteristics are:

Area = 2ha Soil permeability K = 0.2 cm/h
soil pH —3:9 Depth to groundwater = 5m
Soil CEC = 13 meq/100 g AAR = 1200 mm

Assume that the uptake of nitrogen is 300 kg/year.

612 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Solution

(a) Maximum sludge loading based on metal loadings From USEPA 40 CFR Part 503, the following
are:
Pb = 300kg/ha (1120) [150
Zn = 2800kg/ha (560) [300
Cu=1500kg/ha (280) [120
Ni = 420kg/ha (280) [30
Cd = 39kg/ha (10) [1.5]
The numbers in round brackets are those that were applicable at the time of USEPA (1983). It is noted
that many of the limits have changed. The EC limits as set out in the sludge directive are within the
square brackets, based on a 10-year application.
kg/ha of metal allowed
T sludge/ha = 0.001 x mg/kg
of metal in sludge

For Zn = ee = 1400 t/ha

Pb aro = 600 t/ha

Cu ce Si= 3000 t/ha

Ni Sits = 4200 t/ha

Cd ee = 780 t/ha

The limiting metal is Pb.

(b) Potential nitrate leaching to groundwater This calculation is in three steps, i.e.:

(1) Calculate the available nitrogen added by sludge application.

(2) Subtract the estimated nitrogen uptake by vegetation and losses.
(3) Calculate the maximum potential concentration of excess nitrogen percolating to the aquifer.
Assume that 600 t/ha of sludge is applied.

NH,—N applied = 600 x 10° x a = 3600kg/ha

1.5 =0.6
Organic N applied = x 600 x 10° = 5400 kg/ha
100
Assume all of the NH,-N is available in the first year.
Assume the organic mineral rates are:
20% —first year; 10%—second year; 5%—3rd year; following years—3%

For first year:

NH4—-N = 3600 kg/ha

Organic N = 5400 x 0.2 = 1080 kg/ha
Total N = 4680 kg/ha
 ANAEROBIC DIGESTION AND SLUDGE TREATMENT 613

Unaccountable losses ~ 10% = 468 kg/ha

Vegetation uptake = 300 kg/ha
Total excess = 4680 — 468 — 300 = 3912 kg/ha
For second year:

NH,-N = 0kg/ha
Organic N = 0.1 (5400 — 1080) = 432 kg/ha
Unaccountable losses ~10% = 43 kg/ha
Vegetation uptake = 300 kg/ha
Total excess = 432 — 343 = 89 kg/ha

Groundwater contamination potential is only possible in year 1 as the available excess N in year 2 is
small and in later years there is a deficit.

Gross rainfall = 1200 mm

Assume evaporation = 30% = 360mm
Net rainfall = 840 mm

If all the excess N in the sludge is mobile (assume no N is bonded to sludge/soil particles) then the
concentration of nitrate in the percolate is:

Total excess N = 3912 kg/ha x 10° mg/kg

= 3912 x 10° mg/ha
3912 x 10° mg/ha
N perha =
10000 m2/ha
= 3912 x 10* mg/m?
3912 x 10? mg/m?
N per ha perm rain =
0.84m
N perm? = 4657 x 107 mg/m?
4657 x 10? mg/m?
" ) =102L/m:
Nmg/L = 466 mg/L

The permissible percolate concentration is here assumed to be 10mg/L. The proposed EC Landfill
Directive on leachate concentrate for inert waste suggests 3mg/L while for hazardous waste the range
is 6 to 30 mg/L. Therefore, the limitation in this example is nitrate leaching. A recalculation based on
10 mg/L suggests that the permissible excess nitrogen in year | is

Therefore,
10
Total excess N = —
466 x
x 3912
39 = 84kg/h
g/ha

Maximum allowable excess N = 84kg/ha

Vegetation uptake = 300 kg/ha
Total N = 384kg/ha
Assume 10% losses = 38 kg/ha
614 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Then Total = 422 kg/ha

kg/ha of available N x 0.1
and Sludge/year =
% NH4—N x 10+ % O-—N x 0.2
422 x 0.1
~ 0.6 x 1.0+0.9 x 0.2
= 54 t/yr

13.11.6 Land Reclamation from the Sea

It is possible to reclaim sea land with sludges if the outer perimeter boundary of the proposed reclaimed
land is first constructed of local dredged material. Like other sludge processes, limits of metals and
nutrients are the design criteria. However, in addition to these, there are the structural and geotechnical
characteristics.

13.11.7 Land Spreading of Sewage Sludge in Forestry

Land spreading in forest lands is also a beneficial end use. However, forest lands are not always within an
economic travel distance of urban wastewater treatment plants. Another difficulty is the mechanics of
obtaining an even spread of sludge due to the frequent interruptions by the presence of trees. The
methodology of spreading is by spray gun and this can also damage the bark of trees if the force is too
strong. Spreading is easier if the access is more frequent, as is sometimes the case with frequent fire-break
roads or tracks. Besides the technical difficulties associated with actual spreading and the cost
implications of transport, other constraints are related to sludge constituents, including pathogens, and
nitrate leaching.
The estimated nitrogen uptake by forest types ranges from about 100 to 300 kg/ha/yr, with older
trees having a higher uptake than tree seedlings. The losses due to volatilization of ammonia N are
estimated at up to 50 per cent for sludge applied in liquid form (< 4 per cent DS) and close to zero losses
for applied dewatered sludge. Accelerated tree growth (200 to 300 per cent) can result from the
application of sludge. This of course will change the characteristics of the wood in relation to moisture
content, structural properties, etc. In the public forests of the United Kingdom, approximately 0.5t of
fertilizer/ha are added annually. This figure could readily be accomplished by the fertilizer value of
sludge. An evaluation has determined that between 6 and 11 per cent of UK sludge proportion could be
spread on forest land at economic rates. This could increase if intensive coppice woodland using fast-
growing species of willow and poplar are used. This crop is likely to be developed as a bioenergy crop of
the future. A success story in relation to forest application of sludge (Leonard et al., 1992) is managed by
the Municipality of Metropolitan Seattle. Sludge is transported in dewatered cake, 23 per cent DS, and is
wetted on site to 7 to 15 per cent DS. It is then sprayed on to the trees. The application rate is about
19t DS/ha/yr. The rigorously managed site has had nine years of experience and is planned for at least
another eight years. Further details and numerical examples on application rates are found in USEPA
(1983).

13.11.8 Landfilling of Sludges

Sludges are landfilled in two methods:
e Mono-landfill
© Co-disposal landfill
 ANAEROBIC DIGESTION AND SLUDGE TREATMENT 615

The traditional practice has been to co-dispose sludges with municipal solid wastes at municipal landfill
sites. The requirements include:
e A dry solids sludge content +35 per cent
e A sludge shear strength >10kN/m*
e A mass of municipal waste/sludge ratio of >10: 1

The methodology most commonly used was:

e Dump the sludge at the tip of the landfill face and spread in a layer < 0.25 m thick
e Spread the municipal waste from the top of the landfill face and follow up by covering the sludge with a
layer of municipal waste >1 m thick
e Use side slopes flatter than 3: 1
The environmental aspects of such a practice included:
Significantly reduced COD values of leachate
Reduced VFA values in leachate
Increased pH values in leachate from about 6.0 to 7.5
Increased CH, production
Some of the methodologies are:

e Sludge-only trenches
e Narrow trench
e Wide trench
e Sludge-only area fill
e Area fill mound
e Area fill layer
e Dyked containment
The sludge and site conditions and design criteria for the above methods as defined by USEPA (1978) are
listed in Table 13.18. Note that it is necessary to use clay on synthetic liners for all of these methods.

Example 13.13 Determine the landfill area required to dispose of 50 m°/day, 5 days/week at 25
per cent DS using wide trenches. Assume the life required is 20 years and the trenches are 10 m wide, 3m
deep and 100m long. Assume 3m solid ground spacing between trenches and a 20m buffer to the
property boundary.

Solution

Required trench volume = 50 x 5 x 52 x 20 = 260000 m?

: 260 000
Number of trenches required = TOSeaSS 100. 86.6 trenches

Usable area required = 87 x (10 + 3)(100 + 3) = 116490 m?

=lOha
116490m? = 341 m x 341m
Minimum area required = (341 + 40)(341 + 40) = 145 161 m?
= 14.51)

Example 13.14 Determine the trench utilization rate, the sludge application rate, the land
utilization rate and the site life for a sludge-only landfill of 50 ha (usable area). The sludge is 14 per cent
DS and the wastewater treatment plant produces 25 t DS/day. The specific gravity of wet sludge is 1.056
616
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 ANAEROBIC DIGESTION AND SLUDGE TREATMENT 617

and so the wet sludge is 179 t/day (= 169.5 m* /day). Assume the trenches are 2.4m excavated depth with
a 1.8m sludge fill, a 1.2 m cover thickness and a width of 0.6 m. The maximum trench length is to be 50m
and trenches are to be spaced at 2.4m apart.

Solution

Trench utilization rate = sludge volume/day

trench cross-section
__ 169.5 m3 /day
= 157 m/day
1.8 x 0.6
cross-sectional area of sludge in trench
Sludge application rate =
width of trench + trench spacing
_ 18x 0.6n°
~ 0.64+2.4m
= 0.36 m?/m
= 3600 m*/10 000 m?
= 3600 m?/ha
sludge volume/day
Land utilization rate = —
sludge application rate
169.5 m?/day
~ 3600 m3/ha
= 0.047 ha/day
usable fill area
Site life = —=
land utilization rate
_ 50 ha
~ 0.047 ha/day
= 1064 days = 2.92 years

13.12 INTEGRATED SEWAGE SLUDGE MANAGEMENT

Traditionally, municipalities relied on one form of final sludge treatment/disposal. In Ireland, for instance,
the municipalities relied on landspreading, but with the environmental awareness, farmers feared metals
and pathogens and some inland municipalities lost this disposal route. Many coastal cities, including New
York and Los Angeles, lost their sea disposal route which was their main option. Other locations are
losing their incineration route. This era in time is one of changing environmental legislation and increased
public environmental awareness. It is then pragmatic that municipalities should have a portfolio of final
disposal routes, so that if one is closed due to more stringent regulations, then the slack may be taken up
by the remaining routes. This chapter has tried to develop the broad picture of sludge treatment and
disposal and hopes that the beneficial uses of sludge will be more exploited in the future.

13.13 PROBLEMS

13.1 Visit a municipal wastewater treatment plant in your area. Draw a plan view of the relative location
of each of the unit processes. Identify the flow rates, BODs, SS loading, sludge production daily
and quality of effluent.
618 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

12 Visit a municipal or industrial wastewater treatment plant in your area that uses anaerobic digestion
as well as other wastewater treatment processes. Describe the specific anaerobic digestion process
with regard to waste loads, tank type, dimensions, quality of effluent, volume of gas, etc.
1333 A municipal wastewater treatment plant serves a population equivalent of 200000. The primary
sludge has a 1.5 per cent DS, which is 70 per cent volatile. An anaerobic digestion plant using this
primary sludge feedstock has a 60 per cent destruction of volatile solids and a 20-day retention
time. The digested solids are 5 per cent DS. Determine: :
(a) the amount of sludge produced daily,
(b) the rate of gas production daily,
(c) the digester volume.
13.4 Repeat Problem 13.3 if the retention time is 30 days.
13:5 Review the paper ‘Capillary suction time as a measure of sludge dewaterability’ by Vesilind
(1988).
13.6 Anaerobic digestion feedstock is often computed in terms of equivalent glucose, CsH)2O.¢. Use the
Bushwell and Mueller (1952) equation (13.7) to compute the potential methane production of
fructose, sucrose, carbohydrates and glucose.
13.7 A bench-scale laboratory digestion plant of mixed sludges produced the following results for a
single day during a long programme:
Reactor volume = 5 L
Feedstock COD;n¢ = 3000 mg/L
Biogas = 1.4m? /m* /day
VoICHi—SSEpemcent
Daily feed = 125 ml
Determine the volume of CH, per kg of mixed sludge digested (Eq. (13.8)) if the growth rate is
ignored.
13.8 Explain with sketches the ways water is ‘tied up’ in sludge. Explain the relevance of the ‘zeta
potential’.
1322 Explain the following terms as used in sludge processing:
(a) alkalinity,
(b) hydraulic detention time,
(c) solids retention time,
(d) pH,
(e) temperature,
(f) gas production.
1S a1.0 Anaerobic digestion processes sometimes fail due to toxicity of the micro-organisms. Briefly
explain the nature of ammonia toxicity, distinguishing between ionized and un-ionized ammonia.
At what levels of un-ionized ammonia does toxicity occur? Plot curves relating total ammonia, free
ammonia, pH and temperature.
Sele Review the paper ‘Dynamic modelling of anaerobic digestion’ by Moletta et al. (1986).
13:12 Review the paper ‘A comparative study of full scale sludge dewatering’ by Andreasen and Nielsen
(1992).
13.13 Determine the amount of plant available nitrogen in sewage sludge if its characteristics are:

Organic N =2.5%, NO3—N = 0.2%, NHy-N = 1.7%

For this sludge, calculate the available plant nitrogen from this year’s sludge for the next five years.
13.14 Sludge applied to disturbed land has the following characteristics:

TVS% = 60 Pb = 600 mg/kg

Total N% = 1.2 Zn = 1500 mg/kg
 ANAEROBIC DIGESTION AND SLUDGE TREATMENT 619

NH4y—-N% = 0.5 Cu = 450 mg/kg

Total P% = 0.6 Ni = 250 mg/kg
Total K% = 0.2 Cd = 80 mg/kg
The site characteristics are:

Area = 25ha Soil permeability K = 0.05 cm/h

Soil pH = 4.2 Depth to groundwater = 8m
Soil CEC = 115 meq/100g AAR = 800 mm

Do the calculations for this problem based on Example 13.12.

13.15 Write a brief description of the application of sewage sludge to forest land. Refer to Leonard et al.
(1992).
13.16 Determine the landfill area to dispose of 250 t/day, 5 days per week, at 15 per cent DS using wide
trenches. Assume the minimum life should be 20 years. Also assume trenches to be 8m
wide x 3m deep x 50m long. Assume 5m solid ground spacing between trenches.
13.17 Determine the trend utilization rate, the sludge application rate and the land utilization rate and the
site life for a sludge-only landfill of 100 ha usable area. The sludge is 12 per cent DS and the plant
produces 55t DS/day. The specific gravity of wet sludge is 1.05. Assume trenches are 2.5
excavated depth with a 2m sludge fill, and a 1.0m cover thickness and a width of 0.6m. The
maximum trench length is to be 50m and the trenches are to be spaced at 3 m.
13.18 You have just designed a modern municipal wastewater treatment for a population equivalent of
400 000. Prepare a flow chart of the unit processes and where and what characteristics of sludge is
produced. Estimate the quantities of sludge at each generation point.
13.19 For Problem 13.18, size an anaerobic digestion plant (maybe several reactors) to treat the sludge.
13.20 For the previous problem, outline the first stage and second stage sludge treatment processes you
would recommend.
13.21 For the previous problem, develop a disposal strategy for the sludge to consist of:
(a) land spreading,
(b) landfilling,
(c) composting.
What fractions do you recommend to go to each stream?

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Albertson, O. E. et al. (1991) ‘Dewatering municipal wastewater sludges’, Pollution Technology Review No. 202, Noyes Data
Corporation (NDC), New Jersey.
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) (1983) 4 Survey of Anaerobic Digestion Operations, ASCE, New York, USA.
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) (1987) Land Application of Wastewater Sludge, T. M. Younas (ed.), ASCE, New York,
USA.
Andreasen, I. and B. Nielsen (1992) ‘A comparative study of full-scale sludge dewatering equipment’, Proceedings of Conference on
Wastewater Sludge Dewatering. University of Aalborg, Denmark.
Bailey, J. E. and D. F. Ollis (1986) Biochemical Engineering Fundamentals, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Barnett, D. (1993) ‘Sewage sludge, advanced treatment and disposal’, Unpublished thesis, University College, Cork, Ireland.
Bellmer (1992) Promotional Brochures on Bellmer Winklerpress and Bellmer Turbodrain, Bellmer GmbH, Germany.
Benedict, A. H. and E. Epsteing (1986) Composting Municipal Sludge: A Technical Evaluation, USEPA, Cincinnati, USA.
Borchardt, J., W. J. Redman, G. E. Jones and R. T. Sprague (1981) Sludge and Its Ultimate Disposal, Ann Arbor Science.
Bruce, A (1984) Sewage Sludge Stabilization and Disinfection, Ellis Horwood, Chichester.
Bruce, A. M., FE. Colin and P. J. Newman (1989) Treatment of Sewage Sludge. Thermophilic Aerobic Digestion and Processing
Requirements for Landfilling, Elsevier, Oxford.
Brunner, C. (1980) Design of Sewage Sludge Incineration Systems, Noyes Data Corporation (NDC), New Jersey.
Bushwell, A. M. and H. F. Mueller (1952) ‘Mechanics of methane fermentation’, J. Industrial Engineering Chemistry, 44(3), 550.
620 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Carberry, J. B. and A. Englande (1979) ‘Sludge characteristics and behaviour’, Proceedings of NATO Advanced Study Institute,
Newark, New Jersey.
Ceechi, F., J. Mata-~Alvarez and F. G. Pohland (1992) ‘Anaerobic digestion of solid waste’, Proceedings of International Conference,
Vienna, April.
Cheremisinoff, P. N. (1994) Sludge Management and Disposal, PTR Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Colin, E, P. J. Newman and Y. J. Pualanne (1991) Recent Developments in Sewage Sludge Processing. Elsevier, Oxford.
Colleran, E. (1980) Microbiology of Anaerobic Digestion, University College, Galway, Ireland.
Colwell, R. R. and W. M. Spira (1992) ‘The Ecology of Vibrio Cholera’ Chapter 6 in Barau, D. and W. B. Greenough III, Cholera,
Plenum Press, New York. .
Cork, T., B. Evansen, P. Eckley and G. Hermann (1992) ‘Biagro—a 15-year long success story’, Proceedings of Conference on The
Future Direction of Municipal Sludge (Biosolids) Management, Portland, Oregon, Water Environment Federation, Virginia.
Daniel, D. E. (1993) Geotechnical Practice for Waste Disposal, Chapman and Hall, London.
Department of Environment (1993) ‘UK sewage sludge survey. Final report’, Consultants in Environmental Science Limited,
February 1993, HMSO, London, UK.
Department of Health, New Zealand (1992) Public Health Guidelines for the Safe Use of Sewage Effluent and Sewage Sludge on
Land, DOH, Public Health Series, NZ.
Dirkzwager, A. H. and P. LHermite (1989) Sewage Sludge Treatment and Use. New Developments, Technological Aspects and
Environmental Effects, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
EC Directive 86/278/EEC (1986) ‘On the protection of the environment and in particular of the soil, when sewage sludge is used in
agriculture’.
Eckenfelder, W. W. (1980) Principles of Water Quality Management, CBI Publishing Co, Boston, MA, USA.
Ferranti, M. P., G. L. Ferrero and P. L. Hermit (1987) Anaerobic Digestion: Results of Research and Demonstration Projects, Elsevier
Applied Science, Essex, England.
Frost, R. C., J. Halliday and A. S. Dee (1992) ‘Continuous consolidation of sludge in large scale gravity thickeners’, Proceedings of
Conference on Wastewater Sludge Dewatering, University of Aalborg, Denmark.
Garvey, D., R. D. Davis, C. Guarino and C. H. Carlton-Smith (1992) ‘Treatment and disposal of sewage sludge—current practice’,
Proceedings of Sludge 2000—An Anglian Water Conference on Sewage Sludge Use and Disposal—Strategies, Plans and
Operational Practice, Cambridge, September.
Gujer, W., A. J. B. Zehnder (1983) ‘Conversion processes in anaerobic digestion’, Water Science Technology, 15, 127.
Hall, J. E. (1992) ‘Alternative uses for sewage sludge’, Proceedings of Sludge 2000—An Anglian Water Conference on Sewage
Sludge Use and Disposal—Strategies, Plans and Operational Practice, Cambridge, September.
Ho, G. and K. Mathew K (1991) ‘Appropriate waste management technologies’, Proceedings of the International Conference, Perth,
Australia, November 1991, Pergamon Press, LAWQ.
Hobson, P. N. and A. D. Wheatley (1993) Anaerobic Digestion. Modern Theory and Practice, Elsevier Applied Science, Oxford.
IAWA (1992) Proceedings of International Conference on Wastewater Sludge Dewatering, University of Aalborg, Denmark.
IAWA (1992) Proceedings of Sludge 2000 International Conference, Cambridge, September.
Jones, G. E. (1981) ‘Sludge characteristics’, In Sludge and Its Ultimate Disposal, Ann Arbor Science, MI, USA.
Kayhanian, M. and G. Tchobanoglous (1993) ‘Characteristics of humus produced from the anaerobic composting of the
biodegradable fraction of municipal solid waste’, Environmental Technology, 14, 815-822.
Kayhanian, M., K. Lindenauer, S$. Hardy and G. Tchobanoglous (1991) ‘Two-stage process combines anaerobic and aerobic
methods’, Biocycle, March.
Leder, C. S. (1992) ‘Albuquerque’s approach to odour control at a 15 dry ton per day pilot aerated windrow composting facility’,
Proceedings of Conference on The Future Direction of Municipal Sludge (Biosolids) Management, Portland, Oregon, Water
Environment Federation, Virginia.
Leonard, P., R. King and M. Lucas (1992) ‘Fertilizing forests with biosolids. How to plan, operate and maintain a long term
program’, Proceedings of Conference on The Future Direction of Municipal Sludge (Biosolids) Management, Portland,
Oregon, Water Environment Federation, Virginia.
LHermite, P. (1991) Treatment and Use of Sewage Sludge and Liquid Agricultural Wastes, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Lloyd, D. and S. Wilson (1992) ‘Agricultural land application. A biosolids program that works’, Proceedings of Conference on The
Future Direction of Municipal Sludge (Biosolids) Management, Portland, Oregon, Water Environment Federation, Virginia.
Lowe, T. J. (1990) Sludge Reduction at the North Charleston Regional Sewer District, General Environmental Science Ltd,
Cleveland, Ohio.
Lue-Hing, C., D. R. Zenz and R. Kuchenrither (1992) “Municipal sewage sludge management processing, utilization and disposal’,
Water Quality Management Library, Vol. 4, Chapter 4, Technomic Publishers, London.
McGivern, F. (1992) ‘Conditioning, thickening and dewatering of sewage sludge’, Thesis for Dip Env Eng, University College Cork,
Ireland.
Machno, P. S. (1992) ‘Biosolids quantity and quality. A comparison of primary and secondary treatment’, In Proceedings of Sludge
2000, Cambridge, September.
 ANAEROBIC DIGESTION AND SLUDGE TREATMENT 621

McIntosh, P. and P. Matthews (1992) ‘Sludge management in the U.K. and E.C.’, Proceedings of Conference on The Future Direction
of Municipal Sludge (Biosolids) Management, Portland, Oregon, Water Environment Federation, Virginia.
Malina, J. F and F. G. Pohland (1992) Design of Anaerobic Processes for the Treatment of Industrial and Municipal Wastes,
Technomic Publishing, London.
Martel, C. J. (1992) ‘Fundamentals of sludge dewatering in freezing conditions’, Proceedings of International Conference on
Wastewater Sludge Dewatering, University of Aalborg, Denmark.
Metcalf and Eddy, Inc. (1991) Wastewater Engineering Treatment, Disposal and Reuse, G. Tchobanoglous and F, Burton (eds),
McGraw-Hill, New York.
Moletta. R., D. Verrier and A. Albagnac (1986) ‘Dynamic modelling of anaerobic digestion’, Water Research, 20(4), 427-434.
Montgomery, J. M. (Consulting Engineers) (1985) Water Treatment, Principles and Design, John Wiley, Chichester.
Mudrack, K. and S. Kunst (1986) Biology of Sewage Treatment and Water Pollution Control, Ellis Horwood, Chichester.
Murphy, J. (1992) Direct Treatment of Urban Wastewater at Ambient Temperatures, unpublished M.Eng.Sc. thesis, University
College Cork, Ireland.
Patrick, A. (1992) ‘Utilisation of sewage sludge in silviculture’, Thesis for Dip Env Eng, University College Cork, Ireland.
Pavlostathis, S. G. and E. Giraldo-Gomez (1991) Kinetics of Anaerobic Treatment. A Critical Review, Critical Review in
Environmental Control, Vol. 21(5,6), CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, pp. 411-490.
Pedersen, D. C. (1981) Density Levels of Pathogenic Organisms in Municipal Wastewater Sludge. A Literature Review, Camp Dresser
and McKee, Boston.
Reynolds, T. D. (1982) Unit Operations and Processes in Environmental Engineering, PWS-Kent Publishing Co., Boston, MA,
USA.
Rijs, G. B. J. (1992) ‘Advanced techniques for minimizing the volume of sewage sludge’, Proceedings of Conference on The Future
Direction of Municipal Sludge (Biosolids) Management, Portland, Oregon, Water Environment Federation, Virginia.
Schroeder, E. D. (1977) Water and Wastewater Treatment, McGraw-Hill, New York, USA.
Scott, D. and J. Dickey (1992) ‘Land application of biosolids. Making it work for the farmer, city and regulator’, Proceedings of
Conference on The Future Direction of Municipal Sludge (Biosolids) Management, Portland, Oregon, Water Environment
Federation, Virginia.
Solmaz, S. and G. Groeger (1992) ‘Sewage sludge use and disposal’, Proceedings of Sludge 2000 Conference, Cambridge,
September.
Sopper, W. E. (1993) Municipal Sludge Use in Land Reclamation, Lewis Publishers.
Steger, M. Th. (1992) ‘Fate of chlorinated organic compounds during thermal conversion of sewage sludge’, Proceedings of Water
Quality International '92, Washington, D.C., Vol. 5, pp. 2261-2264.
Strauch, D., A. H. Havelaar and P. LJermite (1985) /nactivation of Microorganisms in Sewage Sludge by Stabilization Processes,
Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Sugrue, K., G. Kiely and E. McKeogh (1992) ‘A pilot study of a mix of municipal and industrial sludges’, Proceedings of IAWQ
Conference, Washington, D.C.
Takeshi, K. and T. Kazuhiro (1992) ‘Present and future status of sewage sludge treatment and disposal in Japan’, Proceedings of
Sludge 2000 Conference, Cambridge, September.
Tchobanoglous, G. and F. Barton (eds) (1991) Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, Disposal and Reuse, Metcalf and Eddy Inc.,
McGraw-Hill, New York.
Tchobanoglous, G. and E. Schroeder (1987) Water Quality, Addison Wesley, Reading, Mass.
Torey, S (1979) Sludge Disposal by Landspreading Techniques, Noyes Data Corporation (NDC), New Jersey.
USEPA (1977) Municipal Sludge Management Environmental Factors, 430.9-77-004, USEPA, Washington, D.C.
USEPA (1978) Process Design Manual for Municipal Sludge Landfills, SCS Engineers Revtol, Virginia, for USEPA, October.
USEPA (1983) Process Design Manual for Land Application of Municipal Sludge, USEPA Centre for Environmental Research
Information, Cincinnati.
USEPA (1985) Handbook: Estimating Sludge Management Costs, Technomic Publishers, London.
Vesilind, P. A. (1988) ‘Capillary suction time as a fundamental measure of sludge dewaterability’, Journal WPCF, 60(2), 215— 220.
Vesilind, P. A. (1979) Treatment and Disposal of Wastewater Sludges, Ann Arbor Science Publishers, MI, USA.
Wagner, E. O. (1992) ‘Seeking a common vision for sludge’, Proceedings of Sludge 2000 Conference, Cambridge, September.
Wagner, G. (1992) ‘The benefits of biosolids, a farmer’s perspective’, Proceedings of Conference on The Future Direction of
Municipal Sludge (Biosolids) Management, Portland, Oregon, Water Environment Federation, Virginia.
Water Environment Federation (WEF) (1991) Sludge Incineration: Thermal Destruction of Residues. Manual of Practice FD-19,
Water Environment Federation, Virginia.
Water Environment Federation (WEF) (1993) The Future Direction of Municipal Sludge (Biosolids) Management: Where We Are and
Where We Are Going, WEF Proceedings, Vols I and II, Water Environment Federation, Oregon.
Water Environment Federation (WEF) (1993a) WEF Standards for the Use and Disposal of Sewage Sludge—Final Rule, Water
Environment Federation, Virginia, 19 February 1993.
Water Environment Federation (WEF) (1993b) ‘Biosolids and the 503 standards’, Water Environment and Technology, May 1993.
Alexandria, Virginia, USA.
622 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Water Environment Federation (WEF) and American Society of Chemical Engineers (ASCE) (1994) Design of Municipal
Wastewater Treatment Plants, Vols I and II, Water Environment Federation, Virginia.
Water Quality International (WQI) (1992) Ludwigshafen Looms Large in Germany's Sludge Burners, Water Quality International
No. 1. v
Water Quality International (WQI) (1993) Anaerobic Composting Saves Wastes from Landfill, Water Quality International No. 2.
Wellinger, A., K. Wyder and A. E. Metzler (1992) ‘Kompogas—a new system for the anaerobic treatment of source separated waste’,
Proceedings of International Symposium on Anaerobic Digestion of Solid Waste, Venice.
Wilson, S., Water Environment Federation (WEF) (1992) The Future Direction of Biosolids Management, WEF, Alexandria,
Virginia, USA. .
Wheatley, A. (1991) Anaerobic Digestion: A Waste Treatment Technology, SCI and Elsevier Applied Science, Essex, UK.
 CHAPTER

FOURTEEN
SOLID WASTE TREATMENT

14.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter examines municipal solid waste, its composition and characteristics—physical, chemical and
biological. It identifies the treatment process industry, reduction, recycling, reuse, digestion, incineration,
landfill, etc. The student, after studying this chapter, may wish to study further a more detailed text on
integrated solid waste management (Tchobanoglous ef al., 1993).
An important concern of the developed world is the development of ecologically sound and health
promoting ways for the management of the millions of tonnes of urban solid waste that are generated, (1.2
million tonnes per day from OECD countries in 1995). Each household in the western world produces
approximately 1 tonne of solid waste per year. This does not include the vast waste products from
agriculture, industry, mining and commerce. The 1989 European Charter on the Environment, pledged by
29 countries, stated that ‘...... waste should be managed in such a way to achieve optimal use of natural
resources and to cause minimal contamination... ...’. Traditionally, waste was given a low priority in
government policies. This is not the case in the 1990s when governments all over the world are addressing
current and past weaknesses in the management of solid waste.
Solid wastes are defined as those wastes from human and animal activities. In the domestic
environment the solid wastes include paper, plastics, food wastes, ash, etc. Also included are ‘liquid
wastes’ including paints, old medicines, spent oils, etc. Commercially, paper packagings, timber and plastic
containers make up the bulk. Liquid—solid sludges from industry and water/wastewater plants are within
this definition. Hazardous wastes requiring special treatment are not included in this definition and are
covered in detail in Chapter 15. Wastes accepted by public authorities for ultimate disposal, including
hazardous waste, are within this definition.
Improper management of solid wastes has direct adverse effects on health. The uncontrolled
fermentation of garbage creates a food source and habitat for bacterial growth. In the same environment,
insects, rodents and some bird species (seagulls) proliferate and act as passive vectors in the transmission of
some infectious diseases.
623
624 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

The past decade has seen the development of significant items of legislation, protecting humans and
their environment from improper treatment and disposal practices of solid waste. In the European Union,
the ‘Landfill’ Directive (1995) specifies the wastes that may be accepted at landfills and the practices of
management that must be adhered to in the design, operation and post-closure management of landfills.
EU directives exist on waste, waste oils and batteries, with proposed directives on landfill and packaging.
In the United States legislation on waste disposal is written into several acts since 1965, beginning with
the Solid Waste Act of 1965 up to the California Assembly Bill 939, 1993 (which specifies that 50 per
cent of all collected municipal solid waste must be diverted from landfills by the year 2000).
Examples of good treatment and disposal facilities are the exception rather than the rule. The result
has been that the principal disposal method of ‘landfilling’ solid wastes over the past century has left an
inheritance of abandoned dump sites, contaminated groundwaters, poisoned lakes and streams, co-
disposal sites with toxic soils and methane explosion potential in many locations. Modern legislation
addressed to Local Authorities, commerce, industry and the domestic user hopes to halt the negative
trend, and is doing so, particularly in the Nordic countries.
Integrated management of solid waste is addressed by the EC Commission and by the US
Environmental Protection Agency. Both list the same hierarchy of waste management policies as shown in
Table 14.1. It is important to note that the methodology of landfilling, although still the most popular
disposal route in most countries, is in both the US and EC policies relegated to the option of last resort.
The EU Waste Policy states that ‘landfilling is the final resort in waste management’. This means that on
the ground there is much change yet to come about in waste management policy implementation.

14.1.1 Public Health Aspects of Solid Waste Management

Solid wastes may contain:

e¢ Human pathogens—diapers, handkerchiefs, contaminated food and surgical dressings

e Animal pathogens—waste from pets
e Soil pathogens—garden waste

Inadequate storage of such wastes provides breeding ground for vermin, flies, cockroaches and birds
(seagulls), which may act as passive vectors in disease transmission. The general public, but more
particularly the solid waste employees, are at risk. The pathogens that can cause faecal-related diseases are
shown in Table 14.2. These pathogens include viruses, bacteria, protozoa and helminths.
For a person to be at risk from solid waste pathogens, suitable conditions must exist and these are:
1. An infectious dose of the pathogen must be present.
2. There must be a transmission route of the pathogens to the person, i.e. aerosol, faecal—oral route, hand
to mouth, etc.
3. The person must have no immunity to the pathogen.

Table 14.1 EC and US waste

management hierarchy

Hierarchy EU/US

1 Source reduction
2 Recycling/composting
3 Incineration:
(a) With energy recovery
(b) Without energy recovery
“i Landfilling
 SOLID WASTE TREATMENT 625

Table 14.2 Viral, bacterial and protozoal pathogens in faecal contaminated solid wastes

Pathogen Organism Disease Reservoir

Viruses Poliovirus Poliovirus

Hepatitis A Hepatitis A
Hepatitis B Hepatitis B

Bacteria Campylobacterfetus sp. Diarrhoea

Pathogenic E. coli Diarrhoea Man
Slamonella S. typhi Typhoid fever
Salmonella S. paratyphi Paratyphoid fever
Other Salmonella Food poisoning
Shingella spp. Bacillary dysentery Man
Vibrio cholera Cholera
Other Vibrio Diarrhoea
Yersinia enterocolitica Diarrhoea Animals and man

Protozoa Balantidium coli Diarrhoea, dysentery,

colonic ulceration
Man, pigs and rats
Entamoeba histolytica Colonic ulceration,
amoebic dysentery,
liver abscess

Giardia lamblia Diarrhoea and Man and animals

malabsorption
Helminths Flat worms Digestive disorders Man and animals
Round worms
Tape worms
Trematodes

Adapted from Feachem et al., 1983

The possible transmission routes for pathogenic transfer are shown in Fig. 14.1.
The three routes of inhalation, percutaneous and ingestion may be negated by good hygiene and
dietary habits. However, should the pathogen successfully invade the human host, it is still possible that
the host’s immunity may prevent the infection. Those involved on a regular basis with solid waste are
usually vaccinated for a range of pathogenic diseases. Rodent control is essential as they are carriers of
serious illnesses, (Garrett, 1995).
Specific waste storage and handling techniques to reduce the risk of solid waste contamination to
employees are discussed in a later section. These techniques include separating at source those wastes
most amenable to disease transmission, i.e. food and faecal origin. Less manual handling and more
automation on storage, collection and mechanical sorting is desirable for health reasons. It is important

Passive vector
Ae Sin Hands (flies, etc.) Compost

Aerosol Mouth

Food

Inhalation Percutaneous

Ingestion

Figure 14.1 Transmission routes for solid waste pathogens.

626 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

that employees handling waste are protected against dust and aerosols that might contain endotoxins from
bacteria. Gaseous and aerosol emissions from landfills such as benzene and vinyl chloride (both
carcinogenic) are serious health concerns (McCall, 1995).

14.1.2 Legal Aspects of Solid Waste

Table 14.3 shows some of the relevant items of legislation covering solid waste in the United States and
European Union. While the legal instruments are significant, there has been much procrastination in
adherence to the letter of the law, particularly by government agencies and responsible authorities. Areas
in the United States and Northern Europe are able to adhere to the legislation by utilizing advanced
treatment and disposal technologies, funded by the public at real costs.
In the European Union, significant directives on solid waste are the Directive on Environmental
Assessment and the proposed Directive on Landfill. The EIA (Environmental Impact Assessment)
Directive lists in its Annexe I that an EJA be carried out for ‘waste disposal installations for the
incineration, chemical treatment or landfill of toxic and dangerous waste’. It also lists in Annexe II that an
EIA be carried out (where the member states consider characteristics so require) for “installations for the
disposal of industrial and domestic waste.’ In the United Kingdom, solid waste disposal sites with input
exceeding 75 000 tonnes/annum require an EIA. The Landfill Directive sets out parameters for landfill
sites and containment principles with systems for landfill gas and leachate collection. An environmental
impairment insurance is also a requirement. A landfill aftercare fund based on a levy on all operations
may be an alternative to insurance (Mabb, 1993). Requirements on site suitability are defined by
geology/hydrogeology/local environment in combination with a bottom liner permeability at values
better than 10° m/s and a thickness > 1 m. Similarly, strict waste acceptance criteria and procedures are
set out for:

e Waste acceptance
¢ Chemical, physical and biological waste properties
e Suitability of wastes
Waste loading rates
e Water, leachate and gas control
e Water balance and groundwater protection

The objectives of the waste directives are to promote clean technologies and to use landfill only as a last
resort. The packaging directive sets the objective of a 90 per cent reduction in overall packaging quantities
for landfilling in the first ten years. This, if successful, will significantly reduce the volumes of municipal

Table 14.3 Solid waste legislation in the US and EU

United States EU Directive

Solid Waste Disposal Act 1965 On Waste 1975

National Environmental Policy Act 1969 On Toxic and Dangerous Waste 1978
Resource Recovery Act 1970 Transfrontier Shipment 1984, 1985, 1986
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) 1976 On Environmental Assessment 1985
Comprehensive Environmental Response On Access to Information
Compensation and Liability Act On Beverage Containers
(CERCLA) 1980 (Superfund) On New MSW Incineration Plants 89/369/EEC
On Existing MSW Incineration Plants 89/429/EEC
Public Utility Regulation and Policy Act (PURPA) 1981 Directive on Landfill (1995)
RCRA—Response Compensation Liability 1994 Directive on Packaging 93/C/285/01
California Assembly Bill 939, 1993 European Waste Catalogue 94/3 /EEC
 SOLID WASTE TREATMENT 627

solid waste as packagings account for approximately 35 per cent of domestic waste and 60 per cent of
commercial waste.
In the United States the Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1965 aimed to promote solid waste
management and resource recovery and provide guidelines for collection, transport, separation, recovery
and disposal. The 1965 law was amended to become the Resources Recovery Act in 1970. This
emphasized the shift in objectives from disposal to recycling and reuse of recoverable materials in solid
wastes or to the conversion of wastes to energy. The 1976 Act on Resource Conservation and Recovery
allowed the EPA to set guidelines for solid waste management to the public. This legislation was the legal
basis for implementing the EPA guidelines for solid waste storage, treatment and disposal. The
Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act of 1980, often called CERCLA
or, more popularly, Superfund, provided a means for directly responding and funding the activities at
uncontrolled hazardous waste sites. Uncontrolled municipal waste sites where known hazardous wastes
were dumped are also addressed under CERCLA. The Public Utility Regulation and Policy Act of 1981
directs public and private utilities to purchase power from waste-to-energy facilities. RCRA was updated
in 1994. The California Assembly Bill 939 is specific, with a goal that 50 per cent of solid waste collected
must be diverted from landfills by the year 2000.
An important aspect of modern legislation on waste is the duty of care. This duty, enacted in
legislation in the United Kingdom by its EPA Act of 1990, specified those affected by duty of care as
being:
e Waste producers (and importers)
e Waste carriers and brokers
e Waste managers

In essence the only exception to the duty of care is for occupiers of domestic property for household
waste. Those subject to the duty of care must:
e Prevent any person committing an offence by disposing, treating or storing controlled waste
¢ Contain any waste within their control
e Ensure that the transport of waste is carried out by authorized or registered carriers and is legally
manifested
The duty of care legislation obliges the waste generator to be responsible for that waste from ‘cradle to
grave’. The implications are severe and it is intended that this legislation will encourage more extensive
use of recycling and waste recovery and less dependence on final disposal via traditional landfill.

14.1.3 Environmental Aspects of Solid Waste

Solid waste treatment and disposal methodologies are fraught with problems. Landfill sites, and dump
sites in particular, cause soil and groundwater contamination if not properly operated. Additional
environmental problems with landfill are odours, litter, scavengers, fires and rat infestation. Waste
incineration has had problems with odours and air pollution. Composting has had difficulties with odours,
heavy metals and slow compost sales. Transportation problems are more associated with hazardous
wastes. Health and hygiene are issues for waste operators. Municipal solid wastes co-disposed with
industrial wastes and sludges have been problematic. Liquid—solid sludges applied to landfill have proved
very difficult to handle. Landfilling in moist climates like Ireland produces large quantities of leachate
which are toxic and of high organic strength and require treatment in wastewater plants. Landfilling in dry
climates produces localized air pollution problems. The record shows that landfill, even though still by far
the most common disposal route, is undesirable and alternatives must be pursued. These are addressed in
the integrated waste management strategies as defined by the hierarchy of Sec. 14.1.4.
628 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

14.1.4 Integrated Management of Solid Waste

Integrated management of solid wastes has been promoted in the United States since the 1965 Solid Waste
Disposal Act. More recently, the European Union and WHO (World Health Organization) have also been
promoting integrated management. The 1993 text on solid waste by Tchobanoglous ef al. is titled
Integrated Solid Waste Management. In the latter, ISWM is defined as the selection and application of
suitable techniques, technologies and management programmes to achieve specific waste management
objectives and goals. The hierarchy in waste management policy for the 1990s is shown in Fig. 14.2.
The priority in a waste management policy is to reduce the amount of waste. This promotes the goal
for industry, commerce, agriculture and households not to create waste in the first place. The emphasis is
for product manufacture with minimal waste. It promotes good practice of waste monitoring with a view
to minimization. Regular ‘waste audits’ by various producers and consumers can identify areas for
improvement. Chapter 8 details waste minimization, policy and technologies with some emphasis on the
chemical industry.
Recycling and reuse is a ‘green’ topic only recently finding acceptance by industry. Regarding solid
waste, only 5 per cent of Dublin’s waste is recycled out of a possible 45 per cent. The more obvious areas
of recycling of paper, glass, metals and plastics are, as yet, untapped in many countries. Industry is
making great efforts at product reuse, reprocessing and remanufacture. Recycling and reuse is not simply
for municipal solid waste, but now includes the product manufacturers, commerce and agriculture. For
instance, liquid—solid sludges from wastewater treatment plants may be more suited to land spreading as
soil nutrients rather than landfilling. Waste transformation, be it in the form of incineration, composting
or biogas production, all serve to reduce the volume of waste where the final destination is landfilling.
Incineration reduces the volume to about 15 per cent of its input and produces energy. Composting
transforms organic waste to a nutrient product. Biogas produces energy from organic wastes usually co-
digested with industrial or agricultural waste contributions or with municipal sludge.
The avenue of last resort, as defined by the US EPA, WHO, the EC, the UK EPA and many others, is
landfilling. Ideally, landfilling is essential only for about 20 per cent of municipal solid wastes. This is the
inert (rich in metals) content left after recycling 45 per cent and anaerobically digesting 35 per cent. This
inert metal content is also potentially recyclable. After recycling, anaerobic digestion of the organic
(mainly food) fraction is most likely to be the next breakthrough in waste transformation technologies. It
is possible to transform some of the 20 per cent by way of new products usable in construction such as
brick pavings or earthen embankments on roadways. However, it appears that there will always be a need
for landfilling, but it is technologically feasible to reduce dramatically the amount of municipal waste
going to landfill to about 10 to 20 per cent. The issues in achieving this are not only engineering but also
economic and social.

14.2 SOURCES, CLASSIFICATION AND COMPOSITION OF MSW

Municipal solid waste (MSW) is all waste collected by private or public authorities from domestic,
commercial and some industrial (non-hazardous) sources. Solid waste is non-standard, and typically, no
two wastes are the same. Domestic waste from a single house will vary from week to week and from

Waste prevention and minimization

Recycling and reuse

Transformation

Figure 14.2 Hierarchy of integrated solid waste management.

 SOLID WASTE TREATMENT 629

season to season. In some countries, up to 50 per cent of solid waste are ashes in the winter season, with
no ashes in summer time. Waste varies from socioeconomic groups within a country and from country to
country. Domestic wastes co-disposed with industrial waste can be very different from conventional
municipal solid waste.

14.2.1 Sources of Solid Waste

Proper planning, treatment and disposal practices rely on accurate data regarding composition and waste
generation rates. Examining industrial waste, composition depends on the industrial classification (e.g.
electrical products, wood products). The sources and types of solid wastes according to WHO (1991) are
itemized in Table 14.4.

14.2.2 Composition of Solid Waste

In many situations, domestic and commercial wastes are collected and transported by similar authorities
and sometimes the fraction/composition is similar in both. Table 14.5 shows possible compositions of
domestic and commercial wastes. The most basic arrangement is to identify waste as being organic or
non-organic. This may be satisfactory for particular end uses (i.e. landfill the inert and biologically
transform the organic). The detail given on composition will reflect the proposed treatment. For instance,
if it is proposed to incinerate the waste then it is essential to evaluate the heating value, and the waste
would be arranged into combustible and non-combustible. If the plan is to anaerobically digest the organic
food fraction, then it may be adequate to detail the food fraction and lump all else into ‘others’. The
wastes are also itemized with a view to recover the materials and this would identify the glass, metals,
plastics and wood in greater detail. Solid waste from industry is typically collected by private hauliers, as
is solid waste from the construction industry. Industries tend to identify the composition of their waste
according to industry type, e.g. paper products, metal products. WHO (1991) organize industrial waste
into three broad categories:
e Non-hazardous industrial waste
e Hazardous waste
¢ Hospital waste

Table 14.4 Sources and types of solid wastes

Source Facility Type of waste

Domestic Single family dwelling, Food, paper, packagings,

multifamily dwelling, glass, metals, ashes
low, medium and high-rise bulky household waste,
apartments hazardous household waste

Commercial Shops, restaurants, markets, office Food, paper, packagings, glass, metals,
buildings, hotels and motels, institutions ashes, bulky household waste, hazardous
household waste

Industrial Fabrication, light and heavy Industrial process wastes, metals, lumber,
manufacturing, refineries, chemical plastics, oils, hazardous wastes
plants, mining, power generation

Construction and Soil, concrete, timber,

demolition steel, plastics, glass,
vegetation
630 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Table 14.5 Physical composition of solid waste

General composition Typical compositign Detailed composition

Organic Food putrescible Food

Vegetables
Paper and cardboard Paper
Cardboard
Plastics Polyethylene terephthalate (PETE)
High-density polyethylene (HDPE)
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE)
Polypropylene (PP)
Polystyrene (PS)
Other multilayer plastics
Clothing/fabric Textiles
Carpets
Rubber
Leather
Yard waste Garden trimmings
Wood Wood
Miscellaneous organics Bone

Inorganic Metals Tin cans

Ferrous metals
Aluminium
Non-ferrous metals
Glass Colourless
Coloured
Dirt, ash, etc. Dirt, screenings
Ashes
Stone
Bricks
Unclassified Bulky items

In the United States, the Standards Industrial Classification Manual (SIC) 1972 identifies industrial waste
by industry and product type. A sample of these is shown in Table 14.6.
The wastes generated within a municipality (excluding industrial and agricultural) will vary widely,
depending on the community and its level of commercialism and institutionalism. The data on waste will
also depend on the level of sophistication of the waste management operation. It is seen in Table 14.7 that
typically 0.1 per cent of waste by weight generated in a community is hazardous. This is similar to Danish
figures. However, Ireland records 0 per cent hazardous waste at municipal disposal sites. The actual Irish
figures for the hazardous waste fraction at municipal landfill sites are likely to be in excess of the US
figures, particularly since Ireland has no facility for hazardous waste treatment. This is even more so as

Table 14.6 Sample industrial waste types

SIC classification Waste generating process Wastes

Food and food products Processing, packaging, shipping Meats, fats, oils, bones,
offal, vegetables, fruit, etc.
Paper and applied products Paper manufacture, Paper, cardboard,
cardboard boxes, etc. inks, glues, chemicals, etc.
Electrical products Manufacture of electrical Scrap metal, plastics, rubber,
appliances glass, textiles, etc.
Chemical products Manufacturing of drugs, etc. Organic and inorganic
chemicals, metals, plastics,
solvents, paints, etc.
 SOLID WASTE TREATMENT 631

Ireland practises co-disposal of domestic and industrial waste in the same landfill. Co-disposal is a landfill
practice currently being questioned as the wastes from municipal and industrial sources are not necessarily
compatible. The practice of disposing of industrial sludges of different origins in municipal landfills has
caused problems with operation due to the continuous wet nature of the open cells. Table 14.7, adapted in
part from Tchobanoglous et al. (1993), lists the breakdown of municipal solid waste in a typical US
community.
Wastes delivered to the landfill site at Cork, Ireland (the only disposal facility for the area), is
approximately 100 000 tons per annum. Of this, 35 per cent is domestic, 46 per cent is commercial, 11 per
cent is industrial and 8 per cent is miscellaneous (builder’s rubble, street sweepings, etc.). Table 14.8 is a
detailed breakdown of waste composition for Denmark. Table 14.9 shows typical domestic waste
composition by country and Table 14.10 shows the results for four sites within Ireland.
From Tables 14.9 and 14.10 the following observations are made:
1. Food wastes constitute about 30 per cent of all domestic waste. The low figure of 9 per cent for the
United States is due to the use of kitchen sink grinders. Such utensils increase the organic solid loading
to municipal wastewater plants.
. Paper and cardboard constitute about 35 per cent or greater.
. Glass constitutes about 8 per cent.
. Metals constitute about 5 per cent or greater.
nA
PY. Plastics constitute about 8 per cent with the figure for Ireland being double that. Plastic is ubiquitous in
B&W

Ireland, being used as milk and yoghurt containers, soft drink containers, household goods containers,
etc.
6. The amount of ash reduces internationally with increasing GDP (gross domestic product), being about
50 per cent in Poland and China, 10 to 20 per cent in Ireland and less than 5 per cent in the United
States and Denmark. The use of coal in lower income countries is balanced by very little domestic
usage in high income countries. In Ireland, for instance, the ash content is up to 40 per cent in the
lower socioeconomic groups during winter, while in the higher income groups (who use oil or gas for
heating) the ash content is less than 20 per cent.

Commercial waste will depend on the types of commerce, e.g. restaurants, retail outlets, offices, etc.
In Cork, the commercial waste was made up of 20 per cent food waste, 60 per cent paper and cardboard, 6
per cent plastics and 11 per cent glass, with 2 per cent metals.

Table 14.7 Breakdown of MSW excluding industrial and

agricultural (US)
% by weight

Waste source Range Typical

Residential and commercial 50-75 62

(not hazardous)
Special waste (bulky, etc.) 3-12 5
Hazardous 0.01-1 0.1
Institutional 3-5 4
Construction and demolition 8-20 14
Municipal services
Street sweepings 2-5 4
Landscaping 4-9 6
Treatment plant sludges 3-8 5

Adapted from Tchobanoglous et al., 1993. Reprinted by permission of

McGraw-Hill, Inc.
632 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Table 14.8 Danish figures on waste composition from difference sources (1985)

Waste fraction (%)

a SE

Food Other
waste Card- Other non-
Type of waste organic board Paper Plastic combustibles Glass Metal combustibles

Domestic waste
Household waste 35) 5 30 6 & 3 8 4 4
Bulky waste
Garden waste 2 5) 6 2 44 5 6 30

Waste from office, trade and

institutions
Wholesale 17 40 14 8 10 4 2 5
Retail sale 3 70 9 5 5 5 w 1
Restaurants, hotels 55 11 14 2) — 12 6 —
Office 7) 9 58 4 1 2 1 a
Kindergarten, etc. 38 13 28 1 3 = 3 3
Military institutions 30 8 21 6 6 1 15 13
24-h nursing homes 50 12 26 5 2 3 2 —
Hospitals 22 5 51 10 12 — — —
Schools 31 13 44 6 —_— — 6 —

Industrial waste
Food industry 20-45 0-15 i 0-15 0-10 10-55
Leather and textile _ 20-30 0-10 — 0-S 40-80
Wood and furniture — 0-20 = oa 0-S 75-100
Paper and printing — 50-100 0-5 = 0-5 0-50
Chemical industry 0-5 15—40 10-30 — 0-20 5-60
Stone, ceramic, glass _- 10-15 — 0-30 20-30 35-70
Iron and metal casting — 10-30 0-5 — 5-75 10-85
Iron and metal, other — 10-30 0-5 0-30 5-75 10-85
Other industries 5) 40 =e 155 40

Building industry a 5 1 40 2 45

+‘Other combustible’ and ‘other non-combustible’ united in one group.

Adapted from Danish EPA, 1985

Table 14.9 Typical composition of domestic waste by country

UK Ireland
US national London Poland China Dublin
(Tchobanoglous |Denmark average 1993 1991 1985 (Dennison
etal, (Mortensen, (WHO, (WHO, (Mortensen, (Mortensen, and Dodd,
Component 1993) 1992) 1991) 1991) 1992) 1992) 1992)

Food wastes 9 35 25 26.7 24 36 34.2

Paper, cardboard 40 35 29 85) 11 2 18.7
Plastics i 6 7 2 2 125 16.1
Glass 8 8 10 10.8 6 1 5.4
Metals 95 4 8 6 2 1 2.9
Clothing/textiles 2 8 3 3.4 10 1eS 2.6
Ashes, dust 3 4 14 5) 45 $7 7/2
Unclassified
(garden, yard, wood) PANS) 4 fel US)
 SOLID WASTE TREATMENT 633

Table 14.10 Typical composition of domestic waste in Ireland

Ireland
Dublin Cork Mallow Bandon national
Component City City Co. Cork Co. Cork average

Food wastes 34.2 5) 42 37 SLs)

Paper, cardboard 18.7 44 15 24.5
Plastics 16.1 3 1) 14
Glass 2.9 9 7 3
Metals 5.4 8 10 WS
Clothing/textiles 2.6 2 1 3
Ashes, dust 17.2 4 10 12 12
Unclassified All other
(garden, yard, wood) 2.9 15 3 Sil

14.2.3 Waste Tonnages

Again the waste tonnages can vary widely, but in the higher income countries the current production is
about | tonne/household per year. This figure of 1 tonne is an ‘overall’ one to include the total municipal
waste in a community, including all waste delivered to municipal sites, be it domestic, commercial or
institutional, but not industrial. Some figures on the tonnages are shown in Table 14.11 for different
countries. Table 14.12 is a detailed breakdown of unit waste generation of municipal wastes from
Denmark. For instance, the domestic component is 225 kg/head/yr or with a household density of about
2.5 (Denmark) gives 0.56 tonnes/household/yr. In addition, in Denmark there is 100 to 150 kg/head/yr
of bulky waste (household furniture, etc.) and 20 to 25 kg/head/yr of garden waste. This total accounts
for 0.93 tonnes/household/yr. Then an extra amount must be added to find the total municipal
waste/household/yr. However, this will vary, as mentioned, depending on the amount of commercial or
industrial activity in the community. Care in computing this figure is required, as sometimes the bulky
waste/garden waste may be recorded as ‘industrial’.

14.2.4 Some International Data on MSW

Table 14.13 shows the quantities of municipal waste generated internationally and the disposal routes. The
developed world shows many similar figures. Japan, interestingly, shows almost no glass or metal waste
but much higher paper and cardboard waste than other countries. Table 14.13 also suggests that Ireland

Table 14.11 Municipal solid waste by country (tonnes/head/yr)

Country

North Cork UK
Waste Source Cork City national Denmark US

Domestic
tonnes/house/yr 0.81 0.55 0.93
tonnes/head/yr 0.25 0.37
Domestic and Commercial
tonnes/house/yr ical
tonnes/head/yr 0.57 0.62
Total municipal
tonnes/house/yr 1.58
tonnes/head/yr 0.68 1.0
634 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Table 14.12 Unit figures on waste generation in Denmark, established for national
waste planning in 1985

’ Estimated
Unit waste annual
Class Type of waste generation growth (%)

I Domestic waste
Household waste from residential areas 225 kg/head/yr 1
Household waste from summer houses 75 kg/house/yr 0
Bulky waste 100-150 kg/head/yr 0
Garden waste 20-25 kg/head/yr 0

I Waste from offices, trades and institutions

Wholesale 910 kg/head/yr
Retail sale 1030 kg/house/yr
Restaurant and hotels 1270 kg/head/yr
Bank—financing, insurance, public offices, etc. 100 kg/head/yr
Kindergartens 30 kg/child/yr l
Military institutions 300 kg/head/yr
Nursing and rest homes 310 kg/bed/yr
Hospitals 550 kg/bed/yr
Schools 15 kg/student/yr

ll Industrial waste
Food industry 1400 kg/employee/yrt
Leather and textile 750 kg/employee/yr
Wood and furniture 1000 kg/employee/yr
Paper and printing 1780 kg/employee/yr
Chemical industry 1150 kg/employee/yr 0-0.5
Stone, ceramic and glass 4000 kg/employee/yr
Iron and metal casting 500 kg/employee/yr
Iron and metal industries 790 kg/employee/yr
Other industries 570 kg/employee/yr

IV Building industry 2500 kg/head/yr 0.5

Vv Waste from energy production

Coal fire plants
Combustion on grates
Slag 127.5 kg/ton coal
Fly ash 22.5 kg/ton coal
Dust combustion 0
Slag 15 kg/ton coal
Fly ash 135 kg/ton coal

VI Waste from sewage treatment

Mechanical 12 kg/pe/yr
Mechanical, biological 22 kg/pe/yt 0
Mechanical, biological, chemical 33 kg/pe/yr

+Per head means per employee.

From Danish guidelines concerning mapping and planning of waste disposal—Danish EPA C.35 1985, 03, 25

has about twice the waste in plastics than other countries. Denmark is the higher waste generator of paper
and cardboard.
The variations in Table 14.13 may include variations in consumer traditions, e.g. whether they use
bottle return systems for beer, milk, etc., or paper or plastic cartons which go to waste. It may also cover
variations in recycling systems, e.g. if waste is collected at drop centres (e.g. bottle banks) it may not be
recorded as waste. Finally, it may also include for variations in definitions, e.g. sometimes coated paper
(milk cartons) is recorded as paper/packaging and sometimes as other wastes.
 SOLID WASTE TREATMENT 635

Table 14.13 International MSW quantities

Disposal method % by weight Composition % by weight

Quantity Incinera- card-

Country (1000 t) Compost tion Landfill Other board Plastic Gla: Metal Other
USA 208 760 35 7 g 9 40
Japan 4% 283 45 4 ] J 44
Belgium 3470 1] 23 50 16 24 B % 4 52
Denmarkt 2 400 2 50 1] 7 30 fi) 6 3 5
West Germany 19 483 2 28 69 18 5 9 3 65
Greece 3147 100 20 7 3 a 66
Spain 12546 16 6 78 20 iy 6 4 63
France 17 000 8 36 47 9 27 4 g 7 54
Ireland 1 100 100 25 14 % 3 50
Italy 17 300 6 19 35 34 22 7 6 3 62
Luxembourg 170 95 5 17 6 7 3 67
Netherlands 6 900 4 36 57 4 24 7 7 3 59
Portugal 2 350 16 23 58 19 3 3 3 72
UK 1% 000 6 92 30 7 0 7 46
Total EC 104 000 5 19 67 g
Total all 423 000

Note that the following countries produce the following waste quantities (x 1000 t):
Canada = 164 000t, Austria= 27001, Finland =2500t, Norway = 20001, Sweden 2650t, Switzerland = 2850t, Turkey = 19 500t.
tDenmark EPA 1994 excludes source separated waste for recycling.

14.3 PROPERTIES OF MSW

Traditionally, (and still in many countries) waste handlers did not need to know much about the physical,
chemical and biological properties of solid waste, since all MSW was dumped to landfill. As proper waste
management now involves recycling, reuse, transformation and disposal, it is relevant to know the details
of the waste with regard to physical, chemical, energy and biological properties of waste.

14.3.1 Physical Properties of MSW

The most relevant physical properties are:
© Density and moisture content (kg/m’)
© Particle size distribution (range in mm)
© Field capacity (per cent)
e Hydraulic conductivity (m/day)
¢ Shear strength (kN/m’)

Density and moisture content The density of solid waste varies with its composition, its moisture
content and its degree of compaction. Table 14.14 shows figures for waste density. Food wastes range
from 100 to 500kg/m°* with corresponding moisture contents at 50 to 80 per cent. MSW normally
compacted in landfill has a density of 200 to 400 kg/m? with a moisture content of 15 to 40 per cent.
Further densities and moisture contents on other wastes are found in Tchobanoglous ef al. (1993).
Moisture content of wastes are relevant when estimating the calorific value, landfill sizing, reactor
sizing, etc.
636 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Table 14.14 Density and moisture content of municipal solid waste

Component Density Moisture content

Waste source of waste , (kg/m*) (% by weight)
Domestic Food 290 70
Paper and cardboard 70 5)
Plastics 60 Z
Glass 200 a
Metals 200 - 2
Clothing/textiles 60 10
Ashes, dust 500 8
Municipal
Uncompacted 100 20
In compaction truck 300 20
Normally compacted in landfill 500 25
Well compacted in landfill 600 DS

Adapted in part from Tchobanoglous ef al., 1993

Particle size distribution The particle size distribution, like the percentage of combustibles, is relevant
to incineration and biological transformation methods. Knowing the particle size is also relevant for
recycling and reuse and for equipment sizing for further treatment. For instance, aluminium soft drink
containers are typically 0.15m high by 0.06m diameter and are categorized by an effective size which
might be the largest dimension or /LD = /0.15 x 0.06 © 0.1m. Waste components are often described
by length x breadth x height (L x B x H). Knowing the largest dimension is important for sizing
facilities like conveyor belts, grinders, etc., and these dimensions are given in Table 14.15 for domestic
wastes. It is seen from Table 14.15 that the average particle size is about 100mm. Shredders and
separators are used to reduce this to desirable sizes for the treatment of composting, etc.

Field capacity Field capacity (FC) was defined in Chapter 4 for soils as being the maximum percentage
of volumetric soil moisture that a soil sample will hold freely against gravity. Above FC, water drains
away freely. In Chapter 4 it is shown that FC for soils varied from about 5 per cent for sandy soils to about
30 per cent for dry soils. Similarly, solid waste (in landfills) will have an FC that decreases with the
overburden pressure.
Uncompacted municipal solid waste has a field capacity of about 50 to 60 per cent. Water in excess of FC
will drain away as leachate. It is therefore important to determine the FC of a particular waste and its
landfill disposal methodology so as to limit the amount of leachate generation. An empirical equation
from Tchobanoglous et al. (1993) for field capacity is

FC = 0.6 —0.55 msWa 7) eoee

Table 14.15 Typical particle size distribution of MSW

Size range Typical

Component (mm) (mm)

Food 0-200 100

Paper and cardboard 100—S00 350
Plastics 0-400 200
Glass 0-200 100
Metals 0-200 100
Clothing/textiles 0-300 150
Ashes, dust 0-100 25
 SOLID WASTE TREATMENT 637

where FC = field capacity, % of dry weight of waste

W = overburden weight calculated at mid-height of waste in lift, kg

Example 14.1 Determine the field capacity of a landfill site for the following conditions, after 1
year of operation, and also compute the amount of water that can be held in the waste:
Density of compacted solid waste = 600 kg/m?
Moisture content of waste = 25% by volume
Lift after 1 year = 6m
Net annual rainfall = 400 mm

Solution

FC = 0.6 — 0.55|
(satew)
W
——___

Dry density of solid waste = 466 kg/m?

W =35(6 x 466) = 1400 kg/m?
1400
FC = 0.6 — 0.55 |———_—_—
(509 a =a)
FC = 0.47
Total water storage capacity = 0.47 x 480 x 6 = 1353 kg/m?
Surplus storage after year 1 = 1353 — 6(600 x 0.5) = 453 kg/m?
Therefore
Theoretical leachate generated = 0

Hydraulic conductivity of wastes Sludges in landfills tend to resist the movement of water down
through them due to low hydraulic conductivity by virtue of very high moisture content. Instead, rainfall
is converted to surface runoff and the sludge material is transported overland to surface streams. Other
solid waste material, i.e. paper and packaging, has almost no resistance to rain infiltration. Each site and
material is site specific, as regards the hydraulic conductivity of the solid waste material. Later sections of
this chapter deal with hydraulic conductivity of liners, be they natural clay or synthetic. The hydraulic
conductivity (permeability to soils engineers) is relevant in that it governs the transport rate of leachate
and other fluid/microbiological contaminants within the solid waste fill. Dense baled waste has a
hydraulic conductivity of 7 x 10 °m/s while loose samples of solid waste have a K of 15 x 10-°m/s.
Shredded waste has hydraulic conductivities of 10~* to 10-°m/s. Typically, then, the hydraulic
conductivity of solid waste is about 10” °m/s, but depends on the density. Solid waste is not necessarily
homogeneous and so the hydraulic conductivities are not isotropic.

Shear strength The shear strength of sludges in landfill sites is about zero. When co-disposed with dry
refuse (paper and cardboard), their shear strength improves. Solid wastes have a shear strength which is
known to be highest shortly after compaction and decreases over time, sometimes to zero after several
years in the landfill. Recent discussions in the European Union suggest that sludges, when disposed to
landfill, will be required to have shear strengths of > 15 kN/m? with dry solids > 30 per cent. In the
United States many states require sludge dry solids > 51 per cent and in some states the requirement 1s 5
parts solid waste to 1 part sludge by weight. The latter approximates to 15 to | parts by volume.
638 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

14.3.2 Chemical and Energy Properties of MSW

Traditionally, all MSW was ‘dumped’ so there was not much need to evaluate the properties, least of all
the chemical properties. Because there are several possible recycle, reuse and transformation technologies,
one of the first steps in identifying the most suitable treatment technology is to determine its chemical
properties. These are:
e Proximate analysis
e Ultimate analysis
e Energy content

Included in proximate analysis are:

Moisture content by percentage weight
Volatile matter
Fixed carbon
Non-combustible fraction (ash)
Table 14.16 gives proximate analysis and energy content values for typical MSW. Robinson (1986)
quoted a comparative proximate analysis and energy content between a US military base MSW and its
surrounding county MSW. All figures were very similar with energy content being about 15 per cent
higher for the military base. This was due to higher volatile matter and lower moisture content. The
energy values as shown in Table 14.16 are indicative for waste as collected, dry and ash-free. The
nomenclature for energy content is:

H,, = lower heat value, i.e. from waste as collected

Hf = normal heat value, i.e. from water-free waste (dry)
Haw = higher heat value, i.e. from ash- and water-free waste

In Europe, calculations are normally based on the lower heating value, H,, computed from

Ay, = Haye X B— 2.445 x W MJ/kg (14.2)

where B = flammable fraction (i.e. volatile matter + fixed carbon)
W = moisture content fraction by weight

Typically, for MSW, the higher heating value (HHV or Hw) is about 20 MJ/kg. Table 14.17 is a listing of
energy values of MSW components in the United States and Denmark.

Example 14.2 If H,,5 = 20 MJ/kg, compute the lower heating value of MSW if:

W, water content = 21%

B, flammable = 59%
A, Ash = 20%

Solution

Hy = Haye X B—2.445 x W
= 20.0 x 0.59 — 2.445 x 0.21
Hy = 11.29 MJ/kg
 SOLID WASTE TREATMENT 639

Table 14.16 Typical proximate analysis and energy content in MSW

Proximate analysis (% by weight) Energy content (MJ/kg)

Dry
As ash and
collected Dry water-free
Non- lower normal, higher
Fixed combustible heat value water free heat value
Waste type Moisture Volatiles carbon (ash) 1h, Aye Haw

Food mixed 70 21 BG 5.0 4.2 139 16.7

Fats 2 95 25) 0.2 37.4 38.2 39.1
Fruit 79 16 4.0 0.7 4.0 18.6 Oe
Meat 39 56 1.8 Shell 17.6 28.9 30.4

Paper mixed 10.2 76 8.4 5.4 15.7 17.6 18.7

Newspapers 6 81 ES 1.4 18.5 19:7 20.0
Cardboard Sez) tl 12.3 5.0 26.2 Die 27.4
Plastics mixed 0.2 96 2 2 B2e/ 33.4 371
Polyethylene 0.2 98 € Al V2 43.4 43.4 43.9
Polystyrene 0.2 99 0.7 0.5 38.0 38.1 38.1
Polyurethane 0.2 87 8.3 4.4 26.0 26.0 27.1
PVC 0.2 87 10.8 2.1 PRS) 22.5 22.7

Textiles 10 66 17.5 6.5 18.3 20.4 Oe

Yard wastes 60 30 Or) 0.5 6.0 Syl ISyait

Wood mixed 20 68 hil} 0.6 15.4 19.3 19.3
Glass 2 96-99 0.2 0.2 0.15
Metals aS 94-99 0.7 0.7 0.7

Domestic 1540 40-60 4-15 10-30 11.6 14.5 19.3

MSW
Commercial 10-30 12.8 15.0
MSW
MSW 10-30 10.7 13.4

Adapted from Tchobanoglous et a/., 1993; Robinson, 1986; Mortensen, 1993

Table 14.17 Energy content of MSW, Denmark and the United States
(H.,, lower heating value)
Energy content H,, as collected (MJ/kg)

MSW source Denmark US

en EY ke ss ee ee ee
Household (normal) 8.4-9.2 11.6
Household (extreme) 6.3—10.5
Commercial 10.5=12.5 12.8
Waste with higher content of wood, paper, plastic Higher Higher
640 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Ultimate analysis of MSW_ The most important elements in waste energy transformation are:

Carbon C
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Sulphur AZ
Oy
Ash

It is relevant to know the chemical composition or ultimate analysis (see Table 14.18) for the purposes of
waste to energy processes either by combustion or by biological transformation. For instance, a waste high
in plastics is very suitable for incineration but is totally unsuitable for biological transformation. Similarly,
a waste high in wood or yard wastes is good for incineration but not suitable for biological conversion.
The latter is so, even though wood is organic, because it has a high lignin content which breaks down very
slowly in biological processes. The C/N ratio, as discussed in composting (Sec. 14.9), is a relevant
parameter for biological processes. Aerobic biological composting processes operate best at C/N ratios of
30:1. The energy content of MSW can be determined from the Dulong equation.

He 3370 2 1419(H 011250, 935 aN (14.3)

where C, H, O>, S and N are the percentage by weight of each element, and H,,¢ is the net calorific value
without water and without ash.
Khan et al. (1991) have shown that the energy content of MSW can be estimated from the following
equation:

E = 0.051[F + 3.6(CP)] + 0.352(PLR) (14.4)

where E = energy content, MJ/kg
F = % of food by weight
CP = % of cardboard and paper by weight
PLR = % of plastic and rubber by weight

This equation works well if there is little or no yard or garden waste. It is thus suitable in places like the
European Union but less applicable in, say, the west coast of the United States, where garden trimmings
account for about 20 per cent of waste by weight.

Table 14.18 Typical ultimate analysis of MSW

% by dry weight

Component Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen Sulphur Ash

Food wastes 48 6 38 225) 0.5 5
Paper and cardboard 43.5 6 44 0.3 0.2 6
Plastics 60 7 23 10
Glass 0.5 0.1 0.4 <0.1 99
Metals 5 0.6 43 0.1 90
Clothing/textiles 55 Wl 30 5 0.2 3
Ashes/dust 26 3 2 0.5 0.2 68
 SOLID WASTE TREATMENT 641

Example 14.3 Compute the lower heat value (H,) of the domestic MSW shown below, using each
waste component and its associated MJ/kg.

Component Lower heat

% by weight value, H, Total energy
Component weight (tonnes) (MJ/kg or GJ/tonne) (GJ)

Food waste 46 $129 4.2 21541

Paper and cardboard 11 1226 16.5 20 229
Plastics 9 1003 32.7 32798
Glass 7 780 0.2 156
Metals 5 558 0.7 390
Clothing/textiles 1 hil 18.3 2031
Ashes, dust 19 2118 6.9 14614
Unclassified 2 223 = =

Total 100 11 150 91759

Solution

Total lower heat value (H,) = 91759 GJ = 8.23 MJ/kg

The above example is MSW from a small Irish urban area. It includes only domestic MSW and not
commercial. The energy content of 8.2 MJ/kg is below US or Danish averages of about 11 MJ/kg. This
can be explained by the high food waste component. This example was from a survey in early spring. If
surveyed in mid-winter, the values of ash would be higher as many households use coal fires for heating.

Example 14.4 Use Khan’s equation (14.4) to compute the energy value of the waste in Example
14.3.
Solution
E = 0.051[F + 3.6(CP)] + 0.352(PLR)
F = 46%
Rl
ALR == O%
Therefore
E = 0.051[46 + 3.6(57)] + 0.353(9)
— 7.53 MJ/kg
This compares with 8.23 MJ/kg of Example 14.3.

Example 14.5 Compute the lower heat value (H,) of domestic MSW if the chemical composition

Caso H2050 Ooso0 Ni2 S

Number of atoms Atomic Weight of

Component per mole weight each element %

Carbon 450 12 5 400 23.6

Hydrogen 2050 1 2 050 9.0
Oxygen 950 16 15 200 66.4
Nitrogen 12 14 168 0.7
Sulphur i 32 32 0.3

Total 22 850
642 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Solution

Hy = 337C + 1419(Hy — 0.12502) + 93S + 23N

— 337 x 23.6 + 1419(9.0 — 0.125 x 66.4) + 93 x 0.7 + 23 x 0.3
= 7950 + 993 + 65 + 6.9
= 9015 J/kg = 9.02 MJ/kg

Example 14.6 Compute the heat value (H,) of MSW from Denmark if the total MSW quantity is
2.4 x 10° tonnes (use the compositions shown in Table 14.12).
Component Total
% weight A, energy
Component by weight (per 1000 t) (MJ/kg) (GJ/1000 t)

Food waste 35) 350 42 1470

Paper 30 300 SEZ 4560
Cardboard 5 59 26.2 1310
Plastic 6 60 B2 hi 1 962
Other combustibles 8 80 18.3 1 464
Glass 8 80 0.2 16
Metal 4 40 0.7 28
Non-combustibles 4 40 0 —

Total 100 1000 10810

Solution

Total energy = 10 810 GJ/1000t

= 10.81 MJ/kg
Therefore
Total energy H, = 10.81 x 2.4 x 10° x 10° MJ
= 259 10G)

14.3.3 Biological Properties of MSW

Biological properties of MSW are relevant because of the technology of aerobic/anaerobic digestion to
transform waste into energy and beneficial end products. Biodegradation can be aerobic or anaerobic.
Anaerobic composting is the biological decomposition of ‘food wastes’ with end products of methane,
carbon dioxide and others. Anaerobic digestion of the food fraction of MSW has been used at full scale.
Some organic MSW components are undesirable for biological conversion, that is plastic, rubber, leather
and wood. The relevant fractions for biological transformation include fats, oils, proteins, lignin,
cellulose, hemicellulose, lignocellulose and water-soluble constituents.
The biodegradability of the food fraction of MSW is given by
BF = 0.83 — 0.028 LC (14.5)
where BF = biodegradable fraction expressed on a volatile solids (VS) basis
LC = lignin content of VS, % of dry weight
Table 14.19 shows the biodegradability of various MSW components. It is seen that some components,
 SOLID WASTE TREATMENT 643

Table 14.19 Biodegradability of MSW components

VS as LC as
Component % of TVS % of VS BF
Food waste 7-15 0.4 0.82
Newsprint 94 21.9 0.22
Office paper 96 0.4 0.82
Cardboard 94 12.9 0.47
Yard wastes 50-90 4.1 0.72

Adapted from Tchobanoglous ef a/., 1993. Reprinted by permission of

McGraw-Hill, Inc.

e.g. newsprint and cardboard, have a high lignin content but a low biodegradability. Those components
with very low lignin content are highly biodegradable, e.g. food wastes.

14.4 SEPARATION

Separation can be either at source in the household (or industry) or at the transfer station or at final
destination where mechanical separation/sorting is possible. Many urban areas throughout the world
practice limited forms of source separation, i.e. the separation of the different fractions (at home) into
units collectable by a haulier. If MSW is separated at source, it eliminates the need for expensive and
difficult manual and/or mechanical sorting. In Sec. 14.2, the composition of wastes were identified.
Overall MSW can be divided into:
¢ Wastes that are desirably separated at source (for regular collection by public/private haulier)
e All other household waste
The wastes that are desirably separated at source are:
e Food wastes—household source separation
e Paper and cardboard—household source separation
¢ Plastic—household source separation
¢ Metals ferrous—household source separation
¢ Metals non-ferrous—community recycling at drop-off centres
¢ Glass—community recycling at drop-off centres, household source separation
All other household waste that can be delivered to drop-off centres include:

¢ Bulky waste (furniture, tyres, etc.)

e Yard waste
e Hazardous household waste (in some countries collected at source)

14.4.1 Requirements for Source Separation

Source separation provides the cleanest and most well-defined fractions of waste suitable for subsequent
recycling or reuse (but has the highest collection cost). Mechanical or manual sorting (at destination)
tends to provide fractions that may be comprised of more than one group. There are health hazards
associated with manual sorting. Mechanical sorting works best if there is a limited number of fractions
that have well-defined physical properties (e.g. density). Source separated wastes may be either collected
at the doorstep or kerbside or delivered to a drop-off centre. In practice, it is a combination of
644 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

,
Seas
a a.
os8
Tyres sa Hazardous
og U0
Os
So S household

Garden
waste

Plastics
Bulky In Out
st
wast Glass,
coloured

¥ Glass,
Office colourless

Dimension ~ 50m x 50m for population of ~10.000

Figure 14.3 Schematic of public drop-off centre.

collection/delivery services that are used. For source separation to work, the following infrastructure is
required:
1. Community drop-off centres for glass and non-ferrous metals.
2. Public drop-off centres, often called civic amenity centres, where bulky, yard and household hazardous
waste may be dropped off. In these centres, several different ‘skip’-type containers are clearly labelled
for the reception of the individual wastes, as shown in Fig. 14.3.
3. Environmental advertising programmes to firstly educate the public as to the required degree of source
separation. In the first instance this may mean separating:
Food
Paper—newsprint
—magazines
—cardboard
Plastics—seven types (Table 14.5)
Metals—tin cans
—others
Figure 14.4 is a schematic of a domestic facilitiy for source separation. The level and type of source
separation will depend on people’s attitudes and the end use. Ideally, the paper, glass and non-ferrous
metals could be recycled. The remainder may only need to be separated into combustibles and non-
combustibles if the treatment process is incineration. If the food fraction is to be transformed to biogas
and compost, then the food fraction must be separated from the plastics and other non-biodegradable
fractions. As commercial MSW is made up of similar components to household MSW (but with much
higher paper/cardboard content), separation at source is also desirable.

14.4.2 Manual and Mechanical Sorting

If the waste is not sorted at source and it is intended to make use of different fractions, then sorting can be
carried out either manually or mechanically at the final destination. Manual sorting can only be
recommended for clean, dry and more or less pre-sorted waste. It is more applicable in separating dry
fractions of paper or plastics. There are occupational risks with manual sorting on wet waste. The
methodology of manual sorting is ‘negative sorting’, i.e. the unwanted materials are removed. ‘Negative
sorting’ generates a greater volume than ‘positive sorting’.
 SOLID WASTE TREATMENT 645

Organic
food

Metals Paper

net

Figure 14.4 Source separation in the kitchen. (Adapted from Cunningham and Saigo, 1992, with permission).

Mechanical sorting is more commonly used. In theory, all fractions can be sorted. However, in
practice there are many difficulties, particularly with ‘wet’ waste. Central sorting, whether it be
mechanical or manual, produces fractions that are not as clean as when source separated. Magnetic
separators are used to separate the ferrous and non-ferrous components. Vibrating screens or rotating
screens are used to separate fractions by particle size. Air screening and ballistic screens are used to
separate light from heavy materials.
Volume reduction by compaction is carried out on different waste fractions, particularly paper,
cardboard, cans and plastic. Many refuse vehicles compact the collected waste from densities of about 100
to 300kg/m®*, or a volume reduction of three. The baling of particular recyclable waste fractions is
common, e.g. paper/cardboard.

14.5 STORAGE AND TRANSPORT OF MSW

Table 14.20 lists some of the types and sizes of storage containers used for MSW. They range from small
plastic or paper bags of 25L capacity to large containers with capacity up to 40000L. The most
commonly used for household waste (detached houses) tend to be the smaller sized wheeled bins of 120
to 390L capacity. For apartment buildings, 600 to 1000L sizes are used. The type of storage used
depends on the collection facility, which may be:

® Doorstep collection
@ Regular kerb collection
¢ Civic amenity drop-off
® Haulier for skip collection of bulky items
¢ Community recycle bins
¢ Vacuum trucks
646 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Table 14.20 Storage containers for MSW

Used for Used for

Type of container Container size (m) Volume (L) household MSW commercial MSW

Bags
Plastic 1x09 110 and 160 calf if
Paper 1 x 0.9 110 and 160 aff elf
Bags in bin holders 1x 0.9 110 and 160 ff eof!
Wheeled bins 1 x 0.54 x 0.48 120 nif calf
al s< Oil SOS 190 nif aif
lal $< 0.72% O53 240 olf A),
Nell $< OG) S< O74 390 aif aif
Multihousehold IWS SD IP 600-1100 nif Al
wheeled bins
Community bins Qe. Se INS) ~ 3000 A Aff
Glass/metal
recycle
Skips
Mini WP 32 2 Se Ih 1700 Alf xf
Maxi ill 343 3< 11283 6000 Af nif
Jumbo 1.8 x 4.5 x 1.8 14500 Af Alf
Containers 10 000-25 000 sf
Compacting 2.4 x 3.6 x 6 40 000
Vacuum truck nf if
containers

Figure 14.5 shows the traditional refuse sack (plastic/paper) in a steel sack holder. Problems with
handling occur with age and also with hygiene. Typically, the 110 L container weighs 13 kg when empty
and 28kg when full. Figure 14.6 is the modern HDPE wheeled bin, now used all over the world. It is
automatically lifted on to the refuse truck. The capacities vary from 120 to 390 L. Empty, the 120 L bin
weighs 7 kg and full weighs 27 kg, by comparison with 15 kg and 79 kg for the 390 L bin. Figure 14.7 is
an HDPE bin used in multihousehold or apartment locations. It also is automatically lifted on to the refuse
truck. The capacity of these units varies from 1100 to 2500 L. The dimensions of these units are typically
1.2m wide by 2 to 3m in length. Figure 14.8 is the typical community drop-off centre recycle bin for
items such as glass, non-ferrous metals, clothes, paper, etc. Figure 14.9 is a compartmentalized bin for
home wastes. Figure 14.10 shows a compartmentalized refuse truck and Fig. 14.11 shows a modern
wheeled bin truck loader.
Skips or open top containers are regularly used for builders’ and demolition rubble. They are also
used for large garden waste and community clean-ups. The size range in capacity is from 1500 to
15.000 L. These skips are loaded on to skip trucks as shown in Fig. 14.12. Containers are used for the
largest of bulk transport, generally over longer distances. They are typically used in transporting waste

Figure 14.5 Traditional refuse sack in steel bin capacity ~ 150L.

 SOLID WASTE TREATMENT 647

Figure 14.6 Single-household wheeled bin, capacity 120 to 390L.

Figure 14.7 Multihousehold wheeled bin, capacity ~ 1500L.

Figure 14.8 Community recycle bin for glass/metal, capacity ~ 3000 L.

Figure 14.9 Source separation—multicompartment wheeled bin. (Adapted from WHO, 1991. Reprinted by permission of the World
Health Organization.)
648 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Figure 14.10 Multicompartment refuse truck. (Adapted from WHO, 1991. Reprinted by permission of the World Health
Organization.)

+ LHITE

Figure 14.11 Automatic loading of wheeled bin on refuse truck. (Reprinted by permission from Partek-Norba AB, Sweden.)

a ap)

OS O=/,
Cys
Figure 14.12 Skip loading refuse truck. (Reprinted by permission of Renoflex AS, Denmark.)
 SOLID WASTE TREATMENT 649

Figure 14.13 Container loading refuse truck. (Reprinted by permission of Renoflex AS, Denmark.)

from transfer stations to the treatment plant site. Containers are used in commercial applications,
department stores, warehouses, etc., where in many cases the wastes are compacted with either static or
dynamic compactors to further increase their capacity.
A multitude of transport vehicles are used for the transport of MSW including:

Traditional open top trucks used in low income countries

Traditional refuse trucks taking primarily bagged waste
Modern single compartment trucks taking wheeled bins from single unit dwellings (Fig. 14.11)
Single-compartment trucks taking larger wheeled bins from multiunit apartment buildings and
commercial outlets
Multicompartment trucks taking source separated waste (Fig. 14.10). A multicompartment truck
capable of also taking several different recyclables is the most modern and efficient (one operator)
system for suburban collection.
e Skip trucks taking skip loads (Fig. 14.12)
e Trucks taking container loads, either closed or open topped (Fig. 14.13)
Vacuum trucks (Fig. 14.14), used in areas with limited accessibility, with tube lengths up to 100m

Df goal
=
I:
r “4

Figure 14.14 Vacuum truck for semi-solid sludges. (Reprinted by permission of Mobilsug AB, Sweden.)
650 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

14.5.1 Transfer Stations

Transportation costs can be significant if haulage distances are large. Rather than encouraging all waste
vehicles, particularly of small and medium size, to travel the full distance to a treatment site, a transfer
station situated between the waste source and its final destination (e.g. landfill) is used. All vehicles with
loads less than about 15 tonnes deposit their waste at the transfer station. Here, the waste is loaded on to
large closed-top containers of capacity up to 30 tonnes. The objectives in using a transfer station are:
e Reduction in transport costs
e Reduction in trafficking of smaller vehicles at the treatment (disposal) site
e Reduction in refuse crew costs due to waiting time for vehicles in transit

The Greater London area uses transfer methods for 65 per cent of MSW. It uses bulk road transporters,
river barges or rail wagons to convey refuse for long distances. WHO (1991) indicate that transfer stations
are uneconomical if the haul travel distance (source to treatment) is less than about 20 km. However, it is
the travel time rather than travel distance that is the more significant cost factor.
Figure 14.15 is a cross-section through a simple arrangement of a transfer station. The elements of a
transfer station include:
1. Level 1 is a concrete paved area where refuse is tipped from refuse vehicles. This area may have the
facility for two or more vehicles to unload simultaneously.
2. The waste falls into a hopper where a control breaker (gate) permits the waste to further fall in
controlled volumes into a compacting unit. This unit is on level 2, about 5m below level 1.
3. The compacting unit pushes the compacted waste horizontally into a waiting container (in the docking
area).
4. The containers which can be 30 to 40m? capacity are loaded on to waiting multiaxle trucks. The
containers are on a ‘rail-line’ which permits easy movement and storage capacity for a number of
containers.
Different designs of transfer stations are in operation, in different countries.

14.5.2 Collection Systems

The collection and transporting of waste, from household to transfer station to materials recovery facility
to landfill or wherever, is an exercise in vehicle selection and route optimization. All urban areas have
some type of collection system, be it elementary or sophisticated. Urban areas are continuously evolving
and collection systems become more efficient with time, except in the supercities (e.g. Mexico) or the
developing world, where the collection/treatment system is not keeping pace with population growth. The
integration of a route system needs data on the:
Area to be served
Types and weights/volumes of waste generated
Presence or lack of material recycling facility (MRF)
Presence or lack of transfer stations
Treatment systems—landfill, anaerobic digestion, composting, incineration, etc.
Environmental constraints
Economic constraints
Vehicular fleet, size and quality
With CAD (computer aided design) and spreadsheets it is now possible to examine many alternative
collection routes and identify the optimum, based on the resources available. With modern collection
vehicles, it is now possible to operate routes with only one person. The driver doubles as the collector in
many US and EU cities. There may be a need for a driver and people who load trucks in downtown areas
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652 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

or heavily trafficked areas. In laying out the routes for an urban/suburban complex, ideally the routes
travelled by different vehicles on each day should be balanced. Rather than giving an example on
collection routeing, Problem 14.7 is set as a student exercise at the end of the chapter.

14.6 MSW MANAGEMENT

The various technologies of treatment and ultimate disposal of MSW include:

Waste minimization
Reuse and recycling
Biological treatment
Thermal treatment
Landfilling
The following sections detail each of the above. In an integrated waste management plan, there is room
for an aspect of each of the above.

14.7 WASTE MINIMIZATION OF MSW

Waste minimization (regarding products manufacture) is covered in detail in Chapter 18. Waste
minimization as regards MSW means reducing the amount that is generated at source. Some of the
sources are as follows:
Production units for food and household products
Production units for commercial products
Shopping outlets
Households
Offices, commercial properties and institutions
For example, in households, food wastes can be minimized. In the home-office or other institution, paper
can be printed (or photocopied) on both sides, consumers can buy goods with least packaging, etc.

14.8 REUSE AND RECYCLING OF MSW FRACTIONS

Legislation is driving innovation and changes in recycling. For instance, in California, regulation AB939
(1993) requires that 50 per cent of the MSW be diverted from landfill by the year 2000. In Europe, the
proposed packaging directive (1992) requires that within 10 years of implementation, 90 per cent by
weight of packaging must be recovered and at least 60 per cent must be recycled. Currently Denmark has
decided not to allow any organic or combustible waste to its urban landfills from 1997. Studies of urban
waste streams have indicated that much can be recovered, reused or recycled. For instance, the city of
Fullerton, California (Hay et al., 1993), has identified that its MSW can be classified as:

40 per cent recyclable

29 per cent compostable
12 per cent potentially compostable
19 per cent other
Items in the waste stream that are currently popular in recycle streams or potentially recyclable are briefly
discussed in the following paragraphs.

Aluminium cans Recycling of aluminium cans is at about 85 per cent at Davis, California, and
improving. Internationally, it is the most successful of the recyclables and is so because of economics.
 SOLID WASTE TREATMENT 653

Simply, it is more expensive to import raw aluminium (to the United States) than it is to recycle
it.
Aluminium cans constitute about | per cent of the total domestic solid waste stream.

Paper and cardboard Internationally, paper and cardboard form about 35 per cent of the MSW stream.
Recycling has been slow, even in some EU countries. In Denmark, such recycling is becoming
widespread. For instance, all corrugated cardboard is now made from recycled paper. Like aluminium, it
is a matter of economics. It is cheaper (in many countries) to use raw wood for paper production than it is
to use recycled paper. Some paper/cardboard is recycled and reused as fibre board. Parts of the west coast
of the United States send their recovered waste paper/cardboard to countries like Taiwan, where wood
raw materials are in short supply.

Glass Traditionally, glass was well recycled. It used to be that milk bottles, beer bottles, soda bottles,
etc., were returned and recycled. Again, recycling glass is getting attention. For instance, beer bottles in
Denmark are used approximately 35 times. The main problem with glass is the proliferation of colours.
However, there are many obvious advantages to glass recycling as it accounts for 5 to 10 per cent of the
waste stream. Recycled glass has many uses. Ideally, glass can be reused. If not, it can be crushed and
adopted for producing new glass, with energy savings.
Plastics Plastics are for the most part non-biodegradable and most undesirable in landfills. They do,
however, have a high heating value and are desirable for incineration plants. Plastic is typically 5 to 15 per
cent of the MSW stream. Plastics are potentially reusable as other forms and this has been applied in
several countries, e.g. recycled plastic into park benches, roadside delineators, etc. The potential is for
reforming the plastics into another shape. To date, only approximately 5 per cent of plastics are recycled
and these consist of PET and HDPE drink containers. In the United States other plastics, including PVC,
LDPE, PP and PS, lag far behind in recycling (Truax, 1993). However, in the European Union, LDPE
recycling has become more common.
Yard waste Yard wastes can be shredded and composted and subsequently reused as soil amendments
or other agricultural uses. Composting has had a variably successful history, but problems with odours,
heavy metals and pathogens are now technologically solvable. Essentially, yard waste should not be
landfilled. If not composted, the wood fraction especially has a relatively good heating value for
incineration plants.
Organic food fraction This fraction is about 10 per cent in the United States, about 35 per cent in
Europe and Australia and sometimes 50 per cent or more in developing countries. The four options for
this stream are:
¢ Composting
e Anaerobic digestion
e Reuse as animal foodstock
e Incineration
Miscellaneous items of MSW stream _ Items like waste oil, car batteries, wood, computers, TVs,
refrigerators, clothes, etc., are all recyclables and in the case of waste oil and batteries the trade is
successful. Electrical and electronic appliances are now receiving attention by the manufacturers and this
is a potential growth area. Table 14.21 shows approximate figures for recyclables arriving at material
recovery facilities (MRFs) from curbside recycling. Paper/cardboard and glass make up as much as 93
per cent of total recyclables.

14.8.1 Materials Recovery Facility (MRF)

Materials recovery facilities recover as much reusable waste material as possible, including paper and
cardboard, glass, metals, aluminium cans, PET and HDPE plastics, etc. There are many applications of the
two formal designs of MRFs:
654 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Table 14.21 Approximate recyclable

composition, US

Material % by weight

Aluminium cans 1
Metal cans 4
Glass bottles 19
Plastic (PET and HDPE) 2
Newspaper 35
Mixed paper 41

Total 100

Adapted from Smoley, 1993 with permission

e MRFs for source separated material

e MRFs for unseparated (commingled) MSW
The key to the variability of MRFs is the percentages of each material recovered. Depending on the extent
of contaminants, the recovery factor for paper, for instance, can vary from 30 to 70 per cent. It is therefore
important to note that only a fraction of materials arriving at an MRF (source separated or commingled)
are recycled. Table 14.22 gives approximate values of recovered materials for source separated and
commingled MSW. The percentage recovery for commingled waste is typically less than that of source
separated, but it depends on the technology used. Figure 14.16 is a flow chart of a typical MRF for source
separated materials.
The details of the ‘separation and process’ depend on the material being used. For instance, for paper
the process is typically:

1. Separate out large cardboard containers.

2. All other paper goes through a ‘trommel’ to eliminate contaminants like stones, metals, foreign
objects, etc. The newspaper goes through its own trommel and the mixed paper goes through a
different trommel.
3. Manual sorting is carried out on a conveyor belt, from which sometimes mixed paper is separated out.
4. The final process is baling, which may be of newspaper only or mixed paper.

Other details of other processes for aluminium, tin, plastics, data are found in Cal Recovery and Peer
Consultants (1993) and the Journal of MSW Management.

Table 14.22 Percentage recovery of source separated

and commingled MSW

Source separated MSW

Material Range (%) Typical (%)

Aluminium cans 80-95 90

Metal cans 70-85 80
Plastic (mixed) 30-70 50
Plastic (PET, HDPE) 80-95
Glass (mixed) 50-80 65
Glass (mixed/whole) 70-95
Glass (by colour) 80-95
Paper (mixed) 40-60 50
Newspaper 60-95
Cardboard 25-40 30

Adapted from Smoley, 1993 with permission

 SOLID WASTE TREATMENT 655

Paper
Separate and
process Ship
Raw Finished
Curbside materials product
Incoming
source Storage Storage
separated Separate and
process i Ship
materials

Commingled
containers
Residue to
landfill

Figure 14.16 Flow chart for source separated materials. (Adapted from Cal Recovery and Peer Consultants, 1993, with permission.)

Figure 14.17 is a three-dimensional schematic of an operational resource recovery and solid waste
facility at San Marco, San Diego, California. It is the largest such facility in the world and is a state of
the art MRF that recovers recyclable materials from over 2100 tons per day of MSW. The recovered
material is:
Aluminium cans
Ferrous metals
Mixed non-ferrous
HDPE
PET
Film plastics
Newspaper
Mixed paper
Corrugated cardboard
Glass (three colours)

Example 14.7 Determine the composition of recoverable materials for an urban area if each
household generates 25 kg of MSW per week. Assume the material distribution is as per column (6) of
Table 14.10. The percentage recoverables are taken from Table 14.22.

Solution

Weight before Weight

% MSW Percentage recycling recovered Percentage of
Component by weight recoverable (kg) (kg) recoverables

Food wastes Biles) = We) = =

Paper/cardboard 24.5 40 6.1 2.44 40
Plastics 14 50 355 eS 28
Glass 3 65 0.8 0.52 8
Metals eS) 80 i) 1S 24
Clothing/textile 3 = 0.8 = ==
Ashes/dust 12 — 3.0 == ==
Other 4.5 — 1.0 = a

Total 25 6.2 100

 (pueyAreyy “WINUOUNT], “XOOTIM 7 YOOoqRA
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s]PJOU SNO.9,4
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656
 SOLID WASTE TREATMENT 657

It is noted that only 6.2/25 or 24.8 per cent of the full MSW stream, is potentially recoverable based on
curbside (kerbside) recycling or source separated waste. This is regarded as a low figure, since
internationally the food waste, clothing and textile waste, and ashes are high components in the above
waste stream.

14.9 BIOLOGICAL MSW TREATMENT

At least three options exist for biological MSW treatment:

e Aerobic or composting
e Anaerobic or biogas
¢ Combined anaerobic and aerobic

Traditionally, the practice with composting was to utilize most of the MSW biodegradable material from
unsorted collections. Components other than food were being used and as such contaminants such as
heavy metals were showing up. These were due to degraded paper, cardboard and other degradable
household products. The modern practice with composting is to use only the source separated food
fraction of MSW, thereby reducing the occurrence of heavy metal contamination. Biogas production of
the food fraction of MSW is raising much interest and the first full-scale MSW biogas plant was built in
Helsingore, Denmark, in 1992. Combined aerobic and anaerobic systems using the organic fraction is an
operation using the proprietary patented process including Dranco, Valorga and BTS. Research in this
area is going on in Denmark, Holland, Italy and the United States.

14.9.1 Composting
Composting is an aerobic process where micro-organisms, in an oxygen environment, decompose the
organic food wastes as follows:
aerobic bacteria
Organic matter + O» => new cells + CO, + H,O + NH3 + SO, (14.6)

The key inorganic nutrients required are nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur, potassium, magnesium, calcium
and sodium. Nutrients are typically present using the correct mix of waste fractions. The final product
compost consists of minerals and humus (complex organic material).

Process requirements The process parameters of relevance are:

e Temperature
¢ Moisture content
e Oxygen
¢ C/N ratio
e pH

¢ Biochemical composition and texture

Temperature The composting process is exothermic and goes through temperature variations
throughout its development:
¢ Psychrophilic—15 to 20°C
© Mesophilic—25 to 35°C
¢ Thermophilic—S0 to 60°C
Best results are achieved if the thermophilic stage can be reached within the first few days and the
compost then maintained at this temperature. Temperatures above the optimum thermophilic range
658 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

inhibit biological activity but also improve the hygienic condition of the compost. If the compost is
exposed to temperatures > 55°C for two weeks, pathogenic kill is achieved, as occurs for temperatures
> 70°C for one hour.
Moisture content ater is required for microbial activity which in turn produces water. Below 20 per
cent moisture, biodegradation ceases. The optimum moisture content is 50 to 60 per cent, below which
metabolic activity slows. Above 50 to 60 per cent, water fills the voids between particles, inhibiting
oxygen access and causing temperature reduction and anaerobic conditions and malodours to occur. If
moisture content decreases, then water must be added.
Oxygen If oxygen is less than 10 per cent by volume, composting is inhibited. Optimum oxygen
levels are 15 to 20 per cent. Oxygen is essential for aerobic decomposition, though decompostion can
occur anaerobically with low oxygen levels. This is malodourous and the process of biodegradation is
slower. Turning and ventilating compost are meant to keep the oxygen content at a sufficient level.
C/N ratio The C/N ratio is a measure of the optimum biochemical conditions and occurs at a C/N
ratio of 30. This ensures adequate nitrogen for cell synthesis and carbon as the energy source. This
ratio of 30 is not so high that N escapes as NH3. Composting operates down to C/N ratios of 20.
Ratios in excess of 30 mean too little nitrogen to form microbial cells, and thus force the micro-
organisms to go through additional cycles of carbon consumption, cell synthesis, decay, etc., and so
slow down the composting process. Table 14.23 shows the C/N ratios for different MSW fractions.
pH The optimum pH range is 6 to 8. In the initial days the pH reduces to about 5 as organic acids are
formed. Then the pH rises as these acids are consumed in the thermophilic stage. Anaerobiosis sets in
at pH below 4.5.
Biochemial composition and texture The composition of the waste influences the process rate. Some
materials are easily degradable, like plants, manure, primary wastewater sludge and food wastes. Straw,
wood, leaves, yard wastes and paper with high contents of lignin are slowly biodegradable. The texture
influences the process in its variable surface areas as habitats for the micro-organisms and in its ability
to retain moisture or oxygen.

Table 14.23 Carbon/nitrogen ratios of some waste materials

% nitrogen
Material (dry) C/N ratio
Fish scrap 6.5-10 —
Farmyard manure AMS) 14-1]
Kitchen waste 2.0 25-1
Seaweed 1.92 19-]
Wheat straw 0.32 128-1
Rotted sawdust 0.25 200-1
Raw sawdust 0.11 510-1
Food wastes 2.0-3.0 15-1
Total refuse 0.5-1.4 30/80-1
Wood 0.07 700-1
Paper 0.2 170-1
Grass clippings BD) 20-1
Weeds 2.0 19-]
Leaves 0.5—1.0 40/80-1
Fruit wastes 1:5) 35-1
Sewage sludge
Activated 5.6 6-1
Digested 1.9 16-1
 SOLID WASTE TREATMENT 659

Composting systems Three different composting systems are practised:

e Traditional wind-row
e Aerated static pile
e In-vessel composting

Traditional wind-rows After the non-biodegradable and/or slowly biodegradable fractions are removed,
the MSW is piled up in long rows of almost triangular cross-section on hard surfaces. The height is 1 to
2m and the width of the base 3 to 4m. Wind-rows may be outdoors or in a covered shed. Regular turning
of the piles is essential to oxygenate the entire material. Full development is usually in excess of 3
months, after which the compost is allowed to cure for up to 12 months.
Aerated static pile The MSW is piled up in wind-rows about | to 2m high, and 3 to 4m wide and 20m
long and laid on floors of ventilation piping systems. To reduce odours, a stabilized compost cover is
placed on the piles. The piles are aerated by forcing air through the perforated pipes at regular intervals.
Temperature probes activate the aeration system. Decomposition occurs in 4 to 6 weeks by comparison
with 12 weeks for the traditional wind-rows. This process had the advantage of better control than the
traditional wind-row. Figure 14.18 is a schematic of the pH and temperature development for unaerated
and aerated composting.
In-vessel composting This method of composting is carried out in different vessels (reactors):
e Horizontal plug flow reactors
e Vertical continuous flow reactors
e Rotating drums

In the horizontal plug flow (similar to plug flow in activated sludge wastewater systems), a plug of waste
is fed through a ‘tunnel’ where aeration is supplied continuously. In the vertical continuous flow reactor,
odour is contained in the vessel. Difficulties are encountered with compaction of the compost at the
bottom of the reactor. In the rotating drum, refuse is fed through for a retention time of 4 to 6 hours, after
which it is aerated and homogenized. The output of raw compost is ready for aerobic aeration in wind-
rows or in the aerated static pile.
Figure 14.19 is a layout plan of a composting plant by Kruger Waste Systems, Denmark, for
24 000 t/yr. The essential plant units are the weighbridge, the shredder, the bulking agent additive (wood
chips, straw, etc.), the magnetic separator and the in-vessel compost reactor. Figure 14.20 is a process flow
diagram of a wind-row sludge composting operation. Prior to composting a bulking agent of wood chips
or straw is added. Other additives like lime may be used to correct the pH, but only at the beginning of the

Aerated
Aerated
Unaerated Unaerated

8.5 60

LL Thermophilic
Y a:

IS) 2 40H --f-4\----\-------------

ct g
6.5 & 20 Mesophilic
=
Sho) 0

oat es Se
20 40 60 £80 100 20 40 60 #480 = 100
Days Days

Figure 14.18 Schematic of pH and temperature development in unaerated and aerated composting.
 SOLID WASTE TREATMENT 661

Storage | ------
Amendment
Compost product recycle

....jpe Exhaust to
atmosphere

Temporary |Mixing| a
é Mixing‘ Wind-rows Stockpi ompost
Dewatered Me i eat pepue product
sludge
cake Oxygen supplied by :
turning, Natural «-+---+-- rs
ventilation and/or _— Solids

Fe oy Alternate solids flowpath

Diatelalaiereteleetstersts Gas

Figure 14.20 Process flow diagram of a wind-row sludge composting operation. (Adapted from Haug, 1980, with permission.)

plant. In practice, lime is rarely used. Caustic soda is more commonly used. Figure 14.21 is a materials
balance observed during wind-row composting. What is of main interest here is the use of recycle to
supplement the input sludge. Because of the recycle line the amendment mix needed at the beginning is
only 1.75/1 and not the more typical 3/1 (in the absence of recycle).

Composting loss
10.75 tons
(0.9 tons volatile solids
9.98 tons water

Finished compost
Sludge cake Compost mix 15.5 tons, 60% TS Product
15 tons, 23% TS 26.25 tons, 39% TS 9.3 tons dry solids 4.25 tons, 60% TS
3-45 tons dry solids 10.2 tons dry solids WiHadlaronw 6.2 tons water 2.55 tons dry solids
11.55 tons water 16.05 tons water composting 40% VS 1.7 tons water
55% VS 45% VS 3.7 tons vol. solids 40% VS
1.90 tons vol. solids 4.6 tons vol. solids 5.6 tons fixed solids 1.0 tons vol. solids
1126 kg/m} 1008 kg/m? 889 kg/m3 889 kg/m}
13.3 m3 26.0 m3 17.4 m3 4.7 m3

Recycle
11.25 tons, 60% TS
6.75 tons dry solids
4.50 tons water
40% VS
2.70 tons vol. solids
4.05 tons fixed solids
889 kg/m?
12.7 m3

Figure 14.21 Materials balance of wind-row composting of digested sludge cake with recycle. (Adapted from Horath, 1978, with
permission.)
662 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Environmental aspects of composting The environmental parameters of relevance in composting are:

Heavy metals
Odour
Sterilization
Inert contaminants

Heavy metals The presence of heavy metals in compost has caused public concern, leading to reduced
acceptance of the compost product. The metals of concern include,mercury, cadmium, copper and zinc.
These metals are found in general MSW from batteries, paints, plastics, papers, etc. Copper and zinc are
the least offensive as they are an essential trace element usually found in excess. Cadmium, chromium and
mercury are taken up by plants and can enter the food chain. They are highly toxic and the sources include
batteries, leather and plastics. Composting a source separated food fraction produces a compost
acceptable in heavy metal concentrations.
Odour Odours are common in composting plants, but more so in unaerated systems. In-vessel
composting and aerated static pile systems should be managed to reduce odour levels. Air from
ventilating the compost is often treated in biofilters. In outdoor systems, covering the pile or wind-row
with a stabilized compost reduces the odour.
Sterilization Sanitization is achieved at thermophilic temperatures (55 to 60°C) lasting 2 to 3 weeks. It
is also achievable at higher temperatures for shorter periods, but this is less complete and pathogenic
revival has occurred in compost. It is not possible to verify whether 100 per cent of the compost is
sterilized.
Inert contaminants Pre-sorting of wastes is essential if contaminants of glass, metal, rubber and
partially decomposed paper are to be insignificant.

14.9.2 Anaerobic Digestion

The WHO document on Urban Solid Waste Management (1991) stated that ‘it is clear that energy
production from MSW may be optimized by including anaerobic digestion into integrated waste
separation and materials recovery systems’. Anaerobic digestion (A/D) of the unseparated MSW is
unsuitable due to the presence of plastics, glass, metals, textiles, etc. The source separated food fraction of
MSW is approximately 35 per cent by weight. Of this, 70 per cent is moisture. Traditional anaerobic
digestion operated with low solids (4 to 10 per cent). Modern technologies in use in France and Holland
and in the research stage at the University of California at Davis are using high solids reactors (up to 30
per cent). This is a significant breakthrough in that it now permits high solids MSW to be anaerobically
digested. This latter technology is still in development for MSW. Anaerobic digestion itself has grown in
use in the past decade, particularly for agricultural waste, but more recently for MSW solids and
municipal sludges and sewage (refer to Chapter 15).
Anaerobic digestion is described by
anaerobic bacteria
Organic matter + H,O a new cells + CO, + CH4 + NH3 + H2S (14.7)

The beneficial end product is methane. Other products are sludge water, carbon dioxide and traces of
ammonia and hydrogen sulphide. The sludge water produced can be dewatered to produce a supernatant
and a filter cake. The filter cake is a suitable fertilizer and has some soil conditioning effects. The filtrate
can be used in pre-mixing of the organic MSW to create a slurry feedstock or it can be fed directly to the
digester. It can also be used as liquid fertilizer. The process of anaerobic digestion can be described in
three phases (for further details, see Chapter 13).
e Hydrolysis, i.e. the breakdown of high molecular compounds to low molecular compounds as in lipids
to fatty acids, polysaccharides to monosaccharides, proteins to amino acids, etc.
e Acidogenis, where the lower molecular components of fatty acids, amino acids and monosaccharides
 SOLID WASTE TREATMENT 663

are converted to lower molecular intermediate compounds such as propionate, butyrate, formate,
methanol and acetate
e Methanogenesis, where the intermediate compounds are converted to the final products of methane and
carbon dioxide
In these three phases, a different group of bacteria are active and are called the hydrolysing bacteria, the
non-methanogenic (or acidogens) and methanogens respectively. The latter are strictly anaerobes while
the acidogens are facultative and obligate anaerobes.
The maintenance of an environment that keeps the acidogens and methanogens in dynamic
equilibrium is required to:
e Be oxygen free
¢ Not contain inhibiting salts (may be heavy metals or excess ammonia)
e Have a 6.5<pH <7.5
¢ Be of adequate alkalinity, 1500 to 7500 mg/L
e Have sufficient nutrients, phosphorus and nitrogen
e Be temperature steady at either mesophilic or thermophilic conditions
e Have a constant solids loading rate
Generally, anaerobic digestion has a poor performance at psychrophilic temperatures. Also, temperature
steadiness is essential and only a few degrees of variation can upset the dynamic balance, especially at
thermophilic temperatures. The feedstock needs to be consistent and variations in alkalinity reduce the
biogas production rate. There are two distinct variations on solids concentrations:
e Low solids anaerobic digestion
e High solids anaerobic digestion

Low solids anaerobic digestion The most conventional system of anaerobic digestion of organic MSW
is to use solids concentrations between 4 and 10 per cent. This process is well proven, having been applied
in the agricultural and industrial sector throughout the world. Using MSW feedstock of 20 per cent solids
or more means that the waste must be diluted to achieve the 4 to 10 per cent solids concentration. This is
often achieved by adding sludge to the MSW. Figure 14.22 is a flow diagram of the process.
Typical production values are a gas with a 50 to 70 per cent methane content and production rates in the
range of 1.5 to 2.5m°/m? (biogas) of reactor size or approximately 0.25 to 0.45 m°/kg of biodegradable
volatile solids destroyed. The cycle time in the reactors varies and is typically about 20 days. The cycle
time depends on the loading rate and the biodegradability of the feedstock and on the process
temperature. Lower time cycles can be achieved but at the cost of reduced loading rates and reduced
biogas production.
Figure 14.23 shows the typical retention time for MSW digesters at the different operating
temperatures. Clearly, it is desirable to operate at thermophilic temperatures, but due to potential
instability problems, this temperature operation is still not proven technology for MSW digestion. Most
MSW digesters internationally operate at mesophilic temperatures.

High solids anaerobic digestion This is an anaerobic process where the solids content in the reactor are
25 to 35 per cent. The Dranco process for organic waste systems in Belgium uses a solids concentration of
30 to 35 per cent. Dranco means dry anaerobic composting. Many processes are in existence
internationally. Figure 14.24 is a flow chart of the Eanes process treating organic MSW. The cycle
time is 16 to 21 days and biogas piodaen en is 5 to 8m*/m? of reactor. The gas content is 55 per cent CH4.
Energy production is 140 to 200 m° biogas per tonne of raw organic waste at 40 to 60 per cent dry solids.
664 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Organic MSW

Pre-treatment,
shredding,
metals separation

Sludge,
primary municipal,
or chemical Filtrate

Anaerobic digestor Sludge

38 or 60°C dewatering

CO; Gas separator Filter cake

Biogas
(CH, + CO,)

Figure 14.22 Flow diagram of low solids anaerobic digestion.

80
70
60 Thermophilic
50
40
30 Mesophilic
(°C) 20
Temperature
10 Psychrophilic
0) el == =
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Days
Figure 14.23 General trend for the digestion time of a certain amount of organic matter. The curve might differ according to
physical/chemical composition of feedstock. (Adapted from Danish EPA, 1994.)

Organic MSW

55% DS | 100 t/d

Dry anaerobic fermentor Gas

Generator
3000 m3 engine 1.25 MW

Recycle
filtrate

50 t/d |Stable
60-80% DS | compost

Figure 14.24 High solids Dranco process for organic MSW. (Adapted from Dranco promotional literature, 1992. Reprinted by
permission of Organic Waste Systems N.V.)
 SOLID WASTE TREATMENT 665

lel
Thermal energy
biogas
Digested
sludge
High solids
anaerobic Aerobic
digestor composter
Organic
MSW
Soil
Blend Plug flow Aerobic amendment
tank reactor reactor
Figure 14.25 Flow diagram for combined treatment of organic MSW and municipal sludge. (Adapted from Kayhanian et al., 1991,
with permission.)

14.9.3 Two-Stage Anaerobic and Aerobic Methods

The two-stage process using high solids anaerobic digestion followed by in-vessel aerobic composting is
currently an active area of research. The advantages include:

1. No external water is needed for producing a slurry feedstock to the anaerobic digester.
2. No effluent water is produced.
3. There are high rates of biogas production of 5 to 10m*/m? of reactor.
4. A stabilized humus product is produced.
5. A refuse derived fuel (RDF) is produced.

Figure 14.25 shows the flow process diagram for organic MSW feedstock blended with municipal
sludges. In the Kayhanin et al. (1991) experiments, biogas production was up to 6 m°/m? of reactor, using
an organic MSW feedstock of food waste (38 per cent), office paper (3.8 per cent), newsprint (12 per cent)
and yard waste (12 per cent).

14.10 THERMAL TREATMENT—COMBUSTION/INCINERATION

Thermal degradation of organic material can be carried out with or without oxygen. If thermal
degradation takes place with a deficit of oxygen (partial combustion), some of the energy stored as
chemical energy from the organic material will be released as burnable gases. This process is called
gasification. If the gasification is dry distillation (heating without access for air, oxygen or steam), the
process is called pyrolysis.
Gasification has the advantage that the gases are more economical to purify than the flue gases in
pyrolysis, due to the large volume of flue gases generated from combustion. Furthermore, the gases can
often be utilized directly in gas engines. Gasification of biomass is still at research level. Operational
problems are caused by a high content of water or a low density of biomass. Difficulties encountered in
crushing and feeding are reasons that the technology has not yet been developed to a commercial level.
Because municipal solid waste is more non-homogeneous than other biomass fuels (straw and wood), it is
also more difficult to treat by gasification.
Thermal degradation with excess oxygen is called combustion. When the fuel is waste, this is called
incineration. Incineration is chemical oxidation at high temperatures, where organic material is converted
into energy (heat), flue gas and slag. Incineration of waste is, in principle, similar to combustion of other
solid fuels like coal, wood, etc. In practice, waste differs from other solid fuels in being non-homogeneous
and having a higher content of water than coal or wood. This has, in some cases, been solved by turning
waste into pellets, named RDF (refuse-derived fuel). RDF pellets can be used in furnaces which burn
666 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

traditional solid fuels, often in a mixture with coal. They can also be stored just as coal or other solid
fuels.
Incineration plants for solid waste are based on technologies developed especially for incineration of
waste. In most cases, incineration is more economical than firstly converting the waste into RDF pellets.
A number of companies have developed the technology for waste incineration into commercial concepts
(e.g. Volund, Denmark). The layout of the incineration plant varies from company to company. Some use
movable grates alone. Others use movable grates in combination with rotary kilns. The design varies in
the type of feeding system, grates, furnace, slag removal system arid boiler. Except for some experimental
incinerators using fluidized beds and mass combustion, generally the same design and layout principles
are used for MSW and for coal combustion plants design and layout.

14.10.1 Historical Background

The first waste incineration plant was built in the United Kingdom in the 1870s. Compared to the present-
day technology, it was a very simple system with manual stoking, manual slag removal, no regulation of
air supply with combustion air, nor any flue gas cleaning system. One reason why waste incineration was
introduced was the increasing interest in hygienic aspects, caused by the outbreak of a number of cholera
epidemics towards the end of the nineteenth century. At the beginning of the twentieth century,
technology improved and plants were built for the generation of electricity by steam production. Energy
production based on waste became uneconomic and the technology faded. The renaissance of waste
incineration came in the late 1960s. Today’s waste incineration is a key element in waste treatment in
countries like Japan, Switzerland and Denmark. Table 14.24 outlines the state of MSW incineration in the
European Union, the United States and Canada.

14.10.2 Design Principles for Waste Incinerators

The general principles of waste incineration are similar to those for combustion of other solid fuels.
However, due to the difference in the fuel, waste incineration plants have modified layout arrangements.

Table 14.24 Incineration data for the United States, the European Union and Canada
Average
quantity of Number of plants with heat recovery
incinerated Number of
waste per plants Electricity
Total year without Industrial + heating
number of (Gal0: heat use and Electricity or steam
Country plants tonnes) recovery heating production production
Belgium 28 56.0 15 7 4 2)
Federal Germany (1986) 47 183.0 3 a | 30
Denmark (1992) 38 S25) — 34 4
Spain (1987) 8 415.0 5 —_ 2 1
France (1985) 280 84.5 216 43 2 19
Italy (1987) 94 26.0 78 12 4
Luxembourg ! 100.0 —— = 1 =
Netherlands 1] 158.2 5 2 3 1
Portugal (1987) — — = — =
United Kingdom 48 66.7 43 4 1 =
EC total 557 = 367 111 24 53
United Statest 83 — 14 42 11 16

+The US figure includes five Canadian mass-burning plants.

 SOLID WASTE TREATMENT 667

Figure 14.26 is a cross-section of a typical municipal waste incinerator at Reno Nord, Aalborg, in
Denmark. It has a capacity of 12.5 t/h with power generation delivering surplus heat for district heating.
The principal segments of this incineration plant are shown on the figure.

Unloading and storage of waste When delivered waste has been recorded, normally on a weighbridge
at the entrance gate, it is then unloaded into a storage pit. It is useful to have a flat paved area in front of
the pit, where it is possible to unload and examine delivered waste if spot inspections are required for
quality control purposes with regard to the origin and composition of the waste. With some bulky waste
(i.e. furniture), it is desirable to first reduce this in a shredder. This simplifies its passage through the
loading hopper and encourages sastisfactory out-burning at the minimum retention time on the grates. The
receiving area in front of the storage pit should have the capacity for a suitable number of trucks
unloading at the same time. The capacity of the pit should be enough to level out variations in deliveries
over the 7-day week. It should also be large enough to accommodate additional back-up loads if the
incineration plant breaks down. The layout of the pit must also enable the operator of the crane to mix
different kinds of waste so as to reduce variations in the calorific value between, say, household food
waste (H,~4.2 MJ/kg) and waste from commercial activities with a high content of paper
(H, ~ 16.5 MJ/kg) and plastic (H, ~~32.7 MJ/kg). The layout and capacity of the pit should also
ensure that all areas of the pit can be emptied regularly, so that waste does not stagnate and age in the pit.
Septicity may occur with age of the MSW. It is sometimes desirable to establish the unloading area and
the pit inside a building, for the purpose of minimizing odour emission.

The weighbridge
Paved unloading bay
Waste storage pit
Crane
Hopper feed system
Furnace
Quench tank
Ash/slag storage pit
Combustion chamber - gas
Flue gas scrubber/baghouse filter
Chimney stack
Boiler
SCSIHAAAWNS
ONETurbine and generator
by permission of Kruger Engineering,
Figure 14.26 Municipal waste incinerator at Reno Nord, Aalborg, Denmark. (Reprinted
Denmark.)
668 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Crane The crane is a key element in waste incinerators. Besides the capacity and considerations of
stand-by requirements, it is important that the crane can remove items (i.e. refrigerators) that are
unsuitable for incineration.

Hopper and feeding system The design of the receiving hopper should enable a buildup of a high
column of waste without blocking. The column of waste should prevent the ingress of excess air to the
incinerator chambers. At the top of the hopper, below the funnel, there should be a gate flap arrangement
that can be closed in case of fire or when starting up or closing down the incinerator. At the bottom of the
hopper, there should be a piston moving the waste forward to the grate (see Fig. 14.26).

Grates Proper design of the grates is essential for satisfactory combustion. The grates move the waste
forward and turn it over in a way that ensures an optimal contact between the waste and the burning gases.
However, the movement should not be so fast that excess dust is released or that the ignited waste might
quench. The grates must be divided into at least three sections with individual air supply systems to enable
regulation of the combustion in each phase. It is further important that the design of the grates produces a
satisfactory distribution of primary air supply through the grates. The capacity of the grates is normally in
the range of 2 to 3 GJ/m‘” h. If the load is too high, there might be problems with fixation of slag. If the
load is too low, there might be problems in reaching the desired temperature required for complete
combustion.

Furnace The furnace can be divided into two zones: the primary combustion chamber (PCC) and the
secondary combustion chamber (SCC). The primary combustion chamber will normally be designed for a
capacity of 0.5 to 0.7 GJ/m* h. The secondary combustion chamber is designed for an appropriate gas
retention. As an example, the Danish EPA guidelines on waste incineration specify two seconds of
retention time and a Reynolds number > 60000 is required to ensure adequate mixing of waste and air.
The purpose of the minimum retention time and turbulence is to ensure destruction of potential dioxins
and dibenzofurans (see also Chapter 15).

Air supply The air for incineration is often taken from the discharge hall (unloading bay). This creates a
slight vacuum and reduces the risk of emissions to the surrounding areas. Combustion air is divided into
primary and secondary air. Primary air is injected from beneath the grates, with control for each section of
the grate. If the incinerator is designed for waste with a high water content, it is normal that air injected at
the first grate be pre-heated. Secondary air is injected in the top of the furnace before the secondary
combustion chamber. The relationship between primary and secondary air depends on the composition of
the waste. A high content of fugitive hydrocarbons, as may occur with plastics, increases the requirement
of secondary air.

Boiler system Energy produced in incinerators can be utilized in boilers positioned after the secondary
combustion chamber. The choice depends on what is more feasible for the particular location. It may be
steam for generating electricity or hot water for district heating.

Slag and ash removal The residues at the end of the grates (slag or bottom ash) are removed
continuously without permitting the inlet of false air. Another requirement is that the opening for slag
removal should be bigger than the opening in the hopper to ensure that large unburnable items that have
passed the furnace can also be removed. The solution is often a trap consisting of a chamber with water
beneath the end of the grates and a piston at the bottom of the water chamber to remove the slag to a
conveyor system outside the furnace. Besides the slag, there is also ash and fine material that pass the
grates and need to be removed. There will also be filyash to remove from the bottom of the boiler. Flyash
will normally be removed with screw conveyors.
 SOLID WASTE TREATMENT 669

14.10.3 The Combustion Process in Waste Incinerators

Waste incineration is, in principle, similar to combustion of other solid fuels. The combustion process can
be divided into three phases:
e Drying
e Gas pyrolysis and gas combustion
e Combustion of carbon residue

It is shown in Fig. 14.27 that drying takes place at the first part of the grate. When the waste is dried and
heated, gasification takes place at zone A. Here, easily evaporated hydrocarbons are released and some
with low combustion temperatures are burned just above the waste. Others escape to the secondary
combustion chamber where the combustion takes place at a higher temperature, 950 to 1050°C at zone B.
The solid residue, mainly consisting of ash and carbon, is burned at the third grate as nearly pure carbon
combustion at zone C. Operating with only small rates of excess air (3 to 6 per cent) in zone A reduces the
generation of NO,.

14.10.4 Waste as an Incinerator Fuel

Waste is sometimes compared to coal and wood as a fuel source. However, because of the non-
homogeneity of waste, it is nearly impossible to collect a representative sample for a calorimetric test.

Pe a
Crane | :
WU
Entry
hopper

Entry
chute

Slag or bottom ash

combustion (zone B) and pure carbon
Figure 14.27 Three phase locations of incineration: gasification (zone A), high temperature
combustion (zone C). (Reprinted by permission of Velund Ecology Systems, A/S Denmark.)
670 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Furthermore, the composition of waste varies during the year and often even during the week. Fuel
characterization of waste can be made by processing a sample of MSW through an existing incinerator
plant. This requires an existing plant within a reasonable distance and a representative sample big enough
to run a test for 4 to 5 hours. The other alternative is to characterize the waste by content of different
materials, estimating calorific value of each fraction and then calculating the average calorific value.
Ash is a fundamental part of all wastes. Ash is inert in the combustion process. The influence in the
amount of energy produced from the fuel is only slightly influenced by a small amount of heat lost by
heating the ash from the inlet temperature to the outlet temperature for ash and slag. The content of water
is also inert. Water leaves the furnace and boiler by evaporation. Besides the energy loss in heating water,
there will also be a great energy loss in evaporation of water. The burnable part of the waste is that part of
the waste that can release energy in the oxidation process. A simple approximation is given for estimation
of the net calorific value in Eq. (14.2):
Heyy — Lawl) <B— 2445 W (14.2)

where B and W = fractions of burnables and water content respectively

H(net) = net calorific value, MJ/kg
H(awf) = net calorific value of the burnable part of waste, MJ/kg
(ash and water free)

Experiments show that, for practical purposes, it is possible to estimate the energy potential based on an
average value of H(awf) +20 MJ/kg. For more detailed calculation, the values in Table 14.16 can be
used.

14.10.5 Air Emission and Flue Gas Cleaning

The combustion process will break down the complex organic compounds of waste into more simple
compounds and subsequently generate new compounds. Many of these compounds will be present in the
flue gas. Carbon, hydrogen and sulphur will be converted to CO, HO and SO). Nitrogen will be
converted to N> and NO,. Chlorine will become HCI and may also be converted to complex organic
chlorides. Inorganic substances will be oxidized and escape as particles in the ash or as vapour in the flue
gas. There are three main factors that influence the content of the raw flue gas from MSW incinerators:
1. The composition of waste has an impact on pollutants such as SO, HCl, HF, organo-chlorides and
metals.
2. Thermal processes have an impact on burned or partially burned gases such as carbon, hydrogens and
chlorinated organics. Analyses of these compounds are very complex. Therefore CO is often used as
an indicator. These compounds can be limited by careful control of combustion and temperature.
Excess air is also an important factor. On the other hand, too much excess air reduces the combustion
temperature and increases the heat loss by flue gas. Other pollutants that depend on the thermal
process are NO,. The smallest quantities of NO, are produced in the temperature range of 800 to
1000°C. This is the optimum temperature range for the NH3 reduction of the NO,. At approximately
1200°C, the amount of NO, increases rapidly.
3. Mechanical processes influence the amount of flyash produced in the combustion chambers.
Typical pollutant content levels of raw flue gas from MSW incinerators are given in Table 14.25
corresponding to dry flue gas. Flue gas typically contains 5 to 15 per cent HO. Until recently, most
attention was paid to the flyash particulate matter. As such, most flue gas cleaning consisted of flyash
removal by the use of cyclones, electric filters, bag filters or scrubbers. The most popular was the
electrostatic precipitator. The effect of different filters on typical flue gases from incinerators is given in
Table 14.26.
 SOLID WASTE TREATMENT 671

Table 14.25 Typical pollutant content levels of dry flue gas before cleaning and
EU emission standards

Typical content: mg/N m* at 9% CO,

EC nominal capacity (t/h)

Typical
Pollutant untreated flue gas <It/h 1-3 t/h >3 t/h
Dust 1500-8000 200 100 30
SO, 400 300 300
HEE 500 250 100 50
HF 5 4 2
NO, 300 =
CO 100 150
Organic vapours 5 20
Hg vapours 0.05—0.5 Oi
Ni+ As + Pb + Cr+Cu-+ Mn 0.05—0.5 OP

+ Total Hg and Cd.

Table 14.26 The effect of different filters on typical flue gases from incinerators

Particle Dust
separation Effectiveness emission
Filter type down to (%) (mg/N m°) Notes

Cyclone 10 um 90 Seldom less Low capital cost

than 500 Big pressure loss (running costs)

Bag filters 0.3 um 199) < 150 Lower capital cost than electric
Larger pressure loss than electric
Required temperature less than 160 °C

Electrostatic 0.3 pm > 99 < 150 Expensive establishment

precipitation Low pressure loss

Scrubber 1-2 um = O5 < 500 Low capital cost

Big pressure loss (running costs)
Cooling of flue gas

In the last few years, attention has also been directed towards other elements in the flue gas,
especially acids (HCI, HF and SO), heavy metals, particularly Hg, and dioxins and furans (PCDD and
PCDF). The EU-guidelines are shown in Table 14.26. The PCDD and PCDF, together with polyaromates
(PAH), can be limited by good design and efficient management. To reduce the emission of acids, new
flue gas cleaning equipment has been developed. Two types of absorption can be used:

e Absorption with lime

— Dry absorption
— Semi-dry absorption
e Absorption in water
— Scrubbing with added water
— Condensation

Dry absorption (see Fig. 14.28) works with injection of dry Ca(OH)p, to absorb HCl and form CaCl, and
water. The water will evaporate due to the heat in the flue gases, and a dry residue will remain. The dry
residue, a mixture of CaCl, and flyash, can then be separated in bag filters. Due to the high content of
chioride salts there is a high leakage of chloride and also of heavy metals. Further treatment is therefore
672 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Flue gas Chimney

Reactor Bag filter stack

- WS
ea Residue

Container
Hydrated lime silo

Figure 14.28 Layout for a dry flue gas cleaning process. (From information from contractor on flue gas cleaning system. Reprinted
by permission of ABB Flakt.)

necessary before final disposal. One method is to wash the material with water to encourage settling of
heavy metals before discharging. Fixation has also been investigated, but so far without success, due to
the high chloride content.
The semi-dry absorption process is similar to dry absorption with one exception (see Fig. 14.29).
The Ca(OH;) is injected in a water solution where the amount of water is balanced so that heat excess
from the flue gas can evaporate the water. Scrubbing and condensation are normally positioned after a
particle filter, often an electrostatic precipitator. An example is shown in Fig. 14.30. When the acid gases
(together with other pollutants) have been separated in water, further separation is achieved by treating the
water. The water treatment process ends up with treated water of high chloride content to be discharged
and a smaller amount of metal contaminated sludge that must be fixated with cement or flyash before
disposal in a landfill site.

Spray
Flue gas | drying Bag filter Chimney
reactor stack

Residue

Container
Quicklime silo

Water

Slaker

Storage tank

Figure 14.29 Layout for a semi-dry flue gas cleaning process. (From information from contractor on flue gas cleaning system.
Reprinted by permission of ABB Flakt.)
 SOLID WASTE TREATMENT 673

; Two-sta
Electrostatic ge scrubber
Chimney
precipitator
stack

Ca(OH),
el ies Discharge

Container

Water treatment Buffer tank

for sludge
Limestone
silo
Dewatered sludge

es
Container

Figure 14.30 Layout for a wet flue gas cleaning process. (From information from contractor on flue gas cleaning system. Reprinted
by permission of ABB Flakt.)

14.10.6 Flyash and Bottom Ash

Before the introduction of modern advanced flue gas cleaning, the only residue to be disposed from
incineration was flyash and bottom ash (slag). The major part of the incombustible matter ends in the
bottom ash. It is made up of incombustible items like bottles, cans, etc., and it is the ash fraction of
burnable material like paper, plastic, wood, etc. A small part of the ash fraction ends as flyash. One tonne
of waste in a mixture of MSW from domestic, commercial and industrial activities gives about 200 kg of
bottom ash and 30 to 40 kg of flyash. If the waste contains any pollutants like heavy metals that cannot be
destroyed by incineration, they will often be found concentrated in the bottom ash and flyash. As an
example, lead has a tendency to be concentrated mostly in bottom ash and cadmium in the flyash. The
heavy metals in bottom ash are not prone to leaching while they seem to be more leachable in the flyash.
Because leachability is low from bottom ash, it has become common in Scandinavia to utilize bottom ash
for road construction. Since 1990, nearly all bottom ash in Denmark is beneficially used. This is due to
the waste tax of approximately 25 ECU per tonne of waste disposed to landfill. Since flyash has higher
leachability than bottom ash, it is only disposed at secure landfills.

14.11 MSW LANDFILL

The most traditional method of disposing of MSW was landfill. Over the past two decades the practice
has changed from ‘dumping’ to well-engineered landfilling. Modern landfill practices include monitoring
programmes for incoming waste, for gas, for leachate, etc., to control pollution of the surrounding
environments, particularly groundwater, surface water and air.
An MSW landfill is a repository for MSW. In the United States, MSW landfills do not accept
hazardous wastes but may accept industrial sludges which pass the US EPA leachate test. There is as yet
(1996) no published leachate test for the European Union. Hazardous waste residues from hazardous
waste treatment facilities go to ‘secure’ landfills. However, the design of MSW landfills and secure
674 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

landfills is similar. The key parameter in the design of either is to attain an impermeability of 10~’m/s,
and so prevent leachate breakthrough.
Leachate is the water-type liquid that seeps out ofa landfill. It is from rain infiltration through the landfill
and also from the moisture fraction of MSW. Because it has a long residence time in a landfill, in a pre-
dominantly anaerobic environment, it is contaminated with organics and heavy metals and, as such, is highly
toxic. It is essential in landfill practice that the leachate is not allowed to enter surface water or groundwater,
but that it should be collected and treated in a conventional municipal wastewater treatment plant.
Landfill gas is produced in landfill sites due to the anaerobic degradation of biodegradable organic
wastes. The gas produced is typically about 60 per cent methane and 40 per cent carbon dioxide. Landfill gas,
with its high content of methane, is potentially explosive and, as such, needs to be controlled. If some means
of controlling (extracting) the gas is not used, the gas can migrate off-site, causing problems to the
surrounding environment.
Figure 14.31 is a schematic of landfill operations and processes. In broad terms these are:

e Landfill design
— Foundation design
— Liner design
— Leachate collection and gas collection
— Drainage design
Filling design
Runoff collection, etc.
— Closure design
Landfill operations
— Waste inventory, loads, types, etc.
— Cell layout
— Cells for hazardous waste
— Cells for non-hazardous waste

Biochemical reactions in landfill

— Biological decay rates
— Slowly biodegradable
— Rapidly biodegradable
— Non-biodegradable
e Leachate management
— Collection
— Treatment
— Monitoring
— Reuse

Landfill gas management

— Monitoring
— Collection
— Flaring or using
— Quantity and quality

e Environmental monitoring
— Air quality and odour monitoring
— CHy4, H2S, VOCs, etc.
— Groundwater monitoring
— Pests and litter
— Traffic
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676 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

14.11.1 EU Landfill Legislation

The EU Directive on the Landfill of Waste (1995) sets the following objectives: landfilling, as with all
other waste treatment processes, should be controlled and managed in a direct way and so prevent and
limit the potential negative impact on environmental and human health.
Landfills are categorized as being:
® Sites for hazardous waste
e Sites for non-hazardous waste
e Sites for inert waste

Wastes unsuitable for landfilling are defined as:

Liquid wastes incompatible with other wastes
Liquid wastes on their own
Oxidizing, explosive or flammable waste
Infectious wastes
Mixed hazardous and inert for the purpose of dilution
Annexe I of the proposed EU directive sets out the general requirements to be investigated for all
landfills. Among the methodology for controlling leachate from landfills are guidelines for lining
construction. This can be a combination of a geological barrier and a sealing with an artificial bottom.
The recommendation for the geological barrier is:
e Sites for hazardous waste IS il & 10~°? m/s thickness > 5m
e Sites for non-hazardous waste K<1x10~?m/s _ thickness > 1m
e Sites for inert waste I< il x 10-° m/s thickness > 1 m

Sealing with an artificial liner is recommended for hazardous and non-hazardous landfill sites. This
sealing should be accompanied by a drainage layer of at least 0.5m. An exception from the
recommendation requires documentation in an EIA that verifies the exception at the specific location.

14.11.2 Landfill Types

In engineering terms, landfills are of two types:
e Attentuate and disperse sites
e Containment sites
The attentuate and disperse sites were a traditional form of landfilling. The attentuation mechanisms
were dilution and dispersion through pores and microfissures into the underlying saturated zones. It was
not possible to monitor or track the leachate pollutants, and in some areas leachate transport was too
quick, causing poorly diluted leachate to reach surface waters and groundwaters. This type of site is now
unacceptable and does not meet the EU directive requirements. As per the directive, this type of site is still
suitable on the basis of K for inert waste, but the environmental monitoring requirements cannot be
satisfied.
All new landfill sites are containment sites. This is where the wastes, its leachate and gas are isolated
from the surrounding environment. The containment is achieved either by natural clay bottom liners or
synthetic liners or a combination of both. Facilities for leachate and gas collection and removal are
installed and regular monitoring is possible. The containment site is expected to be ‘leak free’.
 SOLID WASTE TREATMENT 677

14.11.3 Landfill Practices

Landfills have been established in at least four different terrain types:

e Excavated cells
e Ground cover
e Depression infill
e Reclaimed land

Excavated cells Excavated cells are suitable where the water table is well below ground level and
ideally more than 1 m below the excavated level. Typically, cells are excavated to depths of 1 to 3m, with
side slope of 2:1 or 3:1 (3 horizontal). The length and width depends on the loading rates and rainfall
intensities. A site in rural Cork with loading rates of 80 t/day uses cells of 100m long, 2 m deep and 10m
wide, at the base. The side slopes are 4:1, giving a top width of 26m. The topsoil of 0.3m deep is
underlain by 30 m of unweathered red boulder clay of permeability 10~° m/s or better (Aherne, 1991). In
excavated cell landfills, the excavated material is used for trench bunding, daily and final cover. The
maximum working area for a landfill can be calculated approximately by
0.1 W
Amax = —— (14.8)
where Amax = Maximum working area
R = average annual rainfall, m
W = average annual waste input, tonnes

This assumes an absorption capacity of the waste of 0.1 m°/tonne.

Example 14.8 Compute the maximum working area if W is 20000 t/yr and R is 1.2 m/yr.
Comment on the result.

Solution

0
Vie se = 1667 m?
If the cell length is 100m, then the average width would be 16.7 m.

Ground level landfills MSW can be deposited on the surface (after topsoil removal) if K is 10-? m/s or
better. This value is achievable either with natural clay liners or synthetic liners. However, it is unlikely
that natural liners will exist so close to the surface. Disadvantages exist for this type of landfill in that
material for daily and final cover is imported and environmental considerations of litter, noise, etc., are
more acute and visible than excavated cells.

Depression infill Most traditional dumpsites were in depressions, either naturally occurring or man-
made. Mining quarries and dry valleys were commonly used. Many problems occur in this type of site,
particularly in relation to surface water control and inadequate impermeability.

Reclaimed land The recent commissioning of the major new landfill site for MSW in Copenhagen
deserves attention in that the site is on the coast on reclaimed land. The tidal range is about 2m. An
embankment separates the landfill from the open sea. The site invert is 0.5 m below sea-level and designed
and established for leachate collection. However, in the event of failure of the lining system, seawater will
leak into the landfill (due to water pressure) and leachate will not leak out.
678 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

14.11.4 Landfill Gas

Landfill gas and leachate are the result of biochemical reactions within the landfill site. The parameters
relevant to the production of gas and leachate, in terms of quantities and quality, are:

e Organic matter feedstock

e Rain infiltration
e Anaerobic environment within the landfill
e Age of landfill
Landfill gas is produced in an anaerobic environment within the landfill and the composition of the gas is
particularly dependent on the composition and age of the wastes. Table 14.27 shows a typical landfill gas
composition. These values vary with age and content of landfill. An idealized description of the
metabolism of a landfill is shown in Fig. 14.32 and is considered to consist of four sequential phases:
e Initial aerobic phase
e First transition stage
e Second transition stage
e Methane phase

Initial aerobic phase This phase will only take a few days to a few weeks. During this time, O2 is
allowed to diffuse into the waste or the original content of O2 is being used up, as some of the more easily
degradable organics are being broken down (non-lignin wastes). The result is that CO, begins to be
generated with a temperature increase, sometimes of 15 to 20°C. Aerobic conditions continue while O> is
still available.

First transition stage This follows the aerobic phase. Here anaerobic conditions begin to develop. This
stage can also be called the acid stage as the pH decreases to 4 to 6, due to the development of organic

Table 14.27 Typical landfill gas composition

Typical value Observed

Component (% volume) maximum

Methane 63.8 ile

Carbon dioxide 33.6 89.3
Oxygen 0.16 20.93
Nitrogen 2.4 80.3
Hydrogen 0.05 2a
Carbon monoxide 0.001
Saturated hydrocarbons 0.005 0.074
Unsaturated hydrocarbons 0.009 0.048
Halogenated compounds 0.000 02 0.032
Hydrogen sulphide 0.000 02 0.0014
Organosulphur compounds 0.00001 0.028
Alcohols 0.127
Component
Temperature, °C 38-S0
Specific gravity 1.02—1.06
Moisture content Saturated
HHV (Hawf), kJ/L 15-38}

+ The value of 38 kJ/L is the energy value of pure methane while the low
value (15) corresponds to biogas with its many contaminants.
Adapted from Mortensen, 1995
 SOLID WASTE TREATMENT 679

100

Gas(%
volume)
by
composition

Leachate
characteristics

Phase 1 2 3 4

Figure 14.32 Metabolic phases in a landfill site.

acids, firstly as fatty acids, which are later converted to volatile fatty acids (e.g. acetic acid). This stage
lasts from a few weeks to a few months.

Second transition stage In the third stage, the methanogenic bacteria are developed and begin to
convert simple acids like acetic and formic acids and methanol to methane gas. This stage is unstable until
a balance between the acid generation and methane production is established. It is often 3 to 5 years
before the balance between acid generation and the methane production is stable. If the pH is sufficiently
depressed (in stage 2) it takes longer before the process is stabilized, as the optimum conditions for
methanogenesis is pH 6 to 7, which is similar to in-vessel anaerobic digestion.

Methane phase _ The fourth phase is the methanogenic phase where the process is stable because all the
organic acids are being continuously used up by the methanogenic bacteria. This phase is described as:
anaerobic bacteria
CHONS + H20 — H,O + CO, + CH4 + H2 + NH, + HS (14.9)
The products from the stabilization process can be found in the leachate and in the landfill gas. In this
phase, methane and carbon dioxide are each about 45 to 65 per cent of gas by volume.
Methane gas, process biochemistry The generalized biochemical reaction for methane fermentation of
municipal waste given by Emcon Associates (1980) is

C¢H0,Ne (2er
Osd <)H20
oe
di
20 4
de sd de sd
= (Son, + (x(ES = = 5 00:eae Ds

sd sd m
+ (c— =)Nia" + («— 5) HOO. (14.10)

where
d=4n+a—2b—3c (14.11)

s = fraction of waste COD converted to biomass

e = fraction of waste COD converted to CH4
680 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

and

526 () (14.12)
A Leases
where 0, = solids retention time, days
he, = Sox. WOON (a =
f =cell decay rate, d~!
Emcon Associates (1980) assume e = 0.96.

Example 14.9 Determine the methane production rate of MSW if the ultimate analysis without
sulphur but including water is C7) H1s9 O79 N. Assume CHON is 60 per cent of the wet weight of waste.

Solution
(de/8) volume STP
Vol. (L) of CH4/kg waste =
molecular weight of waste/CHON in waste
Molecular weight = 12 x 70+ 150 x 1+70 x 16+1 x 14 = 2124 g/mole
From Eq. (14.11), d = 4n+a— 2b —3c
=4x 70+ 150-2
x 70 —3 x 1 = 287

Moles of CH, per mole of waste, from Eq. (14.10)

de 287 x 0.96
= 34.5
8 8
Volume of methane per unit weight of waste (L/kg)
1534.5 22.266
2124/0.6
= 217 L CH,/kg of wet waste

Values for gas production of MSW range from 150 to 250 L of CH, per kg of wet waste. However, in a
landfill site much less than the above values are obtained and values in the range of 60 + 30 are suggested
by Emcon Associates (1980).

14.11.5 Leachate in Landfills

Leachate is the ‘contaminated’ water in landfills, which arrived at the landfill site through external
precipitation. The chemical composition of typical leachates is shown in Table 14.28 and it must be noted
that there is a range of values for each parameter. Leachate from young sites is much more of a
contaminant than that from mature landfills. With time, the pH moves from slightly acid to neutral, and
the ratio of BOD/COD decreases. The ratio of SO4/Cl also decreases with time. Most of the leachate
collected today is treated with municipal wastewater or, in some cases, specific wastewater plants treat
leachate only. Landfills can be designed with recirculation of leachate from new stages to old stages with
full anaerobic conditions. Such recirculation uses the effect of the anaerobic biological reactor of old
landfills to reduce the high oxygen demand of ‘young’ leachates. This is more ideal in drier climates.
Leachate is conventionally treated on site at an adjacent wastewater treatment plant or transported to
such a plant. In some cases (the drier climates), leachate is collected and sprayed over the landfill site.
This serves to dilute the contamination strength. Leachate is also tested on a regular basis to identify the
strength and its composition. Before being allowed to be treated in a conventional wastewater treatment
plant, the leachate quality should satisfy the standards given in Table 14.29.
 SOLID WASTE TREATMENT 681

Table 14.28 Typical leachate chemical composition

Leachate Leachate Leachate

Parameter ‘young sites’ ‘general’ ‘old sites’
Leachate Units Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong
Conductivity mS/m 500 3000 250 1500
TSS mg/L 500 2500
VSS mg/L 3000 8000 1000 2000
TOC mg/L 3000 15 000 150 750
COD mg O2/L 5000 30 000 1000 5000
BOD; mg O2/L 4000 20 000 200 1000
cls mg/L 1000 3000
SO4— mg S/L 50 400 10 30
Total N mg N/L 500 1500
Ammonia-N mg N/L 200 1200
Total P mg P/L 5 100 5 10
Na mg/L 500 2000
Ca mg/L 500 1500 80 200
Fe mg/L 200 1000 20 100
Cd pg/L 10 100
Ge ug/L 20 1000
Cu pg/L 10 1000
Ni ug/L 50 2000
Pb ug/L 20 1000
Zn mg/L 0.1 10
Phenol mg/L 0.5 5
Oil/grease mg/L 2 20
From Christensen et a/., 1982 and Mortensen, 1993

Table 14.29 Proposed EU leachate standards for hazardous

and inert waste

Hazardous waste Inert waste

Parameter range range
pH 4-13 4-13
TOC 40-220 mg/L < 200 mg/L
Arsenic (II) 0.2-1.0 mg/L <0.1 mg/L
Lead 0.4-2.0 mg/L
Cadmium 0.1-0.5 mg/L
Chromium (VI) 0.1-0.5 mg/L
Copper 2-10 mg/L Total < 5 mg/L
Nickel 0.4-0.2 mg/L
Mercury 0.02-0.1 mg/L
Zinc 2-10 mg/L
Phenols 20-100 mg/L < 10 mg/L
Fluoride 10-50 mg/L <5 mg/L
Ammonium 0.2-1 g N/L <50 mg/L
Chloride 1.2-6 g/L ral aan
Cyanide 0.2-1 mg/L <0.1 mg/L
Sulphate 0.2-1 g/L <1 g/L
Nitrite 6-30 mg/L <3 mg/L
AOX+ 0.6-0.3 mg/L <0.3 mg/L
Solventst 0.02-0.10 mg Cl/L < 10 pg Cl/L
Pesticidest 1-5 pg/L <0.5 pg/L

+ Adsorbed organically bound halogens.

t Chlorinated.
682 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Leachate collection The drainage system has to be connected to some wells and, perhaps, pump
stations. These installations are dangerous to enter when landfilling has started. This is due to methane
gases from the landfill and the absence of oxygen. These problems have to be taken into account in the
design stage, as well as in the day-to-day operation of the landfill. If the leachate cannot be pumped
directly to the wastewater treatment plant, a storage tank should be provided. This should have a capacity
for a maximum flow produced when a new landfill stage has been commissioned. A typical vertical
section showing the liner composition is shown in Figs 15.23 and 15.24.

14.11.6 Water Balance in Landfills

The amount of leachate produced in a landfill depends on its water balance, which is
LC = PR + SRT — SRO — EP — ST (14.13)
where LC = leachate
PR = precipitation
SRO = surface runoff
SRT = surface runto (landfills should be designed so that water
outside the site should not enter the site and then SRT = 0)
EP = evapotranspiration
ST = change in water storage

In catchment hydrology, the water balance equation can be simplified if the time frame is, say, a year,
when ST is taken as zero. However, this simplification is not possible in landfills as EP and ST keep
changing due to biochemical reactions and ongoing loading of the site. The change in water storage, ST, is
not simply a change due to infiltration variations; it also needs to account for water consumed in the
landfill in the production of landfill gas and water lost as gas vapour and also account for water introduced
to the landfill by ‘wet’ solids, ‘wet’ sludges and ‘wet’ cover material. It is the objective of the design of
landfill sites (and the EU directive on landfilling) to minimize the quantities of leachate. In a continuously
moist climate like Ireland, this requires detailed landfill design with specific attention to top covers and
liners and leachate collection. The elements of water balance are shown in Fig. 14.33. The computer
program HELP by Schroeder (1994) is a hydrological simulation package that can be used to determine
the hydrologic water balance of landfills and thus investigate the leachate volumes generated.

ee TRAE
cece

“Wet” cover ee SU
‘Wet’ }matter ‘Wet’
solids sludges

4 Live 4
anaerobic
Water consumed
reactor S&S
in gas production eres
as water vapour

Re
Figure 14.33 Elements of a landfill water balance.
 SOLID WASTE TREATMENT 683

In landfills, the water is absorbed in two ways:

e For anaerobic metabolism
® To decrease the water deficit

The water consumption in MeO processes is very small. Total biological degradation requires
approximately 65 to 80 litres per m” of waste (of density 700 to 900 kg/m’). If the degradation time is 50
years this requires only 2 mm of water annually.

Example 14.10 Compute the moisture deficit in a landfill for each m? of waste if the parameters are
Density of waste at time of deposit = 800 kg/m?
Field capacity = 60% by weight
Water content of waste being deposited = 30% by weight

Solution At the time of deposit the waste characteristics are

Water content = 30% of 800 kg = 240kg
Solids content = 70% of 800 kg = 560kg
For field capacity:

Total solids = 40% = 560kg

Water capacity = 60% = 840kg
Water deficit = 840 - 240 = 600 kg

There is a moisture deficit of 600 kg/m? .

During the deposit period, the water deficit will decrease as there is little evident evapotranspiration
and in well-managed landfills there should be no surface runoff. Because of the difficulties and likely low
values, the change in water content of landfills is often neglected in water balance/leachate computations.

14.11.7 Geotechnical Aspects of Landfill Sites

The selection of a landfill site, while depending on many factors already discussed, will be especially
dependent on the soil conditions at the invert level of the landfill. The objective is to site a landfill on soil
that has a very low hydraulic conductivity, < 10° m/s, so as to prevent leachate penetration through the
unsaturated zone and into the groundwater, thus causing contamination.
Field permeability tests are used to measure the in situ hydraulic conductivity. The test is usually
conducted in a test boring or a monitoring well. The test is influenced by the position of the water table,
type of material, depth of test zone, hydraulic conductivity of the test zone (Oweis and Khera, 1990). The
test may be either a constant head test, a variable head test or a pump test, described in conventional soil
mechanics textbooks. The hydraulic conductivity can also be determined from laboratory tests and typical
values are given in Chapter 4.
If the invert level of the proposed landfill site does not satisfy K < 10~° m/s and a thickness of
> 1m, then additional protection beyond the in situ soil material is required. This may mean excavating
the existing soil and replacing with better clay. The EU directive requires 0.5m for this layer.
Improvement can also be made by using bentonite on top of existing clay or by using a synthetic liner.

Lining system To avoid or minimize the seepage of leachate from landfills, it has become general
practice to provide a protective lining system. Depending on the type of waste to be disposed of and the
sensitivity of the location, the liner can be either a single or multilayer system. Liners can be made of:
684 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

e Naturally in situ clay

e Imported clay
e Bentonite-improved earth
e Synthetic

In situ liners As a rule-of-thumb, in situ clay liners should be not less than 2 m thick. Furthermore, the
top 25 to 30 cm should be kneaded and compacted again to avoid non-homogeneous areas in the surface.
The requirement for impermeability varies from country to country. In some countries the requirement is
that it be better than 107 '° m/s, in others better than 10~°? m/s.

Imported clay Imported clay should be applied for a minimum total depth of 0.5 m thick and the clay
has to be placed in layers of not more than 20 cm at a time, with careful compaction between each layer
and of course k should be <10~° m/s.

Bentonite Bentonite is a clay material with swelling qualities. It can be used to improve the
impermeability of different types of sand, clay or soil materials. Bentonite can be spread on the surface
alone or together with some other soil materials. Several companies marketing bentonite install it between
two layers of cardboard or geotextile. The guidelines for thickness and impermeability of clay or bentonite
liners varies from country to country. A usual requirement is 10~’ to 107 '°m/s. An impermeability at
10~'° m/s can, in conjunction with a good drainage system, remove more than 95 per cent of all leachate
generated. If leachate is not removed immediately, the thickness of the liner is of importance because it
provides resistance to hydraulic pressure.

Synthetic liners Many synthetic liners are available. Most of them are made of polyethylene (LDPE or
HDPE). They are normally available in thicknesses of 0.5 to 2.0mm. It is very important that all
constructions and operations with synthetic liners, including the welding process, should be carried out
and controlled very carefully. The liner should be protected underneath with sand or geotextile. The layout
and the welding, melting or gluing have to be done very carefully. Finally, the first layer should consist of
selected waste. Transport should not be allowed on top of liners before at least 1 m of waste has been
deposited.

Drainage and protection system The surface of the liners should be drained carefully. For that
purpose, a combined protection and drainage system has to be established on the top of the liner. For
drainage purposes, pipes and/or gravels are used, covered with small stones and finally protected with a
layer of rough sand of at least 50 cm thick.

14.11.8 Design of Landfills

Due to potential negative impact and conflicting interests, the location of the landfill is a significant
element in the general process of planning, design and construction. As landfills always have some impact
on their surroundings, it is not possible to find the perfect site. The task is to balance all interests to find
the best compromise location. The pre-planning stage of a landfill should include not only an
Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) (see Chapter 19), but also a Health Impact Statement (HIS). The
interests to take into account include:
e Ecological and biological conditions
¢ Geological and hydrogeological conditions
e Existing and potential water supply sources
— groundwater
— surface water
— other water recipients
 SOLID WASTE TREATMENT 685

e Historical and archaelogical

e Recreational
¢ Other planning, e.g. town and industrial development, agriculture

These interests need to be balanced with infrastructure requirements:

e Access possibilities
e Transport distance
e Treatment possibilities of the leachate, e.g. transport distance

These interests should be determined and evaluated in the planning and location phase. This phase can be
divided into elements:

e Pre-investigation and draft design

e Planning
e Selection
e Decision

The planning task is to determine all interests in a certain area. In principle, they can be drawn on a
map, each with its own colour or shade. Location with no conflicts or a minimum of conflicts can then be
selected and a number of potential sites can be identified for further evaluation and final decision. For
selection and final decision, it is useful to use a ranking system to select the most suitable of the sites. In
the ranking system, one of the interests may be predominant. When only a few potential sites remain,
more detailed information on each site has to be evaluated, and a proposal of ranking has to be made for
the final political decision.
After the decision has been made, pre-investigation has to give information for the design and to
verify that the assumptions on which the decision was based were correct. At any point in the planning
procedure, it may become obvious that the selection has been inadequate, and then it can be necessary to
reconsider the situation and to supplement with new potential site locations.
When a suitable site has been located, the landfill has to be designed. This is now a specialized area
covering the disciplines of structures, hydraulics and hydrogeology. As regards the surroundings, the site
should be landscaped. When the shape has been decided, the useful volume can be estimated. The site can
be planned with fences, embankments and planting to surround the site. The access roads, receiving areas,
garage and staff facilities can be designed. Furthermore, the deposit area has to be designed with a lining
system, leachate collection and storage system, and a gas collection or a ventilation system. Finally, a
monitoring system (for water quality of leachate, gas quality of methane, hydrology and hydrological
parameters) has to be planned and implemented. For some parameters, the monitoring system has to be
implemented before the establishment of the site, for instance monitoring groundwater.

Receiving area A well-designed site should have a receiving area with facilities, including:

¢ Weighbridge for recording incoming waste according to type and origin

* Office and staff building with recording system for the weighbridge, dining-room, toilets and shower
rooms for staff
® Garage for compaction machinery, excavator, etc., with facilities for repair, oil changing, cleaning, ete.
Containers where waste from individuals can be received so that they do not have to go to the deposit
area
® Storage facilities for small amounts of oil and chemical waste.

An outline layout of a receiving area is shown in Fig. 14.34.

686 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

ee Access road ———

Containers
for municipal
drop-off
centre

Office and
staff building

Deposit
area of landfill

Figure 14.34 Receiving area of a landfill site.

Internal roads

1. The internal roads should be constructed for heavy traffic with a pavement all the way to the deposit
area.
2. Temporary roads at the deposit area can normally be made of construction debris.
3. Roads for compactors have to be made with a surface of stone or gravel due to the steel teeth on the
wheels.

Deposit area Normally the design of the deposit area can profitably be divided into several stages. The
number, size and order of the stages have to consider practical local conditions, daily amounts of waste
and a practical minimum size for handling. The demarcation has to eliminate exchange with surface water
and create a boundary for the waste storage. A fence is erected to eliminate wind-blown litter in the form
of paper and plastic and to protect the surroundings against noise and an unpleasant appearance.

Control and monitoring Due to the fact that landfills can have a negative impact on the environment, a
control and monitoring system is required. The control system has to ensure that banned categories of
waste are not disposed of on the site. These may include hazardous waste properly destined for other
disposal routes, e.g. incineration. Simultaneously, records of the amount and type of the waste should be
made.
The monitoring system should cover:
e Leachate
e Surface runoff
e Recipients
© Groundwater
e Noise
 SOLID WASTE TREATMENT 687

Operation Before a landfill site is commissioned, an operating manual should be produced and the staff
instructed in the correct operation of the site. The manual should include instructions for:
e Receiving control
Recording the amount and type of waste received
Rates and rating system for receiving waste
Instruction for deposit of the first layer of waste
Routines for deposit of different types of waste, including daily cover
Regulation of traffic and behaviour at the site, with regard to occupational safety
Who is to be admitted to the site and how they should be instructed with regard to occupational safety
Regulations and routines for work with leachate
Routines for cleaning the roads and site, including collection of littering paper
Routines to avoid dust and smoke from the site
Routines for fire control
An operation manual may seem like an obvious requirement, but experience shows that only the best-
managed landfills implement such a practice.

Co-disposal Landfills with organic biodegradable waste act as an anaerobic digester, and this fact can
be exploited in co-disposal. The philosophy of co-disposal is that organic solvents and other organic
chemicals can be degraded anaerobically due to their long retention time in the landfill. Similar arguments
are used for fixation of heavy metals in, for example, sludge from galvanizing industries. The anaerobic
reduction of SO,” to S*~ can be used for fixation of heavy metals as heavy soluble sulphide. The
counter-argument is that nobody can predict with 100 per cent accuracy what new processes will take over
when the biological processes end after 100 or more years. It is therefore not possible to predict whether
any of the heavy metals will become mobile.

Example 14.11 Determine the area required for a new landfill site with a projected life of 20 years
for a population of 150000 generating 25kg per household per week. Assume the density of waste is
500kg/m?*. A planning restriction limits the height of the landfill to 10m.

Solution Assume 3.5 persons per household.

Waste generated = ee x a = 1071 tonnes/week

= 55 700 tonnes/year

Volume of landfill space required = nee = 111 x 10°m*/year

If the height is 10m,

Required land area = ee = 11100 m?

ala

This value will need to increase by about 50 per cent to allow for daily cover, roads, receiving areas,
fencing, etc. Therefore,
Required area for 20 years = 1.1 x 20 x 1.5
= 33 ha

Example 14.12 Compute the volumetric flow rate through a natural clay liner if the area is 1 ha and
the liner thickness is 1 m with a hydraulic conductivity of 10-°m/s. Assume 0.5m of head of water.
688 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Table 14.30 Options for integrated waste management of MSW

Waste
Component minimization Recycle Reuse Incineration Compost Biogas Landfill

Food and organic A vf aff Cc B ‘ff

Paper and cardboard A B c vf aif A.
Plastics A “if B C J
Glass A B C
Metals F A B C
Metal NF A B C /
Textiles A B ¢€ A). N/,
Others A x

A=most desirable option, B=next most desirable option, C =less desirable, ,/ = possible but undesirable.

Solution From Darcy’s law,

—~KASdh = KA"h
Q dL L
1.5
— 10-9 m/s x 104m?
lm
=a 10k m/s
Therefore
O = 1.296 m?/day

14.12 INTEGRATED WASTE MANAGEMENT

Integrated waste management utilizes a variety of technologies to treat and dispose of its waste. Table
14.30 indicates some options for the broad listed components of MSW.
It is seen from a qualitative assessment that waste minimization should figure highly. However, it is
not currently possible to minimize to zero. In the intervening period, the ideal programme might have the
following priorities:
1. Minimize all component waste fractions.
2. Recycle what is possible of paper, cardboard, glass, non-ferrous metals and textiles.
3. Reuse plastics, ferrous metals and glass.
4. Biogas or compost the food fraction of MSW.
5. Incinerate only the remaining plastics or food waste.
6. Landfill only the remaining 20 per cent.

14.13 PROBLEMS

14.1 Is the domestic garbage being adequately quantified in your area? If so, compile:
(a) the population being served (numbers of persons and numbers of households,
(b) the total weight (and volume where applicable) being collected.
What is the waste production per person and per household in tonnes/year?

14.2 For Problem 14.1, compile a waste classification as per: food waste, paper and cardboard, plastics,
glass, metals and yard wastes.
 SOLID WASTE TREATMENT 689

14.3 Use the energy content rates of Table 14.15 and Khan’s equation (14.4) to compute the energy
value of the following waste:

Component % by weight

Food 35
Paper, cardboard 35
Plastics 8
Glass 5
Metals 4
Yard wastes 10
Other 3

If the total annual weight is 150000 tonnes, what is the potential energy value of this waste?
14.4 A domestic waste has been analysed and found to be: C429 H1959 Ogso Ni4 S. Compute the energy
(low heat value).
14.5 ‘Recycling is nothing more than the heavy hand of legislation cramping the innovation and
freedom of industry and entrepreneurs who materially improve our lifestyle.’ Discuss in support of
this view.
14.6 Review the paper, “MRF design—an uncertain act’ by Hess (1993).
14.7 Use a draughting package (AutoCad or the like) to optimize the collection route for the following
residential development. Assume the following hold:
(a) frequency of collection once per week at kerbside,
(b) household generation, 25 kg/week at 300 kg/m?,
(c) a one man crew on a 10m? truck.

20 20 20
10 A 10 B 10 G

To
20 20 20
MRF

20 E 20 F 20 G

50
10 H
Public Park
No Collection

ee
To Landfill
690 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Assume the truck can only ride on one side of the street and the driving position is closest to the
kerbside.
14.8 Estimate the composition of the recoverable materials in a kerbside recycling programme if an
MRF exists for separating and processing paper, cardboard, aluminium cans, metal tins, glass and
mixed plastics. Use the data of Example 14.3.
14.9 Outline in flow chart form the layout of an MRF for source separated MSW. Provide detailed flow
charts for paper, aluminium, tin, glass and plastics.
14.10 Review, the paper ‘Understanding the total waste stream, Fullerton, California’ by Hay et al.
(1993).
14.11 Discuss the economics of using a transfer station for an urban area with a population of 150 000 if
the landfill site (assume all waste goes to landfill) is 40 km from the centre of the collection area,
which has a radius of 5 km.
14.12 Design a drop-off centre for Problem 14.11. Estimate the costs of setting up a centre, exclusive of
land purchase. Also estimate the operational costs.
14.13 For Problem 14.12, what costs per kg of weight delivered should be levied by the local authority if
set-up costs are to be paid off in 6 years? Assume that the land purchase cost is ECU 200000.
14.14 For the compost exercise of Fig. 14.2, produce a material if there is no recycle. Assume the input
compost mix (straw or wood chips) is 15 tons of 23 per cent DS sludge cake plus 45 tons of 60 per
cent DS wood chips. The influent mix is 40 per cent VS.
14.15 For the waste composition of Example 14.3, consider the annual waste generated as 111500
tonnes/year (factor by 10). Estimate how much energy can be produced if all is incinerated.
Assume a net calorific value of 8.4 MJ/kg. Estimate the calorific value if:
(a) all the paper is recycled,
(b) the food waste is retrieved for composting.
14.16 The flue gas from the incinerator of Problem 14.15 is 7 Nm® flue gas perkg of waste. If the
chloride content is 500 mg/N m’, estimate the minimum amount of Ca(OH), required to reduce the
chloride content to 50 mg/N m°. Also determine the amount of Ca(Cl), produced in a dry or semi-
dry flue gas cleaning process.
14.17 For the waste composition of Example 14.3, consider an annual generation rate of 111500
tonnes/year. Develop an integrated waste management strategy for the full amount of the waste.
Identify the volumes, etc., going to recycling, composting, anaerobic digestion, incineration,
landfill, etc.
14.18 Design a landfill for the full quantity of wastes (111500 tonnes/year) if the expected life is to be 20
years. By comparison, then design a landfill (size) for that portion of waste of Problem 14.17 that
you designated to go to landfill.
14.19 Determine the amount of leachate produced annually if the waste of Example 14.3 is landfilled in
total on a new lined site of 5 ha. Assume that the AAR is 1000 mm/year and there is no SRT. State
other assumptions.
14.20 Determine the theoretical and practical volume of the CH, yield for Problem 14.19.

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Aherne, J. (1991) ‘The control of waste operations in North Cork’, Proceedings of First Irish Environmental Engineering
Conference, University College Cork, Ireland.
Bagchi, A. (1990) Design, Construction and Monitoring of Sanitary Landfill, John Wiley, Chichester.
Cal Recovery and Peer Consultants (1993) Material Recovery Facility Design Manual, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.
Cheremisinoff, P. N., K. A. Gigliello and T. K. O’Neill (1984) Groundwater Leachate, Modelling, Monitoring, Sampling, Technomic
Publishers, London.
Christensen, Th., et al. (1982) ‘Controlled landfill issues (Danish), in Teknisk forlag.
Collins, M. (1992) “Waste minimization programme for a hospital’, NUI thesis for Graduate Diploma in Environmental Engineering,
University College Cork, Ireland.
 SOLID WASTE TREATMENT 691

alae of the European Communities (1991) ‘Proposal for a Council directive on the landfill of waste’, Com. (91),
Brussels,
ay.
Corbitt, R. A. (1990) Standard Handbook on Environmental Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Crawford, J. F. and P. G. Smith (1985) Landfill Technology, Butterworths, Oxford.
Cunningham, W. and B. Saigo (1990) Environmental Science—A Global Concern, Wm. C. Brown, Dubuque, Iowa.
Cunningham, W. P. and B. W. Saigo (1992) Environmental Science, W & B Publishers.
Danish EPA (1994) Biogas from Municipal Solid Waste—Overview of Systems and Markets for Anaerobic Digestion of MSW.
International Energy Agency Agreement, Herning Municipalities, Herning, Denmark.
Davis, M. L. and D. A. Cornwall (1991) Introduction to Environmental Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Dennison, G. J. and V. A. Dodd (1992) ‘Recent experience of kerb side recycling in Dublin’, Proc. Instn Civ. Engrs, Mun. Engr, 93,
143-150, September.
Department of the Environment (UK) (1983) ‘Wastes from tanning, leather dressing and fellmongering’, Waste Management Paper
No. 17, Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, London.
Department of the Environment (UK) (1986) ‘Landfilling and wastes’, Waste Management Paper No. 26, Her Majesty’s Stationery
Office, London.
Duane, B. M. (1991) ‘Preliminary feasibility study of a source separation programme and composting plant in North Cork’, NUI
thesis for Graduate Diploma in Environmental Engineering, University College Cork, Ireland.
EC Directive 89/369/EEC (1989) ‘Council directive on the prevention of air pollution from new municipal waste incineration
plants’.
EC Directive 89/429/EEC (1989) ‘Council directive on the reduction of air pollution from existing municipal waste incineration
plants’, No. L. 203/50, 15 July.
EC (1992) ‘The state of the environment in the Community—overview’, Com. (92), 23 final, Vol. III, Brussels, 27 March.
EC 92/C263/01 (1992) ‘Proposal for a Council directive on packing and packaging waste’, No. C 263/1, 12 October.
EC 93/C129/08 (1993) “Opinion on the proposal for a Council directive on packing and packaging waste’, No. C129/18, 5 May.
EC 91/C190/1. (1995). Proposed Council Directive on landfill of waste. No. C190, 1995. Unpublished proposed directive.
Emcon Associates (1980) Methane Generation and Recovery from Landfills, Ann Arbor Science, Michigan.
Environmental Information Service (ENFO) (1990) ‘Environmental protection fact and action sheets’, The Environmental
Information Service, Dublin.
Feacham, R. G., D. J. Bradley, H. Garelick and D. D. Mara (1983) Sanitation and Disease—Health Aspects of Excreta and
Wastewater Management, John Wiley, New York.
Flynn, J. D. (1992) ‘Landfill gas’, NUI thesis for Graduate Diplonia in Environmental Engineering, University College Cork,
Ireland.
Garrett, L. (1995) The Coming Plague: Newly Emerging Diseases in a World out of Balance, Penguin Books, New York.
Goldman, L. J., A. S. Damle, C. M. Northerm, L. I. Greenfield, G. L. Kingsburg and R. S. Truesdale (1990) Clay Liners for Waste
Management Facilities, Pollution Technology Review No. 178, Noyes Data Corporation (NDC), New Jersey.
Hartless, B. (1992) Methane and Associated Hazards to Construction—A Bibliography, BRE and CIRIA Special Publication 79.
Building Research Establishment (BRE), Garston, Watford, UK.
Haug, R. T. (1980) Compost Engineering—Principles and Practice, Ann Arbor Science, Michigan.
Hay, J., A. Wesner, M. McGee and G. Buell (1993) ‘Understanding the total waste stream, Fullerton, California’, Biocycle, July,
Emmaus, PA, USA.
Hennessy, A. (1991) ‘Solid waste management for Cork City’, NUI thesis for Graduate Diploma in Environmental Engineering,
University College Cork, Ireland.
Hess, S. (1993) ‘MRF design—an uncertain act’, Journal in MSW Management, October.
Jackson, M. H., G. P. Morris, P. G. Smith and J. F. Crawford (1990) Environmental Health Reference Book, Butterworth Heinemann,
London.
Kaiser, E. R. (1964) Proceedings of National Incineration Conference, Denmark.
Kayhanian, M., K. Lindernauer, S. Hardy and G. Tchobanoglous (1991), “The recovery of energy and production of compost from
the biodegradeable fraction of MSW using the high solids anaerobic digestion/acrobic biology process’. University of
California at Davis Report. Civil Engineering Dept., Davis, CA, USA.
Khan, Z., Ali, and Z. H. Abu-Ghurrah (1991) ‘New approaches for estimating energy content in MSW’, ASCE Journal of
Environmental Engineering. 117 (3).
Kharbanda, O. P. and E. A. Stellworthy (1990) Waste Management—Towards a Sustainable Society, Gower.
Kosaric, N. and R. Velayudhan (1991) ‘Biorecovery processes: fundamental and economic considerations’, in Bioconversion of
Waste Materials to Industrial Products, A. M. Martin (ed.), Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Leach, B. A. and H. K. Goodgar (1991) Building on Derelict Land, CIRIA Special Publication 78.
Mabb G. T. (1993) ‘Waste—A duty of care’, Proc. Instn Civ. Engrs, Mun. Engr, 98, 49-52, March. _—
Macdonald, C. (1991) Municipal Solid Waste Conversion to Energy—a Summary of Current Research and Development Activity in
Denmark, Environmental Safety Centre, AEA Technology, Harwell, UK.
Martin, A. M. (1991) Bioconversion of Waste Materials to Industrial Products, Elsevier, Oxford.
692 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Mortensen, E. (1990-93) ‘Introduction to solid waste’, Lecture notes to Graduate Diploma in Environmental Engineering, University
College Cork, Ireland.
Noyes, R. (1991) Handbook of Pollution Control, Noyes Publications (NP), New Jersey.
O’Brien, M. (1993) ‘The role of Cork County Council in the disposal of refuse in North Cork’, Local Authority News, 9 (2).
Organic Waste Systems N.V. (1990) Dranco-Dry Anaerobic Composting, Organic Waste Systems N.V., Ghent, Belgium.
Oweis, J. S. and R. P. Khera (1990) Geotechnology of Waste Management, Butterworths, Oxford.
Peavy, H., D. Row and G. Tchobanoglous (1985) Environmental Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Peyton, R. L. and P. R. Schroeder (1990) ‘Evaluation of landfill liner designs’, ASCE Journal of Environmental Engineering, 116 (3).
Robinson, W. D. (1986) The Solid Waste Handbook—A Practical Guide, John Wiley, Chichester.
Schroeder, P. R. (1984) The Hydrologic Evaluation of Landfill Performance (HELP) Model, Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory
Office of Research and Development, USEPA, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA.
Smoley, C. K. (1993) Material Recovery Faulty Design Manual, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.
Suess, M. J. (1985) Solid Waste Management Selected Topics, World Health Organization (WHO) Regional Office for Europe,
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Tchobanoglous, G., H. Theisen and S. Vigil (1993) Integrated Solid Waste Management—Engineering Principles and Management
Issues, McGraw-Hill, New York.
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Firenze, Italy.
 CHAPTER

FIFTEEN
HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT

15.1 INTRODUCTION

The USEPA (40 CFR 261.20—261.24) considers a substance hazardous if it exhibits one or more of the
following characteristics:
e Ignitable—the substance causes or enhances fires
¢ Reactive—the substance reacts with others and may explode
¢ Corrosive—the substance destroys tissues or metals
e Toxic—the substance is a danger to health, water, food and air

This definition suggests the ubiquitous nature of hazardous waste. It is found in our homes, our factories,
our workplaces, our farms and in the natural environment. The identification of whether a waste is
hazardous or not is a complex process and is examined in Sec. 15.2.
The public perception of hazardous waste is that it is a problem and those that generate hazardous
waste must be somehow stopped from this nefarious practice. Contaminated sites are viewed with equal
distaste. However, as engineers and trained problem solvers, it is our task to address the treament and safe
disposal of hazardous waste and remediation of contaminated sites in the same rigorous way as we would
address the problem of delivering quality drinking water to a metropolis. Hazardous waste and
contaminated sites are engineering problems that can be solved, or at least diminished, by engineering and
scientific principles. The first ethic of engineering is to encourage industry and waste generators to reduce
or eliminate the waste streams, by waste minimization techniques discussed in Chapter 18. If hazardous
waste is still generated after state-of-the-art technology and waste minimization techniques, then our tasks
include:
e Identifying the hazardous waste streams (solid, liquid or gaseous)
e For each stream, quantifying the wastes (e.g. m°/day of liquid waste in a pipe)
e For each stream, characterizing the waste according to whether its form is
— Physical
— Chemical
— Biological

693
694 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

e Recommending waste minimization measures

e Identifying hazardous waste treatment options (e.g. incineration, landfill, etc.)
e Specifying safe disposal routes for waste residues of treated waste

In addition, we must address the problems associated with the transport and storage of hazardous
waste. However, before examining any of the above, we must first define hazardous waste and what items
of waste, be they industrial, commercial, household, medical, agricultural, etc., are considered hazardous.
The objective of this chapter then is to examine those points identified in the previous paragraphs. This
chapter aims to be more qualitative than the previous chapters. This is due to the complexity of the
hazardous waste treatment process and our effort here is meant to be introductory. See Wentz, 1995,
Perry et al., 1984 and Freeman (1992) or any specific engineering text on hazardous waste for further
details.

15.1.1 Love Canal

In history there have been many cases of irresponsible hazardous waste management. Before defining
hazardous waste, it is instructive to discuss the story of one of the more serious incidents in the history
of hazardous waste. In the following pages, the ‘Love Canal’ incident is described as an example of
what can happen even when the waste generator is careful.
The Love Canal is near Niagara Falls in the United States. The place is named after William T. Love
who went to Niagara Falls in 1892 where he planned to build a canal to provide inexpensive transport to
the local industrial community. Excavation work started in 1894 but was never completed and in 1910 the
project was finally abandoned. The control of the site was later taken over by the firm Hooker
Electrochemical, which intended to utilize the site for other purposes.
From 1941 onwards this company disposed of 20000 tonnes of waste from their chlorine alkaline
process and other processes, into the unfinished canal. The canal, merely a ditch, was very suitable for
waste disposal, its sides being lined with an impermeable quality clay. The ditch was filled with waste and
the whole area capped with some 3 ms of clay. The company fulfilled all the regulations (at the time) for
the construction of hazardous waste dumping sites with a broad margin of safety. The site, when filled,
was no longer used by the company, but it had over the years become an item of valuable real estate and,
as such, attracted the attention of the Niagara Falls Board of Education. They proposed to build a school
and a park on the site. The Hooker Company sold the site to the Board for ‘one dollar’ and stated in the
deed that:
The premises ... have been filled with waste products and the Board [of Education] assumes all risk and
liability ... no claim, suit, action or demand by the [Board] for injury or death.

This was in 1953. Following development of the site, some 7700 m° of the cap was removed, reducing the
thickness of the cap to as little as 1 m. The Board had further plans for the site and in 1957 they proceeded
in transferring land to private landowners with the purpose of developing the site into a residential area.
The Hooker Company protested against the development plans and stated that:
... the land was not suitable for construction where underground facilities would be necessary ... [Hooker] could
not prevent the Board from selling the land, but the property should not be divided for the purpose of building
homes ... [they] hoped that no one would be injured.

This was not the only warning to the Board of Education not to proceed with the plans. More
followed, but in spite of this the City constructed storm sewers (in 1957 and 1960) across the landfill site,
thus severing the top cap and the side walls of the landfill.
The first reports of skin irritations and burns started in the late 1950s. The first media reports of
chemicals seeping into the basements of some of the homes sited on the edge of the landfill, allegedly
causing a multitude of illnesses, was made public in October 1976 in the local press, The Niagara
 HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT 695

efforts of the authorities to try to identify the problems and rectify them, their action came too late and
was not regarded as sufficient, at least by the new residents in Love Canal. In 1978 the nearby school was
temporarily closed and pregnant women and children living in the immediate vicinity were evacuated. The
authorities were also more or less forced to buy out 250 families, while the remediation work on the canal
site started.
In 1979 a number of birth defects and miscarriages were registered in the population in Love Canal.
The authorities failed to ascribe the illnesses to the seepage of toxic gases to the basements of private
homes or to the ambient air. Despite the repeated warnings from the Hooker Company, the state of New
York filed a US$ 635 million lawsuit against Hooker’s then parent company Occidental Petroleum. In
addition to this, the mass media created such a heated public opinion that the case even became an issue in
the American presidential election campaign in 1980. In the end the USEPA went into action with a
comprehensive cleanup programme. The Love Canal is only one in many tens of thousands of landfill
sites containing hazardous waste situated all over the world—waiting to be identified.

15.1.2 The Seveso Dioxin Accident

On Saturday morning 10 July 1976 in the little town of Seveso, 20 km north of Milan in Northern Italy, a
release of approximately 2 kg of the extremely toxic compound 3,4,7,8-tetradibenzoparadioxine occurred
in a runaway chemical reaction in a factory producing hexachlorophene and the herbicide 2,4,5-
trichlorophenoxy acetic acid. The cloud of dioxin resulted in as many as 37 000 people being exposed to
measurable amounts of the chemical. This accident, which did not cause any human fatalities at the time
(although many animals died), triggered so much attention internationally that work began shortly
afterwards to draw up regulations for all types of facilities handling dangerous compounds, whether
storing, manufacturing or treating them. The Seveso accident is described in more detail in Wentz (1995).

The Seveso Directive or the EC Major Accident Directive On 24 June 1982 the European
Community passed the Council Directive on the major accident hazards of certain industrial activities.
This Directive was later to be known as the ‘Seveso Directive’, (Council Directive 82/501 /EEC with
amendments 87/216/EEC and 88/610/EEC). It was the first EC law requiring hazardous waste
information to be provided and exchanged across national frontiers to both the public and governments.
This Directive is meant to be protection for the public and the environment, and also for safety and
protection in the workplace. It calls for particular attention to be given to certain industrial activities
capable of causing major accidents. Such industrial accidents have already occurred in the European
Union and have had serious consequences for workers and, more generally, for the public and the
environment, e.g. the Sandoz accident in Switzerland in 1989 caused extensive environmental damage to
the ecology of the River Rhine.
This Directive also regulates industrial activity which involves, or may involve, dangerous
substances and which, in the event of a major accident, may have serious consequences for man and the
environment. The manufacturer of a hazardous compound must take all necessary measures to prevent
such accidents and to limit their consequences. In doing so, the training and information of persons
working on an industrial site plays an important preventative role.
If a manufacturer implements industrial activities that include compounds that are particularly
dangerous in certain quantities, the competent authorities must be informed about the intended activities,
including information concerning the substances in question, enabling them to take the necessary steps to
reduce the consequences of a possible accident. The manufacturer must also (should an accident occur)
immediately inform the competent authorities and communicate the necessary information for assessing
the impact of the accident. This means that a contingency plan must be worked out beforehand, allowing
the authorities and their acting bodies to respond with the necessary speed and efficiency. In the Seveso
Directive the seven annexes listed in Table 15.1 describe in detail the areas covered by the directive.
696 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Table 15.1 Description of EU Seveso Directive annexes

Annexe number Annexe description

Annexe | A list of the type of installations covered in the Directive

Annexe II The list of substances subject to the Directive when they are kept in storage
Annexe III The list of 178 substances subject to systematic controls
Annexe IV Indicative criteria for substances that are toxic, very toxic, flammable or explosive
Annexe V Details of information to be supplied in notification to competent authorities
Annexe VI Indications of information to be supplied to the European Commission by member states when reporting a
major accident
Annexe VII A statement pledging member states to consult on measures to avert major accidents and to limit the
consequences for people and the environment

the authorities and their acting bodies to respond with the necessary speed and efficiency. In the Seveso
Directive the seven annexes listed in Table 15.1 describe in detail the areas covered by the directive.
A hazardous waste treatment facility (i.e. an incineration plant) is required to comply with the
directive according to Annexe I. According to the Directive, the authorities and the general public liable to
be affected should be informed about accidents. This is an important part of the contingency plan for the
area in question. All this activity has in turn created a high awareness of the necessity for security within
chemical plant management at all levels, forcing the companies to perform risk analysis at regular
intervals. Going through such exercises has given plant management a very useful tool in avoiding
accidents. This is also true for hazardous waste treatment plants, so that their activities in general can be
regarded as safe. The Seveso Directive represents a fundamental step towards the prevention, control and
limitation of hazards arising from industrial activities. It provides common standards of responsibility in
industry and in the member states of the European Union for the prevention of major accidents and the
limitation of their consequences.

15.2 DEFINITION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

The following two sections discuss the definition of hazardous wastes in the United States and in the
European Union. It must be understood that those compounds or wastes or substances that come within
the definition change with time as we learn more about their impacts. Additionally, the number of
synthetic organic compounds is increasing daily and many of these are considered hazardous.

15.2.1 Definition of Hazardous Waste in the US

In the United States, the definition of hazardous is identified by the USEPA, CERCLA (Comprehensive
Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act), also known as Superfund (see Chapter 1) and
the US DOT (Department of Transport). Their definitions are listed in Table 15.2

15.2.2 Definition of Hazardous Waste Within the EU

Within the European Union, efforts have been made to produce comprehensive legislation dealing with
hazardous waste. The directive (91/689/EEC) on hazardous waste and the 1995 directive on the
incineration of hazardous waste are therefore relevant. The definition of the properties that render a
compound or a waste hazardous is given in Annexe III of the EU Hazardous Waste Directive
91/689/EEC (included in Sec. 15.13). These are listed briefly in Table 15.3. For instance, compounds of
 HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT 697

Table 15.2 Definition of ‘hazardous’

HAZARDOUS WASTE
USEPA definition (40 CFR 260.10):
A solid waste that may cause or significantly contribute to an increase in mortality or an increase in serious irreversible or
incapacitating reversible illness; or pose a substantial present or potential hazard to human health or the environment when it is
improperly treated, stored, transported, disposed of or otherwise managed; and the characteristic can be measured by a
standardized test or reasonably detected by generators of solid waste through their knowledge of their waste. The characteristics of
hazardous waste are: ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, EP toxicity (40 CFR 261.20—261.24). Hazardous wastes are listed in 40
CFR Subpart D (Parts 261.30-261.33).
The US DOT (Department of Transport) also subscribes to this definition.

HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE
Definition of CERCLA:
Any substance designated pursuant to Section 102, Section 307(a) and Section 311(b)(2)(A) of the Federal Water Pollution Control
Act. Any hazardous waste having the characteristics identified under or listed pursuant to Section 3001 of the Solid Waste
Disposal Act. Any hazardous air pollutants listed under Section 112 of the Clean Air Act. Any imminently hazardous chemical
substance or mixture with respect to which the Administrator of the USEPA has taken action pursuant to Section 7 of the Toxic
Substances Control Act.
Definition of the US DOT:
A material and its mixtures or solutions identified in 49 CFR 172.101 when offered for transportation under specific conditions of
packaging and when the quantity of the materials equals or exceeds the reportable quantity.
HAZARDOUS MATERIAL
US DOT definition:
A designated substance or material that has been determined by the Secretary of Transportation to be capable of posing an
unreasonable risk to health, safety and property when transported in commerce.

Adapted from Bellandi, 1988

category H1 are ‘explosive’ substances and preparations which may explode under the effect of flame or
which are more sensitive to shocks or friction than dinitrobenzene. Category H7 are ‘carcinogenic’
substances and preparations which if they are inhaled or ingested, or if they penetrate the skin, may induce
cancer or increase its incidence. In Annexe 1.A and 1.B, categories or generic types of hazardous waste
are listed according to their nature or the activity that generated them. Waste may be a liquid, a sludge or
solid in physical appearance. This listing is complemented with an index of constituents in the wastes
given in Annexe I.B which render them hazardous when they have the properties described in Annexe III.

Table 15.3 EU hazard categories of hazardous waste

hazard category Directive 91/689/EEC, Annexe III

HI Explosive
H2 Oxidizer
H3A Highly flammable (extremely flammable incl.)
H3B Flammable
H4 Irritant
HS Harmful
H6 Toxic (very toxic incl.)
H7 Carcinogenic
H8 Corrosive
H9 Infectious
H10 Teratogenic
Hl Mutagenic
H12 Water contact liberates toxic gas
H13 Source of hazardous substance
H14 Ecotoxic
698 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

The European Waste Catalogue (EWC), Directive 94/904/EC, establishes a list of wastes by many and
varied activities and processes.
In order to decide whether a given waste falls within the (EU) hazardous waste classification the
decision tree analysis approach is a useful tool, and is shown in Figs 15.1 and 15.2. The decision tree has
two key levels. The first level is ‘general’ and requires no test procedures, only a visual inspection along
with assessment of a manifest documentation and relevant legislation. If the assessor has doubt about the
‘waste’, a specific evaluation is recommended, usually by testing. The evaluation tests may be physical,
chemical or leaching. On the result of this evaluation, the waste may be deemed:

e Non-hazardous and suitable for landfill

e Hazardous and suitable for incineration
e Hazardous and suitable for incineration only after pre-treatment
e Hazardous inorganic and treatable at an inorganic plant (described later) without incineration

Waste description

Input and process

Waste type Annexe I.A or I.B

Waste type Annexe I.A and Waste type Annexe I.B or other
and presumed presence
obvious presence of significative (excluding I.A) and no significative
of significative
amount/concentration amount/concentration
amount/concentration
of dangerous substances of dangerous substances
of dangerous substances
(Annexe II II) (Annexe I] II)
(Annexe IT II)

Producer Defined by Producer Producer Defined by

statement legislation statement statement legislation

Available information
about composition or
physical properties of
the waste
Asbestos
PCBSePem
Explosive
Oxidizing
Quick assessment
Flammable
categories HI-H14
Infectious
Others

Evidence Evidence
of danger of danger

Figure 15.1 Decision tree to define hazardous waste—phase 1.

 HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT 699

|
Specie evaluation needed

Existing classification Physical Chemical Leaching Producer

and conventions test analysis tests statement

Directives on Directives on
Landfill dangerous substances
Water and
Sewage sludge dangerous preparations
Groundwater
Restriction of use
Public health/sanitation
Genetic modified organisms
Hazardous waste Not-hazardous waste

Figure 15.2 Decision tree to define hazardous waste—phase 2.

The definition of a hazardous waste, as per the Annexes of the EU Directive, is particularly useful for
statistical purposes, but is not ideal for classification purposes and for day-to-day management of a waste
treatment facility. A classification that can be used in the day-to-day handling of waste has been
developed based on a much more simplistic system. In Denmark such a simplified system has been in use
since 1972 at Kommunekemi, the National Hazardous Waste Treatment Facility. Kommunekemi is
centrally located in Denmark, and all known hazardous wastes requiring treatment and/or disposal are
sent to this site, where facilities for incineration, etc., exist. In this system, hazardous wastes are classified
into one of eight categories, A, B, C, H, T, X, K or Z, as shown in Table 15.4. The groups are also listed in
Fig. 15.3 together with a guide for selection of the different groups. For more exact statistics the different
main groups are divided into subgroups, but the waste handling is always decided by using the main
groups. The methodology displayed in Fig. 15.3 is used as an initial screening of incoming hazardous
waste to the treatment facility.

15.3 HAZARDOUS WASTE GENERATION

Hazardous waste may account for approximately 2 to 20 per cent of all wastes in the European Union. The
amount of hazardous and toxic waste generated in the European Union is estimated at 22 million tons per
year (by comparison with 420 million tons of MSW). A breakdown, by country, is shown in Table 15.5.
It is seen that in the low-income countries of the European Union most of the hazardous waste is
directly landfilled, and not necessarily in specially engineered hazardous waste designed landfill. In the
more developed countries, incineration is used on about a quarter of the waste. While the figures of Table
15.5 might look definitive, it should be realized that some of these figures, particularly for the lower-
income EU countries, are estimates. Also, to balance the figures of Table 15.5, another column called
‘other’ (e.g. export) is required. Some of the most important categories of waste are:
¢ Liquid organic chemicals and solvents
¢ Heavy metals containing wastes
700 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Table 15.4 Hazardous waste classification at Kommunikemi, Denmark

Treatment process
Group __ Type Examples simplified

A Mineral oil waste Pumpable wastes containing mineral oil, e.g. lubricating oil, Recovery and Incineration
hydraulic oil, heat transmission oil, drilling oil, synthetic oil, oil
from intercepting traps

B Halogenous Pumpable wastes containing halogenated solvents such as trichlor- _ Incineration

solvent waste ethylene, perchlor-ethylene, tetrachlor-ethylene, chloroform,
chlorotene, genklene, freon. Pumpable and non-pumpable
halogen or sulphur containing organic chemical wastes

€ Solvent waste Pumpable wastes containing non-halogenous solvents such as Incineration

gasoline, turpentine, solvent, xylene, ethyl alcohol, propyl
alcohol, thinners, octane, MIBK, MEK, ethylacetate,
butylacetate

H Organic chemical Used paint, paint sludge, distillation residues, organic chemical by- _ Incineration
wastes, halogen products, tar, deep frying oil, organic acids and their salts, glue
and sulphur waste, used developer, alkaline, cyanide-free washing baths,
free bitumen, grease, solid fuel oil, soap wastes

T Pesticide Insecticides, fungicides, weed killers, rat poison. Seed grain Special sorting +
containing containing mercury incineration or special
wastes disposal

x Inorganic Used packing acid, electroplating baths, metal hydroxide sludge, Neutralization,
chemical wastes from regeneration of ion exchange, contaminated detoxification and
wastes sulphuric acid, block metal acid, soda lye, ammonia water, precipitation
alkaline cyanide containing degreasing baths, hardening salts,
salts, caustic soda

Z Other wastes Isocyanate (MDI and TDI)-containing wastes Pre-treatment +

incineration
Oil polluted soil Incineration
Pharmaceutical wastes Incineration
Wastes from laboratories in small containers (lab packs) Incineration after sorting
Spray cans Incineration
Chemical wastes from households Incineration after sorting
Used mercury batteries Special disposal
Used drums and used small containers packed in drums, sacks or the Incineration
like

Table 15.6 lists some industries producing hazardous wastes. These industries are found in all
developed countries. Heavy metals, organics, and hydrocarbons are produced.
Copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), lead (Pb) and mercury (Hg) are widely used. Copper and zinc are of less
concern than lead, mercury and cadmium (Cd). Copper is used as an electrical conductor, as a basis in
alloys. Zinc is used in alloys, pigments, plastics, batteries, galvanizing and plating. By comparison, lead is
highly toxic. It impairs haemoglobin synthesis, particularly in children, and may cause neurological
disorders. Lead is found in paints, pipes, batteries and in some petrol types. Mercury is also highly toxic,
causing damage to the central nervous system and kidney malfunction. It bioaccumulates and has been
responsible for high mortality in birds. It is used in the pharmaceutical and chemical industry. Cadmium is
a pollutant in the air, soil and water environment. Cadmium is released into the air from waste
incineration, fuel combustion, cadmium plating industries, and from rechargeable batteries. Cadmium
bioaccumulates and may lead to kidney malfunction. All of the metals and hazardous substances listed in
Table 15.6 have maximum permissible values in the different environments and it is the goal of the EU
directives to achieve values below these limits.
 HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT 701

Inquiry
Category
Yes | Does the waste contain mercury,
e.g. batteries, Kjeldahl liquids
or COD liquids?

i
Does the waste contain lab-packs
Yes or hazardous waste from private
[ze
Kd, households, pressurized containers,
spray bottles, empty containers of
asbestos or medicine?

No

Yes | Does the waste contain pesticides

or emptied containers from the
use of pesticides?

Does the waste contain only

inorganic compounds, e.g._
hydrochloric acid, nitric acid,
sodium hydroxide, cyanides and
metal salts?

es
Does the waste contain mineral oil
products only, e.g. lubricating oil,
fuel oil, and diesel oil—also in
mixtures with water, soil and gravel?

Does the waste contain compounds

Yes} With organic bound sulphur, fluorine,
B | chlorine, bromine or iodine, e.g.
trichlorethylene, chloroform, freon,
carbon disulphide, PCB?

No

Does the waste appear in liquid

form with a heat of combustion of
Yes} minimum 18 000 kJ/kg, e.g. gasoline,
turpentine, thinner, toluene, alcohols
and acetone with maximum 50%
water?
No

Figure 15.3 Hazardous waste categorization at Kommunikemi, Denmark, for screening of incoming wastes. (From Chemcontrol,
Denmark, educational material. Reprinted by permission.)
702 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Table 15.5 EU toxic and hazardous waste, quantities and treatment method

Amount ; Physicochemical
Country (million tons/year) Landfilled (%) Incinerated (%) treatment (%)
+
Belgium 0.7
Denmark 0.5 28
Germany 4.9 48 8 8
Greece 0.3
Spain od .
France 4.0 10 Dies 10
Ireland 0.08 60 14 il
Italy 3.8
Luxembourg 0.08
Netherlands 1.0 30 aS 15
Portugal 1.0 30 25 15
UK Bui 80 2 8

Total EU 21.8

A final column for ‘other’ disposal routes for the remaining percentage is not included, as the specifics of ‘other’ are unknown.
Adapted from EC 1993, State of the Environment

15.3.1 Hazardous Waste Inventory

Assessment of waste sources is normally a difficult task as waste generators (industrial, local authorities,
agriculture, etc.) do not always retain inventories of their waste streams. Even when they do, they tend to
be discreet about it, realizing that hazardous waste is a liability and a cost burden. Two tasks must be
undertaken:
1. The waste generators must be identified.
2. The waste streams must be categorized and inventories made.
Past experience with hazardous waste surveys has shown them to be somewhat unreliable. Some surveys
have even turned out to be so much off their target that the use of them for any planning purpose would
not be advisable. Waste assessment has thus become a highly and somewhat expensive exercise, requiring
time, patience, imagination, money, training and the ability to co-ordinate and create a high level of
interagency and multidisciplinary co-operation. In countries where no reliable data are available a number
of quick methods for the initial waste assessment include:
1. Utilize existing trade registries and membership lists to identify the largest potential waste generators.

Table 15.6 Some industries producing hazardous waste

Industry type Hazardous substance

Batteries Cd, Pb, Ag, Zn, NO

Chemical manufacturing Cr, Cu, Pb, Hg, organics, hydrocarbons*
Electrical/electronic Cu, Co, Pb, Hg, Zn, Se, organics, hydrocarbons*
Printing As, Cr, Cu, Pb, Se, organics
Electroplating ConereGne Ciny7n
Textiles Cr, Cu, organics
Pharmaceuticals As, Hg, organics
Paints Cd, Cr, Cu, Co, Pb, Hg, Se, organics
Plastics Co, Hg, Zn, organics, hydrocarbons*
Leather Cr, organics

*Including halogenated organic compounds

Adapted from Nemerow and Dasgupta, 1991
 HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT 703

2. In co-operation with the environmental authorities issue a relatively simple questionnaire in order to
verify the ‘capturable’ waste amounts being produced as well as the already existing storage of waste.
3. Verify the amount of waste reported by making plant visits to selected groups of potential waste
generators.
4. Compare the results with data from other countries. A number of possibilities exist, e.g. the ‘Invent’
computer program based on amounts of waste produced by each employee in specific types of
industry. The program uses Italian data, but others, e.g. Danish and Australian statistics, can be used.
All the different approaches are then evaluated, and the result of this may give a reasonable description
of the waste streams in the area.

Once the problem of environmental impact and the cause of it (the waste generation) have been
identified, and provided that the environmental legislation is in place, including the enforcement
system, considerations can be made for solutions to problems as well. This includes regulations, which
may already exist, the interaction with the different environmental agencies, both central and local, and
the possibility of adopting existing international regulations as a supplement (e.g. ADR, RID
classifications for transportation of hazardous waste) to the country’s own legislation. The combined
efforts can then be listed in the preparation of a Hazardous action plan which should include the
following:

e Establishment of waste treatment and disposal facilities

e Legislation to set acceptable standards for waste handling facilities and to require monitoring and
reporting of waste operations
e An administration to enforce the legislation and to monitor wastes
e Establishment of adequate infrastructure and technical support services, training institutions,
information services, waste data monitoring banks, etc.

It is important that the different elements in the plan are timed correctly as they are dependent on each
other.

15.4 MEDICAL HAZARDOUS WASTE

Traditionally, medical waste was all dumped at landfills, and in some underdeveloped countries (UDCs)
this is still the practice. Some hospitals had very basic combustion units, operating at temperatures well
below the complete combustion temperature. While hospitals had always been particularly aware of
potential infectious waste, other non-infectious hazardous waste was not treated with the same rigour and
so was routinely disposed at landfill. Much of the hazardous waste generated from medical establishments
can only be properly disposed of by incineration, although microwave treatment techniques are now being
used for small volume wastes. This type of waste belongs to a special group of waste, adding further
dimensions to the term ‘hazardous’ inasmuch as it can be infectious and cytostatic (cytostatica can
promote the development of cancer). Medical hazardous waste consist of the following groups of
material:

® Obsolete medicines past the expiry date or medicine that is not, for one reason or another, going to be
used any more
© Cytostatica with a special demand for careful handling
¢ Infectious material, e.g. bed linen, used wound dressings, used transfusion equipment, etc.
¢ Pathological waste, e.g. waste from operating theatres, etc.
¢ Sharp and pointed items
¢ Waste from dental clinics
Waste from the first group may be produced in a number of different areas, e.g.:
704 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

In private households
In old peoples’ homes and in other forms of nursing homes
In doctors’ clinics
In pharmacies
At wholesalers’ premises
At hospitals
The very nature of medical waste has in many cases called for specific legislation regulating the
many aspects of its collection and handling. The flow sheet shown in Fig. 15.4 indicates the many waste
streams appearing in this sector:
1. Special hospital waste types include:
(a) Biological waste from humans
(b) Infectious waste from humans
(c) Biological waste from animals
(d) Infectious waste from animals
(e) Microbiological waste

Waste group

Waste E253 5455208 MOI 48 : : eso 7/

generators IO) MO I th se OOM slits S20 NOs tee

2
yn

Es
Ss

Waste type a
2tert)
xe)
sc
—Q Infectious
waste Microbiological
waste Sharp/pointed
items Unsavoury
waste metal chemical
heavy
high-concentration
Solid Liquid
waste Solid
metal
heavy
low-concentration cytostatica
Undiluted
cytostatica
Diluted
cytostatica
Other
waste

Special
Unsavoury Cytostatic
hospital
waste waste
waste

Special incineration Other

Processing plant for hazardous Recycling special
plant and special waste incinerators

(1) Pharmacies (4) Chiropodists (7) Laboratories (10) Specialists

(2) Children’s dentists (5S) Visiting nurses (8) General practitioners (11) Hospitals
(3) Veterinarians (6) Barracks (9) Nursing homes (12) Dentists
Figure 15.4 Waste streams from medical sources. (From HOSPICONS, hospital waste handling company educational material.
Reprinted by permission.)
 HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT 705

(f) Diluted cytostatica/antibiotica

(g) Other cytostatic polluted waste
(h) Sharp and pointed items
2. Unsavoury waste:
(i) Classified as daily collection
3. Chemical waste types include:
(j) Solid chemical waste with a high content of heavy metal
(k) Solid chemical waste with a low content of heavy metal
(1) Liquid chemical waste
(m)Undiluted cytostatica

15.55 HOUSEHOLD HAZARDOUS WASTE

Significant amounts of hazardous waste can be identified in households. Table 15.7, adapted from the US
Water Pollution Control Federation (1987) itemizes some of the possible wastes and their location in the
household. Also included are possible disposal routes for spent items, either to landfill, recycle or those
that specifically require a licensed hazardous waste haulier for disposal. It is noted that the domestic
‘garage’ typically contains most hazardous waste, much of which is required to be disposed of by a
licensed haulier. In Chapter 14, it was noted that in general 0.01 to 1.0 per cent of MSW by weight
disposed at landfills in the United States, is estimated to be hazardous.

15.6 TRANSPORTATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

Hazardous waste covers a very small segment of the large area that is classified as ‘dangerous goods".
Only in recent years has the term ‘hazardous waste’ or simply ‘waste’ been even mentioned in
international regulations applied to transport. However, this situation is now changing. In Denmark a
system for the regulation of transport of hazardous waste has been under continuous development since
1975. This system is now being adjusted to the inter-European system, progressively introduced by the
European Union. The transport of hazardous waste, according to the previous mentioned classifications, is
governed by a number of regulations. They are primarily derived for use in the transport of dangerous
goods, but can with minor amendments also be used for the transport of hazardous waste.

The regulations relevant in this context are:

e ADR (Accord Européen relatif au transport international des marchandise Dangereuse par Route)—
transport of dangerous goods by road
e RID (Reglement /nternational concernant le transport des marchandise Dangereuse par chemin de
fer)—transport of dangerous goods by rail
e IMDG (International Maritime Dangerous Goods code)—transport of dangerous goods by ship
e ICAO (technical instructions)—transport of dangerous goods by air
In this chapter only the two first regulations are described as they are the most commonly used in
connection with the transport of hazardous waste (even though hazardous waste does travel by air). The
two regulations are fairly similar and work is in progress to amalgamate them.

15.6.1 The ADR/RID Classification System

Both sets of regulations are operating with a nine-classification system, as shown in Table 15.8. For each
class shown in Table 15.8, there is a specific warning label as shown in Fig. 15.5. For instance, Class 6.1
are toxic compounds, identified by a white diamond sign with an insert of a skull and cross bones.
706 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Table 15.7 Hazardous household waste

Safe to Dispose by
pour licensed
Location in down Safe to hazardous
household Type of waste the drain landfill Recyclable haulier
a a a ee

Kitchen Aerosol cans y

Aluminium cleaners ay
Ammonia-based cleaners /
Bug sprays
Drain cleaners S
Floor care products
Metal polish with solvent ——
Window cleaner
Oven cleaner

Bathroom Alcohol lotions (perfumes, etc.)

Bath and toilet cleaners
Disinfectants
Hair relaxers
Medicines (expired)
Nail polish (solidified)

Garage Antifreeze <<

—
QRS
Batteries (including acids)
Brake fluid
Car wax with solvent
Diesel fuel
Gasoline
Kerosene
Metal polish with solvent
Motor oils
Paint brushes <<
SSS
a
Paint latex
Paint oil
Paint thinner Se
Paint stripper
Glue
Varnish, wood preservative SSS
Se
<
Garden Fertilizer
Fungicide, herbicide, insecticide
Rat poison
Weed killer Sn
Adapted from WPCF, 1994, with permission

Guidelines are also given regarding ‘keeping dry’ identified by an umbrella, ‘handle with care’ identified
by a drinking glass and ‘this side up’ by two upright arrows.

15.6.2 Pre-transport and Preparation of Waste

Each waste type must be classified according to the above-mentioned transportation code before transport
can take place. In each class there is a listing of compounds for that class. This listing is further divided
into three risk groups, a, b and c, with the a group carrying the highest risk. As regards the restricted
classes, only compounds specifically mentioned in the listing can be transported in these classes. All other
compounds are excluded from transport in the classes. Open classes can be used for transport of the listed
compounds and other compounds with similar properties, including hazardous waste.
 HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT 707

Table 15.8 ADR/RID Classification

Class Item description Open/restricted

la Explosives and explosive items Restricted class
lb Items loaded with explosives Restricted class
lc Detonators, fireworks and similar types of goods Restricted class
2 Gases, compressed, condensed or dissolved under pressure Restricted class
3 Flammable liquids Open class
41 Flammable solids Open class
4.2 Self-ignitable compounds Open class
4.3 Compounds which develop flammable gases in contact with water Open class
5.1 Oxidizing compounds Open class
5.2 Organic peroxides Open class
6.1 Toxic compounds Open class
6.2 Infectious or loathsome acting compounds Open class
7 Radioactive compounds Restricted class
8 Corrosive compounds Open class
9 Miscellaneous dangerous goods Open class

Once the waste has been classified according to the ADR/RID regulations, the waste generator must
fulfil a number of other tasks before the waste is ready for transport. Firstly, an appropriate container
(drum) must be selected. In the ADR/RID regulation, specifications in selecting the containers (drums)
are given. Secondly, a manifest (or declaration) must be filled out. The manifest includes information on:
e The waste generator
¢ The composition of the waste
e The physical appearance
e The method of packaging, etc.
e The ADR/RID classification
e The simple Danish classification
e¢ The UN number
The waste must then be packed in the specified containers, equipped with warning labels and marked with
the manifest number both on the top and on the sides. The transport system and its different steps are
shown in Fig. 15.6.

15.6.3 Transport in Bulk

Not all waste is transported in drums and small containers. Some derived from large-scale waste
generators are packed in so-called IBCs (intermediate bulk containers) or tank containers with capacities
of 20 to 30m’. Transport of these containers can be made on road and rail. The truck carrying a tank
container with dangerous goods must be equipped with a set of orange warning signs with a black rim,
one in the front of the truck and one in the rear. In the case of a normal dangerous goods transport, the
sign will show two sets of numbers, one set above a black divider line (a two- or three-digit number) and
one set below (always a four-digit number), as shown in Fig. 15.7. The upper set of numbers refers to the
properties of the goods, e.g. 3 for flammable (ADR/RID class 3: flammable). The second digit (3)
indicates that the liquid is ‘very flammable’. Another example is the number 268, which means that the
liquid belongs to ADR/RID class 2, compressed gases, it is toxic (6) and finally the compound is
corrosive (8).
Below the divider line there is a four-digit number giving the identity of the transported compound.
The numbers are the so-called ‘UN’ numbers. They are all shown in a list issued by the United Nations. A
specimen of the list is given in Table 15.9. From the table it can be seen that, for example, 1005 is
 (woyshs uoyeoyisse]s Ga/ACV) spood snosaduep yo yodsuey Joy sjoqey Surrey S°ST IINBLy
ACIxXOUAd ONIZIGIXO LAM NAHM SNOWFONVG
MOTTAA zs MOTIAA 1's ania
: ZS ‘ON I'S “ON eb ON
IL ‘ON 01 ‘ON ATIALLSNAWOO XTISNOANVLNOdS SGIIOS ATAVANWV1A =SV9/GINOII ATEAVANWV14
él ON
AAISONNOO Jr, Je
AONVLSENS SNOYFONVC YHHLO , a aLHWwdd ZS dau
ALIHA/MOVIE. ; ALIHM/AOVTa 1 uo S
&
Zh
™ /, >
AALLOVOIGVY
4XX
8AY
Pr
we
Gee
lb ON
os
<
8 ‘ON CL ON ATAVNWV 14-NON SVD GaSSaydNOD AAISO1dXA
NG ERIS) AONVUO
Sgt

ten L
4/

Ff BA IOIOVE
ti) FALL hasan OY LM 3wuovoiove S Y \Invogvd >
NA 76
Se . 4 ’ /,
SK, w LE . 4
A ff
wwe we
We 10 ON
ON
OL aL ON VL ON AAISO1dXA AAISO1dX4 AAISO1dXa
DIXOL ACIXOUAd/ONIZICIXO dae fe
ALIHM

TOANAVH
aun wy Y So
MOTTIIAyy
‘
Cm
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= 7 “
X FY
VI9
ON
a
19 ON
~
SON
C1 ON v1 ON
sjeqey SUIULIE AA

708
 HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT 709

Transport safety card

Manifest for hazardous waste

ADR rules * Control of manifest

* Visual control of containers
* Registration
* Packing for final transport
Waste : Transfer * Shipment
Collection/transport Pail
road
* Customer advice

Collection request Rail RID

and confirmation Transport
Road ADR with amendments
Manifesting

* Control of manifest (analysis)

Warning * Preparation of waste for
Treatment
labels treatment
plant
* Treatment
* Disposal of residues
Numbering
manifest No.
and UN No.

Figure 15.6 Steps required in the transport of hazardous waste in Denmark.

ammonia (upper number 268). For hazardous waste transport, special numbers are given. Examples
commonly used are:
oni 159 Corrosive solid compounds
e 1760 Corrosive liquids
e 1906 Waste acids
Bm1092 Flammable liquids, toxic
e 1993 Flammable liquids,
e 2920 Corrosive liquids, flammable
e 2922 Corrosive liquids, toxic

Hazard No.
5 2 or 3 digits
rc)
faa)

==
=
ie Compound No.
= 4 digits

<= —>
Figure 15.7 Sample of warning numbers of bulk transport of dangerous goods.
710 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Table 15.9 Sample UN numbers for the transport of

hazardous goods

UN number Hazardous item :

1001 Acetylene (ethylene), dissolved

1002 Compressed air
1003 Liquefied air, refrigerated
1005 Ammonia, dry, liquefied or soluted in water
1008 Boron trifluoride .
1009 Trifluorbromomethane (Freon 13B1)
1010 Butadiene, stabilized
1011 Butane or mixtures with butane
1012 Butylene
1013 Carbon dioxide
1014 Carbon dioxide in mixtures with oxygen
1015 Carbon dioxide in mixtures with dinitrogenoxide

15.6.4 Collection Systems for Hazardous Waste

In an integrated waste treatment system, the collection plays an important role. If a collection service is
not offered or if the collection procedure is too complicated there is a risk of waste being disposed of in an
inappropriate manner. Taking into account the multitude of existing waste sources, an efficient collection
system must be able to operate at different levels suiting the many types of waste generators, such as:
Large industrial enterprises
Small to medium companies
Small companies
Private households
Health sector—e.g. doctors’ surgeries, care centres, clinics and hospitals
To make the collection system as cost efficient as possible, different models can be used, but only the
Danish system is described here. It operates with a set of 18 transfer stations strategically sited throughout
Denmark in the areas to be served by the collection system and they form the basic collection network. A
subset of this network is a system of collection centres having at least one centre situated in each
municipality, the larger municipalities having more than one. In general the transfer stations are used by
industry while the collection centres are used mainly by the public. Figure 15.8 shows the waste collection
routes.

15.6.5 Transfer Station

A transfer station serves a multitude of tasks, including:

Le Organizing a ‘pick-up’ service. The service will, on request, use a certified transporter and collect the
agreed waste type and amount. A condition for collection is that the waste is packed and marked
according to the ADR transport rules.
. Make a visual assessment of the packing of the waste.
. Inspect the documentation (the manifest). All columns in the form must be completed.
. Reload the waste onto either trucks or railroad wagons for final transport to the treatment plant.
. Fill out the necessary papers for the final transport.
. Transmit data from the manifest to the treatment plant.
. Sell suitable containers (drums) for waste packing.
WN
HW. Organize the distribution of multiple journey containers (pallet tanks, etc.).
CONIADNA
 HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT 711

Laws and regulations

Farms Industries

Households

Collection
centres

Treatment plant
Figure 15.8 Hazardous waste collection routes.

9. Give advice to waste generators about classification, handling, packing and transport of hazardous
waste.

A transfer station for MSW is shown in Chapter 14 and is similar to that for hazardous waste.

15.6.6 Collection Centre

A collection centre is a minor installation meant for receiving waste from the general public, particularly
households. The waste, mostly in small packs, is sorted into different categories and packed in drums for
shipment to a transfer station. The private waste generator does not complete a manifest. The centre will
fill out the necessary manifest for shipment to the transfer station, the drums will be marked as “hazardous
waste from households’ and in the manifest the collection centre is the sender. Supplementing the
activities of the collection centre, a number of other schemes are used, e.g. collection trucks calling on all
households or calling on special places at regular intervals. Also pharmacies and chemists are used to act
as receivers of waste (e.g. drugs past their use-by date, paints).
712 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

15.7 HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT FACILITY

The available commercial treatment facilities for hazardous waste (Palmark, 1986) include:

e Thermal treatment
— Rotary kiln incinerators
— Liquid injection incinerators
— Plasma arc incineration
— Wet air oxidation ‘
— Fluidized bed combustion
e Chemical treatment
— Neutralization
Detoxification
Precipitation
— Ion exchange
e Physical treatment
(separation)
— Filtration
— Flocculation
Sedimentation
— Centrifugation
e Disposal
— Direct to landfill
— Pre-treatment and then to landfill
— Discharge of wastewater
Discharge to the air
A facility for the treatment of hazardous waste will, in addition to an incineration plant, have other plants
for the treatment of waste oils and inorganics. Figure 15.9 shows the different plant facilities in
Kommunekemi and the distribution of incoming wastes. The essential plants and the percentage of waste
treated by each are:
e The incineration ~ 53 per cent
e The inorganic plant ~ 14 per cent
e The waste oil plant ~ 32 per cent — to incinerator

It is noted that 53 per cent of the incoming waste goes direct to incineration. After the oil is separated
from the water and sludge, this 32 per cent component goes to the incinerator in different streams.
The wastes received at Kommunekemi for 1994 are shown in Table 15.10. Waste oils make up
approximately one-third, while organics (halogen and sulphur free) make up another third. The inorganic
fraction is 11 per cent. The total is 87243 tonnes for the year.

15.7.1 Reception of Waste at the Kommunekemi Treatment Plant

At the reception, the waste is put on hold while being sampled and analysed. There are in principle two
different approaches to the sampling procedure:
e Pre-sampling
e Random sampling
The pre-sampling method is based on a procedure where a representative sample is taken by the waste
generator and sent to the treatment plant for ‘acceptance analysis’. At the plant the sample is analysed for
 HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT 713

Incoming waste
100
Inorganic
direct disposal
Others <1 ; <|
Waste oil 32 Inorganic 14
A = sodium hydrochloride 0.5
eae NE ze3 ules acid 0.1
solvent water 10) ee
a3
A
Waste
‘ oil aS
a = Inorganic =-C
plant = AS) eas,
=H Oo Wastewater
4 n

Water 16
Sludge 3

Incinerator
aes plant Slag 14 Filter
Dust 6 cakes
6

Salt
mines Flue gas Landfill
69

wae
Figure 15.9 Waste streams at Kommunekemi. Quantities in per cent of incoming waste. (Adapted from Palmark, 1986, with
permission of Chemcontrol A/S, Denmark.)

Table 15.10 1994 wastes to Kommunekemi

Waste group Quantity %

KK class Waste type (tonnes) by weight

A Mineral oil 18 787 AGS

B Halogeneous solvents 2597 3
E Solvents 6 403 Wes)
H Organics, halogen and sulphur free 42 056 48.2
i Pesticides yy 0.8
K Mercury containing waste 453 0.5
xX Inorganic 10956 12.5
Zi Other 5274 6.0
Total 87 243

a number of key parameters. If accepted, the waste generator is notified and the waste consignment can
proceed for shipment. If rejected, further discussions are held between the treatment plant and the waste
generator. The basic problem with this method is to perform the difficult task of taking a representative
sample and practice has shown that it is a demanding operation. On arrival at the treatment plant further
samples are taken to ensure that the consignment is in accordance with the pre-sample. This last procedure
is known as ‘finger printing’.
By random sampling the waste is first analysed on arrival at the plant. The number of samples to be
taken for analysis depends on the waste generator’s ‘track record’ and the amount of waste supplied. The
714 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

decision of how much analytical work there is to be carried out is at the discretion of the evaluation
chemist at the treatment plant. The problem with using this method is that all transportation and safety
measures depend on the data given in the manifest document. If the manifest data are wrong, an accident
could happen. However, this method hasynow been used since 1972 in Denmark without any accidents in
transportation due to misinformation given in the manifest. From 1972 to 1993, over 1.3 million tonnes of
hazardous waste have been treated at Kommunekemi, with up to 110000 tonnes per year in more recent
years.
Whatever system is preferred, the sampling technique is essential to the analytical work carried out
afterwards, as waste is far from being homogeneous. Knowing the data from the manifest, the evaluation
chemist writes out a sampling and analyses instruction to the sampling team. The results from the
laboratory investigations are entered into the customer file under the manifest number heading. At the
same time the evaluation chemist will be notified and will in due time issue a treatment order. Only then
can the waste be moved from the holding area at the waste reception.

15.7.2 Analytical Aspects

Dealing with waste means that a large number of compounds can and might be involved. Trying to
analyse for every one of the probable waste constituents would neither be practical nor possible. It is, of
course, very interesting to know what the exact composition of a waste is, but seen from a waste treater’s
perspective only few parameters are of more than academic interest. The properties of a waste which are
of interest are those having an influence on handling, mixing and treatment, as well as those that influence
the composition on effluent water and flue gas. The list of key waste parameters shown below is not to be
regarded as comprehensive but it gives an idea of the parameters of interest for the waste treater:
Chemical reactivity
Radioactivity
BTU value or calorific content
Halogens (F, Cl, Br, I)
Sulphur
Phosphorus
Arsenic
Heavy metal compounds including mercury
For inorganic waste, complexing compounds (e.g. NH4*), cyanides and nitrates.

15.7.3 Pre-treatment Prior to Incineration

On arrival at the treatment plant the waste in general is not in a condition where it can be presented
directly to the treatment plants. There will nearly always be a number of operations to be carried out
before efficient and safe treatment can be performed. In preparing waste for incineration, the operations
performed are shown in Fig. 15.10. They will for a greater part consist of a variety of opening and
emptying operations of drums and other forms of containers—homogenizing, neutralization and mixing.
These operations traditionally involved relatively large amounts of manual handling, but in more modern
plants most of the work is now carried out automatically, thus avoiding the exposure of the staff to the
waste. This has been made possible through the introduction of automatic drum handling equipment in
conjunction with a much better knowledge of the composition of the different waste types.

Automatic drum emptying Drums containing pumpable waste are introduced in a nitrogen blanketed
sluice, as shown in Fig. 15.11. The sluice is followed by a double set of shredders (also nitrogen blanketed
to avoid ignition of the organics due to friction in the shredder). This disintegrates the drum. The
 HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT 715

Waste in
drums Subdivision Storage
NP*

Recycle
Waste in
drums Shredding Separation Solids
1p

Pumpable
waste

Waste in
Tank
Blending
storage
1p)

Waste in a
Blending }
Pa)
by crane oS
-
NP ®
=
3)
&iS

Waste in Decanting Pressure

drums to special delivery to
high toxic tank incineration

Highly
Special High-
viscous
decanting viscosity
waste
tank

Waste in Hand Special

small sorting in feed by
container recyclable recyclable
lab. packs container container

*NP = non-pumpable
Figure 15.10 Variety of feedstock flow to incineration.

contained waste together with the pieces of the drum will then enter a set of mixers. The mixing action
will blend the different waste types from the different drums and also help to clean the pieces of the
shredded drum by rubbing the metal and plastic chunks against each other. The mix will then enter a
vibration sieve which will separate the mix into two streams:
e An organic liquid/sludge ready for storage and subsequent incineration and
e A mixture of scrap steel, plastic and some remaining waste
The scrap metal, plastic, etc., will then be washed in an alkaline washing bath. The cleaned steel and
plastic is separated by a magnetic separator. The steel fraction goes to a scrap iron works and the plastic
fraction goes to the incinerator.
716 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Nitrogen blanketed
sluice

Ae) 2 Se) liae

Nitrogen
double
shredders

Ee zi Ee
—t—_——Y Hazardous waste in

Magnetic separator

————— omens @
ay Solids

Pumpable waste —_Liquid eee

sludge for
oe Alkaline washing baths
(only one shown)

Plastic Steel
fraction to fraction to
incineration scrap

Figure 15.11 Automatic drum emptying system.

Some of the waste types are dealt with manually. In this category are found highly reactive waste
types, e.g. isocyanates and highly toxic compounds (e.g. off-spec pesticides). Provisions must also be
made for the handling of acidic organic waste which must be neutralized (with sodium hydroxide
solution) before entering the storage tanks.

15.8 PLANNING A HAZARDOUS WASTE INCINERATOR

Figure 15.12 shows some of the main waste data necessary for planning a waste incinerator. Data for the
heat value of the waste categories are necessary for estimating the kiln and secondary combustion
chamber (SCC) capacity or the proportion of wastes that can be loaded on to the kiln and secondary
burner. Also, the heat value will determine the requirement of support fuel. Information on the contents of
halogens, sulphur and heavy metals are used for designing the flue gas cleaning system.

15.9 PLANNING AN INORGANIC WASTE TREATMENT PLANT

Figure 15.13 shows the parameters needed in designing an inorganic treatment plant for plating and other
inorganic wastes. The design is based on:
e Detoxification of cyanide and chromate
e Precipitation of the metals as hydroxides
 HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT 717

Waste Waste
solvents solvents Organic
Waste oil with without non-pumpable
halogenous halogenous wastes
compounds compounds

Packaged
waste Design of incinerator feed system Wastes in bulk

= Utilization
Design of incinerator kiln of steam
Heat value and waste treatment a heatne/
burner power
products

Content
of special Design of incinerator Environmental
components flue gas cleaning system regulation
in waste

Figure 15.12 Waste categorization in planning a hazardous waste incinerator. (Adapted from Palmark, 1986, with permission of
Chemcontrol A/S, Denmark.)

The parameters in Fig. 15.13 are a prerequisite for designing the size of the holding tanks, reaction
vessels, filters, centrifuges, pumps, etc.

15.9.1 Inorganic Plant

In the plant for inorganic chemical waste at Kommunekemi, shown in Fig. 15.14, spent pickling bath
waste from the electroplating industry as well as other waste of an inorganic nature is treated. The
treatment of the waste takes place in stages, starting with a detoxification of the cyanide-bearing waste

Alkaline Acid
CN- Cr* (VI)
containing containing
waste waste

Contents
Design of detoxification process of acid Fe2+
and equipment containing

Contents of Design of precipitation process

heavy metals and equipment
=

Figure 15.13 Parameters used in inorganic plant design. (Adapted from Palmark, 1986, with permission of Chemcontrol A/S,
Denmark.)
718 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

(oxidation with sodium hypochlorite) (NaOCl). This is followed by a redox process reducing hexavelent
chromium to trivalent chromium, while bivalent iron is oxidized to trivalent iron. The pH level is then
adjusted to pH 9.8 to 10.0. Here the major part of the heavy metals is precipitated as heavily soluble metal
hydroxides. The hydroxides, which niainly consist of iron, chromium, nickel, copper, aluminium and
zine, are filtered off in a filter press. The filter water is then neutralized (with sulphuric acid, H,SO,) and
analysed. If the results are satisfactory (corresponding to the outlet criteria set in the operational permit),
the water is drained off into the municipal sewage works. The filter cakes are disposed of at a secured
landfill (for hazardous wastes). The cakes are covered with a plastic membrane to prevent precipitation
exposure. The filter cakes may potentially in the future form the raw materials for a recovery process
extracting the heavy metals.

15.9.2 Waste Oil Plant

In the waste oil plant, ingoing waste oil mixtures are separated into three fractions by thermal treatment
into three fractions:
e Oil
e Oil-contaminated water
e Sludge
The contaminated water and the sludge are transferred directly to the incineration plant, whereas the oil
phase is further treated (filtering, reheating), ending up as a fuel oil suitable for use as supplementary fuel
for the incineration plant. The processes are shown in Figure 15.15.

Acid
chromium waste

Alkaline
cyanide waste

Acid | |
ferrous waste

Filter press

Filter cake

Neutralization
basin

Wastewater

Figure 15.14 Processes in an inorganic plant. (Adapted from Palmark, 1986, with permission
of Chemcontrol A/S, Denmark.)
 HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT 719

Mechanical filters

H,O
Wastewater
\/
Supplemental

nf
Reactor
fuel

Sludge
to incineration
y
Wastewater to wastewater
treatment plant

Filter cake to incineration

or secure landfill

Oil to be used as
supplemental fuel
Figure 15.15 Waste oil plant. (Adapted from Palmark, 1986, with permission of Chemcontrol A/S, Denmark.)

15.10 TREATMENT SYSTEMS FOR HAZARDOUS WASTE

The three incineration treatment systems examined are:

e Incineration
© Wet oxidation
e Fluidized bed combustion

15.10.1 Incineration
Second to landfilling, the most universal way of treating hazardous waste is by incineration. In the
incinerator, the waste is oxidized in an oxygen-rich enviroment at elevated temperatures. An incineration
plant means any technical equipment used for the incineration by oxidation of hazardous wastes including
pre-treatment as well as pyrolysis or other treatment process, e.g. plasma process, insofar as their products
are subsequently incinerated with or without heat recovery. This includes plants burning such wastes as a
regular or additional fuel for any industrial process. The most important criteria for hazardous waste
incinerators is the complete destruction of the major hazardous compounds while confining the level of
air emissions. Typically, a destruction and removal efficiency (DRE) of 99.999 per cent is required. The
DRE for an incineration is calculated by

DRE = 1 x 100% (15.1)

in
720 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

where Wi, = mass feed rate of specific organic component to incinerator

W owt = Mass emission rate of the same organic component in the
exhaust prior to release to the atomosphere
v

Satisfactory DRE requires:

e Adequate residence time for gas
e Adequate solids retention time
e High enough temperatures ‘
e Enough O, (or hydrogen if incinerating chlorine or bromine)
e Sufficient turbulence for mixing waste and oxygen
To evaluate the stoichiometric combustion air flow requirements and to predict the gas flow and
composition, the following analyses of the waste are required:
e Proximate analysis—moisture content, volatile solids, fixed carbon, non-combustibles
e Ultimate analysis—carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, halogens, phosphorus
e Energy content—net heating value
This is similar to that discussed in solid waste treatment, Chapter 14. The combustion efficiency (CE) is
calculated from

Cco, — C
CE 00 in per cent (i5-2)
Cco,
where Cco, = concentration of CO
Cco = concentration of CO

Costs of incineration of hazardous waste The estimated capital cost of a new plant to treat 50000
tonnes/annum is given in Table 15.11. This assumes one line of incineration and 1996 costs. Operational
costs are shown in Table 15.12.

The chemistry of incineration Incineration can be defined as the controlled high-temperature oxidation
of primarily organic compounds to produce carbon dioxide and water:

incineration
Organic waste —» CO, +H»20 + inoffensive by-products (15.3)

The mechanisms of heat transfer, conduction, convection and radiation occur with solids, liquids, liquid
solids and gases at high temperatures. The fluid environment may be laminar or turbulent but generally
the latter. This suggests that incineration is a very complex process, involving chemistry, physics,
thermodynamics and fluid mechanics. When ethane is incinerated the reaction is:

incineration
2C, Heads 10; 6 — ACOs GHSO (15.4)
ethane oxygen carbon water
dioxide

When aromatic hydrocarbons are incinerated the reaction is:

incineration
CH;—Cs6Hs +902 — 7CQ,+4H,0 (1555)
aromatic hydrocarbon

During incineration, the chemical bonds between the various elements of the reacting mixtures are broken
 HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT 721

Table 15.11 Capital cost of a 55000 tons/year

incineration plant}

Costs
Item (million ECU)

Receiving facilities including laboratory 1.0

Organic waste shredder 2.6
Stabilization/solidification 1.4
Organic liquid drum emptying 1.6
Oil recovery 2.0
Common facilities 0.7
Incinerator train with WHB 16.0
Steam boiler 5.0
Total estimate 30.0
Contingencies (10%) 3.0
Interest, 10% over 3 years 5.0

Total 38

Investment per tonne/year 1: 350 ECU

+ Costs of setting up the incinerator line with the adjacent pre-preparation

units for the waste. 1996 rates.

Table 15.12 Operational and maintenance

costs per ton of incineration of hazardous
waste for 50000 tpat

Item Units

Depreciation period 10 years

Interest rate 10%
Instalment rate 16%/year
Personnel, 40000 ECU/yr each 120 personnel
Annual load factor 80%

Operating cost 120 ECU/t

Personnel 60 ECU/t
Capital cost (Table 15.11) 350 ECU/t

Total 530 ECU/t

+1996 rates

and free radicals are formed, producing the complete combustion products of CO and HO. Some of the
stoichiometric reactions that occur in an incinerator are shown in Table 15.13.
N> will form different forms of oxides of N, i.e. NO2, NO and N2O, depending on the circumstances
(temperature, etc.). NO» is reduced in the flue gas by introduction of NH; with the following reaction:

6NO>, + 8NH3 — 12H,0+ 7N2

The reaction will demand a catalyst and temperatures >300°C.

Thermodynamics of incineration The first law of thermodynamics states that: “While energy has
many forms, and interchanges from one to another, the total amount of energy is constant, i.e. the law of
conservation of energy.’ The second law of thermodynamics states that: ‘Heat is transferred from a region
of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature.’
722 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Table 15.13 Some stoichiometric

reactions in an incinerator

Elements
+0, or H,O oS Compound .

Cc + O> Se CO,

H,+0.50> ——- H,0

S + O> ——=14 SO>

2P + 2.505 — P05
N,+3H,0 —- 2NH; + 0.50, .
Cl, +H,0 — 2HC1+ 0.505

Bro + HO ——= 2HBr+ 0.505

All incineration processes conform to these two laws of thermodynamics. Heat is transferred
between mediums as a result of a temperature gradient. A hazardous waste mixture has a heating value
that is released during incineration. Each hazardous waste component has a particular heating value
(assuming complete heat release). The total heating value of a waste mixture is the summation of the
heating value of the individual waste components. The temperature required for incineration can be
determined from the net heating value (NHV) of the waste mixture and the following assumptions:

e Adiabatic conditions in the incinerator

e The heat capacity of excess air (EA) of 1.25kJ/kg°C
e Air requirement of 0.268 L/kJ at standard temperature and pressure (STP)
The net heating value (NHV) for the waste mixture is

NHV = 1.25(T — 15)[1 + 0.268(NHV + EA)] (15.6)

T =15+4 ae 15.7
i 1.25[1 + 0.268(NHV + EA)] ds)
where T = the required temperature for incineration, ° C

Heat transfer of incineration During incineration it is desirable to optimize the heat transfer which
occurs by conduction, convection and radiation. At low temperatures, conduction and convection control
the mechanism, while at high temperatures, radiation controls. Convection is the least significant
mechanism.
Heat transfer by conduction is represented by
dT
OQ= —kA—— (15.8)
Heat transfer by convection is represented by

Q = hA(T,— T)) (15.9)

Heat transfer by radiation is represented by:

Vb 4 T 4

O= cat (i)-(%) (15.10)

 HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT 723

where Q = rate of heat transfer

k = thermal conductivity
A = cross-sectional area
d7/dx = temperature gradient
h =a film coefficient of heat transfer
c = coefficient of radiation
T, = ambient temperature
T = interface temperature
T3 = absolute temperature of lower temperature element
aeos = absolute temperature of higher temperature element
E = emissivity, varying with colour and texture of particles
The functional basis for using incineration as a waste treatment process is encompassed in the three Ts:
e Temperature
e Time
e Turbulence

Simply put, proper decineration and total destruction requires a sufficiently high temperature (>1000°C),
an adequate residence time at this temperature and finally a turbulent environment in the incineration
chamber. The heat balance in an incineration as given by the WPCF (1990) is
Heat in = heat out
where Heat in = fuel value of waste
+ heat from auxiliary fuel
+ air pre-heat (air rate x heat capacity x T,ir)
where pre-heat = primary and secondary combustion air
and Heat out = heat out from stack
+ heat out in hot ash
+ heat loss (through kiln walls and SCC, boiler and flue gas cleaning treatment)

Heat loss is given as approximately 5 per cent of total heat. Heat from stack = actual gas flow x heat
capacity x Tip
An incinerator must be big enough, have adequate volume and have a high enough temperature to
allow the waste to undergo complete combustion, before the waste gases and particulates go to a gas
cleaning system prior to emission to the atmosphere. Temperatures for the various types of incinerators
are described in the following sections. However, temperatures for complete combustion are usually in
excess of 1000°C.
The gas residence time (at the elevated temperatures), while typically about two seconds, depends on
the incinerator volume in the combustion chamber and on the proximate analysis and energy content of
the wastes. The parameter of solids retention time is relevant to rotary kiln incinerators and depends on
feed rate, kiln length, diameter, slope and rotation speed.
Oxygen is an essential requirement for combustion and the amount required depends on the reaction
stoichiometry, the amount of oxygen in the waste feed and the excess air. Excess air is that supplied in
excess of what is needed and is usually expressed as %EA (excess air). Often we express the oxygen
content by measuring O, in the stack. The O2 content should then be 8 to 10 per cent.
Turbulence is essential in providing adequate mixing of the wastes with oxygen and to ensure that all
the waste achieves the required temperature. The level of turbulence is affected by:
724 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

e Rotation speed
e Type of incinerator
e Liquid atomization

15.10.2 Types of Incinerators

The types of incinerators vary widely, depending on the age of the structure and available economics. The
five principal types of incinerator technology are:
Rotary kiln
Liquid injection
Plasma arc—a special case of very high temperature treatment
Wet air oxidation
Fluidized bed.

Rotary kiln incineration The rotary kiln is the most common technology for treating hazardous waste
for multivariable waste streams from different sources. The processing of raw materials in the solid, semi-
solid and liquid states at elevated temperatures using rotary kilns has been used in the industry for many
years. It is routinely used in the cement, lime, clay, phosphate, iron ore and coal industries. Traditional
cement kilns are now also opening their chambers to be used as hazardous waste incinerators. Rotary kilns
provide a number of functions necessary for incineration. They provide for:
e Conveyance of solids
e Mixing of solids
e Containment of heat for heat exchange
e Chemical reactions
They provide the means of ducting the flue gases to the secondary combustion chamber and further on to
the flue gas cleaning system. Rotary kilns are equally capable of dealing with bulk solids, sludges, liquids
and containerized waste. A typical rotary kiln is shown in Fig. 15.16.
Temperature, time and turbulence The kiln used for hazardous waste destruction is relatively short at
10 to 12 m with a diameter of about 3.5 to 4.8m. The temperature in the kiln run, in the slagging mode, is
normally 1100 to 1300°C. The regulatory demands of an incineration system are, however, normally not
focused on the temperatures in the kiln itself but on the conditions measured in the secondary combustion
chamber (SCC). The temperature prescribed here is 1200°C at standard conditions. When special waste
types are treated, e.g. chlorinated aromatic hydrocarbons, temperatures in the range of 1250 to 1350°C are
essential.
The retention time for the incineration gases in the different parts of the incineration process plays a
very important role. In the ‘combustion’ end of the system, regulations dictate in most cases that the
retention time must be at least 2s at the prescribed temperature in the SCC. At higher temperatures than
1200°C the time can be reduced. The solids residence time in a rotary kiln, from the WPCF (1988) is
given by
0.19(L/D)
oR
ig SS CISebe)
.

where t; = solids retention time, h

L/D = length/diameter ratio ~ 1:5
S = slope ~ 3-9%
R = rotation speed ~ 0.03-0.3 rev/min
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726 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Typically, the solids retention time is a few hours.

The gas retention time (t,) for 99.99 per cent destruction of a specific compound is given by:
921 Ee
In tg =In—A+a5 (15-12)

where A = Arrhenius pre-exponent frequency, s~'

E = energy of activation, J/kg mol
R = universal gas constant = 8314 J/kg mol
T = absolute temperature, K

A and E are usually known for a particular compound, so ¢ or T can be calculated. It is of no value to fulfil
the requirements of temperature and time if the vaporized waste is never exposed to the right degree of
mixing. To satisfy a condition of an adequate turbulent environment the Reynolds number of the fluid
flow in the incineration chamber should be greater than 60 000.
Secondary combustion chamber (SCC) Downstream of the rotary kiln is the secondary combustion
chamber (SCC). To ensure that all organic material is completely burned up, additional fuel and
secondary combustion air is introduced. Regulations demand that the SCC has normally a 2 second
retention time at 1200°C. The turbulence in the SCC in modern designs is secured by a circular cross-
section, where the burners are arranged in a tangential position.

Waste heat recovery boiler n Europe the normal practice is to install a waste heat boiler (WHB) in the
incinerator train. In the WHB the temperature drops from 1050 to 280°C, utilizing the steam generated
for power production or for district heating. The relatively slow cooling of the flue gases while passing
through the WHB increases the risk of dioxin reformation. Recent American designs use a shock cooling
quench system instead of a WHB. The disadvantage of quenches is that there is no energy recovery and
the quench water must be treated before recycling or disposal. However, by using the most modern
techniques the formation of dioxins can be reduced to a very low level even without utilizing quenches.
No rotary kiln system is, however, better than its flue gas cleaning system, see WPCF (1988) for details.

Liquid injection incineration In many process industries liquid injection incineration has gained
widespread use in dealing with the great variety of liquid waste streams containing minor concentrations
of organic contaminants. When treating liquid organic waste types with a high calorific content (even used
as support fuel) and aqueous waste containing inorganic salts (ash) and organics, the purpose of the
operation is to oxidize the organics and still be able to handle the inorganic part of the waste components
in an operationally safe way. In doing so all the normal procedures mentioned for the rotary kiln section
applicable. Conditions must therefore be established to secure the necessary waste preparation, mixing
and atomization and in the reactor to secure the time, temperature and turbulence exposure, in order to
obtain the required destruction and removal efficiency (DRE). Also the downstream flue gas cleaning
facilities are in many cases identical with the ones used in the rotary kiln type, since the emission level
standards are identical to other high-temperature treatment processes.
In the field of liquid injection incinerators it is very often seen that the waste does not contain the
necessary heat value to sustain its own combustion. Waste with a calorific value < 2500 kcal/kg does not
burn by itself. In this case, an auxiliary fuel in the form of high calorific value liquid waste, e.g. organic
waste solvents or waste oil, or the supply of oil or natural gas is required. The introduction can either be
made by mixing the low calorific waste with compounds of a higher calorific value in the feed tanks prior
to injection. Another method is the mixing of a high and low calorific ‘fuel’ in a co-firing burner. The
concept of two separate injectors can also be used, one the ‘burner’ and the other acting only as a
‘spraying’ nozzle. The conceptual design of a liquid injection incineration system can be made in many
ways and a multitude of commercial systems are in operation in industry. Figure 15.17 shows one of the
types of liquid injection incinerators.
 HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT 727

Liquid waste feed

— Exhaust gases

Entrained material

Feed spray dispersion :

Primary separator
Reactor shell (cyclone)

Refractory lining

Dilute phase Dust return

fluidized bed

Dense phase
fluidized bed
Orifice plate

Fluidized gas
Ash

Figure 15.17 Liquid injection incineration system. (Adapted from Chemcontrol, Denmark, educational material. Reprinted by
permission.)

Plasma arc destruction incineration The use of an electrical arc for waste treatment is not a new
application. The method has for many years been used within the chemical and metallurgical industry as a
tool providing extremely high temperatures, as high as 28 000°C. In recent times serious attempts have
been made to use this method for the treatment of hazardous waste, with the advantage that the waste
materials exposed to the very high temperatures are broken down to their elementary components. The
most widespread method of plasma generation is the electrical discharge through and along a gas. The
type of gas used is relatively unimportant but the choice of gas will of course have some influence on the
composition of the compounds created by the process. The systems atmosphere could be oxidizing,
reducing or inert, thereby changing its function. For instance, an oxidizing atmosphere is usually needed
to destroy organic hazardous waste, while a reducing atmosphere is used to extract metals from ore or to
recover metals from dust from electric arc furnaces (EAFs). In a plasma arc reactor, a co-linear electrode
arrangement creates an electric arc which is stabilized by a field coil medium through which an electrical
current is passed. Passing through the gas, the electrical energy is converted to thermal energy. It is
absorbed by the gas molecules, driving them into an ionized atomic state, thereby losing electrons.
Ultraviolet radiation is then emitted when the excited molecules or atoms return to their normal stable
energy level. The result of this process is an outward electrically neutral plasma consisting of charged and
neutral particles reaching the above-mentioned very high temperatures. This very hot plasma will then act
as a heat transfer medium to the waste exposed to it. Exposed to the heat, the waste will momentarily be
pyrolysed (incinerated without oxygen), atomized and broken down into its elementary components. In
theory the waste would be broken down to its most basic elements or at least into very simple molecules,
e.g. hydrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon and hydrochloric acid, etc. As with all other high temperature
processes the end result, given as the composition of the flue gases, will be highly dependent on the flue
gas treatment downstream from the reactor. Rapid development in the applications of the plasma arc is
occurring and in recent years a number of commercial concepts are now available. Additionally, this
728 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

process is capable of in situ application in waste sites (e.g. landfill) where it can atomize the waste,
thereby reducing the landfill volume by a factor of 10.
The advantages of the plasma arc system include:
v

1. The plasma system has a very intensive radiative power and is therefore capable of transferring its heat
to the waste (be it in liquid or solid form) much faster than other forms of thermal treatment.
2. The plasma system is a pyrolysis process. It requires practically no oxygen. Consequently the
downstream gas cleaning and treatment systems can be designed for much smaller gas streams
compared to systems used by standard incinerators. This will reduce the construction costs.
3. Due to the very high temperature used in the process even chlorinated hydrocarbons, which are
difficult to destroy, can be treated successfully.
4. In general a DRE (destruction and removal efficiency) of more than 99.999 can be achieved.

The disadvantages of the plasma arc system include:

1. Operating at such high temperatures creates a very high stress on the construction material. A
substantial amount of maintenance is required.
2. An arc system is very sensitive to fluctuations in the material balance. This means that great emphasis
must be put on the development of advanced pre-treatment systems, which will be able to present the
waste to the plasma system in an acceptable homogeneous form. This is of special importance when
the waste is from different sources.
3. The creation of the arc consumes a considerable amount of energy. It is therefore of importance to the
system that relatively cheap electricity is available. Some form of heat recovery reduces the cost of
power, i.e. district heating systems.
A typical plasma arc design is shown in Fig. 15.18.

Wet air oxidation Wet oxidation is an aqueous phase oxidation where organic and inorganic materials
suspended, emulsified or dissolved in water are exposed to a gaseous source of oxygen, often air but also
pure oxygen. The temperature of operation ranges from 150 to 325°C with an operational pressure
between 2000 kPa and 20000 kPa, regulating the speed of reaction and controlling the evaporation.
The process shown in Fig. 15.19 may be carried out in a batch reactor, but usually a continuous
reactor is used. This reactor can be designed in many ways, but recent concepts use either a horizontal
reactor tube which could be as long as 1400 m or a vertical reactor formed as a drilled, cased well going
down to as much as 1600 m below ground level. The latter type was briefly disucssed in Chapter 14. The
advantage of the deep well concept is that the necessary pressure for the oxidation to take place can be
obtained without utilizing high-cost, high-pressure pumps. A disadvantage, however, is that it is not easy
to perform maintenance and repairs on the reactor since it is a long way underground. Environmental
agencies might be somewhat reluctant to give permits for this type of construction due to fear of
undetected leakages deep underground.
Due to the high pressure and the relatively high temperature, the construction material of the reactor
must be extremely corrosion resistant and close control must be exercised over the composition of the
waste and the inlet rate of the oxygen in order to prevent runaway reactions. An external water-based
cooling system is normally also provided. If the waste is in suspension, emulsion or solution with an
oxygen demand (OD) in the range of about 20 to 200 g/L, it can be pumped directly into the reactor.
More concentrated waste streams must be diluted before treatment. During treatment in a horizontal
reactor, oxygen (air or air/oxygen mixtures) are injected at certain positions into the reactor. A continuous
oxidation takes place and the majority of the organic compounds are stoichiometrically oxidized
according to Table 15.13.
The most resistant compounds are the halogenated aromatics. A typical decomposition rate is only
70 per cent where other organics show a rate of 99 per cent or more under identical conditions. In practice
the final oxidation products are thus not entirely CO and HO. When a destruction rate of approximately
 HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT 729

ean Electrode
Metal rc chamber -———
segments

Gas flow

= = ts
Electrode SSS SS SS Are
Gastiawese/

Insulators
Normal running mode

Powder
y

<= Water in

Water out

Water-cooled probe

Plasma-
2 forming
gas

Quartz
confining
tube

The single-flow, vortex-stabilized plasma torch with the water-cooled

probe used for powder injection

Figure 15.18 Plasma arc incineration system. (Adapted from Chemcontrol, Denmark, educational material. Reprinted by
permission.)
730 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Air/oxygen

W Reactor
IER (SE (SX
Out p ff 14 ff ¥) “a i,
i water
Cooling is kd bs
ba be
bs} bs
ba by
el
el FY a ky bs be
Effluent to
In
oe 5
5
z
EA
Ey
kd
i
be
Es
a
Hy
bs
biological (/ 5 i *k 4 é i i
treatment alee 4 bE 4 bs e
ky
E bo| « bd
be be}
bs ke
be kskd

Cooling g water bd
kK BE}E «| |bHs Ey
HE ks
bs ba
bs 4 by be Ky bs
High-pressure pump a EY i i H H H

pS KK R Ky
Inlet waste Se Ea i Hy b4 ba

ee Qos
Heat exchanger

Figure 15.19 Basic flow chart of the wet oxidation process. (Adapted from Chemcontrol, Denmark, educational material. Reprinted
by permission.)

85 per cent or more is reached, the remaining organic compounds comprise low molecular species,
predominantly carboxylic acids (i.e. acetic acid), but also acetaldehyde, acetone and methanol. Some of
these compounds will still be in the effluent from the reactor. These compounds can easily be treated in a
conventional wastewater biological treatment plant and so wet oxidation plants are often followed by
biological plants. Commercial applications of wet oxidation to the treatment of hazardous waste appeared
in 1983, but the system, as experience has shown, is best applied to continuously produced waste streams
with a well-known composition. As such there are many applications for the chemical industry. Treatment
of waste streams from different sources will normally require extensive tests before processing in order to
establish the optimal process parameters.
One of the successful applications of wet air oxidation is the use of it for treatment of sewage sludge.
In working with the concept it was discovered that the treatment, apart from the oxidation, very much
improved the dewatering capabilities of the sludge. The cellular water (see Chapter 13) in the sludge is
difficult to remove with pressure alone, but after the destruction of the cellular structure in the sludge
during the wet oxidation process, the water is easily removed. A typical layout for a wet oxidation plant is
shown in Figure 15.19.

Fluidized bed combustion The fluidized bed system consists of:

Air fluidization system
Bed material (silica sand or product ash)
Fluidized bed vessel
Waste feed system
Flue gas cleaning equipment

A typical set-up is shown in Fig. 15.20. The principle is that the velocity of the heated air stream is
increased to the point where the bed particles in the reactor are carried with the air upwards. Depending
on the velocity, distribution and specific weight of the bed material particles, a certain point, called the
incipient point, is reached where the bed starts ‘bubbling’. A reactor in this stage is considered a ‘bubbling
 HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT 731

Exit gas to
atmosphere
Cooling water

Cyclone Scrubber water

Liquid
waste Freeboard or
feed disengaging
section
Wet scrubber

Solid waste
material Spent scrubber
water to recycle
or disposal

Fluidizing air blower Ashie to

ecu disposal
aes
Figure 15.20 Typical fluidized bed incineration system. (Adapted from Chemcontrol, Denmark, educational material. Reprinted by
permission.)

bed’. If the velocity of the air is increased above this point the sharp distinction between the bed phase and
the gas phase above it becomes blurred, producing what is called a ‘dilute-phase bed’. When the solids are
recovered from the gas phase and reinjected, a circulating bed concept is created.
The application of the fluidized bed has mainly been for the treatment of sludges from municipal
sewage works and for the treatment of waste production streams from the chemical/pharmaceutical
industry. The fluidized bed is very suitable for the treatment of uniform waste types which can be
introduced into the bubbling bed of very hot bed material particles. The heat transfer is very fast and
uniform, thus securing good incineration. Good results have been obtained for a number of waste types.
However, using this technique, some difficulties are encountered. The selection of the bed material must
be related to the type of waste material to be treated. The bed can either:
e Be chemically neutral and only act as a heat transfer media or
e React with the waste, in which case it must be continuously replenished
With the reactions between the bed material and the waste some low melting compounds might be
formed, which can cause an unwanted agglomeration of the bed particles, thus disturbing the function of
the reactor. Agglomeration of the bed material may also arise from running the reactor at too high a
temperature, during which the bed material starts to melt. This means that the quality of bed material
limits the types of waste that may be treated. Another factor to be taken into consideration is the demand
of the particle size of the waste. It must be uniform and within certain limits. This requirement then
identifies the preparatory work to be carried out on the waste before being presented to the incinerator.
The fluidized bed is therefore more suitable for the in-house treatment of waste and not so much for
contractual off-site treatment of general non-homogenous waste.
732 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

15.10.3 Flue Gas Cleaning Systems for Incinerators

A very significant pollutant potential of the incineration process is the emission gases to the atmosphere.
Traditionally, incinerators had a poor record in this area. Nowadays, the technology does exist to come
close to ‘zero’ emissions. This is achievable by sophisticated flue gas cleaning systems. The cleaning
procedures will normally utilize both mechanical and chemical processes.

Mechanical methods These include:

e The electrostatic filter

e The baghouse filter
e Activated carbon

Electrostatic filter The gases pass a number of ducts formed by two vertically placed collecting plates
with a set of electrodes placed between them. The high negative voltage applied to the electrodes creates a
strong electrical field between the plates and the electrodes, resulting in an electrical breakdown of the
gases near to the electrodes. This phenomenon is called the ‘corona’. The corona produces a large number
of gas ions. The positive ions will immediately be attracted to the electrodes. The dust particles suspended
in the gas attract themselves to the negative ions, which migrate towards the collection plates. Here they
are unloaded and build up a layer of dust which is dislodged by ‘rapping’. The filters are used to remove
particles from 0.05 to 200 wm. The pressure drop across the filter is quite small and it can operate with
relatively high gas temperatures.
Baghouse filter The use of baghouse filters has a long history. A baghouse filter generally is any porous
structure composed of fibrous material which tends to retain suspended particulates as the carrier gas
passes through the voids of the filter. Cleaning of the filters normally takes place by mechanical vibration
or shaking, pulsating jets or reverse air flow. The filter material can be made of many different materials,
e.g. wool, cotton, nylon, polyesters, aromatic polyamides, teflon, glass fibres or metal web, depending on
the actual application, temperature and the desired efficiency. Fabric filters can remove particles down to
0.01 um with reasonable operating pressure drops and power requirements. One of the main advantages is
the high efficiency over a broad range of particle sizes.
Other mechanical means Cyclones have been used, but the efficiency is very low compared to
baghouse or electrostatic filters. See Chapter 16 for further details.
Activated carbon Activated carbon and special activated carbon can be used as an adsorber material for
a range of non-polar substances, i.e. NH3, SO2, NO,, H.C, and some trace elements, e.g. Hg. Activated
carbon has a very porous structure and thus a very large surface area. During operation activated carbon is
polluted and after a certain period it requires regeneration or it must be disposed of either by combustion
or to landfill. The efficiency of the filter depends on the gas velocity and the temperature. The higher the
temperature the less efficiency. In recent projects activated carbon filters are used as the last unit in the flue
gas cleaning train, acting as a polishing filter capturing dioxins.

Chemical methods: Chemical flue gas cleaning may, broadly, be divided into four main processes:
e Dry gas cleaning
e Semi-dry cleaning
e NO, reduction
e¢ Wet cleaning
Dry gas cleaning The flue gas after leaving the SCC (secondary combustion chamber) enters a reactor
in which lime hydrate powder, Ca(OH),, will be injected. The acidic compounds HCl, HF and SO, react
with the lime forming CaCl,, CaF,, CaSO3 and CaSO,, as shown in the following stoichiometric
equations:
 HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT 733

Ca(OH), + 2HCI > CaCl, + 2H,O (15.13)

Ca(OH), + 2HF — CaF, + 2H,O (15.14)
Ca(OH), + SO, > CaSO; + HO (13.15)
Ca(OH), + SO3 + CaSO, + H,O (15.16)
The reaction temperature is typically 140 to 220°C. The optimum reaction speed is obtained in the
presence of water, which is also used to control the temperature in the reactor. Normally the stochiometric
proportion is 2:1 between the lime and the acidic gases. The lime is utilized most efficiently when a
baghouse filter is used downstream of the reactor. The surplus lime acts as a filter coating and this secures
an extra contact between the flue gas and the lime. Also the content of Hg compounds, being in the
particulate or gaseous state, is reduced due to the extended contact time. The most efficient temperature is
below 150°C. A part of the waste product from the baghouse filter may be recirculated to the reactor for
better utilization of the lime.
Semi-dry cleaning The chemical reactions are identical to the ones mentioned for dry cleaning, but
instead of injecting lime as a powder, lime slurry is injected as an aerosol formed by a fast rotating
atomizer. The degree of atomization is set by the peripheral speed of the atomizer head. The lime/water
slurry is prepared in a slaker house. The waste content of the slurry must fit exactly to the amount
evaporating during the reaction between the acidic compounds in the flue gas and the lime to ensure a dry
end product extracted from the bottom of the reactor.
NO,, reduction Removal of NO, (NO, NO, N2O) may also take place in a selective catalytic reactor
(SCR) in which NO, in the presence of a catalyst reaction with NH; forms N> and HO as follows:

NO+ 2/3 NH; > 5/6 N> + HO (15.17)

NO,
+ 4/3 NH; > 7/6 N> + 2H,0 (15.18)
2N,0
+ 4/3 NH; > 8/3 Np + 2H,0 (15.19)
Experience shows that the stochiometric proportion between NH3 and NO, is about 1:1. The catalytic
reaction requires a temperature between 300 and 400°C. The catalyst may be inactivated by being
poisoned by sulphur and the SCR process will therefore take place after the scrubber chamber. Research
work is ongoing in order to try to reduce the reaction temperature. Further, it has been shown that the
catalyst used for this process is also active in reducing the level of dioxins.
Wet scrubbing Before the wet scrubbing process the flue gases pass a filter, often an electrostatic filter,
and the gases during the process are cooled to about 60 to 100°C. The scrubbing process will typically
take place in several stages. The first stage is a water rinsing, often called a quench, where the flue gases
are partly washed and partly cooled down. The fast cooling of the gases will, among other things, reduce
the time in which the gases dwell within the critical zone for a reformation of chlorinated dioxins (range
800 to 250°C). The strong acids, HCl and HF, formed in the combustion zone of the incinerator are
absorbed in the water and the pH in the rinsing water adjusts to 0.5 to 1.0. During this stage SO) is not
absorbed because of the low pH level. The second stage works with water, with a pH level > 7. This level
is reached by adding a mixture of CaCO3, Ca(OH), and NaOH. The trend is to use NaOH instead of lime,
even if NaOH is more expensive than Ca(OH)), as lime is likely to give undesirable precipitations. In
addition to the reactions mentioned under the ‘dry cleaning’ heading, the following reaction also takes
place:
2NaOH + SO, — Na2SO3 + H20 (15.20)

The wet cleaning processes produce acidic and neutral/alkaline wastewater in which considerable
amounts of trace elements, especially mercury (Hg), are retained and the water must therefore be treated
before being discharged to the sewer system. The normal treatment consists of a neutralization and heavy
metal precipitation by adding lime, Ca(OH). In some cases NaS in solution can be used as a
734 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

precipitation compound. After the precipitation the water must be filtered. The residue from the filtration
is landfilled after stabilization. The stoichiometric proportion is 1:1 between the addition of lime,
limestone, sodium hydroxide and the acid gases.
Wet scrubber chambers are normally used with one or more scrubber tower(s), either packed or
empty, in which water or NaOH/Ca(OH), slurry is injected, or with a venturi scrubber with throat
injection. Often the venturi scrubber acts as the quenching section followed by a scrubbing tower. In the
case of wet scrubbing the cleaned flue gases are reheated before passing the stack. The wet cleaning
process may be modified by using a semi-dry absorber section as the last stage, resulting in a dry end
product so that the wastewater treatment may be avoided.
Venturi scrubbers Venturi scrubbers are normally used for the removal of particles from flue gas
streams, but in connection with an incinerator process it can be used for two other purposes:
e As a quench, cooling the flue gas cools down quickly through the so-called ‘temperature risk zone’
where the formation of halogenated dioxins and dibenzofuranes are likely to be formed (at 800 to
200°C)
e Removal of acid compounds such as SO, and HCl from the flue gas
It is important for the efficiency of the scrubber system to have good atomization of the spray water to
obtain the maximum contact with the gas. Despite the fact that the scrubber operates in a concurrent
mode, the sought-after efficiency can only be obtained at the expense of a relatively large gas-side
pressure drop and a consequent larger power consumption when compared with a spray absorber. There
are many designs of a venturi scrubber. The one shown in Fig. 15.21 is an ejector venturi design. The
washwater must be supplied in sufficient quantities partly to make up for water loss due to evaporation

Insulation

Sodium
hydroxide
Supplementary
water

Discharge

Figure 15.21 Venturi scrubber system.

 HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT 735

and partly to absorb the acid compounds of the flue gas. For some minor part the scrubber is acting also as
a gas mover, although it is not very efficient for that purpose. In an incineration line the ID fan (induced
draft fan) will do the major part of the gas transfer. The function as a quench results in the formation of
relatively large amounts of water vapour. The volume of this vapour will add to the cost of further
downstream equipment, as it must be able to handle this increased volume. The scrubber effluent must be
treated before discharge in a wastewater treatment plant as heavy metals, halogens and sulphur dioxide are
dissolved in the water.

15.10.4 Emission Standards for Incinerators

The emission polluting substances from an incineration plant of principle concern are:
Organic compounds
HCl—chlorine compounds
HF—fluorine compounds
Heavy metals
Halogenated dioxins and halogenated furans
Other emission substances include:

Dust
Carbon monoxide
Sulphur dioxide
Nitrogen oxides (NO,)

The objectives of setting emission standards in the EU Directive on Incineration of Hazardous Waste
(1994) are:

e To minimize environmental damage caused by incineration of hazardous waste

e To impede the flow of waste to lower cost incinerators
e To promote and ensure a reduction in waste movement
As incineration of hazardous waste is a rather new area, (with not more than two decades of experience),
most countries do not have fixed levels for maximum permissible emissions. If regulatory levels do exist,
they are often given in connection with incineration in general, with the opportunity of issuing special
regulations with stricter emission levels for the individual hazardous waste incinerator. Table 15.14
presents the emission standards for several countries but it is very difficult to compare the figures directly,
as their terms of reference may not be the same. Average levels are not necessarily expressed for the same
time period. Some of the figures are given for incineration of household waste only. Others are specified
for hazardous waste incineration only. Some of the figures are regulated by legislation, while others are
given for a specific plant. The European Union has set stringent emission standard levels for incinerators.

15.10.5 Monitoring of Emissions

As per the EU Directive (94/67/EC) (1994) on the incineration of hazardous waste, the parameters to be
monitored are listed in Table 15.15. A comparison of some emission standards in EU member states are
shown in Table 15.16.
736
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738 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Table 15.15 Monitoring parameters for incinerator plant

Particulate emissions,
Flue gas temperature Concentrations in Combustion efficiency metals and acid gases,
In they flue gas of... and emission parameters parameters

Kiln room O, NO, Particulate matter

SCC CO SO, Hg, Cd
Boiler HCl Suspended matter Asi NipPbs Cr Cumy,
Before the filter Suspended matter Dust Cr, Cu, V
After the filter Dust OE HCl, HF, HBr
SO2, SO;
TOC
jis} HET
Halogens and H2S
Dioxins and dibenzofurans
P compounds
Odorous compounds

Table 15.16 Some emission standards for hazardous waste incinerators

EU
Range* Directive* Germany* Netherlands*
Pollutant (mg/m*) (mg/m”) (mg/m*) (mg/m’)
Total dust particles 5-30 10 10 5
Total organic carbon 5-20 10 10 10
Inorganic chlorine compounds 10 10 10
Inorganic fluorine compounds 1 1 1
Sulphur oxides 15 50 40
Carbon monoxide 50 50 50
rat 0.05 0.05
Thallium 0.05 0.05
Mercury 0.05 0.05 0.05
Other heavy metals 0.5 0.5 1
Total
Nitrogen oxides ~ 200
Dioxins and furans** 0.1 ng/m°* 0.1 ng/m?* 0.1 ng/m* 0.1 ng/m?

15.11 HANDLING OF TREATMENT PLANT RESIDUES

From Figs. 15.9 and 15.22, it is seen that from Kommunekemi the final residues are:
From the incinerator:
Slag from the rotary kiln (RK)
Dust from the waste heat boiler (WHB)
Reaction products from the chemical flue gas cleaning
Dust from the baghouse/textile filters (BHF)
From the inorganic plant:
e Filter cakes
e Wastewater

The waste oil plant produces no waste per se as all of it is forwarded to the incinerator. Figure 15.22
shows an estimated materials balance for Kommunekemi.
 HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT 739

18
Treated wastewater Sea discharge

Inorganic 14
6 Filter cake
Inorganic plant Landfill
Clean water 10
20] Slag + dust
Organic 53

Supplementary oil Flue gas

Waste oil

Figure 15.22 Material balance of residues from Kommunekemi, Denmark. (Adapted from Palmark, 1986, with permission of
Chemcontrol A/S, Denmark.)

The input to the plant is 100 units (about 100000 tons/yr) divided as 32 per cent waste oil, 53 per
cent as organic waste and 14 per cent as inorganic waste. There is <2 per cent of special waste that goes
to a salt mine for immediate disposal. The heavy lines in Fig. 15.22 are the input waste streams.
Additionally, about 10 units of clean water are added to the inorganic wastewater treatment plant and
about 4 units of supplementary oil are added to the incinerators. It is seen from Fig. 15.22 that most of the
effluent from the plant is in the form of flue gas while smaller fractions are of wastewater and slag/dust
and filter cake. The wastewater is treated in a conventional industrial-type wastewater plant. The flue gas
is cleaned before emission to the atmosphere. The solid/sludge waste goes to landfill.
Before the solid waste can go to landfill, it must pass the USEPA leachate test. This is described in
USEPA CFR 40 Appendix 11, part 261. Only products satisfying this test can go to landfill. If they fail the
test, they are required to be further treated. Some of the contaminants and their regulating loads are shown
in Table 15.17. Experience at Kommunekemi indicates that operating the rotary kilns in the slagging
mode, produces a slag that passes the leachate test. The dust from the WHB and reaction products from
the semi-dry absorber (SDA) and from the baghouse/textile filter are collected in one system and require
further treatment to pass the leachate test. The filter cakes from the inorganic plant also require further
treatment.

15.11.1 Secure Landfill

Secure landfills (residual repositories) are the disposal sites for the filter cakes, slag and dust from a full
treatment facility. The design of a secure landfill is similar to that of an MSW landfill (described in
Chapter 14). The principal phases in the overall design for a secure landfill are:

Preliminary assessment
Site location
Design of landfill
Construction of landfill
Operation
Re-establishment of original landscape
Closure
Post-closure controls
As there is almost no organic material in hazardous waste landfills, there is likely to be little gas
generation. However, leachate generation does occur and it may be contaminating. The practice in
Denmark was to construct the landfill close to the coast, where a leachate breakthrough would not damage
groundwater /freshwater. Figure 15.23 shows a schematic of a secure landfill with a double liner system.
Figure 15.24 shows in more detail the type of construction.
740 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Table 15.17 Toxicity characteristics contaminants and regulatory levels—USEPA leachate test
requirements

Chronic toxicity
EPA hazardous reference level Regulatory
Waste number Contaminant (mg/L) level (mg/L)t

D004 Arsenic 0.05 5.0

DOOS Banum 1.0 100.0
DOLS Benzene 0.005 0.5
D006 Cadmium 0.01 1
DOLLY Carbon tetrachloride 0.005 0.5
D020 Chlordane 0.0003 0.03
D021 Chlorobenzene 1 100.0
D022 Chloroform 0.06 6.0
D007 Chromium 0.05 5.0
D023 o-Cresol 2 200.0*
D024 m-Cresol 2 200.0*
D025 p-Cresol 2 200.0*
D026 Cresol 2 200.0*
DOI6 2.4-D 0.1 10.0
D027 1,4-Dichlorobenzene 0.075 eS
D028 1,2-Dichloroethane 0.005 0.5
D029 1,1-Dichloroethylene 0.007 0.7
D030 2,4-Dinitrotoluene 0.000 5 0.13*
DO13 Endrin 0.000 2 0.02
D031 Heptachlor (0) 0.000 08 0.008
D032 Hexachlorobenzene 0.0002 Ou3*
D033 Hexachloro-1,3-butadiene 0.005 0.5
D034 Hexachlorethane 0.03 3.0
DOOS Lead 0.05 5.0
D013 Lindane 0.004 0.4
D009? Mercury 0.002 0.2
DOI14 Methoxychlor 0.1 10.0
D035 Methyl ethyl ketone z 200.0
D036 Nitrobenzene 0.02 2.0
D037 Pentachlorophenol 1 100.0
D038 Pyridine 0.04 S0n
D010 Selenium 0.01 1.0
DO11 Silver 0.05 5.0
D039 Tetrachloroethylene 0.007 0.7
DO1S Toxaphene 0.005 0.5
D040 Trichlorethylene 0.005 0.5
D041 2,4,5-Trichlorophenol 4 400.0
D042 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol 0.02 2.0
DO17 2,4,5-TP (Silvex) 0.01 1.0
D043 Vinyl chloride 0.002 0.2

* MCL=maximum contaminant level or National Interim Primary Drinking Water Standard; RSD=risk-specific dose;
RfD = reference dose.
= The regulatory level equals the chronic toxicity level times a dilution/attenuation factor (DAF) of 100, unless otherwise noted
(shown by *).

15.11.2 Stabilization (Solidification)

Should a waste ready for landfilling not conform to the leachate test (TCLP) further treatment is
necessary. Waste stabilization procedure is one possible option. A large number of stabilization systems,
(many proprietary products), are based on some form of silicate chemistry. A careful selection of the
offered systems should be performed before selection. Some of the selection criteria could be:
 HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT 741

Se ig eee = L_|
Ena Se et, CO 0 ew eee Inspection
A. well for
leachate

Filter medium:
Geotextile sconct aaa ey 0 ata eae a tere ae ee ee
First HDPE liner
Geosynthetic clay liner Compacted clay
Geotextile geonet Subgrade
Second HDPE liner

Figure 15.23 Double liner system for secure landfill.

Waste
Dimensions Materials
and specifications . Geotextile filter
. Geocomposite drainage layer
>0.3m
. Primary geomembrane barrier
. Geosynthetic clay liner or layer
of composited clay k < 107
. Geotextile separator
. Geonet drain k < 1077
. Secondary membrane barrier

>0.9m 8 8. Low permeability soil k < 10-7 m/s

Unsaturated zone

Saturated zone

Figure 15.24 Schematic of components of double liner system for secure landfill.

1. There should be ready availability of the stabilization materials in sufficient quantities.

2. The stabilization materials should be comparatively cheap.
3. The quantity of stabilization material necessary to perform the desired reaction should be minimal so
as not to increase the total volume of material to be disposed of.
4. Sensitivity to certain types of ‘contamination’ should be minimal, i.e. copper, organic material, etc.

The stabilization procedure is then a fairly simple process where all the ingredients are mixed in a
continuous mixer. The final grout is transferred to a prepared landfill cell where the grout is allowed to
solidify into a rock-like structure. Samples are taken over time to ensure that the process is running
according to design and that the final result will conform with the regulatory procedures. A flow diagram
for a stabilization procedure is shown in Fig. 15.25.
742 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Blast
furnace
ash

a inuous mixer
Continuo

Waste acid
Batch
5 reactor
dissolver |CO

Solid sludge
to secure landfill

Figure 15.25 Component flow chart of solidification plant.

15.12 CONTAMINATED SITES

A site is designated contaminated only after a very thorough investigation. From this investigation, the
type and extent of contamination is determined (size, nature of contaminants, quantities, etc.). The
difficulty in making this evaluation is to define what would be the normally acceptable level of
contamination left after remediation, especially regarding heavy metal contamination. This normal level
will in most cases depend very much on the future use of the site and also on the risk for further
contamination of groundwater. Site contamination can be divided into the following classes:
Soil contaminated with mineral oil or mineral oil substances
Soil contaminated with halogenated solvents
Soil contaminated with PCB, PCT, dioxins, etc.
Soil contaminated with gas cleaning compounds from old city gas works
Soil contaminated with heavy metals (e.g. Cd, Pb, Hg, Cr, Ni, As, Cu)

Many sites show a mixture of these classes and this list is not comprehensive.
The process involved in a feasibility study of a contaminated site includes:
e Site survey to establish historical uses of site
e Establishing the in situ soil type, classification, particle size analysis, porosity, bulk density, level of
concentration, etc.
Delineation of extent of soil contamination
Delineation of groundwater/soil water contamination by boreholes
Assess contaminants from soil samples
Determine magnitude of each contaminant in soil samples
Assess contaminants in groundwater samples
Determine magnitude of contaminants in groundwater
Assess contaminants in the local air environment due to the contaminated site
 HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT 743

¢ Determine the level of air contaminants

e Determine the extent of contaminant movement by boreholes ‘downstream’ of the contaminated site
With the above information the following may be established:
e Level of contamination
e Extent of contamination
e The groundwater contaminant plume, its current status and future tracking, which may be determined
by using computer modelling

Knowing the current status of contamination and the possible future contamination, remediation methods
and costs can be addressed and may include:
e Abandoning the site and closing off
¢ Removing soil and transporting to an incineration plant for decontamination or other thermal treatment
option
e Jn situ bioremediation, using microbes to decontaminate the soil (used for more than just hydrocarbon
cleanups)
e Extraction of contaminated groundwater and replacing with clean water

The level of decontamination and cleanup will, of course, depend on the acceptable standards, costs,
ecology and future use. The reader is referred to Bellandi (1988) for further details.
For the remedial action of sites a multitude of different processes are available but two methods are
most common:
e Thermal treatment
e Bioremediation

15.12.1 Thermal Treatment

This is a non in-situ method and is suitable to be used with organic contamination (including oil
contamination). The process utilizes the principle of heating the contaminant up to its boiling point, where
it will transfer into gas form. This gas can then be incinerated in the conventional way. The end
temperature in the reactor is normally not exceeding 800 to 900°C, thus leaving the physical structure of
the soil undisturbed so that the treated soil can be used as normal soil. The thermal treatment can either be
performed in a rotary kiln or in special reactors. One such special reactor is shown in Fig. 15.26, where
the process is divided into two steps:
Step 1: heating up to approximately 320°C
Step 2: final heating to 700 to 800°C and as far as 1100°C for particular contaminants

15.12.2 Bioremediation
All organic materials are prone to biodegradation at varying rates. This fact is used to decompose organic
contaminants. In principle there are two basic processes:
e Aerobic degradation
e Anaerobic degradation
Both principles utilize the natural bacterial population in soils or by adding selected bacterial strains
tailor-made for the specific contaminant in question. Optimal environmental conditions are achieved for
the bacteria to grow, breaking down the contaminant in doing so. The right temperature, humidity, level of
available oxygen and basic nutrients, should be present. Regarding nutrients, the level should be only so
high to force the bacteria to utilize the contaminant as a foodstuff. The biological processes are slow,
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 HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT 745

compared to thermal processes, but the investment in equipment is low, so if it is possible to wait for the
process to finish it is more economical than thermal treatment, see Wentz (1995) for details.

15.13 EU HAZARDOUS WASTE DIRECTIVE (91/689/EEC) ANNEXES I, I, TI

15.13.1 Annexe I

Categories or generic types of hazardous waste listed according to their nature or the activity which
generated them (waste may be liquid, sludge or solid in form)

Annexe I.A Wastes displaying any of the properties listed in Annexe III and which consist of:
. Anatomical substances; hospital and other clinical wastes
. Pharmaceuticals, medicines and veterinary compounds
Wood preservatives
. Biocides and phyto-pharmaceutical substances
. Residue from substances employed as solvents
. Halogenated organic substances not employed as solvents excluding inert polymerized materials
Tempering salts containing cyanides
. Mineral oils and oily substances (e.g. cutting sludges, etc.)
. Oil/water, hydrocarbon/water mixtures, emulsions
SOEMIDNWAWNE
. Substances containing PCBs and/or PCTs (e.g. dielectrics, etc.)
— —e. Tarry materials arising from refining, distillation and any pyrolytic treatment (e.g. still bottoms, etc.)
. Inks, dyes, pigments, paints, lacquers, varnishes
. Resins, latex, plasticizers, glues/adhesives
eS . Chemical substances arising from research and development or
Wh
Se teaching activities which are not
identified and/or are new and whose effects on man and/or the environment are not known (e.g.
laboratory residues, etc.)
15: Polytechnics and other explosive materials
16. Photographic chemicals and processing materials
17: Any material contaminated with any congener of polychlorinated dibenzo-furan
18. Any material contaminated with any congener of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin

Annexe I.B.
19. Animal or vegetable soaps, fats, waxes
20. Non-halogenated organic substances not employed as solvent
ile Inorganic substances without metals or metal compounds
Meh, Ashes and/or cinders
ORE Soil, sand, clay including dredging spoils
24. Non-cyanidic tempering salts
ey, Metallic dust, powder
26. Spent catalyst materials
Za Liquids or sludges containing metals or metal compounds
28. Residue from pollution control operations (e.g. baghouse dusts, etc.) except 29, 30 and 33
IED Scrubber sludges
30. Sludges from water purification plants
3 ik Decarbonization residue
32; Ion-exchange column residue
216), Sewage sludges, untreated or unsuitable for use in agriculture
34. Residue from cleaning of tanks and/or equipment
746 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

35% Contaminated equipment

36. Contaminated containers (e.g. packaging, gas cylinders, etc.) whose contents included one or more
of the constituents listed in Annexe II
ove Batteries and other electrical cells
38. Vegetable oils
BOF Materials resulting from selective waste collections from households and which exhibit any of the
characteristics listed in Annexe III
40. Any other wastes which contain any of the constituents listed in Annexe II and any of the properties
listed in Annexe III

15.13.2 Annexe II

Constituents of the wastes in Annexe I.B which render them hazardous when they have the properties
described in Annexe III
Wastes having as constituents:

Cl Beryllium; beryllium compounds

C2 Vanadium compounds
€3 Chromium (VI) compounds
C4 Cobalt compounds
C5 Nickel compounds
C6 Copper compounds
C7 Zinc compounds
C8 Arsenic; arsenic compounds
G9 Selenium; selentum compounds
C10 Silver compounds
Ci Cadmium; cadmium compounds
Ci2 Tin compounds
C13. Antimony; antimony compounds
C14 Tellurium; tellurium compounds
C15 Barium compounds, excluding barium sulphate
Cl6 Mercury; mercury compounds
Cl]. Thallium; thallium compounds
C18 Lead; lead compounds
C19 Inorganic sulphides
C20 Inorganic fluorine compounds, excluding calcium fluoride
G21 Inorganic cyanides
C22 The following alkaline or alkaline earth metals: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium in
uncombined form
C25 Acidic solutions or acids in solid form
C24 Basic solutions or bases in solid form
C25 Asbestos (dust and fibres)
C26 Phosphorus; phosphorus compounds, excluding mineral phosphates
C27 Metal carbonyls
C28 Peroxides
C29 Chlorates
C30 Perchlorates
C31 Azides
C32 PCBs and/or PCTs
 HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT 747

C33 Pharmaceutical or veterinary compounds

C34 Biocides and phyto-pharmaceutical substances (e.g. pesticides, etc.)
C35 Infectious substances
C36 Creosotes
C37 Isocyanates; thiocyanates
C38 Organic cyanides (e.g. nitriles, etc.)
C39 Phenols, phenol compounds
C40 Halogenated solvents
C41 Organic solvents, excluding halogenated solvents
C42 Organohalogen compounds, excluding inert polymerized materials and other substances referred to
in this Annexe
C43 Aromatic compounds; polycyclic and heterocyclic organic compounds
C44 Aliphatic amines
C45 Aromatic amines
C46 Ethers
C47 Substances of an explosive character, excluding those listed in this Annexe
C48 Sulphur organic compounds
C49 Any congener of polychlorinated dibenzo-furan
C50 Any congener of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin
C51 Hydrocarbons and their oxygen, nitrogen and/or sulphur compounds not otherwise taken into
account in this Annexe.

15.13.3 Annexe IIT

Properties of wastes which render them hazardous

H1 ‘Explosive’: substances and preparations which may explode under the effect of flame or which
are more sensitive to shocks or friction than dinitrobenzene
H2 ‘Oxidizing’: substances and preparations which exhibit highly exothermic reactions when in
contact with other substances, particularly flammable substances
H3-A ‘Highly flammable’:
e Liquid substances and preparations having a flash point below 21°C (including extremely
flammable liquids) or
e Substances and preparations which may become hot and finally catch fire in contact with air at
ambient temperature without any application of energy or
e Solid subtances and preparations which may readily catch fire after brief contact with a source
of ignition and which continue to burn or to be consumed after removal of the source of
ignition or
e Gaseous substances and preparations which are flammable in air at normal pressure or
e Substances and preparations which, in contact with water or damp air, evolve highly
flammable gases in dangerous quantities
H3-B ‘Flammable’: liquid substances and preparations having a flash point equal to or greater than
21°C and less than or equal to 55°C
H4 ‘Irritant’: non-corrosive substances and preparations which, through immediate, prolonged or
repeated contact with skin or mucous membrane, can cause inflammation
H5 ‘Harmful’: substances and preparations which, if they are inhaled or ingested or if they penetrate
the skin, may involve limited health risks
H6 ‘Toxic’: substances and preparations (including very toxic substances and preparations) which, if
they are inhaled or ingested or if they penetrate the skin, may involve serious, acute or chronic
health risks and even death
748 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

H7 ‘Carcinogenic’: substances and preparations which, if they are inhaled or ingested or if they
penetrate the skin, may induce cancer or increase its incidence
H8 ‘Corrosive’: substances and preparations which may destroy living tissue on contact.
H9 ‘Infectious’: substances and preparations containing viable micro-organisms or their toxins
which are known or reliably believed to cause disease in man or other living organisms
H10 ‘Teratogenic’: substances and preparations which, if they are inhaled or ingested or if they
penetrate the skin, may induce non-hereditary congenital malformations or increase their
incidence
H11 ‘Mutagenic’: substances and preparations which, if they are inhaled or ingested or if they
penetrate the skin, may induce hereditary genetic defects or increase their incidence
H12 Substances and preparations which release toxic or very toxic gases in contact with water, air or
an acid
H13 Substances and preparations capable of any means, after disposal, of yielding another substance,
e.g. leachate, which posseses any of the characteristics listed above
H14 ‘Ecotoxic’: substances and preparations which present or may present immediate or delayed risks
for one or more sectors of the environment

15.14 PROBLEMS

1551 An automobile garage is producing many different types of waste. List at least six different types of
waste and classify them according to the Kommunekemi classification code.
15.2 You are the environmental manager at a bicycle factory, where all the components for making a
bicycle are manufactured except:
(a) steel tubes,
(b) ball bearings,
(c) tyres.
List the possible types of hazardous waste and give suggestions for their proper treatment.
1533 A groundwater supply has been found to contain hydrocarbons. Outline the procedures to:
(a) assess the magnitude of the problem,
(b) remediate the problem.
15.4 Review the paper ‘Diffusive contaminant transport in natural clay. A field example and
implications for clay lined waste disposal sites’ by Johnson et al. (1989).
1S) Review the paper, ‘Evaluation of landfill liner designs’ by Schroeder and Peyton (1990).
15.6 Review the paper, ‘/n situ biorestoration of organic contaminants in the subsurface’ by Thomas and
Ward (1989).
SoH For a hospital in your area, try to obtain (or prepare) an inventory of all of its waste streams, by
quantity, material and classification. Also identify the treatment processes and ultimate fate of all
the waste streams.
15.8 For Problem 15.7, once you have prepared the waste inventory, assume you have a free hand to
treat and dispose of all streams with state-of-the-art technology. Then identify your new integrated
waste management policy/strategy for the hospital’s waste.
15:9 Discuss the suitability of the ‘Kommunekemi model’ for adoption in your jurisdictions.
15.10 Briefly describe three different forms of incineration plant, using sketches.
15.11 You are the project control engineer of a municipal landfill site. You know that up to 2 per cent of
the wastes incoming are hazardous. Design a programme to identify, characterize, quantify and
redirect such wastes.
LS? Review the current literature on in-situ bioremediation of oil contaminated sites and write a three-
page summary of the state of the art.
 HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT 749

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Bellandi, R. (1988) Hazardous Waste Site Remediation. The Engineer's Perspective, O’Brien and Gere Engineers Inc. Van Nostrand
Rheinhold, New York.
Cairney, T. (1993) Contaminated Land. Problems and Solutions, Blackie Academic and Professional, Lewis Publishers U.K.
Daniel, D. E. (1993) Geotechnial Practicefor Waste Disposal, Chapman and Hall, London.
Domenico, P. A. and F. W. Schwartz (1990) Physical and Chemical Hydrogeology, John Wiley, New York.
EC (1994) Directive on incineration of hazardous waste, EC official publication, Brussels.
EC (1993) The State of the Environment in the European Community, EC official publication, Brussels.
Freeman, H. M. (1992) Hazardous Waste Minimization, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Freeman, H. M. (1985) Standard Handbook of Hazardous Waste Treatment and Disposal, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Johnson, R. L., J. A. Chery and J. F. Pankow (1989) ‘Diffusive contaminant transport in natural clay’, Environmental Science and
Technology, 23, 340-349.
Kharbanda, O. P. and E. A. Stallworthy (1988) Safety in the Chemical Industry, Heinemann Professional Publishing, London.
Kolaczkowski, S. T. and B. D. Crittenden (eds.) (1987) Management of Hazardous and Toxic Wastes in the Process Industries,
Elsevier Applied Science, Oxford.
Lehman, J. P. (1983) Hazardous Waste Disposal, Plenum Press, New York.
McCoy Associates (1985) Index to Hazardous Waste Regulations, McCoy and Associates, Lakewood, Colorado, p.147.
Major, D. W. and J. Fitchko (1992) Hazardous Waste Treatment—On Site and In Situ, Butterworth-Heinemann, London.
Martin, A. M. (1991) Bioconversion of Waste Materials to Industrial Products, Elsevier Applied Science, Oxford.
Nemerow, N. L. and A. Dasgupta (1991) Industrial and Hazardous Waste Treatment, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
Palmark M. (1980) Chemical Waste Association of Danish Engineers.
Palmark, M. (1986) Types of Chemical Waste in Denmark. Chemcontrol A/S, Company Literature, Nyborg, Denmark.
Perry, R H, D. W. Green and J. O. Maloney (1984) Chemical Engineering Handbook, 6th edn. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Pojasek, R. B. (1979) Toxic and Hazardous Waste Disposal, Vol. 1, Ann Arbor Science Publishers Inc., Michigan.
Schroeder, R. R. and R. L. Peyton (1990) ‘Evaluation of landfill liner designs’, J. Environmental Engineering Division of ASCE,
116 (3), 421-437.
Thomas, J. M. and C. H. Ward (1989) ‘/n situ biorestoration of organic contaminants in the subsurface’, Environmental Science and
Technology, 23, 760-766.
US Water Pollution Control Federation (WPCF) (1987) Household Hazardous Waste—Chart, WPCF, Virginia.
US Water Pollution Control Federation (WPCF) (1988) Hazardous Waste Site Remediation, WPCF, Virginia.
US Water Pollution Control Federation (WPCF) (1990) Hazardous Waste Treatment Processes Including Environmental Audits and
Waste Reduction, WPCF, Virginia.
Wentz, C. A. (1995) Hazardous Waste Management, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Williams M. J. and M. E. Redman (1990) ‘Unmixing Mixed Waste’, Civil Engineering, ASCE, April 1990.
SS SS SS Ee
CHAPTER

SIXTEEN

INDUSTRIAL AIR EMISSIONS CONTROL

16.1 INTRODUCTION

Industrial air emissions are regulated, so as to keep the air quality acceptable to national and international
standards. Industry achieves these standards by utilizing a variety of air emission abatement technologies.
The waste stream is often ‘air’ which may contain a variety of gaseous and particulate contaminants of
different densities, particle sizes and volatility, etc. For instance, coal-fired power plants generate a waste
gas stream containing gases such as oxides of nitrogen and sulphur and particulates such as fly ash from
the burnt coal.
The design of air emissions abatement equipment is a difficult and complex task. It requires not only
a knowledge of the physical and chemical properties of the stream but also an appreciation of the vast
array of equipment available and how this equipment operates. The equipment itself must, in operation,
consistently comply with very tight performance criteria.
It is important for the engineer who designs such equipment to realize that environmental legislation
is now setting the emission standards which are required of such equipment. The TA Luft (1986)
regulations in Germany have been used as a basis for much legislation throughout Europe. TA Luft
specifies the maximum allowable concentrations to be emitted from a whole range of industries. The US
air emission standards required by industry are discussed in Chapters | and 8. Also, increasing emphasis
is now placed on a systems management approach rather than an end of pipe control approach. This is
becoming evident in documents such as the British Standard BS 7750 (1992), which is an attempt to do to
environmental control systems what ISO 9000 (international quality control standard) did to the
manufacturing and service industries. Such legislative requirements implicitly demand that the equipment
design basics is clear and that the equipment performs accordingly. This chapter aims to introduce the
reader to the basics of engineering design with regard to industrial air emission control.
Ideally, the engineer should not have to design such equipment at all. The offending constituents of
the stream should be removed at source. Waste minimization is covered in Chapter 18. However, quite
often it is only when a stream is fully characterized that the possibility of changing its composition is
realized; this should always be borne in mind in the design process, especially at the preliminary stages.

750
 INDUSTRIAL AIR EMISSIONS CONTROL 751

There are three general options in air emissions abatement:

e Waste minimization (of raw materials, a product or a by-product)
e Recovery and recycling
e Destruction or disposal
Each of these cases is shown in Fig. 16.1.
It is clear from the Fig. 16.1 that the only benefit option 3 offers is regulatory compliance. The
principal type of equipment used to destroy streams is the incinerator. Aspects of incineration are covered
in Chapter 15, for both municipal and industrial waste streams.

16.2 CHARACTERIZING THE AIR STREAM

Wastewater treatment relies on the microbiological treatability or chemical composition of the liquid
waste stream to effect purification. Water purification manipulates the chemistry of a waste stream to
purify it. However, the purification of a gaseous stream involves manipulating the physical, chemical and,
sometimes, the biological properties of the stream. The reason for this is because a vast choice of
abatement equipment exists today, each manipulating a different property of the gas stream. For example,
condensers utilize the relationship between a liquid and its vapour. It is well known that if an air stream,
saturated with steam at a temperature of, say, 60°C, is cooled down, the steam will then condense. The
principle of operation of an industrial condenser is the same. Cyclones, on the other hand, separate
particles from a gas by utilizing the fact that their densities are different. To choose and design the most
cost effective equipment the engineer must therefore characterize the stream fully. The most important
measurable properties of a stream include:
The stream composition
The stream flowrate
The stream temperature
The stream pressure
Based on this information the choice of abatement equipment can be short listed. Further information
which is required to make the final choice is:

Product
Raw — Process As.
materials Waste emissions
; (minimized)
Option |

Product

Raw P Waste Recovery Waste

P atenale fOCe process emissions

Recycle stream

Option 2

Product

Rey Destruction Waste

He terials Process process emissions

Option 3

Figure 16.1 Flow sheet options in emissions control.

752 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

1. The variability in the composition, flowrate, temperature and pressure of the stream (i.e. due to startup,
shutdown).
2. The explosivity of the stream. This is especially important where VOCs are concerned, e.g. petrol.
Properties such as the flash point, auto-ignition temperature and the concentration at which it forms an
explosive mixture with air, known as the lower explosive limit (LEL), should be known.
3. The corrosiveness of the stream in both liquids and gases; e.g. if SO. combines with water vapour and
condenses, it forms corrosive sulphuric acid (H2SO,).

With regard to each constituent of the stream, some, or all, of the following information may be required:
Molecular formula and weight
Freezing and boiling point
Solubility
Adsorptive and absorptive properties
Chemical behaviour/reactivity
Heats of condensation, adsorption and solution
Particle size distribution and densities of any solids
Odour threshold
Health effects
pH
Vapour pressure curve

16.3 EQUIPMENT SELECTION

Equipment selection first considers the type of compounds which are required to be removed. These may
be considered under three broad categories:
e VOCs, defined as ‘Any organic substance or mixture which can release vapour to the atmosphere and
with the potential to cause environmental effects at low atmospheric levels’, (Chemical Industries
Association (CIA) 1992)
e Inorganic compounds
e Particulate matter
The stream contents will determine the type of equipment which may be used in any application. The
major types of equipment in use today are:
Incinerators
Adsorbers
Condensers
Filters
Scrubbers
Absorbers
Various particle collection devices
Their applications are listed in Table 16.1.
Adsorbers utilize a granular porous solid, usually a special form of carbon for VOC removal. The
carbon, because of its porosity, has a large internal surface area. Gas molecules penetrate the pores and
adhere to the walls by weak adhesion forces, known as van der Waals forces. Another type of adsorption
is chemisorption. This is where the compound becomes chemically bonded to the adsorbent and is not
easily removed, e.g. odour control by adsorption. In the former, the molecules can be removed by the
application of heat. In absorption, a liquid is contacted with a gas. The liquid preferentially ‘absorbs’ or
removes one component from the gas stream. Decreasing the temperature or increasing the pressure of a
gas stream will cause vapours to condense. It is the former method that is most commonly used in
condensers. Filters are used for gas-solid separation. They operate by utilizing a porous solid barrier
 INDUSTRIAL AIR EMISSIONS CONTROL 753

Table 16.1 Air emissions control technologies

Method Organic vapours _ Inorganic vapours Particulate matter

Incineration
Adsorption
Condensation
Absorption SASS J
Filtration
ESP
Scrubbers of Ss

which prevents solid particles passing through it. Most other gas solid separation devices utilize the
density difference between a gas and a solid to effect separation. The two major exceptions are scrubbers
and electrostatic precipitators (ESP). The former use a liquid spray to remove the particles and the latter
use the fact that particles become charged upon passing through an electric field. Table 16.1 lists
technologies suitable for particular stream types.
Once the most appropriate abatement technologies have been determined, one, or a combination of
them, must be selected to accomplish the task. The same degree of stream purification cannot be achieved
with all devices. Table 16.2 shows the removal efficiencies achievable with different technologies for
different stream inlet concentrations (McInnes ef al., 1990). These figures are typical efficiencies. Some
technologies, such as condensation, are highly dependent on the compounds involved and the operating
temperatures to determine the efficiency of the equipment. Similar data for gas—solid separation is given
in Table 16.3.

Table 16.2 VOC removal efficiencies

Technology Inlet concentration (ppm) Efficiency (%)

Condensation > 5000 95+

> 2500 90+
> 500 50+
Absorption > 5000 99+
> 500 OS se
> 200 90+
Adsorption > 5000 99 +
> 1000 OB) ap
> 200 90+
Thermal incineration > 100 99 +
> 20 95+
Catalytic incineration > 100 95+
> 50 90+

Table 16.3 Technologies of gas—selid

Applicable
particle size
Technology (juin) Efficiency

Gravity settling chamber > 150 95% on particles > 300 um

Cyclone > 10 80% on particles < 20 ym
Spray tower >3 98% on particles > 5 wm
Filter S055 95-99% on particles <5 yum
ESP > 0.001 80-99%
754 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

16.4 EQUIPMENT DESIGN

16.4.1 Condensation

Condensers transfer heat from a vapour stream to a cooling stream. This removal of heat cools the gases
present and condenses some, or all, of the vapour. They can be of the direct or indirect contact type. In the
former, the cooling stream is contacted directly with the vapour stream while in the latter, contact is
effected through a solid barrier. It is the latter type that is mostscommonly used today. They are
traditionally of the shell and tube variety but other designs such as spiral condensers are becoming very
popular. A schematic of a shell and tube exchanger is shown in Fig. 16.2. The schematic shows a
horizontal condenser with the coolant on the tube side.

Operating principles of a condenser Condensation involves removing the heat from a stream to
reduce the temperature and thereby cause the pollutant to condense from its vapour to its liquid form. The
basic equation of heat transfer is
OQ = UAAT (16.1)
where O = heat transferred, kW
U = heat transfer coefficient, kW/m? °C
A = heat transfer area, m?
AT = temperature difference between hot and cold fluid,°C

The heat transferred is dependent on the temperatures and compositions of both the inlet and outlet
streams, and therefore can be determined by performing an energy balance around the system. Luyben
and Wenzel (1988) detail mass and energy balances. An energy balance determines the value of Q. The
heat transfer coefficient is a measure of the ease with which heat is transferred through the gas, the
condensing vapours, the heat exchanger wall and into the cold fluid. Traditionally each of these
parameters is considered to have its own resistance to heat transfer. This is calculated for each of them in
turn; they are summed and the result is the U value in Eq. (16.1). Other terms also contribute to the U
value and are included in any detailed sizing. The calculation of the U value is one of the most important
aspects of condenser design. For condensers in abatement applications it is difficult to determine U
because there is usually a large amount of non-condensable gas present; this is discussed further in the
next section. The design engineer wishes to determine the area required to achieve a specified outlet

Vapour Vapour
outlet a inlet Cooling
liquid outlet
=i le

E |
|
as
Cooling Condensed Tubes through which
liquid inlet liquid outlet coolant flows, surface
area, A.

Figure 16.2 Schematic of a condenser.

 INDUSTRIAL AIR EMISSIONS CONTROL 755

concentration. For that reason, A in Eq. (16.1) is usually unknown. The average temperature difference is
determined by the inlet and outlet conditions. It is calculated as follows for counter-current flow, i.e. the
cold fluid enters from the opposite end to the hot fluid:

Beis io) (i Ty)

AT = (16.2)
In (73 — T2)/(1, — T;)]
where T, = the cooling fluid inlet temperature
T, = the cooling fluid outlet temperature
T; = the gas stream inlet temperature
T4 = the gas stream outlet temperature

T3; is determined by the process generating the gas stream and normally cannot be changed. 7, is
determined by the composition of the outlet stream and cannot be changed, except to say that the lower the
outlet temperature, the better for condensing material. 7, is determined by the services available. This may
be anything from a municipal water supply to liquid nitrogen. 7, is an economic choice. The important
point is that doubling the AT halves the required heat exchanger area but doubles the cooling liquid flow
requirement. Therefore, the only real unknown at this stage is the heat transfer coefficient value (U).

Calculation of the overall heat transfer coefficient As stated previously, the overall heat transfer
coefficient is the sum of a number of individual resistances. For a typical shell and tube heat exchanger,
the heat exchanger coefficient is given by the following equation (Coulson and Richardson, 1991):
1 1 1 Galda ede aaa
a 16.3
Be “Mod hye sia hj Gee
where U = overall heat transfer coefficient, W/m” °C
h, = outside fluid film coefficient, W/m? °C
hog = outside fouling factor, W/m Ae
d, = tube outside diameter, m
d, = tube inside diameter, m
k,, = thermal conductivity of the tube wall, W/m °C
h; = inside fluid film coefficient, W/m? °C
hiq = inside fouling factor, W/m? °C

Typical values of the outside fluid film coefficient are given in the literature (Coulson and Richardson,
1991). If not, it can be calculated from the physical properties of the fluid using one of the standard
equations.
The inside and outside fouling factors are very much a function of the operating conditions and the
fluids. They cannot be calculated from first principles and are time dependent. Regular cleaning is the
key to minimizing them. Normally, cooling water would have cleaning agents added to it if it is
recirculated. The thermal conductivity of the tube wall is a function of the materials of construction and is
detailed in any physical properties handbook. For commonly used materials in heat exchangers thermal
conductivities can be found in a number of sources (e.g. Simonson, 1984). This leaves only the inside
fluid heat transfer coefficient to be determined. This is a complex function of the rate of heat, mass and
momentum transfer on the condensing surface. It is complicated by the fact that, as condensation
756 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

progresses, the flow regime over the surface may change as the liquid phase increases in size. Add to this
the fact that it is influenced by whether the condensation is inside or outside the tubes, and also the
orientation of the condenser. A proper calculation of the heat transfer rate involves boundary layer
calculations. In the presence of a non-condensable gas, the inside film heat transfer coefficient is
normally the limiting resistance. One method which may be used to calculate the vapour/liquid film heat
transfer coefficient is that of Silver. This method was further developed by Bell and Ghaly and is
explained by Whalley (1987). The method can be developed into a computer or spreadsheet application.
This method is only applicable, however, to single-component condensation. Other calculation methods
also exist. Lydersen (1979) details a semi-empirical equation developed by Renker to calculate the
condensing film heat transfer coefficient. This is more cumbersome than the above method, but does take
into account the diffusivity of the gas—-vapour mixture. However, before applying any of the above
equations, care should be taken to ensure that they are applicable to the case in question. This is because
the differences between vertical and horizontal condensation, inside and outside tube condensation, etc.,
can be significant. When more than one component is present, i.e. water and a VOC being a typical case,
the water will condense first; however, as it condenses it may absorb some of the VOC from the gas
stream, unpredictably improving its performance. Coulson and Richardson (1991) give a good
introduction to heat exchange and exchanger design. For more detailed information on the heat
exchanger design numerous textbooks exist. The American TEMA standards (Tubular Exchanger
Manufacturers Association) are applied internationally in design and there are numerous journals
including the /nternational Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer.

Calculation of the outlet stream composition from its temperature and pressure The partial
pressure of a compound in its vaporous or gaseous state is proportional to the number of moles of it
present. If the temperature, total pressure and compounds present in a stream are known, then the
composition of the stream can be calculated by first calculating the vapour pressure of each compound
using the Antoine equation:
In (VP) = 4—B/(T+C) (16.4)

where A, B, C = constants
VP = vapour pressure
T = temperature, °K

Dividing each of these by the total pressure then gives the volumetric fraction of each component present
which can be converted into mass concentration units using the molar mass. The units used should be
consistent with the constants. This method gives the maximum quantity in the stream at the specified
temperature, because it uses the saturated vapour pressure.

Example 16.1 A gaseous stream is at 25 °C and is known to contain only acetone and air. The total
pressure is 760 mm Hg absolute. Determine the following:
(a) the mole fraction of acetone present,

(b) the ppm of acetone present.

Solution Dalton’s law of partial pressures states that the sum of the pressures exerted by the
individual gases is equal to the total pressure. Therefore,

Pi = Pacetone Str Pair

 INDUSTRIAL AIR EMISSIONS CONTROL 757

where P, = total pressure

Pacetone = partial pressure of acetone
Pir = partial pressure of air
Assuming that the air is saturated with acetone, the partial pressure of acetone may be calculated using the
Antoine equation and inserting the constants appropriate to acetone. From Reid ef al. (1977), the
constants for acetone are

Aa = 16.6513
B = 2940.46
Cr 35295
The Antoine equation is:
In(VP) = A — B/(T + C)
Where 7 is temperature in kelvin and the units of vapour pressure are mm Hg. Thus
In(VP) = 16.6513 — 2940.46/(273 + 25 — 35.93)
VP 228mm He

The mole fraction of acetone present is given by 228/760=0.3 and the ppm of acetone present is
0.3 x 1000000 = 300000 ppm.

16.4.2 Absorption
In an absorber, the gas, rich in the compound which it is required to remove, enters the bottom of a tall
narrow column down through which liquid is poured. The liquid selectively absorbs the compound,
thereby producing a purer gas stream from the top of the column, while liquid rich in the substance
removed from the gas is removed from the bottom of the column. A schematic of a typical column is
shown in the Fig. 16.3. This is known as simple absorption and its main disadvantage is that it
generates a liquid waste stream. An example of this is flue gas desulphurization (FGD) which is
discussed in Sec. 16.5.

Cleaned
gas out
Mist
eliminator Absorption
liquid

Packed section —>|

(can also consist
of trays)

Contaminated —>,
gas 1n

Contaminated
liquid

Figure 16.3 Simple absorption system.

758 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Cleaned
gas
Condenser

Cooler Heater
Recovered
VOCs

Absorber
(trays or Desorber (trays or packing)
packing)

Steam
Contaminated
gas

Recycled, cleaned
Recycle absorption fluid
contaminated
liquid

Figure 16.4 Complex absorption system.

A more environmentally acceptable alternative is complex absorption, where the compound

absorbed in the absorber is removed from the liquid in a second column called a desorber. This is
achieved by the application of heat, in the form of steam and sometimes under vacuum. It is not applicable
in cases such as FGD where a chemical reaction takes place. However, it is widely used in the
pharmaceutical industry for recovering VOCs. The liquid used is usually an oil. A complex absorption
system is shown in Fig. 16.4.
Consider a section of the absorption column. Performing a mass balance around, say, the bottom of
the column, as shown in Fig. 16.5, then
GYo + LXn41 = GY, + LX (16.5)

Gas flowrate G, mole Liquid flowrate L from tray n+ 1

fraction Y,, contaminant |mole fraction contaminant is Xn+1

Contaminated gas flow containing

Yo mole fraction contaminant

——— Contaminated liquid flowrate L

containing X, mole fraction contaminant

Figure 16.5 Mass balance diagram of absorption column.

 INDUSTRIAL AIR EMISSIONS CONTROL 759

ca

Operating line

Equilibrium line

the
in
fraction
Y(mole
vapour) _

X (mole fraction in the liquid)

Figure 16.6 The equilibrium and the operating line of an absorption column.

Therefore,

Y, = (L/G)Xn+1 + (Yo — LX /G) (16.6)

This is the equation of a straight line, known as the system operating line. The equilibrium relationship
expressing the relationship between the composition of a liquid and its vapour phase can be written as
Y= (16.7)

where X = the fraction in the liquid phase

Y = the fraction in the vapour phase
m = the equilibrium constant

Plotting the above two equations on a graph of Y versus X gives Fig. 16.6.
For more details on the design of absorption columns, desorption columns, determining whether to
use packing or trays, and design data, Perry (1984), Rousseau, (1987) or Coulson and Richardson (1991)
should be consulted.

Example 16.2 The vapour liquid equilibrium relationship for ammonia (NH3) at 30°C is given by
CZ AYDG
A gas stream flowing at 50kgmol/h contains Sper cent v/v ammonia. It is desired to reduce the
concentration to 0.5 per cent v/v. For the design of an absorber, determine:

(a) the minimum liquid flowrate required;

(b) the liquid flowrate required at 1.5 times the minimum liquid to gas ratio, L/Gyin;
(c) the number of equilibrium stages required at 1.5 times L/Gyin;
(d) how many trays would be required in such a column;
(e) if packing is used instead of trays calculate the height of packing required at 1.5L/G,nin given that the
height of packing equivalent to a theoretical stage (HETS) is given by
HETS = 0.75 m
Solution
(a) Calculation of the minimum liquid flowrate required. Assumptions:

(1) L and G are constant.

(2) Xn+1 = 0.
At the minimum value of L, the operating line will touch the equilibrium line, minimizing its slope.
The applicable equation is
Y, = (L/G)Xn+1 + [Yo — (L/G)X1]
760 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Given:

Xt = 9
Y, = 0.005
Yor 10:05

X,, can be calculated from the equilibrium relationship:

Yo 132%)
Olea Yoyilea2*at 1/ Grem
Therefore,
1 = 0.05/13
SAUER

Inserting these values into the Eq. (16.6),

0.005 = (L/G) min X 0 + [0.05 — (L/G) x 0.038]

0.005 = 0+ 0.05 — 0.038(L/G)
0.045 = 0.038(L/G)
L/G = 1.184

Therefore, the minimum liquid flowrate required is

L= 184 G
= 1.184 x 50
= 59.2 komol/h

(b) Calculation of the liquid flowrate required at 1.5 times L/Gypin:

ele ore
= 88.8 kg mol/h

(c— Calculation of the number of equilibrium stages required at 1.5 times L/Gynin.
The equation of the operating line 1s:
Y, = W764,49 + (0.05 1.7 76X 1)
To use this equation X1 must be known. X1 can be determined by a mass balance using Eq. (16.5):
GY) + LXn41 = GY, + LX1
Inserting the values calculated above:
50 x 0.05 + 0 = 50 x 0.005 + 88.8 x X1

Therefore,
X1 = (50 x 0.05 — 50 x 0.005)/88.8
= 0.0253

The equation of the operating line is therefore

Y= led 16, Xyne1 + 0.005
This equation and the equilibrium equation given in the problem are plotted on a graph of Y versus X
shown in Fig. 16.7. This graph is then stepped off, as shown, to determine the number of equilibrium
stages required to effect the separation.
 INDUSTRIAL AIR EMISSIONS CONTROL 761

Bottom of absorber

Operating line, slope = L/G

Equilibrium line

Figure 16.7 Determining the number of stages required in absorption.

(d) The number of trays required. If perfect equilibrium is achieved then four trays are required.
(e) The height of packing required:
Height of packing = 4 x 0.75
= Jim

16.4.3 Adsorption

Adsorption is most commonly used to recover compounds from very dilute streams. It can be used in a
number of different ways including fluidizing the adsorbent, rotating it through the vapour or passing the
gas stream through a fixed bed of carbon. The latter is by far the most common method employed and is
examined here. A typical fixed bed adsorber is shown in Fig. 16.8. It consists of two units, through one of
which the gas stream is passed while the other is being regenerated.

Fixed bed adsorption Consider activated carbon, the most commonly used adsorbent for the recovery
of volatile organic carbons from gas streams. Perry (1984) states that activated carbon will adsorb 8 kg of
acetone, a VOC commonly used in the electronics and the pharmaceutical industries, per 100 kg of fresh
carbon. Therefore, if an air stream of 100 m°/h containing 1 kg of acetone per 100 m° of air was passed
through a bed of 100 kg of fresh carbon, the bed should adsorb no more acetone after 8 hours. If the
concentration of acetone in the outlet stream was measured, the concentration profile should look like Fig.
16.9, curve A.
In practice, various factors combine to change the shape of the above curve such that, in reality, it would
be shaped like that shown in Fig. 16.9, curve B. This discrepancy occurs because the VOC molecules are
in equilibrium with the gas stream. The engineer uses the activated carbon to change this equilibrium and
the molecules react against this. This is termed mass transfer resistance. If there was no resistance to mass
transfer, the outlet concentration curve would be exactly as shown in Fig. 16.9, curve A. The greater the
resistance, the more the curve moves from that of Fig. 16.9, curve A, to that of curve B. Furthermore,
adsorption occurs in a narrow band within the bed of carbon; this is known as the adsorption zone. The
width of this zone is proportional to the shape of the outlet curve. Also, because the flow through an
adsorber is normally plug flow, VOCs should not be detected in the outlet stream until the adsorption zone
reaches it. For example, the bed in Fig. 16.9, curve A, would have no adsorption zone, whereas in Fig.
16.9, curve B, it would be large. A number of factors can now be identified, including:

1. It is theoretically possible to recover 100 per cent of the VOC.

2. The longer the bed, the more it can adsorb with 100 per cent efficiency.
762 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Vapour Dehum-
stream idifier I
VOC VOC concentration
analyser controller

Bleed air

Drying
air

Used Condenser
to dry
the carbon
after
steaming

Recovered
material

Steam
supply

To To
atmosphere atmosphere

Figure 16.8 A fixed bed adsorption unit.

3. The rate of mass transfer from the gas phase to the solid phase should be maximized, thereby
minimizing the size of the adsorption zone.

Mathematical analysis of fixed bed adsorption A typical outlet curve is given in Fig. 16.10. The
velocity with which the adsorption wave moves through the bed is given by
ys
u=— (16.8)
ty

where u = the adsorption wave velocity, m/s

L = the length of the bed, m
ft) = time at which breakthrough occurs
The length of the mass transfer zone (MTZ) is given by
Lutz = u(to — ty) (16.9)
If the outlet concentration was as in Fig. 16.11, the bed would be utilized to its maximum. However,
because of the actual outlet concentration profile, a certain amount of underutilization of the carbon
occurs. This is frequently expressed in terms of unused bed length (LUB). Mathematically, this can be
shown to be given by
 INDUSTRIAL AIR EMISSIONS CONTROL 763

Curve (B),
actual outlet
concentration profile
Curve (A),
concentration
Outlet ideal outlet
concentration profile
Pa Ee
8
Time (h)

Figure 16.9 Ideal and actual outlet concentration profiles of adsorption.

Concentration

Figure 16.10 Mathematical analysis of fixed bed adsorption.

LUB =a{1 -*) (16.10)

Ss

where t, = time at which the outlet concentration equals half the inlet concentration
Of course, the most important parameter is the time at which breakthrough occurs, #,. This can be
calculated as follows, given the length of the bed:
th ES Diz (16.11)
u
Example 16.3 Evaluation of an adsorber. A carbon bed of | m height, containing 400 kg of carbon
is adsorbing acetone. Breakthrough occurs after 70 minutes (4,) and the outlet concentration equals half
the inlet concentration after 80 minutes (t,). Calculate (a) the length (height) of the unused bed, (b) the
length (height) of the mass transfer zone and (c) the adsorption wave velocity.

Concentration
ts
Time

Figure 16.11 Ideal outlet concentration profile of fixed bed adsorption.

764 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Solution

(a) Length of unused bed, LUB:

(b) Length of the mass transfer zone:

Lutz = u(to — to)

IL,
However, u=—
th
IL
Therefore, Eyarz, = mae — th)
b
1
= —
70 (90 — 70 )
= 0.286m

(c) Adsorption wave velocity, u:

IL
“u=—
to
al
0
= 0.0143 m/min
= 0.86 m/h
16.4.4 Filtration

A filter comprises a solid porous media which allows only gas and very small particles to pass through it.
Gas filters normally consist of either bags or cartridges through which the gas passes. The construction of
a typical gas filter is shown in Fig. 16.12. The performance of a filter is characterized by two parameters:
e Particle collection efficiency
e Pressure drop

Both are a function of the filter media, though the latter is also a function of the filtration velocity.
It is important to know the particle size distribution of the dust to allow the most appropriate filter
media to be determined. Once the filter is in operation, a thin layer of dust will penetrate the filter media
and form a thin film on it, thereby improving its performance. However, such a film also increases the
pressure drop through a filter, reportedly sometimes by a factor of ten (Perry et al., 1984). The pressure
drop through a filter may be determined from the following equation:
AP =k V; + hbWV; (16.12)

where AP = pressure drop

k, = filter media constant
ky = solids constant
 INDUSTRIAL AIR EMISSIONS CONTROL 765

W. = solids per unit area

V; = filtration velocity
The above parameters should be in consistent units. Perry et al. (1984) gives typical values for the
constants for some dusts. However, it is universally accepted that unless a safety factor is used in the
sizing of a filter, then on-site pilot trials should first be carried out. Lydersen (1979) suggests using the
fact that because the pores are so small, flow will be laminar and the pressure drop can be easily
estimated. However, this still requires a knowledge of the drag coefficient of the particles.
Filter media selection is based on the operating conditions. The main parameters that should be
considered are temperature, acid, alkali and moisture resistance, strength and efficiency. There are
numerous options in both media and the methods of construction. A review of the available media is given
in the Institution of Chemical Engineers (UK) (IChemE) Guide to Dust and Fume Control (1985). Filters
use a combination of mechanisms. Particles larger than the pore size of the filter are sieved out of the gas
stream. Particles smaller than the pore size are removed by interception with the filter media, by impaction
or by gravitational settling and, for small particles, diffusion and electrostatic attraction are important. In
addition, a pre-coat layer can be used to improve collection efficiency. The pore size of a filter media can
vary substantially with time because of the buildup of a dust layer on it. The filter media commonly used
include:
Woven fabric
Needle felt
Paper
Plastic
Ceramic filters (for high-temperature applications)

Operation of a gas filter Unlike liquid-solid filtration, gas—particulate filtration is carried out in two
principal types of equipment:

e The bag filter

e The cartridge filter
The design of both is quite similar. They typically consist of a number of filter bags or cartridges
suspended vertically. The gas stream may pass through them from either side, depending on the method of
solids removal. Solids removal can be achieved in a number of ways. Two units can be employed with one
cleaned while the other is on line. If filter bags are being used, they can be shaken by mechanical action

Clean air out

Filter bags

Particulate aes
laden air inlet

Rotary lock

Figure 16.12 Construction of a typical bag filter unit.

766 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

(rapping), without interrupting the filtration. Acoustical action can also be used. The air flow through the
filter can be reversed temporarily or a periodic or continuous jet of air can be used to dislodge the solids.
Which method to choose depends on the operating conditions and the material concerned. For
example, for difficult dust cake or for particle penetration of the filter media, a pulsed jet of air at a high
pressure, typically up to 700 kPa, is most effective. For a continuous jet the air pressure does not need to
be as high. Because the cake is the major contributor to the pressure drop through the unit, and therefore
determines the size of the fan, the frequency of cleaning is very important; i.e. if it can be cleaned
frequently, the pressure drop and therefore the fan size will not be excessive.

Design of a gas filter The cost of a gas filter is primarily a function of the filtration area required. The
area required is the volumetric flowrate divided by the velocity through the filter. The velocity through the
filter is limited by both the pressure drop through the unit and the ‘can’ velocity. This is the velocity of the
gas in the passages between the filter units in the filter house. It is a frequently overlooked design
parameter. There are two ways to size a gas filter. One is to calculate the velocity through the filter, often
called the air to cloth ratio, by deciding on a cleaning frequency and then calculating the area required
based on the maximum allowable pressure drop, using Eq. (16.12). The other is to pick a filtration
velocity from a table of typical values and install a cleaning unit whose cleaning frequency can be
adjusted to suit the performance of the filter when operational. The latter method is the most commonly
used for small installations and is done in conjunction with the equipment vendor. Tables of typical
filtration velocities are given both in the IChemE Guide (1981) and Croom (1993). Typically values for
filtration velocities are between 0.5 and 1 m/min for all types of cleaning mechanisms except pulsed jet,
which can have a filtering velocity of up to 5m/min. The ‘can’ velocity should not normally exceed about
75 m/min (Croom, 1993).

16.4.5 Impingement Separators

Because of the density difference between solids and gases, in laminar flow their stream lines are different
if the direction of flow is changed. This fact is frequently exploited to separate a solid particle from a gas
stream, usually by suddenly changing the direction of flow of the gas stream.

The settling chamber _A settling chamber reduces the velocity of the gas stream so that the particles drop
out by gravity. It is a large device not often used as a final control mechanism. If it is assumed that Stokes’ law
applies (see Chapter 11), then the particle size which will be removed with 100 per cent efficiency is given by
the following equation:
18u,uh
6 16.13
Be Voenee ie
where dy = particle diameter, m
[My = gas viscosity, kg/m s
u = gas velocity through the chamber, m/s
h = chamber height, m
g = gravity, m/s?
L = chamber length, m
Pp» = particle density, kg/m?

The efficiency with which particles smaller than d, are removed is the ratio of their settling velocity to
that
of d,, as calculated by Stokes’ law (see Chapter 11 on sedimentation).
 INDUSTRIAL AIR EMISSIONS CONTROL 767

Cyclone separators The use of gravity alone to separate particles from a gas stream has the twin
disadvantages of not being very efficient and requiring a large area. Utilizing a centrifugal instead of a
gravitational force to effect the separation requires a lower area and ensures a greater efficiency. A cyclone
separator is used to achieve this. The (centrifugal) force exerted on a particle in a cyclone is given by the
following equation:
mv 2
R
i. — —— (16.14)
16.14

where F = centrifugal force, N

m = particle mass, kg
v = particle velocity, m/s
R = cyclone radius, m

The construction of a typical reverse flow cyclone is shown in Fig. 16.13.

Design of a cyclone ‘Cyclone specification and design is based on empirical studies’ (Heumann, 1991).
The equations outlined here are based on work carried out in the 1950s. More detailed design methods are
available in Coulson and Richardson (1983) and Flagan and Seinfeld (1988), which review in the various
cyclone design methods. A commonly used equation predicting the size of particle that can be removed
with 50 per cent efficiency was developed by Lapple (1951):

Oph
pore Me (16.15)
TaN Vip, ~ P,)
where ds) = diameter of the particle removed with 50 per cent efficiency, m
Hy = gas viscosity, kg/ms
h = width of cyclone inlet, m
N. = number of effective turns within the cyclone
V, = inlet gas velocity, m/s
Pp = gas density, kg/m”
Py = particle density, kg/m?

Clean
gas outlet
A Particulate
Sf Haden gas
inlet

Side view
Top view

Particulate
outlet

Figure 16.13 The construction of a reverse flow cyclone.

 768 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

The efficiency of a cyclone in removing particles of other sizes is given in Peavy et al. (1986). The
number of effective turns which the gas makes within the cyclone is given by the following equation:

Ne =- ZGHED) (16.16)
c

The dimensions of a reverse flow cyclone are given in Fig. 16.14. The inlet velocity is normally between
15 and 20m/s, however, Perry et al. (1984) suggests that in agreement with the above equation,
substantially higher velocities can be used. ;

Example 16.4 Design of a cyclone separator. An air stream is flowing at the rate of 1000 m°/h ata
temperature of 50°C. It contains particles with a density of 1200kg/m’. Determine the diameter of the
particles that will be removed with 50 per cent efficiency if the inlet air velocity cannot exceed 10 m/s.

Solution

Air at 50 °C, density p = 1.25 kg/m?

Viscosity wp= 1.8 x 10-> N-s/m?
Inlet velocity = 10 m/s
Therefore,
0001
Inlet area = 3600 x hae 0.027 77

= (0 Seip
However, C=) 2050 = Up
Therefore,
0.0278 = 2h xh
=e
h = ,/0.0278/2
= 02018

Ssnn

fSB0 250
Y g=0.625a
>| fe tb
Figure 16.14 The relative dimensions of a reverse flow cyclone.
 INDUSTRIAL AIR EMISSIONS CONTROL 769

and a=4x 0.118

= 0.4714 m
b= 0.5 x 0.4714
= (0236 110
G—0236
a! == 7) xe (AGIA!
= 0.9428
also e = 0.9428
Therefore, from Eq. (16.16)
1
N. © =—— F
= 9036 x 3 x 0.9428)

= 11 O8
= 2 ans

faditvom Eq. (16.15) in= ||9 x 1.8 x 10-5 x 0.118 =5

2n x 12 x 10(1200 — 1.25)

=~ 2115 a0!
— A Ole mio pm
So this design is capable of removing 5 um particles with a 50 per cent removal efficiency.

16.4.6 Scrubbers

Scrubbers, also known as wet collectors, employ a liquid to remove particles from a gas stream. In use it is
either the liquid droplets which collect the particles or liquid that is poured continuously on to a porous
packing and the particles collected by both the liquid droplets and adhesion to the liquid on the packing.
Figure 16.15 shows the construction of a basic scrubber. The use of packing allows a smaller tower to be
used but the pressure drop is higher (thereby increasing inefficiency). The pressure drop through a spray

Cleaned gas
outlet

Mist
eliminator

a Spray arm
. jaar
Packing .
medium La rE -

ce
aagaeeeass
HEE Dirty gas Recirculating
ia inlet scrubbing
Make up__ liquid
liquid ea
Liquid overflow

Pump

Figure 16.15 A typical spray tower.

770 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

tower is typically between 0.25 and 0.5 kPa. For a packed bed 1is between 0.25 and 2.0 kPa. The liquid to
gas ratio ina SU tower is typically between 1.3 and 2.7 L/ m?. In a packed tower it is normally between
0.1 and 0.5 L/m? (Corbitt, 1989).
Basically, the contaminated gas (e.g. biogas as CH, and CO, contaminated with excess NH3) enters
the tower at a low level and rises due to its buoyancy. The scrubbing liquid enters the top of the tower and
sprays down on top of the vertically rising dirty gas. At interception the contaminants adsorb to the falling
liquid and the purified gas continues to rise and emits from the top of the tower. Packing (e.g. random
plastic pieces) improve the adsorption efficiency.
The nozzles on the spray arms atomize the liquid which then falls through the tower at the droplet
terminal settling velocity. The efficiency of a spray tower is given by the following equation (Flagan and
Seinfeld, 1988):
Efficiency = 1 — exp[—1.5 x n x (Vi/v) x W x L/(Vz x Ac X Ds)] (16.17)

where V, = droplet terminal velocity

v=V.-V,
V, = gas velocity
A. = cross-sectional area
L = height of the tower
D, = droplet diameter
n = the collection efficiency of particles on a droplet

The most difficult variable to quantify here is the collection efficiency of particles on a droplet. It
must either be developed from pilot plant studies or calculated from an experimental correlation, such as
that of Slinn, as detailed by Flagan and Seinfeld (1988). The droplet diameter is a function of the liquid
being used, the spray arm nozzles and the flow through them. Lydersen (1979) states that the most
effective drop size for a spray tower is 400 to 1000 um. He also gives performance details for a Pease—
Anthony venturi scrubber in various applications. Spray towers can be used on biogas from anaerobic
digesters to remove the ammonia from the biogas, as ammonia is a toxin to methanogenic bacteria in the
reactors.

16.4.7 Electrostatic Precipitators

These are used to remove very small liquid and solid particles from a gas stream, and are used mainly in
the utility industries. They operate by generating a corona between a high-voltage electrode, usually a fine
wire, and a passive earthed electrode, such as a plate or pipe. Particles passing through such an electric
field are ionized by ions migrating from the discharge to the collector electrode, with whom they collide.
These particles then drift towards the collector electrode to which they are held by electrostatic attraction.
The particles are removed from the collector by either a water spray or ‘rapping’ it periodically. The
collectors can either be flat plates or tubular units. Usually, a number of discharge electrodes will hang as
shown in Fig. 16.16.

Design of an electrostatic precipitator The efficiency of an ESP with plate collectors is given by
Efficiency = 1 — exp(—AW/Q) (16.18)

where A = area of the plates, m*

W = particle sedimentation velocity in an electric field, m/s
Q = gas flow rate, m?/s
 INDUSTRIAL AIR EMISSIONS CONTROL 771

Insulator
To power
supply
Cleaned gas
outlet

Dirt on
the wall he

Weight

Inlet gas >

Vv
Particulate
material

Figure 16.16 An electrostatic precipitator.

Equation (16.18) is known as the Anderson—Deutsch equation. In reality, such parameters as the particle
sedimentation velocity are not constant. For further information, Oglesby et al. (1978) should be
consulted.

Example 16.5 Design of an electrostatic precipitator. A quantity of 50m°/s of air flows from a
cement manufacturing facility. It contains cement particles whose settling velocity is 0.12 m/s. If 99 per
cent removal efficiency is required, calculate the surface area of the electrostatic precipitator.

Solution
Efficiency = 1 — exp(—AW/(Q)
0.99 = 1 — exp(—0.12 A/50)
0.12
<p = In(1(agi—0.99)
eee 0:
50
a OO!
mee
A = —416.67 In(0.01)
= 1919 m*
16.4.8 Odour Abatement

Odours are not easily characterized or quantified and therefore represent a particular design problem.
Control of odours is best achieved at source.This involves identifying the cause of the odour instead of the
odour itself and then changing the operating conditions, methods, design or raw materials to eliminate or
minimize the odour. Failing this, a number of options exist, such as:

e Adsorption, usually onto activated carbon

e Incineration

e Absorption/scrubbing

e Use of masking agents (all too common)

e Biofiltration (soil, peat beds, biological scrubbers)

772 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Incineration and absorption are discussed elsewhere and therefore will not be discussed in detail here. The
design of absorption and incineration equipment is the same as for vapour recovery or destruction. For
more detailed information on odour control, Hesketh and Cross (1989) or Martin et al. (1992) should be
consulted.

Adsorption Adsorption for odour control differs from the adsorption discussed earlier in that
concentrations are much lower. A single bed, usually a carbon filter, is used and the unit is normally non-
regenerative because the odorous compounds are chemically bonded to the carbon. The adsorption wave
would normally be quite narrow and its velocity would be low because of the low loading. An equation
that may be used to approximate the filter life is Turk’s equation (WPCF, 1979):

2 Ws 16.19
‘= ERC gai
where t = filter life, days
W = mass of adsorbent, g
S = the fraction of filter weight that can be adsorbed, usually 0.165 to 0.5
E = efficiency of the filter
R = gas flow rate, m?/min
C = concentration of odorous material in the gas, ppm

The use of masking agents The use of masking agents involves the addition of specially formulated
compounds to the waste stream. Addition is at source, i.e. addition to an activated sludge aeration tank, or
by dilution with water and application via a spray tower. These compounds act in a number of ways,
depending on the odour that they must remove. They can dissolve the offending gas by reacting with it so
that it decomposes or, as in the case of an organic acid, they can convert it to a harmless organic salt. On-
site or pilot trials are recommended to determine the effectiveness of any such compound.

For example, one masking agent Epoleon™ acts as follows to control the odour associated with
hydrogen sulphide:
CH,COONa + H2S — NaHS + CH,COOH
For ammonia:
CH2COOH + NH3 —> CH:;COONH,
For methyl mercaptan:
CH2COONa + CH3SH —> CH3SNe + CH2COOH
Epoleon chemically converts the offending compounds into harmless inoffensive compounds. (These
examples are taken from Epoleon® Corporation promotional literature.)

Soilbeds Commonly used in parts of the United States, soilbeds have not found widespread use in
Europe to date because of both the cost of land and the possibility of frost reducing their efficiency.
Typically about | metre deep, the gas flow rate is about 10m*/hm?. Moist loam soil is normally used.
They are reasonably resilient to sudden stream composition changes, adapting themselves quickly to
changes in loading circumstances. It is the microbial population within the soil that removes the odorous
compounds. It is usually aided by the planting of shallow rooted plants to keep the soil loose. They can
also have the secondary effect of keeping sulphate concentrations in the soil under control.

Peat bed filters These consist of a coarse-fibred, dust-free peat from the top layer of a bog. Typically a
Spagnum or Trichophorum peat is used. The peat bed itself is usually not more than | metre deep to avoid
 INDUSTRIAL AIR EMISSIONS CONTROL 773

Table 16.4 Typical efficiencies of peat bed filter for

odour removal

Odorous Inlet concentration Reduction across

compound (ppm) filter (%)

Ethanol 10— 70 > 99

Methanol 50— 300 > 99
Acetone 70— 400 >97
Ethyl acetate 500— 5000 =/5)

compaction. The bed temperature is maintained between 10 and 45°C. The pH should always be kept
within the range 4 to 7.5. For highly odorous streams the air flow rate should not be more than 110 to
130m?/hm? of bed. For less intensive odours, the flow rate can be increased as high as 200 m°/hm/?.
Table 16.4 gives the performance of a biofilter for a range of odorous compounds.
The odour intensity is measured using a trained panel of observers and a device called an olfactometer.
Peat beds are mainly used in Europe where they have been in use, in agriculture and fish processing. The
construction of a typical peat bed filter is shown in Fig. 16.17.

16.5 SPECIAL TOPICS

16.5.1 Flue Gas Desulphurization

There are two main types of flue gas desulphurization (FGD) systems. One generates a residue which
must be disposed. The other converts the sulphur dioxide (and sulphur trioxide) to a marketable product.
Approximately 95 to 97 per cent of the world’s FGD systems are of the former type, i.e. non-regenerable.
The limestone-gypsum process is the more economical to run and accounts for 40 per cent of the installed
systems. In the longer term it is most likely that regenerable and catalytic processes will emerge as the
desirable method of desulphurization. This is for two reasons. Firstly, the quantities of sludge that are
required to be landfilled are growing with the increasing numbers of FGD plants. This is combined with
the fact that the cost of landfilling is likely to increase substantially with increased monitoring and control
requirements. Secondly, the public are unlikely to accept that a non-regenerable waste is the best

(ame
Cleaned
—>
LE Oa ae a
gas

Peat
ae bed

Odorous
gas inlet

Recirculation
pump |

To drain

Figure 16.17 Schematic of a typical peat bed filter.

774 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

practicable environmental option when a number of regenerable stream options also exist. Most flue gas
desulphurization processes centre around an absorption tower in which the sulphur dioxides are
chemically absorbed into an alkaline liquid stream. They are further classified as either wet or dry,
depending on the phase in which the reaction occurs. Most FGD systems in use today are wet non-
regenerable processes.

The chemistry of flue gas desulphurization Non-regenerative systems are based around the reaction
of sulphur dioxide with one or more of the following compounds: lime (CaO), caustic soda (NaOH), soda
ash (Na,CO3), ammonia (NH;3), slaked lime (Ca(OH),), limestone (CaCO3) and dolomite
(MgCO;3 + CaCO3, MgCO3 mainly). The reaction mechanisms are not well defined and influenced by
both the source and the method of processing of the raw material (Davis and Cornwell, 1991). Some of
the reactions are as follows:

SO, + CaO —> CaSO3

2CaSO3 + O27 —> 2CaSO4

CaCO; + SO, —> CaSO; + CO,

The above equations show how the two most commonly used compounds in FGD operate. Lime reacts to
produce calcium sulphite (CaSO3), part of which is converted to calcium sulphate (CaSO,) by both
reacting with the excess oxygen in the flue gas and by aeration of the sludge afterwards. The sulphite is a
thixotropic gel, difficult to landfill. The sulphate is a stable solid; hence settling ponds are often aerated to
separate the sulphate from the gel. Also, the sulphate (known as gypsum) is the prime ingredient in
plasterboard. One power station currently being built in the United Kingdom will produce enough
gypsum to supply about a third of the British plasterboard market. It is, however, to be landfilled. Carbon
dioxide is generated in limestone FGD systems, and up to 5 per cent of the total power produced by a
power plant is required to operate an FGD system.

Example 16.6 Consider a hypothetical coal (1 per cent sulphur, 8 per cent ash and a calorific value
of 30 MJ/kg)-fired power plant of 915 MW capacity with a load factor of 72.5 per cent and an efficiency
of 40 per cent. An FGD scrubber is installed prior to the ESP. If the scrubber removes 60 per cent of fly
ash and 90 per cent of SO», determine the amount of sludge generated by the scrubber.

Solution

Coal requirement = 915 MW

=) 915)Mi/s
= 3294 x 10° MJ/h
23294 & 10? 025
kg/h
0.4 x 30
= 199 0125 ke/h
= 199 t/h
Sulphur content = 0.01 x 199 t/h
== 99 t/h
SO, = 3.98 t/h
Fly ash = 0.08 x 199 t/h
= 9200)
 INDUSTRIAL AIR EMISSIONS CONTROL 775

Air emission
stream
> SO, = 0.4
Fly ash = 6.37

Scrubbing liquid of
spray tower

Scrubber
Influent stream
SO, = 3.98 T/h
Fly ash = 15.92 T/h

Sludge effluent
stream
SSS SO e= 358
Fly ash = 9.55

Mass balance for sulphur dioxide removal. Oxygen is required for SO, removal. The reactions are:

SO, + CaCO; —> CaSO; + CO?

2CaSO3 + O, —> 2CaSO,

The overall reaction can therefore be shown as follows:

O, + 2SO2 + 2CaCO; —> 2CaSO,4 + 2CO?

The molecular weights are

32+2 x 64+2 x 100

— 2 x 13642 x 44

Thus 32 kg of oxygen is required for every 128 kg of SO, treated. Therefore

32
Amount of oxygen required = 103 * (3.98 — 0.4)

= 0.895 T/h
200
Amount of calcium carbonate required = 108 x (3.98 — 0.4)

= 5.594 T/h
: 2712
Amount of sludge (calcium sulphate) generated = 8 x (3.98 — 0.4)

= 7.608 T/h
88
Amount of CO generated = 18 x (3.98 — 0.4)

= 2.461 17h
776 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Mass balance table for SO, removal (all units T/h)

Inlet gas Outlet gas Inlet liquid Outlet sludge

(1) (2) (3) (4)
SO, 3.98 0.4 — —
Oz 0.895 — — a
CO, 0 2.461 a= a
CaCO; = — 5.594 —
CaSO4 — - == 7.608
Total 4.875 2.861 5.594 7.608

Mass balance: (1) + (3) = (2) + (4)

4.875 + 5.594 = 2.861 + 7.608
10.469 = 10.469
Therefore, the amount of sludge generated is 7.608 T/h from SO, removal and 9.55 T/h of fly ash.
Total sludge = 7.608 + 9.55
= 17 io8 L/h
= 150304 T/yr

16.5.2 NO, Removal

The term NO, implies two major oxides, nitrogen oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO>). In combustion,
NO is the dominant of the two, NO, mainly a downstream derivative of NO. There are three main
mechanisms of NO, production from combustion processes:
e From the reaction of N> in the fuel air with oxygen at the high temperatures of a burner chamber
e From nitrogen existing in the fuel
e From reactions of fuel-derived radicals with N> ultimately leading to NO

To control NO, emissions effectively, the dominant formation mechanism must be known. There are a
number of ways of then controlling the NO, emissions.

The chemistry of NO, formation The simplest, and most widely used, model of NO, formation is the
Zeldovich mechanism, which may be expressed chemically as follows:
N, +O=NO+N
O. +N =NO+0
OH+N=NO+H

These reactions may be considered to be independent of the main fuel burning reaction which takes place
in boilers and furnaces. These reactions occur because of the high temperature that exists in the flame
itself. Indeed, it has been observed that NO, formation does not occur to a significant extent below 1800 K
and that the NO, present is dependent on temperature (Lefebvre, 1983).

Minimizing NO, formation Therefore, burner design needs to balance the combustion process
requirements with NO, formation. This is done in a number of ways. Firstly, the chemical reactions
outlined above can be manipulated. This is done, for example, by minimizing the quantity of oxygen
present to minimize NO, formation. In practical terms this translates into using low excess. air.
 INDUSTRIAL AIR EMISSIONS CONTROL 777

Recirculating the flue gas is also common. This acts by reducing the peak flame temperature and the
quantity of oxygen present. By injecting water into the combustion chamber, the temperature is reduced
due to the energy being taken up by the latent heat of water. Finally, staged combustion can be used to
reduce the peak temperature. Up to three stages can be used, but this requires very tight control over both
the fuel and air flow rates to each stage. In the 1970s, it was found that injecting ammonia into the furnace
flame reduced the NO, formation. This idea was developed further by the EPRI in the United States who
found that injecting urea worked even better than ammonia. Today ammonia is used in conjunction with a
catalyst in a technique known as selective catalytic reduction (SCR). Ammonia is injected into the flue gas
upstream of the catalyst bed. The NO, combine with the ammonia on the catalyst surface where they
decompose to harmless nitrogen and water. Such systems give good NO, removal rates but are expensive.
Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR) is a post-combustion method of eliminating NO, emissions. It
involves the injection of ammonia or urea into the combustion chamber or an area of high temperature
downstream. It requires a high temperature to achieve the reaction activation energy and hence is not
applicable to certain types of equipment.

Selecting NO, abatement equipment Table 16.5 shows typical efficiencies and the applicability of the
various methods of NO, reduction.

16.5.3 Fugitive Emissions

Fugitive emissions are industrial emissions from both point and non-point sources. These sources may be
considered the equipment and methods associated with the transferring, conveying, loading, unloading,
storage, packaging and processing of materials. Depending on the process involved, fugitive emissions
may be negligible or, as in, say, open quarrying, they may be the main emissions source.

Control of fugitive emissions The control of fugitive emissions depends on the compounds involved,
the quantities involved and the equipment being used. In industry, commonly used control methods are
equipment modification and local ventilation/extraction to an emissions control unit from where the
cleaned gas is emitted as a point source.

Fugitive dust sources and their control The main sources of fugitive dust are open mining/quarrying,
unpaved roads, construction activity and the open or semi-open storage or movement of solid material.
Control of such sources can involve anything from the repeated application of water to chemical
stabilization, surface cleaning, windbreaks or simply good management.

Fugitive VOC sources and their control This was identified in the United States as having a significant
impact on ambient air quality standards when 32 per cent of the releases of organic and halogenated
organic compounds to the atmosphere in 1987 were defined as fugitive. Industrial valves, pumps and

Table 16.5 Methods of NO, reduction

Method Applicability NO, reduction (%)

Flue gas recirculation Thermal NO, reduction 70-80

Low NO, burners Fuel and thermal NO, reduction 10-25
Staged burners Fuel and thermal NO, reduction 40-70
Selective catalytic reduction Fuel and thermal NO, reduction 80-90
Selective non-catalytic reduction Fuel and thermal NO, reduction 60-80
(not applicable to small boilers
or gas turbines)
778 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

flanges have been identified as the main contributors to fugitive emissions from industrial facilities and
legislation is in place in the United States to minimize such emissions. Similar legislation is not yet in
place in Europe. Legislation in the United'States has developed from industries reporting, as annual totals,
the fugitive emissions from a facility to a more comprehensive, legislative-driven emissions minimization
programme. A rule is now in place where industries whose fugitive emissions increase must inspect more
frequently and replace troublesome equipment instead of simply paying a fine. The legislation even
includes a quality improvement programme (QIP). This is for industries with severe difficulties
controlling fugitive emissions. Such a programme requires a company to identify the problem, investigate
alternative solutions and apply the most appropriate one. This must all be completed within a given time-
scale. Such legislation provides a compelling incentive for companies to do better and is an excellent
example of well-developed legislation. Emissions from many diverse sources are now not only coming
under public scrutiny but under legislative control, again, especially in the United States, where VOC
abatement technologies are being adapted for control of petroleum fume emissions at marine
loading/unloading stations and filling station forecourts.

16.6 PROBLEMS

Stream characterization and equipment selection

16.1 What is the difference between an organic and an inorganic compound?
16.2 Classify the following compounds as either organic, inorganic or particulate:
(a) dry cleaning agents,
(b) petrol,
(c) ammonia,
(d) boiler flue gases.
16.3 Under what circumstances should incineration be considered as a method of air emissions control?
16.4 Figure 16.1 outlines the principal flow sheeting alternatives for air emissions control. List all the
control methods you know of and classify each of them under the options outlined in Fig. 16.1.

Equipment design
16.5 An air stream of 500 Nm°*/h at a temperature of 50°C and at atmospheric pressure, contains only
acetone. Determine the maximum mass flow rate of acetone. If cooling water is available at a
temperature of 25°C and a temperature rise of 5°C is permissible, determine the amount of
acetone which could be condensed and the amount of heat that must be removed to do so.
Calculate also the cooling water flow requirement.
16.6 Discuss simple versus complex absorption.
16.7 How would the choice of an absorbant for absorption be influenced by the use of simple or
complex absorption?
16.8 What are the important parameters in determining the optimum absorption column size?
16.9 The vapour liquid equilibrium relationship for ammonia at 10°C is given by

Ve 0:0225%

Repeat Example 16.2 using this relationship. Comment on the results.

16.10 Figure 16.8 shows the principal valves on a twin bed, steam desorbed adsorption unit for the
recovery of VOCs. List the various stages in the adsorption—desorption cycle, label the valves in
the diagram and for each stage, state what valves should be opened and what valves should be
closed.
16.11 An CEM a Za precipitator has a 5000 m* plate area. It is 99.0 per cent efficient at treating
100 m?/s of flue gas from a power plant. How large would the plate area have to be to increase its
efficiency to 99.9 per cent?
 INDUSTRIAL AIR EMISSIONS CONTROL 779

16.12 A scrubber followed by two electrostatic precipitators is used to clean the flue gas from a power
plant. Downstream of the precipitators there is a bed of catalyst for NO, reduction. The
precipitators are in parallel and have an efficiency of 97 per cent. Every 24 hours both
precipitators are bypassed for 10 minutes to clean.
Sketch the system. What, do you think, is the function of the absorber? Is this the best
arrangement for the equipment? Estimate the reduction in the amount of dust escaping through
the ESPs if they are cleaned at different times.
If a third precipitator is installed to increase the overall efficiency, determine whether it should
be in parallel or series with the other two and when it should be cleaned.
16.13 A gas stream has a flow rate of 1500 Nm°/h, a density of 1.15 kg/m? and a viscosity of 0.018 cP.
It contains particles with a density of 1200 kg/m? and a diameter of 6 ym. If the pressure drop is
limited to 150mm HG and the pressure drop through a cyclone is given by

AP = 4p(V*)
where p = density of the gas, kg/m?
V = inlet gas velocity, m/s

determine what fraction of particles will be removed:

(a) by one cyclone,
(b) by four cyclones in series,
(c) by five cyclones in parallel,
(d) by a gravity settling chamber.
Note: this question requires the student to investigate the relationship between dso and other particle sizes
for a cyclone.

NO, control
16.14 Why would urea be preferable to ammonia as a method of controlling NO, emissions?
16.15 From the point of view of generating the minimum amount of waste, which is the most suitable
NO,. control method?

Odour control
16.16 An activated sludge effluent treatment plant is experiencing complaints from the surrounding
area. The plant is a secondary treatment plant. Discuss the possible sources of odours and the
ways to control them.
16.17. A municipal landfill site wishes to install an odour abatement plant. If the area of it is 2km?,
discuss the options for odour abatement.

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

BS 7750 (1992) Specification for Environmental Managements Systems, British Standards Institution, London. -
Chemical Industries Association (CIA) (1992) Guidance on the Management of VOC emissions, Chemical Industries Association,
London.
Corbitt, R. A. (1990) Standard Handbook of Environmental Engineering, \st edn, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Coulson, J. M. and J. F. Richardson (1983) Chemical Engineering, Vol. 6, \st edn, Pergamon Press, Oxford.
Coulson, J. M. and J. F. Richardson (1991) Chemical Engineering, Vol. 2, 4th edn, Pergamon Press, Oxford.
Croom, M. L. (1993) ‘Effective selection of filter dust collectors’, in Chemical Engineering, Vol. 100, No. 7, July 1993, McGraw-
Hill, New York.
Davis, M. L. and D. A. Comwell (1991) Introduction to Environmental Engineering, 2nd edn, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Flagan, R. C. and J. H. Seinfeld (1988) Fundamentals of Air Pollution Control, 2nd edn, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey.
780 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Hanley, J. and J. Petchonka (1993) ‘Equipment selection for solid-gas separation’, in Chemical Engineering, July, McGraw-Hill,
New York.
Hesketh, H. E. and FE. L. Cross (1989) Odor Control Including Hazardous/Toxic Odors, 1st edn, Technomic Publishing Company,
Pennsylvania.
Heumann, W. L. (1991) ‘Cyclone separators: a family affair’, in Chemical Engineering, June, McGraw-Hill, New York, pp. | 18-123.
Institution of Chemical Engineers (IChemE) (1985) A User Guide to Dust and Fume Control, 2nd edn, Institution of Chemical
Engineers, London.
Lefebvre, A. H. (1983) Gas Turbine Emissions, 1st edn, McGraw-Hill, New York, p. 481.
Lapple, C. E. (1951) ‘Processes use many collection types’, Chem. Engng. 58(5), 144, May.
Luft, T. A. (1986) ‘Technical instructions on air quality control’, German Federal Emission Control Law, 27 February.
Luyben, W. L. and L. A. Wenzel (1988) Chemical Process Analysis, 1st edn, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Lydersen, A. L. (1979) Fluid Flow And Heat Transfer, 1st edn, John Wiley, Chichester.
McInnes, R., S. Jelinek and V. Putsche (1990) ‘Cutting toxic organics’, in Chemical Engineering, September, McGraw-Hill, New
York.
Martin, A. M., S. L. Nolen, P. S. Gess and T. A. Baesen (1992) ‘Controlling odors from CPI facilities’, Chemical Engineering
Progress, 88(12), 53-61, December.
Oglesby, jr. S. and G. B. Nichols (1978) Electrostatic Precipitation, Marcel-Dekker Inc., New-York.
Peavy, H., D. Row and G. Tchobanoglous (1985) Environmental Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Perry, R. H, D. Green and J. O. Maloney (1984) Perry's Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 6th edn, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Reid, R. C., T. K. Sherwood and J. M. Prausnitz (1977) The Properties of Gases and Liquids, 3rd edn, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Rousseau, R. W. (1987) Handbook of Separation Process Technology, 1st edn, John Wiley and Sons, New York.
Shanahan, I. (1990) Biofilters for Odour Control, Bord na Mona, Ireland.
Simonson, J. R. (1988) Engineering Heat Transfer, 2nd edn., MacMillan, London.
Treybal, R. E. (1981) Mass-Transfer Operations, 3rd edn, McGraw- Hill, New York.
Whalley, P. B. (1987) Boiling, Condensation and Gas—Liquid Flow, \st edn, Oxford University Press.
WPCF (1979) Odour Control For Wastewater Facilities, Manual of Practice No. 22, Water Pollution Control Federation,
Washington D.C.
 CHAPTER

SEVENTEEN

AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION CONTROL

17.1 INTRODUCTION

The primary objective of agricultural enterprise is the optimization of profit. In the past, maximizing
output has been the most expedient way of achieving this objective; farmers have accomplished this by
modifying the agro-ecosystem. Modifications over recent decades include increased use of inorganic
fertilizers and greater use of chemicals for controlling weeds and other pests, both resulting in improved
plant yields and quality. Other changes include larger animal herds, higher stocking rates, increased use of
feed concentrates and improved animal performance from breeding programmes. Modified animal
housing designs and the use of high-density, confined animal production practices are other changes in
agricultural practice. The results of these changes have been higher concentrations of nutrients, organic
matter and chemicals on modern farms compared to those operating a few decades ago.
Consequently, the pollution potential of modern farms is significantly greater than that of the more
extensive farming systems of previous decades. In addition, agricultural land is now used as a receptor of
non-farm organic wastes, such as food processing wastes and municipal wastewater sludges. The need to
control pollution from agriculture is more obvious, now that efforts begun in the 1970s to reduce pollution
from industries and municipalities have taken effect.
This chapter introduces concepts for developing and evaluating effective agricultural pollution
control strategies. The primary emphasis is on controlling water pollution.

17.2 OBSTACLES TO AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION CONTROL

Several unique characteristics of the agricultural industry make pollution control difficult. Agricultural
production occurs under circumstances that are quite different from those common to most industries
required to control pollution. Firstly, the basic medium for almost all agricultural production (i.e. the soil)
is a non-homogeneous biological system, with physical, chemical and biological characteristics that may
vary widely, even within a few metres. Other industries take elaborate quality control precautions to

781
782 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

minimize variability in their production base (e.g. machinery, raw products and facilities). Secondly,
unlike manufacturing industries that are based in confined areas under controlled conditions (inside
factories, for example), land-based agricultural production systems involve large land areas. Land-based
agricultural production systems are open to the effects of uncontrollable and largely unpredictable
climatic events, which add variability to production conditions. In contrast, other production industries
strive for closely monitored and regulated production environments (e.g. ventilation, relative humidity and
lighting levels) and predictable, if not controllable, supplies of raw inputs. Finally, but importantly,
production of basic (not processed) agricultural products involves -small profit margins. Increased
production costs associated with pollution control are very difficult to transfer to consumers, partly
because of farm price support mechanisms often operated by national governments and international
trading blocks.
From an environmental management perspective, the intensification of agricultural production and
its conduct in the open and variable environment present many difficulties. Production inputs, which may
become pollutants, such as nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), cannot be collected and removed once they
are added to the production system. Instead, these inputs become integrated into the production system
and follow through natural cycles (Chapter 10). This situation is dramatically different from that posed by,
for example, a manufacturing facility where there is greater control over the flow of inputs if production
(or pollution) problems arise. From a waste treatment perspective, the agricultural scenario is also quite
different from that encountered at manufacturing plants and most urbanized areas. Wastes can be collected
from these sources and diverted to a common location (wastewater treatment plant) where highly trained
individuals can manage the unit treatment operations under controlled conditions to yield an effluent of a
given quality. The ‘collection and treatment’ approach of pollution control is neither economically nor
technologically feasible for land-based agricultural systems because collection often is not practical (e.g.
runoff from farm fields) and their occurrence often is unpredictable (i.e. weather dependent). Finally,
although farmers are highly trained and experienced in agricultural production, they are not experts in
pollution control.

17.3 AGRICULTURAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL PRINCIPLES

Controlling agricultural pollution requires an interdisciplinary approach that combines the expertise of
engineers, agronomists, soil scientists and, in some situations, biologists. As discussed in Sec. 17.1,
pollutants of primary concern from agriculture include nutrients (N and P), organic matter (BODs),
pathogens (bacteria), synthetic organic chemicals (pesticides) and, in arable areas, eroded soil (TSS).
Agricultural pollution derives both from point (i.e. well-defined) sources around the farmyard, such as
slurry tanks, and from non-point (1.e. ill-defined or diffuse) sources, such as fields or portions of fields.
The same physical, chemical and biological principles used to control industrial and municipal sources of
pollution are applicable to agricultural sources, but must be applied in the context of an open,
uncontrolled and variable environment instead of a controlled treatment system. Further, the techniques
used to minimize pollution risk from the two types of agricultural pollution sources are different, although
a total quality management (TQM) approach or systems approach is a basic requirement for the success of
all methods.

17.3.1 Point Sources

Key point sources of pollution in agricultural systems are the farmyard itself (uncovered exercise or
feeding areas, soiled water storage tanks), facilities used to store animal wastes (slurry pits and tanks,
dungsteads), facilities for collecting and storing silage effluent (pads and tanks) and facilities used for
storing and handling pesticides (storage sheds, filling and rinseate collection areas). These sources pose
 AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION CONTROL 783

threats to the environment because they concentrate large amounts of potential pollutants in a relatively
compact volume and area.
Minimizing pollution risks from point sources depends on properly designing, constructing and
managing the facilities. From an engineering perspective, ‘properly designed and constructed’ facilities
are those that satisfy their intended purpose at minimum cost consistent with accepted factors of safety.
The intended purposes of controls for most agricultural point sources of pollution are to contain pollutants
and prevent their uncontrolled release to the environment. The basic requirement for such facilities is
adequate waste storage capacities, structural integrity and careful site locations. Many countries have
research-based design criteria for these facilities, which are specified by appropriate government agencies.
Accepted construction practices must be followed to guarantee that the facilities will perform as designed.
Just as important, however, operators (farmers) must utilize, or manage, these facilities properly to achieve
design objectives, i.e. follow a TQM approach to pollution control.

17.3.2 Non-point Sources

Non-point sources of agricultural pollution are the land areas on which agricultural production is
accomplished. Although these ‘fields’ can be identified by physical dimensions, the precise origin of
pollutants from these areas cannot be clearly identified, especially within the context of an entire
catchment. The diffuse nature of this type of pollution gives rise to its definition as ‘non-point source’
(NPS) pollution.
Precipitation excess and snowmelt (creating surface runoff and interflow) are the transport agents of
non-point source pollutants to surface waters; drainage water through the soil profile is the transporting
agent for pollutants to groundwater. Wind can also transport non-point source pollutants to surface waters,
but, except in special circumstances, the relative importance is small compared to water. In general, it is
not feasible to collect runoff, interflow or drainage water so that entrained pollutants can be removed.
Thus, controlling agricultural non-point source pollution depends largely on preventing pollutants
from leaving the production system (i.e. the soil). The edges of fields and bottom of the root zone are
convenient demarcations for land-based agricultural systems. Since most agricultural pollutants are
initially production inputs (e.g. nutrients), keeping these constituents within the confines of the root zone
and field edge is economically, as well as environmentally, sound.
Management practices are the most important agricultural non-point source pollution control
techniques, supplemented in some cases by structural or vegetative controls. Managerial practices must be
practicable (technologically and economically achievable) and adaptable to currently used farming
techniques to be effective on either a voluntary or regulatory basis. Structural practices, such as ponds,
terraces and diversions, must be designed following engineering principles; vegetative controls must
incorporate both physical design and agronomic principles.

17.4 POINT SOURCE CONTROLS

17.4.1 Site Selection

The proximity of any source of pollution to receiving waters is a major determinant in the relative
pollution risk posed by the source. Site selection is thus the primary step in designing facilities that will
contain agricultural pollutants. Codes of good agricultural practice typically give guidance for siting point
source pollution controls. As a rule, these facilities should be located as far as practicable from surface
waters and down gradient from nearby (50 to 75m) groundwater wells. In addition, facilities should be
placed where surface and subsurface soil conditions are suitable (low organic matter, low shrink-swell
potential, good compactability and adequate bearing capacity, deep water table, etc.), as determined by
soil borings or test pits. The number and depth to which borings are made should be consistent with
784 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

providing enough information on which to base a safe structural design. Where animal waste lagoons are
proposed, a site investigation should confirm that subsurface soil conditions will prevent excessive
leakage of the lagoon contents or that unsuitable conditions can be ameliorated by site modification (such
as incorporation of low-permeability soils) or by the use of synthetic liners. Sites with creviced bedrock,
karst limestone, shallow or gravelly soils, and soils with high water tables pose special challenges for a
safe design of any facility that is to contain agricultural pollutants.
Local siting regulations may exist and must be followed when designing facilities to control
agricultural pollutants. Dairies are often subject to special health regulations that may restrict the siting of
animal waste storage facilities. Siting of point source pollution contrd| facilities must respect the health
and safety of both humans and animals, making the direction of prevailing winds and the location of
existing structures important considerations. For both safety and utility, facilities should be located to
provide convenient all-weather access.

17.4.2 Sizing of Structural Facilities

The underlying purpose of agricultural point source pollution control facilities is to contain potential
pollutants (e.g. dirty or soiled water, animal wastes, pesticide rinseate). Achieving this objective is
dependent on providing structurally sound facilities with adequate capacities to hold the pollutants (and
rainwater in the case of uncovered structures) until they can be further managed, typically by application
to land. Design capacities are determined by the rate at which the pollutants are generated and the required
storage period. The durations of required storage periods are often specified by local regulations and
typically are related to the availability of suitable periods during which wastes can be applied to land. If
the facilities are to afford some degree of pollutant treatment, such as anaerobic lagoons, sizing of the
facilities also depends on biochemical principles (Chapter 12). While design principles are similar to
those used for wastewater treatment facilities, the characteristics of agricultural wastes dictate that a
somewhat different application of these design procedures be used (Barth, 1985; Merkel, 1981). Figure
17.1 is a generic representation of the relative volumes that must be accommodated in an uncovered waste
storage or treatment structure.
Excreta rates for various types of farm animals are given in Table 17.1. Management practices,
animal diets, animal ages and productivity levels of the animals affect waste excreta rates and
composition. Consequently, the values given in Table 17.1 are only approximations of excreta rates found
in a specific situation. Values in the table also disregard the volumes of water, bedding or litter, runoff
from yard areas or other wastes (such as dairy parlour washings or silage effluent) that are routinely mixed
with excreted wastes. These additions must be considered when sizing facilities to contain animal wastes.

Runoff and
Freeboard (safety depth) precipitation
if appropriate

Minimum volume required

for treatment or storage

Volume for required storage period

(if a treatment unit)

Figure 17.1 Relative volumes for a point source pollution control facility.
 AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION CONTROL 785

Table 17.1 Approximate daily livestock excreta production

Body Excreta (litres/day approximately) Excreta

weight rr (approximate %,
Type of livestock (kg) Range typical dry matter)
Cattle
Calf—up to 2 months
fed concentrated
liquid feed 73 4.0-6.1 5.0 12-14
Calf—up to
6 months 160 6.3-7.8 > 12-14
Heifer—up to
12 months 270 15.0 12-14
Heifer—up to
18 months 380 20.0 12-14
Beef store—up to
12 months 400 10-34 27.0 12-14
Dairy cow 500 32-54 41.0 13
Horse 680. 30.0 y)
Mink 0.2 13
Pigs
Piglet—up to 3 weeks 5 1.0 10
Weaner 12 1:5=2:5 2.0 10
Fattener fed dry meal 50 2.0=5.5 4.0 10
Fattener fed water; meal
Fattener fed 2:1 50 2.0-5.5 4.0 10
Fattener fed 4:1 50 4.0-9.0 7.0 6
Fattener fed swill 50 Very variable 15.0 3-5
Fattener fed whey 50 14.0-17.0 14.0 2
Boar 5.0 10
Dry sow 4.5 10
Sow and litter to 3 weeks 15.0 10
Poultry
Broiler (including
shavings litter) 2 0.04 60
Duck 2) 0.03 12
Goose Bi) 0.55 25
Laying hen 2 0.10—0.14 0.114 25
Rabbit 2.7 0.39
Turkey i 0.17 23

Adapted from Grundy, 1980, with permission

The contributions of direct precipitation must also be considered for uncovered facilities exposed to
the atmosphere. The amount of precipitation requiring containment typically is specified in local
regulations by defining the return period and duration of a ‘design storm’, e.g. precipitation over 24 hours
that occurs, on average, once every 10 years (i.e. a 10-year, 24-hour event). Such a specification also
allows, if necessary, calculation of the amount of runoff that must be accommodated in the facility.
Precipitation is extremely location dependent: for example, the 10-yr, 24-hr rainfall for Dublin (eastern
Ireland) is 54mm, whereas for Malin Head (Northern Ireland) it is 42 mm. A prudent design incorporates
on-farm observations of excreta rates and additions of extraneous matter (i.e. water, bedding), as well as
local climatic data.

Example 17.1 A dairy farmer milking 60 cows wants to add a below-ground slurry pit to contain
animal wastes and runoff from a 15m x 45 m exercise yard for a period of 4 months, during which time the
long-term average precipitation totals 560 mm. What size of tank should be constructed?
786 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Solution

(a) Animal waste generation:

60 cows x 41 L/day animal x 120 days = 295.2 x 10? L = 295.2 m?
(b) Runoff diverted into tank from exercise yard:
15m x 45m x 0.56m = 378m?
(c) Minimum required volume = 295.2 m? + 378 m? = 673.2 m’,

(Note: Approximately 0.5 m should be added to the resulting tank depth for freeboard as an additional
measure of safety.)
Effluent resulting from silage-making operations is a serious pollutant requiring collection and
storage until it can be utilized on agricultural land. Table 17.2 contains estimates of the volumes of silage
effluent produced when grasses of various moisture contents are ensiled. These data provide estimates of
the capacity required for dedicated effluent containment facilities or the additional volume required if the
effluent is diverted into other facilities (such as a slurry tank).
Water is the predominant component of pollutants held in point source pollution control facilities.
Thus, minimizing the size of these facilities is accomplished by excluding as much rainwater as possible.
For most facilities this can be accomplished by:
e Diverting clean runoff or roof drainage away from areas that are contaminated with wastes, such as
exercise yards
e¢ Minimizing the area of uncovered ‘dirty’ farmyard areas
e Using low-volume parlour washing procedures and
e Using ‘demand’ type drinkers and correcting leaks in drinkers, sprinklers and supply pipes

17.4.3 Design and Construction

Most agricultural point source pollution control facilities are reinforced concrete or steel structures that
must be designed according to accepted engineering standards and procedures. The corrosive nature of
many agricultural poilutants (such as animal wastes and silage effluent) requires that special precautions
be taken to select resistant construction materials and follow accepted construction practices. Construction
of most facilities should be supervised by a construction engineer or other competent inspector. Care must
be exercised to ensure that foundations are sufficient to prevent differential settling of facilities that would
weaken structural integrity or cause leakage. Design guidelines for most types of agricultural point source

Table 17.2 Approximate effluent

volume from grass ensiling operations

Litres of
Grass dry matter effluent per
content at filling (%) tonne of silage

16 220
18 170
20 130
22 90
26 40
30 0

From Teagasc, 1989, with permission

 AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION CONTROL 787

pollution control facilities are widely available (Midwest Plan Service, 1985; ASAE, 1990; Department of
Agriculture, 1985; MAFF, 1991). Design and construction specifications typically are available from local
or national government agricultural agencies for facilities constructed using government financial
assistance. Information about climatic factors (predominant wind speed and direction, air and soil
temperatures, precipitation amounts and patterns) can be obtained from national or local meteorological
offices and agricultural research/advisory agencies.

17.5 NON-POINT SOURCE (NPS) CONTROLS

Agricultural non-point source pollution controls are managerial, structural or vegetative practices.
Regardless of type, the objective of all techniques is to prevent or reduce the availability, release or
transport of agricultural pollutants to receiving waters. Agricultural NPS pollution control practices can be
viewed as on-site controls. The term ‘best management practices’ (BMPs) is often used collectively for
these pollution control techniques. ‘Best’ implies that an individual practice or combination of practices is
the most effective and practicable control technique for a particular combination of farm characteristics
and pollution problems.
Practicability is an absolutely essential component of BMPs to control agricultural non-point source
pollution. Agricultural production practices at any given geographic location are the result of evolution
and adaptation over centuries to the interactive influences of climate, soils and topography.
NPS pollution control techniques must be suited to these same influences and be economically viable
as well. Designing BMPs for a given farm requires a field-by-field examination of soils, slope lengths,
steepness and proximity to groundwater or surface waters, as well as a whole-farm evaluation of the type
of enterprise, financial resources available and level of managerial expertise. The techniques for making
such evaluations are given elsewhere (Hudson, 1981; Novotny and Chesters, 1981; Schwab, ef al., 1993).
Tables 17.3 and 17.4 contain a list of frequently used best management practices that can be effective
in controlling losses of N, P and eroded soil from arable agricultural systems in the northern hemisphere.
Not all practices will be appropriate for every farm situation. Integrated pest management (IPM) practices
are also applicable for arable systems in which pesticides are used. As its name implies, IPM is a
comprehensive pesticide management strategy that enhances the effective use of pesticides, thereby
reducing pollution risks by combining non-chemical and chemical controls, field examinations of pest
infestations and delaying pesticide applications until a predefined economic threshhold for pest damage
has been reached.
For grassland systems, the nutrient management practices in Table 17.3 are entirely appropriate to
guide the environmentally responsible, agronomically effective use of both animal wastes and inorganic
fertilizers. In addition, livestock and pasture or grazing areas should be managed to minimize animal
damage to soils and grass quality, and to prevent uncontrolled access of animals to surface waters. These
objectives are achieved by managing stocking densities, the timing and duration of grazing, and providing
access to shade and water away from receiving streams.

17.6 LAND APPLICATION OF WASTES

Land application of wastes is the most economical, practical and environmentally sustainable method for
managing agricultural wastes, especially animal wastes. Application of agricultural wastes to the land
recycles valuable nutrients and organic matter into the system from which they originated. Land
application can also be an effective component of management strategies for other organic wastes, such as
wastewater treatment sludges and food processing wastes.
788 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Table 17.3 Effective best management practices for controlling nitrogen and phosphorus losses
from croplandt

Practice Description
vr

II Correct nutrient application Match crop needs to nutrient application rates. Establish optimum economic yield goals
rates consistent with soil capability and managerial expertise. Apply nutrients according to
soil test programme recommendations. Account for all sources of nutrients applied to
the crop.
. Appropriate timing of nutrient Applications should correspond as closely as possible to plant needs. Avoid late autumn
application applications of nitrogen for spring-planted arable’crops. Avoid application of nutrients
on frozen soils. Where consistent with other recommended agronomic practices, use
split applications of nitrogen to increase N uptake efficiency.
. Appropriate method of Use methods that promote efficient nutrient use. Band or incorporate fertilizers or slurries
nutrient application where consistent with other crop management practices. Use only calibrated application
machinery.
. Reduced tillage practices For arable crops, select tillage practices that are consistent with soil properties, topography,
climate and the overall farming system. Minimize the number of tillage operations to
reduce erosion risks.
. Crop rotations Incorporate legumes where possible to assist in reducing nitrogen additions for following
crops. Most arable crop rotations that include a sod crop reduce erosion risks, reduce
leaching and improve soil structure.
. Cover crops Where climate permits, plant cover crops to use residual nutrients, particularly nitrate N,
remaining after main crop harvest, to reduce erosion and to decrease leaching. Legume
cover crops may reduce the need for nitrogen additions to the following crop (e.g.
grassland).
. ‘Critical area’ seeding Planting highly erodible areas in permanent cover reduces transport of eroded soil and any
attached pollutants.
. Pond In certain situations, a permanent water impoundment can trap sediment and attached
phosphorus and reduce nitrogen losses to receiving waters by promoting volatilization
and denitrification.

+ Practices 1 to 3 are also applicable to grassland systems.

Table 17.4 Effective best management practices for reducing losses of phosphorus and eroded soil
for arable cropst

Practice Description

If. Contour cultivation Field operations are performed on the contour of the land, reducing runoff, nutrient and soil
losses.
. Strip cropping Alternating strips of row crops and close growing crops, such as cereals, are planted on the
contour of the land. Runoff is filtered and infiltration is increased.
. Grass filter (buffer) strips A permanent sod strip at the base of the slope of a field. Where runoff occurs as sheet flow,
filter strips remove particulates from runoff and increase infiltration.
. Natural vegetation filter area Permanent indigenous vegetation at the base of a catchment, which filters particulates from
runoff and increases the potential for denitrification.
Terrace A constructed channel perpendicular to field slope and wide enough to be cropped, which
reduces slope length and runoff velocity. Runoff is reduced and infiltration is enhanced.
Diversion A narrow channel constructed perpendicular to the field slope and planted to grass, which
diverts excess runoff to areas where it can be managed to reduce erosion potential.
Grassed waterway A sod channel that transports runoff at non-erosive velocities to a stable outlet.
Windbreaks Strips or belts of trees or shrubs established within or next to a field, farmstead or feedlot to
decrease wind velocities and reduce erosion potential.

+ Most of these practices reduce runoff and increase infiltration: consequently, care must be exercised in their application on freely
draining soils that overlie sensitive groundwater resources.
 AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION CONTROL 789

When designed and managed ‘properly’, systems for the land application of wastes do not pose
undue threats to environmental quality. One aspect of proper design and management involves applying
wastes at the correct rates, at the correct time, using the correct methodology. Hydrologic and agronomic
principles govern the design of land application systems.

17.6.1 Rate of Application—Organic

From a waste treatment perspective, the soil system can be viewed as a fixed film biological reactor (recall
the percolating filter in Chapter 12), which, due to an immense microbial population, has a large—
although finite—waste assimilative capacity. For the soil system to function effectively, wastes must be
applied to land at rates that do not exceed either the instantaneous or long-term assimilative capacity of
the soil system.
The instantaneous assimilative capacity of a soil system is related most closely to an ability to
degrade organic matter aerobically, thereby avoiding problems resulting from septic soil conditions
(odours and plant damage). This in turn is dependent on the aeration status of the soil (a function of soil
texture and structure and moisture content), temperature and the organic strength of the waste. Organic
strength of wastes is measured by BOD;, BOD, and/or COD, as appropriate for a specific waste.
Typically, BOD is associated with the solid fraction of organic wastes, which in land application
systems remain on the soil/plant surface or within the upper few millimetres of the soil (assuming the
wastes are surface applied without incorporation). Here, oxygen transfer rates from the atmosphere are
suitable for aerobic waste degradation. For this reason, problems resulting from organic overloading are
rarely encountered when animal wastes are surface applied at agronomically acceptable rates.
Conversely, COD is generally associated with dissolved pollutants and is often the most appropriate
measure of waste organic strength when land application systems are being designed. While a portion of
these pollutants may be retained by physical (i.e. filtering) or chemical processes (e.g. ionic adsorption)
near the soil surface (where aeration rates are high), the liquid fraction of wastes applied to land will move
deeper into the soil profile than the solid (sludge) fraction. Because oxygen transfer rates decrease steadily
with depth in the soil profile, acceptable organic loading rates also decrease with depth below the soil
surface.
Application rates for wastes and wastewaters should be based on the characteristics of the most
restrictive soil horizon. Oxygen diffusion rates of at least 0.2 g/cm*/min are needed for most
agricultural crops. Because diffusion rates through water are limited, achieving adequate aeration in a soil
depends on controlling soil moisture. A minimum air-filled volume of 10 per cent in the root zone is
recommended for most agronomic crops (Wesseling et al., 1957). On well-aerated soils (e.g. light
textured, free draining sands and loams) total oxygen demand loadings of 56 to 112 kg/ha day have been
used successfully (EPA, 1975).
An appropriate method of assessing proposed organic loading rates is to compare them with oxygen
utilization rates in productive agricultural soils, which reach 3.4 to 6.8kg/hahr. The actual organic
loading rates that are acceptable for a given site depend on waste characteristics (degradability), soil
characteristics (oxygen movement), temperature (bacterial activity) and precipitation (degree of saturation
of soil pore space). Methods by which to ascertain oxygen diffusion rates in soil may be found (Hillel,
1980).

Example 17.2 Assume that a beverage company wishes to pay a nearby farmer to accept
processing wastewater for application to the farmer’s land. The soil is a sandy loam. The wastewater has a
COD of 15000 mg/L and will be generated at an average volume of 37.85 m° per week. Assuming soil
and weather conditions permit year-round application, how much area is required to achieve an acceptable
organic loading rate of 110 kg/ha day? (Neglect long-term assimilation capacity.)
790 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

Solution
(a) Mass of COD produced:
(15000 mg/L x 37,850 L/wk) x 10-° kg/mg = 568 kg/wk
(Note: assuming two equal applications per week, the COD load per application is 284 kg.)
(b) Area required:
(284 kg)/(110 kg/ha) = 2.6 ha
(Note: the hydraulic loading rate required to achieve this organic loading rate should also be checked
for acceptability.)

17.6.2 Rates of Application—Other Parameters

Hydraulic Hydraulic loading influences the instantaneous assimilative capacity of soil when liquid or
semi-solid wastes are applied. Application rates that exceed the infiltration rate of the soil will result in
surface ponding, surface runoff and the consequent transport of pollutants. Likewise, application rates that
exceed the storage capacity of the soil profile will result in leaching and, potentially, the transport of
dissolved pollutants downwards and out of the root zone.
Infiltration rates decrease with time, approaching as a limit the saturated hydraulic conductivity of
the soil (see Chapter 4). Characteristics of the applied liquid, the tendency of the soil surface to crust or
seal, soil moisture content and the presence and type of vegetation all influence the infiltration rate.
Infiltration capacity, sometimes referred to as the final infiltration rate, is the rate at which liquid will enter
the soil surface and is limited only by soil factors (soil structure and pore size distribution). Table 17.5
contains ‘typical’ infiltration capacities for clear water for several soil types on negligible (0 to 3 per cent)
slopes. As with all soil characteristics, actual values for infiltration capacities can vary widely from those
given in Table 17.5, making on-site soil investigations imperative for a complete design. In addition,
wastewaters usually behave differently to clear water, resulting in infiltration capacities that may in some
cases be as little as 10 per cent of clear water values.
While infiltration capacity is one factor controlling instantaneous hydraulic loading rates, the amount
of waste application must also be a hydraulic consideration. Applying liquid wastes in quantities greater
than the soil retention capacity results in leaching from the root zone and increased potential for
groundwater contamination. The moisture retention or storage capacity of a soil is defined in terms of the
amount of plant available water that can be retained and is usually defined as available water capacity
(see Chapter 4).
One ‘end point’ for available water capacity is the amount of moisture that is retained in the soil
against the force of gravity. A combination of forces in the soil matrix create what is equivalent to a
negative pressure, or ‘suction’, that controls the movement of soil moisture. Depending on the soil, the
negative pressure at which moisture is retained against gravity is —10 to —33 kPa (—0.1 to —0.3 bar); in
this condition the soil is said to be at field capacity. The other end point for available water capacity is the
permanent wilting point, which is the amount of water retained at the maximum negative pressure

Table 17.5 Typical clear water? infiltration capacities for various soils

Soil type Infiltration capacity (mm/h)

Coarse textured loamy sands, loamy fine sands 18-38

Medium textured very fine sandy loams, loams and silt loams 8-18
Fine textured sand clays, silty clays and clays

{ Infiltration capacities for wastewaters can be much smaller than clear water values
 AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION CONTROL 791

Table 17.6 Typical available water capacities for various soil types

Soil type Available water capacity (mm/m)

Coarse textured loamy sands, loamy fine sands 83

Medium texture very fine sandy loams, loams and silt loams 166
Fine textured sandy clays, silty clays and clays 192

(—1500 kPa or —15 bar) that plants can exert. Table 17.6 contains typical values for available water
capacities for several soil types in terms of depth of moisture retained per unit depth of soil. Values in
Table 17.6 are only guides, actual values vary widely for a particular soil.
More detailed techniques for determining acceptable hydraulic loading rates are available elsewhere
(Halley and Soffe, 1988; Hillel, 1980; McCuen, 1989; Shaw, 1988).

Nutrients Whereas the short-term or instantaneous assimilative capacity of the soil system is most
closely related to organic and hydraulic loadings, the long-term assimilative capacity of a waste
application site is more aligned with nutrient application rates. (For wastewater treatment sludges, heavy
metals may determine long-term loading rates.) For environmental sustainability, wastes should be applied
at rates that supply the nutrient needs of the crop produced (and, where appropriate, the buildup of soil
fertility). Unfortunately, organic wastes rarely contain the major plant nutrients (N, P and K) in the relative
proportions that are required by plants. In addition, the N content of organic wastes (especially animal
wastes and sewage sludges) tends to be ‘unreliable’ because 1t must be mineralized from organic form to
be useful to plants. As discussed in Chapter 10, mineralization rates are variable and dependent on
uncontrollable factors such as weather. For these reasons, inorganic fertilizers are often used in
combination with organic wastes to meet the nutrient needs of crops. Analysis of both the soil (to
determine fertility status) and the organic wastes (to determine nutrient contents) is imperative to
minimize pollution potential and the need for inorganic fertilizers.
Table 17.7 contains approximate ‘crop uptake’ values for a variety of crops and are indications of
nutrient application rates that should be used in designing a land application system for wastes. Actual
fertilizer recommendations will deviate from values in Table 17.7 when soil fertility levels are considered.
More definitive nutrient application guidance should be obtained from university or government
agricultural research and advisory services. While data in Table 17.7 are normalized on the basis of yield,
plant uptake at these rates nevertheless is predicated on achieving good agronomic crop yields. Because
crop production occurs under uncontrollable weather conditions, achieving these yields is not always
straightforward, and requires careful attention to both the nutrient and water requirements of the crop.
Nutrient uptake rates in Table 17.7 should be viewed as approximations to maximum nutrient application

Table 17.7 Approximate nutrient uptake by

various crops, kg/t (fresh weight basis)

Nutrient uptake (kg/t)T

Crop N P K % dry matter

Cereals
Grain 17.0 3.4 4.7 85
Straw 6.0 0.7 6.8 85
Sugar beet
Roots te 0.3 1.8 22
Tops Be) 0.5 4.8 16
Grass
Silage 6.4 0.6 4.0 20
Hay 14.0 2.6 15.0 85

tkg/t of fresh weight.

Adapted from Archer. 1988. with permission
792 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

rates, except where soil fertility levels are deficient and require correction (such as by increasing soil P
levels).
Timing of waste applications The timing of waste applications is dependent on a combination of crop,
site and weather factors. In general, wastes should be applied at times that will supply nutrients when the crop
requires them. Practical considerations associated with agricultural production systems and weather act to
constrain precisely when wastes are land applied.
Crops incorporate nutrients into their growing biomass; ideally nutrients should be supplied (by
release from the soil and by application of wastes and/or fertilizers) at the rate at which they are required
by the crop. As a practical matter, it is rarely possible to ‘spoon feed’ nutrients to either tillage crops or
grassland. Instead, good agricultural practice consists of applying nutrients (wastes or fertilizers) as early
in the growing season as possible and as frequently as economically and practically achievable. Frequency
of application is governed by fuel, labour and machinery costs as well as by soil compaction risks. The
timing of nutrient applications for efficient crop production is typically recommended by agricultural
research and advisory services.
Recommended waste application times must be adjusted to accommodate weather and soil
conditions. For example, operation of waste spreading equipment when soils are saturated damages soil
structure and creates a pollution potential from runoff. Applying wastes when heavy precipitation (in
excess of infiltration capacity) is imminent also increases pollution potential. Pollution potential from
runoff at waste application sites decreases exponentially as the time between waste application and the
occurrence of runoff increases. Adequate storage capacity and attention to management is essential to
being able to apply wastes at the proper times.

Example 17.3 The wastewater described in Example 17.2 is to be applied to grassland for silage.
The wastewater has a total N content of 45 mg/L (as NH4* — N) and a total P content of 30 mg/L. The
expected yield of silage is 12 t/ha (dry matter). At what rate should the wastes be applied? Are the 2.6 ha
computed in Example 17.2 adequate?

Solution
(a) Calculate annual N and P production:

N: 45 mg/L x 37850 L/wk x 107~° kg/mg x 52 wk/yr

= 89 kg/yr

P: 30mg/L x 37850 L/wk x 10° ° kg/mg x 52 wk/yr=59kg/yr

(b) Calculate application rate. (From a nutrient management perspective, year-round wastewater
application would not be recommended. Assume wastewater will be applied once per week during the
months of April, May, June, July and August when crop uptake of water and nutrients will be active.
Once-per-week applications would be expected to allow ample resting of the application site.)

Total wastewater generation:

37 850 L/wk x 52 wk/yr x 107° m*/L=1.968 x 10° m?/yr.

Weekly application amount (20 applications):

(1.968 x 10° m*)/20 applications

= 98.4 m?/application.
(c) Check application rate against infiltration capacity:

(98.4 m°/application)/(2.6 ha) x 10~4 ha/m* x 10° mm/m

= 3.78 mm/application.
Even if wastewater were applied within only | hour (3.8 mm /h), this hydraulic application rate
would
be acceptable (see Table 17.5).
(d) Re-check organic loading rate:
 AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION CONTROL 793

15000mg/L x 98.4 m? /application se lOstLy maexetOre kg/mg= 1476 kg/application

(1476 kg/application x 1 application/day)/2.6 ha
= 568 kg/ha/day
This is unacceptably high; to reduce this to 110kg/ha/day (see Example 17.2), approximately
13.5 ha of application area is required:
(1476 kg/application x 1 application/day)/110 kg/ha/day = 13.4 ha

(e) Check nutrient application rate with revised application area of 13.5 ha:
Crop uptake of N=?

Expected yield = 12 t DM/ha = 60 t/ha @ 20%DM

from Table 17.7, N uptake rate = 6.4 kg/t
Therefore uptake of N = 60 x 6.4 x 13.5 = 5184 kg

(Since the annual N supply from the wastewater is only 89 kg, the crop nutrient needs will have to be
supplemented by commercial fertilizer or other nutrient source.)

In addition to matching nutrient needs by nutrient supply, wastewaters are typically applied at
frequencies dictated by the irrigation requirement of the crop produced at the application site. Irrigation
requirement is the difference in volume between effective precipitation and evapotranspiration and is,
therefore, both crop and weather dependent. In addition, the crop’s sensitivity to both saturated and
excessively dry soil moisture conditions must be considered. In humid regions, irrigation is often utilized
when 50 per cent of the available water capacity of the soil has been depleted. This guideline also
determines the volume of water to be supplied by irrigation to meet crop needs. It also provides a ‘rest
period’ for the application site, giving time for the soil to re-aerate and to recover infiltration capacity.

Limiting factor Successful land application of wastes depends on many factors as described above.
One limiting factor will, however, ultimately govern the utilization of wastes on land. Designs may be
limited by hydraulic loading, organic loading, nutrient loading or, in the case of wastewater sludges,
metals loadings. If nutrient loading is the limiting design criterion, local circumstances will dictate
whether the design must be based on nitrogen or phosphorus application rates. Generally, where surface
waters must be protected, nutrient loadings should be based on phosphorus, especially if catchment soils
are prone to runoff. Conversely, if groundwater aquifers are to be protected, nutrient loadings should be
based on achieving nitrogen balances.

Application methodology The techniques by which wastes are applied to land are dictated by the waste
characteristics, the production system and sometimes by regulatory considerations. Wastes that are 15 per
cent or more in dry matter content are considered solid wastes and are land applied by flail-type
application machinery. Wastes with between 4 and 15 per cent dry matter are considered to be slurries and
can be land applied as liquids using specialized application equipment. Wastes with less than 4 per cent
dry matter are dilute liquids and can be satisfactorily land applied using irrigation equipment. Whatever
the application technique, care must be exercised to assure that the application equipment is calibrated and
operated to give the target application rate.

Example 17.4 How much swine slurry is required to supply the nutrient needs (N and P) of first-
cut silage from grassland? The first-cut yield is 5tDM/ha. Assume 20 per cent DM (i.e. 5t fresh weight
per tDM).

Solution
Crop uptake of N (from Table 17.7):
794 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

(6.4kg/t x 5t fresh weight/tDM x 5tDM/ha= 160 kg/ha

Crop uptake of P (from Table 17.7):

0.6kg/t x 5t freshyweight/tDM x 5tDM/ha= 15 kg/ha
N supply in swine slurry (from Table 10.2): 4.6kg/t
P supply in swine slurry (from Table 10.2): 0.9kg/t
Slurry required for N needs: (160 kg)/(ha/4.6 kg/t) = 35 t/ha
Slurry required for P needs: (15 kg/ha)/(0.9 kg/t) = 17 t/ha

Therefore, P is the limiting factor. Slurry application will be restricted to 17t/ha to satisfy P needs,
commercial fertilizer or other suitable nutrient source must be used to supplement slurry to meet N needs.
Depending on the waste and characteristics of the land application site, regulatory requirements may
dictate the waste application methodology to be used. Certain wastewater sludges are required to be
injected into the soil to minimize the risk of disease dispersal. Injection is also sometimes required (or
recommended) as a means to minimize gaseous emissions (of either odours or ammonia) from land-
applied wastes. When injection of wastes is practised, shallow injection (into the root zone) would be
preferred to deep injection (below the root zone) to achieve an environmentally sustainable land
application system based on nutrient uptake.

17.7 CODES OF PRACTICE FOR LAND APPLICATION OF ANIMAL AND OTHER

WASTES

Animal wastes have been applied to the land as a source of nutrients and organic matter for all of recorded
history. Not surprisingly, codes of practice have been developed to guide the utilization of these wastes to
meet agronomic and environmental goals. These codes also offer appropriate guidance for the land
application of other organic wastes. A concise summary of a typical code of practice is given in Table
17.8. Other codes of practice are available elsewhere (e.g. MAFF, 1991; MAFF, 1992).

Table 17.8 Typical code of good practice for slurry spreading

Apply slurry at rates that take account of crop nutrient requirements and soil fertility levels.
Use a regular programme of soil and slurry testing to determine nutrient needs and supplies.
. Apply slurry earlier rather than later in any crop growing season.
Sea
. Avoid applying slurry on wet or waterlogged soils, on frozen or snow-covered soils, and on areas near surface waters and
groundwater wells.
5. Always check weather forecasts before applying slurry; avoid spreading if precipitation predicted likely to produce runoff within
48 hours.
6. Use calibrated application equipment and operate it according to specification for achieving desired waste application rates.
7. Avoid direct contamination of surface waters and groundwater by maintaining sufficient safety margin (buffer zones or
unsaturated soil respectively) between these resources and the slurry application site.
8. Where possible, avoid leaving bare soil over winter.
9. Take all reasonable steps to minimize odour emissions (incorporate wastes immediately, if possible; do not apply slurry when
prevailing winds are in the direction of nearby residences; use low-trajectory instead of high-trajectory splash plates).
Se
 AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION CONTROL 795

17.8 AGRICULTURAL AIR POLLUTION CONTROL

As discussed in Chapter 10, the major air pollutants from agriculture are odorous emissions related to the
storage and handling of animal wastes. There are three main areas on farms with which odours are
generally associated: the housing/yard area, the waste treatment/holding area and the waste utilization
area. Odours in the housing and yard areas originate from animals themselves (body odours), from feed
materials, and from decomposition of wastes excreted by the animals. Odours from the waste
treatment/storage area are compounds derived from the incomplete anaerobic, microbial breakdown of
organic matter in the wastes (carbohydrates, proteins and fats). At the waste utilization area, odorous
compounds that developed during waste storage/treatment and handling escape to the atmosphere as the
wastes are applied to the land. Most odour complaints from the public are associated with the land
application portion of the waste management process.

17.8.1 Controlling Odours from Housing/Yard Areas

Practices associated with good animal husbandry facilitate odour control from housing and yard areas. For
facilities designed for continuous waste removal, maintenance of the mechanical apparatus to assure
efficient waste removal is essential. Providing adequate ventilation for humidity and temperature control
in buildings that house animals should disperse odours at non-objectionable levels in the outside
atmosphere. Keeping yards clean of animal wastes and spilled feeds will not only minimize odour
generation but will also control flies and other pests, as well as contribute to the appearance of an
efficiently operated enterprise.

17.8.2 Controlling Odours from Waste Treatment/Holding Areas

For aerobic lagoons, maintaining sufficient oxygen in the lagoons to assure aerobic conditions at all times
is essential for odour control, as well as effective waste treatment. Likewise, maintaining anaerobic
conditions in anaerobic lagoons is equally important, as is achieving environmental conditions in the
lagoon that facilitate acid-forming and methane-forming bacteria to work in tandem. Assuming lagoons of
either type are designed (i.e. sized) correctly (Barth, 1985; Merkel, 1981), loading the lagoons with
wastes at rates that avoid ‘shocks’ to the bacterial populations and provide sufficient energy supplies to the
bacteria results in near-odour-free operation.
For structures that function strictly as waste storage devices, providing a covering for the waste can
reduce odour emissions. Crusting that forms naturally when dairy cattle wastes are stored serve this
purpose. Chopped straw can be used to provide an ‘artificial’ cover for other wastes.

17.8.3 Controlling Odours from Waste Utilization Areas

Reductions in odour emissions associated with land spreading are achieved by reducing the
concentrations of odorous compounds in the air following landspreading. This can be accomplished
readily by changing the method of waste application. Only approximately 1 per cent of the odorous
emissions emanate from the actual spreading of wastes; 99 per cent of the odours are emitted after the
wastes are applied. Consequently, incorporating wastes immediately after application normally controls
odours to non-objectionable levels. For grassland systems where waste incorporation is not feasible, odour
reductions can be achieved by using bandspreading or shallow injection application equipment. In
addition, codes of good practice should be followed when applying wastes to land. Recommended
practices include avoiding spreading at times when the risk of causing odour nuisance to the public is high
(e.g. on weekends and holidays), avoiding spreading when prevailing winds are in the direction of
796 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES

neighbouring housing and population centres and avoiding the use of application techniques that tend to
atomize wastes or otherwise disperse them into the atmosphere.

17.9 PROBLEMS

17.1 Animal wastes are added to a mineral soil in the spring of year 1 at a rate of approximately
100 kg N/ha. How much nitrogen could be expected to be available for plant uptake immediately, 1
year later and 5 years later?
17.2 A dairy farmer wants to grow maize, a cereal, for grain on a mineral soil. The target yield is 9.5 t/ha.
Assuming that only 50 per cent of the total nitrogen in cattle slurry will become available to the
crop, how much slurry should be applied to meet the nutrient needs of the maize? Specify how
much, if any, supplemental fertilizer will be required.
17.3 Determine the size of a circular, above-ground storage tank to serve an 80-cow dairy herd. Wastes
must be contained for a minimum of 4 months, during which time the total precipitation is 250 mm.
The tank is also to store silage effluent also. The farmer has 75ha of grassland from which an
average yield is expected of 12t/ha, at 20 per cent dry matter.
17.4 Acme Industrial Limited, wish to dispose of process water on agricultural land. A soils analysis
revealed that most of the soils at the intended application site contain 10 per cent sand, 75 per cent
silt and 15 per cent clay. What frequency and maximum application rate would be recommended for
the land application system?
17.5 Consider the following hydrologic data:

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Precipitation, mm 100 = 80 70 60 50 50 50 70 90 100 110 120

Evapotranspiration, mm 2020 25 40 50 80 90 70 50 30 20 15

From a hydrologic standpoint determine the most appropriate times of the year to apply wastes to
land to avoid pollution of groundwaters.

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Alexander, M. (1977) Introduction to Soil Microbiology, 2nd edn, John Wiley, New York.
American Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE) (1990) Standards, Engineering Practices and Data, 37th edn, American
Society of Agricultural Engineers, St Joseph, Michigan.
Archer, J. (1988) Crop Nutrition and Fertiliser Use, 2nd edn, Farming Press Limited, Ipswich.
Barth, C. L. (1985) ‘The rational design standard for anaerobic livestock lagoons’. in Agricultural Waste Utilization and
Management: Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Agricultural Wastes, American Society of Agricultural
Engineers, St Joseph, Michigan.
Department of Agriculture (1985) Guidelines and Recommendations on Control of Pollution from Farmyard Wastes (revised),
Department of Agriculture and Food, Dublin, Ireland.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (1975) Land Treatment of Municipal Wastewater Effluents: Design Factors II, US
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
Grundy, K. (1980) Tackling Farm Waste, Farming Press Limited, Ipswich.
Halley, R. J. and R. J. Soffe (1988) The Agricultural Notebook, 18th edn, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford.
Hillel, D. (1980) Fundamentals of Soil Physics, Academic Press, New York.
Hudson, N. (1981) Soil Conservation, 2nd edn, Cornell University Press, Ithaca.
Lee, J. and B. Coulter (1990) ‘A macro view of animal manure production in the European Community and implications for
environment’, in Manure and Environment Seminar—VIV Europe, Utrecht, The Netherlands, 14 November.
 AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION CONTROL 797

McCuen, R. H. (1989) Hydrologic Analysis and Design, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
MAFF (1991) Code of Good Agricultural Practice for the Protection of Water, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, London.
MAFF (1992) Code of Good Agricultural Practice for the Protection of Air, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, London.
Merkel, J. A. (1981) Managing Livestock Wastes, AVI Publishing, Westport, Connecticut.
Midwest Plan Service. Livestock Waste Facilities Handbook, 2nd edn (MWPS-18), Midwest Plan Service, Iowa State University,
Ames, lowa.
Novotny, V. and G. Chesters (1981) Handbook of Nonpoint Pollution, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York.
O’Bric, C., O. T. Carton, P. O’Toole and A. Cuddihy (1992) ‘Nutrient values of cattle and pig slurries on Irish farms and the
implications for slurry application rates’, /rish J. Agric. Res., 31(1) 89-90.
Schwab, G. O., D. D. Fangmeier, W. J. Elliot, and R. K. Frevert (1993) Soil and Water Conservation Engineering, 4th edn, J. Wiley,
Somerset, New Jersey.
Shaw, E. M. (1988) Hydrology in Practice, 2nd edn, Chapman and Hall, London.
Teagasc (1989) Farmyard Wastes and Pollution, Agriculture and Food Development Authority, Dublin, Ireland.
Teagasc (1992) Miscellaneous data (unpublished). Johnstown Castle Research and Development Centre, Wexford, Ireland.
Tunney, H. and S. M. Molloy (1975) ‘Variations between forms of N, P, K, Mg and dry matter composition of cattle, pig and poultry
manures’, Irish J. Agric. Res., 14 71-79.
U.S. Department of Agriculture (1975) Agricultural Waste Management Field Manual, Soil Conservation Service, US Department of
Agriculture, Washington, D.C.
Wesseling, J., W. R. van Wijk, M. Fireman, B. D. van’t Woudt and R. M. Hagan (1957) ‘Land drainage in relation to soils and crops’,
in Drainage of Agricultural Lands, J. N. Luthin (ed.). American Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wisconsin.
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FOUR
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
 CHAPTER

EIGHTEEN
WASTE MINIMIZATION

18.1 INTRODUCTION

The limitations in the recuperative capacity of the ecosystem have been recognized since about 1960. The
alleviation measures taken by industry to pollution were add-on installations (end-of-pipe treatments) and
these succeeded in bringing about a relatively quick improvement. However, since the mid-1970s the
limitations of these methods have also been recognized, and a waste minimization approach has been seen
as the only sustainable means of dealing with the waste problem. Within any waste management system,
the primary concern should be to reduce the quantities of waste material produced. This avoids the
necessity to treat and dispose of such materials. This chapter aims to introduce the reader to the qualitative
aspects of waste minimization, with particular case study references to the chemical industry.
Several reasons may be put forward in favour of waste minimization (Griyer, 1991). These are:
1. The generation of large volumes of waste correlates with the depletion of mostly non-renewable
resources.
2. The energy requirement for the transformation and upgrading of wastes is in proportion to the
quantities treated and rises exponentially with increasing dilution of the waste.
3. The increasing total costs for collection, segregation, intermediate storage, transport, treatment and
final storage make waste minimization economically attractive.
4. Increased public and legislative pressures seem likely to be mitigated only by waste
reduction/ minimization.
5. Since waste equals inefficiency, reducing waste increases efficiency and hence profitability.
Many organizations, such as the International Chambers of Commerce and the Chemical Manufacturers
Association, have endorsed the concepts of waste minimization and sustainability (Willums and Golike,
1992; CMA, 1991).
In many cases good operating practices, housekeeping, etc., can lead to a substantial reduction in
industrial and other wastes. However, there is a need for innovation in the design and operation of plant
and equipment, in order to fully achieve the waste prevention goals which are being and will be set. These
innovations are the so-called clean technologies.

801
802 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

18.1.1 Definition of Clean Technology

In recent years the drive towards improved environmental performance has seen the emergence of a new
approach to the solution of waste problems. This has variously been termed clean or cleaner technology,
cleaner production, waste minimization, waste reduction, pollution prevention and so on. There are many
definitions of ‘Clean Technology’. However, all incorporate the following same two ideas, namely:
1. The emphasis is on the generation of less waste and on the consumption of fewer raw materials and
less energy. Thus a simple but satisfactory definition of clean technology is ‘any technology or process
which uses fewer raw materials and/or less energy, and/or generates less waste than an existing
technology or process’.
2. The avoidance of ‘end-of-pipe’ emission reduction is also emphasized. End-of-pipe methods are those
that attempt to reduce the environmental impact of a waste, after that waste has been produced.

Although the concept of zero emission processes has been espoused, such a target is
thermodynamically impossible for a manufacturing process, if such a process is regarded as an open
system (a system that exchanges both material and energy with its surroundings). Manipulating the
system boundary in an attempt to produce a closed system (one that exchanges only energy and not
materials with its surroundings) is analogous to the end-of-pipe solution to material problems, which
merely transfers matter from one medium to another. Enlarging the systems boundary to incorporate the
energy supply facility reveals that the enlarged system is, in fact, open and depositing material into the
surroundings (biosphere).
It should also be understood that traditional treatment methods merely alter the form of waste or
transfer it from one medium to another. Thus, the total quantity of waste is not reduced.
As a consequence of such an analysis, the following tenets arise:

1. There cannot be zero waste from any manufacturing process.

2. Once created, waste cannot be destroyed.

It is important to note that there is no thermodynamic restriction regarding elimination of a particular

waste, nor on the transformation of a waste material to a more innocuous one, provided that the
conservation laws are observed. The only reasonable outcome from thermodynamic considerations is,
therefore, that waste emissions from a manufacturing process can be minimized in terms of both quantity
and toxicity, so that they fall within the assimilative capacity of the biosphere. This outcome leads to the
principle of waste minimization, and ultimately provides the goal for setting environmental impact
standards for manufacturing industry.

18.2 LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT

Before examining waste minimization techniques and strategies, let us first examine what is now called
the life cycle assessment of a product. The objective of this section is to show that a systems approach is
required when examining pollution sources in process operations. Initially the life cycle of the product or
service should be assessed. This will indicate the relative contribution of the life cycle stages to
environmental impact. Failure to do this may allow attention to be focused on a stage which is most
topical but has least significance. For example, the usage of water, detergent and electricity during the
operation of washing machines is much more important than the emissions during their manufacture or
disposal. The emissions during the manufacture of pharmaceuticals may be more significant than the
emissions during their distribution or after their excretion from the body. The general structure of
processing systems and their component operations are discussed. Likely emission sources are identified.
Following this, the need for an integrated pollution prevention and control approach is emphasized. The
reader is referred to the reading list for further information. This brief section can only serve as an
introduction.
 WASTE MINIMIZATION 803

Life cycle assessment is a developing environmental management technique which has been applied
to a greater or lesser extent for two decades, but has been the focus of intense interest since 1990. It is an
attempt to attribute all the environmental impacts in the life cycle of a marketable product. It recognizes
that raw materials production and eventual disposal may be as significant environmentally as the product
manufacture. Another name, disliked by the purists, is a ‘cradle-to-grave’ study. The first reported life
cycle assessment was carried out for Coca-Cola in 1969, on the choice of beverage containers. In the
1970s, energy supply systems were the main concern. This illustrates that the technique may also be
applied to services and activities, not just artefacts. However, the then limits to the theory and available
data meant interest waned. Through the 1980s, the increasing problem of limited landfill capacity drew
attention to the disposal problems associated with the ‘throw-away society’ in general and packaging in
particular. Life cycle studies were awakened and we have tangible consequences in the German and EU
packaging restrictions.
Since 1990, there has been tremendous interest in the technique. There is considerable work under
way in research institutes, governments and large corporations seeking to develop strategic policy and
small flexible enterprises trying to anticipate markets. In Europe, the emergence of the Eco-label and the
environmental marketing concerns of major retail outlets demand that every enterprise is aware of this
technique and the possible implications for its survival (Willums and Goliike, 1992).
The use of life cycle assessment is an attempt to apply rational criteria to deciding where to invest
resources in an environmentally responsible manner. At the level of the consumer, where is she or he
going to best spend their money? For an enterprise, how may it promote its products to this newly
educated consumer? The enterprise must also examine where it should concentrate its limited resources
(money, staff) to minimize its impact on the environment. It may need to improve its existing products or
develop new ones to ensure its own survival in the market. Governments must decide how to deal with the
large-scale problems of waste disposal and emissions from energy consumption. This may result in
product bans, e.g. non-returnable beverage containers in Denmark, taxes, e.g. packaging in Germany, or
incentives, e.g. pollution prevention grants in the United States.

18.2.1 What is Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)?

It may be formally defined as ‘a systematic inventory and comprehensive assessment of the environmental
effects of two or more alternative activities involving a defined product in a defined space and time
including all steps and co-products in its life cycle’ (Pedersen, 1993). Other terms used in Europe are
‘ecoprofile’, ‘ecobalance’ and ‘product life assessment’. If the assessment stage is omitted, we can use the
term ‘life cycle analysis’. Any product may have the following stages in its life cycle, as shown in Fig.
18.1
¢ Raw materials acquisition
¢ Bulk material processing
¢ Engineered and speciality materials production
e Manufacturing and assembly
e Use and service
® Retirement
e Disposal
The term ‘life cycle’ in this context is not the same as the business life cycle. Instead, the physical life is
considered. Raw materials acquisition includes mining non-renewable material, e.g. coal, and harvesting
biomass, e.g. forestry. These bulk materials are processed into base materials by separation and
purification, e.g. converting bauxite to aluminium. Some base materials are converted into engineered and
speciality materials, e.g. ethylene polymerization to polyethylene pellets.
804 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Closed-loop
recycling

» Manufacture
and assembly

Engineered and Use and

speciality Service
materials

Retirement
Bulk
processing
Open-loop
recycling

Jf Material
down-cycling
Raw material Treatment into another
acquisition disposal product
system

The earth and biosphere

Figure 18.1 The product life cycle system. (From Koeleian and Menerey, 1993. Reprinted by permission of US Environmental
Protection Agency.)

At every stage there can be material, energy and labour inputs. At each stage there may be waste that
is treated or untreated before disposal to air, water or land. Within the cycle, wastes and retired materials
may be re-used, re-manufactured or further processed (recycled) to minimize the net output. However, all
of these consume energy and generally suffer some degradation of material. Eventually the material may
be ‘downcycled’ from its original product cycle to another product cycle with less demanding
requirements, e.g. white notepaper to computer printout paper to cardboard (see Fig. 18.2).

18.2.2 An Outline of the Steps Necessary to Conduct a Life Cycle Assessment

An LCA has the following phases:
e Planning
e Screening
e Data collection (inventory)
e Data treatment (aggregation/classification)
e Evaluation

Planning The planning phase is critical. At this stage, decisions are taken which determine the
complexity of the study. They also determine the range of results and what may be gained from these
results. Goal definition is important. One must determine who is going to use the results and for what
purpose. Different users have different demands. An enterprise seeking to promote a product has a
different outlook from a Government determining policy. If the results are to be applied to a particular
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region, e.g. Europe, it is important that the data used are relevant. For example, one should not presume an
80 per cent recycle rate of retired products, e.g. glass bottles, if the actual rate is 20 per cent. The time
horizon is also important. Is one trying to satisfy current or anticipated legislative limits, or plan for longer
term sustainable development? :
The product or service being compared must be precisely defined. When examining washing machines,
we are really concerned with washing equal amounts of clothes to a specified standard of cleanliness.
When examining milk containers, we want to deliver a specified quantity of milk to a particular location
with a specified shelf life. We cannot directly compare pint and litre containers, for example. If we
compare disposable nappies with cloth nappies, do we presume that the cloth nappies will be washed
domestically or will a ‘nappy service’ be considered?
Each alternative can be represented graphically in a cycle or ‘process tree’. Refer to Fig. 18.3 which
could represent a detergent product system. Such a tree can be complex, but rather than start with a
simplified tree, it may be preferable to construct the complicated tree and explicitly simplify.
Unfortunately, this may contradict the idea of screening (described later).
Data must be locally relevant. When considering the disposal of products, we must assess the future
consequences. Unfortunately, if we are examining the eventual pathways of landfilled material we may be
forecasting centuries into the future. Incineration may have a more immediate effect. Sometimes the
primary environmental burden associated with a product is actually a by-product. This must not be
omitted from the examination. Choosing the environmental parameters is a contentious area. Factors that
may be considered are listed in Table 18.1.
Having recognized the wide spectrum of parameters to be considered, it is obvious that some
simplification is required. Effects must be aggregated to avoid a morass of detail. This leads to the
difficulty of comparing the ozone-depleting potential of one substance with the aquatic toxicity of
another.

Screening Having identified the parameters of interest and the alternatives of concern, one must decide
where and how to gather the significant data. At this stage, decisions should be taken to limit the study to
consequential factors only, 1.e. those that will distinguish one product from another. A preliminary LCA
should be carried out after the plan has been formulated. This should be a coarse and simplified study. Its
purpose is to validate the plan and correct errors before too much effort has been spent. This may provide
enough information to satisfy the initial objectives (Lindfors, 1992).

Data collection This phase is often known as ‘inventory’. It may be defined as ‘an objective data-based
process of quantifying energy and raw material requirements, air emissions, waterborne effluents, solid
waste and other environmental releases throughout the life cycle of a product, process or activity’. Data
may be collected from relevant literature studies, databases and reports (e.g. BUWAL, 1991). On-site
measurements, records and personnel estimates may be available. Theoretical calculations and finally
informed judgement may provide the necessary information.

Table 18.1 Environmental factors to be considered in LCA

Parameter Comment

Resource depletion Material and energy are consumed and one must consider whether the sources are renewable.
Scarcity and alternative or potential uses are also issues
Wastes Solid, liquid, airborne and energy
Ecological degradation Scarcity, diversity and sensitivity of ecosystems
Human health and safety The population at risk, workers, users or general community must be identified
Economic effects Financial costs, including alternative uses
Social effects Degradation of areas of social interest or amenity value
 WASTE MINIMIZATION 807

Petroleum and
natural gas drillin g

Fertilizer and
pesticide production

Agroforestry Managed
Oil seed production plantations forestry
Zep Mining:
cattle raising
salt,
Bulk
phosphate,
processing
potash,
Harvesting etc.
rendering

Production of
Builders and chlorine,
Palm oil and caustic soda
additives
tallow processing and sulphur
production

Surfactant
production
Recycled
newsprint
and paper
HDPE Detergent Pulp and
production production | fibre mill

Paperboard
production
Packaging
Corrugated board

HDPE
recovery
ame ma
Distribution Corrugated board
production

and and retailing recycling

recycling

Wastewater
disposal

Packaging
disposal

Post-consumer
waste management

Figure 18.3 Life cycle of a detergent product system. (From Koeleian and Menerey, 1993. Reprinted by permission of US
Environmental Protection Agency.)
808 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Data treatment This is often described as ‘classification’ or ‘aggregation’. Quality control must be
exercised on the data. Extensive data are available, but dispersed. Allowance must be made for time and
regional differences. Different sources must be compared, and measured and reported values assessed
against theoretical predictions. Data validity generally must be verified. Having now accumulated all the
data and calculated their effects through the process tree, the many results must be aggregated to a
smaller, manageable number. There is often a desire to reduce all the results to a single parameter,
particularly financial. While useful, care must be taken that this is not simplistic.

Evaluation Finally, conclusions must be drawn from the exercise. A sensitivity analysis of the data will
assess the significance of differences. This may also indicate that certain areas require even more
consideration before a conclusion may be drawn. Impacts and improvements may be analysed. Depending
on the objectives, scope for process improvement will be identified or guidance provided in selecting
alternative products or processes.

18.2.3 Critique
Life cycle assessment is a useful, though underdeveloped, environmental management tool. It must be
recognized that LCA is a developing technique. Contradictory studies have been published on the same
topic. This can easily arise through the application of inadequate, inconsistent or inappropriate data.
Different activities may be included or excluded from the cycle. The sheer scale of any problem
necessitates simplification. This can distort the assessment. Selection of appropriate environmental
performance indicators and criteria is difficult. At present, it is difficult to separate objective and
subjective elements.
Finally as the methodology and available data are developed, it is worth revisiting previous life cycle
assessments. As knowledge improves, it should be possible to place more confidence in our detailed
assessments and also facilitate rapid, simpler, but nevertheless valid shortcut assessments.

Example 18.1 Recycling of glass. This example is based on Swiss data (BUWAL, 1991). It refers
primarily to the inventory phase of an LCA and is intended to illustrate the effects of recycling.
Comparison is not made between glass and alternative containers. The benefits from recycling glass are
that finite raw materials are conserved and that only 75 per cent of the energy required to make fresh glass
is required when handling glass splinters. Glass is manufactured from glass sand, soda, limestone,
dolomite and feldspar. A small quantity of special components are added to impart particular colours and
properties. Water is contained in the raw materials. Glass is produced as white (clear), brown and green.
The data refers to an average mixed glass based on the normal colour distribution. This glass is the molten
‘glass drop’ prior to container formation. In 1989, the overall Swiss recycling rate was 56.2 per cent for
glass, but this particular factory achieved 74.8 per cent. Examination of the data reveals the following:
1. Recycling is not ‘free’—there is an energy requirement for transporting and processing the scrap glass.
This is offset by the energy saved in melting.
2. There is an increase in lead emissions with recycling. The lead arises from wine bottle caps.
Segregation of the scrap is necessary.
3. There are substantial reductions in landfill requirements.
4. The spectrum of wastes to be considered is wide.
5. The environmental impacts and the energy requirements of raw material mining are reduced as
recycling increases.
6. Even with the measure of energy, there is a need to use an equivalencing measure, UCPTE (Union of
the Connection of Electricity Production).
7. A small quantity of solid waste, e.g. aluminium, iron, paper and plastics, is removed from the glass
splinters prior to processing.

The ecobalance of glass is illustrated in Table 18.2.

 WASTE MINIMIZATION 809

Table 18.2 The ecobalance of glass

Balance per kg mixed glass
Raw materials recycling rate (%)

Unit 56.2 74.8 100.00

Sand g 281.1 WB) 0.0
Soda g 79.8 48.2 6.3
Limestone g 48.2 29.3 0.0
Dolomite g 49/2 30.3 0.0
Feldspar g 25/0 15.6 0.0
Miscellaneous g 47 LG 1.5
Splinters g 562.0 748.0 1010.0
Total g 1050.0 1047.0 1017.8
Energy carrier requirement for 1 kg mixed glass excluding transportation and electricity production

Natural gas dm? 19.3 12.6 3.4

Propane g 4.1 4.1 41
Fuel oil extra-light g 0.9 0.5 0.0
Fuel oil heavy g 138.1 130.6 120.5

Energy requirement

Material input MJ 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.0000

Mining of raw materials kWh 0.0101 0.006 2 0.000 3
MJ 0.6597 0.400 1 0.0411
Transportation of raw materials kWh 0.0047 0.002 9 0.000 0
MJ 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 0
Glass production kWh 0.0355 0.035 5 0.0355
MJ 5.9376 5.6312 5.2162
Use of waste heat MJ —0.2740 —0.2740 —0.2740
Pre-combustion MJ 0.628 6 0.5745 0.5006
Transport scrap glass kWh 0.002 8 0.003 8 0.005 1
MJ 0.0119 0.0158 0.021 4
Reprocessing scrap glass kWh 0.001 4 0.0019 0.002 6
Disposal
Credit WIP MJ 0.000 0 0.0000 0.0000
Transplantation MJ 0.0185 0.0107 0.0000
Total kWh 0.054 5 0.050 2 0.043 5
MJ 6.982 2 6.3584 5.5053
Energy equivalent as per UCPTE 88 MJ We 6.8 59

(continued)

18.3 ELEMENTS OF A WASTE MINIMIZATION STRATEGY

18.3.1 The Waste Management Hierarchy

It is clearly seen from the foregoing that the prevention of waste generation is preferable to attempting to
‘clean up’ the waste after its production. Indeed, this concept leads directly to the hierarchy of preferred
options, in Fig. 18.4, which is the hallmark of the waste minimization philosophy. The various elements of
this hierarchy are explained below, together with some illustrative examples.

Reduction at source As the name implies, the reduction or elimination of wastes at source, usually
within a process, is an established waste minimization technique. It is the most effective means of waste
minimization, and the one that should always be considered first. Source reduction measures include:
810 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Table 18.2 The ecobalance of glass (Continued)

Atmospheric emissions recycling rate (%)

Unit 56.2 74.8 100.00

Dust g ss 8.029 5.060 0.428

(oe) g 0.078 0.069 0.057
HC g 1.631 1.413 (I)
NO, g 1.866 L7S9 1.586
N2O g 0.053 0.036 0.012
SO, g 3.079 2.899 2.652
HCl g 0.036 0.023 0.006
HF g 0.014 0.018 0.024
Pb g 0.009 0.012 0.016
Aldehydes g 0.006 0.005 0.005
Other organic compounds g 0.009 0.008 0.007
NH; g 0.003 0.003 0.002

Water consumption pollution (dm*)

0.1 0.1 0.0
Dissolved solids g 1.782 1.681 1.542
Suspended solids g 0.001 0.001 0.001
BOD g 0.001 0.001 0.001
COD g 0.003 0.002 0.002
Oils g 0.024 0.022 0.020
Phenols g 0.000 0.000 0.000
Ammonia g 0.000 0.000 0.000

Solid wastes
Mining of raw materials g 0.0 0.0 0.0
Glass production g 0.0 0.0 0.0
Recycling g N52 20.2 27.0
Pre-combustion g 0.3 0.3 0.2
Electricity production g Del 2 Aa
Total production g 18.2 22.9 293
Disposal
WIP 350.4 201.6 0.0
Landfill 87.6 50.4 0.0
Total production + disposal g 456.2 274.9 293
Landfill volume cm* 237.9 147.2 24.2
From BUWAL, 1991. Reprinted by permission of Bundesant ftir Umwelt, Wald und handschaft Bibliothek

Process modifications
Feedstock purity improvements
Housekeeping and management practice changes
Increases in efficiency of equipment
Recycling within a process
Examples \mproved purchasing procedures can prevent materials becoming waste by being out-of-date.
Less packaging will result in reduced packaging waste. Altering reactor conditions to improve the yield
reduces the quantities of by-products and unreacted starting materials which must be dealt with.
Substitution by a more benign solvent eliminates the potential for environmental release of a hazardous
one. All of these examples will reduce or eliminate the quantities of waste being generated.
 WASTE MINIMIZATION 811

Reduction at source
recycle/reuse
treatment Order of preference
disposal

Figure 18.4 Waste minimization hierarchy.

Recycling/reuse This is the use or reuse of a waste as an effective substitute for a commercial product
or as an ingredient or feedstock in an industrial process. It includes:
e Reclamation of useful constituent fractions within a waste material
e Removal of contaminants from waste to allow reuse

The distinction between recycling and reuse is not always easy to make.

Examples
Recycling Materials are often recycled within a process; e.g. solvents can be separated from products
and used again. Recycling outside a process also offers opportunities for waste reduction. Perhaps the
three best-known examples of this are glass, metal and paper recycling. Recycling can reduce the
depletion of resources, since fresh material requirements are lowered. There is a need to be careful,
however, that the reprocessing procedure does not generate additional waste. The recycling process will
consume energy and may use additional chemicals, for example bleaches for the de-inking of paper.
Reuse Often it is possible to find a use for a waste material. An excellent example of this is the reuse of
whey . Whey, a waste product from cheese manufacture, is converted to ethanol by fermentation using the
yeast Kluyveromyces fragilis and eventually produces a liqueur.

Treatment Waste treatment incorporates any method, technique or process that changes the physical,
chemical or biological character of a waste. The objective of waste treatment may be to accomplish one of
the following:
¢ Neutralize the waste
e Recover energy or material resources from the waste
© Render such waste
Non-hazardous
— Less hazardous
— Safer to manage
Amenable for recovery
Amenable for storage
Reduced in volume
Examples This category incorporates the so-called end-of-pipe methods and includes traditional
technologies such as biological wastewater treatment, gas scrubbing, adsorption, etc. The end-of-pipe
methods may result in transfer of a waste from one medium to another, resulting in a continuing problem.
For example, scrubbing may result in an uncontaminated gas stream—but at the expense of a
contaminated liquid stream. Biological treatment produces solid sludge. Judicious choice of a treatment
system can result in effective reuse of a waste material. The anaerobic treatment of high BOD aqueous
waste is a successful example of this. The process produces methane, which can then be used as a boiler
fuel or converted to electricity. Thus, energy is obtained from waste.

Disposal Disposal is the discharge, deposit, injection, dumping, spilling, leaking or placing of waste
into or on any land, or water or into the air.
812 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Examples It is plain that concentration on the source reduction, recycle and reuse aspects of a waste
problem will reduce the need for treatment and disposal. However, since there will always be some waste
which is not amenable to the previous methods, an effective and environmentally safe means of ultimate
disposal is necessary. Traditionally this has seen the widespread use of landfill and incineration. However,
with landfill sites becoming more scarce and increasingly stringent legislation governing both landfill and
incineration, it is necessary to carefully manage such ultimate disposal facilities. Nevertheless, properly
designed, controlled and managed landfill and incineration can result in low hazards.

Example 18.2 Metal parts are degreased by spraying with solvent. To protect workers’ health, an
air extraction system is installed over the workbenches. This leads to a problem with atmospheric
emissions of VOCs.
(a) Outline some possible methods of overcoming this problem.
(b) In each case, identify the type of solution (e.g. source reduction, recycling, etc.).
(c) Give the preferred order of priority of the solutions.

Solution
Install a fume incinerator This is a disposal technique. It is an end-of-pipe method and results at best in
carbon dioxide and water being emitted to atmosphere. In theory it is possible to recover the heat
generated, but this is unlikely to be efficient in this case because of the low loads.
Install a scrubber to remove VOCs from air This is a treatment or end-of-pipe solution. As with all such
solutions, it results in a contaminated stream—in this case solvent laden scrubber liquor.
Install a condenser to recover the solvent for reuse This is an acceptable waste minimization approach,
but it is unlikely that condensation will be efficient unless it is cryogenic, well designed and the ratio of
solvent to air is high.
Use a mechanical or aqueous cleaning method, if such an approach is possible This is a source
reduction technique. Bear in mind, however, that the result may be an aqueous stream contaminated with
grease and detergents. This will increase the load on the wastewater treatment facility. The preferred
hierarchy of solutions is:
mechanical cleaning > aqueous cleaning > condensation > scrubbing > incineration.

18.4 BENEFITS OF WASTE MINIMIZATION

Companies often claim waste reduction credit for activities such as incineration that follow generation of a
waste, rather than avoiding waste creation. Many companies use a definition of waste reduction that gives
them credit for improved waste management and pollution control. Often the benefits of waste
minimization are not seen. The apparent slowness in adopting methods which are clearly beneficial
prompts the following questions:

1. Why do companies opt for end-of-pipe solutions, rather than clean technology?
2. Why should clean technologies be adopted?
3. What are the incentives and disincentives for adopting clean technologies?

The answers to these questions are complex. Several possible answers suggest themselves.

18.4.1 Why are Clean Technologies Not Widely Used?

In many cases the principles of waste minimization are poorly understood. The reduction of emissions to
the atmosphere is seen as minimization. However, as has already been explained, waste once created
cannot be destroyed. Thus, a reduction in emissions to atmosphere must necessarily lead to either an
 WASTE MINIMIZATION 813

increase in emissions to land or water, or emissions of a different type to the atmosphere. While such
emissions may be preferable to the original ones, their generation as a replacement cannot be regarded as
waste minimization. In addition, companies are under legislative and public pressure to reduce waste.
Hence, treatment systems that reduce the quantities of a certain type of waste emitted to a particular
environment are claimed as waste reduction. Companies must invest in end-of-pipe technology to comply
with emissions regulations. This diverts funding from waste reduction programmes. Some disincentives to
the adoption of clean technologies are listed below:
e Lack of appreciation of economic benefits due to accounting systems that do not allocate total
environmental costs of production profit centres
e¢ Competing production priorities
¢ Belief that legally required pollution control is good enough
¢ Incomplete data on exact sources and amounts of wastes
e Difficulty of simultaneously spending resources on regulatory compliance and waste reduction

18.4.2 Why Should Clean Technologies be Adopted?

Enlightened self-interest Globally, many enterprises have seen that it is in their interest to minimize
waste. The International Chamber of Commerce has prepared a Business Charter for Sustainable
Development (Willums and Goliike, 1992). These 16 principles for environmental management are
intended to assist enterprises in fulfilling their commitment to environmental stewardship in a
comprehensive fashion. Principle 8 states: ‘Facilities and Operations: to develop, design and operate
facilities and conduct activities taking into consideration the efficient use of energy and materials, the
sustainable use of renewable resources, the minimization of adverse environmental impact and waste
generation, and the safe and responsible disposal of residual wastes’. Companies such as Aer Lingus, 3M,
Dow, IBM, Apple and DuPont have subscribed to these principles. Internationally, within the chemical
process industry adherents include, Henkel, Johnson and Johnson, Pfizer, SmithKline Beecham and
Syntex Corporation.
In the United States, the Chemical Manufacturers Association, as part of its Responsible Care
programme, has produced a Pollution Prevention Code. Members ‘have committed to the goal of
minimising wastes, reducing releases to the environment, and managing generated wastes in a manner that
is environmentally acceptable and protects human health’. According to the Code: ‘the goal is to establish
a long-term, substantial downward trend in the amount of wastes generated and contaminants and
pollutants released’.
In Europe, the organization PREPARE provides a network for countries with waste minimization
programmes. PREPARE is an initiative of the Dutch government, but now encompasses 14 countries.
PREPARE organizes expert workshops in various industrial sectors, with a view to determining relevant
clean technologies. The factors that prompt an enterprise to take waste minimization initiatives are many
and complex, but it is worth examining three in particular: economics, legislation and community
response.

Economics Waste, by definition, equals inefficiency. Inefficiency costs money. Reducing waste must
therefore present opportunities for improving profitability. It also eases the burden of regulatory
compliance. Treatment and disposal costs are reduced and potential liabilities lessened. Product quality
may also improve through better operation. It is interesting to examine the position of two companies to
adopt clean technology. 3M describes its programme as Pollution Prevention Pays (3Ps) and Dow calls its
Waste Reduction Always Pays (WRAP). 3M claims to have saved about $300 million through eliminating
wastes.
814 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Legislation The European Union has expressed its preference for waste minimization and some
member countries, e.g. Denmark, with its cleaner technologies programme, has been putting this into
practice. The sharpest expression of this preference comes in the US Pollution Prevention Act of 1990.
This policy has been actively promoted ‘by the US Environmental Protection Agency and is seen as a
landmark in US American environmental legislation. The rising costs of treatment and disposal, and the
continued tightening of environmental legislation means that a reduction in the quantity of waste
generated may offer the only viable and economic strategy.

Community response Adoption of waste minimization programmes is a way of demonstrating

corporate and employee commitment to the environment and the community. Customer behaviour may be
guided by a company’s environmental performance. While this may be most immediate in affecting the
producer of consumer goods for the public, the idea of audits in quality is a familiar one. Similar
environmental audits will lead to the primary producers. Product life cycle assessment may currently be of
concern for the manufacturer of car components or packaging but, as this technique develops, its
extension to chemical products can be anticipated. Finally, it must be recognized that pressure groups are
demanding that the waste problem be addressed.

18.4.3 What are the Incentives for Adopting Clean Technologies?

Some incentives to the adoption of clean technologies are listed below:
e Often improved process economics
e Reduced treatment costs
© Reduced disposal costs
¢ Reduced liability
e Reduced risk of fines for breaches
e Increased public satisfaction

Example 18.3 A chemical company uses 2kg reactants and 5 kg of solvent per kg of finished
product manufactured. Examine the waste minimization alternatives if the relevent production and pricing
data are as follows:
Solvent purchase price: ECUS/kg
Incineration costs for solvent: ECU0.5/kg
Reactant costs: ECU20/kg
Product purification costs: ECU10/kg
Solvent losses during processing: 5%
Product sales price: ECU100/kg
Production rate: 10000 kg/annum

The economic implications of some waste minimization options can be considered.

Solution:
Current economics

Reactants: 20 000 kg at ECU20/kg = ECU400 000

Solvents: 50 000 kg at ECU2/kg = ECU100 000
Incineration: 0.95(50 000) kg at ECU0.5/kg =ECU23 500
Separation: 10 000 kg at ECU10/kg = ECU100 000
Total ECU623 500
Product: 10 000 kg at ECU100/kg = ECU1 000 000
Profit = ECU376 500
 WASTE MINIMIZATION 815

Waste minimization options:

e Increase conversion
e Recover solvents
e Reduce separation costs (increase separation efficiency)
e Eliminate losses

Increase conversion For a 10 per cent increase 2 kg reactants yields 1.1 kg of product. Thus,
Sales revenue = 11 000 kg at ECU100/kg =ECU1 100000 (versus ECU1 000 000)
New profit = ECU476 500

and pro rata for other conversion increases. There will, of course, be other savings, such as decreased
separation costs.
Recover solvents (assume 90 per cent efficiency)
Quantity recovered = 0.9(0.95 x 50 000) = 42 750 kg/annum
Savings in solvent purchase = 42 750 x ECU2 = ECU85 500
Savings in incineration costs = 42 750 x ECU0.5 =ECU21 375
Total savings = ECU106 875 (minus recovery cost)

Increase separation efficiency (assume 20 per cent improvement)

Savings = 10000 x 0.2 at ECU10 = ECU20 000

Eliminate losses

50.000 x 0.05 =2500kg at ECU2/kg = ECU5000

Comparison of alternatives

Method Savings

10% conversion increase ECU100 000

90% solvent recovery ECU106 875
20% separation improvement ECU20 000
Eliminate losses ECUS5000

It should be possible to combine all four techniques.

18.5 ELEMENTS OF A WASTE MINIMIZATION PROGRAMME

In accordance with the waste management hierarchy, all strategies aimed at waste minimization should
follow the priority sequence as illustrated in Fig. 18.5. To ensure an optimum waste minimization

| Waste minimization |

Relative environmental desirability

Greater - we Lesser
Order of exploration
ict a ee wecond

Figure 18.5 Waste minimization priorities.

816 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

programme a wide-ranging strategy must be employed. This is, in many ways, similar to the safety
strategy employed by many large companies such as DuPont.
The basic parts of the waste minimization strategy may be summarized as follows:
Management involvement
Setting of goals
Selection of targets
Technical and economic evaluation
Implementation of programmes
Follow-up assessment and monitoring

18.5.1 Management Involvement

It is essential that top management be committed to the idea of waste minimization if the programme is to
be successful. The management of a company will support a waste prevention programme if it is
convinced that the benefits of such a programme can reduce its costs and improve its environmental
performance. The potential benefits have already been outlined. The potential cost includes both the direct
and indirect costs which ensue from the various investments. The management, once committed to the
objective of waste minimization, should issue a policy statement, together with environmental guidelines.
In addition, it is essential to involve the whole organization if the waste minimization programme is to
maximize its chances of success.

Policy statement A formal environmental policy document or manual or guideline is the best way to
communicate the objectives of a waste elimination programme. This is akin to a safety statement and
should emphasize the company’s commitment to clean technology.
An example of such a policy statement by PREPARE might be (De Hoo, 1991):
(A chemicals company)... Undertakes the obligation to supervise and channel protection of the environment.
Environmental protection is one of the primary responsibilities of management as well as the responsibility of all
personnel.
As we intend to adhere to this policy it is our aim, as a company, to limit the generation of waste materials
and emissions and to ensure that, through practising environmental management, the adverse effects on the air,
the soil and water will be kept to a minimum.

Environmental guidelines The environmental guidelines include:

1. Protection of the environment is a line responsibility and an important criterion for measuring the
achievements of employees. Also, each employee carries just as much responsibility for environmental
protection as he or she carries with regard to safety and other company objectives.
2. The prevention of waste and emissions is, and will continue to be, a major consideration in research,
the development of production methods and the running of the company; the management sets this on
a par with safety, profits and the prevention of damage.
3. Reuse of materials will be given preference above the incineration and disposal of waste.

Communications: line organization Involvement of the entire company is essential if conflicts are to
be resolved and obstacles are to be overcome. It is the employees that are the key to the programme’s
success through their direct involvement with production processes, installations, waste streams and
emissions. The inventiveness of the personnel is essential in identifying opportunities for prevention.
Bonuses, rewards and other forms of acknowledgement may be used to motivate employees. Achieving
prevention goals may be used as a measure for assessing the performance of managers and workers.
 WASTE MINIMIZATION 817

18.5.2 Setting of Goals

Corporate level Apart from qualitative objectives such as those in the waste minimization policy
statement, quantitative goals should be set. Examples of this are:
e 35 per cent reduction in waste by 1992 when compared to 1982 values (DuPont)
¢ 60 per cent waste reduction from 1990 to 1994 (Chevron)
A simple statement like 5 per cent reduction per annum would be a realistic goal.

Site-specific level These can be more specific than the corporate goals, e.g.
e 20 per cent reduction in air emissions from 1988 to 1990 (Michigan Division of DOW, USA)

18.5.3 Selection of Targets

There are usually many opportunities for minimizing waste. Notwithstanding any corporate policies, it
should be the responsibility of individual facilities to select targets and implement waste reduction. This
may be carried out on a ‘freelance’ basis or it may be as part of a more structured company ethos.
For example, the DOW Chemical Company requires each facility to develop an action plan to:
Inventory all process losses to air, water and land
Identify sources, establish priorities, quantify losses and ratio to production
Evaluate environmental impact and risk
Set action priorities
Determine cost-effective actions
Set reduction goals
Determine resources necessary to accomplish goals
Track and communicate performance and plan for future reductions
In any event it is necessary for each facility to select target areas for waste reduction. These should bear in
mind the size and nature of the waste stream, its source, the cost savings brought about by reduction, the
technical feasibility of any solution, the required investment and the feasibility of monitoring the effects of
the proposed initiative. To facilitate the selection of target areas or candidate projects a waste
minimization audit or assessment is necessary. A waste minimization audit is not an environmental audit.
Its purpose is not to measure compliance with regulations but to identify areas where waste reduction may
be achieved. Several approaches to carrying out a waste minimization assessment have been documented.
These differ in detail only and the general consensus is that a two-tier approach is most beneficial. The
components are variously termed as follows:
e Pre-assessment phase or first-tier investigations
e Assessment phase or second-tier investigations

First-tier investigations This phase is a screening operation which is used to identify the viable areas of
priority for preventing waste. It is a means of obtaining an overall picture of the waste streams and
company activities with limited means and within a short period. A pre-assessment can help substantially
increase motivation in the company to launch a full-scale assessment.
The steps in the pre-assessment phase may be as follows:
1. Establish a waste minimization assessment team.
2. Make an inventory of the waste streams and omissions generated on site.
3. Make an inventory of prevention opportunities and bottlenecks.
818 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Second-tier investigations This is a natural follow-on from the pre-assessment phase and involves
further investigations on the prioritized options already identified. The assessment team may have to be
strengthened, with additional personnel from affected areas of the plant becoming involved. The
assessment procedure is similar, but more detailed than in pre-assessment. Process flow diagrams and
material balances are useful, but more information is needed, and visits to plants together with
interviewing plant personnel are seen as essential.
The type of information to be gathered should include:
Design information

e Process flow diagrams

e Material application diagrams
e Piping and instrumentation diagrams
e Equipment lists, specifications, drawings, data sheets, operating and maintenance manuals
e Plot plans, arrangement drawings and work flow diagrams
Environmental information
Hazardous waste manifests
Emission inventories and waste assays
Biennial hazardous waste reports
Environmental (compliance) audit reports
Permits and permit applications
Spill/release prevention and countermeasure plans

Raw material/production information

e Composition sheets
e Material safety data sheets
Batch sheets
Product and raw material inventory records
Production schedules
Operator data logs
Economic information

e Waste treatment and disposal costs

e Product, utility and raw material costs
e Operating and maintenance labour costs

Other information

e Company environmental policy statements

e¢ Company and department standard operating procedures
e Organization charts

For very small installations, the use of a two-tier approach may not be strictly necessary, since it may be
possible to identify prospective projects quickly. Even in such cases, however, it is often advantageous to
carry out a brief screening procedure.

18.5.4 Technical and Economic Evaluation

Technical evaluation The final product of the assessment phase is a list of waste minimization options
postulated for the assessed area. The assessment will have screened out the impractical or unattractive
 WASTE MINIMIZATION 819

options. The next step is to determine whether the remaining options are technically and economically
feasible.
The technical evaluation determines whether a proposed waste minimization option will work in a
specific application. Typical technical evaluation criteria include the following (Hanlon and Fromm,
1990):
1. Is the system safe for workers?
2. Will product quality be maintained?
3. Is the new equipment, material or procedure compatible with production operating procedures, work
flow and production rates?
. Is additional labour required?
. Are utilities available? Or must they be installed, thereby raising capital costs?
. How long will production be stopped in order to install the system?
. Is special expertise required to operate or maintain the new system?
. Does the system create other environmental problems?
& . Does the vendor provide acceptable service?
OMeONIKHN

If, after the technical evaluation, the project appears unfeasible or impractical, it should be dropped.

Economic evaluation All proposed projects in industry are subject to economic scrutiny. Waste
minimization projects are no different and the usual decision criteria should be applied. However, it is now
being increasingly recognized that knowledge about the true costs associated with generating hazardous
waste is limited. The availability of such information would heighten the awareness of management to the
need for different waste management programmes and it would support many capital projects aimed at
reducing waste. The four basic costs incurred when a company generates waste arise from:
Underutilizing the value of the raw materials
General management costs associated with moving the waste around the site, storage, keeping track of
waste records and shipping
Disposing of the waste
The associated costs with third-party liabilities if the waste is improperly disposed of
Attempting to determine the true management costs associated with generating wastes at a particular
company, either at a plant site or from a product line, will give managers the opportunity to truly realize
waste management costs and waste minimization will become much more attractive.

18.5.5 Implementation of Programmes

Waste minimization options that involve operational, procedural or materials changes (without additions
or modifications to equipment) should be implemented as soon as the potential cost savings have been
determined. For projects involving equipment modifications or new equipment, the installation of a waste
minimization project is essentially no different from any other physical plant improvement project.

18.5.6 Follow-up Assessment and Monitoring

A useful measure of the effectiveness of a waste minimization project is its payback. The project should
pay for itself through reduced waste management costs and reduced raw material costs. In very many
cases payback is two years or less. Thus, it can be expected that waste minimization projects increase
profitability.
However, it is also important to measure the actual reduction of waste brought about by the waste
minimization project. The easiest way to measure waste reduction is by recording the quantities of waste
generated before and after a waste minimization project has been implemented. Since waste production 1s
820 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

normally a function of plant throughput it is important that waste measurements reflect this. Thus the
quantity of a waste generated per unit product or per unit raw material used is felt to be an acceptable
measure.

18.5.7 Continuing the Policy

A waste minimization programme is not a once-off programme, but rather an on-going one. After having
implemented projects and reduced waste in priority areas, other, lower, priority areas should be assessed.
The overall objective is to reduce waste generation to the greatest possible degree. It is important to realize
that reduction of hazardous waste is only a first step. All industrial discharges should be reduced, since
their generation implies inefficiency and lost profits. In many companies a safety or quality culture has
been established. A waste minimization culture should similarly be developed. Thus, waste minimization
must be an integral part of a company’s operations, and be on a par with safety, quality and production.

18.6 WASTE REDUCTION TECHNIQUES

Section 18.5 outlined the ethos behind implementing a waste minimization policy. The question arises as
how best to implement the elements of such a policy. For example, what techniques are available for
source reduction, recycling, etc. The answer to this question is not straightforward and depends on the
application. The so-called clean technologies do not exist in their own right. If a clean technology is
regarded as one that reduces waste generation, and/or material and energy usage, then it can be seen that
what may be regarded as a cleaner technology in one industrial sector or application is not necessarily so
regarded in another sector. For example, distillation is widely used throughout the chemical industry to
recover materials for reuse. Consequently, it would not normally be regarded as a clean technology in this
context. Research is ongoing to attain better and more energy efficient separation techniques. On the other
hand, in a small paint spraying operation which produces pigment-contaminated solvents, the installation
of a small distillation column for solvent recovery would indeed be a cleaner technology.
It can thus readily be seen that there is no panacea for reducing wastes. Nevertheless, several general
guidelines have been established, which can be supplemented by examples gleaned from experience. The
techniques for bringing about waste reduction can be broken down into four major categories as follows
(Hunt, 1990):

e Inventory management
— Inventory control
— Materials control
e Production process modification
— Operational and maintenance procedures
— Materials change
— Process equipment modification
¢ Volume reduction
— Source segregation
— Concentration
@ Recovery
— On-site
— Off-site
These techniques are discussed in more detail in the following sections. Figure 18.6 is often used as an
alternative means of conveniently summarizing possible waste minimization techniques. It should be
noted that waste reduction techniques are generally used in combination so as to achieve maximum effect
at the lowest cost. It is important to realize that the impact of a waste reduction technique on all waste
 WASTE MINIMIZATION 821

Waste minimization
techniques

|Source reduction | Recycling

a |
(on-site and off-site)

Product changes
al =
Source control Use and reuse Reclamation
Product substitution Return to original Processed for
Product conservation process resource
Change in product Raw material recovery
composition substitute for Processed as
another process a by-product
=)
Input material changes Technology changes Good operating
Material purification Process changes practices
Material substitution Equipment, piping Procedural
or layout changes measures
Addition Loss prevention
automation Management
Changes in practices
operational Waste stream
ew settings segregation
Material handling
improvements
Production
scheduling

Figure 18.6 Hazardous waste minimization techniques. (Adapted from Freeman, 1990. Reprinted by permission of McGraw-Hill,
Inc.)

streams must be considered. For example, switching from solvent-based to water-based methods may
result in lower organic emissions to atmosphere, but can lead to an increased burden on wastewater
treatment.

18.6.1 Inventory Management

Proper inventory control over raw materials, intermediate products, final products and the associated
waste streams is an important waste reduction technique. In many cases waste is just out-of-date, off-
specification, contaminated, or unnecessary raw materials, spill residues or damaged final products. The
cost of disposing of these materials not only includes the actual disposal costs but also the cost of the lost
raw materials or product. Inventory management incorporates both inventory and material control.

Inventory control Inventory control involves techniques to reduce inventory size and hazardous
chemical use while increasing inventory turnover. Proper inventory control can help reduce wastes
occurring as a result of the following: excess, out-of-date and no-longer-used raw materials. Methods that
can be used are purchasing in small quantities, purchasing in appropriate container sizes and just-in-time
purchasing.

Material control It is essential to have proper control over the storage of raw materials, products and
process waste and the transfer of these items within the process and around the facility. This will minimize
losses through spills, leaks or contamination. It will also ensure that the material 1s efficiently handled and
822 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

used in the production process and does not become waste. A list of typical sources of losses is given in
Table 18.3.

18.6.2 Production Process Modification

Waste can be significantly reduced by improved process efficiency. Such improvements can range from
simple, inexpensive changes in production procedures to the installation of state-of-the-art equipment.
Three techniques for production process modification have been identified. These are improved operation
and maintenance, material change and equipment modifications.

Operational and maintenance procedures Improvements in operation and maintenance are usually
relatively simple and cost effective, and may lead to significant waste reduction. The techniques used are
not new, but have not generally been applied to waste reduction problems. A list of examples of
operational changes is given in Table 18.4. A strict maintenance programme which stresses corrective and
preventive maintenance can reduce waste generation caused by equipment failure. Such a programme can
help spot potential sources of release and correct a problem before any material is lost.

Material change The replacement of materials, used in either a product formulation or in a production
process, can either result in the elimination of a hazardous waste or facilitate recovery of a material. For
example, CFCs are gradually being replaced by more ozone-friendly products. This is an example of
eliminating a hazardous waste source. Replacement of a solvent by one with a different vapour pressure
may allow separation and recovery by distillation, condensation, etc. Table 18.5 gives some examples of
waste reduction through material change. As previously emphasized, care must be taken to examine the
impact of changes on the total wastes from a process. This is particularly important in the case of material
changes. The effect on aqueous wastes of changing from organic solvents to water is a case in point.

Table 18.3 Potential sources of process material loss

Area Source

Loading Leaking fill hose or fill line connections

Draining of fill lines between filling
Punctured, leaking or rusting containers
Leaking valves, piping and pumps

Storage Overfilling of tanks

Improper or malfunctioning overflow alarms
Punctured, leaking or rusted containers
Leaking transfer pumps, valves and pipes
Inadequate diking or open drain valve
Improper material transfer procedures
Lack of regular inspection
Lack of training programme

Process Leaking process tanks

Improperly operated and maintained process equipment
Leaking valves, pipes and pumps
Overflow of process tanks; improper overflow controls
Leaks and spills during material transfer
Inadequate diking
Open drains
Equipment and tank cleaning
Off-specification raw materials
Adapted from Hunt, 1990. Reprinted by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.
 WASTE MINIMIZATION 823

Table 18.4 Examples of operational changes to reduce waste generation

Reduce raw material and product loss due to leaks, spills, drag-out, and off-specification process solution
Schedule production to reduce equipment cleaning, e.g. formulate light to dark paint so the vats do not have to be cleaned out
between batches
Inspect parts before they are processed to reduce number of rejects
Consolidate types of equipment or chemicals to reduce quantity and variety of waste
Improve cleaning procedures to reduce the generation of dilute mixed waste with methods such as using dry cleanup techniques,
using mechanical wall wipers or squeegees and using compressed gas to clean pipes and increasing drain time
Segregate wastes to increase recoverability
Optimize operational parameters (such as temperature, pressure, reaction time, concentration and chemicals) to reduce by-product or
waste generation
Develop employee training procedures on waste reduction
Evaluate the need for each operational step and eliminate steps that are unnecessary
Collect spilled or leaked material for reuse

Adapted from Hunt, 1990. Reprinted by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.

Table 18.5 Examples of waste reduction through material change

Industry Technique

Household Eliminate cleaning step by selecting lubricant compatible with next process step
appliances
Printing Substitute water-based ink for solvent-based ink
Textiles Reduce phosphorus in wastewater by reducing use of phosphate-containing chemicals
Use ultraviolet light instead of biocides in cooling towers
Air conditioners Replace solvent-containing adhesives with water-based products
Electronic Replace water-based film-developing system with a dry system
components
Aerospace Replace cyanide cadmium-plating bath with a non-cyanide bath
Ink manufacture Remove cadmium from product
Plumbing fixtures Replace hexavalent chrome-plating bath with a low-concentration trivalent chrome-plating bath
Pharmaceuticals Replace solvent-based tablet-coating process with a water-based process

Adapted from Hunt, 1990. Reprinted by permission of McGraw-Hill Inc.

Process equipment modification The installation of more efficient equipment or the modification of
equipment can reduce the generation of waste. Modifications may be simple, such as improved mixing, or
better pump seals. On the other hand, installation of completely new equipment may be involved. In most
cases the investment will pay for itself in a relatively short space of time, due to increased production
rates, reduced waste handling costs, etc. Some examples of process modifications are given in Table 18.6

18.6.3 Volume reduction

While reduction in volume does not, of itself, constitute waste reduction, it frequently facilitates
separation and recovery. The reduction in volume may involve complex concentration technologies or
may simply consist of source segregation. Some examples of waste reduction through volume reduction
are given in Table 18.7.

Source segregation This very simple operation is a basic tenet of good waste minimization. The
segregation of wastes allows them to be more readily removed or recovered. For example, the mixing of
small quantities of organic solvents with aqueous streams both militates against effective recovery and
puts an increased load on biological treatment systems. Keeping the organic streams separate may allow
recovery, incineration, etc. A commonly used waste segregation technique is to collect and store
washwater or solvents used to clean process equipment (such as tanks, pipes, pumps or printing presses)
824 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Table 18.6 Examples of production process modifications for waste

reduction
Process step Technique

Chemical reaction Optimize reaction variables and improve process controls

Optimize reactant-addition method
Eliminate use of toxic catalysts
Improve reactor design
Filtration and washing Eliminate or reduce use of filter aids and disposable filters
Drain filter before opening
Use counter-current washing
Recycle spent washwater
Maximize sludge dewatering
Parts cleaning Enclose all solvent cleaning units
Use refrigerated freeboard on vapour degreaser units
Improve parts draining before and after cleaning
Use mechanical cleaning devices
Use plastic-bead blasting
Surface finishing Prolong process bath life by removing contaminants
Redesign part racks to reduce drag-out
Reuse rinse water
Install spray or fog nozzle rinse systems
Properly design and operate all rinse tanks
Install drag-out recovery tanks
Install rinse water flow control valves
Install drip racks and drain boards
Surface coating Use airless air-assisted spray guns
Use electrostatic spray-coating system
Control coating viscosity with heat units
Use high-solids coatings
Use powder coating systems
Equipment cleaning Use high-pressure rinse system
Use mechanical wipers
Use counter-current rinse sequence
Reuse spent rinse water
Use ‘pigs’ to clean lines
Use compressed gas to blow out lines
Spills and leaks Use bellow-sealed valves
Install spill basins or dikes
Use seal-less pumps.
Maximize use of welded pipe joints.
Install splash guards and drip boards
Install overflow control devices

Adapted from Hunt, 1990. Reprinted by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.

Table 18.7 Examples of waste reduction through volume reduction

Industry Technique

X-ray film Segregate polyester film scrap from other production waste and recycle
Resins Collect waste resin and reuse in next batch
Printed circuit boards Use filter press to dewater sludge to 60 per cent solids and sell sludge for metal recovery
Pesticide formulation Use separate bag houses at each process line and recycle collected dust into product
Research laboratory Segregate chlorinated and non-chlorinated solvents to allow off-site recovery
Aircraft components Use ultrafiltration to remove recoverable oil from spent coolants
Paint formulation Segregate and reuse tank-cleaning solvents in paint formulations
Furniture Segregate and reuse solvents used to flush spray-coating lines and pumps as coating thinner
Adapted from Hunt, 1990. Reprinted by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.
 WASTE MINIMIZATION 825

for reuse in the production process. This technique is used by paint, ink and chemical formulators, as well
as by printers and metal fabricators.

Concentration The concentration of a waste involves the removal of some portion of it, e.g. water.
There are many techniques available to enable wastes to be concentrated. These include physical
separation of solids and liquids (filtration, centrifugation, gravity settling, etc.), membrane separations
such as ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis, etc., as well as energy intensive operations such as evaporation.

18.6.4 Recovery
Waste recovery should only be considered after all other waste reduction options have been instituted. The
recovery of waste costs money in terms of energy and/or material input. Reduction of waste generation at
source is more cost effective, since it represents a reduction in lost raw materials, intermediates, products,
etc. Nevertheless, since there will always be some waste generation, recovery represents a viable and cost
effective waste management alternative. Effective recovery is enhanced by segregation of materials, as
already outlined. Recovery may be carried out on-site or off-site. On-site recovery is preferable, where
possible, since it reduces possible handling losses and allows the management of the waste to remain
within the compass of the producer. On-site recovery is particularly appropriate where the recovered
material can be reused as a raw material. Table 18.8 gives some examples of waste recovery techniques.
Most on-site recovery systems will generate some type of residue (i.e. contaminants removed from
the recovered material). This residue can either be processed for further recovery or properly disposed of.
The economic evaluations of any recovery technique must include the management of these residues.
In the event that on-site recovery is not feasible, for economic or other reasons, off-site recovery
should be considered. In some situations a waste may be transferred to another company for use as a raw
material in the other company’s manufacturing process.

Example 18.4 A production process uses a raw material that contains a small amount of sulphur as
an impurity. After processing the sulphur appears as sulphate in an aqueous waste stream. This waste is
anaerobically biodegraded to produce a biogas, which is used as a boiler fuel. In the anaerobic digestor,

Table 18.8 Examples of waste reduction through recovery and reuse

Industry Technique

Printing Use a vapour-recovery system to recover solvents

Photographic processing Recover silver, fixer and bleach solutions
Metal fabrication Recover synthetic cutting fluid using a centrifuge system
Mirror manufacturing Recover spent xylene using a batch-distillation system
Printed circuit boards Use an electrolytic recovery system to recover copper and tin/lead from process wastewater
Tape measures Recover a nickel-plating solution using an ion-exchange unit
Medical instruments Use a reverse-osmosis system to recover a nickel-plating solution
Power tools Recover alkaline degreasing baths using an ultrafiltration system
Textiles Use an ultrafiltration system to recover dyestuffs from wastewater
Hosiery Reconstitute and reuse spent dye baths
Food processing Send all solids off-site for by-product recovery
Wastewater treatment Reuse waste caustic solids to treat acid waste stream
Pickles Transfer waste brine pickle solution to a textile plant as a replacement for virgin acetic acid
Chemicals Use spent electrolyte from one division as raw material in another; purify hydrochloric acid in
waste stream and sell as a product
Industrial and consumer products _ Segregate and sell office paper, corrugated cardboard, paper trimming and rejected paper
products
Aluminium die-caster Sell waste fumed amorphous silica for use in concrete

Adapted from Hunt, 1990. Reprinted by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.

826 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

the sulphate is converted to hydrogen sulphide, which results in sulphur dioxide emissions in the boiler
flue gases. Outline various methods of reducing the SO, emissions and identify them as specific waste
reduction techniques.

Solution

(a) Purchase alternative sulphur-free raw material. This is material substitution.

(b) Divert waste from this production process away from the anaerobic digestor. This is source
segregation
(c) Recover hydrogen sulphide from the gas stream as pure sulphur for sale. This is material reuse

18.7 CONCLUSION

The basic elements of a waste minimization have been outlined. Many techniques and technologies exist
to reduce the generation of waste and to recover wastes once generated. However, a waste minimization
programme should not rely on technology alone. Senior management commitment, a rigorous waste
management programme and a continuing emphasis on reduction at source are prerequisites for success.
The reward is increased competitiveness, reduced waste treatment and disposal problems, legislative
compliance and an improved public image. Some waste will always exist, even after mgorous
implementation of a waste minimization programme. Such waste must be treated and disposed of in an
environmentally safe manner. It is the producer’s responsibility to ensure the safe handling and disposal of
such wastes. Finally, no matter how successful a waste minimization programme or project, it should
never be considered completed. It is not a once-off programme, but rather a continuing one. Constant
improvements must be made and new methods of reducing waste sought.

18.8 CASE STUDY—PAINT INDUSTRY (USEPA 1990)

The paint and allied industries are engaged in the manufacture of paint, varnish, lacquer, enamels,
cleaners, putties and allied products. In the United States, 60 per cent of paint is solvent based, 35 per cent
water based and the rest allied products. Raw materials used in the industry include resins, solvents
(aromatics, alcohols, aliphatics), pigments (titanium dioxide, inorganics), extenders (calcium carbonate,
talc, clay) and other compounds such as plasticizers, and drying oils.
In the production of solvent-based paints some of these materials are blended in a high-speed mixer.
Solvents and plasticizers are also added. Frequently, this operation is followed by grinding and mixing in
a mill. Afterwards, the paint base is transferred to an agitated vessel where tints and thinners are added
along with the remaining resins and solvents. After reaching the proper consistency, the mixture is filtered
and transferred to a filling hopper. The water-based paint process is very similar except that water is used
predominantly and the sequencing of material additions is different. Waste from a typical paint process
can be generated at any one of several stages, as shown in Fig. 18.7. The main wastes can arise from raw
material storage containers, off-specification products, dust, spills and equipment cleaning wastes.

18.8.1 Plant Waste Streams

Equipment cleaning wastes Equipment is routinely cleaned to prevent product contamination and
maintain efficiency. Depending on the process unit and product type, cleaning is accomplished by
flushing with water, or solvent, alkaline cleaning solution, pressure jet, or mechanically or manually
scraping.
 WASTE MINIMIZATION 827

Resins
Pigments area
a ae Grinding and mixing
Solvents 1; 9)2, 5 and'6
‘

Plasticizers
Process waste categories
1. Discarded raw material containers
Grinding . Baghouse pigment dusts
2,5 and 6 . Off-specification paint
. Filter cartridges
. Equipment cleaning wastes
. Air emissions of VOCs
DAnfbwWP
Mixing
Tints ¢
ints and inners
thinners oead

Packaging
3,5 and 6

Filtering
4,5 and 6

Packaging
3,5 and 6

Figure 18.7 Paint process waste categories. (Adapted from USEPA, 1990.)

Off-specification and obsolete stock Off-specification stock is produced by errors in batch

formulation, quality control failure and other process errors. This may lead to products being returned
by customers, leading to disposal problems.

Spills Spillages are inadvertent discharges that occur at various locations in the plant. Water-based
paints are washed to the waste treatment plant while solvent paints are recovered and stored.

Filters, bags, packages Filter bags and cartridges are used as the dust control equipment for both
solvent and water-based processes. Spent bag filters are washed and disposed of as non-hazardous waste.
Hazardous waste materials (lead and chromium packaging) need to be disposed of in a controlled fashion.

18.8.2 Source Reduction Measures

1. A caustic cleaning solution was replaced by a proprietary cleaning solution, which reduced by one
half the previous waste volume.
2. In the water-based process, low-pressure water was used to clean vessels. A portable high-pressure
system was purchased, contributing to a 25 per cent reduction in wastewater volume.
3. Dedication of vessels to specific products required that cleaning be carried out after several batches as
opposed to after each batch. The residual solids were removed manually.
4. Certain batches are sequenced in order of light to dark paint manufacture. This, in some cases,
eliminated the requirement of intermediate cleaning.
5. Lead- and chromium-based pigments are being phased out as these pigments are prohibited in
consumer products.
6. The raw material inventory is controlled and monitored carefully. Only raw materials that satisfy
stringent quality control standards are purchased, are used as quickly as possible and are returned to
the supplier if it becomes obsolete.
828 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

. Obsolete finished material can be reduced again by proper planning and inventory control.
. Off-specification products are reworked on-site to produce marketable products. Reduction of off-
specification material can be achieved by proper process automation and quality control.
. Spills are recovered by manual scooping or by vacuum and then reworked into useful products.
10. Most of the pigments used are in slurry or paste format, keeping packaging material to a minimum.
ih, Cleaning solvents are reused several times for rinsing tanks. When the material is considered too dirty
for cleaning purposes, it is distilled on-site. The distilled materials are recycled to the cleaning
operation, while the still bottoms are used to produce a primer product.
. In the past, the water-based cleaning agent produced a sludge residue which was partially dewatered
and then landfilled. The company decided to eliminate the need to landfill this waste totally.
Currently, the waste stream is blended with additives after flocculation, to produce a beige-coloured
product now sold as a general purpose paint.

18.9 PROBLEMS

18.1 Motor fuel is produced by refining crude-oil.

(a) Identify the stages in the life cycle of this product.
(b) Define a system on which a life cycle assessment of such a product might be conducted.
(c) What environmental parameters should be chosen?
(d) What data would you need to gather?
(e) In your opinion, what stage of the life cycle is most important, and why?
18.2 A car (automobile) manufacturer is designing a new bumper (fender). The material choice lies
between plastic or steel. Applying the principles of LCA, which do you think is preferable?
Liquid milk may be sold in any of four containers, each of one litre capacity:
(a) waxed paper cartons,
(b) disposable plastic bottles,
(c) re-usable plastic bottles,
(d) re-usable glass bottles.
Qualitatively assess which is least detrimental to the environment. Explain what factors must be
considered.
18.4 Consider the Swiss glass bottle data in the text. Is it environmentally favourable to recycle as much
glass as possible? Examine the sensitivity of your conclusion to variations in the data.
185 Five methods for reduction of waste at source are given in the text. Prioritize these in terms of
preferred order of implementation. Explain why you have made such a decision.
18.6 A simple block diagram of a manufacturing facility is given below:

Raw materials Product

Manufacturing
process
Energy Waste

(a) Draw an envelope into which all feeds enter and out of which all feeds leave.
(b) Redraw the diagram for the situation where all waste is recycled/reused (the so-called zero
waste process). Is this a true representation of the emissions due to the manufacturing facility?
(c) Include the energy production facility and show all input and output streams.
 WASTE MINIMIZATION 829

18.7 Outline some methods for minimizing waste in the domestic kitchen/bathroom. Identify the
generic type of each method (i.e. source reduction, etc.)
18.8 What do you think are the main reasons that people do not readily adopt the methods for waste
miminization that you have identified in Problem 18.3?
18.9 Draw up a plan for a preliminary assessment of waste minimization opportunities in a small
automobile repair shop. Identify, in advance, possible target areas for waste reduction.
18.10 Conversion may be defined as the percentage of feed material that is transformed to product. A
process uses a feed that is 90 per cent pure. The conversion is 35 per cent to desired product and 10
per cent to waste by-product. Based on 100kg feed, determine all input and output flow rates.
Outline some methods that might be used to minimize waste.
18.11 A spray paint shop produces items in 46 different colours. Identify possible waste streams and
outline methods of reducing waste. Prioritize your reduction methods, assigning generic types to
them (e.g. recycling) and explaining your reasons for choosing them. If the paint is currently
organic solvent based, what are the advantages and disadvantages of converting to water-based
paints?
18.12 Consider a wastewater treatment plant serving a population equivalent of 150 000. Identify the key
unit processes and materials quantities in a conventional treatment plant. Now, suppose you have
been given the task of designing a waste minimization programme. Identify what you would do in
both a qualitative and a quantitative way. What volume reduction can you achieve and what amount
of energy can you save?
18.13 A block diagram of a chemical manufacturing facility is shown below. Process step efficiencies are
reacion, 60 per cent; solvent recovery, 80 per cent; separation, 90 per cent.

Recovered
solvent

Solvent
recovery
incineration

Product

Reaction

9000 kg
solvent

Waste to treatment

(a) Determine the following ratios:

(i) waste to product,
(ii) product to feed.
each operation.
(b) Determine the effect on waste of a 5 per cent increase in efficiency for
830 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

BUWAL (1991) Ecobalance of Packaging Materials State of 1990, BUWAL, Switzerland.

CEC (1990) ‘Technical note on best available technologies not entailing excessive cost for nitric acid production’, EUR 13004 EN,
CEC, Brussels.
CEC (1992) European Community Environmental Legislation, Vols 1-7, DGXI.
CEC (1992) ‘Proposal for a directive on the limitation of emissions of sulphur dioxide from large combustion plants’, COM(92) 563
final.
CEC (1992) ‘An EC programme of policy and action in relation to the environment and sustainable development’, COM(92) 23 final.
CEC (1993) ‘Proposal for a council directive on integrated pollution prevention and control’, COM(93) 423 final.
Chemical Manufacturers Association (CMA) (1991) Pollution Prevention Resource Manual, Chemical Manufacturers Association.
Washington D.C., USA.
Coulson, J. M., J. F Richardson and R. K. Sinnott (1983) Chemical Engineering, Vol. 6, Design, Pergamon, Oxford.
Cunningham, J. D. and J. Moriarty (1993) Clean Technologies in the Fine Chemicals/Pharmaceutical Industry, Clean Technology
Centre, Ireland.
Cunningham, J. D. (1993) Estimation of Volatile Organic Compound Emissions from Non-point Sources in the Chemical Process
Industries, Clean Technology Centre, Ireland.
De Hoo, S., H. Dielman, R. Von Berkel, F. Reigenge, H. Brezet, J. Cramer and J. Schot (eds) (1991) PREPARE, Dutch Ministry of
Economic Affairs.
Freeman, H. (1990) Hazardous Waste Minimisation, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Griijer, U. (1991) Waste Minimisation: A Major Concern for the Chemical Industry, Water Sci. Technology, 24(12), 43—S6.
Hanlon, D. and C. Fromm (1990) ‘Waste minimization assessments’, in Hazardous Waste Minimisation, H. Freeman, (ed.), McGraw-
Hill, New York, pp. 71-126.
Hunt, G. E. (1990) ‘Waste reduction techniques and technologies’, in Hazardous Waste Minimisation, H. Freeman (ed.), McGraw-
Hill, New York, pp. 25-54.
Johannson, A. (1992) Clean Technology, Lewis Publishers.
Keoleian, G. A. and D. Menerey (1993) Life Cycle Design Guidance Manual, EPA600/R-92/226, USEPA.
King, C. J. (1980) Separation Processes, 2nd edn, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Kirk, R. E., D. F. Othmer, et al. (1984) Kirk—Othmer Encyclopaedia of Chemical Technology, Wiley—Interscience, New York.
Levenspiel, O. (1972) Chemical Reaction Engineering, 2nd edn, John Wiley, New York.
Lindfors, L.-G. (ed.) (1992) Product Life Cycle Assessment—Principles and Methodology, Nordic Council of Ministers.
McCabe, W. L., J. C. Smith and P. Harriott (1993) Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering, 5th edn, McGraw-Hill.
McKetta, J. J. and W. A. Cunningham (eds) (1990) Encyclopaedia of Chemical Processing and Design, Marcel Dekker, New York.
Pedersen, B. (ed.) (1993) Environmental Assessment of Products—A Course on Life Cycle Assessment, 2nd edn, UETP-EEE,
Helsinki.
Perry, R. H. and D. W. Green (1984) Perry's Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 6th edn, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Peters, M. S. and K. D. Timmerhaus (1991) Plant Design and Economics for Chemical Engineers, 4th edn, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Theodore, L. and Y. C. McGuinn (1992) Pollution Prevention, Van Nostrand Rheinhold, New York.
USEPA (1990) Guides to Pollution Prevention: The Paint Manufacturing Industry, EPA/625/7-90/005, USEPA. Washington, DC,
USA.
Willums, J. O., and U. Goliike (1992) From Ideas to Action: Business from Sustainable Development, ICC. International Chamber of
Commerce, Paris, France.
SSS
a eee

CHAPTER

NINETEEN
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

19.1 INTRODUCTION

Environmental impact assessment (EIA) is a process that requires consideration of the environment and
public participation in the decision-making process of project development. An environmental impact
statement (EIS) is a review document prepared for assessment in the EIA process. In some countries EIA
is a direct legal requirement, while in others it is enforced indirectly under general planning, health or
pollution control powers. Consequently, it is appropriate to review the origin of EIA, alternate procedures,
project screening, EIS scoping, preparation and review. We also examine multidisciplinary project
management as engineering practice plays a key role in all stages of project development. This chapter
aims to introduce the reader to the EIA process and investigate the depth of study required in the
production of an EIA.
The stages of EIA include the following:
1. Screening, to decide which projects should be subject to environmental assessment. Criteria used
include threshold, size of project and sensitivity of the environment.
2. Scoping is the process which defines the key issues that should be included in the environmental
assessment. Many early EIAs (pre-1985) were criticized because they were encyclopaedic and
included irrelevant information.
3. EIS preparation is the scientific and objective analysis of the scale, significance and importance of
impacts identified. Various methods have been developed to assist this task.
4. Review. As environmental assessments are normally produced by the project proponent, it is usual for a
review to be undertaken by a government agency or an independent review panel. The review panel
guides the study and then advises the decision makers.

These elements in addition to multidisciplinary project management are considered in detail below.
Examples of EIS checklists for road, waste and mining projects are also provided for reference.

831
832 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

19.2 ORIGINS OF EIA

All ecosystems, including human communities, have thresholds of tolerance for pollution and disturbance
beyond which the system may suffer anything from temporary upsets to complete destruction. In this
regard the industrial and agricultural practices after the Second World War began to cause environmental
damage which crossed these thresholds.
Wide-scale environmental interest and concern was awakened by Rachel Carson’s book Silent Spring
(1962). This book set out to show the American people how their land and lives were affected by the
large-scale spraying of crops with insecticides and herbicides. She showed that agricultural pesticides
were being found in environments outside their target areas. She succeeded in making the public aware of
the ecological consequences of introducing toxic chemicals into the natural food chains and the effects of
cumulative dosage with apparent small quantities of agricultural chemicals. From this beginning arose
public concern for the environment (biologists and ecologists had long been aware of the dangers) and
eventually pressure by the public and environmentalists forced state and federal authorities to exert some
control over the release of toxic chemicals into the environment. The National Environmental Policy Act
(NEPA) was introduced in the United States in 1969 and required environmental statements to be
prepared for federally funded or supported projects that were likely to have impacts on the environment.
The US Council for Environmental Quality (CEQ) was given the task of developing standard procedures
for environmental statements which were published in August 1973.
Environmental assessment was accepted in principle at the United Nations Conference on the human
environment in 1972 at Stockholm when the framework of modern environmental international and
national policy was laid down. The conference generated a concern for the environment which resulted in
the 1980 publication of a world conservation strategy by the International Union for the Conservation of
Nature (IUCN), the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Wildlife Fund
(WWF), and subsequent launching of a series of national policies on environmental conservation and
control, and the slow, controversial but definite progress of the European Community towards formal
European legislation.
The European Community initiated environmental action programmes in 1973, 1977, 1983, 1987
and 1992, the principle being that the best environmental policy consists of preventing the creation of
pollution or nuisances at source, leading to the need to consider developments before construction and the
consequent need to create legislation to enforce such consideration.

19.3 EIA PROCEDURE

There are three options to consider in establishing EIA procedures. They include:
¢ Legislative option—formal legal approach in which environmental assessment procedures become law
and are enforced by the courts
e Middle ground option—adoption of environmental assessment principles within accepted planning
procedures
¢ Policy option—systems are developed and incorporated within the administrative machinery of
government

The legislative option is the more formal legal approach in which the EIA procedures become law and are
enforced by the courts.
The advantages are:
e Mandatory procedures
e Regulations developed to direct and control activities
e Enforceable requirements
 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT 833

The disadvantages are:

e The cost of the bureaucratic machinery required for administration
e The time lost when the law is challenged in the courts
¢ The loss of flexibility in dealing with unique types of projects and or environments

The policy option as a basis for EIA procedures means that systems are developed and incorporated
within the administrative machinery of government. Under this option the rules and regulations are not
enforceable in a legal sense.
The advantages are:

Greater direct control over the process

More opportunity to alter procedures in the light of experience
Less administrative costs
Avoidance of long delays on projects due to legal arguments
The disadvantages are:
e The entire system is more vulnerable to political whims.
e It may be difficult to force agencies to take responsibilities seriously and the concerned public may not
be able to directly challenge a final decision with which they disagree.
The middle ground option clearly takes elements of both the legislative and policy options as outlined
above.

19.3.1 The Legislative Option (NEPA)

The concept of EIA was first put into practice in the United States with the passage of the National
Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) in 1969. The Act requires all federal agencies to consider the
environmental consequences of their proposed developments and, where significant, an EIS needs to be
prepared, reviewed by other interested agencies and then submitted to the Council of Environmental
Quality (CEQ), the agency established in 1970 to oversee the implementation of NEPA. Since the Act
specifies what is to be included in the EIS, the responsible agency can be challenged in the courts for
failure to comply with the legal requirements. In 1978, the CEQ published regulations under the Act
which were directed towards streamlining the process, making the output more useful to planners and
decision makers, encouraging public involvement and ensuring that the agencies follow up on their
responsibilities after the approval of the EIS.
NEPA is very much a reflection of the importance placed on ‘the legislative or democratic approach’
under the US system of government, under which the general public, operating through the courts, act as
the watchdog of government. Such an approach requires the presence of well-organized, well-funded and
influential environmental lobby groups since concerned individuals seldom have the resources to
undertake legal proceedings against governments or large industries.
Under the legislative option for EIA, as practised in the United States, ‘enforcement’ is achieved by
public pressure operating through the judiciary who are the final interpreters of the law.

19.3.2 The Policy Option (EARP)

In 1973, the Canadian government implemented the Environmental Assessment Review Process (EARP)
which was based on a decision of the Federal Cabinet. Under this policy all agencies of the federal
government are to take account of potential environmental and social consequences of development early
in project planning. The Federal Environmental Assessment Review Office (FEARO) was established to
oversee the implementation of EARP.
834 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

The Environmental Assessment Review Process has a number of characteristics:

e It is based on the concept of self-assessment, i.e. the agencies themselves are responsible for
determining whether their activities pose significant environmental problems. Their decisions must be
defensible and they can be challenged ‘by the Federal Environmental Assessment Review Office
(FEARO).
e The policy is based on a hierarchical approach in which only the potentially most environmentally
damaging projects are subjected to a comprehensive public review with resulting recommendations to
the ministerial level of government. Projects considered to have tess potential impact are reviewed
through more normal administrative procedures.
e It operates on the principle of ‘the polluter pays’, i.e. the industrial proponent pays for the cost of the
EIS (where it is required) and any resulting project changes, delays or mitigation measures.
Under the review process, federal agencies conduct their own screening of projects for environmental
problems. If the problems are considered to be minor, they are dealt with through regular
interdepartmental consultative mechanisms which ensure that all existing environmental standards and
regulations are applied. If the potential environmental or directly related socioeconomic impacts are
considered to be significant, then the project is referred to the FEARO which establishes a review panel.
The American and Canadian approaches to EIA represent opposite ends of a spectrum but there are
signs that in practice they are converging on a ‘middle ground’. Both NEPA and EARP are trying to
promote the adoption of EJA principles within accepted planning procedures.

19.3.3 The Middle Ground Option (EC Directive)

The EU Environmental Assessment Directive, which was agreed in July 1985 and came into force three
years later, is arguably the most significant of all the existing pieces of Community environmental
legislation and is an example of a middle ground option. The requirements of the Directive reach deeply
into the decision-making processes of Member States. It should, however, be stressed from the start that
the Directive is based on what is essentially an underlying faith as it is focused on procedural rather than
substantive obligation. In itself it does not ensure or require that Member States refuse to approve projects
that are damaging to the environment.
Where the Directive does apply, it simply provides that the information on the environmental effects
of the project gathered in accordance with the Directive must be ‘taken into consideration in the
development consent procedure’. The policy assumption is that if the procedures are followed, then
eventual decisions are likely to improve from an environmental perspective. Nevertheless, the final
decision-making on individual projects and the complex weighing up of environmental, economic and
other interests that are inevitably involved are in principte explicitly delegated to Member States and their
competent authorities. As a result, the whole issue of compliance with the Directive is heavily infused
with questions of discretion and the principles on which the Commission or courts should review
questionable decisions by national administrations.
The Directive consciously addresses an all-encompassing range of potential environmental assets,
from nature protection to cultural heritage. The complexities were well illustrated by the radically different
methodologies that emerged during the development of the Directive, particularly those that concerned
one of the central issues—the selection of projects to be subject to assessment.
One of the original drafts argued strongly in favour of the Directive specifying general selection
criteria only and against the idea of listing project types; later drafts specified a number of mandatory
project types, but left others to be identified by Member States according to criteria specified in the
Directive; the final structure, which retains the mandatory list, includes a lengthy discretionary list of
projects, but largely leaves it to Member States to determine themselves the criteria necessary to identify
which particular projects within the latter should be subject to assessment.
 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT 835

The most critical step in understanding the Directive is to appreciate that ‘assessment’ as it appears in
the Directive does not refer to a single document, however lengthy or comprehensive, but implies a
process of what may well be iterative steps towards decision making. Once a project has been determined
to fall within the scope of the Directive, the assessment takes the form of five obligatory steps:
e The supply of information on environmental effects by the developer
e Consultation with other environmental agencies
¢ Consultation with the public
e Consultation with other Member States where the project has transnational implications
e The requirement on the part of the competent authority to take into consideration information gathered
during these previous steps before making its decision to authorize the project.
No single step in itself is an ‘environmental assessment’ for the purposes of the Directive—only in
cumulation do they amount to assessment.

19.4 PROJECT SCREENING FOR EIA

19.4.1 Introduction

The success of EIA is only as effective as the coverage of projects to which it is applied. Little attention
has been paid to the selection of those projects that should be subject to EIA. This has often led to the
development of case law which indicates to the agencies developments for which an EIA will be required.
In countries without such a procedure, guidelines rarely exist, the decision being dependent upon the scale
of the proposal, its environmental setting, uniqueness of the project and the likely degree of public
opposition. Because countries have adopted different approaches large disparities exist as to the number
of EIAs prepared.
There are a number of means by which project selection for EIA can be undertaken. Specified
development types accompanied, in some instances, by thresholds of size, cost or power requirements
may automatically require EIA. In some countries, EIAs are mandatory for certain classes of development
which exceed a specific financial threshold. This approach unfortunately neglects the importance of the
environmental setting of a project. The extent and significance of a particular impact depends not only on
the causative agent, for example the amount of a pollutant, but also on the sensitivity of the receiving
environment. Alternatively, environmentally sensitive areas can be designated in which an EIA is required
for specific developments. This approach contains the implicit assumption that only specific development
types are detrimental to certain environmental features. The identification of environmentally sensitive
areas, (e.g. wetlands) is an ongoing process in most countries.

19.4.2 Methods
Outlined below are a number of methods commonly used to select projects for EIA:

e The use of positive and negative lists

e The use of project criteria.
e Sensitive area criteria
e Matrices
e Initial environmental evaluations

Positive and negative lists These are lists of project types which are considered to be candidates for EIA
(positive) or projects for which an EIA will not be required (negative). This is further refined by having two
(positive) lists: (a) projects for which EIA will be required in every circumstance, (b) projects for which
836 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

EIA is required only in certain circumstances. See Appendix 19.1 at the end of this chapter for an example
of the list approach adopted by EC Directive 85/337.

Project thresholds Thresholds can assist in project screening, where projects exceeding predetermined
thresholds are considered to be candidates for EIA. Thresholds can relate to size of project, production or
area of land required.

Sensitive area criteria Two approaches can be discussed:

1. The first refers to the assimilative capacity of the environment and implies a predetermined set of
values which describe the resilience of the environment to known levels of disturbance.
2. The second relies on the determination of environmentally sensitive areas in terms of features of
interest which in combination warrant the designation of an EIA. Any project within this area would
become an automatic candidate for EIA.

Matrices The matrix compares project activities listed under the main headings of site investigation and
preparation, construction, operation and maintenance, future and related activities, with the environmental
consequences which may be physical /chemical, ecological, aesthetic, social. Matrix interactions may have
no significant effect, be mitigated through an appropriate design measure, have unknown effects, have
potentially adverse effects, and not have significant effects. On completion of this stage a panel of experts is
convened to assess the results and decide whether an EIA should be required.

Initial environmental evaluation (IEE) [EE is a ‘mini EJA’. It requires a description of the environment
and the development and the identification (not assessment or interpretation) of environmental impacts that
are anticipated.

19.4.3 Practice

In the US, the NEPA applies to all types of activities undertaken by all federal agencies. The only
‘screen’ is the interpretation of the word ‘significant’ with respect to potential impacts. Since this is
poorly defined in the Act and Regulations, agencies have tended to consider questionable impacts as
significant to avoid being in contempt of legislation. This has resulted in the production of a significant
number of EISs for relatively minor projects.
In Canada, under EARP the initiating departments are given the responsibility for determining
which projects are insignificant. If there is not enough information to arrive at a decision a more detailed
analysis will be carried out. In practice, it is only the large projects that potentially involve a wide variety
and intensity of impacts which are referred to the FEARO for a comprehensive public review. In this
manner, the agencies tend to incorporate the environmental considerations for smaller and more
conventional projects within regular planning procedures.
The EU Directive applies to proposals for projects falling within various classes specified in the
Annexees to the Directive (see end of this Chapter). Annexe I contains nine classes of projects and
subject to special exemption procedures. Annexe II contains a much more extensive list of 83 types of
project divided into 12 classes. These projects are subject to assessment ‘where Member States consider
that their characteristics so require’. This apparent discretion has proved to be one of the major areas of
difficulty of interpretation, with conflicts of approach between the EU Commission and some Member
States. Initially, a number of Member States took the wording of the Directive at its face value and
decided that they had the power to exclude whole categories of Annexe II projects from the range of
their national legislation on the grounds that they did not consider their potential for environmental
impact warranted the assessment procedures (see Appendix 19.1 for project listings).
 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT 837

The EU Commission eventually took a much stricter interpretation. Although it was accepted that
Member States have some discretion to determine which particular projects falling within the classes of
Annexe II should be subject to assessment, this discretion has be set against what was considered to be the
fundamental requirement of the Directive:
Member States shall adopt all measures necessary to ensure that before consent is given, projects likely to have
significant effects on the environment by virtue inter alia of their nature, size or location are made subject to an
assessment with regard to their effects.

According to this interpretation, the wording of Article 2 is a quasi-objective statement of the goals of the
Directive, and Member States therefore do not have an unlimited discretion to determine which projects
in Annexe II shall be subject to assessment or not. At the very least, Member States must incorporate
within their legislation the potential for including any Annexe II project within the assessment
procedures, together with the methodology adopted to decide which particular projects are likely to
have significant environmental impacts.
The state of implementation with regard to the most basic framework for Annexe II projects remains
unsatisfactory in a number of Member States: Spain, for example, has national assessment legislation in
relation to Annexe I projects only but has left it to regional authorities to decide how to proceed with
Annexe II projects; Italy is in the same position; the framework decree in Portugal was only issued on 6
June 1991; Greece has no legislation implemented with respect to Annexe II projects; German legislation
has excluded a number of whole categories of Annexe II projects.
As to methodology to decide which particular Annexe II projects should be subject to assessment,
the Directive gives Member States a wide choice: Article 4(2) provides that:
Member States may inter alia specify certain types of project as being subject to an assessment or may establish
the criteria and/or thresholds necessary

Some of the countries that have developed legislation in relation to Annexe II have adopted radically
different approaches. The Dutch legislation, for example, contains detailed and precise thresholds for the
various categories of project. The British legislation has avoided the use of legal thresholds, but relies
upon a case-by-case sifting, set against central government advisory criteria for some of the project types.
In Belgium there are both examples, with the legislation in the Walloon and Flemish regions adopting
opposite methods. The absolute legal threshold and the case-by-case approach are at extreme ends of a
spectrum of methodologies, and both have pitfalls from the point of view of the Directive.
The legal threshold approach has the advantage of certainty and transparency, but a project falling
below thresholds may as a result be excluded from the need for an assessment even though in particular
and unpredictable circumstances (such as location of a small-size project in a sensitive area) significant
environmental effects are likely. The case-by-case approach for Annexe II projects is probably more
truly in accordance with the aims of the Directive and has the advantage of site sensitivity. However,
from the Union perspective it is vulnerable to local abuse (assuming individual determinations of
significance are made at local level) and makes the task of reviewing and comparing the application of
the Directive in different Member States complex. Under the British Regulations, no reasons need be
given where a local planning authority determines that a particular proposal is not likely to have
significant environmental effects and third parties have no right of appeal against the decision. Nor is
the Department kept regularly informed of negative decisions. However, as a matter of European Union
law, and in response to complaint proceedings, it may be that more detailed justification would have to
be shown to establish that the Directive was being properly implemented in practice—in particular, both
the EU Commission and other Member States are likely to be concerned at local decisions on
significant environmental impacts which are contrary to published government guidelines on the
subject.
838 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

19.5 SCOPE STUDIES FOR EIS

19.5.1 Introduction

Scoping is the procedure for establishing the terms of reference for the Environmental Impact Statement
(EIS). In general the objectives would be to identify the concerns and issues that warrant attention, to
provide for public involvement and to prepare a detailed brief for the investigation of specific issues
associated with the development.
The US Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) introduced, in 1978, regulations establishing
scoping as a formal requirement of the EIA process. Essentially, its role is to ‘single out’, at the outset of
any assessment, the most important environmental issues relevant to the study. Very often, these are
dictated by the concerns of the local community, although other issues such as the importance of a locality
for nature conservation may emerge as a key issue. In this way, the EIA process is better focused and more
streamlined as a result, and specific issues that are not directly material to the authorizing decision fall
outside the remit of the EJA.
Institutional structures for the EIA vary and, with them, the responsibility for implementing different
parts of the EIA process. In Europe, with the exception of Holland, scoping is not an explicit part of the
EIA process and it is implied that the responsibility for determining the terms of reference for the EIA
falls to the project proponent (although limited guidance as to the information required to be presented in
the environmental report is given by Annexe III of the EU Directive). It should be noted that some
guidance is often given by the competent authority. The panel produces a guideline or terms of reference
as a result of this exercise, which set out a detailed brief to the developer describing the scope of the EIA.
In the United States, scoping is a part of the EIA and is the responsibility of the project proponent,
although this is done in close consultation with the federal agency to which the EIS will be submitted, as
well as other agencies with a contribution to make to the assessment.
Ideally, scoping should be a process of open dialogue and consultation. While it is appropriate that
the financial burden of the activity should be met by the proponent, local authorities, public and
environmental agencies have a considerable contribution to make to establishing the terms of reference of
a study. This requires the willing participation of such agencies and a need to enter into discussions with a
project proponent.
Definitions of the term ‘significance’ are various and often controversial. Mostly, they are a function
of the perception of certain groups in society who possess certain predetermined values against which the
significance of certain activities is judged. The determination of significant issues is similarly, therefore, a
phrase that is open to misinterpretation and for this reason is often substituted by the term ‘key issues’.
Most scoping studies have either implicitly or explicitly defined key issues to be those that are
identified by the organizations, bodies and local groups who have an interest in a particular development
proposal. In some cases, many of the concerns of different organizations may, in fact, be similar. For
example, residents’ groups may be concerned about noise, dust, amenity and conservation. These
concerns may mirror those of business interests such as hoteliers and those involved in the tourist trade
who see a high-quality environment as vital to the continuation of their business. Similarly, noise, dust
and amenity may be the concerns of agriculturalists who perceive disturbance to their activities from
pollution. For this reason, scoping has focused on facilitating the involvement of interested parties and the
community to identify the legitimate concerns of these groups, thereby establishing the terms of reference
for any subsequent EIA.

19.6 PREPARATION OF AN EIS

One of the important elements of any project is the preparation of documentation to communicate the
findings and conclusions of the study. No amount of data collection can compensate for a poorly
 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT 839

conceived or written report. Furthermore, the value of a project is sharply diminished if its findings do not
reach its intended audience.
A number of considerations need to be addressed:
Planning
Purpose
Audience
Structure

19.6.1 Planning
There are considerable benefits to be gained in pre-planning the preparation of a document before
drafting. Three issues should be considered: the purpose of the report, its intended audience and the
report’s structure.

Purpose The purpose of a project report is to communicate its findings. In the case of environmental
study projects, it is to set out in a clear and logical manner the likely environmental consequences of
pursuing certain courses of action with the intention that eventual decisions will be better informed and
appraised of the possible implications of that action.

Audience Having stated that the purpose is to communicate findings, an understanding and appreciation
of the intended audience must be gained. In many cases, technical reports have a large non-technical
readership. Environmental assessment reports, for example, are aimed at planning officials and decision
makers who cannot be expected to have an all-encompassing appreciation of technical matters. The general
public represents a second audience that needs to be accommodated within the overall style of the
document. Very often the problems posed by non-technical readerships can be overcome by the
incorporation into the document of a non-technical summary which highlights the salient features of a
project and reports the key issues and implications associated with it. Technical information pertinent to the
study can be included in appendices to the main report.

Structure Documents should have a logical structure and avoid repetition. A common failing with
environmental study documents is that, due to the interrelated and multidisciplinary nature of many
environmental issues, documents tend to be very repetitious. This is due to the fact that each contributor
(and there are usually several different expert contributions) is required to address the development in terms
of:
¢ Baseline conditions
e Development features
e Anticipated effects
e Mitigation
e Residual impact

Early impact document layouts reflected the presentation needs in terms of a verbatim reading of the EU
Directive. This approach considered, for example, each baseline element such as air quality, water quality,
noise and traffic, etc., in a baseline section, while impacts and mitigation measures were considered
separately in an effects section. However, a much more efficient cohesive and less repetitive form of
presentation is to review each feature of a single study element in one section. For instance a section on
water quality would consider anticipated effects mitigation with residual impacts as a discrete entity.
Consequently, a typical EIS document would now comprise the following sections:
e Planning framework
¢ Development proposal
e Archaeology
840 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Ecology
Landscape
Water quality
Air quality (if applicable)
Waste
Traffic
Social effects

Non-technical summary As stated earlier, a non-technical summary is a desirable element of a report,

especially in the case of technical assessments which require to be communicated to a wide audience. A
common failing of many non-technical summaries, however, is that they tend to be little more than a précis
of the complete document, rather than a summary of the key issues and salient features of a proposal.
In the case of an environmental assessment, the summary should highlight the main characteristics of the
project and set out in a clear and concise form the environmental impacts associated with it. It should not
summarize the whole document. On the other hand, it should explain the rationale behind its conclusions.
In essence, the non-technical summary should restrict its attention to the issues most relevant to the
eventual decision.

19.6.2 Public Participation

Like the EIA itself, the nature of public involvement varies with different institutional arrangements. In
some countries, formal procedures exist to involve the public in scoping, while in others public
involvement is undertaken at the discretion of the party responsible for the process. In the United
Kingdom, neither formal nor informal procedures for the involvement of the public exist at any stage.
However, a large number of EIAs undertaken in the United Kingdom to date have sought the involvement
of the public by some means. Mostly, this is through the circulation of information to public bodies,
outlining the scope of an EIA as envisaged by the project proponent and inviting comment. This may be
followed up by meetings with certain agencies and groups.
In Canada, public involvement is more formalized. A panel of experts is assembled, responsible for
the development of guidelines for the EIA and reviewing the environmental report submitted by the
project proponent. The scoping activity is conducted by the panel as a part of their determination of EIA
guidelines—the ‘brief’ for the EIA. To aid in this task, a panel will frequently elicit views of the public,
communicated via written comment, workshops or public meetings.
Public meetings achieve a number of ends:

1. They provide the panel with questions and concerns expressed by the local people and other agencies
and groups with an interest in the project.
2. They allow the project proponent to explain the details of a project in a non-adversarial environment.
3. They allow contentious issues to be discussed in an open forum.

The strength of such meetings lies in their informality. In the absence of an adversarial or legalistic
atmosphere, issues and concerns can be discussed openly and the details of proposed project actions
explained. However, care is needed to ensure that meetings do not provide opportunities for conflict to
develop. Skilful management and control of the meetings is essential if their quality is to remain
uncompromised.
While it would be appropriate to establish the bona fide concerns of the public, the value of
conducting pro and anti ballot polls early in the EIA process must be questioned. The EIS must insofar as
possible identify and address the issues of concern of third parties. However, attempting to measure the
level of support or opposition is extremely difficult for a number of reasons.
 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT 841

Finally, it should be said that during the planning phase a development proposal can change radically
in scale and content. In addition, awareness of the project reaches an ever-increasing audience which
changes its concept of key concerns as a project develops. Consequently, opinion poll data can only be
related to the level of project information available at a particular point in the pre-planning phase. These
poll data should not be presented as representative of the support or opposition for a project at any other
time, as this could lead to an erroneous interpretation.

19.7 REVIEW OF EIS

Because most EIA systems state that an assessment must be produced by the project proponent there is
usually a need for an impartial, scientific and independent review. This is not to imply that all EIAs are
biased and play down adverse impacts and emphasize positive ones, although there is some evidence to
suggest that this occurs. The public need to be confident of impartiality and for this reason there is a need
for some form of independent review.
The review authority is often likely to be the authority from which authorization for the development
is requested. Questions relating to impartiality may arise when the authorizing agency has been
responsible for the EIA. An independent review agency may remove any suspicion of bias in those cases
where the authorizing agency is an advocate for the development or holds unreasonable views against the
development.
The functions of the review authority may include:
The ‘scope’ of the assessment, 1.e. which projects should be subjected to a full or partial EIS
General or specific guidelines and advice on methods of EIS.
Formulate the terms of reference and initiate a detailed EIS
Ensure that the EIS had been adequately completed within the terms of reference
It is essential that the EIA is not regarded as a procedure that is only to be utilized at the decision-making
stages. The EIA ought to be regarded as an adaptive process which continues after the decision. It would
ensure that the project conforms to the standards detailed in the relevant permissions and it would provide
a database for any subsequent impact study as well as allowing the monitoring and control programme to
adapt to changing circumstances or increased knowledge.

19.8 MULTIDISCIPLINARY TEAM MANAGEMENT

19.8.1 Introduction

The operation of collecting environmental information, carrying out an environmental impact study and
preparing the environmental statement takes time. The skill of the specialist in environmental information
collection lies in knowing exactly what data are relevant and as far as scientifically feasible just how each
estimated effect is likely to affect the environment. Once the main data have been collected and examined
it is very often the case that only a small number of effects appear to be really decisive in determining
whether or not the project should be given planning permission (consent). It is these significant effects
that should be the subject of closer and deeper analysis by the environmental assessment team rather than
a wider and shallower coverage of all the projected effects.
Project management as a means of controlling the timetable, budget and employment of consultants
is essential. When the environmental study is carried out by a consortium of consultant firms, each
professional naturally has his or her own method of work and unless the project manager can keep overall
control of the programme, the progress of the assessment may not be as rapid or efficient as it should be.
Whether the control is exercised by an independent manager appointed for the environmental study or by
842 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

the client’s own project manager or by one of the assessment study team is not important. What does
matter is the efficiency and tact with which the job is done as personality may make all the difference to
the quality of the environmental study and the conviction carried by the document.
For very large projects there is some merit in appointing two project managers, one to carry out the
purely administrative tasks of budget and programme control, and supplies and general office services,
and a professional consultant as a technical manager who is responsible for the quality and quantity of
work produced by a team and who has the authority to override individual consultant’s decisions. Such a
person may well be responsible for the final preparation of the text of the environmental study, but to be
effective will need to carry the confidence of the whole assessment team.

19.8.2 Project Management Framework

Certain tasks must be undertaken to implement a project within an environmental study framework.
Project implementation can be divided into four main tasks:
Selection of study team and leader
Study approach.
Study management
Report preparation and review

19.8.3 Selection of Study Team

Four questions should be addressed before the study team and team leader(s) are selected:

1. What are the key experience requirements?

2. Should the team be inter- or multidisciplinary?
3. Are any special studies required?
4. What tasks are required of the team leader?

Key experience requirement Key experience requirements are detailed by the characteristics of both the
project and environment. Extractive projects are likely to demand experience in the geological or
hydrogeological sciences whereas road schemes necessitate engineering, ecological and landscape
assessment skills. In determining experience requirements, it is also important to establish the role of
each individual in the environmental assessment.

Inter- or multidisciplinary Again, this decision is influenced largely by the characteristics of the project
and the environment. Typically, the larger the size and scope of a project, the more likely the involvement of
a range of disciplines. A new airport, for example, may require the skills of transportation engineers and
planners, ecologists, noise specialists, economists, etc. An estuarine barrage scheme on the other hand may
only require a small number of disciplines (e.g. hydraulics engineers, surveyors), although it is likely that a
range of expertise may be appropriate, e.g. marine and terrestrial ecologists, ornithologists, etc.

Special studies The likelihood of specialist studies is a major determinant of the skill requirement of an
assessment study team. Industrial projects may warrant specialists studies on the dispersion and impacts of
certain emissions. Large-scale projects may necessitate specialist investigations on the availability of
labour and the economic implications of labour visibility.

Team leader key tasks Establishing the tasks of the team leader helps to establish the most appropriate
team member for this task. Very often the selection of the team leader will be made on the basis of relevant
experience in performing similar tasks, although the anticipated workload inputs of team members are an
 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT 843

important criteria. For example, it may not be sensible to select as leader a member of the team with a major
input into the study, for the simple reason of avoiding overcommitment. The following are typical functions
that a team leader would fulfil:

The development of specific work schedules and project targets

Co-ordination with the project client
Expenditure monitoring and budget management
The review of progress and revision of schedules
Planning and initiation of team meetings (frequency, agenda, short-term/long-term targets, etc).

19.8.4 Study Approach

Any study, whatever its nature, can be divided into four basic steps: the acquisition of information, the
analysis of information, the communication of conclusions and the selection of appropriate action. These
four components are relevant to environmental assessment projects as they form the building blocks of an
approach that is both logical and structured. Following this ‘checklist’ of tasks helps to promote both a
comprehensive and organized study and also assists in developing an approach that is consistent,
irrespective of the nature of the project or environmental assessment.

Description of need What is the justification for a particular course of action? Can end objectives be met
by other means?

Description of project What are the physical and process characteristics of the project? What land use
requirements, emission quantities and types are expected? What alternatives (technology/location) have
been examined?

Relevant institutional information What local, regional, national, or international laws, regulations,
standards, etc., are relevant?

Identification of issues What bodies and organizations (statutory/non-statutory) are likely to have an
interest in the project? What issues or concerns are expressed?

Description of affected environment What components of the environment will be affected or are most
relevant to investigate (on the basis of the previous task)? What baseline data requirements exist? Are
physical or chemical data relevant? What sources of data should be used? What literature is available?

Impact prediction What components of the project and environment will interact? Detailed information
of the nature of the project, e.g. information on the nature and composition of fuel types, waste streams,
employee requirements, etc., may be relevant. Research data may be available to predict the nature of likely
impacts. Where possible, the prediction should be made in quantitative terms, e.g. waste gas concentra-
tions, change in ambient noise level, area of habitat affected, duration of impact, probability of occurrence,
etc. However, many cases will arise where only a qualitative assessment will be possible, e.g. manner of
landscape intrusion, psychological effect. In such cases, the assumptions relevant to each prediction should
be made explicit.

Impact assessment What is the importance/significance of an impact, i.e. how significant is the change
in waste gas concentration or noise level? How important is the loss of habitat? Certain criteria against
which the importance of impacts can be assessed may take the form of institutional information, e.g. air
quality standards or consent limits, or international guidelines on standards to protect health. Other criteria
include professional judgement, comparisons with previous projects and concerns expressed by the
community.
844 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Impact mitigation What steps will be taken to minimize or avoid adverse environmental impacts
resulting from the proposed project? How will these be implemented? Who will be responsible for
implementation? How will their appropriateness and effectiveness be ensured? Certain negative impacts
can be mitigated in the course of construction, through the adoption of environmental management plans.

19.8.5 Study Management

Two management tasks need to be addressed; technical and financial management. Technical management
serves to guide the project through the collection and interpretation of information, so that sensible
conclusions can be reached at the end of the study. Responsibility for technical management lies most
appropriately with the study team leader. A number of tasks can be identified:
1. Team meetings and discussions During team meetings, progress in the acquisition or analysis of
information can be discussed. Interaction between team members is encouraged, and problems and
ideas can be discussed and explored. Deadlines can be re-evaluated and if necessary, the project
programme revised.
2. Meetings with client In cases where a project is being undertaken on behalf of a client or
organization, it is invariable that regular progress meetings will be held. These provide an opportunity
to report adherence to schedules, to highlight problem areas that may emerge and to indicate
preliminary observations. The latter is especially important where environmental assessment projects
are undertaken as a component of larger development projects. Highlighting possible environmental
problems early in the project cycle provides an opportunity to modify potentially impacting features of
a proposal in order to reduce or avoid environmental effects.
3. Peer review Peer review is another component of the technical management of a project. It is
especially relevant to the prediction and assessment phases of the study, where conclusions and
interpretation may be modified in the light of other professional opinions. Peer review is also helpful
during the preparation of reports. Advice from colleagues not directly involved in the project can be
invaluable in providing a critical appraisal of the style and expression of documentation produced.

Financial management is the second important management function. In some cases, responsibility
may lie with the study team leader; in others it may lie more appropriately with financial management
personnel. Financial management ensures that project budgets are not exceeded. Employee time,
materials, travel and subsistence expenditures, reproduction costs and in some cases certain overheads
should be recorded and monitored. Complete financial records must be kept so that the project budget can
be audited and all expenditures accounted for.

19.9 EXAMPLES OF PROJECT EIS

19.9.1 Introduction

Every environmental impact statement is unique. While professional guidelines exist, site location, nature
of project and interest group concerns combine to produce a matrix of issues that are unique to each
project. The elements of an EIS framework, however, can be described with general comment on project
type variation. Included here for example and reference are three project types, i.e. mining, motorways
and wastewater treatment plants. Each project type is considered in terms of the checklist required for an
EIS. The checklists are summarized under project description, environmental effects, possible and
mitigation options. A case study of a proposed combined road/rail bridge between Denmark and Sweden
is described in Sec. 19.10.
 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT 845

19.9.2 Mining Projects

Surface industrial installations, principally the preliminary processing of the ores, which usually
involves the crushing and sorting of ore from the parent minerals. These processes use reagents that
can be highly toxic in minute quantities.
Refined ores can become sources of potential pollution if spilled or blown from equipment, storage or
transportation.
e Other impacts are similar to chemical industries.
e Mineral extraction (other than quarrying).
e Surface industrial installations. This activity has considerable potential to cause significant environ-
mental impacts. Some of these impacts can be permanent and virtually irreversible.
Spoil heaps and tailings ponds are the surface manifestations, these can be very large. There are other
sources of problems because of physical instability, difficulty of re-vegetation, air and water pollution,
and problems of finding low maintenance after uses.
Underground workings produce contamination of ground and surface waters, subsidence and hazards.
This form of development is distinguished by the extent to which it relies on calculation, interpretation
and remote sensing to predict impacts.

Project description Impact assessment is critically dependent on the availability of accurate, relevant
data on mineralogy and hydrogeology. BAT (best available technology) is usually justifiable for survey,
analysis and prediction, given the permanence and irreversibility of many of the potential impacts.
Checklist of items to be described:

Construction
— Survey and exploration activities
— Environmental measures during decline development
— Typical issues, noise, dust, vibration, destruction of habitats, dewatering, hazard and traffic
— Initial dewatering and monitoring for associated settlement
Operation (including available alternatives)
— Times of blasting
— Times of shift changes
— Monitoring techniques
— Dewatering
— Mining methods
— Subsidence control
— Ore pressure
— Reagents used
— Process control systems
— Tailings/spoil heap
— Control of mine drainage
— Transportation and handling
— Ancillary facilities
— Potential for in-mine pollution
— Potential for tailings/spoil pollution
Decommissioning (if applicable)
— Phasing of rehabilitation
— Interim and eventual land uses
— Strategies for re-vegetation
— Monitoring proposals
| Provision for aftercare
846 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

— Financial bonds
e Growth
— Potential for additional mineral reserves
— Capacity for additional spoil heaps/tailing impoundments
e Associated developments
Transportation infrastructure
Monitoring facilities
— Post-decommissioning land uses
— Water supply schemes
Ore processing
— Power supply

Environmental effects Typical significant impacts likely to affect:

e Human beings
— Health and safety
— Employment (new)
— Employment (existing)
e Flora
— Obliteration by surface installations
— Changes in surface water
— Changes in groundwater
— Dust deposition and photosynthesis
— Phytotoxic metals and reagents
— Yields of crops and pasture
— New habitats after decommissioning
e Fauna
— Aquatic fauna threatened by water pollution
| Aquatic habitats threatened by water control measures

Aquatic habitats threatened by post-closure leachates

— Agriculture stock affected by dust (especially metals)
— Agriculture stock affected by vibration and blasting
e Soils
— Dust deposition and contamination
— Contaminated post-mining surfaces
— Re-vegetation of tailing surfaces
— Capping of tailings ponds
e Surface water
— Changes in character (temperature, dissolved gas, etc.) due to dewatering related surface discharges
— Contamination with in-mine pollutants discharged to surface
— Contamination with process water discharges
— Contamination with runoff from stockpiles, spoil heaps, tailings and settling ponds
— Contamination with runoff from site structures made of mine rock
— Contamination from accidental spills, reagents, fuels, ores, process water, etc.
© Groundwater
— Contamination from reaction with mine workings, backfill, oxidized in-mine mineralogy
— Contaminations from in-mine operations, spills, sewage, etc.
— Movement of contaminated minewaters after mine closure
— Widespread lowering of water levels due to dewatering
 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT 847

e Air
— Air quality from mine vents (fumes from blasting and engines)
— Dust from transportation, handling and stockpiles
— Dust from ‘beaches’ of tailings and settling ponds
Dust from site roads
— Fumes from process vents
e Noise
Transportation, storage and handling equipment
— Klaxons, warnings and PA systems
— Vent raises
Maintenance areas
— Exploration drilling
e Vibration
— From mine development
— From mine operations
e Climate
— Combinations of climatic conditions (i.e. wind after frost) can cause dust blows from tailings ponds
e The landscape
— Visual impacts of overground structures
— Visual impacts of spoil/tailings depositories
— Rehabilitation after decommissioning
— Land use/landscape changes due to mining effects
e The interaction of the foregoing
— Poor rehabilitation/re-vegetation leads to air pollution by dust blows
— Poor rehabilitation leads to water pollution with impacts for farming, fishing, tourism and residential
amenity
¢ Cultural heritage
— Obliteration of sites by surface installations
— Damage to old structures by vibration
— Changes in soils moisture can affect presentation of buried features
¢ Material assets
— Agriculture can be affected by many mining impacts
— Surface structures can be affected by vibration and settlement

Possible mitigation options

Dewatering methods
Process reagents
Mining methods
Disposal of tailings
Mine closure methods
Rehabilitation objectives

19.9.3 Motorway Projects

¢ Other roads
e Bridges
¢ Permanent racing and test tracks for cars and motorcycles
848 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Developments in this category tend to have widespread impacts because of their linear nature. Impacts are
typically numerous and varied. Principal concerns would normally include noise, vibration, air quality,
material assets (roads), landscape issues, safety (to humans and fauna) and cultural heritage.

Project description Checklist of items to be described:

e Construction .
— Site preparation
— Materials sourcing
— Transportation
— Drainage works
— Watercourse diversion/coffer dams
— Employment
— Time of year and duration
— Hours of operation
— Lighting
— Noise
— Vibration
— Dust
e Operation (including available alternatives)
— Noise
— Vibration
— Maintenance
— Lifespan
— Vehicle fumes
— Dust generation
— Traffic loading
— Lighting
— Safety
e Decommissioning (if applicable)
© Growth
— Is development big enough to cater for predicted future loadings?
— Will it need to be widened/strengthened?
e Associated developments
¢ Developments that require road transport availability (including housing and industry)
e Catering/fuel, etc., services

Environmental effects Typical significant impacts likely to affect:

e Human beings
— Noise impacts
— Vibration impacts
— Air quality impacts
— Quality of life
— Travel times
— Safety
e Flora
— Clearance of existing cover
— Colonization of new roadside habitats
— Effects of dust and fumes
— Habitat changes due to gritting/salting during operation
 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT 849

Fauna
— Disturbance
— Danger
— Migratory obstacle
— Value of new habitat
Water
— Interference with drainage patterns
Runoff pollutants
— Construction impacts to watercourse
— Erosion
Air
— Noise
— Dust
— Air
Climate
— Ozone depletion, local heating effects, smog
The landscape
— Surfacing finish
— Landscaping proposal
— Roadside furniture (including signage, safety, rails, lighting)
— Bndge design/aesthetics
— Viewing stands/other facilities (test/racing tracks)
— Car parking (racing tracks)
e The interaction of the foregoing
¢ Material assets
— Infrastructural upgrading
— Power (lighting)
Cultural heritage
— Disturbance to items of cultural value.

Possible mitigation options

e Routing/siting alternatives
e Design alternatives including
— Width of carriageway
— Surface alternatives
— Road markings/signage
— Lighting
— Railings
— Landscape
— Drainage
Hours of operation (race/test tracks)
Frequency of usage (race/test tracks)
‘Do nothing’ option
Underpasses/bridges for humans/wildlife/agricultural livestock
850 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

19.9.4 Wastewater Treatment Projects

e Installations for the disposal of industrial and domestic wastewater

e Sludge deposition sites
The problem is to try to balance positive impacts of wastewater treatment with potentially negative
impacts such as below:
e Health hazards through biotic factors
e Visual and landscape impacts
e Nuisance of odour, vermin, traffic

Project description Checklist of items to be described:

e Construction
— Access
— Traffic
— Site preparation
— Landscaping
e Operation (including available alternatives)
— Hours of operation
— Capacity of facility
— Safety and hazard control
— Pest and odour control
— Perimeter security
— Monitoring facilities
— Quality of waste
— Management procedures
— Transportation of sludge
— Removal of paper and plastic in initial stages
— Personnel
¢ Decommissioning (if applicable)
¢ Growth
— Phases of expansion
e Associated developments

Environmental effects Typical significant impacts likely to affect:

e Human beings
— Health and safety
— Disposal of sludges
— Handling of sludges
— Transportation of sludges
— Nuisance
Residential amenity
Overall benefit of treatment of wastewater—higher quality of water entering outfall area, with little
risk of polluted waters
e Flora
e Fauna
— Attraction of pests—insects, rodents, starlings. These in turn act as vectors for disease
 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT 851

@ Water
— Improvement in quality of water discharged into outfall area
— Contamination by uncontrolled surface runoff (water pollution if not properly treated and disposed of)
— Pathogens released with water
e Air
— Odours
— Noise of machinery (e.g. agitators) and transportation trucks
¢ Climate
— Odour dispersal/concentration
e The landscape
— Perimeter fences
— Access roads, entrances
— Exposed waste
— Site structures
e The interaction of the foregoing
— Climatic effects can concentrate or disperse airborne impacts and nuisances
e Material assets
— Diminution of amenities for residential and leisure land uses
¢ Cultural heritage

Possible mitigation options

e Site alternatives
e Site layout to minimize proximity to sensitive receptors
e Landscaping
¢ Monitoring
e High standards of site management including control of waste acceptance

19.10 CASE STUDY

19.10.1 Swedish Environmental Control Programme for a proposed combined road/rail

bridge across the Straits of Oresund between Denmark and Sweden
In this case study (see Fig. 19.1) an environmental control programme has been prepared by the proponent
and monitoring started in parallel to the final project planning and EIA. It is an example of what was
considered to be the main issues and content of a monitoring programme designed and started before final
project approval.
A preliminary programme for control of the environmental impacts has been proposed and is
expected to be approved under the Swedish Environmental Protection Act. In order to obtain data in the
pre-project situation, monitoring was started by the consortium who were responsible for the project. The
consortium started construction work before the end of 1993.
The key issues, where control of environmental impacts is necessary, are considered to be:
e Impacts on marine life
e Impacts on marine environment
¢ Impacts on groundwater
A hydrological control programme, covering about ten wells, has been ongoing since September 1992. It
provided basic data concerning:
852 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Helsinger —

.
Sweden

Figure 19.1 Situation of the proposed road/rail connection across the Straits of Oresund (Copenhagen/Denmark-Malm6/Sweden).
(From OECD, 1994, Environmental Impact Assessment of Roads. Reproduced by permission of the OECD, Paris.)

e Natural variations in the position of the salt front

e Natural variations in the chemical composition of the groundwater (with regard to its interaction with the
waters of the Oresund)
e Natural variations in the groundwater level
An analysis of substances that could be future pollutants from the construction and maintenance activities
(e.g. petrol, hydrocarbons and heavy metals) will be carried out.
The programme will provide basic data which may be needed in case of any possible future dispute
about groundwater quality in the area. Any possible problems will be identified early on and mitigation
measures instigated (e.g. artificial filtration of the freshwater).
Monitoring of the marine environment has also started. It includes:
Pelagical investigations (biota, chemical situation)
Benthical fauna and sediment
Benthical flora
Coastal birds
Seals
Environmentally poisonous substances
Fish health

An oceanographical programme has also begun in accordance with the EIA statement. A fishery control
programme has been started by the Fishery Authorities in order to collect statistical data.
 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT 853

19.11 PROBLEMS

19.1 Discuss the origin of the EIA and the key elements of the process.
19.2 Distinguish between policy and legislative implementation of the EIA and provide examples.
19.3 Discuss the screening and scoping stages of the process. Provide examples of screening methods.
19.4 Prepare a scope review for a proposed motorway project.
19.5 Provide an assessment of the multidiscipline project management requirements of EIS.
19.6 Discuss mechanisms by which the EIA process could be applied to government and federal policies
and programmes.
19.7 Identify any weaknesses in the EU, EIA directive.
19.8 Review the current positive and negative environmental impacts of the Danish/Swedish road/rail
bridge project. Use literature or the Worldwide Web to research your review.

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

An Foras Forbartha (1986) EEC Directive on Environmental Assessment, Dublin.

Bartlett R. V. (1989) Policy Through Impact Assessment. Institutionalised Analysis as a Policy Strategy, Greenwood Press, Westport,
Connecticut, USA.
Carson, R. (1962) Silent Spring, Houghton-Mifflin, Boston, Mass., USA.
Clarke, M. and G. Herington. (1989) The Role of Environmental Impact Assessment in the Planning Process, Mansell Publishing,
London, UK.
Dixon J, A., R. A. Carpenter, L. A. Fallon, P. B. Sherman and S. Manipomoke (1988) Economic Analysis of the Environmental
Impacts of Development Projects. Earthscan Publications, London, UK.
Doctor Institute for Environmental Studies (1991) European Environmental Yearbook, Doctor International.
EC (1986) Directive on Impact Assessment 86/337/EEC, European Commission.
Forsund, F. R. and S. Strom (1988) Environmental Economics and Management: Pollution and Natural Resources, Croom Helm
Publishers.
Fortlage, C. A. (1990) Environmental Assessment—A Practical Guide, Gower Technical Publishers.
OECD (1994) Environmental Impact Assessment of Roads, Road transport research, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development, Paris.
O’Sullivan, M. (1990) Environmental Impact Assessment. A Handbook, REMU, University College Cork, Ireland.
Wathern, P. (1988) Environmental Impact Assessment. Theory and Practice, Unwin Hyman Publishers, London, UK.
854 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

APPENDIX 19.1: PROJECT SCREENING

Example of project lists (adapted from EC Directive 85/337)

Projects for which EIA is required in evéry circumstance (Annexe I)

he Crude oil refineries (excluding undertakings manufacturing only lubricants from crude oil) and
installations for the gasification and liquefaction of 500 tonnes or more of coal or bituminous shale per
day.
. Thermal power stations and other combustion installations with a heat output of 300 megawatts or
more and nuclear power stations and other nuclear reactors (except research installations for the
production and conversion of fissionable and fertile materials, whose maximum power does not exceed
1 kilowatt of continuous thermal load).
. Installations solely designed for the permanent storage or final disposal of radioactive waste.
& . Integrated works for the initial melting of cast tron and steel.

. Installations for the extraction of asbestos and for the processing and transformation of asbestos and
products containing asbestos: for asbestos-cement products, with an annual production of more than
20 000 tonnes of finished products, for friction material, with an annual production of more than 50
tonnes of finished products, and for other uses of asbestos, utilization of more than 200 tonnes per
year.
. Integrated chemical installations.
. Construction of motorways, express roads and lines for long-distance railway traffic and of airports
with a basic runway length of 2100 m or more.
. Trading ports and also inland waterways and ports for inland waterway traffic which permit the
passage of vessels of over 1350 tonnes.
. Waste-disposal installations for the incineration, chemical treatment or landfill of toxic and dangerous
wastes.

Projects for which EIA is required only in certain circumstances (Annexe II)
1. Agriculture
(a) Projects for the restructuring of rural land holdings
(b) Projects for the use of uncultivated land or semi-natural areas for intensive agricultural purposes
(c) Water-management projects for agriculture
(d) Initial afforestation where this may lead to adverse ecological changes and land reclamation for
the purposes of conversion to another type of land use
(e) Poultry-rearing installations
(f) Pig-rearing installations
(g) Salmon breeding
(h) Reclamation of land from the sea
. Extractive industry
(a) Extraction of peat
(b) Deep drillings with the exception of drillings for investigating the stability of the soil and in
particular:
(1) Geothermal drilling
(ii) Drilling for the storage of nuclear waste material
(iii) Drilling for water supplies
(c) Extraction of minerals other than metalliferous and energy-producing minerals, such as marble,
sand, gravel, shale, salt, phosphates and potash
(d) Extraction of coal and lignite by underground mining
(e) Extraction of coal and lignite by open-cast mining
 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT 855

(f) Extraction of petroleum

(g) Extraction of natural gas
(h) Extraction of ores
(i) Extraction of bituminous shale
(j) Extraction of minerals other than metalliferous and energy-producing minerals by open-cast
mining
(k) Surface industrial installations for the extraction of coal, petroleum, natural gas and ores, as well
as bituminous shale
(1) Coke ovens (dry coal distillation)
(m) Installations for the manufacture of cement
. Energy industry
(a) Industrial installations for the production of electricity, steam and hot water
(b) Industrial installations for carrying gas, steam and hot water; transmission of electrical energy by
overhead cables
(c) Surface storage of natural gas
(d) Underground storage of combustible gases
(e) Surface storage of fossil fuels
(f) Industrial briquetting of coal and lignite
(g) Installations for the production or enrichment of nuclear fuels
(h) Installations for the reprocessing of irradiated nuclear fuels
(i) Installations for the collection and processing of radioactive waste
(j) Installations for hydroelectric energy production
. Processing of metals
(a) Iron and steelworks, including foundries, forges, drawing plants and rolling mills
(b) Installations for the production, including smelting, refining, drawing and rolling, of non-ferrous
metals excluding precious metals
(c) Pressing, drawing and stamping of large castings
(d) Surface treatment and coating of metals
(e) Boilermaking, manufacture of reservoirs, tanks and other sheet-metal containers
(f) Manufacture and assembly of motor vehicles and manufacture of motor vehicle engines
(g) Shipyards
(h) Installations for the construction and repair of aircraft
(i) Manufacture of railway equipment
(j) Swaging by explosives
(k) Installations for the roasting and sintering of metallic ores

. Manufacture of glass
. Chemical industry
(a) Treatment of intermediate products and production of chemicals
(b) Production of pesticides and pharmaceutical products, paint and varnishes, elastomers and
peroxides
(c) Storage facilities for petroleum, petrochemical and chemical products

. Food industry
(a) Manufacture of vegetable and animal oils and fats
(b) Packing and canning of animal and vegetable products
(c) Manufacture of dairy products
(d) Brewing and malting
(e) Confectionery and syrup manufacture
856 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

(f) Installations for the slaughter of animals

(g) Industrial starch manufacturing installations
(h) Fish-meal and fish-oil factories
(1) Sugar factories

8. Textile, leather, wood and paper industries

(a) Wool scouring, degreasing and bleaching factories
(b) Manufacture of fibre board, particle board and plywood
(c) Manufacture of pulp, paper and board
(d) Fibre-dyeing factories
(e) Cellulose-processing and production installations
(f) Tannery and leather-dressing factories

9. Rubber industry
Manufacture and treatment of elastomer-based products
10. Infrastructure projects
(a) Industrial-estate development projects
(b) Urban-development projects
(c) Ski-lifts and cable-cars
(d) Construction of roads, harbours, including fishing harbours, and airfields
(e) Canalization and flood-relief works
(f) Dams and other installations designed to hold water or store it on a long-term basis
(g) Tramways, elevated and underground railways, suspended lines or similar lines of a particular
type, used exclusively or mainly for passenger transport
(h) Oil and gas pipeline installations
(1) Installation of long-distance aqueducts
(j) Yacht marinas
. Other projects
(a) Holiday villages, hotel complexes
(b) Permanent racing and test tracks for cars and motor cycles
(c) Installations for the disposal of industrial and domestic waste
(d) Wastewater treatment plants
(e) Sludge-deposition sites
(f) Storage of scrap iron
(g) Test benches for engines, turbines or reactors
(h) Manufacture of artificial mineral fibres
(i) Manufacture, packing, loading or placing in cartridges of gunpowder and explosives
(j) Knackers’ yards
SS
ee SS ee

CHAPTER

TWENTY
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF TRANSPORTATION

20.1 INTRODUCTION

To assess the environmental impact of a proposed development, be it a housing project, a new industry, a
new highway, etc., the transportation impacts must always be examined and quantified. We sometimes
think of transportation impacts as singularly traffic air pollution, but the impacts are much wider.
Transportation impacts differ from many other environmental impacts since they may be more severe at a
considerable distance from the development location (e.g. traffic congestion, noise, etc.). These impacts,
which are mainly adverse, can be divided into the following four categories.

Vehicular impacts Noise, vibration, air pollution, litter and anxiety resulting from the traffic generated
by a proposed development, a road improvement or a traffic management scheme.

Safety and operational impacts Impact on the existing roadway system including additional delays to
all road users.

Roadway impacts Visual intrusion, severance, disturbance of archaeological, historical or amenity

areas, effects on the aquatic ecosystem, demolition of property, impacts on the urban fabric, on
employment, etc. These impacts are usually associated with the construction of major new roads, railways
or airports or what is generally termed infrastructural developments.

Impacts during construction These include the impacts of construction traffic and other temporary
disturbances such as those resulting from the temporary diversion of streams, construction noise, etc. In
some countries the safety and capacity impacts of road construction and improvement proposals are
considered separately from the project environmental assessment since these impacts can be incorporated
into an economic evaluation using standard monetary costs for accidents, for travel time and for vehicle
operating costs. However, the total impact of a development on the receiving environment should be
included in an environmental assessment. This is necessary in order to satisfy environmental directives
internationally.
857
858 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

This chapter addresses roads and traffic impacts on the environment but the material presented may
also be relevant to other forms of transport such as air and rail. The following material examines the
issues, more in a qualitative sense rather than being rigorously quantitative. However, some areas
requiring rigour are addressed in technical journals.

20.2 TRANSPORTATION AND DEVELOPMENT

The motor vehicle is a profligate user of energy and land and a large source of pollution in the world
today. However, we have made transport vital to both our economic and social well-being since the
production and distribution of goods and services are dependent on it. Economic development has always
followed the available lines of communication. In European Union countries about 10 per cent of the GDP
and 9 per cent of employment are generated by the transport industry. Over 90 per cent of motorized
person trips and more than 80 per cent of all freight movements are by road. The OECD (1986) estimates
that the socioeconomic cost of road transport—pollution, congestion and accidents—is as high as 5 per
cent of GDP (not including any contribution towards global warming). In the most developed countries
(MDCs) people believe that they are entitled to mobility and the absence of adequate transport is
considered a handicap. It is worth noting that transportation and telecommunications are partly
substitutable (as evidenced by the growth of telecommuting) but the evidence to date suggests that
increased use of advanced telecommunications media will not significantly reduce the total amount of
travel. However, it is expected that the distribution of travel over space and time will be altered by
telecommunications and telecommuting. Consequently, the volume of car traffic generated by a specific
development could be reduced by the appropriate use of telecommunications.
Telecommuting is the concept that the people living in suburbia, instead of driving (commuting) one
or two hours to the office in the city, work from home using the telecommunications network or work
from offices in suburbia which have telecommunication links to head offices in the city. Of course, this is
not an option for all work, but is an option for many office-type businesses. As such, the employee may
only visit the headquarters once a week or so. This frees motorway space with all its advantages of lesser
pollution, etc. A surge in telecommuting was experienced in Los Angeles in 1994, when the Northridge
earthquake inhibited motorway traffic.

20.3 TRANSPORTATION PLANNING

Traffic congestion and its associated environmental effects are among the most obvious problems in urban
areas, while even in the most remote rural area it is difficult to entirely escape from traffic noise and
vehicular-borne litter, although the latter is a diminishing problem due to our increased anti-litter
mentality. Large increases in car ownership and use are predicted for all European countries. Typical car
ownership growth rates of about 3 per cent per annum are expected (this implies a doubling in the number
of cars over 25 years) while average trip lengths are also increasing. There is general agreement that car
traffic must be restrained in urban areas but none of the existing traffic policies has been effective in
reducing car use except to a limited extent in the centres of large cities. It appears that only severe pricing
policies (which are politically very unpopular) are effective. Commercial vehicle use also continues to
grow and the widespread implementation of ‘just-in-time’ manufacturing and retailing is expected to lead
to increases in the numbers of commercial vehicles on our roads and motorways. In the longer term,
issues such as global warming may necessitate reductions in car use, but such issues are outside the scope
of this chapter which concentrates on the impacts of traffic on the local and regional environment. It is
anticipated that 10 per cent of road vehicles in California will be electric by the year 2000.
 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF TRANSPORTATION 859

20.4 MATRIX OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM

STAGES

In evaluating the potential environmental impacts of any proposed change in the transportation system or
the transportation implications of a proposed development, the following questions should be asked for
each of the six environmental subsystems shown in Table 20.1:
Is there a potential impact on the environment, and is it positive or negative?
How serious is such a change?
What is its expected magnitude of change?
How certain is the effect to occur?
SisWhat further assessment or research is required?
Go
gS
en

Environmental effects, including health effects, might occur in any of the four stages of the transportation
system:

Production of vehicles and fuels

Construction of the transportation infrastructure
Operation of the transportation system
Decommissioning and disposal of vehicles and infrastructure
The impacts of the first stage, which range from runoff and groundwater pollution from metal mining to
fuel spillages during transport from plant to sales point, are not considered here. Table 20.1 summarizes
typical environmental concerns resulting from the second and third stages (infrastructure construction and
transportation operations), while disposal of engine lubricating oil on land, disposal of metals such as
nickel, cadmium and chromium, burning of tyres and batteries, car junk yards, derelict vehicles, etc., are
the principal concerns in the fourth stage of the transportation system. A more comprehensive matrix of

Table 20.1 Typical environmental impacts resulting from transportation operations and
infrastructure construction
Environmental subsystem Transportation operations Infrastructure construction

Ecosystem Runoff from fuelling facilities Disruption of streams

Ingestion of lead Blocking of animal movements

Resources Consistent fuel supply Parking spaces

Maintenance skills for electric vehicles and other Capital, particularly for urban mass
advanced technologies transit system construction

Physical environment Vehicle exhaust emissions Dust

Deposition in water or rain of exhaust emissions Runoff
Noise Noise
Aesthetic impacts Aesthetic impacts

Health Spills of toxic fluids Injestion of dust

HC, CO, NO,, SO2 Noise
Particulates HC
Photochemical smog

Safety Spills of hydrocarbons Construction accidents

Traffic accidents

Socioeconomic environment Maintenance costs Resistance to new construction/fuel

Enforcement problems storage
Impact on local employment

Adapted from OECD, 1986

860 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

the areas of environmental impact and each of the above transportation stages should be developed for
actual projects.

20.5 THE ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF ROADS AND TRAFFIC

As previously noted, the environmental impacts resulting from changes in transportation are usually
perceived as being adverse, however transportation also has positive impacts such as improving the
residential environment by permitting the development of homes in areas with new roads or by the
removal of through traffic following the construction of new urban roads. It is interesting to recall that
transportation played a major role in the elimination of cholera from American cities by replacing horses
with cars. For instance, at the turn of the century there were 3.5 million horses in American cities, used for
transportation and haulage. Every city had large horse populations: 83 000 in Chicago, 12 000 each in
Detroit and Milwaukee, 120000 in New York. Experts at the time reckoned that horse excrement was
from 7 to 15 kg per horse per day and this caused immense problems in air contamination, noxious
odours and noise—all potentially health damaging (Petulla, 1987). It is also interesting that the
environmental problems that we now associate with cars are the same as those we associated with the
horse in 1910. The populace then supported the introduction of the ‘horseless carriage’.
The principal adverse environmental impacts, are summarized in Table 20.2. These cover a wide
spectrum of both physical and perceived impacts but only a limited number normally result from a
specific development. Generally the physical impacts such as noise can be quantified, but the perceived
impacts (e.g. anxiety) are difficult to evaluate except in qualitative terms. It is also difficult to determine
acceptable values of many of the physical impacts; (e.g. what levels of noise or air pollution are
acceptable?). Few legal thresholds or standards exist for the impacts shown in Table 20.2 since they are
seldom directly harmful to people or to the local ecology in the short term, but are primarily concerned
with the quality of life and as such are subjective. Also our perceptions of many of these impacts change
over time.

Table 20.2 The environmental effects of roads and traffic

Vehicular impacts Noise

Vibration
Air pollution
Litter
Physical damage
Anxiety

Safety and capacity impacts Accidents

Effects on the operation of roads and intersections

Roadway impacts Visual intrusion and aesthetics

Severance
Land consumption and loss of property
Changes in land access and land values
Planning blight
Effects on wildlife, plants and the aquatic ecosystem
Impacts on historic and cultural resources
Impacts on utilities and drainage
Employment/business impacts

Construction impacts Damage to local roads

Disturbance to roadside residents and other road users
Effects on ecosystem and drainage
Impact at source of materials
Litter, mud, odours, etc.
 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF TRANSPORTATION 861

20.6 VEHICULAR IMPACTS

These are impacts on the receiving environment caused by the traffic generated by a proposed
development. The effects of this traffic on the operation and safety of the roadway system are considered
separately.

20.6.1 Noise
Traffic noise can interfere with speech communication, can disturb sleep and relaxation and interfere with
the ability to perform complex tasks (as discussed in Chapter 9). Surveys in many countries have shown
that traffic noise is one of the principal environmental nuisances in urban areas. The number of complaints
received by local authorities about traffic noise is usually less than those concerning industrial noise or
even noise from neighbours, probably because no one person or organization is seen as responsible for
traffic noise and also because it does not usually result in any long-term damage. Since noise is easily
measured and analysed, it is frequently used in the assessment of road proposals and traffic management
schemes as a proxy for other less easily quantified environmental effects of traffic such as air pollution.
Although the latter can readily be measured, some authorities do not have the technical competence to do
so. However, there is little justification for this practice except in the case of airborne vibrations resulting
from traffic. A major study in the United Kingdom (Watts, 1990) concluded that the noise level was the
best predictor of annoyance from such vibrations, which is not surprising since both noise and vibration
result from the same physical phenomena. Chapter 9 considers noise pollution in general and reference
should be made to this chapter for the explanation of noise terms, measurement techniques and
instrumentation, etc.

Noise criteria There is general agreement that traffic noise (and industrial noise) can be appropriately
measured in A-weighted (dBA) units. An increase of 2 or 3 dBA is just noticeable while an increase of 10
dBA approximates to a doubling of loudness. However, traffic noise levels are seldom constant and specific
criteria are required to quantify varying levels. The severity of a noise problem is then determined by the
amount the noise level exceeds a threshold or standard value of a selected noise criterion. Either the Leg or
the L109 averaged over a specific time period is normally used (see Chapter 9). A 12 hour period (08.00 to
20.00 hours) is often used with the Lag while an 18 hour period (06.00 to 24.00 hours) is usually
associated with the La 19. The latter criterion is specified in the British regulations governing the provision
of insulation against traffic noise arising from new roads (DOT, 1988). Consequently, the Lai (18 hour) is
mostly used in the United Kingdom for road design. However, the Lag is more universally accepted and is
recommended by International Standard ISO 1996 (1971). There is usually only a relatively small
difference between the values of the L4;o and the La., at a particular site (the Lo 1s typically 2 or 3 dBA
higher) and the validity of either criterion for quantifying annoyance from traffic noise is not well
established. Consequently, either the Laio or the Lac, are appropriate for quantifying traffic noise levels
unless national regulations specify otherwise. Although a criterion that is more closely correlated with
annoyance is desirable, the development of such a criterion is difficult due to subjective differences
between peoples’ reactions to noise.

Noise thresholds The severity of a noise problem is usually indicated by the extent the noise level
exceeds a threshold or standard value of a specified noise criterion (e.g. Lio of 18 hour period). A range of
thresholds may be used either for different locations (city centre, suburban, rural) or for different time
periods (e.g. day and night). There are no universally accepted threshold levels but it 1s generally accepted
that outdoor facade noise levels above 70 dBA constitute a problem. Noise insulation treatment is provided
in the United Kingdom where the Lio (18 hour) from a proposed new road is predicted to exceed 68 dBA
in the fifteenth year after the road is opened (subject to certain other criteria). A typical facade insulation of
862 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

20 dBA was provided by the houses included in the surveys which preceded the UK Land Compensation
Act: Noise Insulation Regulations. This implies an internal Lio level of 48 dBA. Recent UK assessment
studies of urban transport proposals have assumed that L410 (18 hour) outside levels up to 65 dBA ‘do not
constitute a problem’ while values between 66 and 70 dBA constitute a ‘slight problem’. “Severe problems’
are assumed to occur either above 70 dBA or above 75 dBA. In other countries L4-q outside levels of 60 to
65 dBA are frequently used. The cost of remedial treatment and the number of people exposed are often
taken into account in the selection of threshold values. Studies carried out by O’Cinnéide (1991) suggest
that the threshold range is appropriate but that a substantial proportion of people (40 per cent at one
location) are still annoyed at 65 dBA.
It appears that the above thresholds are set in relation to existing noise levels in urban areas rather
than on desirable values with a low level of annoyance (15 per cent annoyed). A WHO task group has
recommended daytime noise limits of about 55 Lae, as a general health goal for outdoor noise in
residential areas (OECD, 1986). At night, an outdoor level of about 45 Lacg is required to meet sleep
criteria. However, the maximum noise level, rather than the average, has more influence on the risk of
wakening individuals. Also the range of noise thresholds used in assessment studies (65 to 75 dBA) is
equivalent to a doubling in subjective loudness and would involve a tenfold increase in traffic volume.
This again suggests a lack of sensitivity in the noise criteria. Consequently, a detailed site survey
involving the adjacent residents may be necessary to correctly determine traffic noise impacts.

Major factors affecting traffic noise The noise generated by a stream of traffic depends on the
following factors:

e Traffic volume and speed

e Traffic composition (percentage of heavy commercial vehicles)
e Road gradient
e Traffic flow conditions (free flowing or stop and go)
e Road surface type and irregularities

For free-flowing traffic with at least 5 per cent heavy vehicles, the traffic noise level drops to a minimum
at an average speed of 30 to 40 km/h irrespective of the traffic volume (DOT, 1988).
The noise level at the reception point is influenced by:
e The distance from the road to the reception point
The height of the reception point above the road
The intervening ground surface conditions
The presence of obstructions (including noise barriers) between the road and the reception point
The presence of nearby buildings, walls or ground surfaces which reflect noise

The wind speed and direction will also influence the noise level, but this is frequently omitted from
consideration.

Noise level measurement Although high indoor noise levels cause most annoyance, traffic noise levels
are normally measured outside buildings because of differences in the noise insulation provided by
buildings. Sound level meters are used to record the required noise criterion (e.g. L4eq) over the required
time period (see Chapter 9).
The recommended position for traffic noise measurement in the United Kingdom (DOT, 1988) is ata
distance of 1.0m from the front of a residence and at a height of 1.2m above the ground or at the most
exposed window. The road surface should be dry, the average wind speed midway between the road and
the reception point should be less than 2 m/s in the direction from the road to the reception point. The
wind speed at the microphone in any direction should not exceed 10 m/s and the peaks of wind noise at
the microphone should be 10 dBA or more below the measured value of Laio. Usually measurements
 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF TRANSPORTATION 863

need only be taken on one weekday for the required time period since substantial changes in traffic
volumes are required to significantly change noise criterion levels.

Traffic noise prediction methods Accurate methods for the prediction of the La;9 and the Lae, for both
free-flowing and non-free-flowing traffic conditions have been developed (DOT, 1988; Ministere de
Environnement et al., 1980; Nordic Council of Ministers, 1980; Transportation Research Board, 1976)
and convenient computer programmes are available (Staunton, 1991). Accuracy of prediction depends on
the geometry of the situation being analysed. Prediction is often better than +1 dBA where propagation is
unobstructed and + 2 dBA where obstruction is significant (Transportation Research Board, 1976).
Accuracy decreases where there is significant screening combined with reflection, scattering and
diffraction between the facades of buildings, but these are situations not often encountered in practice.
Because of the insensitivity of the noise criteria to annoyance and the accuracy of these prediction methods,
it is seldom necessary to take actual traffic noise level measurements in practice unless required for legal or
public relations reasons. However, baseline noise measurements are usually required for environmental
impact assessment purposes.

Amelioration techniques The maximum permitted noise levels emitted by new vehicle engines,
particularly heavy vehicle engines, have been progressively reduced by EU regulations. However, the
amount of reduction that is technically possible is limited by tyre noise which is the dominant noise source
above 80 km/h. Also, the growth in vehicle numbers is likely to negate the benefits of reductions in the
noise levels of individual vehicles and other amelioration methods are often necessary, particularly in noise
sensitive areas such as near schools or hospitals. One such method 1s the use of special road surfacings
(porous asphalt) which can significantly reduce tyre noise. Table 20.3 lists a variety of methods that can be
used to reduce traffic noise levels. It is expected that, by the year 2000, electric vehicles which are
practically noiseless, will make up 2-3 per cent of urban vehicles.
Frequently the only options available to reduce excessive traffic noise are the construction of barriers or
the provision of building insulation. The maximum barrier reduction attainable seldom exceeds 10 dBA
(equivalent to half the loudness) and this usually requires very long and high barriers. The installation of
double-glazed windows can reduce the external sound level by 30 to 35 dBA. Higher levels of sound
insulation (up to about 40 dBA) can be achieved by comprehensive building insulation (see Chapter 9).
However, the cost of such sound insulation is high. BRE/CIRIA (1993) in their document ‘sound control
for homes’ have developed many useful quantitative aids for noise calculating.

Table 20.3 Methods for reducing the impact of traffic noise

Road planning Avoidance of noise-sensitive areas

The creation of special environmental areas

Road design Attention to the horizontal and vertical alignment

Siting roads in cuttings and tunnels
Construction of noise barriers
Use of ‘quiet’ road surfaces

Traffic management Concentration of traffic on the principal road network

Restrictions on heavy vehicles
Smoothing of traffic flow and minimization of stops

Building design and layout Shielding of noise-sensitive buildings (by intervening buildings)
Single aspect housing
Dwelling insulation

Vehicle design change Use of electric vehicles

864 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Example 20.1 Traffic noise level calculation

Brief. Using Calculation of Road Traffic Noise (DOT, 1988) predict the noise level at a house located 60 m
from the edge of a proposed new main road. The ground between the house and the road is level and
grassed. The only screening is provided by a thin hedge.
Data required. The location of the most exposed window, which is on the first floor, is 4.5m above
ground, and the following is the traffic and road data:
Traffic volume, 20000 vehicles per 18 hour day
Mean traffic speed, 74 km/h
Proportion of heavy vehicles, 20 per cent
Road gradient, zero
Noise source height 0.5 m (standard value)
Height of receiver point above source, 4.0m
Average height of propagation, 2.5m (0.5 + 4/2)
Use BRE/CIRIA (1993) to compute the noise corrections due to the individual structural elements and
ultimately the noise level of the house.

Solution
dBA
Basic noise level (Fig. 20.1(a)) V2
Correction for mean traffic speed and heavy vehicles (Fig. (20.1(6)) +3.6
Impervious road surface —1.0
Distance correction, hard ground (Fig. (20.1(c)) =6:7/
Soft ground correction (Fig. 20.1(d)) —3.5
Reflection effect of building facade +2.5

Predicted noise level of Lajo (18 hour) 66.9

oon Se ema en ci Ti au
Basic noise level
(or)i=)

l an

=)i=

a iw)
above
(m)
source
point
of
Height
receiver
(dB(A))
Ly,
level
noise
Basic =a Sete
i) 5 10 20 50 100 200 50 100 150
Traffic flow rate (thousand vehicles/18 h day) Distance from edge of nearside carriageway (m)
(a) (c)

Zz s
Z
atte
me
ea

Q 10

(dB(A))
Correction
eVa nn
vehicles
heavy
Percentage

NUT
aC of (m)
propagation
height
Average

re ES
DEIGOS
NBOSANN aes
20 40 60 100 50 100 150
Mean traffic speed (km/h) Distance from edge of nearside carriageway (m)
(b) (d)
Figure 20.1 (a) Traffic flow rate versus L109; (b) mean traffic speed versus Lj9 correction; (c) distance from edge of nearside
carriageway versus height of receiver; (d) distance from edge of nearside carriageway versus average height of propagation.
(Adapted from BRE/CIRIA, 1993, and DOT, 1988. Reproduced from Building Research Establishment and CIRIA report Sound
Control for Homes by permission of the Controller of HMSO.)
 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF TRANSPORTATION 865

It should be noted that additional corrections to the above noise level would be required if the angle
of view of the road was restricted by adjacent buildings or if there were intervening noise barriers (the
hedge is not a barrier). The reader is referred to BRE/CIRIA (1993) for more detailed examples. Figures
20.1 (a), (6), (c) and (d) are adaptations of BRE/CIRIA (1993) and DOT (1988).

20.6.2 Traffic-induced Vibrations in Buildings

Vibrations from passing traffic are a common source of environmental nuisance, particularly for those
living beside main roads. They may be the most frequent environmental complaint made by residents to
local authorities, probably because of the fear that the vibrations could damage buildings. Traffic-induced
vibrations may be airborne or groundborne and are almost entirely associated with heavy vehicles.

Airborne vibrations Airborne vibrations are caused by low-frequency sound (50 to 100 Hz) produced
by large vehicle engines and exhausts. The resonant frequencies of rooms may be excited by acoustic
coupling through windows and doors. This produces annoying rattling of doors, windows and small objects
in the front rooms of buildings. At the most exposed locations acoustically induced floor vibrations can
become perceptible (Watts, 1990). The presence of such airborne vibrations can be detected by noting
whether front room windows and doors rattle when a bus or another heavy vehicle passes. Low-frequency
noise can be perceived directly and can sometimes lead to annoying muffled sensations in the ears and
perceptible chest vibrations (Watts, 1990).

Groundborne vibrations Groundborne vibrations are caused by varying forces between the tyres of
heavy vehicles and road surfaces which result from irregularities in the road surface. They can become
perceptible in buildings located within a few metres of the carriageway when heavy vehicles pass over
irregularities of the order of 20 mm in the road surface. Groundborne vibrations are of lower frequency than
airborne vibrations (8 to 20 Hz) and enter buildings through the foundations. Both compression and shear
waves are produced in the ground, which can result in structural damage to poorly maintained buildings.
Consequently groundborne vibrations are potentially more serious than airborne vibrations. Their presence
can be felt as short duration impulsive vibrations, particularly in the middle of upper floors of buildings.
However, a major investigation (including extensive site studies) carried out by the Transport and Road
Research Laboratory (TRRL, UK) concluded that there is no evidence to support the assertion that traffic
vibrations can cause significant damage to buildings, although severe nuisance to occupants can occur
(OECD, 1986).

Vibration measurement and thresholds Vibration measurements involve the use of accelerometers,
velocity pick-up and laser systems. They are usually expressed in terms of the peak particle velocity
(p.p.v.). The following threshold values are often used:
Perception = 0.3 mm/s (p.p.v.)
Annoyance = | mm/s (p.p.v.)
Structural damage = 10 mm/s (p.p.v.)

A threshold value of 5 mm/s for structural response is often associated with road traffic or construction
vibration.

Vibration prediction The Transport and Road Research Laboratory study (Watts, 1990) concluded that
the best predictor of airborne vibrations was either the Lacg (18 hour) or the L410 (18 hour) level as used in
noise measurement. British surveys showed that between 23 and 44 per cent of roadside residents were
bothered by vibrations at an La10 level of 68 dBA (houses with double-glazed windows had lower numbers
866 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

of people bothered). At higher Lio levels the percentage bothered increased rapidly. Broadly similar
results have been reported elsewhere (O’Cinnéide, 1991).
The presence and magnitude of groundborne vibrations depend on the characteristics of the passing heavy
vehicles (axle load, suspension design, speed), the road surface and the intervening ground. The median
vibration nuisance prediction found in the TRRL study, (Watts, 1990) was proportional to the 18 hour
heavy vehicle flow and to the distance from the carriageway.

Vibration amelioration The action required to ameliorate traffic-induced vibrations depends on the type
of vibration. The installation of better fitting windows appears to be the best remedy for reducing airborne
vibrations since it is seldom practical to ban passing heavy vehicles. Double glazing or double windows are
likely to be particularly effective. Groundborne vibrations do not normally arise if road surfaces and
buildings are maintained to a reasonable standard—the removal of existing road surface irregularities may
eliminate groundborne vibrations. Speed and weight restrictions on heavy vehicles can also be useful. The
isolation of buildings by resilient mounts or filled trenches is expensive and would normally only be
considered for the preservation of historic buildings in poor structural condition.

20.6.3 Air Pollution from Vehicles

Air pollution is considered in general in Chapter 8 while industrial air pollution control and abatement is
considered in Chapter 16. Pollution from vehicles is only summarized here. The major sources of
atmospheric pollution caused by motor vehicles are from exhaust gases, evaporative losses from the fuel
tank and carburettor, crank case losses and dust from tyres (rubber), brake linings and clutch plates
(asbestos). Typically vehicular air pollution is less than that from industry and homes but, with increasing
vehicle numbers, is a serious concern in urban areas. High proportions of the total amount of carbon
monoxide, hydrocarbons and lead in the atmosphere result from vehicle emissions. Figure 20.2 shows the
constituents of vehicle exhaust gas divided into noxious and innocuous compounds. Although carbon
dioxide is not an innocuous compound (vis-a-vis health), it is undesirable as it is a contributor to global
warming.
Petrol engines are considered less obnoxious than diesel engines although diesel engines burn fuel
more efficiently resulting in lower pollution emissions (e.g. diesel engines emit only one-fifth the quantity
of carbon monoxide). However, since diesel engine pollution is more visible and emits odours, it causes
more public disquiet and the relatively high emissions of inhalable particulate matter and associated
hydrocarbons raises health and environmental concerns.
Since lead is taken up in the biological chain and has been shown to cause behavioural problems in
children, the EU and USEPA have pursued a policy of reducing the amount of lead in petrol engines (there
is no lead in diesel fuel). However, the reduction in lead levels may be outweighed by the continuing

Noxious compounds | iInnocuous compounds |

Particulate

Pb compounds SO, and soot are typically diesel

Pb compounds are typically petrol

Figure 20.2 The constituents of vehicle exhaust emissions.

 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF TRANSPORTATION 867

increase in car numbers. Readers are also referred to Chapter 8 for discussions on lead and the amount
still in automotive gasoline in European countries.
Nitric oxide and sulphur oxides contribute to acid rain and the sulphur content of diesel fuel is being
reduced by EU regulations. Under conditions of bright sunlight and still air, hydrocarbons and nitrogen
oxides can, in the presence of sunlight, combine to form secondary products such as ozone or
photochemical smog. The latter causes eye irritation, is injurious to plants and is almost entirely caused by
motor vehicles. This is discussed in greater detail in Chapter 8.
A large number of different hydrocarbons are emitted by petrol vehicles. Benzene, which comprises
about 5 per cent of hydrocarbon emissions from petrol engines, is particularly hazardous. To combat
vehicle pollution all new petrol engine cars sold in the European Union must be fitted with catalytic
converters which reduce the emissions of hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide. However,
catalytic converters are only effective when the engine is warm and they increase the volume of carbon
dioxide emissions (contributing to global warming). Diesel engines produce up to 25 per cent less carbon
dioxide than petrol engines. Further pollution reduction measures may be necessary in future because of
the predicted increase in car numbers and the prevailing high levels of urban air pollution. Additionally,
the soiling of buildings with diesel particulate emissions is common.
In the United States in 1986, there were 186 million registered vehicles, 135 million of which were
passenger cars. They consumed 1.3 billion gallons of fuel. They emitted 58 per cent of the American total
of CO, 38 per cent of lead, 34 per cent of NO, 27 per cent of VOCs and 16 per cent of the particulates
(Masters, 1991). The Californian highway emission standards (more stringent than those of the Federal
Clean Air Act) for passenger cars are 0.25 g/km for HC, 2.1 g/km for CO and 0.25 g/km for NO,.
These standards are achieved by means of the compulsory smog test, which tests every car on a regular
basis for pollutant emission rates. The three-way catalytic converter installed in the exhaust system is now
the norm in new vehicles and achieves the above standards where:
e Hydrocarbons are oxidized to CO,
e Carbon monoxide is oxidized to CO,
e NO, are reduced to N>

The reader is referred to Powell and Brennan (1988) and Masters (1991) for further details.
Typical levels of air highway pollution are shown in Table 20.4 (from Ball et al. 1991). It is
emphasized that pollutant levels vary in space and time. A coefficient of variation of 0.3 is common and
90 per cent of recorded values might be expected to be within a factor of 2 of the typical values. For trace
constituents, greater variation occurs and pollutant levels in dust may vary by a factor of 10 (Ball et al.,
1991).
a emission rates of vehicle pollutants from highway sources are listed in Table 20.5 for vehicles
with no control technology fitted. Control technology, now obligatory in the United States and even more
specifically in California, is having excellent success with reducing emissions.

Air pollution measurement and thresholds Ambient air pollution recommended threshold levels are
considered in Chapter 8. Typical threshold values for vehicular-related air pollutants are presented in Table
20.6.

Vehicular air pollution prediction Air pollution modelling is considered in Chapter 21. A number of
computer-based models are available for the prediction of vehicular air pollution, particularly in the public
domain from the USEPA. The input parameters are typically the traffic volume, the mean speed, the ground
topography, the road layout and the prevailing meteorological conditions (wind direction and velocity,
temperature, amount of sunlight and stability conditions). Gaussian models that predict the distribution
from a point source have been found to be fairly accurate for typical meteorological conditions. However,
when the source is close to the ground surface, these models have been found to underestimate
concentrations of pollutants, particularly for crosswind conditions. For this condition a more sophisticated
868 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Table 20.4 Typical pollutant levels in highway environments

Pollutant Typical level

Particulate matter R
Total airborne suspended 100 uug/m?
particulates
Atmospheric dark smoke 30 pg/m?
Total suspended solids in runoff 100 ug/m?
Surface dust 50 g/m?
Airborne particulate elemental 3 g/m?
carbon

Gaseous air pollutants

(oe) 2 mg/m? (1.7 ppm)
SO, 60 mg/m® (22 ppb)
NO, 50 mg/m? (25 ppb)
NO, 150 mg/m? (100 ppb)
Total HC 1500 mg/m?
VOC 500 mg/m?
Heavy metals
Pb in air 0.3 pg/m*
Pb in dust 350 pg/g
Pb in stormwater 1000 mg/m?
Zn in air 0.1 ug/m
Zn in dust 350 ug/g
Zn in stormwater 100 mg/m?
Cd in air 0.001 g/m?
Cd in dust 1 pg/g
Cd in stormwater 7)mg/m?
Cu in air 0.01 g/m?
Cu in dust 60 pg/g
Cu in stormwater 50 mg/m*

Adapted from Ball et al., 1991. Reprinted by permission of Elsevier Science

Table 20.5 Vehicular emission rates of pollutants

Emission rate (g/km/vehicle)

Gasoline Diesel Californian

standard
(with control
Pollutant (no control technology) technology)

CO 10 1 21
Total HC 1 0.3 0.25
NO, 3 6 0.25
SO, 0.03 0.2
Smoke 0.1 0.4
Dark smoke 0.04 a2
Pb (assuming 0.15 g Pb/L) 0.01 0.0
Zn 0.003 0.003
Cd 10m 10 §
Cu Seale? 5 Sal Oe
Adapted from Ball et al. 1991. Reprinted by permission of Elsevier Science
 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF TRANSPORTATION 869

Table 20.6 Threshold limit value of air pollutants

Health protection criteria

Pollutant (g/m?) Source

Carbon monoxide 1700 WHO

Hydrocarbons Hd
Nitrogen dioxide 200 Hourly maximum EEC/85/203
Sulphur dioxide 350 Daily maximumt EEC/80/779
Smoke 213 Daily maximumt EEC/80/779
Lead 2 Annual mean EEC/80/882

* Separate limits for each HC in future

+ 98th percentile of daily values; varies with smoke level.
{ 98th percentile of daily values for year.

model such as the Stanford Research Institute Street Canyon Model would be appropriate. In using any of
these models, we must be aware that they require many parameters and an inexperienced user may obtain
meaningless results. However, using these models is certainly a great learning tool and allows us to look at
the impacts of different proposed road layouts.
In predicting the likely air pollution from a proposed new road, a worst case scenario, with the wind
blowing from the road during the one hour period of maximum daily traffic flow, is frequently assumed.
Predictions are made for the likely levels of each traffic-related pollutant. The predicted vehicular
pollution is then added to the existing annual maximum air pollution level for each pollutant.

Amelioration of vehicular air pollution The reduction of vehicular air pollution depends primarily on
reducing the pollution from individual vehicles at source. Methods available, apart from the installation of
catalytic converters, include the re-design of carburettors, the use of more efficient lean burn engines and
the use of electric vehicles. These methods all impose additional costs, but the predicted increase in the
total number of vehicles may require their implementation. Other methods for reducing vehicular air
pollution include the improvement of vehicular flow conditions (since vehicular emissions are almost
totally associated with decelerating, idling and accelerating vehicles), better engine maintenance (estimated
to reduce pollution from current petrol engines by one-third), the planting of trees and shrubs and the
restriction of traffic from highly polluted areas such as city centres. Indeed, air quality requirements may
eventually require controls of car use throughout our urban areas.

Example 20.2 Air pollution calculation

Brief, Estimate the total hydrocarbon concentration during the peak hour traffic at a point that is 300m
from a proposed new road.
Data required. Peak hour traffic volume and speed is 6000 vehicles per hour at 65 km/h. Find the
emission of total hydrocarbons from an average vehicle at the mean peak hour speed, assuming a value of
2 x 10~? g/s of total hydrocarbons per vehicle at a speed of 65 km/h. The meteorological conditions
assume an overcast day with the wind blowing directly from the road at a speed of 4m/s.

Solution The road is considered as a continuous infinite line source. The source strength, q, is first
calculated. This is the number of vehicles per metre (the concentration or density) multiplied by the
emission per vehicle:

Concentration = 6000/65
= 9.23 x 10°? vehicles/m
Source strength g = (9.23 x 10-2510 ~)
= 1.846 x 1077 g/ms
870 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Under overcast conditions with a wind speed of 4m/s stability class D applies (see Chapter 8) for class D
atx =300m, o,— 12m (see Fig) 3.24): ;
The concentration equation from an infinite line source is a modification of those in Chapter 8
(Turner, 1964):

2q 1 ey
(OlGs,
(x,y vO
3 Ia)) = (= exp} |—={—
a \as

?)
C00, 00.0) ===
270,U
8
= SUESee) = 3.1 x 10-° g/m? of HC
2507 Sal2 4
Therefore

C = 31 pg/m’*

20.6.4 Vehicular-borne Litter

Litter is reported as a major environmental nuisance in public opinion surveys and certain areas, such
as the outskirts of towns, can be spoiled by car-borne litter. Abandoned cars and illegal dumping may
also constitute problems. The provision of convenient litter receptacles appears necessary in such
circumstances since exortation or enforcement alone are often insufficient. Many countries, in northern
Europe and northern America particularly, have succeeded in reducing such litter.

20.6.5 Physical Damage

Heavy vehicles cause physical damage not only to the road pavement itself but also to roadside objects
such as signs, footpaths and gateposts, particularly on narrow roads. Cars and heavy vehicles splash
pedestrians in wet weather. Adequate road maintenance and design, heavy vehicle entry restrictions and
enforcement appear the only available remedies.

20.6.6 Anxiety
Anxiety or the feeling of not being safe (unsafety) are strongly associated with heavy vehicles and with
high speeds. Older people are particularly affected as are parents who worry about their childrens’ safety
on the roads; parents of young children who cycle are especially worried. An allied environmental impact
is the disturbance to social life by not being able to talk on the footpath because of passing traffic. The
implementation of traffic calming methods such as speed control and heavy vehicle restrictions can
reduce these vehicular impacts. Generally a detailed local study is necessary in order to determine the
necessity for traffic calming and to identify appropriate remedial measures.

20.7 SAFETY AND CAPACITY IMPACTS

These include the impacts of a proposed development or transportation scheme on the existing roadway
system. The transport of hazardous waste is considered in Chapter 15.
 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF TRANSPORTATION 871

20.7.1 Accidents
The traffic generated by a proposed development (including pedestrians and cyclists) may affect the safety
of the existing road network, particularly if there is a high accident rate at present. Accident records and
rates on the existing network should be examined for a period of at least the previous three years.
Comparisons with national accident rates for similar road types should be made. A safety audit into the
impact of the proposed development can then be carried out. The potential safety impact on vehicle users,
pedestrians and cyclists should be determined separately.

20.7.2 Effects on the Operation on Roads and Intersections

These include the effects on traffic congestion and delay and on parking. The traffic volumes (annual
average daily and peak volumes) on the existing road system may be available either directly from the
local authority or from published traffic count data. If not, traffic counts will probably be necessary. Short-
term traffic counts (even one day) can be extrapolated (with caution) to approximate AADT (annual
average daily traffic) values by the use of the appropriate expansion factors. The capacities of the existing
roads and key intersections can be estimated from the appropriate road design standards manuals. Where
congestion exists, travel time studies may be required. The impact of the additional traffic should be
quantified for vehicle users, cyclists and pedestrians in terms of delays or time savings (total estimated
hours/day). Changes in vehicle operating costs and the effects on emergency services and parking should
also be determined. In evaluating the impact of a proposed new road, the additional traffic generated by
the road must be included.

20.8 ROADWAY IMPACTS

As previously noted, these impacts are mainly associated with the construction of new transportation
schemes (especially motorways) rather than with the traffic generated by other types of developments.
However, the latter may require the construction of new road schemes.

20.8.1 Visual Intrusion and Aesthetics

The most significant visual impacts include the following:

Scenic incompatibility, which may occur either in an urban or in a rural area

Obscuring of existing views
The creation of gaps in the urban fabric
Loss of sunlight
Loss of privacy
Depending on the viewpoint of the observer, these impacts may vary. Consequently three different
viewpoints must be considered: that of the adjacent property occupiers, that of the community or users of
the area and that of drivers. The above effects are usually assessed separately for each group. The impact
on the adjacent property occupiers is usually considered the most significant.
A visual envelope map outlining the limits of visibility of the proposed development may be drawn
using contoured maps and field surveys. The quality of the landscape, the activities affected and the extent
of obstruction to the field of vision can then be examined by detailed surveys. Visual obstruction
(blocking of a view) may be quantified in terms of the solid angle subtended by the new structure from a
given observation point in units of steradians or described in qualitative terms. A steradian is the angle
subtended at the centre of a sphere of unit radius by unit area of the surface. Alternatively, visual
872 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

obstruction, loss of sunlight and loss of privacy may be presented in qualitative terms (e.g. the number of
properties with severe or moderate visual obstruction) since the relationship between steradians and the
perceived environmental impact is not clear. Large articulated vehicles passing in front of residences and
overnight lorry parking are common fornis of visual intrusion, particularly in urban areas. Visual intrusion
and the other aesthetic impacts listed above depend on the existing landscape or townscape. The likely
intrusive effect of the new development must ultimately rely on a qualitative assessment. Physical models,
photomontages and computer-generated graphics can be used to aid this assessment. The removal of
unique buildings, vistas, rows of trees, etc., are other visual, impacts associated with new road
construction. Each such input should be quantified where possible (e.g. the number of mature trees
removed) as part of the environmental assessment. Proposed remedial measures should also be included.

20.8.2 Severance

Severance occurs when a new development forms either a physical or a psychological boundary between
different areas. It is primarily associated with large transportation schemes such as motorways but can also
result from increased speeds or traffic volumes on existing roads. Apart from those whose lands or
properties are directly effected, severance can have a major impact on communities, for example the
separation of residents from facilities and services, from their place of employment or from friends and
relatives. It is most directly felt by pedestrians in built-up areas. However, severance can occasionally be
beneficial, for instance by providing a boundary between areas of different land use. In urban areas
particular attention is focused on the facilities used by vulnerable groups in society. Research by Clark et
al. (1991) concluded that ‘severance is a complex effect, in which a bundle of negative aspects of
trafficked roads are linked together, including pedestrian delay, trip diversion and trip suppression, noise
pollution, perceived danger and general unpleasantness’. Detailed studies have shown that the overall
impact of this bundle of aspects is substantial and that the public is significantly concerned by these
impacts. Also the above research suggests that changes in severance effects should be assessed throughout
the affected network and that this should be done by considering the effects on specific groups of people
rather than by merely identifying particular locations and functions that may be affected. The factors
giving rise to and determining the potential for severance from road proposals were found to be:
e Facilities to which access is inhibited
¢ Catchment areas for those facilities
e Numbers and types of persons affected
e Levels of traffic causing the severance
e Extent of mitigation of road crossing difficulties

There is as yet no agreement on how to combine these effects into a measure of severance or on the
relative importance of severance in comparison with other factors such as monetary costs or time savings.
Subjective judgement appears to be the only practical approach to the evaluation of severance impacts.
Consequently, community participation is essential. This requires meetings with those affected and social
surveys as well as measurements of traffic volumes and speeds, pedestrian delays, etc. Checklists such as
those contained in the Manual of Environmental Appraisal (DOT, 1983) or in the more recent TRRL
Contractor Report 135 (Clark, 1991) are useful. Land use and ownership maps are also of value in
assessments, particularly in rural areas.

20.8.3 Land Consumption and Loss of Property

The number of properties demolished is usually an important measure of the impact of a proposed
transportation development, especially where there are employment implications. However, other impacts
such as the displacement and relocation of people, the loss of recreational areas or wetlands, even the loss
 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF TRANSPORTATION 873

of parking, may also be significant and should be quantified. Frequently new road construction through
urban areas results in awkwardly shaped underdeveloped sites adjoining the road.

20.8.4 Changes in Land Access and Land Values

Transportation improvements may result in either increased or decreased access to adjacent properties.
Normally increased access occurs which may stimulate development and lead to increased land values.
Local businesses and retailers usually benefit from increased access. However, increased access can
sometimes lead to undesirable developments and decreased land values (e.g. where a new road is
constructed through an established housing area). Also some businesses may suffer from increased levels
of passing traffic due to parking difficulties or traffic congestion. Decreased access can cause problems
for emergency and service vehicles and may lead to other detrimental effects, particularly for commercial
properties. When a new road bypasses an area, local businesses can suffer trade losses. The severity of
these impacts should be examined by observing the routeways used. Planning restrictions on lands
adjacent to a proposed development (e.g. access restrictions) may reduce property values.

20.8.5 Planning Blight

The announcement of a proposed new transport development can lead to the gradual rundown of the
directly affected properties since little or no maintenance of these properties is likely to be undertaken.
Consequently, unless the development takes place within a relatively short time, planning blight may
follow. A short-term planning strategy for the affected area is essential.

20.8.6 Effects on Wildlife, Plants and the Aquatic Ecosystem; Impacts on Historic and
Cultural Resources; Impacts on Utilities and Drainage
These are largely similar to those described in Chapter 19 for proposed developments in general, except
that they can occur over a wider area. Pollution of water courses adjacent to roads can result from the
concentrated runoff during periods of heavy rain. Even at low concentrations there can be long-term
impacts on the surrounding environment. However, spillages of toxic materials in accidents are usually
much more significant. Regular monitoring of watercourses adjacent to roads is desirable in order to limit
consequential damage.

20.8.7 Employment and Business Impacts

The construction of a new development such as a retail centre may have severe impacts on existing retail
businesses over a wide area but only transportation-related impacts are considered here. Changes in
employment and business activities are usually consequences of previously considered roadway impacts
such as severance, changes in land access or demolition of property, but should be considered separately
because of their importance. Transportation developments can stimulate employment and business
activity but the contrary can also occur; e.g. the construction of a new motorway can lead to a reduction in
distribution sector jobs because a larger area can be served in the same time compared with the pre-
motorway situation. The severity of the likely impact may be estimated by observing the existing routes
used by business customers, suppliers, etc.
874 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

20.9 CONSTRUCTION IMPACTS

The traffic generated by the construction of a new development can cause major impacts, particularly for
those living along the routes used by this traffic. Since construction is labour intensive, large numbers of
cars access construction sites at the start and end of the working day. However, heavy vehicles carrying
material to and from the site and the movement of large earthmoving equipment usually cause the
principal problems. The noise and vibration from these vehicles disturb roadside residents, traffic delays
occur, mud is deposited on the roads and the road pavements and verges may be physically damaged.
Pedestrians and cyclists may require special facilities. A safety assessment should always be carried out to
identify potential hazards. The effects of the proposed construction on surrounding areas (traffic queues,
diversions, accesses and exits) must also be determined. Although construction impacts are of temporary
duration they can be severe and can last for a considerable period. Consequently mitigation measures
must be considered to reduce these impacts. Preferred routes for construction traffic, avoiding heavily
populated areas, are often specified. The construction of new roads may also involve temporary
disturbance to drainage, to the ecosystem and to roadside utilities. Mitigation measures must again be
considered. The safety of construction workers must be ensured under the EU Framework Directive
(89/392/EEC) on health and safety at work.

20.10 THE TRAFFIC GENERATED BY PROPOSED DEVELOPMENTS

In order to assess the environmental impacts of a proposed development, the traffic generated during the
construction phase and afterwards must be quantified. The amount of car traffic and freight traffic should
be separately estimated.

20.10.1 Car Traffic

The volume of car traffic attracted to a proposed development depends on the type and size of the
development, its location and on the number of employees and their car ownership level. For a
development located in a rural area not served by public transport, it can be usually assumed that most
employees and visitors (including customers) will arrive by car. By assuming a car occupancy rate for
both visitors and employees (e.g. one car for each visitor and 1.5 employees per car), the volume and
distribution of car traffic throughout the day can be predicted from the estimated number and
arrival/departure times of employees and visitors. Peak period traffic is of special concern and should be
predicted separately. For developments located in urban areas, the proportions of employees and visitors
arriving by public transport, on foot or cycling must be estimated before the volume and distribution of
car traffic can be estimated.

20.10.2 Light Goods Vehicles

The number of delivery vehicles and other light goods vehicles and their distribution throughout the day
will depend on the activities being carried out at the proposed development. This traffic is often combined
with the estimated car traffic since the environmental impacts are similar.

20.10.3 Heavy Goods and Public Service Vehicles

Heavy vehicles usually cause the principal environmental impacts resulting from transportation. The
number of heavy vehicles (including delivery vehicles and waste removal vehicles) required to service the
 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF TRANSPORTATION 875

Table 20.7 Generic checklist of impacts

ee ee
Impact group Impacts

Road users Time savings/delays

Vehicle operating costs
Accident costs
Driver comfort and convenience
View from road

Physical environment Landscape

Infrastructure
Air quality
Nature conservation

Social environment Community severance

Employment
Aesthetics (intrusion)
Culture and heritage
Occupiers of property Demolition
Severance (land)
Noise
Visual obstruction

activities to be carried out at a proposed development and their routeing must be estimated by an
examination of the projected level of these activities and of the likely origins and destinations of
deliveries. Specific attention must be paid to vehicles which would carry hazardous or odorous materials
(see Chapter 15). A number of trip rate databases for specific retail, residential and commercial uses are
available. These are particularly useful where similar developments are being evaluated.

Table 20.8 Typical assessment techniques for environmental impacts

Impact areas Effects Unit of measurement

Road users Time savings Monetary

Vehicle operating costs Monetary
Accident costs Monetary
Comfort and convenience Scaled (low, moderate or high driver stress)
View from the road Scaled (no view, restricted, intermittent, open view)

Physical environment Landscape Descriptive

Infrastructure Descriptive
Air quality Ceiling levels
Nature conservation Descriptive (initial and final appraisal)

Social environment Community severance Scaled (none, slight, moderate, severe)

Employment Descriptive
Aesthetic (intrusion) Scaled (slight, moderate, severe)
Culture, etc. Descriptive

Occupiers of property Noise Scaled (increase of 3-5, 5-10, 10-15 dBA, etc.)
Visual obstruction Scaled: >150 steradian—high
50-150 steradian—moderate
25-50 steradian—light
Severance of land Number of properties severed, plus description of quality of land
Demolition Number of properties demolished

Adapted from Rogers, 1992, with permission of ICE, UK.

876 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

20.11 THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF PROPOSED ROAD

DEVELOPMENTS

Environmental impact assessment (EIA), which is considered in Chapter 19, consists of a systematic
investigation into the effects of a proposed development on the environment. Such assessments are now
required as an integral part of the evaluation process for all large transportation proposals. Traditionally,
the evaluation of proposed road schemes was largely based on cost benefit analysis which consisted of
estimating the likely construction costs and assigning monetary values to the predicted benefits such as
savings in travel time and accidents. Environmental impacts tended to be omitted since it is difficult to
determine their monetary values. This frequently resulted in public opposition to proposed road schemes
and resulted in the inclusion of environmental impacts in the evaluation procedures. Under the 1985 EU
Directive on the Environment at Impact Assessment, large transportation projects must be subjected to an
EIA. The EU legislation does not specify detailed assessment methods and, in general, the various
national regulations incorporating the EU Directive allow considerable latitude in the methods used. This
is probably because of the subjective nature of many environmental impacts and disagreement on how
they should be quantified.

20.11.1 Contents of a Road Environmental Impact Assessment

A typical assessment for a proposed road would include the following:

e A summary of the proposed road development and of the principal environmental impacts
© General project description and a description of the alternatives considered
e A baseline survey of the existing environment
e Assessment of the environmental impacts
e The implications for the land use and development plans for the affected area
e The financial implications
e Mitigation measures proposed to reduce the negative impacts
e A synoptic table summarizing the individual impacts and costs for each of the alternatives considered
e Conclusions
See Chapter 18 for further details on EIA.

20.11.2 Impact Identification

Checklists are commonly used to ensure that all relevant impacts are identified. Table 20.7 shows an
example of a generic checklist.

20.11.3 Impact Prediction/Assessment

As previously discussed, it is difficult to assess many of the impacts shown in Table 20.7 in quantitative
terms. Table 20.8 gives an indication of the level of assessment typically used for each individual impact.
An overview of the use of EIA techniques and methodologies for road projects is given by Rogers (1992).

20.12 PROBLEMS

20.1 List the major factors that affect the noise generated by a stream of traffic at the facade of a building
and briefly discuss each factor.
 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF TRANSPORTATION 877

20.2 Describe three alternative methods for the reduction of traffic noise in buildings.
20.3 Explain the causes of airborne and groundborne traffic-induced vibrations in buildings. How would
you detect the presence of each type of vibration? What amelioration techniques are available?
20.4 State the principal air pollutants emitted by (a) petrol engines and (b) diesel engines. Which
pollutants are considered the most hazardous? Discuss how vehicular air pollution can be reduced in
city centres.
20.5 Discuss the safety and road system impacts you would expect from the construction of a multistorey
residential building in a densely populated area. Explain how you would quantify each of these
impacts.
20.6 Describe the visual impacts that usually result from the construction of an elevated urban motorway.
Discuss how each impact may be assessed.
20.7 List and explain the factors that determine the extent of the severance impacts of major urban roads.
20.8 Briefly describe the contents of an environmental impact assessment of a proposed rural motorway.
20.9 Repeat Example 20.1 where the house is located 20, 40 and 80m from the roadside edge. Is the
noise trend linear or non-linear as the road approaches the house?

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Ball, D. J., R. S. Hamilton and R. M. Harrison (1991) The Influence of Highway Related Pollutants on Environmental Quality in
Highway Pollution, R. S. Hamilton and R. M. Harrison (eds), Elsevier Science, Amsterdam).
Building Research Establishment (BRE)/Construction Industry Research and Information Association (CIRIA) (1993) Sound
Control for Homes, Building Research Establishment, Watford, UK, and Construction Industry Research and Information
Association, Building Research Establishment (BRE). London, UK.
Clark J. M., et al. (1991) The Appraisal of Community Severance, CR135, Transport and Road Research Laboratory (TRRL),
Crowthorne, Berkshire.
Department of Transport (DOT) (1983) Manual of Environmental Appraisai, Department of Transport, Assessments and Policy
Division, HMSO, London.
Department of Transport (DOT) (1988) Calculation of Road Traffic Noise, Technical Memorandum, HMSO, London.
ISO 1966 (1971). Assessment of Noise with respect to Community Response. International Standards Organisation, Geneva,
Switzerland.
Masters, G. (1991) Introduction of Environmental Engineering and Science, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Ministere de |’Environnement et al. (1980) Prevision des Niveaux Sonores, CETUR, Paris.
Nordic Council of Ministers (1980) The Computing Model for Road Traffic Noise, Liber Distribution, Stockholm.
O’Cinnéide, D. (1991) ‘The selection of thresholds in noise evaluation’, in Proceedings of First Irish Environmental Engineering
Conference, University College, Cork, G. Kiely, P. O’Kane and E. McKeog (eds). Allied Print, Cork, Ireland.
OECD (1986) Environmental Effects of Automotive Transport, The OECD Compass Project, OECD, Paris.
Petulla, G. (1987) Environmental Protection in the United States. San Francisco Study Center, Market Street, San Francisco, CA,
USA.
Powell, J. D. and R. D. Brennan (1988) The Automobile, Technology and Society, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Rogers, M (1992) ‘The use of EIA techniques and methodology within the road planning system in the Republic ofIreland’, Proc.
Instn Civ. Engrs, Mun. Engr, 93, 39-50, March 1992.
Staunton, M. M. (1991) Soundtrack, RT 389, Environmental Research Unit, Dublin.
Turner, D. B. (1964), ‘A diffusion model for an urban area’. Journal ofApplied Meteorology, February.
Transportation Research Board (1976) ‘Highway noise—a design guide for prediction and control’. Kugler, G. (ed), NCHRP Report
174, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC.
Watts, G. R. (1990) Traffic Induced Vibrations in Buildings, Research Report 246, Transport and Road Research Laboratory,
Crowthorne, Berkshire.
 CHAPTER

TWENTY-ONE
ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING

21.1 INTRODUCTION

The mathematical modelling of any environmental engineering process is made up of at least the
following four steps:
1. After studying the physical, chemical or biological process, identify the essential and dominant
mechanisms, e.g. bacterial population dependent on the initial population and a growth rate.
2. Develop a mathematical expression for the system. Typically, this may be as simple as a single
algebraic or differential equation or as complex as a set of differential equations, e.g.
dP
— = kP
dt
where P = population (perhaps concentration, mg/L)
k = growth rate, day!
(see Example 21.1)
3. Analytically solve the equation(s) if possible. If not, solve the equation(s) numerically:
P(t) = Poe™

where Po = initial population (concentration)

4. Check to see whether the solution to the ‘model’ satisfies known data. If not, start the process again and
repeat until the model solution is acceptable.

Modelling of environmental processes and contaminant transport is essentially second nature now to the
modern engineer and scientist. The scope of engineering problems that can be addressed by modelling is
truly infinite. There are ‘off the shelf’ models or package programmes for almost every conceivable task,
be it wastewater treatment, optimizing the routes for municipal solid waste haulage trucks, identifying the
optimum location for a sewage outfall (to maximize mixing and dilution) or, of course, air quality
modelling. A good source of low cost package public domain software is the US EPA. Questions to your

878
 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING 879

favourite internet environmental engineering forum will also show up locations of software availability.
Traditional physical models of riverine systems have almost been replaced by computer models, primarily
because of the lower cost involved and the ease with which problems can be run and rerun with different
data at quick speed. Modelling may be generally simplified as shown in Fig. 21.1.
Let us suppose our task is riverine modelling, the input data may be rainfall, ground topography,
river bed levels, estuarine bathymetry, etc., while the expected output might be water levels or water
quality in the river system. To determine the output or to forecast what might occur if a set of inputs were
supplied is the task of modelling. The level of sophistication varies hugely from what are known as simple
box models (used still in the air environment) to very sophisticated three-dimensional modelling. The
sophistication of the model depends on the level of understanding of the system. For instance, to model
the hydrodynamics of river flow, the most commonly used models are one-dimensional, i.e. they give a
single value of velocity at each cross-section. At the most sophisticated end is the full numerical solution
of the three-dimensional St Venant equations (see any fluid mechanics book, e.g. Liggett, 1994) which
fully describe the total flow. Sometimes, the system or problem definition is not readily understood. For
instance, the activated sludge process in wastewater treatment is a very complicated biochemical process,
not yet fully understood, so the simulation system knowledge is still incomplete with many ‘fudge’
factors. This is the situation for many real world problems. For instance, the movement of a contaminant
in groundwater or in the vadoze zone is inhibited by incomplete knowledge of field parameters, like three-
dimensional hydraulic conductivity. Many engineering ‘textbook’ problems are solved analytically for
steady state conditions (i.e. the problem conditions do not vary with time). In reality, many problems do
have conditions changing with time and such models, where d/dt0, require numerical solution
techniques. The steps outlined by Tanji (1994) in the development and application of system simulation
models are shown in Table 21.1.
This chapter is meant to introduce the student to the general concepts of modelling in environmental
systems. It is not meant to be an introduction to numerical analysis which is the solution technique to

Indentify
physical phenomena

|
|
Construct
model equations

Solve
the equations

Compare
and predict

satisfied
Satisfied
(a) Elementary modelling

Known System behaviour Need to know

input known or assumed output

(b) Simplistic simulation concept

Figure 21.1 Fundamentals of modelling.

880 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Table 21.1 Steps in development and application of systems

simulation models
Problem situation and study objectives
Recognition of a particular problem situation ‘
Identification of modelling objectives

System analysis
Isolate the system of interest from system environment
Evaluation of existing data
Conceptualization of model
Mathematical model formulation

System synthesis
Computer modelling, programming
Verification of numeric scheme
Calibration of model
Sensitivity of analysis
Validation of model using other data sets
Model runs

Simulation analysis
Evaluation and interpretation of simulated results
Re-examination of systems analyses and synthesis

Adapted from Tanji, 1994, with permission

solve the model equations derived from a description of the problem. The student is referred to, for
example, the text Numerical Models for Engineers by Chapra and Canale (1988) for a rigorous
introduction to this subject. The basic equations to many physical, chemical and biochemical problems
are introduced in this chapter, but not always solved. A discussion of their solution is included with the
purpose of defining the breadth of scope for modelling uses in environmental engineering.

21.2 MECHANISM OF POLLUTANT FATE IN THE ENVIRONMENT

The fate of a slug (once off) of pollutant entering a riverine system is defined as the origin to destiny,
distribution and concentration of that pollutant. For instance, a sewage discharge of 30mg/L BOD
concentration may have a fate of 1 mg/L, 5 km downstream (from its outfall), where it has diffused into
the riverine background concentration of BOD. It may be of interest to track the change in concentration
of that pollutant from the discharge point to 5km downstream. It may also be of interest to determine the
lateral distribution (across the river) of the pollutant for this river reach of 5 km and interest may also be in
the vertical distribution through the river depth for several sections in the river reach (length). In other
words, we may be interested in the three dimensional distribution of the pollutant at different times along
its track. This is a rather mammoth task. The following are examples of pollutants, whose fate is
commonly required to be known in environmental engineering:
Chimney stack pollutants discharged to the atmosphere
Conservative pollutants discharged to a riverine system
Non-conservative pollutants discharged to a riverine system
Raw sewage into a biological reactor
Noise source emitted to an urban environment
Agricultural pollutant dispersing in an aquifer
Industrial wastewater discharged through an ocean outfall
 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING 881

The three basic physical mechanisms that are responsible for the transport of pollutants in fluid bodies are:
1. Advection is the transport due to the bulk movement of fluid (a dynamic property).
2. Diffusion is the non-advective transport due to
(a) molecular or Brownian motion (at the microscopic scale) and
(b) eddy or turbulent motion (at all scales).
3. Buoyancy is the transport due to a vertical temperature gradient.
In riverine systems, advection is typically the dominant transport mechanism with (molecular) diffusion
playing an insignificant role. Buoyancy is relevant in systems where temperature gradients exist in almost
static water bodies, 1.e. lakes, estuaries or oceans, or sometimes in an atmospheric environment. Diffusion
is most significant in quiescent systems if the concentration gradient of the pollutant is significant. Other
physical/chemical/biological mechanisms, although non-transport in essence, contribute to the fate of a
pollutant. These include:
Volatilization
Absorption
Adsorption
Evaporation
Bacterial decay
Sedimentation
For instance, the fate of a groundwater contaminant may also depend on absorption by the soil particles,
adsorption on to underground rocks or bacterial decay due to biological reactions of soil microfauna. The
fate of pollutants in the different environments with some of their specific processes are shown in Fig.
21.2. It is also relevant to realize that there is much interaction between the atmosphere, surface water
(both freshwater and oceans) and groundwater environments.

21.2.1 Mathematics of Motion: Continuity and Momentum Equations

There are fundamental equations to understanding the movement, transport and diffusion of pollutants, be
they in the air, water or soil environments. These are:
e Continuity or conservation of mass
e Momentum
e Advective diffusion.

Atmosphere
Buoyancy, diffusion,
photochemical oxidation

Surface water
Advection, diffusion,
buoyancy, volatilization,
bacterial decay,
sedimentation

Groundwater
Advection, diffusion,
adsorption, absorption,
bacterial decay

Figure 21.2 Some of the pollution dilution mechanisms in atmosphere, surface water and groundwater.
882 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Continuity The continuity or mass conservation equations are derived with reference to the volume
element of Fig. 21.3. Consider the thought experiment, where water is flowing through a length of river, of
variable cross-section A. There is a streamwise flow of fluid with mean velocity u and also an inflow
laterally from the adjacent fields. The lateral inflow may be imagined as, say, overland flow entering a
stream along the length, dx:
The mass inflow through the upstream boundary = puA

where p = density of water, kg/m?

7)

u = velocity in x direction, m/s

A = cross-sectional area, m2

)
the mass inflow through the downstream boundary = puA + p Fe(uA) dx
ne
0
where p ce(uA) dx = the change in discharge over dx
IX

The lateral mass inflow = pq, dx

where q, = lateral inflow, m*/m s

The time rate of change of mass within the volume element = pondx
We are dealing with the partial derivative since 4 = f(x, t). The mass balance for the volume element is
then
Inflow ane outflow — change in storage
0 0A
(pud
+ pq, dx)—| pud+—(uA)
ox
dx|= — p—ot dx (21.1)
For a constant density, this reduces to

ag =F
ie t ay: (Au)
At) —95 = 0 (212)

For, say, a rectangular channel of constant width W and depth h [h = A(x, f)], then
oh o(uh)
W—+W
ry+ ae —qs=
ad 0 (2i3)

Lateral Inflow
inflow
puA
pqdx

Outflow

puA + a (uA) dx
ox

Figure 21.3 Flows through a control volume of a fluid.

 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING 883

Le apyfllarePR qeiny, 714

ot ax ox We ey
For no lateral inflow and one-dimensional flow, i.e. in the stream, there is only streamwise velocity u, in
the direction x:

uh)
dh = (uh
(215)
ot ox

For two-dimensional flow, there is a velocity u in the x direction and also a velocity v in the y direction
(assume y is orthogonal to x),

dh 4 Hut)
uh) ork) _ 0
aA(vh
(21.6)
ot ox oy

For three-dimensional flow, that is there are u, v and w velocities in the fluid flow,

dh A(uh) Avh) awh) |

0 (21.7)
a ax | dy oe
where u, v, w are the mean velocities in the x, y and z direction respectively. For steady flow,

a)
——> 0

Equations (21.5), (21.6) and (21.7) are known as the continuity or mass conservation equations.

Momentum The conservation of the momentum equation can be expressed in a linear or angular
momentum form, but the former is only of interest here. Momentum is the product of mass by velocity.
This derivation can be found in most texts on fluid mechanics. However, it is derived here in the interests
of completeness.
Consider the volume element or control volume shown in Fig. 21.4 and inspect the forces acting on
it. The forces acting on the fluid element of length Av shown in Fig. 21.4, between sections | and 2 are:
Gravity (downstream component) F, = pgAAxSo
Friction Fr = pgAAxS¢
1 C)
Hydrostatic F, — & = 5 85-0" *A)
2 IX

Energy slope

Water surface

River bed —

Datum

Figure 21.4 Force balance on a fluid element.

884 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

The driving force is the streamwise component of gravity and the resistance force is that due to bed
friction, where

Ax = length of fluid element, (m)

A = average cross-section area, (m”)
S; = slope of the energy line, (m/m)
So = bed slope, (m/m)
y = centroid height of the hydrostatic force, (m)

The energy line represents the total head line at each section, 1.e.
Total head = datum + water depth + u?/2g
where u* /2g = the ‘velocity’ head
The energy slope line, the water surface slope and the bed slope are sometimes simplified and assumed to
be the same. For this derivation, the energy line has a slope of S and the bed level has a slope of So.
The conservation of momentum equation is thus:
The rate of change of the resultant of the forces
momentum for the volume = acting on this volume
element element
d
gM =fetA-A)-F (21.8)
d 1 a) ye
—(v)
dt
= pgAAxSy + DE= pg 65— (iA) — pgAAxS; (21.9)

pAAx( a)“+ u)\

a 1 Cae
= pgAAx(Sy — Sp) +=pe—(-A) (21.10)
ot ox maa OX

For a constant cross-section and one-dimensional flow, Eq. (21.10) reduces to

ou Ou
—aioe —a = g(So
g(So —— S§;Se) (21-11)
:

It was mentioned earlier that S; is the slope of the energy line. If there were no friction losses or any other
losses between section | and 2, then S¢ — 0. Therefore, S; takes account of the losses incurred by the fluid
in getting from section | to section 2. These losses are potentially of many sources. Typically, the most
significant of these are bed friction losses. In addition, there are losses due to the internal fluid friction, as
each horizontal layer of fluid shears over the next layer, producing a shear loss. Also, in turbulent flow,
and real rivers always experience turbulent flow, there are the losses due to the turbulence generated, i.e.
due to the fluctuating components of velocity in three dimensions. In the case of flow around bends in
rivers there are further losses, due to the centrifugal forces. Thus Sr is like a global loss parameter. In
sophisticated models, the individual losses are spelled out independently, e.g. bed friction, fluid friction,
etc.
Equation (21.11) for steady flow (0/dt=0) can be expanded to the case of two (and three)-
dimensional flow. Introduce first,

U=u-+u' in the streamwise x direction

V=yv+4v' in the lateral y direction
W=w-4+w’ in the vertical z direction

where U, ; Ware the instantaneous velocities and u, v, w are the corresponding mean velocities and wu’, v’,
w’ the fluctuating velocity components. The momentum equation (for mean flow) for turbulent steady
 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING 885

flow in the streamwise direction is

i a du 5 fel ary a
mt yy Ww
Oz
=
Rs SS (Sit
aaa a7 Fase0 Grrl aaVv
SS SRP ae (ee aE.
(21.12)
where g = gravity, Sy = bed slope = sin 0, where @ is the angle of bed slope; v is the kinematic viscosity
(orders of magnitude less than the eddy viscosity). This equation can be found in almost any fluids book
(e.g. Liggett, 1994). If we assume the flow to be one dimensional, that is the mean quantities u40,
v=w=0. However, as the flow is turbulent, the fluctuating quantities are non-zero, that is
u'#v'#w’ #0. We also assume uniform flow, that is 4/dx=0. Equation (21.12) then reduces to
) @) |see
gSy + ay—(—u'v’) +—(—u'w’)
oz = 0 (21.13)
The first term in the above equation is the driving force while the other two are resistances to flow. We can
integrate Eq. (21.13) over the depth of the flow, let us say in a rectangular open channel, of depth H.
Equation (21.13) becomes, on integration,
H Oe Gh a
HS) + | —(—u'/v’)dz+—(—u'w')dz=0 (21.14)
0 dy Oz

If we first examine the third term of the above equation, the —u’w’ term, it is thought of as a shear stress
and so
H ————— !
| (uw )dz— —— 7 — ie
9 p 8

where 1; is the bed shear stress and f is a friction factor, from the Chezy equation. Thus Eq. (21.14) then
becomes
H
= Th
gHSo + | —(—u'v')dz-— =0 (21815)
0 dy p
Equation (21.15) can be further simplified if we can introduce a ‘model’ for the second term. This term is
due to the Reynolds stress in the fluid motion or the internal fluid friction (¢,,). The most simple model
for this term is known as the eddy viscosity, where the turbulent ‘mixing’ coefficient or eddy viscosity is
introduced along the lines of the Boussinesque approximation (constant p). Therefore, the second term
can be simplified to
kok, aes a
| —(-u'v')dz=H—6,,
0 oy dy =
Ou
where ox = pura Vy
(21.16)

where y, is the eddy viscosity, which is here assumed to be constant across the section, though to be
precise it is not constant. Finally, Eq. (21.15) becomes
a it
gSo + Yt Teas (21.17)

This is known as the DELV equation, or the depth average equation for the lateral distribution of
streamwise velocity.
This second order, partial differential equation can be solved analytically and numerically to give a
distribution for u=wu(y), where y is lateral and w is the depth integrated or depth averaged streamwise
velocity. The solution of the model of Eq. (21.17) is by no means easy, certainly for the undergraduate
886 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

a, o

1 z = : Maximum velocity
at centreline

Experimental data
0 x/h= 60
0.8 4
o x/h= 150
Depth—average A xih= 100
> predictions Poe 100

2 ‘
S 0 64 Prediction without
3 ; bottom effect
:
es]
=} = |1
aH IS
5 (Ss

= Velocity :
N 0.4 at wall is B/h = 30, n = 0.029 |
40 to 70% |
3
of the centreline velocity
Za
, yemes
2 |
0.24 7
4)
es ‘
ite, EEO
G LE

|
0 | T T ah =a
-] —0.8 —0.6 —0.4 —0.2 0
y/(B/2)

Figure 21.5 Horizontal distribution or depth-averaged velocity for fully developed flows m a rectangular open channel. (Adapted
from Nezu and Nagawawa, 1993, with permission of IAHR.)

student. The interested reader is referred to the IAHR monograph, Turbulence in Open Channel Flows by
Nezu and Nakagawa (1993).
Figure 21.5 shows some experimental results (from Nezu and Nakagawa, 1993) for a rectangular
open channel. The vertical axis is u/um, Where u,, 1s the maximum depth average velocity at the centre-
line of the channel. It is seen that the velocity is not the same across the full width. As one approaches the
wall away from the centre-line, the effect of wall friction comes into effect and reduced velocities occur.
This figure is for a very wide channel, with a roughness coefficient n (Mannings n of 0.029, refer to any
hydraulics text for the Mannings equation). The solution of Eq. (21.17) is dependent on the boundary
conditions and a model for eddy viscosity. Some understanding of the hydrodynamics is essential before
attempting to model water quality in river systems.

21.3 MATHEMATICS OF MASS TRANSPORT: DIFFUSION-ADVECTION

The transport of constituents by advection (moving water) and diffusion is dependent on the hydrologic
and hydrodynamic characteristics of the particular environment, i.e. surface water. Advective transport
dominates river flow that results from surface runoff and groundwater inflow. Diffusion dominates in
estuaries or rivers experiencing tidal action. A conservative pollutant or constituent is one that does not
undergo biological, chemical or physical reactions, i.e. salinity. Many constituents are assumed to be
conservative for the purposes of mathematical simplification. The simulation of one- or two-dimensional
 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING 887

depth averaged hydrodynamic systems with constant water density is carried out prior to any mass
transport-diffusion simulation. The velocity fields produced from the hydrodynamics are used as input to
the transport-diffusion (water quality) simulation. Mass transport is the flux or movement of a foreign
constituent (e.g. a pollutant discharged to a river) from one site to another. This material transport is
brought about by the mechanisms of advection and diffusion. The concentration of material A, C ‘A> 1D
moles/L is defined as
Cre Gn net) (21.18)
i.e. the concentration is a function of position and time. In one dimension, it is

Ca = Ca, t)
We can discuss mass transport or flux with reference to Fig. 21.6. A flux of a material goes from a zone of
higher concentration to a zone of lower concentration. The flux is introduced as g,. With reference to Fig.
21.6 we have

qx is the flux in the x direction

4x/x 18 the unit flux in the x direction at x =x.
4x/x+Ax 18 the unit flux in the x direction at x =x, =x+ Ax.

The concentration gradient of A is defined as 0C,4/dx. Fick’s law of molecular diffusion (see Fig. 21.6)
states that ‘the rate of mass transport of a material A, through a unit cross-sectional area of fluid by
molecular diffusion is proportional to the concentration gradient of the material in the fluid’:

Fick’s
dCa = —Dy| ———-
Cy G
ick’s |lawq = —Dy—
Mm u(y =3) ;
(21E19)

where q = flux of the material, as the mass of material being

transferred per unit time, per unit cross-sectional area, in the
x direction, kg/m? s (¢q = CaUa)
Dy = molecular diffusion coefficient, with the negative sign
indicating that transport (or flux) is from the area of high
concentration to low concentration, m7s
Ua, =molecular diffusion velocity < u (the advective velocity)

Molecular diffusion is a function of the concentration gradient and occurs even in static waters.
Sometimes the word dispersion is used as a ‘catch-all’ to account for the molecular and eddy diffusion and
dispersion due to advection (i.e. moving waters). As such, when material transport is being discussed for a
fluid in motion, the term dispersion is more commonly used.

Unit area

C, Flow out
Se Flow in
Concentration ' '
Cy Ix/x+Ax
of material C ee Eilux: |
' 3 1
' '
\ qy ‘
——= ; = x x + Av —
x, X>

Distance x —— >
Ax

Figure 21.6 Molecular diffusion.

888 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

21.3.1 Molecular Diffusion

A slug of a pollutant is discharged to a fluid at rest. Assume molecular diffusion only applies (see Fig.
21.7). For simplicity, assume diffusion’only in the x direction. (Of course, we know that molecular
diffusion is isotropic, i.e. it has the same magnitude in all directions.) The mass balance for molecular
diffusion through the static volume element shown in Fig. 21.7 is:
Rate of change of material A in the volume element = flux in — flux out + reactions
6)
The time rate of change in mass of material A = 2A dy dz (21.20)

The flux into the element in x direction = p, Us dy dz (21.21)

) '
The flux out of the element in x direction = E Un + ae(p4 Us) ax|
dy dz O12)
x
The rate of chemical or biological production = ra dx dy dz (21223)

where ra is a production rate. In the x direction this mass balance reduces to

ad)PA _ O(p(Ps4U;Ua) stage (21.24)
ot ox
Neglecting production (or any internal reactions) and dividing through by the molecular weight M, to get
the molar concentration, 1.e. Ca = pa/Ma, Eq. (21.24) becomes
dCA
O(Ca Us)
= EDS
ot ax i>)
With no production, in three dimensions Eq. (21.25) becomes
Ca {ACaUa) |ACaVa) .(CaWa)
areal x =e ay =f ea (21.26)

This is the continuity equation for molecular diffusion in a static fluid in molar concentration form with
units of moles/L. From Fick’s law:
0C4
q = CaU,y
AUa = —Du— MS (2127)
Substituting into Eq. (21.25), we get
OCA
pel a On
1 9 M3
Ry (21.28)

In three-dimensions we get
dC A Ca Ca a Gn
—=D
ry u(a2 Map + Dm 552 ) (21.29)

Mass ee
e,
PrUat 5x (PAUa) dx

Mass flux in ae
Diffusion out
PrUa ac a ac
Dy = + => Dy —* dx
M Ox Cx ns ee
Diffusion dz
OGn
M ox
=
Figure 21.7 Continuity and diffusion in an elemental volume.
 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING 889

However,

Va eo La e
dx? ay? iz?
and therefore

ac
a = Dus (21.30)

Equation (21.30) is known as the diffusion equation for a pollutant diffusion into a static fluid. It takes no
cognisance of the fluid in motion (advection) and considers molecular diffusion only. It can be developed
also for a fluid in motion, as described later.
The analytic solution of the I-D form of Eq. (21.30) for a slug of a pollutant of mass M is
M —x?
(Cl. De arensy ets 4Di (CAL sul)

where C(x, 7) is the pollutant concentration at x downstream of the discharge point, at time t. Now we
have replaced Ca with C and Dy with D, for clarity. At r=0, Eq. (21.31) reduces to
Cos 0)=0
At x=0, Eq. (21.31) reduces to
M
COs)
ae V4nDt
This solution is, of course, of Gaussian shape which we have already encountered (e.g. air pollution).
Figure 21.8 is a distribution plot of the concentration, for the case where M=1 and D= 1/4.
Along the centre-line of the ‘plume’, i.e. at x = 0 and time t= 0, we get maximum concentration. As
time progresses, molecular diffusion sets in and at t=1/4, spreading is significant, the distribution
reduces to a spike. For further details refer to Fischer et al. (1979). Figure 21.8 also shows what happens
as we move out from the centre-line of the plume, i.e. x > 0.
It is seen from the previous discussion that molecular diffusion is a slow process. Realistically in
riverine systems, we always have advection (moving waters, and, as such, the molecular diffusion
contribution is insignificant). However, lakes may be a case where molecular diffusion is more important
than advection.

C(0,?)
2 3
———» Time ¢decreasing
t= 1/4n

Figure 21.8 Gaussian distribution of concentration for M=1 and D= 1/4. (Adapted from Fischer et al., 1979, with permission.)
890 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

21.3.2 Advective Diffusion

Consider the case of a moving fluid, into which a slug of a pollutant is discharged. Diffusion will be by
molecular plus advective diffusion. Advettive diffusion may be much more significant than molecular
diffusion. The flux is then:
aC
Fickian diffusion g = CaUa = gore
Fickian plus advective diffusion g = CyaUa + CaU (232)

where C, is the concentration of pollutant A. From now on, we will replace Ca with C. Us is the diffusive
(molecular only) velocity, while U is the instantaneous advective velocity. Similarly, D is the molecular
diffusion (replacing Dy) and is initially assumed to be the same in all directions. Thus
aC

Rirhisiye advective (2 l 33)

lux flux

The streamwise point velocity is here assumed constant.

Recall the continuity Eq. (21.25) for diffusion only:

ae = — cu (21.25)
ot ax
This can be written to be independent of molecular or advective diffusion, but simply called diffusion, as
aC a
=== = (21.34)
Combining Eq. (21.34) and (21.33), for a constant D, we get
aC 0 aC
= D UE
ot ox ( ax Be )

=D #&C - aUC)
= (21335)

In three-dimensions, we get

aC
BD Se (21.36)

Equation (21.36) is the advection—diffusion equation and has an additional term to the straight diffusion
equation, which was

= == DV“ (21.30)

21.3.3 Turbulent Diffusion

In turbulent diffusion, the velocity and concentration parameters are

U=u+u'
eae (21.37)
W=w-+w’
C= oc
where U, V; Wand C are the time-varying point velocity and point concentrations. The mean values are
 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING 891

represented by wu, v, w and c. The fluctuations are represented by wu’, v’, w’ and c’. Consider Eq. (21.36):

(21.36)
Neglecting the molecular diffusion component, we get

ac
—at = —VUC (21.38)
Expanding Eq. (21.38), in three-dimensions,

dC AUC),
AUC AVC)
Ve | AWC)_ (21.39)
ot ox oy Oz :

Substituting Eq. (21.37) for the point velocities and concentrations and introducing a time average, long
enough so that the average of the turbulent fluctuating velocities and fluctuations of concentrations are
zero, Eq. (21.39) in one-dimension becomes

ue + ae(u+u'\(c+c’)=0 (21.40)
ot ox

where the overbar means the long time average. Expanding, we get

s+ (ee)+2 (We) + 2We) + 2 WE) = 0

Since the time average of c’ and wu’ are assumed zero, then we have

Oe @ ——.
was ass
yee ee es Dail
relONE) —0
(21.41)

Expanding Eq. (21.41) we get

dc 0c on @) ———
Rte) ee ge EES (aire \ee () (21.42)
ag are arma
Cnet
Removing the overbars on individual terms, we get
dc dc ou Oo
+u—+c tet )pea
©) — ()

ot ax ax
Reintroducing three-dimensions, we get
FE ee Neo Oil 2a 0 \ ee WM ee vic! = w/c! — (0
(21.43)
Fu tv tweet efax araes
ody @ )+ pre) td bee ee
From continuity, we have
du
Seg Eedv dw
ee
ax dy az
Therefore Eq. (21.43) in three-dimensions reduces to
dc dc de dc 09 —, , IG aa (21.44)
Fo ies arnar@n” are raneec!) ay
+ —(v’c') Jnare
+—(w'c’) =0

the turbulent
By similarity with the Fickian molecular diffusion model (g = — D dc/dx), we introduce
equivalents, or eddy diffusion, €, &, €. These are the constants in the relationship of flux being
892 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

proportional to the concentration gradient. As such, &,, &,, € are referred to as the ‘Fickian turbulent
diffusion coefficients’. Molecular diffusion involves small-scale motions. For the latter reason, the
coefficients are called the eddy diffusivities (Fischer et al., 1979), and are defined as
Fie dc
aia ie: ox

dc
cy! = —&, — (21.45)
* ay
Pal dc
uaa az
Substitute Eq. (21.45) into (21.44) and replace c with c; we get
dc dc dc dc O dc 0 dc ) dc
at habe Fae rect * 3 =) 21.46
Bee oe Ep a = (5) = (95) = (=z) Che)
If we introduce C for c (the mean value of concentration), Eq. (21.46) becomes

= .—
aC a aC a) aC
+ — é=— + — eae = (21.47)
BEN be dy \- oy Oz oz

aC aC aC
where Wah a aa oe

or, in one dimension, Eq. (21.47) becomes

aC eG aC
ot ox ax
where D,,. is the one-dimensional turbulent mixing coefficient. Equation (21.47) is known as the turbulent
diffusion equation in three-dimensions.
The basic one-dimensional transport/turbulent diffusion equation for mass transport (our interest
being mass pollutants) as solved by QUAL2 (US EPA, 1987), the US EPA water quality computer
programme for freshwater and seawater, described in Section 21.6.3 is
7 rn aC 0 = dC
(4D —— (A,uC) dx +A, dx— (21.48)
at = (4 xe ax | i a o es
dispersion pavecion See sinks
interactions

where M = mass of pollutant

x = streamwise distance
A—aume
C = concentration
A, = cross-sectional area of river
D, = turbulent mixing or dispersion coefficient, m?/s
u = mean longitudinal velocity
S' = external sources/sinks
This can be derived from Eq. (21.47). Note that the dispersion coefficient, D, >> Dy, (the molecular
diffusion coefficient). For further details refer to Fischer et al. (1979). This is examined in further detail in
Sec, 21.6:
 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING 893

21.4 POPULATION MODELS AND MODELS OF PHYSICAL SYSTEMS

Population growth models have been introduced in Chapters 3 and 12 with regard to growth of micro-
organisms in wastewater. We can write

aie kP
de
where P is the actual population at any time (#). We used X instead of P in Chapter 12 to represent
microbial population, i.e.

dX —
px
da
where yu is a growth rate or proportionality factor. The units of y are day ' The solution for the above
population model is

X = Xe (12.9)
where Xo is the microbial population at time zero. In Chapter 12, we had a model, called the saturation
growth rate model for the growth rate, as

La Pa S
(12.10)
where [max 18 the maximum growth rate of microbial population, S is the substrate or food concentration
and K, is the substrate concentration at a value of = [max/2. Frequently, K, is called the half saturation
constant. The constants [max and K, are empirical values determined from experimentation. In the case of
biomass and wastewater, this is typically a pilot plant or laboratory experiment. For instance, it is common
to model at small scales a proposed treatment process, so as to understand the physics (flows), the
chemistry (reactions) and the microbiology (biomass) before building a full-scale plant. The following
example is that of a biochemical model.

Example 21.1 Consider a laboratory experiment with the following data. Determine the growth
rate constant max, and the half-saturation constant K,.

S(mg/L) u(day~')
14 0.14
18 0.19
30 0.24
50 O32
80 0.40
150 0.48
200 0.49
300 0.53

Solution, from Eq. (12.10)

PesoS (12.10)
LH = Umax Ras

1 _ K, + SS: = Ike |
nverting we get eS OS a Pinas
function
By this manipulation, Eq. (12.10) has been transformed into a linear form; i.e. 1/HMmax 18 a linear
intercept of 1/Hmax- We can therefore produce the following table:
of 1/S with a slope of K,/max and an
894 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

1/S(L/mg) 1/max (day)

0.0714 7.14
0.0555 5.26
0.0333 4.17
0.0200 3.13
0.0125 2.50
0.0066 2.08
0.0050 2.04
0.0033 1.89

From the least squares fit in Fig. 21.9(a), it is seen that max = 0.66 and K, = 64 mg/L. This results in the
biochemical model, with parameters Umax and K,, such that
dy S
a Oy era
The above equation or model can be solved for X(t) analytically or numerically when the initial condition,
S = S(t) is known. In biological reactors, we will typically know what the feed rate is (i.e. S(¢)), so the task
is to determine the population X(t). In activated sludge aeration basins, X(t) is typically the mixed liquor
suspended solids, or MLSS, with concentration in mg/L.
The technique used here to determine the parameters [max and K, was the linearization of Eq.
(12.10). Another approach is to use non-linear regression on Eq. (12.10). This technique requires initial
guessing Of {max and K,. Many software graphics packages contain such facilities of linear/non-linear
regression so the student may not have to resort to the mathematics of differential equations or numerical
analysis.
Two types of hydraulic models can form the basis of many natural fluid systems, especially in water
and wastewater treatment processes, but also in riverine systems. These are:
e The continuous flow stirred tank reactor model (CFSTR) and
e The plug flow reactor model (PFR)

21.4.1 The CFSTR Model

Consider a reach of river/lake as a CFSTR process. Allow the discharge of a non-reactive tracer (or salt
solution) into this reach continuously. The continuous input flow rate is Q, while the influent tracer
concentration is C;. The assumption of a CFSTR model is that the volume of fluid in the river reach is well
mixed. This means there is no concentration gradient within the reach. The outflow flow rate is QO and the
outflow concentration is C. It is required to know the status of C with time (ic. C=C(f)). At the
beginning, the concentration of tracer in the river is zero. As time goes on, the tracer concentration in the
river and in the outflow is increasing. The CFSTR system is represented in Fig. 21.10. The outflow
concentration is assumed equal to the concentration in the river (assuming well mixed).
A mass balance is:
Inflow — outflow — production = accumulation
(21.49)
OC. | OCG ge a a a
where

QO = flow rate, m?/s

C; II influent tracer concentration, mg/L or g/m?
C = effluent concentration, mg/L or g/m?
V = volume of river reach or lake or tank
 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING 895

I/u(day)

bo

| l
Intercept = = 152)
max

(0) | | | Ih | a eel | ieee [al ee

AA
0.0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08
1/S (Limg)
(a)

0.7 Hnax = 0.66

“0 50 100 150 200. 250 300

S (mg/L)

(b)

Figure 21.9 (a) Linearized version of the saturation growth rate model. The line is a least square fit to give the model coefficients
Umax
=0.66 and K,=64mg/L. (6) Fit of the saturation growth rate model.

Assume ‘river’ is well mixed

QC, nd QC

Figure 21.10 CFSTR model.

896 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Assuming the influent is a non-reactive tracer, then r = 0, and for outflow and tank concentration, retain C
as a variable. Our interest is in the changing of the value of the concentration C with time:
dc
AGS Ou
Introduce the mean hydraulic retention time ¢ = V/Q (assumed constant). Rearranging,
dC 1
—— =—dt
C=C eo
The initial condition is C=C at t=0 so,

1
In|JC
— Cle, =-I tl
p
“ (<8) peal
Cia; wy)

C= Ci =(Cy— Gye?
C=C +(C—Ce?
= C(1 — e~/?) + Coe““/? (21.50)
i.e. the concentration in the river at any time f is a function of C;, Co, V/Q and, of course, ft. If Co is zero,
as is often the case, then Eq. (21.50) reduces to
C=C, —-e"*)

Example 21.2 Determine the concentration, with time, of a non-reaction tracer discharged into a
river block with the following conditions:
C7 = 300ms/L; continuous discharge
Q=700 m3/day flow rate
Co = 50 mg/L, the pre-existing concentration in the river
V = 200 m’, the volume of river reach of interest

Solution

1
o@ = V/O= 200/700 = or day = 6.7h

Eq. (21.50) can be written as

C = 300(1 — e 3) + 50 e 3!

The exact analytic solution of the equation is shown in Fig. 21.11. At time 0, the tracer concentration
is 4.0 mg/L (assume this is from an earlier tracer experiment in the same day). At one hydraulic retention
time, t=6.7h, the concentration has increased from 50 to over 200mg/L. At two hydraulic retention
times, the concentation is close to 250 mg/L and so on. Also shown in Fig. 21.11 is a numerical solution
of the equation, which slightly overestimates the concentration. There are many choices of numerical
techniques but the one shown is the Euler method, with large time steps.
 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING 897
300

Numerical solution
Euler method

200

As per equation (21.50)

150

100
Concentration
(mg/L)

50
HRT
fy ST TE ies a eawe
et Re ed Ce Komen ae
Time (h) (HRT = 6.72 h)

Figure 21.11 CFSTR model of concentration versus time.

When bacteria are involved, as is the case of the CFSTR of an activated sludge wastewater treatment
plant, then the above Eq. (21.49) and its solution, Eq. (21.50), are only part of the story. In such a case,
two mass balances are required, one for the biomass and another mass balance for the food substrate
supply. As discussed in Chapter 12, the biomass mass balance is written in terms of concentration XY. The
substrate is written in terms of concentration S. They are coupled equations. This is discussed in more
detail in Sec. 21.11.
Application of the CFSTR model can be utilized in evaluating water or wastewater treatment plants
where many of the tanks are completely mixed and can be modelled using a series of CFSTRs. Similarly,
preliminary analysis can be obtained for constituents discharged to riverine systems if the system is
assumed to be made up of a discrete number of well-mixed reaches. Alternatively, if an effluent is
discharged to a well-mixed lake, so too can a preliminary estimate be made of the concentrations of the
lake pollution level, by using the above analysis. A more complicated analysis is involved when there is a
reaction and if there are variations on the rate of reaction. The response of what happens in a length of
river can be modelled in an elementary way by considering the river as a series of well-mixed CFSTRs, as
shown in Example 21.3.

Example 21.3 Model a reach of river as three CFSTRs in series, as shown in Fig. 21.12. Consider a
non-reactant dye injected upstream of reach 1. Determine the steady state concentration at points 300, 600
and 900m downstream if the tracer concentration is 100 mg/L (100 g/m?) at the upstream end.

Solution Assume that the tracer concentration decays as a first-order reaction. i.e. r= — kC and
assume that k & 0.3 days '. The mass balance for the first reach is as follows:
inflow — outflow + production = accumulation
dc
OC OC rV, = “ap

The steady state case is:

OCin — OC; —kC\V = 0
898 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

The reach volumes are

Vy = 1.8 x 10'm
Vy =2.7 x 10*m?
V; = 3.6 x 104m?
O= 12m/s

The mean hydraulic retention times are

=e
@, =V\/O = 0.018 days
@O = V2/O = 0.027 days
@3 = V3/O = 0.035 days
Q, Cy

Figure 21.12 Modelling of a river as a series of CFSTRs.

Therefore, the mass balances for the three reaches are

OCin — OC; — kC\V; = 0

OC, — QC, — kC,V, = 0
OC, — OC; —kC, V3 —0
where C;, C2, C3 are the tracer concentrations at the exit of each of reaches 1, 2 and 3 respectively.
Introduce the mean hydraulic retention time for each reach as ¢; = V,/Q, etc. Then rearranging the above
equations and solving for C,, Cz and C3:
Creme
om is 00 2) ms EOS she
iro, 120 sec00is g/m
Ca
Cae = 98.7 g/m?
>= +k I + ky) 8
Gs
C3 = 97.6 g/m
~ 1 +kb)0
+ kb) + kos)
Clearly, there is almost no decay of this tracer over the first kilometre. It is seen from the above that the
decay is dependent on the product of the reaction rate and the mean hydraulic retention time. If the reach
lengths were an order of magnitude larger then the concentrations would be
C, = 94.8 g/m?
C) = 87.6 g/m?
C; = 793 e/m?
for reach lengths of 3, 6 and 9 km respectively. This simple modelling approach can be applied to a river
system and lends itself to computerization very easily. Also, for more exact results the reaches can be as
short as one wishes.

21.4.2 The Plug Flow Reactor (PFR) Model

A characteristic of the PFR model is the existence of a longitudinal concentration gradient. It is assumed
that there is no concentration gradient laterally across the reactor. As used in the activated sludge
 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING 899

biological wastewater treatment system, a continuous input of a constituent is put through at the upstream
end. As the ‘plug’ of wastewater moves through the longitudinal reactor, it becomes ‘diluted’ such that
when it leaves the downstream end it is ‘purified’. This is sketched in Fig. 21.13. The plug flow system is
the most common arrangement of activated sludge model, but as for the CFSTR model, it can be used as
an elementary water quality modelling technique in rivers.
Consider a river reach, again, where a tracer is input upstream. Assume a plug flow model, and then
determine the concentration of the tracer in the outflow. A mass balance on the elemental volume
AV =AAx, as sketched in Fig. 21.13 is
Inflow — outflow + production = accumulation

OC(x) — OC + Ax)+r av =<“ ay (21.51)

QOC(x) — o|co+a +rAAx= a Ax

where
C(x) = concentration at point x, g/m?
C(x + Ax) = concentration at point x + Ax, g/m?
O = flow rate, m?/s
r = reaction rate, g/m? s of tracer
Dividing across by A Ax and taking the limit:
aC
SS SS
QaC
Lp
ot A Ox
For the steady state case,
QdC _
Ady
Consider the rate of reaction in the case of a PFR to be first order:
r= —kC

where k = a reaction rate constant, day!

Therefore,
OdC
= — = —kC
A dx

Ae eee
A
C Q

Effluent
=
Influent

pipe
x x+Ar
Ae AV=AAx

Figure 21.13 Plug flow reactor (PFR) model.

900 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Introduce the mean hydraulic retention time

y
—=¢
Q
where V = reactor volume, m?
A
and —dx = do
Q
Integrating between limits C; > C and between 6=0— ¢, .
where C; = tracer concentration entering the river reach, g/m?
and C = tracer concentration leaving the river reach, g/m?

then
Cc dC wy)
|
—=-| kdd¢
|
c © 0
@
In—
n C = —k op

G = eke

Ci
C= Ger# (2152)
It is seen from Eq. (21.52) that the tracer concentration in the outflow is simply a function of the inflow
concentration. It is merely transformed in time, as shown in Fig. 21.14. For k~0.25 day~' and
o =V/Q=200/700, C=0.93C,, so if C;, is a constant, so is C.
As with the CFSTR, the PFR model may be used for constituent dilution in river analysis or other
environmental engineering applications, if the assumptions are appropriate to PFR behaviour.
We will now consider the more complex plug flow scenario by examining what happens within the
river/reactor as we proceed downstream along x. Rewriting Eq. (21.51) we get

C(x) -olc aC(x) (sll = HDI aC(x) DA aC(x) 8 C(x) AC(x)

C(x) o| a, ee SAREE =
re eT: a Te) ox an
flow in flow out dispersion in dispersion out decay rate

Tracer
concentration
inflow, C;

Time

Tracer
concentration
outflow, C

ee
l 2
Time t/O

Figure 21.14 Ideal response of a plug flow reactor to a stepped function tracer input.
 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING 901

where D is a dispersion coefficient (m*/day) and k is a first-order decay coefficient (day _')and A is the
cross-section area. From Eq. (21.19), we have

Fick’s law

In this example, D represents the turbulent mixing coefficient which tends to move the ‘plug’ of
water from regions of high to regions of low concentration (i.e. from left to right in Fig. 21.13). In the
limit as Ax and At— 0, we have Eq. (21.53) reducing to
aC eC aC
fi = D a2 Us a kC (21.54)

where U=Q/A, the streamwise velocity of water flow along the river/reactor. This equation is the
advection—diffusion equation (21.47). Equation (21.54) is a second-order partial differential equation. For
the steady state case, it reduces to a second-order ordinary differential equation (ODE):
ae dC
O = D— — U——kC Oe
dx? sedx (2239)
At time t < 0, the tank is full of water, but the tracer has not been injected. At t= 0, the tracer is injected at
the upstream end, and so we have the following boundary condition:
dCo
OCin = OCy = —DA—
where C;, is the tracer concentration at the pipe entry to the reactor and Cp is the tracer concentration at
the most upstream node of the reactor, 1.e. at x =0.
The solution of Eq. (21.55) can be computed by a number of numerical techniques. Here we use
what is called the centred finite difference method and rewrite Eq. (21.55) as
Gee CI y it =
C=) kC; (21.56)
Ax? 2Ax
where C; is the concentration at node i, C;,,; at the adjacent downstream node i+1 and C;_, at the
adjacent upstream node. Multiply across by Ax/U and collecting terms we get
D 1 2D kx D 1
—(—— += ]C_ —— + —— |C; — (——— -]C, = 0 2eSe
(Gats)S Le we? U ) (ais 5] iS a
This equation can be written for each node in the longitudinal direction x. At the upstream end, this
becomes
D 1 2D NX D 1
—{—— +=]C_
(ets)e+ (get 7)C : Ge 5)Cy =i 21:58
Cree
C_, is replaced because of the first boundary condition, as follows. At the inlet we have
dc,
OC SOC Ase (21.59)
where Cy is the concentration at x = 0. This says that the concentration of reactant carried into the reactor
by advection is the same as that carried away from the inlet pipe by both advection and turbulent diffusion
in the tank. We can write Eq. (21.59) numerically as
Ci -—C_1
OCin = QCo aad a ie 21.60
(21.60)
Equation (21.60) is solved for C_,:
2Ax
CC, -Ci1= — Haq (Con —OC))
902 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

However, QO = UA. Therefore,

2Ax
Ci == GE, = — — (UCn ~ UCo)
. mie te (21.61)
<= — UCin — — UC

Substituting Eq. (21.61) into (21.58) and collecting terms, we get

2D k Ax ANU) 2D AxU
(Gat U Se ee =) oe ay (Ga)
Ne 1 en(
oe a =)
1 ae (21262 )

This is the equation at the upstream end. At the downstream end we have the form of Eq. (21.57), which is
—D 1 PUD Hoga D 1
—— +=]C,- —— + — ]C, — |——— = ]Gi41 =0 21.63
Gare + (Gat U Je (cs ;) = oe
where n is the nth node at the downstream end. The downstream boundary condition is

OC, — DA ge —NO% (21.64)

dx
Differencing reduces Eq. (21.64) to

Q C, Cri
— DA—————_ = qers Cr-1
CG, (21.65)
21.65

Equation (21.65) implies that C,,,;=C, 1, i.e. the gradient at the outlet is zero. Substituting C,,_, for
Cnr+1 in Eq. (21.63), we get

2D DD ia akiAx
== Ge ——— —_- Gg = 0 21.66
(Gz) i+(set) Ve
The equations requiring solution are now (21.58), (21.62) and (21.66). They form a system of n
tridiagonal equations with n unknowns and can be solved if we have system parameters (e.g. D) and
boundary conditions. Example 21.4 is such an exercise.

Example 21.4 Consider D=1.5 m’/s, U=0.5m/s, Ax=2.0m, k=0.25 day~', with C,,=
300 mg/L. Determine the response of the PFR reactor in the longitudinal direction, x.

Solution Infill the tridiagonal matrix as described in the above equations, as follows:
+4.66 —3.0 = = = Co 300
aaee eee) EA) C; 0
=L5 +3337 —1.0 Cry = {0
= SPP oes 10) Cs 0
=> ON a3 C4 0
This matrix is solved to give Cp = 263.2, C’; = 142.2, C) = 78.6, C3 = 48.6, Cy = 43.7. The solution of
this set of equations is fairly straightforward and numerical methods such as Gauss elimination work well.
The student is advised to refer to Chapra and Canale (1988) for excellent documentation on suitable
numerical methods and more detailed CSTR and PEFR case studies.
These results are plotted in Fig. 21.15, for two different values of the turbulent diffusion coefficient,
D, ie. D=1.5 and D=6m*/day. It is seen from Fig. 21.15 that the concentration decreases as the tracer
moves through the tank, due to the decay reaction. As D goes from 1.5 to 6, it is seen that the curve
flattens significantly. If D is further decreased, it is noted that the mixing becomes less important relative
 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING 903

250/- *\ D=LS
5, 200K ne
E= lL ‘.
iS we
3 ISO a
= = ‘

8 we
3 100 ee =6
nee as Bos
a a = = ae

50+ So phat ae ieee Bet ely z

0 ee bal | | | | | | | | | |
0 ] 2, 3 4 5) 6 7 8
A x distance
“= 0 ——>_ Downstream
Inlet to
reactor

Figure 21.15 Plug flow reactor—concentration versus distance.

to advection and decay. The above development and example can be used to determine more detailed
analysis with regard to PFR systems. The number of Axs can be increased and so increase the detail of the
analysis.

21.5 HYDRODYNAMIC MODELLING OF RIVERS

Before water quality in riverine systems can be evaluated, the hydrodynamics of the system must first be
determined. This means determining the hydraulic flow characteristics of depth, slope, velocity, discharge.
These parameters may be a function of time if the flow is considered unsteady. In riverine systems the
flow is usually non-uniform with a gradually varied depth. However, the water quality characteristics are
dependent on the hydrodynamics of flow and so the equations for diffusion and mass transport are
coupled to those of the hydrodynamics. Typically modelling involves simplification processes and means
of uncoupling these equations. The most simple problem in hydrodynamics is when the flow problem can
be defined as steady and the water levels are dependent only on downstream conditions such as is the case
of backwater analysis. The water levels upstream are dependent on the flow rate and on the initial water
level of, say, a bridge or weir downstream. The levels are computed from the downstream level,
proceeding to calculate the water levels at each cross-section as we move upstream. The opposite is the
case when flood routeing is involved. This is an unsteady case and the flow rates change over time. The
conditions are the input hydrograph from upstream, which starts with a flow rate and water level and the
hydrograph is routed in a direction downstream by one of the many techniques, e.g. kinematic wave
routeing.

21.5.1 Introduction to Hydrodynamic Models

HEC-2 The US Army Corps of Engineers make available a backwater analysis programme which is in
widespread use. It is capable of producing longitudinal water surface profiles along riverine systems
subject to steady flow, if given a starting water level and flow at the downstream end (assuming subcritical
904 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

L = length of river reach ->|

Figure 21.16 Flow between two river cross-sections (2 and 1).

flow). The computational procedure is based on the solution of the one-dimensional energy equation
using the standard step iterations method, HEC-2 (US Army Corps of Engineers, 1990) to calculate the
unknown water surface elevation at a cross-section (see Fig. 21.16). We are, of course, talking about the
steady state flow, i.e. d/dt=0. We are talking about subcritical flow, i.e. the Froude number is < 1. This
means that there are no ‘jumps’, e.g. ‘hydraulic jumps’, in the longitudinal water surface profile.
The total energy, measured as ‘head of water’ at any channel section is
y2
H=WS+a— (21.67)
2g
where WS = depth to water surface above a datum (potential energy)
V2 Raiee
a— = kinetic energy term
2g
Equating the total energy at section 2 to that of section | gives

WS) + a
V3
— = WS, +a,—+h.
Vi (21.68)
2g 2g

where V2, V; = mean velocities (0/A,, O/A2)

&, %, = velocity coefficients

h, = energy head loss between sections 2 and 1, 1.e. the
reduction in water surface level between sections | and
2 due to overcoming the bed frictional and other
retardation forces between | and 2
9

F a= + — — a) —

Sp = representative friction slope = (WS) — WS})/L

C = expansion or contraction loss coefficient
L = length of river reach
As the HEC-2 program is a competent number-cruncher, it has the facilities to accommodate complex
cross-sections, including main channels and floodplains, bridges, culverts, etc., and data can be input to
describe even minor changes in the lateral bed profile.
The unknown water surface elevation at a cross-section is determined by an iterative solution of Eqs
(21.68) and (21.69). The computational procedure as listed in HEC-2 (US Army Corps of Engineers,
1990) 1s:
 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING 905

1 Assume a water surface elevation at the upstream cross-section (WS>)

for the subcritical flow case.
2. ook the downstream and upstream section conveyance and velocity heads. Conveyance is
defined as
1
Ky Sen (21.70)
Eq. (21.70) is a form of the Manning equation, i.e.

O os L pRe3gi/2
n

where

n, = Manning’s roughness coefficient

(0.01 for smooth concrete, 0.03 for typical rivers);
tables for n are given in most hydraulics textbooks
(e.g. Chow, 1959)
A, =cross-sectional area at section 1
R, =hydraulic radius of section 1
A,
= Pp’ where P; = wetted perimeter
1
S = gradient of the energy (or water surface) line

3. Compute the representative friction slope Sr:

See
vee 2 (Zl)
Ky +k
and solve Eq. (21.69) for h., after identifying values for «,, «2 and C. For the simple typical case of
steady flow, O; = Q2 (and no lateral inflow). Other methods exist to compute Se (US Army Corps of
Engineers, 1990).
4. Solve Eq. (21.68) for WS.
5. Compare the computed value of WS, to the initial estimate of WSp. If the difference is less than, say,
0.01 m, proceed upstream to the next cross-section. If not, try another WS, and repeat the steps again.

An application in the widespread use for HEC-2 is the determination of longitudinal water surface
profiles, for floods of different magnitudes (different return periods). This is carried out in the initial event
for, say, a river. If a flood study is being carried out, compound channel modifications are possibly entered
in the revised cross-section data and a new set of water surface profiles are obtained. The benefits of
channel modification can then be assessed.
An excellent description of HEC-2 is found in Bedient and Huber (1988). The reader is referred to
this text and the examples and exercises in it. Information on HEC 2 software is available from the US
Army Corps of Engineers Headquarters in Davis, California or from suppliers of public domain software.

HEC-1 This is a computer program from the US Army Corps of Engineers (1990) that simulates the
surface runoff response of a river basin to precipitation by representing the basin as an interconnected system
of hydrologic and hydraulic components (Fig. 21.17). Each component models an aspect of the precipita-
tion—runoff process within a sub-basin. A component may represent a surface runoff entity, a stream channel
or areservoir. The output is in the form of streamflow hydrographs at sections along the river reach. It can be
used for both large rural catchments or more urbanized catchments (US Army Corps of Engineers, 1992).
The kinematic wave routeing method is used for the urbanized catchments while the user can choose either
the kinematic wave method or the Muskingum—Cunge flood routeing methods for rural catchments. These
two methods are described in most hydraulic textbooks (see Bedient and Huber, 1988).
906 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Sub-basin boundary

[| Sub-basins
Catchment
boundary
@ Control points

Figure 21.17 River basin and schematic river basin. (Adapted from HEC-1, 1990, with permission.)

Water is transported either by surface runoff or channel runoff to the stream network. The rainfall
hyetograph produces surface runoff and/or channel runoff. The rainfall hyetograph is the excess rainfall
(over time) found by subtracting infiltration and detention losses from precipitation. The rainfall and
infiltration are assumed uniform over the sub-basin. The resulting rainfall excesses are then routed by the
unit hydrograph method or kinematic wave method to produce the sub-basin hydrograph, which serves as
partial input for the next downstream sub-basin. This suggests that the sub-basin should be small in area
and constant in topography and hydrogeology. As rainfall excess is assumed uniform over a sub-basin, it
is best to utilize small areas as sub-basins.
Details of the rainfall transformation to rainfall excess and rainfall hyetograph are given in Section 3
of HEC-1 (US Army Corps of Engineers, 1990). The user may adopt a synthetic storm based on the
standard projected storm (details for the United Kingdom/Ireland are available in the NERC Flood
Studies Report, 1975). An empirical exponential loss rate function may be used to compute rainfall
excess. The Soil Conservation Service (SCS) method, Holtan method or Green-Ampt (see Dingman,
1994) method may also be used.
In kinematic wave routeing (of the hydrograph and lateral inflow along the channel) the one
dimensional governing equations of flow are the St Venant equations:

we 0 a) ee
Continuity : “eF = =e aos i) Cig)

rate of storage lateral excess

Tise term term inflow rainfall

This equation is written with Q replaced by q for the overland flow case:

ou ou oy u—v
Momentum : — + u— + ¢— = 9(So — Se) — GL (21k73)
ot ox ox
acceleration velocity depth bed slope lateral
or dynamic head or slope and inertia
term convective slope
interia
 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING 907

where q = discharge per unit width of cross-sections: q,, = lateral inflow

y = mean depth of channel
x = distance downstream
u = x component of velocity
v =x component of velocity of lateral inflow
J = infiltration rate
i = rainfall rate
DerDed slope
S = friction slope

The above equations are simplified when the following assumptions are taken into account:
1. There is no water surface superelevation and no secondary circulations.
2. Flows are gradually varied with hydrostatic pressure prevailing throughout, such that vertical
accelerations are neglected.
3. Boundaries are fixed and non-erodable.
is. Bed slopes are flatter than ~ 1:10.
5. Empirical equations are used to evaluate flow resistance (Manning or Chezy equation).

Kinematic waves are long shallow waves where surface perturbations are assumed not to exist. Kinematic
waves occur when the dynamic terms in the momentum equation(s) tend to zero. Therefore Eq. (21.73)
reduces to
Sy = St (21.74)
i.e. the bed slope is approximately equal to the friction slope. Therefore, under the condition of negligible
backwater effects, the discharge can be described in stage/discharge terms as

O,=%A™ of qo= ayn (21.75)

where « and m are parameters related to flow geometry and roughness. The subscript c refers to the main
channel and the subscript o refers to the overland flow. The flow at any point can then be computed from
the Manning equation:

Q= nT AR2/3s\2 (21.76)

for a wide rectangular channel of width Wand depth y, where W > y. Recall the hydraulic radius R= A/P,
where P is the wetted perimeter:

1/2
=— Ara SY
=e Lop w-2/3
n
O=AtE

Therefore

gee3 and a =i sinw-2h (21.77)

n

As the momentum equation was reduced to an empirical relationship between area and discharge, the
908 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

movement of the flood wave is fully described by the continuity equation:

dA dQ
aa (21578)
ot ox 4
By comparison with backwater analysis (HEC-2), which has its initial condition set at the downstream
boundary, the kinematic wave routeing model has its initial condition set at the upstream boundary. The
initial and boundary conditions for the kinematic wave are determined from the upstream boundary
hydrograph. The governing equation (21.78) is modified by combining with Eq. (21.75) to become
OA OA )e ;
ot ax
However, since Q is a function of A, i.e. O=aA, ie. O=aA”™, then

10ox _ 80.84
= =——=am
0A Ox
_ gin)ox24
0A , 0A
and — + amA™-) _ = g (21.79)
ot ox
since a and m are constants for a particular geometric hydraulic shape and roughness. Therefore, the only
dependent variable is A, the cross-sectional area. Equation (21.79) is written for both the overland flow
and main channel routeing as follows:
P cna Oy eal
Overland flow : Rane oe ey (21.80)
ot ox
0A _1) 0A
Main channel flow : ae + aem,A)) ar =e (21.81)

where the subscript c relates to main channel and o refers to overland flow. These equations are solved
(independently) by a method of finite difference to produce a relationship for y, in terms of x, t and i — f
and for A, in terms of x, t and qg,. These values of y, (or A.) are then substituted into Eq. (21.75) to solve
for Q, (or go). This procedure allows the calculation of Q, (or g.) as a function of segment (reach) length
(L,) and time (¢). Therefore, the hydrograph for each reach can be determined. The procedure followed in
HEC-1 is first to calculate the overland flows, then the flows through the collector channel system and
finally the discharges in the main stream. The reader is referred to the manuals of HEC-1 and to Bedient
and Huber (1988) where excellent details, examples and case studies using HEC-1 are found. Schematics
of hydrograph shapes are shown in Fig. 21.18 where the resultant inflow hydrograph catchment was
determined from knowledge of the rainstorm and characteristics of the catchment and HEC-1 was used to
route this hydrograph through a lake and so determine the downstream outflow hydrograph. The use of

Inflow to lake

Attenuation of peak

Outflow from lake

(or post-
urbanized (or pre-urbanized
Flow,
(m3/s)
Q catchment) catchment)

—————» Timer

Figure 21.18 Schematic of inflow/outflow hydrographs to a lake.

 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING 909

models such as HEC-1, DAMBRK, etc., can determine the attenuating effects of lakes, floodplains, river
storage, etc. Very often in flood studies or sizing of upstream flood reservoirs the determination of a
specific attenuation is required and hence the design size of a retention storage reservoir.
As these models can be used to determine the attenuation effects of lakes or flow over floodplains, so
also can they be used to determine the impact of proposed urbanization on a rural catchment (Fig. 21.18)
(US Army Corps of Engineers, 1992). Another excellent program that is capable of flood routeing is that
of DAMBRK by Fread of the US National Weather Service. There are many other excellent
hydrodynamic programs available, some in the public domain and others proprietary. The reader is
recommended to obtain a copy of any of the above to gain practice in the use of flood routeing as a
forerunner to river water quality modelling.

21.6 WATER QUALITY MODELLING IN RIVERINE SYSTEMS

In analysing and predicting water quality, specific constituents may need to be examined. Among the non-
conservative (those that change or react) constituents of interest in riverine water quality are:
Dissolved oxygen (DO)
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
Temperature
Algae as chlorophyll-a
Organic nitrogen (N,)
Ammonia nitrogen (NH3 — N)
Nitrite nitrogen (NO» — N)
Nitrate nitrogen (NO; — N)
Organic phosphorus
Dissolved phosphorus
Coliforms
Conservative constituents may also be of interest and these include:

e Sediment
e Dissolved solids or salts
e Metals (Pb, Cu, Hg, Cr, Cd)
e Non-reactive dye tracers for experimental purposes

21.6.1 Modelling of Conservative Constituents

The following example of determining the concentration of dissolved solids in riverine systems is
adapted from O’Connor (1976). Conservative dissolved solids are defined as those that enter river
systems primarily from natural geologic backgrounds, for instance calcium salts. Other constituents
derived from the rock strata include iron, magnesium, sodium, potassium, aluminium, lead, mercury, etc.
‘Conservative’ means that the compounds are not chemically reactive. These constituents (assuming that
there are no anthropogenic sources) are contributed to the river system via groundwater. If it is assumed
that the groundwater contribution to river flow does not change hugely (even in flood times) then these
dissolved salts will be somewhat constant throughout the year. Consider a riverine control volume with
streamwise flow Q with a concentration of a conservative constituent of C. Additionally there is a lateral
inflow of surface runoff AQs with concentration C,. There is also a groundwater contribution of flow AQ,
and concentration C,. This is shown in Fig. 21.19. We are interested in determining the flow and water
quality impacts of the surface runoff and groundwater on the main river flow.
910 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Surface

Groundwater
flow
ow
O+ es oe

dC
C+ >,

Figure 21.19 Flows and concentrations through a riverine control volume.

Consider a mass balance around the control volume:

Inflow — outflow + generation = accumulation

Assume no generation, i.e. conservative constituents:

OG AOC. A0 Ga
dQ aC av)- AVC
(0+ 2ar)(c+5 mApH (21.82)
ox

where O = flow, m?/s

C = concentration, g/m?(mg/L)
Ax = length of river, km

Recall that

00. aC\, _ CQ)

(c2+0%)ax= ee
Neglecting second-order terms and dividing through by Ax:

AQ, |—AQ, ACQ) _ AAxC (21.83)

ene ier eae ere
where Q, = groundwater flow
C, = groundwater flow concentration
Q, = surface overland flow
C, = concentration of surface flow

Taking the limit, the general expression of mass flow is

BE og gts MED) VEN

Cs ax 5 ax ax at
(21.84)
The steady state condition reduces to

Gs
AQ. | —-
A, ACO) _, (21.85)
ox 8 ax Ox
 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING 911

Integrating over the river length of Ax we get

CxO). + CyQz = Ce = 0

Therefore

CO = C,Q; + CyQ, (21.86)

That is, the product of flow and concentration of the total is the sum of its surface and groundwater
contributions. Introduce

rat and thon

Then Eq. (21.86) becomes

C=rC,+(1 —7)c, CAST)

Introduce Qo = base flow. For
Q<@Q thenlet O=Q, andsoC =C, (21.88)
Thus, for flows less than base flows, the concentrations would be essentially those from groundwater; i.e.
in summer times we expect high salts concentration (if they exist in the groundwater). Usually surface
water flows are much lower in salts concentration than groundwater. Rearranging Eq. (21.87):
C= (EC, — C.-C.
For river flows higher than base flows, then

For Q > Qp introduce Q, = fQ"

Then
QO, = os:
= e BO" — po"!
*

and CG SaCy4r ar Ce (65) (21.89)

During the dry periods of the year, when there is no surface water contribution, the concentration in the
river is due to groundwater and is independent of flow magnitude, Eq. (21.88). At other times, the
concentration is a combination of groundwater and surface water contributions. Equation (21.89) suggests
that, at those times, the concentration is dependent on the river flow magnitude. O’Connor (1976) has
shown that Eq. (21.89) holds for a number of rivers in the United States over a range of flow magnitudes.
The reader is referred to this classic paper for further details.
Fig. 21.20(a), adapted from O’Connor (1976), shows the relationship of river flow with groundwater.
It is seen that for O < Qo, all the flow is from Q,. Above Qo, there can be different contributions of Q, to
the total flow. Fig. 21.20(b) shows the relationship of the ratio of groundwater and river flow with river
flow and Fig. 21.20(c) shows the relationship of concentrations.

21.6.2 Modelling of Non-conservative Constituents

Non-conservative constituents are those that are chemically/biochemically reactive. Oxygen in rivers or
the lack of it was first modelled by Streeter and Phelps (1925). The oxygen concentration in a riverine
system changes with time and space and is dependent on a host of other parameters and other
constituents. The dissolved oxygen saturation concentration is ~ 14.5 mg/L at 0°C, ~ 9.0 mg/L at 20°C
and ~6.0mg/L at 40°C. If water lies quiescent in a shallow lake, the top surfaces will increase in
temperature (during the warm seasons) and thereby the DO saturation value falls. Should there be an
excess nutrient supply of phosphorus, then algae may grow and exert a demand on the oxygen, thereby
912 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Groundwater Ground and

p<
surface water -*
Dil

Q,
In

Baseflow InQ
(a)

Inr=Q,/O

nig

G0

InQ
(c)

Figure 21.20 The relationship between the river flow and (a) groundwater, (b) ratio of river flow to groundwater and (c) the
concentrations of dissolved solids. (Adapted from O’Connor, 1976. Copyright by the American Geophysical Union.)

reducing the oxygen level further. Further growth leads to further reduction in oxygen, ultimately leading
to a eutrophic lake. BOD wastes discharged into riverine systems exert demands on oxygen levels and
may draw the oxygen down to levels too low to sustain aquatic life (about <3 mg/L). The concentration
of DO is represented as the resultant of two principal competing processes:
e Deoxygenation and
e Aeration
Deoxygenation This occurs where the rate of uptake of oxygen is dependent on its remaining BOD
concentration:

dL
FO) aaa I (21.90)
 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING 913

where ro1 = tate of deoxygenation, mg/m? d

L = BOD remaining, mg/m?
K, = first-order rate coefficient (temperature dependent), d7!

The integrated form of Eq. (21.90) is

Lejen (21.91)
where Lo = concentration of ultimate BOD
Therefore

roy = = —K ge (21.92)
A more detailed rate equation allows for further deoxygenation due to settling (benthic deposits) such that

wl = ae
ee Kil
I — K3h
3

where K3 = rate of deoxygenation due to settling (temperature dependent)

Reoxygenation or reaeration This occurs where the rate of replenishment of oxygen is dependent on
the DO deficit and a reaeration rate coefficient K):
ron = K2(C,
— C) = KD (WANE)
where ro = rate of reaeration, mg/m? d
K> = reaeration rate coefficient, d~!
C, = dissolved oxygen (DO) saturation level, mg/L
C = actual DO level, mg/L
D = DO deficit, mg/L
Streeter and Phelps (1925) (see Sec. 7.3) expressed the time rate of charge of dissolved oxygen deficit as

= eK ead) (21.94)
Consider a riverine control volume with inflows and outflows as shown in Fig. 21.21. Consider a mass
balance around the flow volume:.
Inflow — outflow + deoxygenation + reaeration = accumulation

ac
QOC\, — OC\x4ax +11 AV +1o2AV = a AV (21.95)

Section x

Section x + Ax
(QC Vi Ax

Figure 21.21 Riverine control volume.

914 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

where C = actual concentration of oxygen, mg/L

AV = incremental volume, over the incremental length Ax

Taking the limit as Ax > 0 and for the steady state case (0C/dt= 0),

0% KL +K.D=0 (21.96)

However, t=V/Q so Eq. (21.96) becomes the differential equation for the simple oxygen sag model:
dC
= —K\L+K,D (21.97)
dt

However D=C, — C and C, is a constant

Therefore,
dD de
dio. dt
dD
and, from Eq. (21.94) “2 K,L— KyD

and, from Eq. (21.91) KiL = K\Loe“*"

Therefore

St KD = Kiloe™
dD Kat (21.98)
This ordinary first-order, linear, non-homogeneous differential equation (refer to Waite, 1977, p. 86) is
readily solvable to
K\Lo
(t) = rane (e —Kit
D(t =
Ge,—K>yt
=a D
Doe —Kyt (21.99)
E

where D(t) = oxygen deficit at any timeit = C, — C()

Ly = ultimate BOD at the discharge site
Do = initial oxygen deficit at the BOD discharge site

Equation (21.99) is the Streeter-Phelps oxygen sag equation, and is represented in Fig. 21.22. Typically
there is a need to know the minimum DO in the river and to see whether this becomes anoxic or worse.
Also, it is sometimes relevant to know how far downstream it is expected before this worst condition
occurs.
The maximum oxygen deficit D, occurring at a distance x, downstream of the point of discharge may
be computed by setting dD/dt=0, 1.e.

ee = K,Loe*"! —k,D, = 0
dt i
Ki EaKatt
Dy miei (21.100)

To determine the time, ¢, that it takes for this to occur, Eq. (21.99) is differentiated with respect to ¢ and
this solves for tf:
dDit) Ki Lo
(K2e-*'! — K,e-*2") — K, Die = 0
di Ryka

t
ace Hea Seely ey
Ko —K 1 Ky K 1 Lo
 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING 915

Saturation DO

D,= maximum or critical DO deficit

X, = location of D,

D = deficit

C, dissolved
oxygen
concentration, DO sag (actual DO curve)
DO mg/L

ee et Reaeration

So & Deoxygenation

Point of discharge Distance downstream of discharge point

of pollution

Figure 21.22 Oxygen sag curve in a river.

Further details and examples are included in Chapter 7 on water quality.

In the form presented above, the oxygen sag model is incomplete, but serves to get initial values on
behaviour. Other parameters that influence the BOD/DO relationship include:
e Sedimentation
e Photosynthesis
e Re-suspension
e Advection
e Dispersion
A more sophisticated version of Eq. (21.99) to include some of the above parameters is
aL OL L
Se (aa) LaLa ZOD
at ax a ax? co 3) ( )

C. aC
hc ty ee eK ere eer (21.103)
at ax. ax? : : benthic
advection dispersion deoxygenation reaeration Aer
term term Eee

where L is the BOD and C is the DO concentration and La is the rate of addition of BOD along the river
reach. The second-order PDE, Eq. (21.102) can be solved analytically (one dependent variable L) for the
simplified steady state case (dL/dt) = 0), but for the unsteady state case, it is common to use a numerical
scheme—either finite difference or finite element. However, since Eq. (21.103) has two dependent
variables, C and L, it cannot be solved analytically, even for the steady state. Equation (21.103) is said to
be coupled to the solution of Eq. (21.102) and so Eq. (21.102) is first solved for L and then Eq. (21.103) is
solved for C. The reader is referred to James (1993) for further details on the numerical solution of such
coupled equations as Eq. (21.102) and Eq. (21.103).

21.6.3 QUAL2—The US EPA, Enhanced Water Quality Model

This model is briefly described in the following pages as it is in widespread use, being available in the
public domain from the US EPA, Athens, Georgia. The basic equation solved by QUAL2 is the one-
916 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

dimensional advection—dispersion transport equation, which is numerically integrated over space and time
for each water quality constituent. This equation includes the effects of advection, dispersion, dilution,
constituent reactions and interactions, and sources and sinks. For any constituent, this equation 1s
M o(AD,dC/a.
CEE, aa(AuC
SO oe (21.48)
ot ox ax
where M = mass of constituent, mg
C = concentration, mg/L
V = volume, m? or L
u = mean velocity of river flow, m/s
S = external source/sink, mg/s
Dy = longitudinal dispersion (eddy) coefficient
Since Vien
0M oO aC av
— =—(VC) = V—+C—
ot ai ) ot i ot
Assuming steady flow (dQ/dt= 0dV/dt= 0), then
0M
Eee
aC
ot at

Noting that V=A, dx, then Eq. (21.48) becomes

dC _1 AAD,aC/ax) 1 HAuC) a Sy
‘oles Ox A, 0x V (21.104)
dispersion advection Sees
sinks

Solving Eq. (21.104) involves first writing it in finite difference form, in two steps. First the advection and
diffusion terms are differentiated once with respect to x, giving
dC, _ (AD, dC/dx); — (AD, OC/ax);_, (AuC); — (AuC),_ tlSi
(21.105)
ot V; Ve V;
The nodes are identified as i — 1, 1, i+ 1, with 7 the centre node.
Secondly, the spatial derivatives of the diffusion terms and then the time derivatives of C are
expressed in finite difference terms:

Gel Ch (AD,) i~i+l]

Chi) = (ADL), Ct
At VAX;
(AD,), ;C?** —(AD,);-, CU}
ViAx;
oe <= OF. Cr Sy
7 > 7, (21.106)
Equation (21.106) is grouped into the form
Qi CPE a iCal ee Ca = 2, (21.107)
where the coefficients a,, b;, c; and z; are all defined in the QUAL2 manual.
The governing equation (21.107), represents a set of simultaneous equations whose solution provides
the value of C’*! (the constituent concentrations) for all i’s. These are accomplished in QUAL2 where the
boundary conditions to be set up are
e Upstream and
¢ Downstream
 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING 917

The upstream boundary condition is typically the concentration at a point at the beginning of a river or
estuarine reach. The downstream boundary condition is specified as either:
e A zero concentration gradient or
e A fixed downstream constituent concentration (usually for each constituent) of, say, 10 per cent of the
upstream discharge concentration
This is not unlike the boundary conditions for the plug flow reactor of Sec. 21.4.2.
In the case of QUAL2, the hydraulic regime is assumed steady, i.e. 90/dt=0, and so

a
(2) = (Q,); = sum of external inflows
1

The longitudinal dispersion used is

Dy « Kniud?’®
where D, = longitudinal dispersion, m?/s
K = dispersion coefficient (dimensionless)
n = Manning’s roughness n (dimensionless)
u = mean velocity, m/s
d = mean depth, m

Many empirical equations like the dispersion equation are used in QUAL2 and reference should be made
to the manual QUAL2 (US EPA, 1987). However, it is of interest to note that much detail is included in
the empirical equations for particular entities. For instance, the dissolved oxygen differential equation
included is

dc Ky
—_—KAC*—C) (an —ap)A— Kyl — —_ — ashiNi —a6poN2 (21.108)
dt 3 algal BOD d ammonia nitrate
HEED" demand deoxygenation Sediment demand demand
demand

All of these terms are explained in detail in the manual to QUAL2.

The reader is recommended to study the detail of this program and use it if possible. Many programs
are available for water quality studies in freshwater. For instance, the US Army Corps of Engineers at
HEC have a program HEC-5Q (US Army Corps of Engineers, 1986) which can examine water quality in
reservoirs and lakes. The water quality capabilities include two options:
Option A: 1. Water temperature
. Up to three conservative constituents
. Up to three non-conservative constituents
. Dissolved oxygen
Option B: . Water temperature
. Total dissolved solids
. Nitrate nitrogen
. Phosphate phosphorus
. Phytoplankton
. Carbonaceous BOD
Ammonia nitrogen
. Dissolved oxygen
HRWHNY
OIAHAWAWNK
918 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

21.7 WATERSHED MODELLING

Before briefly discussing some of the available software packages for watershed modelling, it is
instructive to introduce some watershed modelling definitions.

21.7.1 Classification of Watershed Models

The following is adapted in part from Internet literature produced by Hydrocomp Inc., Stanford,
California, (Linsley, 1976). Hydrologic simulation models use mathematical equations to calculate results
like runoff volume or peak flow. These models can be classified as either theoretical or empirical models.
A theoretical model includes a set of general laws or theoretical principles. If all the governing
physical laws were well known and could be described by equations of mathematical physics, the model
would be physically based. However, all existing theoretical models simplify the physical system and
often include obviously empirical components (e.g. the conservation of momentum equation used to
describe surface flow includes an empirical hydraulic resistance term and the Darcy equation used in
subsurface problems is an empirical equation), so they are considered conceptual models. An empirical
model omits the general laws and is in reality a representation of data. A simplified spectrum of
mathematical watershed models is shown in Fig. 21.23.
Depending on the character of the results obtained, models are classified as stochastic or
deterministic. If one or more of the variables in a mathematical model are regarded as random variables
having distributions in probability, then the model is stochastic. If all the variables are considered to be
free from random variation, the model is deterministic (even though some ‘deterministic models’ may
include stochastic processes to add the dimension of spatial and temporal variability to some of the
subprocesses, such as infiltration).

Event versus continuous models An event model is one that represents a single runoff event occurring
over a period of time, ranging from about an hour to several days. The initial conditions in the watershed
for each event must be assumed or determined by other means and supplied as input data. The accuracy of
the model output may depend on the reliability of these initial conditions.
A continuous watershed model is one that operates over an extended period of time, determining flow
rates and conditions during both runoff periods and periods of no surface runoff. Thus the model keeps a
continuous account of the basin moisture condition and therefore determines the initial conditions
applicable to runoff events. At the beginning of the run, the initial conditions must be known or assumed.
However, the effect of the selection of those initial conditions decreases rapidly as the simulation
advances. Most continuous watershed models utilize three runoff components: direct or surface runoff,
shallow surface flow (interflow) and groundwater flow, while an event model may omit one or both of the
subsurface components and also evapotranspiration.

Increasing physical information and increasing complexity

Empirical Linear systems Explicit moisture Physical pce |

model transfer accounting model model
functions (conceptual)

Example: Example: Example: Example:

Regression Unit HSPF None

equations Hydrograph— SHE available
FSR (UK) SCS methods WATFLOOD

Figure 21.23 Mathematical watershed models. (Adapted from Linsley, 1976, with permission.)
 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING 919

Scope of the model: complete versus partial models This classification relates to what parts of the
hydrologic cycle are included in the model. Complete or comprehensive watershed models are models for
which the primary input is precipitation and other meteorologic data and the output is the watershed
hydrograph. The model represents in more or less detail all hydrologic processes significantly affecting
runoff and it maintains the water balance by solving the continuity equation of precipitation,
evapotranspiration and runoff (i.e. the hydrologic cycle):
Precipitation — actual evapotranspiration = runoff + change in storage
Solving the water balance equation increases the accuracy of the model and therefore it constitutes one of
the most important advantages of complete models over partial models.
A partial model represents only a part of the overall runoff process. For example, a water yield
model gives runoff volumes but no peak discharges.

Calibrated parameter versus measured parameter models A calibrated parameter model is one that
has one or more parameters that can be evaluated only by fitting computed hydrographs to the observed
hydrographs. Calibrated parameters are usually necessary if the watershed component has any conceptual
component models, which is true for most presently used watershed models. Thus, with a calibrated
parameter model, a period of recorded flow is needed, usually several years, for determining the parameter
values for a particular watershed.
A measured parameter model, on the other hand, is one for which all parameters can be determined
satisfactorily from known watershed characteristics, either by measurement or by estimation. For example,
watershed area and channel length can be determined from existing maps, channel cross-sections can be
measured in the field and soil characteristics can be determined in the laboratory (though not easily).
Characteristics like channel roughness are often estimated. A measured parameter model can be applied to
totally ungauged watersheds and is therefore highly desirable (e.g the catchment characteristics model
from the UK, (SERC, 1975) see Chapter 4). However, the development of such a model that is
continuous, acceptably accurate, and generally applicable is a goal that has not yet been attained.

Lumped versus distributed models Lumped models do not explicitly take into account the spatial
variability of inputs, outputs or parameters. They are usually structured to utilize average values of the
watershed characteristics affecting runoff volume. Averaging a certain parameter also implicitly averages
the process being represented. Because of non-linearity and threshold values, this can lead to significant
error.
Distributed models include spatial variations in inputs, outputs and parameters. In general, the
watershed area is divided into a number of elements and runoff volumes are first calculated separately for
each element.
It is necessary to be careful when classifying a model according to this category. Models have often
been mistakenly classified as ‘lumped’, even though they can represent spatial variability by subdividing
the basin into segments with representative ‘lumped’ parameters for each segment (e.g. HSPF, on
Hydrologic Simulation Program Fortran from Hydrocomp Inc., California).

General models versus special purpose models A general model is one that is acceptable, without
modifications, to watersheds of various types and sizes. The model has parameters, either measured or
calibrated, that adequately represent the effects of a wide variety of watershed characteristics. In order to
achieve this, it is generally necessary to use conceptual models which have parameters that require
calibration.
A special purpose model is one that is applicable to a particular type of watershed in terms of
topography, geology or land use, e.g. an urban runoff model. Usually, such models can be applied to
watersheds of different sizes, as long as the characteristics of the watersheds are the same. This 1s often the
case for estuarine models.
920 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Model selection Physically based, continuous soil moisture accounting models are the most accurate
models currently available and the HSPF is a most comprehensive model of this type. However, this does
not mean that the HSPF is the best model to use in all circumstances. The decision to use a model and
which model to use is an important part of water resource plan formulation. Even though there are no
clear rules on how to select the right model to use, a few simple guidelines can be stated
1. The first step is to define the problem and determine what information is needed and what questions
need to be answered.
. Use the simplest method that can provide the answer to your questions.
. Use the simplest model that will yield adequate accuracy.
. Do not try to fit the problem to a model, but try to select a model that fits the problem.
nA
Wh . Question whether increased accuracy is worth the increased effort. (With advances in computer
technology, computational cost is hardly an issue any more.)
nN. Do not forget the assumptions underlying the model used and do not read more significance into the

simulation results than is actually there.

21.7.2 Generalities of Watershed Models

Catchment or watershed modelling is developed to the extent that not only are there existing software
packages available in the public domain (HSPF, WATFLOOD) but there are also many available
commercially (SHE and MIKE-SHE). Many were developed for a specific watershed and then expanded
to be ‘general’. Catchment models may include all or some of the following capabilities:
¢ Model the hydrodynamics and water quality of land surface runoff
e Model the groundwater
¢ Model the freshwater hydrodynamics and water quality
Typically, a three-dimensional topographic, grid type, model of the land surface is set up. Depending
on the detail of the soil in the unsaturated and saturated zones a similar three-dimensional subsurface
model is set up. The rainfall runoff relationships are established and typically time series data on rainfall
or stream runoff are required for model verification. In addition to the hydrodynamics, the water quality in
the various steps may be included in the model, for instance rainfall being transformed to surface runoff or
groundwater flow and thence into streamflow. All steps will have different water quality depending on its
travel history. For instance, rain falling on farmland, high in phosphorus, may re-suspend the phosphorus
in the surface runoff and carry it to the stream. Similarly, rain infiltrating through the unsaturated zone
may transport nitrates with it to the groundwater and ultimately be discharged to a stream or lake. Hence
the soil chemical status is required and the chemical kinetics of rain plus excess land fertilizers and
subterranean leaching is also required. Such detailed hydrodynamics and water quality modelling is
analogous to the photochemical models for air pollution. While the topography/geometry of catchment
models might be set up in three dimensions, the surface flow, chemical/sediment transport and streamflow
is most likely to be two-dimensional and many times one-dimensional. For instance, the HSPF is
essentially a one-dimensional program. An attraction with it is its continuous simulation feature, i.e. it is
an unsteady state model.
In the HSPF, the various hydrologic processes are represented mathematically as flows and storages.
In general, each flow is an outflow from a storage, usually expressed as a function of the current storage
amount and the physical characteristics of the subsystem. Thus the overall model is physically based,
although many of the flows and storages are represented in a simplified or conceptual manner. Although
this requires the use of calibrated parameters, it has the advantage of avoiding the need for giving the
physical dimensions and characteristics of the flow system. This reduces input requirements and gives the
model its generality.
 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING 921

For simulation with the HSPF, the basin has to be represented in terms of land segments and
reaches/reservoirs. A land segment is a subdivision of the simulated watershed. The boundaries are
established according to the user’s needs, but generally a segment is defined as an area with similar
hydrologic characteristics. For modelling purposes, water, sediment and water quality constituents leaving
the watershed move laterally to a downslope segment or to a reach/reservoir, A segment of land that has
the capacity to allow enough infiltration to influence the water budget is considered pervious. Otherwise it
is considered impervious. The two groups of land segments are simulated independently.
In pervious land segments the HSPF models the movement of water along three paths: overland flow,
interflow and groundwater flow. Each of these three paths experiences differences in time delay and
differences in interaction between water and its various dissolved constituents. A variety of storage zones
are used to represent the storage processes that occur on the land surface and in the soil horizons. Snow
accumulation and melt are also included, so that the complete range of physical processes affecting the
generation of water and associated water quality constituents can be approximated.
Processes that occur in an impervious land segment are also simulated. Even though there is no
infiltration, precipitation, overland flow and evaporation occur and water quality constituents accumulate
and are removed.
The hydraulic and water quality processes that occur in the river channel network are simulated by
reaches. The outflow from a reach or completely mixed lake may be distributed across several tagets to
represent normal outflow, diversions and multiple gates on a lake or reservoir. Evaporation, precipitation
and other fluxes that take place in the surface are also represented. Routeing is done using a modified
version of the kinematic wave equation.
The HSPF is a popular model (in the United States) that can simulate the continuous, dynamic event
or the steady state behaviour of both hydrologic/hydraulic and water quality processes in a watershed.
The model is unusual in its ability to represent the hydrologic regimes of a wide variety of streams and
rivers with reasonable accuracy. Thus, the potential applications and uses of the model are comparatively
large and include flood mapping, urban drainage studies, river basin planning, studies of sedimentation
and water erosion problems and in-stream water quality planning.
The SHE model from the Danish Hydraulic Institute is a deterministic, distributed and physically based
modelling system for simulation of all the major hydrological processes of the land phase of the hydrological
cycle. A three-dimensional groundwater component, transport modelling through the complete subterranean
land phase, includes chemical reactions, irrigation effects and soil erosion. SHE is applicable to a wide range
of water resources problems related to surface and groundwater management, point and non-point
contamination and soil erosion. It is capable of either long-term or short-term regional studies. The
spatial variation in the meteorological input and the catchment characteristics are represented in the
horizontal plane by a network of square grids. Within each grid square, the soil profile is further divided
into a series of horizontal layers. The river network is assumed to run along the boundaries of square grids.
The model describes the processes of interception, snowmelt, infiltration, subsurface flow in the unsaturated
and saturated zones, evapotranspiration and surface runoff or land and stream channels.
HEC-1 can simulate the hydrologic processes during flood events. While primarily for looking at
unsteady flow in riverine systems, the preceding hydrologic studies also include it as a program capable of
watershed modelling. Other programs commonly used for this purpose include: MITCAT, SWMM,
ILLUDAD, STORM, USGS, DWOPER, etc., for which information is available from NTIS or the US EPA.
NTIS is the US National Technical Information Services, with offices world-wide. Enquiries on the Internet
will give details of the watershed modelling software available to satisfy most students’ requiremeiits.

21.8 MODELLING WATER QUALITY IN ESTUARIES

Modelling of estuaries tends to incur more approximations than are normally adopted for freshwater river
flow. This is due to the added complexity caused by:
922 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

¢ More complex geometries

— Changes in width
— Changes in depth
— Variation in cross-section bed profile
e Two-directional flow
— Downstream freshwater flow
— Upstream saline flow
Wetting and drying of parts of the cross-sectional floor
Density differences between freshwater and saline water
More suspended sediment than freshwater systems
More alluvial beds where sediment can become re-suspended
Wave action generating currents at the surface
As such, not only is evaluation of the hydrodynamics more complex but the water quality, being
dependent on hydrodynamics, is extremely complex due to the interaction of:
e Freshwater quality processes
e Reservoir quality processes
e Tidal/oceanic quality processes (salinity)
Fischer (1979) considered turbulent mixing in estuaries to be composed of:
e Vertical mixing with a coefficient (eddy velocity)
&y = 0.07 du* (21.109)

e Transverse mixing with a coefficient

& = 0.15 du* (21.110)

e Longitudinal dispersion, which is dependent on the freshwater input flow and its momentum, the tidal
interaction with the bathymetry and wind and local effects
e Dispersion by gravitational circulation, i.e. internal circulation driven by density variation and
explained by an ‘Estuarine Richardson number’,

and that the transition from strongly stratified to well-mixed estuaries is 0.08 < R <0.8
e Dispersion by tide and wind
e Dispersion by shear within the vertical velocity profile

where d = depth
ux = root mean square (rms) tidal velocity
Ap = density difference
QO; = freshwater flow
b = estuary average width
u = mean velocity

The simplest model for longitudinal dispersion in an estuary is obtained by a mass balance of a
conservative tracer:

aC Oe @ aC
A— am als
= KA =) + source or sink
( i terms (21.111)
 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING 923

where Q,; = freshwater flow rate

C = the tidal cycle average concentration
A = the cross-sectional area
K = the mixing coefficient within the tidal cycle
The above equation is written in a pseudo-steady state for time averaged over the tidal cycle. Equation
(21.111) is solved analytically for the steady state case as

dC #C
C.K eer (21.112)
ax Ox2
where Us is the freshwater flow rate and k is a decay rate coefficient (dC/dt =kC). Consider a tracer of
concentrationC; discharged at x=0 into an estuary. The solution for the tracer concentration from
O’Connor (1960, 1965) is

At x <0:

G U; U? + 4kD
Upstream of peak an ool5h
(- (a (21.113)

Atx>0:

C Us [Uz + 4kD
Downstream of peak —
C —|{1-,J/—-———_
exp E ( U? x (21.114 )

where Ur;=net downstream velocity from freshwater flow at x=0, where the tracer concentration is

C= a ee (INI ISS)
Q./(U? + 4kD)/U?

where M = mass of non-conservative tracer/contaminant entering per time, kg/s

O = freshwater flow rate, m*/s
Values for the dispersion coefficient vary from 5 to 1000 m?/s and Harleman (1964) suggested:

D, = 63n UzR;> m/s (21.116)

where n = Manning’s roughness coefficient
Uy = maximum tidal velocity, m/s
Ry = hydraulic radius, m

Figures 21.24 and 21.25 depict the relative concentrations of tracer upstream and downstream ofthe
discharge point in an estuarine regime. These figures can be computed from the previous set of equations.
From Fig. 21.24 it is seen that for line 1, with the higher net downstream velocities, the upstream
concentration is less but the downstream concentration is higher. This means that the higher velocities
help to dilute the upstream concentrations and that they only transport but weakly dilute the downstream
concentrations. From Fig. 21.25, examining the effect of two different dispersion rates, it is seen that the
higher dispersion rate causes increased concentration upstream, but has little effect downstream of the
discharge point. if
When wastes (with BOD strengths = L) are discharged to estuaries, they negatively TS) on the
dissolved oxygen levels. As such, the profile of DO will depend on the BOD loading. From O’Connor
924 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

1.0

Ss
ou Up> U5
Relative
concentration :
| Discharge
; point

<—_____ es
Upstream Downstream

Figure 21.24 Schematic of distribution of reactant with respect to initial concentration (C;) for two different velocities and similar £
and D.

ate:
Relative
concentration
|Discharge
'point fi
FSO
———— SSS
Upstream Downstream

Figure 21.25 Schematic of distribution of reactant with respect to initial concentration (C;) for two different D values and similar k
and

(1965), the one-dimensional, differential equations for steady flow are:

al dL
Foror BOD : DLLa
= — Up——kL = 0
tae (21117)

dD dD
Foror DO: DiLae
— — Up — — K2D
hea poe+ kL,= 0 ‘
(21.118)

where D = dissolved oxygen deficit, mg/L

L = BOD remaining, mg/L
k = reaction coefficient, d7!
K> = reaeration coefficient, d~!
L, = BOD concentration at point x, mg/L
D,, = mixing dispersion coefficient

O’Connor’s solutions are:

a
eet p ae
5D, m))x) (2114.9)

D=
kM 1 U; 1 Je
1 Us
Eta
(Ky HO oP tm) metal +m) Chery
 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING 925

where U? + 4kD,\"?
my = (“) (21.121)
UF
and m) =(U2f +ee
4kyD,\'7
:
=| (21.122)
and M = mass of BOD pollutant per time, kg/s

The positive sign in the exponent of Eqs. (21.119) and (21.120) refers to x < 0 and the negative sign refers
to the case of x > 0 (downstream).
More complex models involving two- and three-dimensional and non-conservative contaminants are
available, but the solutions are numerical. The reader is referred to Tchobanoglous and Schroeder (1987),
James (1993), Fischer et al. (1979) and Orlob (1981) for more detailed treatment of estuarine water
quality. Many programs exist for computer modelling of flow in estuaries including King (1990),
Leenderste (1970) and Falconer (1991).

21.9 MODELLING WATER QUALITY IN LAKES AND RESERVOIRS

Water quality in lakes was introduced in Chapter 7. This section concerns itself with the modelling of the
dynamics of long residence times in water bodies, natural or man-made. The key driving force of lake
dynamics is usually temperature. Its vertical distribution defines whether a lake is stratified or not. The
mathematical modelling of lakes is based on the following equations:

¢ Conservation of mass
e Conservation of momentum
e Transport of contaminants
¢ Chemical and biological process kinetics
© Conservation of heat

The first two equations are the foundations of all hydrodynamic problems, while the third is used in
the water environment and other environments (air, soil, biota). The fifth, the conservation of heat, has not
been used so far in this text and while it may be applicable to the air environment, it is usually not of
relevance to rivers. Usually lakes require to be modelled when there are problems with water quality and
this most often occurs in both shallow and deep lakes when they are stratified. Stratification (as discussed
in Chapter 7) is when there is a significant temperature difference between the epilimnion (upper waters)
and the hypolimnion (lower waters). The narrow band between both with a steep temperature gradient is
the thermocline. If the densiometric Froude number (defined in Chapter 7) is < 0.01, then the water body
is stratified. The physical processes involved in the heat budget of a lake are depicted in Fig. 21.26.
One technique to model stratified lakes is to divide the lake into a number of horizontal layers as
shown in Fig. 21.27. The more simplistic model will have three ‘layers’: the epilimnion, the thermocline
and the hypolimnion. More capable models will have several layers. On each layer, a mass balance 1s
computed, allowing for the transfer of flow and constituents from one layer (vertically) to another. For
instance, the mass flow balance of the jth (horizontal) layer is

Ov;
es = Ofna (Ooi Oj) cass) alnflow
=H On =O Outflow
onl. Groundwater (21-123)
926 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

E RR Inflow
Cc IR SR

=} surface

E = evaporation
« C=convection
RR = reflected radiation
IR = incoming radiation
Lake bed Ground SR = solar radiation
exchange

Figure 21.26 Conceptual model of heat budget of a lake.

where V; = volume of the jth layer

Qj}... Qiu, = horizontal surface inflow and outflow (abstraction) from the jth layer
Q; = outflow vertically from the jth layer
Qj_,, Qj,, = inflow vertically to the jth layer from the j — 1 andj + 1 layers

Several of the above terms require information on the heat budget of the lake as depicted in Fig. 21.25.
Assuming that P, E and Q, are included in the vertical fluxes (Q;_ and Q;,) then the mass conservation
for a typical layer of thickness Az is
OV;
= Din = Oi +04), - 2, (21.124)
where Qjin> Qiou: = horizontal flow advection
Qj), Qj+1 = vertical flow (into or out of the element)

The conservation of heat equation stored in a horizontal control volume layer is described by Orlob
(1981). Solution of the mass balance Eq. (21.124) requires information on the heat energy balance. The
end result of modelling of reservoirs is the production of vertical profiles of temperature to determine the
lake status for different inputs of solar heat and freshwater flows.
Detailed descriptions of the above and solution techniques are to be found in Orlob (1981),
Tchobanoglous and Schroeder (1987), US Army Corps of Engineers (1986), James (1993) and Fischer et
al. (1979). A computer program DYRESM detailed by Fischer er al. (1979) and Imberger (University of
West Australia) is commercially available to solve lake hydrodynamic and lake water quality problems.

pana Qin

Qin
j +1 layer

P = precipitation, m3/day
E = evaporation, m3/day

VOM S SS Og = groundwater contribution

Figure 21.27 Conceptual model of a stratified lake.

 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING 927

Three-dimensional
subterranean
topography

Soil/groundwater
hydrodynamic Hydraulic characteristics
mode] of soils/aquifers

Spatial and temporal

distribution of
model

Contaminant
Chemistry of
Mass transport
contaminants
mass flow rates model
with soils/water

Spatial and temporal

contaminant concentrations,
e.g. contours

Figure 21.28 Schematic of flow and transport model in the subsoil/aquifer.

These models are used to predict temperature profiles in stratified lakes and are ideal for lake water
quality management in identifying incipient seasonal eutrophication. Complex models may extend to two
and three dimensions and/or incorporate reaction chemistry and ecological models. Recent work by
Casamitjana and Schladow (1993) has added particle movement analysis to the existing hydrochemical
lake models, DYRESM.

21.10 GROUNDWATER MODELLING

Groundwater flow is reasonably well defined for aquifer (rock) structures. However, water flow is
extremely complex in the unsaturated soil layers above the rocks. This zone of subsoil is sometimes called
the unsaturated zone as it is subject to wetting and drying, depending on many parameters not least of all
rainfall and infiltration. Correspondingly, then, the flow of solutes (pollutants) in soil water/groundwater
is definable for aquifers but is complex in the unsaturated zone. This section will briefly examine
modelling with respect to:
e Flow-hydrodynamics and
e Water quality—amass transport.
Both are represented in the schematic of Fig. 21.28.

21.10.1 Flow Modelling in Groundwater

For flow modelling, the Laplace equation combines the continuity equation and Darcy’s law into a second-
928 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

order partial differential equation (see Chapter 4) as follows:

) oh fs) oh ) oh oh
K. K, = S—— RQ, y,z,t (21125)
a (&. H+ 2 (Ko) +E (ea) neni
where K,, K,, K, = the hydraulic conductivity in the x, y, z directions
h = water head
S = storage coefficient :
R = recharge

For the two-dimensional case with steady flow and no recharge this equation reduces to

a) oh a) oh
kK, K, = 0 DAGI26,
ax ( =)‘;oz ( =) )

Typically K, ~ K, in the horizontal plane. If K, = K, then this reduces to

Ph ah
= ft () PMT)
Be Be ( )
Finite difference models commonly used in the past have been those developed by Prickett and Lonnquist
(1971) and Trescott et al. (1976). Both of these models solved a form of the unsteady flow equation which
allowed for heterogeneous and anisotropic soils/aquifers. The equation solved by them was

a oh a oh oh
a(ee) +E (K 5) SG oe: t) (21.128)

McDonald and Harbaugh (1984) extended this model to that of three dimensions. The reader is referred to
Wang and Anderson (1982), Bedient and Huber (1988) and McDonald and Harbaugh (1984) for further
details and model applications.

21.10.2 Contaminant Transport

Extensive modelling effort has been applied to the mass transport of contaminants in soil/groundwater
over the past two decades. The mechanism of pollutant transport depends on hydraulic conductivity of the
soil/aquifer. If the hydraulic conductivity is very low, as in some aquifers and clays, then the transport
mechanism may be primarily by diffusion. For high conductivity, advection is the dominant transport
mechanism. The problem of transport becomes more complex if the contaminant is a reactive chemical. In
such a situation, chemical reaction rates and even microbial rates may need to be considered. In the case
of bioremediation of contaminated soils, using specific microbes the reaction rates for microbes are
significant and are considered in the BIOPLUME II model by Bedient and Rifai (1993).
The one-dimensional advection—dispersion equation derived in this chapter applies also to the
movement of a contaminant in the subsurface environment:

dC 0
pref )GC
ry wo u ax (21.129)

where C = concentration of non-reactive contaminants, g/m°*

D I hydrodynamic dispersion
u = average fluid velocity
 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING 929

G ;
and De = Fick’s second law for diffusive/dispersive flow
IG
and Can = the mass flow or convective advective flow

D has many definitions, particularly in the context of solute movement in the ground:
D= Dot + av (21.130)

where Do = free solution diffusion coefficient

t = tortuosity factor
a = dispersive parameter
v = flow velocity

Figure 21.29 indicates the variation of longitudinal and molecular dispersion with respect to flow, where
Dy, 1s the longitudinal dispersion coefficient, Do is the molecular diffusion coefficient and d is the average
grain diameter. It is seen that at small velocity the molecular diffusion dominates, while at higher velocity
rates advection dominates; there is a transition zone between the two while this is to be expected, it is seen
from Fig. 21.29 that greater than one or two orders of magnitude can be the difference in relative
dispersion rates.
There are analytical solutions for some specific problems in groundwater flows. Consider the case
with the following boundary conditions, where a non-reactive contaminant is applied to a soil column (in
a laboratory) as a step function Co. The boundary conditions C(x, f) are

(Clee, O) = Otters
=0
C{Or7)
= Coior¢
—0
Cleo,
2) = Viory = U
~~? Soil column

The task is to solve the advective diffusion, Eq. (21.129) for the above boundary condition.
The Ogata and Banks (1961) solution for this is

G 1 = Wi Vx VE

72 ene) a exp( ere (r een

re Beast Sess = Die Si

where Cy = the initial contaminant concentration, g/m?

C = the concentration at any distance x > 0
v = average velocity, m/s
D = dispersion coefficient
erfc = complementary error function
930 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Diffusion
: Transition zone
dominated

D, = Dot + av

I= KG 10° 10! 102

OD) ——= =

Figure 21.29 Longitudinal and molecular diffusion versus flow in subsoil/aquifer.

Sometimes the second term in the above equation is dropped if x is large or if t is great, so the reduced
form is
C 1 x—vt
—= —| erfc{| ——— Diels?
Co ‘| (az) |

Example 21.5 Compute the relative concentration (C/Co) if v=Scem/h, D=2 em?/h for
x=10icem ‘andt= 6h.

Solution

erfc (=F) = erfc (SS) = 0.4002

JaDT ESTING
exp() = exp(> ) = 7.2 410°

era easrecn =
« = ;ert(=) | i.e. reduced form

= 0.2001
Fig. 21.30 shows the breakthrough curves of the relationship of C/Co with respect to advection,
molecular diffusion and dispersion. If there is only advection, the contaminated wetting front will advance
in a ‘square’ form. For the above example, at v= 4cm/h and t= 1.6h the front has travelled a distance of
3.13.cm to line (A). If there is also molecular diffusion, curve (B) is found. If in addition there is
hydrodynamic dispersion then the front advances to curve (C).
In addition to advection—diffusion transport, the following mechanisms may also occur:
e Contaminant reaction with water
e Transport with adsorption to soil particles or water particles
e Transport with volatilization
e Transport with precipitation
Further details on these processes may be found in Crank (1956), Ghadiri and Rose (1992) and Richter
(1990).
 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING 931

GG,
Soil 0.0
surface
Curve C had a higher hydrodynamic
dispersion than curve B

B(t,) at time f,

B(t,) at time ft,

Figure 21.30 Breakthrough curves for contaminant flow through soil /aquifer.

21.10.3 Modelling Water Balance in Landfills

A computer program available through the US EPA, for landfill design and water balance of landfills, is
called HELP (hydrologic evaluation landfill program). The input to the program is data on rainfall (time
series), landfill properties (porosity, soil moisture, hydraulic conductivity, etc.). The output is a time series
distribution of the rainfall distributed amongst in to infiltration, evapotranspiration and runoff, if it exists.
The input data required are:
¢ Climate
— Daily precipitation
— Mean monthly solar radiation
— Mean monthly temperature

¢ Soil
— ka (saturated hydraulic conductivity)
— Porosity
— Evaporation coefficient
— Field capacity
— Wilting point
— Maximum infiltration rate
— Curve number (this is a US term indicative of the percentage of runoff from rainfall)
e Design
— Number of layers
— Layer thickness
— Layer slope
— Lateral flow distance
— Surface area of landfill
— Leakage fraction
Runoff fraction from waste

The program as set up for the United States has a database of precipitations for 184 cities (in the US and
Canada) allows up to 12 layers of soil and up to 4 soil liners. This program is simple to use and can be
used both at the design stage of landfill or the operational stage to determine the water balance
characteristics.
932 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

21.11 MODELLING OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT: ACTIVATED SLUDGE

There are a multitude of wastewater treatment processes, some described in Chapter 12 and all amenable
to computer modelling. However, this chapter only considers the most common biological process—
activated sludge. Several computer programs are available, including UCTOLD from the University of
Capetown in South Africa, IAWPRC from the International Association of Water Quality and SSSP from
Clemson University. Figure 21.31 is a schematic of the activated sludge process, where Q is the flow rate
in m°/d, S is the substrate (food) concentration in mg/L and_X is the biomass concentration in mg/L.
From Chapter 12 the equations for mass balances with recycle are:

vy +(Qo+ OX - Ve ak = ORES (21.133)

y= + (00 +0,)5 - 2 — 9,5 - 05) =0 (21.134)
These are the two basic differential equations which can be solved as simultaneous equations. The more
simple equations were solved in Chapter 12 for the steady state case. Here, the initial conditions can be
obtained by first solving the steady state case. Further complexities to account for the nitrification step can
also be added. The reader is referred to James (1984) for further details. The programs UCTOLD and
IAWPRC can be used to predict the response of single or in series completely mixed reactors with or
without recycle. The programs predict the response of the following compounds:
e COD
e Oxygen
e VSS (volatile suspended solids)
Nitrogen
Alkalinity
The models simulate the biological system behaviour, accounting for a large number of processes.
The models quantify, for each process, both the kinetics (rate—concentration dependence) and the
stoichiometry (effects on the masses of compounds involved). The representation of the process model is
in matrix format, explained in Dold et al. (1991).
Both programs are available and can be used in the design stage for a plant or in the operational stage
to model the efficiencies. Readers are recommended to practice on one or both of the programs.

21.12 FUGACITY MODELLING

With the many thousands of chemicals available today, some find their way into the different
environments (air, water, soil). As such we are interested in quantifying, if say a chemical or pesticide is
accidentally released or applied in agriculture, where the remains of that chemical go. We know that some
of it stays in the air, some in the water, some in the soil and some in the biota. The fate of chemicals in the

Clarifier
Aeration tank

Dep 2G

Figure 21.31 Schematic of conventional activated sludge system.

 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING 933

environment may to some extent be predicted using mathematical models. Fugacity models describe the
chemical’s partitioning, transport and transformation processes. The concept of fugacity is the tendency of
a given molecular species to escape from one phase to another. So the higher the fugacity, the lower the
chemical concentration. Its units are pressure. Fugacity is related to the chemical concentration by
G
f= Z (21.135)

where ft = fugacity, Pa
C = concentration of the chemical, mol/m?
Z = fugacity capacity, representing the solubility
of the chemical in the responsive state, mol/m? Pa

For example, if two phases are in equilibrium, i.e. a gas and a liquid phase, then

fi=h
Therefore
Gi &
ZZ,
Define partition coefficient as
Cm Zi
eC a7,
A chemical is in equilibrium with several phases, if
Sair =f,water = fooil = feediment = foiota

where fi,= fugacity of the chemical in the air environment.

The fugacity capacities of a chemical in the different environments are:
1
In air:
ir: Laceir ==
RT (MN MBS )

1 G
In water: osyes = qo = (21.137)

id (soil,
In solid (soil, etc.) 5 etc.): SD
Zeal = sip = =
Kew Dal Zwaten) — KocLw 21.138 )
(

In biota: Zriota = K SP" — Kewpr(Zwer (21.139)

where R = 8.314 Pa m*/mol K (gas constant)
T = temperature, °K
C® = aqueous solubility, mol/m*
P* = vapour pressure, Pa
H = Henry’s law constant, Pa m?/mol
Kw = partition coefficient—soil to water, L/kg
p, = density of soil, kg/L
Ky, = bioconcentration factor—biota to water, L/kg
pr = density of biota, kg/L
K oc = organic carbon partition coefficient, L/kg
934 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Example 21.6 Consider the hypothetical chemical with the following properties:
Molecular weight (M) = 150 g/mol
Aqueous solubility (C’) = 50 g/m? = 0.333 mol/m?
Vapour pressure(P*) = 1Pa
Temperature;— 25.-C = 298K
Linear sorption coefficient (Kp) = 75.9 L/kg
Bioconcentration factor (Kg) = 188.4 L/kg
Soil density (p,) = 1.5 kg/L
Biota density (pg) = 1.0 kg/L

Determine the fugacity capacities in the various environments and then the concentration in the different
environments.

Solution

Zair = a = 404 x 10-4 mol/m? Pa

Po RT ES 3 ORME
1 Ce Oa
Dee = H = Pp = amit = ()).33335 mol/m? Pa

Kpp
Zsoil = aa Kpp.Zw

= 75.9 x 1.5 x 0.333 = 37.9 mol/m? Pa

K
Zoiota = Brae KpppZw

= 188.4 x 1.0 x 0.333 = 62.8 mol/m? Pa

For this chemical, to determine the chemical concentrations in the four environments, assuming each
environment was of equal volume, then the highest concentrations align with the lowest fugacities, as
shown below (but volumetrically all environments are very different):
— increasing fugacity capacities
Air + water > soil — biota
<— increasing chemical concentrations

A simplistic model reproduced here, developed by McCall ef al. (1982), is of chemical partitioning in
model ecosystems. The ecosystem data are reproduced in Fig. 21.32. Table 21.2, reproduced from Tanji
(1994), illustrates the fate of the hypothetical chemical of Example 21.6 in the unit world environment of
Fig. 21.32, where
M 100 mol
f ==S¥77, ==732 x 10° mol/Pa =7136350107>
ee:
m; =f V;Z;
and CG =mi/V;
It is noted that the greatest ‘dilution’ is in the air and water environments and least in the biota and
soil/sediments. Therefore the highest concentrations occur in the biota at 860 ppm.
There have been models developed from fugacity fundamentals. Such equilibrium models include
those developed by the US EPA such as: EXAMS, HydroQual, TOX-SCREEN, CREAMS and ENPART.
 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING 935

Atmosphere

Water

Fish

Suspended sediment

Sediment

Kee IK I, I

Sediment) =
¢ Water) 7 Air = Sollwace Saas Sail

BCF

Fish
Atmosphere 1000 m x 1000 m x 10 km = 10!° m?
Water 1000m x 700 m x 10 m =7 x 10° m?
Soil 1000m x 300 m x 0.030 m =9 x 103 m+
Sediment 1000m x 700m x 0.030 m = 2.1 x 10* m?
Suspended sediment 5 ppm in water = 35 m*
Fish 0.5 ppm in water = 3.5 m3
Figure 21.32 Model ecosystem of a similar type to that of McCall et al. (1982), adapted from Tanji (1994), with permission.

There are various levels of sophistication in fugacity modelling, defined by Paterson (1985) as levels I, II,
III and IV.
The level I computations are the simplest and the assumption (as in the previous example) is that
each compartment of the unit world is well mixed and there are no reactions or advection in or out of the
system. At equilibrium:
i i)
where 1, 2, ..., i, are the compartments of the unit world and a total amount of chemical M(mol) is

Table 21.2 Fate of hypothetical chemical in a model environment

Fugacity
Environment capacity Mass Concentration
Environment volume V; Z; V;Z; mM; m,/V;
compartments (m?) (mol/m? Pa) (mol/Pa) (mol) (mol/m?)
i ne ese cat ee et Se A ee eee
Air 1Omos 4.03 x 10-4 4.03 x 10° 55.0 55 2110-"
Water 7 x 10° 0.333 2.33 x 10° 31.8 NES 2 iI)"
Sediments 2.1 x 104 37.9 0.79 x 10° 10.9 52 10“
Biota 3.5 62.8 220 0.003 8.6 x 10°*
Suspended sediment 35 37.9 1330 0.018 BD 8¢ KO)
Soil 9 x 10° 1.9 x 10! 7107 2.33 2.6 x 10-4

Total 7.3 x 10° 100

a
EE Se

Adanted from Tanii. 1994. with permission

936 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

introduced. As in the example, the following hold:

M = im; = =C,V; = f2V;Z;

m; =f V;Z;
C,=fZ
The level II computations allow for reaction or transformation and also advection and so residence
times are significant parameters. The average residence time is
total amount in system M ZV;C;
~
reactionrate
total E LViCk,
TR =

where k; = reaction rates for each compartment

The level III computations consider a steady state, non-equilibrium model. Recall that the previous
two cases were equilibrium models. Therefore, for the non-equilibrium case:

Fea i
N = Dyfi —f)
where D, is the transport or diffusion rate coefficient in mol/h Pa between compartments and N is the flux
in colts
The level IV fugacity model is a dynamic version of level III where emissions and thus
concentrations vary with time.

21.13 AIR QUALITY MODELLING

Air quality modelling is used to predict air quality and assist with policy and planning decisions with
respect to industrial and infrastructural development and management. Air se as a systems analysis is
represented in Fig. 21.33.
Air quality modelling was briefly introduced in Chapter 8. The science of modelling of air quality
and specific constituents is extremely sophisticated, particularly where adequate input data on
meteorological, topographical and chemistry constituents is available. Many urban areas, like the Los
Angeles authorities, have detailed air modelling capacities, traditionally because of such serious air
pollution problems. The classes of models include:
Simple deterministic
Statistical
Local plume and puff
Box and multibox
Finite difference and grid
Particle

Chemistry
f

Emissions Mathematical Predicted

model air quality

Meteorology

Figure 21.33 Air quality system analysis.

 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING 937

e Physical—wind tunnels
e Regional
as categorized by Szepesi (1989).

21.13.1 Simple Deterministic Models

These are based on empirical data and formulated in terms of algebraic relationships. These include:
e Modelling of air pollution indices
e Area source models

Air pollution index modelling is typically based on a function «, where « is ascribed a number indicating
good quality, satisfactory quality, unhealthy quality and hazardous. This index is used sometimes in the
United States at a level understandable by the public and is called the PSI, or Pollution Standards Index.
The function « may be related to a specific parameter like CO, smog or SO; or any parameter that is listed
in the Air Quality Standards (see Chapter 8) or to a group of parameters. This modelling method takes the
weighted values of individual pollutant parameters measured at spatial points and then compares this to
the single number in the Air Quality Standards. The attraction of this model is that the number « is a non-
dimensional number (not ppm or mg/m?) and a value of, say, 400 for CO or SO, may be deemed
hazardous for both, even though the corresponding concentrations may be, say, 400 ppm (CO) and 1 ppm
(SO>). The non-dimensional « (an interpolation equation) can be obtained from
25 Hi41 — Oy
“a=a,+ - a Oe ) (21.140 )

where a = Pollutant Standards Index

C = corresponding pollutant concentration
a, = breakpoint PSI from one quality to another,
say 100 between satisfactory and unhealthy quality

Example 21.7 Determine the Pollutant Standard Index for SO if the concentration is 0.9 ppm.
The breakpoints are:

Concentration
PSI Description (ppm)

< 50 Good quality < 0.07

50 Satisfactory 0.14
100 Unhealthy 0.3
200 Hazardous—alert 0.3
300 Hazardous—warning 0.6
400 Hazardous—emergency 0.8
500 Hazardous—serious harm 1.0

Solution

Ait. — %
oo == 04 oe, = raC=C)

— 400
erty 5g (0.9 —0.8)
=450
PSI = 450
938 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

In the same way, a concentration of 45 ppm CO converts to a PSI of 450, numbers readily
understood by the public. For further details, refer to Szepesi (1989).
The simple area source model of Gifford and Hanna (1974) is

CS Gig (21.141)
U
where C = time averaged pollutant concentration, mg/L
Q = source strength per unit area, kg/m?”
U = annual average wind speed, m/s
Cj; = parameter proportional to the city size and specific pollutant

Example 21.8 Determine the annual average concentration of SO, due to the hypothetical coal-
fired power station of Example 8.11 if C;=1, Q~ 1.1 kg/s and U~5 m/s. Assume this affects an area of
100 km’.
Solution
O = 1.1 kg/s/100 km?
= 0.011 kg/s/km?
= 11000 mg/s/km?
= 0.011 mg/s/m?
CiQ
G
Baus
Therefore,
_ 1x 0.011
ives 005
= 0.0022 mg/m?
= 2.2 ug/m?
If this affected an area of 10km? then the concentration goes up to 22 ug/m? . The annual limit
standard for SO> (from Chapter 8) is ~ 60 yg/m*.

21.13.2 Box Models

This is a common simple model used to get an initial estimate of concentration values. It is based on the
mass conservation of a pollutant in a box. The reference frame is Eulerian, i.e. fixed frame, rather than
Lagrangrian, 1.e. reference frame moving with the velocity of the pollutant. The box or volume may
represent a city or region as defined in Fig. 21.34. The plan area over a city is represented by Ax Ay and
Az is the vertical dimension of the airshed.
Consider the wind entering the airshed with a velocity U and a concentration C;,,. Assume no
pollutants leave the side walls of the box and full mixing occurs within the box. The pollutants for
simplicity are assumed to be conservative (i.e. the generation/decay rate + 0):
Rate of change rate of pollution _ rate of pollution rate of pollution
of one entering leaving generation or decay

aC
Ax Ay Az—— = Ax Aygs + Ay AzU(Cin — Cont) + AxAy Azrg (21.142)
 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING 939

G out

o oh Ad q,= urban emissions

Az= mixing height
Pet 4 =
C= uniform concentration
in box
Ax cd

Figure 21.34 Schematic of a box model in the atmosphere.

For no generation within the box, r, =0,

aC
aoe x (Cn = Cont) (21.143)
Assuming constant concentration throughout the box, then C,,,= C (similar to a CFSTR tank), and taking
the limit,
dc ait
aan +>
oe Ca
Cine ) (21.144 )
where Av= f= length of box
Az = H = mixing height
The steady state case reduces to

Cz + Cp (21.145)
The unsteady case becomes

a+(Fr)o=4ars2 (21.146)

‘4, ee toe
and the analytic solution is:

C1) = (B+ Cin) — 0074 + C(Opertne (21.147)

If there is only pollution entering the box from city emissions and the initial concentration in the box is
zero, then Eq. (21.129) reduces to

CO) ==——(l-e
Fal
qsk (-UN/L
) (21.148))

Example 21.9 Consider an urban area with a population of 150000, and 50000 vehicles,
trafficking within a 100km? area with an average travel distance of 10km from 8 to 10 am. daily.
Assume each vehicle emits 4.0 g/km of CO. Determine the CO concentration.

Solution

aeqs GLee (—U1)/L

Ce i ee
940 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Time t = 2h (7200 s)
L = 10km (assume a square box)
Assume y i = 30mm
and wind speed, U = in/s
gs = emission rate per m?
50000 x 10 x 4
= 2.6 x 10° g/m’ s
~ 100 x 106 x 7200
Therefore,
C(t) dex 2610 Sel0 a0" (1 _ ca)
Dias)
= 57.4 mg/m?

which is > 30mg/m*, the WHO standard for 1 h.

21.13.3 Multibox Models

As its name implies, multibox models are extensions of the box model. The air and pollutants are assumed
to be well mixed in each box, and each box is linked. Within a box, reaction and removal processes are
allowed. Multibox models give better resolution in time and space than a single box. At box junctions, the
interactions between boxes are defined as in boundary-type conditions.

21.13.4 Gaussian Modelling

The reader is referred to Bibbero and Young (1974) for an introduction to this area. The Gaussian plume
model for single and multiple sources are the most common air pollutant models. Equation (21.149) is the
equation that describes the three-dimensional concentration field generated by point source(s) under
stationary meteorological and emission conditions:

1 2 iy (en ENG 1 (z 2
C(x, y, 2) =;-2 -e|-3(2) Jfo=|-5( = ) ean] 5 +") | (21.149)
Verse, iy Z 4

where C(x, y, Z) = pollutant concentration, kg/m? or m?/m:? or ppb, etc.

Q = stack emission rate, g/s
dy, 6, = standard deviation of the plume concentration distribution along y or z

This equation, its parts and its use are explained in Chapter 8. It is straightforward to model this equation
and to link it to a graphical package to output contours of concentrations at distances from the source(s).
In many cases, most interest is in concentrations at ground level and so Eq. (21.137) reduces to

O Ly 1 (HY
Con i,7=0)= —-{— —.={—
Gy ) 210 yo,U oan 2 \ay nae 2 \a, (21158)

where H = height of the emission

If the emission is at ground source, as in fires, then for concentration Eq. (21.150) reduces to

Cawia0 ae ee (21.151)
TO, O-U
 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING 941

The values of o,, o, are the Pasquill-Gifford parameters and depend on the atmospheric stability
class and the distance from the source, as given in Chapter 8. The modelling of these equations, with
facilities for multiple sources and complex topography, is a feature of many proprietary computer models.
However, as the model is based on stationary meteorological and emission conditions, it is not usable in
pollution/air quality forecasting. Dry deposition, wet deposition and chemical transformation processes
can be accounted for in the Gaussian models (Zannetti, 1990) by multiplying the basic Eq. (21.149) by
exponential terms such as
if
exp( a
x .
where t = — = travel time
u

T = time-scale

According to Zanneti (1990), the time-scales for dry deposition can be expressed as
Ah
Tg=—
d V, :
Q1M152)

where Ah = vertical plume thickness

V4 = deposition velocity
Dry deposition does not occur within the immediate downwind distance of the emission and Zanneti
(1990) suggests that Eq. (21.149) be applied further downwind of x, where

oe 20,
where H. = plume effective length

Similarly, the time-scale for wet disposition is expressed as

3.6 x 10°P,
=
= (21.153)
VAN SS

where P,, = thickness of precipitation layer (~ 4000 m)

S, = scavenging ratio (~ 4.2 x 10°)
Pp = precipitation rate, (mm/h)

The time-scale for chemical transformation depends on a list of parameters: whether the pollutant is
organic or inorganic, the temperature, the gas solubility, etc. General air pollution modelling tends to
operate on the basis of conservative pollutants, but most air pollutants are reactive. The time-scale for
transformation of SO, is ~ 24h.
Gaussian models can be spatially integrated to simulate the effects of line (traffic on a highway), area
(industrial building complex) and volume sources, though this integration may be numerical rather than
analytical. Extra diffusion caused by building wakes is included in many programmes by altering the o,,
o, terms to

The Gaussian model can be modified to allow for the fanning, fumigation, looping, coning and lofting
profiles as described in Chapter 8. Fanning is a slow vertical diffusion during stable conditions and is
942 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

therefore represented by Eq. (21.149) with the receptor at ground level. Here 0, > oz. Fumigation is the
accelerated downward mixing of a plume trapped aloft by a stable inversion at height h;. Equation
(21.149) is integrated over the height Z and the plume is evenly distributed over this height h;, (Bibbero
and Young 1974).
Q
CS Se |a L(y) (21.154)
(2n)'*uhio, 2 \oy

21.13.5 Photochemical Models

Photochemical air pollution is formed as a result of complex interactions between sunlight, meteorology
and primary emissions of nitrogen oxides and reactive hydrocarbons. Photochemical models have been
used in urban areas burdened with smog. These models must account for the chemical reactions including
chemical depletion and deposition. This increased complexity is addressed by examining the atmospheric
diffusion equation with facilities for reactions, sources and sinks. The box models and Gaussian models,
while capable of accounting for a wide range of source geometries and boundary conditions, are limited in
use with respect to photochemicals and non-conservative pollutants. The atmospheric diffusion, as written
by Bibbero and Young (1974), is
dCi 2 =
mere) SC aN Cine cs (ZBI)

where C; = the time averaged concentration of the ith chemical species

u = the vector wind velocity
R; = the rate of chemical production or depletion of species i
S; = the emission rate of i species from sources
q = the mass flux of i species due to eddy diffusion
where i=1,2,...,p, the number of independent chemical species
dd
and tae fs
ox Oy
Equation (21.155) expanded is

BE i OC ee Oe ee |ee ee ee | ee eee
at ax dy Oz Bon ator dy \* ay ay ae ey aaa,
(21.156)
McRae et al. (1982) at Caltech developed a mathematical model of photochemical air pollution
using Eq. (21.156) as the starting point. Their work involved the numerical solution of Eq. (21.156). To
do this the ‘airshed’ is first divided into an array of grid cells with each cell having horizontal dimensions
of Ax, Ay of a few kilometres and vertical dimensions Az of several tens of metres. They applied their
model to the Los Angeles area (400 km x 100 km grid) with subsets at 10km x 10km. Their model was
based on the following:
e Species continuity equation incorporating:
— Advective transport
— Turbulent diffusion
— Chemical reactions
— Source emissions
— Surface removal processes
e Three dimensions
e Lagrangian trajectory
e Vertically integrated single-cell model
 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING 943

Their model adequately predicts levels for ozone and nitrogen dioxide for a period over the Southern
Californian region. The chemical reactions in photochemical type models are described by kinetic
mechanisms. For instance, in a typical urban atmosphere there are hundreds of different hydrocarbons
(McRae et al., 1982). The detailed kinetic model may need to take into account that n single phase
species, R;, i=1, 2,...,n, simultaneously participate in m elementary reaction steps. This level of
complexity is discussed by McRae et al. (1982).

21.13.6 The US EPAs Preferred Air Quality Models

Among the list of preferred air quality models, many as submodels within the EPA-UNAMAP system
include:

1. IsC—Industrial Source Complex Model. The ISC is a steady Gaussian plume model to assess the
concentrations of conservative pollutants from a wide variety of sources associated with an industrial
source complex. It can account for settling and dry deposition of particulates; downwash effects; area,
line and volume sources; separate point sources; and varying ground topography. It can model long-
term and short-term averages. It is considered suitable for distances of less than ~ 50 kms.
2. Caline—Highway Pollutant Model. Caline is a model to determine the concentrations of conservative
pollutants from highway traffic. It is a steady state Gaussian model to be used with uncomplicated
topography. Any wind direction, highway orientation or receptor location is possible. Particulate
concentrations can also be modelled with time averages of | to 24h.
3. UAM—Urban Airshed Model. This is a complex, urban type, three-dimensional, grid type numerical
solution of the diffusion equations. It can model the photochemical kinetics of reactive pollutants
including O3, NO, and VOC. It is appropriate for single urban areas and one hour averaging times.
4. Further details of these and a multitude of other programs are listed in Zanetti (1990) and are available
from NTIS, US Department of Commerce, Springtield, Virginia.

21.14 PROBLEMS

21.1 With regard to the completely stirred tank reactor (CFSTR) of Sec. 21.4.1, rewrite the mass
balance equation for a reactive (non-conservative) constituent. If the reaction of material A to
material X is a first-order reaction represented by r, = — kCa, show that the concentration ratio is:
Co/C;=1/(1 +k@), where ¢ is the hydraulic retention time.
21.2 For Problem 21.1, write a short FORTRAN program to compute Co/C; and, using a plotting
routeing, plot the concentration ratio Co/C; versus the time ratio t/ for values of k=5, 3, 1, 0.5
and 0.1.
21.3 Use a spreadsheet to do Problem 21.2.
21.4 A river reach is 20 km long and is divided into five subreaches each of 4km long. The flow rate is
25 m?/s and a pollutant is discharged at the head of the reach with a concentration of 500 mg/L.
Assume a first-order reaction rate with k=0.1 day‘. The cross-sectional areas of the respective
reaches are A,;=—28 m’, 4,=30 m’, 4;=32 m’, 44=34m*, As;=36 m? and 4,=38m/’.
Determine the pollutant concentrations for each reach, assuming a series of CFSTRs.
21.5 Write a FORTRAN program to solve Problem 21.4. Plot the longitudinal concentration profiles for
values of k=0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1 and 5 day '.
21.6 Apply the theory of a PFR to Problem 21.4. What is the predicted concentration at 20km
downstream of the outfall? (Do not divide into subreaches.) Compare your answer with that of
Problem 21.4.
944 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

PM ll Use the US Army Corps of Engineers Program HEC-2 to compute the backwater, water surface
profile for a river flow of 200 m?/s, with only main channel flow and an assumed Manning
roughness coefficient of 0.4. The starting water level downstream is unknown, so assume critical
flow. The cross-sectional data are as follows:

Section chainage Bed level Section width Bank height

Section number (km) (m) (m) ; (m)

0 0.0 200 70 3.0

1 1.5 205 68 4.0
2 3.5 211 66 4.1
3 48 218 64 3.7
4 6.1 220 62 3.0
5 7.1 225 60 4.1
6 9.8 228 58 4.0

21.8 Based on the equations in Sec. 21.6.1 from O’Connor (1976), prepare a plot of the relationship
between river flow and the groundwater and river flow and dissolved salts concentration, using a
spreadsheet representation of the equations.
Using the theory on estuarine flow in Sec. 21.8, determine the distribution of a reactant around its
outfall if k is 0.1 day”' and the freshwater flow velocity is 0.3 m/s and the dispersion coefficient is
10 m?/s. Plot the profile distribution of C/C; versus distance for dispersions of 10 and 100 m?/s.
In the estuarine problem of 21.9, for k=0.1 day ' and dispersion coefficient D = 200 m?/s,
compute and plot the distribution of C/C; for the freshwater velocities of 0.1 m/s and 1.0 m/s.
Use a spreadsheet to solve Problem 21.10.
For a contaminant flow in soils/aquifers, use the Ogata and Banks solution of Sec. 21.10.2 to
determine the breakthrough curves if the dispersion is 4 cm*/h, x = 20 cm and the mean velocity is
4cm/h. Determine the curves for a time of 1, 2 and 3h.
2113 For the activated sludge wastewater treatment process use either (a) SSSP (Clemson) (b) UCTOLD
(South Africa) or (c) IAWPRC computer model to size an activated sludge aeration tank and
clarifier to treat 90 000 m°/day with a BOD/SS influent of 300/350 to a standard of 20/30. State
your assumptions and reaction coefficients selected.
21.14 Develop a flow chart of the equations to be solved for the unsteady case of activated sludge
process. Refer to IAWPRC, UCTOLD and SSSP.
ZEUS Compute the average annual concentration of SO) if the coal-fired power station of Example 8.11
emits O=1.1kg/s and C; = 1 for an average wind speed of 2 m/s. Assume the concentration is
effected over an area of 1000 km’.
21.16 Write a short FORTRAN program to predict the PSI (Pollution Standard Index) if the SO,
concentration for weeks | to 10 follows the relationship C = 2—0.1w, where w, is the week number.
Input as data the standards as shown in Example 21.7.
pAeae) For Example 21.9, if in addition to vehicular pollution a wind speed U of 4m/s introduces a
concentration of CO of Ci,=20mg/m? and the initial concentration Cia) in the ‘box’ prior to
8 a.m. is 10mg/m’, determine the concentration after 2h of traffic.
PANY 3 If for Problem 21.17 traffic lasted only 1h, what is the concentration after that 1 h?
PANe he) Write a FORTRAN program to use the Gaussian plume equation (see Chapter 6) to determine air
pollutant concentrations using the Pasquill-Gifford indices. Input the indices as data. Now use your
model to determine the concentration of SO, emitted from the coal-fired power station of Example 8.11.
21.20 Simplify your program of Problem 21.19 to be able to compute concentrations of pollutants
emitted at ground level. Use Example 8.10.
21.21 Repeat Example 21.3 if the reaches and volumes are the same but the flow rate, Q, is 2m*/s and
the reaction rate k=0.5 day’.
 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING 945

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Air and Waste Management Association (1992) Air Modelling, Proceedings of 85th Annual Meeting, Kansas,
21-26 June, Air and
Waste Management Association, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania.
Bear, J and A. Verruijt (1987) Modelling Groundwater Flow and Pollution. Theory and Applications of Transport in Porous Media,
D. Reidel Publishing Co. (member of Kluwer Academic Publishing), Dordrecht, The Netherlands.
Beck, M. B. (1991) ‘Principles of modelling’, Water Sci. Technol., 24(6), 1-6.
Bedient, P. B. and W. C. Huber (1988) Hydrology and Flood Plain Analysis, Addison-Wesley Publishing, Reading, Massachusetts.
Bedient, P. B. and H. S. Rifai (1993) ‘Modelling in situ bioremediation’, in in situ bioremediation, National Research Council,
National Academic Press.
Benarie, M.M. (1980) Urban Air Pollution Modelling, MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Bibbero, R. and J. S. Young (1974) Systems Approach to Air Pollution Modelling, John Wiley, New York.
Bidstrup, S. M. and L. P. Grady (1967) Manual for SSSP. Simulation of Single Sludge Processes
forCarbon Oxidation, Nitrification
and Dentrification, Clemson University, South Carolina.
Biswos, A. K. (1981) Models for Water Quality Management, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Bordon, S. I. (1985) Computer Models in Environmental Planning, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
Casamitjana, X. and G. Schladow (1993) ‘Vertical distribution of particles in stratified lake’, ASCE J. of Environ. Engng, 119(3).
Chapra, S. C. and R. P. Canale (1988) Numerical Methods for Engineers, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Chow, V. T. (1959) Open Channel Hydraulics, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Crank, J. (1956) The Mathematics of Diffusion, Oxford University Press.
Dingman, L. (1994) Physical Hydrology, Macmillan, London.
Dold, P. L., M. C. Wentzel, A. E. Billing, G. A. Ekama and GyR Marais (1991) Activated Sludge System Simulation Program, Water
Research Commission, Pretoria, South Africa.
Falconer, R. A. (1991) ‘Review of modelling flow and pollutant transport processes in hydraulic basins’, Proceedings of Water
Pollution: Modelling Measuring and Prediction, L. C. Wroebel and C. A. Brebbia, Southampton.
Fischer, H. B. (1976) ‘Mixing and dispersion in estuaries’, Annual Rey. of Fluid Mechanics, 8.
Fischer, H. B., E. J. List, R. C. Y. Koh, J. Imberger and N. H. Brooks (1979) Mixing in Inland and Coastal Waters, Academic Press,
New York.
Geankoplis, C. J. (1993) Transport Processes and Unit Operations, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Ghadin, H. and C. A. Rose (1992) Modelling Chemical Transport in Soils. Natural and Applied Contaminants, Lewis Publishers,
Ann Arbor, Michigan.
Gifford, E. A. and S. R. Hanna (1974) ‘Modelling urban air pollution’, Atmospheric Environment, 8, 870-871.
Grady, W. G. (1986) Physics Based Modelling of Lakes, Reservoirs and Impoundments, ASCE, New York.
Hamming, R. W. (1973) Numerical Methods for Scientists and Engineers, Dover Publications, London.
Harleman, D. R. F. (1964) ‘The Significance of Longitudinal Dispersion in the Analysis of Pollution of Estuaries’, Proc. 2nd Int.
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Havis, R. N. and D. Ostendorf (1989) ‘Approximate dynamic lake phosphorus budget models’. ASCE J. Environ. Engng., 115(4),
August.
Horvath, I. (1984) Modelling in the Technology of Wastewater Treatment, Pergamon Press, Oxford.
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James, A. An Introduciton to Water Quality Modelling, John Wiley, New York.
James, D. J. G. and J. J. McDonald (1981) Case Studies in Mathematical Modelling, John Wiley, New York.
Jousma, G., J. Bear, Y. Y. Haimes and F. Walter (1987) Groundwater Contamination: Use of Models in Decision Making. Kluwer
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946 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

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Sane

eee ene ee ee ee ene HE ee NUNS Sere GLOSSARY

Acidification A form of pollution of surface water due to acid rain.

Acidogenesis The conversion of the lower molecular components of fatty acids, amino acids and
monosaccharides to lower molecular intermediate compounds.
Acidity The capacity to neutralize a base.
Acid rain Rain with a pH less than 5.7, caused chiefly by the dissolution of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen
oxides.
Actinomycetes A group of bacteria existing in the soil whose cells are arranged in fine filaments and who
assist in the decomposition of organic matter.
Activated sludge A population of bacteria, protozoa and other micro-organisms, in a suspended floc.
Their function aeration of the sewage thereby replacing the dissolved oxygen as rapidly as it is taken
up by oxidation of the organic content of the sewage.
Adsorption A physical and chemical process by which a sorbed substance adheres to the surface of a
sorbing solid.
Advection Heat transfer by a horizontal flow of air or liquid.
Aerated lagoon A lagoon, operating on the principle of the activated sludge process without sludge
return, in which wastewater undergoes biological treatment.
Aeration zone The uppermost layers of soil where a high percentage of air exists within the pores.
Aerobic Requiring oxygen.
Aerosol propellant Halocarbons and chlorofiuorocarbons found in aerosol cans.
Airborne vibrations Vibrations caused by sounds in the frequency range 50-100 Hz, produced by
passing heavy vehicles.
Airshed A control volume of air, typically over an urban district, extending from street level to the
atmospheric boundary layer.
Air screening A process whereby separation of the light and heavier components of MSW is
accomplished, based on the weight difference of the components in an air stream.
Air stripping A process to remove ammonia from wastewater by passing it downwards through a packed
tower, countercurrent to an induced air flow passing upwards.
Aliphatic compound A compound whose molecules contain chains of carbon atoms.
Alkalinity The capacity to neutralize acid.
Allochthonous A term given to describe micro-organisms which have been introduced into an alien
environment.
947
948 GLOSSARY

Anthropogenic Relating to the science of man.

Amino acids Compounds, containing within their structure at least one amino group (NHz2) and one
carboxylic group (-COOH)). Sub-units of amino acids make up proteins.
Amplitude The magnitude of the maximum displacement of an oscillating sound wave.
Anaerobic digestion Digestion of organic matter by anaerobic microbial action, resulting in the
production of methane gas.
Anaerobiosis The presence of life in an anaerobic environment.
+
Anion A negatively charged ion.
Anion exchange capacity The ability to exchange positively charged particles of two or more
compounds, measured in milliequivalents per 100 grams.
Aquaclude Rocks and soils which transmit water with difficulty, e.g. clay, shale and unfractured granite.
Aquifer Rocks and soils which transmit water with ease through their pores and fractures, e.g. limestone,
sandstone and fractured granite.
Aromatic compounds Compounds which contain a six-membered ring of carbon atoms, known as a
benzene ring, e.g. vitamin B.
Atmospheric boundary layer A region near the earth in which the relative velocity increases from zero
with elevation, due to the motion of the atmosphere relative to the earth’s surface.
Atmospheric inversion A term which describes the rising of warm air above cold air when two air
masses of different temperatures, humidity and pressure meet.
Attached growth Fixed microbial growth on the media surface in a trickling filter.
Attentuate and disperse landfill sites The traditional type of landfill site from which the leachate
produced seeps through soil fissures and pores into the underlying saturated zone, where it is diluted.
Attrition A gradual abrasion.
Auto-ignition temperature The temperature to which a reactive mixture must be raised so that, under
certain conditions of pressure and after a specific period of time, that mixture will spontaneously
ignite.
Autotrophic A term applied to organisms which produce their own organic constituents from inorganic
compounds utilizing energy from sunlight or oxidation processes.
Available water content The water available in the soil for plant use, i.e. the difference between the
permanent wilting point and the field capacity.
Avogadro number The number of atoms of carbon in exactly twelve grams of the carbon-12 isotope, i.e.
61023"107:
Bag filter A row of fabric bags through which a gas stream is passed for the removal of particulate matter.
Baling A compaction process in which the volume of waste requiring to be stored or transported is
reduced.
Bandspreading The spreading of fertilizers in thick bands, 300 mm apart.
Baseflow Water which enters streams from persistent, slowly varying sources and maintains streamflow
between water-input events.
Basidia_ The reproduction cell of the fungal group, Basidiomycetes, which contains the mushroom,
puffballs and rust.
Bearing capacity A measure of the load per unit area that a material can withstand before failure.
Benthic Of the bottom.
Bentonite A natural clay whose particles form a skin of very low permeability on an excavated soil face.
The skin supports the soil hydrostatic pressure, thereby promoting stability.
Benzene ring The basic structure of benzene: six carbon atoms arranged in a ring, each with a hydrogen
atom attached.
Binary fission A form of reproduction of micro-organisms in which the cell mass is passed on as two
new individuals to the succeeding generation and the biomass is retained within the population.
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) A measure of the amount of oxygen used by bacteria in the
degradation of organic matter.
 GLOSSARY 949

Biocide A chemical toxic or lethal to living organisms.

Biodegradable Capable of decomposition by living matter.
Biodiversity The infinite range of living organisms found within an ecosystem.
Biome A major regional ecological community, characterized by distinct life forms and principal plant or
animal species.
Biosolids The semi-solid end product of wastewater treatment.
Biosphere The part of the earth and the atmosphere in which life can occur.
Biotope The smallest geographical unit of the biosphere or of a habitat, characterized by its biota, that
can be defined by convenient boundaries.
Bluff body A body which is of angular, rather than aerodynamic, shape.
Bound water A thin film of water held by adhesion to the surface of soil particles.
Buoyancy The upward force that acts on a body which is totally immersed in a fluid and is equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced by the body.
Bubbling bed Expansion and fluidization of the sand of a fluid-bed incinerator caused by high rate
passage of air.
Budding A type of asexual reproduction in which new cells are formed as outgrowths of a parent cell.
Buffer A solution which undergoes only a slight change in pH when H* or OH ions are added to it.
Buffer stripping The cultivation of narrow strips of land across the slope of the land rather than parallel
to it, with the aim of reducing soil erosion.
Bulking agent A low density material, usually domestic refuse, straw or woodchips which is mixed with
compost to permit air circulation while the compost is digesting..
Buttress zone Zone of protection.
Can velocity The velocity of the gas in the passages between the filter units in the filter house of a gas
filter.
Capilliarity The rise of water in tubes of small bore due to the adhesion between the water molecules and
the surface of the vessel wall.
Capilliary suction time (CST) A laboratory-determinable parameter defining the dewaterability rate of
a wastewater sludge.
Capilliary water Water held in soil micropores by weak capilliary forces.
Capsid A protein coat surrounding the nucleic acid of a simple virus.
Capsule A layer of well-organized materials lying outside and adhering to the bacterial cell wall.
Carotenes See carotenoids.
Carotenoids A group of plant pigments of an orange, yellow or red colour which assist in photosyn-
thesis, absorb light in the violet-blue range but whose presence is usually masked by chlorophyll.
They contain the groups carotenes and xanthophylls.
Catalyst A substance which alters the rate of a chemical reaction but which is not used up and is
unchanged chemically at the end of the reaction.
Catchment A natural drainage basin which channels rainfall into a single outflow.
Cation A positively charged ion.
Cation exchange capacity The ability to exchange negatively charged particles of two or more
compounds, measured in milliequivalents per 100 grams.
Cavity zone A region within which there is little mixing of air.
Cellular storm A rainfall event consisting of a number of discreet rainfall-bearing cells (clouds).
Cell wall The outer supporting layer of a plant cell made by the protoplast and consisting largely of
cellulose.
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) A quick chemical test to measure the oxygen equivalent of the
organic matter content of wastewater that is susceptible to oxidation by a strong chemical.
Chemisorption Adsorption involving very strong bonding forces.
950 GLOSSARY

Chemotrophic A term applied to organisms which produce their own organic constituents from
inorganic compounds utilizing the energy obtained from the oxidation of hydrogen sulphide.
Chloracne A widespread acneform eruption due to exposure to compounds such as dibenzofurans,
dibenzodioxins and chlorodiphenyls.
Chloramine A compound composed of chlorine and ammonia.
Chlorination A disinfection technique used in water treatment, involving the addition of Cl, gas,
chlorine dioxide, sodium hypochlorite or calcium hypochlorite.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Compounds containing chloriné, fluorine or bromine, used as aerosol
propellants, refrigerants, foaming agents and solvents and which, on decomposition by sunlight,
produce oxides of chlorine responsible for the removal of ozone from the stratosphere.
Chlorophyll A photosynthetic plant pigment which absorbs red and blue light but reflects green light.
The chlorophyll molecule has a square head, magnesium at the centre and a long tail.
Chlorophyll a The most important of the pigments in chlorophyll, found in all photosynthetic plants
except bacteria.
Chlorophyll b One of the constituent pigments of chlorophyll, found in higher plants and green algae.
Chloroplast A chlorophyll-containing, cytoplasmic body of plant cells where photosynthesis occurs.
Chromatophore A plastic containing coloured pigment.
Cilia Whiplike structures of 5-20 wm length which allows bacterial mobility by beating with a
swimming action.
Circulating bed Recovery of solids from the gas phase of a fluidized bed combustion reactor, followed
by reinjection into the sand bed.
Closed loop recycling The remanufacture of a new product from a retired product of the same type.
Coagulation The water/wastewater treatment process of destabilizing colloidal particles to facilitate
particle growth during flocculation by either double-layer compression, charge neturalization,
interparticle bridging or precipitate enmeshment.
Coarse fish Fish, e.g. mullet, which are able to tolerate low oxygen levels.
Coepod species A phylum containing the Crustacea, i.e. small freshwater and marine animals, of which
some plankton is composed.
Conductivity A measure of the ability of a solution to conduct an electrical current and is proportional to
the concentration of ions in the solution.
Coliforms Non-pathogenic bacteria present in the intestines of warm-blooded animals, water and
wastewater, whose numbers indicate contamination.
Colloids Very small particles in suspension, e.g. clays.
Combustion A high temperature process involving the decomposition of organics in an excess of air.
Completely mixed reactor An aeration tank in which, on entering, the influent wastewater is dispersed
immediately throughout the reactor volume.
Composting The biological stabilization of wastes of biological origin under controlled conditions.
Compound A substance, the molecules of which consist of two or more different kinds of atoms.
Compression settling Particles are present in such a high concentration that they touch each other and
settling can occur only by compression of the particle mass.
Condensation point That level above the earth’s surface to which a parcel of unsaturated air must ascend
before becoming saturated.
Constructed wetland A biological wastewater treatment system which utilizes plants for the degradation
of organic waste.
Contact stabilization A wastewater treatment plant in which there are two tanks, one for the adsorption
of organic matter onto the suspended solids and another for oxidation of the adsorbed materials.
Containment landfill sites The modern landfill site, in which the leachate generated is contained by
bottom liners, collected and treated.
Contaminated site A landfill into which hazardous polluting waste has been dumped.
Contour ploughing Ploughing across the slope of the land rather than with it, to prevent soil erosion.
 GLOSSARY 951

Convection Transport of heat by vertical movement of a heated body.

Convective precipitation When a parcel of air which is less dense than the air surrounding it, rises, it
cools and loses moisture which falls to the earth as rain.
Coriolis force A transverse force, caused by the movement of the earth about the sun, which causes a
build-up in the level of water to the right of a tidal current in the northern hemisphere and to the left
in
the southern hemisphere.
Corona The upper portion of a body part.
Criteria pollutant Emissions to the urban air traditionally seen as polluting, e.g. carbon monoxide
(COz), sulphur dioxide (SO,).
Cryogenic Producing very low temperatures.
Cyanide A highly poisonous salt of hydrocyanic acid, used frequently in the extraction of gold and silver.
Cyclone separator A means of purifying an air stream by using both gravitational and centrifugal forces.
Cytotoxic Damaging to cell structure and cell division.
Daphnid species The phylum containing the Branchiopodia, i.e. marine solitary, benthic animals with a
shell of two valves.
Denitrification The chemical reduction of nitrate and nitrite to gaseous forms: nitric oxide, nitrous oxide
and dinitrogen: NO; — NO, — NO > N20 > N)
Deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA) A large organic molecule found in the cell nucleus, containing a
phosphate group, five-carbon sugars (deoxyribose) and four different nitrogenous bases in a repetitive
structure.
Detritivores Organisms which feed on fragmented particulate organic matter.
Dewatering of sludge A mechanical unit operation which increases the dry solids concentration of the
sludge from 3.9 per cent after digestion to 25—30 per cent thereby ensuring that the sludge effectively
behaves as a solid for handling purposes.
Diffusion The process by which gases and liquids spread themselves throughout any space into which
they are put.
Dilute-phase bed The stage in fluidized bed combustion at which the bubbling of the reactor bed
becomes so great that the boundary between the bed and the gas above it becomes indistinct.
Dimiclic A term to describe a lake whose thermocline is disrupted due to two periods of free circulation
or overturn per year in the lake.
Dioxin Tetrachlorodibenzoparadioxin (TCDD), a highly toxic and environmentally persistent product of
the manufacture of the pesticide 2,4,5-T.
Direct contact condenser The vapour stream is in direct contact with the drying medium, hot air or gas.
The drying medium (hot air or flue gas) leaves the drier with the water vapour coming from the sludge.
The drying temperature is 80-150 °C.
Directivity index The difference between the measured sound power level and the value based on the
assumption of uniform radiation in all directions.
Discrete settling Particles settle as independent units, without interaction of flocs.
Disinfection The removal or inactivation of pathogenic organisms.
Dissolved oxygen A measure of the amount of oxygen dissolved in water, expressed as either:
(i) mg/l—which is the absolute amount of oxygen dissolved in the water mass
(ii) as percentage saturation of the water with O, (% sat) .
Dissolved solids The total colloidal and suspended solids in a liquid. Any particle passing a 1.2 ym filter
is defined as dissolved.
Dominant group The highest ranking group in a social order of dominance sustained by aggressive or
other behavioural patterns.
Downflow column e.g. Sand filtration where water flows through the filter by gravity. Also used in
packed
anaerobic digestion, where the wastewater enters at the upper levels and flows down through a
medium. Opposite to upflow column.
Downwash The drawdown of a plume after emission due to a low pressure area downwind of the stack.
952 GLOSSARY

Dry absorption A method of controlling acids in flue gas emissions, by injection of dry calctum
hydroxide into the gases leaving the furnace of an incinerator.
Dry weather flow The combination of wastewater and dry weather infiltration flowing in a sanitary sewer
during times of low precipitation. *
Ecology That branch of science dealing with living organisms and their surroundings.
Ecosystem A community of interdependent organisms together with the environment which they inhabit
and with which they interact, e.g. a pond.
Ecotron A controlled, in-house, ecological experiment to recreate a particular ecosystem.
ECU The EU unit of monetary currency.
Effluent The outflow from a sewage treatment plant.
Electrical double layer A name given to the combination of the Stern layer and the diffused layer of both
negatively and positively charged ions which surround it.
Electron Negatively charged particle contained within an atom, the weight of which is about two
thousand times less than that of the hydrogen atom.
Electrostatic precipitation A means of purifying an air stream by attraction and adhesion of ionized
particles to an electrode.
Element A substance, the molecules of which have all the same atoms.
Endotoxin An environmental toxin which attacks the endocrine glands, i.e. kidney, liver, etc.
Environmental impact assessment (EIA) A review to which all commencing projects must be
subjected with regard to their impact on the environment.
Enzyme A substance produced by living cells which acts like a catalyst in promoting reactions within the
organism.
Epilimnion The zone in a stratified lake just below the near-surface water in which temperature
decreases rapidly with depth.
Epilithic Relating to organisms growing on rocks or on other hard, inorganic substances.
Equilibrium concentration The concentration of the dissociated ions when the rates of both backward
and forward reactions are equal.
Equilization basin A holding tank within which variations in sewage inflow rate and liquid nutrient
concentrations are averaged.
Equivalence The number of protons donated in an acid-base reaction or the total change in valence in an
oxidation-reduction reaction.
Eucaryotic cell A cell whose nucleus is enclosed by a membrane, e.g. algae, higher plants and animals.
Euphotic zone The surface zone of large lakes through which sufficient light penetrates for photo-
synthesis to occur.
European Communities (EC) A precursor to the EU, created by the merger of the European Coal and
Steel Community, the European Economic Community and the European Atomic Energy
Community.
European Economic Community (EEC) An organization established in 1957 under the Treaty of
Rome to co-ordinate the activities of its member countries in the coal and steel industry, the
establishment of a common market and the pooling of atomic energy resources.
European Union (EU) A supranational organization which replaced the EEC in 1993, with the objective
of peace and prosperity for its members by achieving complete economic and political union.
Eurytopic A term describing an organism which is tolerant of a wide range of habitats.
Eurotrophic A term describing freshwater bodies which are rich in plant nutrients and therefore highly
productive.
Eutrophication An increase in the concentration of nutrients in an aquatic ecosystem, causing:
(i) the increased productivity of autotrophic green plants, leading to the blocking out of sunlight
(ii) elevated temperatures within the water body
(iii) depletion of the water’s oxygen resources
(iv) increased algal growth
 GLOSSARY 953

(v) reduction in the level of and variety of fish and animal life
Evaporation §The changing of liquid water from rivers, lakes, bare soil and vegetative surfaces into water
vapour.
Evapotranspiration A collective term for all the processes by which water in the liquid or solid phase at
or near the earth’s land surfaces becomes atmospheric water vapour.
Exothermic reaction A chemical reaction during which heat is liberated.
Extended aeration Involves an aeration period of more than 24 hours and a high rate of return sludge to
allow cell decay during the endogenous respiration phase of the growth curve.
Facultative aerobes/anaerobes Having the ability to live either with or without oxygen.
Fickian diffusion Molecular diffusion, governed by Fick’s law, which says that the rate of flow of
molecules across a unit area of a certain plane is directly proportional to the concentration gradient.
Field capacity The amount of water which can be held in the soil against the force of gravity, 1.e. water
which will not drain freely out of the soil.
Filtration A process whereby suspended and colloidal matter is removed from water and wastewater by
passage through a granular medium.
Five-day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD;) A measure of the amount of oxygen used by bacteria to
degrade organic matter in a sample of wastewater over a 5 day period at 20 °C, expressed in mg 1_'.
Fixed bed A bed of dry carbon which recovers volatile organic carbons from an air stream.
Flagellae Whiplike structures of 100-200 um length which allow bacterial mobility by undulating in
planar or helical waves.
Flash point The lowest temperature at which a flammable vapour/air mixture exists at the surface of a
combustible liquid.
Flocculation The water treatment process in which particle collisions are induced in order to encourage
the growth of larger particles.
Flotation A process by which suspended matter is lifted to the surface of a liquid to facilitate its removal.
Frequently done by the bubbling of air through the liquid.
Flow duration curve A means of summarizing temporal variability by averaging precipitation over a
selected time period.
Flowing well When the groundwater is flowing in a confined aquifer, it is under hydrostatic pressure.
Should a standpipe be inserted into the aquifer, the water will rise in the standpipe.
Flue gases Gas by-products of the incineration process whose temperature is a measure of incinerator
efficiency and whose constituents may be polluting.
Flue gas scrubber Equipment used for the removal of suspended particulates and acid gases from flue
gas emissions.
Fluidized bed combustion An incineration technique in which waste is destroyed by combustion on a
bubbling bed.
Fluoridation The addition of fluoride to drinking water within the limits 0.7—1.2 mg/l~' to help prevent
the occurrence of tooth decay.
Foaming agent Anti-foaming chemicals added to wastewater in the aeration tank to disperse the
contaminating foam caused by the action of the surface aerators and the presence of detergents in
the wastewater.
Food/micro-organism ratio (F/M) A measure of the organic loading rate of a wastewater treatment
system, i.e. the ratio between the daily BOD load and the quantity of activated sludge in the system
(microbes). . .
Fugitive emissions Emissions from non-point sources, ¢.g. loading/unlo ading, transferring, trans-
ra. .
porting, storing and processing of materials.
Fumigating A term describing a plume from an emission stack which is trapped by a stable inversion
above the stack mouth, thereby hitting the ground level very close to the stack. .
Functional group A group of atoms on which the characteristic properties of a particular homologous
series depend, e.g. the alkanes, alcohols and esters.
954 GLOSSARY

Furans Compounds causing chloracne, liver damage and liver cancer. Strictly C4H,O, but more
commonly one of a range of polychlorinated dibenzofurans that are produced as contaminants
from the incomplete incineration of chlorinated hydrocarbons.
Gamete A mature cell, involved in reproduction.
Gas chromatography A process whereby compounds become separated by being physically carried by
a gas over a liquid of a high molecular weight.
Gas flaring The burning of recovered landfill gas from a stack under controlled conditions to help
eliminate the discharge of harmful constituents to the atmosphere.
Gasification A high temperature process involving the decomposition of organics in the absence of
oxygen. Some of the energy stored as chemical energy from the organic material will be released as
burnable gas.
Genotype The genes which an organism possesses or the genetic make-up of an organism.
Groundborne vibrations Vibrations caused by the reaction of tyres of heavy vehicles with irregularities
in the road surface.
Groundwater Water under a pressure greater than atmospheric pressure which is present in the saturated
zone of the soil.
Haematins A group of coloured plant pigments, including the red pigment, haematochrome.
Haloform A basic organic unit of the halogen group.
Halogen The reactive members of Group 7 of the Periodic Table, including chlorine, bromine, fluorine
and iodine.
Hardness in water The sum of the calcium and magnesium ion concentrations. A hard water will leave a
scale on the inside of kettles and will form a scum rather than a lather with soap.
Hazardous waste A substance which exhibits ignitability, reactivity, corrosivity, and/or toxicity.
Heat of adsorption Adsorption is the process of retaining a gas molecule by either physical or chemical
means onto an adsorbent (a solid, e.g. activated carbon). The heat change taking place during this
process (loss of heat of gas, increase in temperature of adsorbent) is the heat of adsorption.
Heat of condensation The quantity of heat required to bring about a phase change from a gas to a liquid.
Heat of solution The heat change which takes place when one mole of a substance is dissolved in excess
solvent.
Heavy metal Inorganic species of large atomic weight. Usually chromium (Cr*'), lead (Pb*), mercury
(Hg?"), zinc (Zn*"), cadmium (Cd?) and barium (Ba?’).
Herbivores Animals which feed on plant material only, e.g. rabbits.
Heterotrophic A term applied to organisms which need ready-made food materials from which to
produce their own constituents and to obtain all their energy.
High rate aeration An increased rate of aeration of MLSS in an activated sludge system requiring less
activated sludge and shorter aeration periods.
Homogenous Consisting of only one phase.
Humus The vegetative upper layers of the soil.
Hydraulic conductivity See permeability.
Hydrograph A graph of stream discharge versus time.
Hydrolysis The breakdown of high molecular compounds to low molecular compounds.
Hydrophilic Displaying an affinity for water.
Hydrophobic Displaying an aversion for water.
Hydrothermal vent An opening in the earth through which heated or superheated water is ejected.
Hydraulic jump An area of turbulence and of loss of energy associated with the transmission from
shooting to tranquil flow.
Hydrological cycle The endless recirculatory transport process of the earth’s water resources, linking the
atmosphere, the land and the oceans.
Hyetograph A graph of water input to a catchment versus time.
Hypha A tubular filament which is the basic unit structure of most fungi and some bacteria.
 GLOSSARY 955

Hypolimnion The lower layer of water in stratified lakes which retains the winter temperature.
Ion Atoms or groups of atoms which have either lost or gained electrons and so have become
either
positively or negatively charged.
fon exchange [on exchange can be illustrated by the following reaction: Ca** + NaZ —> CaZ + 2Nat.
Incineration Chemical oxidation at high temperatures where organic material is converted into heat
energy, flue gas and slag.
Inclusion body Organic or inorganic bodies containing glycogen, protein or lipids, present in the
cytoplasm of a bacterium.
Indirect contact condenser A condenser in which there is no direct contact between the heating medium
and the vapour stream, but a partition divides the two. The water vapour is removed separately from
the heating medium. The drying temperature is 100-250 °C.
Invertebrate Animal without cranium and spinal column.
Irrigation requirement The difference in volume between effective precipitation and evapotranspira-
tion.
Isohyet A line on a map connecting areas of equal precipitation.
Isocyanate Derivatives of nitrogen-substituted carbamic acids, containing carbon, oxygen and an
organic amine group.
Isotropic A substance whose physical properties are the same in all directions.
Jute Fibre from the bark of some plants, used mostly for sacking.
Karst Landforms of chemically weathered limestone, characterized by underground channels and
caverns, swallow holes and open joints.
Ketone An organic compound containing three carbon atoms, one of which is double-bonded to an
oxygen atom, the other two each attached to three hydrogen atoms e.g. acetone.
Landfill A repository in the ground for unwanted waste.
Landfill gas This is produced principally from the anaerobic decomposition of biodegradable organic
waste and includes ammonia, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, hydrogen sulphide,
methane, nitrogen and oxygen.
Landfill liner Used to limit the movement of leachate and landfill gases from the landfill site. Can be
made of natural clay material or composite geomembrane and clay materials.
Lapse rate The rate of temperature change with height for a parcel of dry air rising adiabatically.
Latent heat of evaporation The quantity of heat required to bring about a phase change from a liquid to
a vapour.
Leachate Liquid, composed of external rainfall, groundwater, etc. which has percolated through solid
waste and has extracted both biological and chemical, dissolved or suspended materials.
Legumes Legumes are specific plants, e.g. clover, soybeans and lupins, which carry nodules on their
roots and, together with bacteria of the genus Rhizobium are responsible for the biological fixation of
nitrogen in the soil.
Life cycle assessment (LCA) The assessment of the steps in a product life cycle, including: raw
materials acquisition, bulk material processing, materials production, manufacture, assembly, use,
retirement and disposal.
Ligand Molecules of a complexing agent in a complex ion, 1.e. an aggregate formed when a metal
ion bonds to several other ions or molecules which cluster around it. In the reaction
AgCl+2NH; — Ag(NH3).* + Cl, NH; is the ligand. eae 5
Light compensation point The depth in a sea or lake below which, because of low light intensities,
plants use up more organic matter in respiration than they make during photosynthesis. writs
Liquid injection incineration A method of incineration of liquid waste by high-rate injection into a
combustion chamber.
Lithotrophic A term describing organisms which use inorganic compounds as electron donors in their
energetic processes.
Littoral zone The shore of a lake to a depth of about 10 metres.
956 GLOSSARY

Lofting A term describing a plume from an emission stack which remains aloft due to a stable inversion
below the mouth of the stack.
Lower explosive limit (LEL) The concentration at which a gas forms an explosive mixture with air.
Lysis The rupture of cells. .
Magnetic separation A process which utilizes the magnetic properties of ferrous metals to extract them
from the waste stream.
Masking agent A substance which will remove an offending odour from an air stream by decomposition
or conversion to an organic salt. .
Materials recovery facility (MRF) Depots where reusable waste material is recovered.
Mean cell residence time (MCRT) The average time a single microbe will remain in an activated sludge
system and is calculated by
Total mass of cells
Rate of cell wastage
Meiosis A type of cell nuclear division in which the daughter nuclei receive only half the original number
of chromosomes in the parent nucleus.
Membrane process The removal of dissolved solids from water by passage through a membrane of
minute pore diameter (3*10— 10m).
Mesophilic temperatures Those temperatures in the range 10-45 °C.
Mesotrophic A term to describe waters having intermediate levels of the minerals required by green
plants.
Methanogenesis Intermediate compounds are converted to the final products of methane and carbon
dioxide.
Methanogenic bacteria Obligate anaerobes and methanobacteria (e.g. methanosarcina, methanobacilli)
which produce methane gas from the decomposition of acids and alcohols:

CO, + H2,0 + NH3 — NH4HCO;

Micro-organisms Neither plant nor animal, these are small, simple organisms which are either
unicellular or multicellular, consisting of protozoa, algae, fungi, ricettsiae, viruses and bacteria.
Mineralization The process by which organic N is reconverted to mineral form by a wide variety of
heterotrophic organisms—bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes.
Mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) The microbial suspension in the aeration tank containing living
and dead micro-organisms and inert biodegradable matter, the operating concentration of which may
vary in the range 1500 to 4000 mg/1_'.
Mole A mole of any substance is that amount of it which contains the Avogadro Constant number of
particles. A mole of any substance is equal to its molecular mass or atomic mass expressed in grams.
Molecular diffusion The drifting of molecules under random kinetic motion from a low concentration
region to a high concentration region.
Monomiclic A term to describe a lake having a single period of free circulation or overturn per year.
Morphology The study of the form of animals and plants.
Mouse system Software for the hydrodynamic and hydrochemical design of a wastewater collection
system from the Danish Hydraulic Institute.
Mutagenic Causing alteration of the genetic material of an organism, leading to inherited differences.
Mycelium A mat of branching hyphae found particularly in actinomycetes.
Negative project A commencing project for which an Environmental Impact Assessment will not be
required.
Negative sorting Manual sorting of waste to remove the unwanted fractions. Is recommended only for
dry waste.
Neutrality An ion or ion group which has an equal number of electrons and protons, i.e. neither a
positive nor a negative overall charge.
 GLOSSARY 957

Niche The ecological role of a species in a community.

Nitrification The conversion of the ammonium ion, NH4", into the nitrite ion, NO3~. It occurs in two
steps:
(i) 2NH4* +30,=2NO, +2H,0+ 4H? by the bacteria genus Nitrosomonas
(ti) 2NO2” +O2=2NO3 by the bacteria genus Nitrobacter.
Non-point source pollution Pollution from diffuse and not easily identifiable sources, e.g. a field.
Normality A concentration unit which is defined as:
number of equivalents of solute
number of litres of solution.
Nucleic acid See Deoxyribose nucleic acid and Ribonucleic acid.
Nucleoid An irregularly shaped region in the procaryotic cell containing the genetic material.
Nucleus The well-defined region surrounded by the cell wall which contains the chromosomes, i.e. the
materials of inheritance of the cell.
Nutrient removal Tertiary treatment introduced to remove some of the trace compounds and elements
contained in most domestic wastewaters, e.g. inorganic ammonia, nitrates, phosphates and sulphates,
which are little affected by conventional treatment processes.
Octave band The interval between a given frequency and twice that frequency within the audible
frequency range.
Odour threshold The minimum level or value of an odour necessary to elicit a public response.
Off-specification stock Stock which is produced by errors in processing, leading frequently to customer
dissatisfaction.
Olfactometer An instrument used to measure relative odour levels.
Oligotrophic A term describing freshwater bodies which are poor in plant nutrients and are therefore
unproductive.
Open loop recycling The manufacture of a new and simpler product from a retired, downcycled, more
complex product.
Organochlorine A highly persistent and carcinogenic compound containing one or more chlorine atoms
found in pesticides such as DDT.
Organoleptic parameters These are properties which can be detected by the human senses—eyes, nose
and mouth.
Organotrophic A term describing organisms which use organic compounds as electron donors in their
energy-producing processes.
Overflow rate The rate at which water is drawn off from the surface of primary and secondary
clarification tanks. It is an important tank design parameter and is derived from the analysis of settling
particles.
Overland flow. The lateral movement of water over the ground surface due to gravitational forces.
Oxidizing waste A waste which loses electrons in an oxidation-reduction reaction, thereby becoming
reduced itself.
Oxidation A process in which there is loss of electrons from an element or ion.
Oxidation ditch A ring-shaped channel, 1-1.5m deep, around which wastewater circulates at 0.3—
0.6m/s~', is aerated by mechanical rotors and undergoes biological treatment by the resident
microbes.
Oxidation number The charge which an atom of an element has, or appears to have, in a compound, e.g.
chlorine has an oxidation number of —1.
Oxygen sag curve The longitudinal profile of oxygen concentration in a river.
Ozone A triatomic gas, particularly prevalent in the stratosphere, formed by the reaction:
O+0,-+ energy > O; + energy.
958 GLOSSARY

Ozone-depleting gases Gases (e.g. oxides of nitrates, chlorine nitrate, halocarbons and water vapour)
which cause destruction of the ozone layer, thereby allowing increased amounts of sunlight to reach
the earth.
PAH Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
PAN Peroxyacetyl]-nitrate.
Parasite An organism which lives on or in another living organism of a different species (the host), from
which it obtains food and protection, e.g. tapeworms, greenflies.
Parr Fry, i.e. young fish.
Partial pressure The pressure a single gas within a contained mixture a gases would exert if it were the
only gas in the container.
Peat bed filter Odorous compounds are removed from an air stream by passage through a bed of
uncompacted peat from the upper layer of a bog.
Percentage exceedance The inverse of the return period, i.e. a frequency (e.g. 90 per cent) of occurrence
of a flood event or rainfall whose associated depth is exceeded that percent (90 per cent) of the time.
Periplasmic space A space between the plasma membrane and the outer membrane of a biological cell,
sometimes filled with a loose network of peptidoglycan.
Permanent wilting point The water content of the soil beyond which plants cannot exert sufficient
suction to extract moisture.
Permeability The rate at which a fluid flows through a porous medium under the hydraulic head
operating within the medium. Usually, the greater the porosity, the greater the permeability.
Pesticide A material used for the mitigation, control or elimination of plants or animals detrimental to
human health or economy.
pH A measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution i.e. the negative of the logarithm of the hydrogen ion
concentration.
Phagocytose Ingestion of solid particulate matter by a cell.
Phenol An organic compound with a hydroxyl (OH) group bonded directly to a benzene ring.
Phenotic compound Compounds containing a phenol group, i.e. those containing hydrogen, six carbon
atoms joined by alternating single and double bonds, and a hydroxyl group attached to the first carbon
atom.
Photo-oxidation Oxidation initiated by sunlight.
Photolytic process A process in which radiant energy causes chemical decomposition.
Phototrophic An orientation response to light.
Physico-chemical parameters Instrumental methods of analysis such as turbidimetry, colorimetry,
polarography, adsorption spectrometry, spectroscopy and nuclear radiation.
Physiology The science of functioning of living organisms.
Phytoplankton Plankton consisting of photosynthesising plants, such as algae.
Plasma arc destruction A method of incineration in which very hot plasma, heated by the conversion of
electrical to thermal energy, pyrolyses and atomizes waste.
Plasma membrane A membrane of 5—10 nm containing proteins and lipids, surrounding the cytoplasm
of all cells.
Plastid A membrane-bounded body found in the cytoplasm of most plant cells. See chloroplast.
Point-source pollution Pollution from sources which are easily identified, e.g. slurry tank.
Pollination The transfer of pollen, usually by insects or wind, from the anther of a stamen (male part of
the flower) to the stigma of a carpel (female part of the flower).
Polyampholite A type of polymer.
Polyaromatic compounds (PAHs) Long chain compounds, very persistent in nature, containing the
hydroxyl group in a cyclic structure.
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) A generic term covering a family of chlorinated isomers of biphenyl
found in sewage outfalls and industrial and municipal solid wastes.
 GLOSSARY 959

Polyelectrolytes Long-chain molecules used in the conditioning of sludge which, by neutralizing

surface charges, cause bridging across fine particles or flocs to form larger particles.
Polymer Giant molecules built up from thousands of smaller molecules, combined together to form a
repetitive structure.
Porosity The proportion of void spaces in the soil. The porosity of fine soils, e.g. clay, is low, whereas
that of coarser gravelly soils is higher.
Positive project A commencing project for which an Environmental Impact Assessment is considered
essential.
Precipitation The depth of rainfall plus the water equivalent of snow, sleet and hail falling during a given
measurement period.
Precipitation reaction A physical or chemical reaction which results in the precipitation of one of the
products formed.
Predator An organism which lives by killing and consuming other living things, e.g. sparrows, rabbits.
Primary consumer Organisms which feed directly on the primary producers. These include herbivores,
detritus feeders, scavengers and decomposers (animals which feed on dead plant remains).
Primary pollutant Air pollutants which are emitted from an identifiable source, e.g. carbon monoxide
from the car engine.
Primary producer Organisms which are capable of using solar energy to make food by the process of
photosynthesis, e.g. plants.
Primary succession An ecological succession commencing in a habitat or on a substrate that has never
previously been inhabited.
Procaryotic cell A cell which lacks a distinct nucleus, e.g. bacteria.
Profundal zone The zone of a lake lying below that depth at which the light compensation point occurs.
Project thresholds Pre-determined levels relating to project size, production or site required which, if
exceeded by a commencing project, define the necessity for an Environmental Impact Assessment.
Protista The microbial kingdom to which unicellular or cell groups of eucaryotic organisms which lack
true tissues, e.g. protozoa, belong.
Protozoa Aquatic, free-living and parasitic organisms, these are the most basic of all animals, with only
one single cell and measuring no more than 5—1000 ym in size.
Proteins Substances containing the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and occasionally
sulphur, whose main function is cell growth and repair.
Proton Positively charged particle contained within the nucleus of an atom.
Protoplasm The living matter of a cell, comprising both the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
Pseudopodium A temporary protrusion of cytoplasm from the surface of a cell which serves for both cell
motion and ingestion.
Psychrophilic temperatures Those in the range 0-10 °C.
Pyrolysis A high temperature process involving the decomposition of organics without oxygen, air or
steam. Burnable gas is released as a by-product.
Quench tank A tank containing water to cool ashes and unburned materials which fall from the grates
into a residue hopper during combustion.
Radiation The emission of rays and particles characteristic of radioactive substances.
Radical An element or atom, or group of these, normally forming part of a compound and remaining
unaltered during that compound’s ordinary chemical changes.
Radioactive cloud An artificially generated atmospheric cloud containing radioactive compounds.
Rapid gravity filter A filter used in water treatment which removes suspended solids from water by
passing it through a sand bed, where the solids collect as a surface mat and in the sand interstices. The
water should previously have been treated by coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation.
Recharge The process of renewing underground water by infiltration.
Redox potential The oxidizing or reducing power of a reactant.
Reduced groundwater Groundwater which contains no oxygen.
960 GLOSSARY

Reduction A process in which an atom or ion gains electrons.

Regeneration rate The rate of reproduction of bacteria, the method of which is usually by binary fission.
Regolith All loose earth material above the underlying soil rock.
Retention time The length of time a wastewater remains in a clarification tank, an important design
parameter in the optimization of settling of suspended solids.
Return activated sludge Settled activated sludge from the clarifier which is returned to the aeration tank
to ensure an active population of microbes will be mixed with the incoming wastewater.
Return period The long-term average of the intervals between successive exceedances of a flood
magnitude.
Reverse osmosis A membrane process in which solutions of two different concentrations are separated
by a semi-permeable membrane. An applied pressure gradient greater than the osmotic pressure
ensures flow from the more concentrated to the less concentrated solution.
Reynold’s number The ratio of inertial to viscous forces in a fluid, the value of which will determine
whether the fluid flow is turbulent or viscous.
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) A large organic molecule found in the cell cytoplasm containing a phosphate,
five-carbon sugars (ribose) and four nitrogenous bases in a repetitive structure.
Ribosomes Tiny bodies containing RNA responsible for protein synthesis and found in the bacterial cell
cytoplasm.
Riffle area An area of the river bed covered by grains of too large a size and weight to be carried by the
water and so were dispersed.
Root zone The soil layer from which plant roots can extract water during transpiration.
Rotary screen See trommel.
Rotary kiln incineration A process by which waste enters an inclined, rotating kiln, is mixed with air
and combusted.
Rotating biological contactor A form of biological treatment in which fixed media is grown on circular
discs mounted on a horizontal axle. These discs are partially submerged in wastewater while the axle
rotates, allowing bio-oxidation of the wastewater, using oxygen from the air.
Roughing filter A high-rate trickling filter of depth 1-2m, hydraulic loading 10-40 m*/m?/d and
organic loading 0.32—1.0 kg BOD/m/?/d through which wastewater may be passed prior to an activated
sludge treatment.
Salmonoids Belonging to the salmon family, Salmonidae.
Saprophytic An organism which obtains food by absorbing dissolved organic materials resulting from
organic breakdown and decay.
Schmutzdeck The surface mat of suspended particles which forms on the surface of a slow sand filter.
Scoping The second stage of an Environmental Impact Assessment which decides the key issues for
review within the EIA.
Screening (i) The final sorting stage necessary for high-quality compost, during which uncomposted
particles such as wood, glass or plastic are removed by passing through a fine mesh. (ii) The first stage
of an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) in which the projects to be subjected to an EIA are
chosen.
Scrubbing A process by which suspended particles and acid gases are removed from a flue gas stream,
the former by absorption onto liquid droplets and the latter by diffusion into the liquid phase.
Scum well A box used to store the scum which forms on the surface of a wastewater in a clarification
tank. Scum is usually drawn off by a horizontal, slotted pipe that can be rotated by a lever or a screw.
Secondary consumers Organisms which feed on the herbivores or other primary consumers, e.g. foxes,
lions.
Secondary pollutant Air pollutants which are formed in the atmosphere by chemical reactions, e.g.
ozone.
Secondary production The assimilation of organic matter by a primary consumer.
 GLOSSARY 961

Secondary succession An ecological succession that takes place in an area where a natural community
existed and was removed.
Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) A pre-combustion method of decomposition of NO, in an air
stream to nitrogen and water by injection of ammonia into the catalytic bed of a combustion chamber.
Selective non-catalytic reduction (NSCR) A post-combustion method of decomposition of NO, in an
air stream to nitrogen and water by injection of ammonia downstream of a combustion chamber.
Semi-dry absorption process A method of controlling acids in flue gas emissions, by injection of a
calcium hydroxide and water solution into the gases leaving the furnace of an incinerator.
Sensible heat That portion of the heat radiated by the sun which is required to heat the earth.
Sensitive area A water body which may intermittently suffer eutrophication.
Sequencing batch reactor A time-stepped batch process for the biological treatment of liquid hazardous
waste.
Sere A term used to describe a succession of communities, each following one after the other and finally
reaching a stable state.
Settling chamber The purification of an air stream by reducing the velocity of the gas so that the
particles drop out by gravity.
Settling tank A rectangular or circular tank in which particle velocities within the liquid are sufficiently
reduced to allow the suspended material to be removed from the liquid by gravity settling.
Settling velocity This is the velocity at which a particle will fall to the bottom of a settling tank and is
equal to the surface overflow rate for a rectangular tank.
Severance The physical or psychological division of an existing community or property due to traffic
development.
Sewage Wastewater and other refuse such as faeces, carried away in sewers.
Sewerage System of pipes and treatment plants which collect and dispose of sewage in a town.
Sheath A hollow, tubelike structure found in most bacteria surrounding a chain of cells.
Sisal Strong, durable white fibre of agave used in the making of ropes.
Slag The fused bottom ash produced by the incineration process containing incombustibles, the ash
fraction of combustibles and any undestroyed pollutants.
Sloughing A term which describes the falling off of the slime layer of micro-organisms on the media of a
trickling filter due to the development of anaerobic conditions and lack of food caused by an increase
in slime thickness.
Slow sand filter A filter which removes suspended solids from raw water by passing it through a sand
bed, where the solids collect as a surface mat and in the sand interstices. Filtration rates are in the order
of 2-5 1/m?/min.
Sludge The accumulation of solids resulting from chemical coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation
after water or wastewater treatment.
Sludge bulking A phenomenon caused when a large number of filamentous micro-organisms present in
the mixed liquor interferes with the compaction of the floc and produces a sludge with a poor settling
rate.
Sludge conditioning Addition of chemicals, polyelectrolytes or heat treatment to improve the rate of
dewatering.
Sludge dewatering The mechanical unit operation used to reduce the moisture content of sludge to 70—
75 per cent and thus ensure that the remaining sludge residue effectively behaves as a solid for
handling purposes.
Sludge stabilization The process of destroying or inactivating pathogens.
Sludge volume index (SVI) A measure of the ability of sludge to settle, coalesce and compact on
settlement.
Smog Dense, smoky fog, the formation of which is promoted by reactions between unsaturated
hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen in the presence of sunlight and under stable meteorological
conditions.
962 GLOSSARY

Soilbed _A large tract of land, the microbes within which remove odorous compounds from an air stream.
Soil horizons The soil layers seen in a vertical soil profile, characteristic of soil-forming processes over
time.
Soil profile A vertical cut through the soil revealing a sequence of horizons.
Soil suction Water pressure within a soil which is less than atmospheric pressure.
Solid waste All the wastes arising from human and animal activities which are normally solid and are
discarded as useless or unwanted.
Solubility product The equilibrium constant for a reaction involving a precipitate and its constituent
ions, e.g. for magnesium sulphate MgSO,=Mg*?+SO,7, the solubility product =
[Mg**][SO,-*]
Solute A substance dissolved in a fluid.
Solution The conversion of a solid or gas into liquid form by mixing with a solvent.
Solvent A liquid capable of or used for dissolving something.
Sound exposure level (SEL) Used to express the energy of isolated noise events, the SEL is that
constant level in decibels lasting for one second which has the same amount of acoustic energy as a
transient noise.
Sound intensity The average sound power per unit area normal to the direction of propagation of a sound
wave.
Sound power The rate, measured in watts, at which energy is transmitted by oscillating sound waves.
Spates A river in flood.
Specific flux A measure of rate of flow per unit area.
Specific resistance to filtration (SRF) A laboratory-determinable wastewater sludge parameter.
Spectrophotometry An instrumental method of measuring the intensity of light in various parts of the
spectrum.
Spore A unicellular or multicellular microscopic body involved in plant, bacteria and protozoan
reproduction.
Stable inversion On moving downwards through the atmosphere, a cool parcel of air becomes heated
and less dense than the surrounding air, thereby being pushed back up. It finds itself in a stable
position—wanting neither to move up nor down.
Stabilization pond A quiescent, diked pond in which wastewater undergoes biological treatment under
microbial action.
Stenotopic A term describing an organism which is tolerant of a narrow range of habit.
Step feed aeration An aeration system in which a portion of the sewage load is added at each of several
inlets, thus spreading out the oxygen demand over the length of the tank so that oxygen utilization is
more efficient.
Stern layer The innermost ion layer tightly attached to the surface of a colloidal particle.
Stratosphere The temperature-constant region of the atmosphere above the troposphere which contains
oxygen and ozone.
Supernatant The partially purified water, high in suspended solids and ammoniacal nitrogen, which is
released during the digestion process and whose quality and amount is dependent on the type and
settling quality of the waste and on the digester system efficiency.
Surface tension The minimization of the surface of a free body of liquid due to the unbalanced
attractions exerted by the liquid and the air on the liquid surface molecules.
Surge channel A channel or basin designed to take excess flow.
Suspended growth The free-moving, aerobic, microbial culture used in the biological treatment of
wastewater by the activated sludge process.
Suspended solids Solids in suspension in a water or wastewater which can be removed by filtration.
Suspension A substance consisting of particles suspended in a medium.
 GLOSSARY 963

Sustainable development Projects undertaken with care to preserve and manage resources, use genetic
engineering with responsibility, search for technical alternatives to existing energy sources and
control land, water and air pollution.
Synoptic storm A storm covering several hundred miles, associated with frontal activity and/or intense
low pressure centres.
Synthetic organics Man-made, organic compounds, some of which are carcinogenic, including
surfactants pesticides, cleaning solvents and trihalomethanes.
Tapered aeration An aeration system which equalizes the quantity of air supplied to the demand for air
exerted by the micro-organisms as the liquor flows through the aeration tank.
Temperate climate A climate not exhibiting extremes of either heat or cold, e.g. the Irish climate.
Tempering A process which brings metals to the proper hardness and elasticity by heating after
quenching.
Teratogenic Causing developmental malformations.
Tertiary consumer Organisms which feed on secondary consumers, e.g. man.
Thermal drying An operation which involves reducing the water content of sludge by vaporization of
water to air, resulting in a granular dried product of 92-95 per cent dry solids concentration.
Thermal plume Heated effluent from an outfall, usually less dense than the receiving water, causing
increased growth rates and species changes due to local warming.
Thermocline A horizontal temperature discontinuity layer in a lake in which the temperature falls by at
least 1 °C per metre depth.
Thermophilic temperatures Those in the range 45-75 °C.
Thickening of sludge A process which facilitates disposal of sludge by increasing the solids content to
approximately 4 per cent.
Thiocyanates Pseudohalide ions, formed from the oxidation of a CN group, containing an SCN —
group.
Threshold of hearing 10 '* W/m’, ie. the lowest sound intensity to which the human ear can
respond.
Toxin A specific poison of biological organic origin.
Transfer station A location to accomplish transfer of solid wastes from collection and other small
vehicles to larger transport equipment, with the aim of economizing on waste transportation.
Transmissivity A measure of the rate of flow of water through a water-bearing rock.
Trapping A term describing a plume from an emission stack which is trapped by a stable inversion above
the stack mouth, but due to mixing below the mouth level, hits the ground downwind rather than
beside the stack.
Trickling filter A biological reactor in which micro-organisms, growing as a slime on the surface of
fixed media, oxidize the colloidal and dissolved organic matter in wastewater using atmospheric
oxygen which diffuses into the thin film of liquid as the wastewater is trickled over the slimed surfaces
at regular intervals.
Transpiration The loss of water vapour from the surface of the plant due to evaporation.
Trommel A rotary drum screen used to separate out the various size fractions of municipal solid waste.
Trophic levels One of the hierarchical strata of the food web characterized by organisms which are the
same number of steps removed from the primary producers.
Tropopause The interface between the troposphere and stratosphere.
Troposphere The layer of atmosphere extending from the earth’s surface to the stratosphere.
Tubificid worm (Potamothrix hammonensis) A benthic worm, tolerant of low oxygen conditions,
belonging to the genus Tubifex.
Tundra A vast, level, treeless region with an arctic climate and vegetation.
Turbidity The clarity of water, i.e. a measure of the accumulation of colloidal particles, determined by
light transmission through the water.
964 GLOSSARY

Turbulent mixing When a flow of liquid or air becomes large, the streamlines become irregular and
parcels of the flowing substance begin to move in a highly irregular path while maintaining a nett
downstream velocity.
Ultrafiltration Filtration technique used in water treatment to separate out bacteria larger than 10mce
10-* mm.
Upflow column Where the water/wastewater flows upward under pressure through a column or tank,
instead of downward by gravity. When used in water filtration, it is akin to the backwashing process in
rapid gravity filters. Also used in aerobic digestion of industrial wastewaters where the column is
packed with aggregate or synthetic material.
Vadose zone The entire zone of negative water pressures above the water table, the lowest portion of
which is permanently saturated by capilliary rise.
Valency The number of electrons which an atom of an element must either lose or gain to achieve a noble
gas structure.
Van der Waals forces The forces which exist between the molecules in a crystal.
Vibrating screen Used to remove undersized components of municipal solid waste.
Virion A mature virus.
Volatile acid A fatty acid with, at most, six carbon atoms which are water soluble.
Volatile solid Solids, frequently organic, which volatilize at a temperature of 550 °C.
Vortex shedding Turbulent eddies which are shed from the downstream corners of buildings in a
wind/water environment.
Waste minimization The general trend in developed countries to reduce the quantities of waste material
produced.
Watershed Line between the headstreams of river systems, dividing one catchment from another.
Water table The level of water within the soil at which the pore water pressure is equal to the
atmospheric pressure.
Wavelength The horizontal distance between two successive wave crests or between two wave troughs or
between any two corresponding points on the wave surface.
Waveperiod The time taken for two successive wave crests or two wave troughs or any two
corresponding points on successive waves to pass a fixed point in space.
Wet oxidation A method whereby waste, either dissolved in water or emulsified, is oxidized at very high
temperatures and pressures.
Windrow A form of composting in which pretreated refuse is laid out in heaps with a triangular cross
section of 2—3 m width at the base and a height of 2 m and turned at regular intervals.
Zeta potential A measure of the charge on a colloidal particle.
Zone settling Particles are so close together that interparticle forces hinder the settling of neighbouring
particles, causing all the particles to remain in a fixed position relative to each other and to settle at a
constant velocity.
 APPENDIX A
ATOMIC NUMBERS AND ATOMIC MASSES
Actinium 227.0278 Mercury _ 80 200.59
Aluminium 26.981 54 Molybdenum 42 95.94
Americium (243) Neodymium 60 144.24
Antimony 121.75 Neon 10 20.179
Argon 39.948 Neptunium 237.0482
Arsenic 74.9216 Nickel 58.70
Astatine (210) Niobium 92.9064
Barium 137.33 Nitrogen 14.0067
Berkelium (247) Nobelium (259)
Beryllium 9.012 18 Osmium 190.2
Bismuth 208.9804 Oxygen 15.9994
Boron 10.81 Palladium 106.4
Bromine 79.904 Phorphorus 30.973 76
Cadmium 112.41 Platinum 195.09
Calcium 40.08 Plutonium (244)
Californium (251) Polonium (209)
Carbon 12.011 Potassium 39.0983
Cerium 140.12 Praseodymium 140.9077
Cesium 132.9054 Promethium (145)
Chlorine 35.453 Protactinium 231.0389
Chromium 51.996 Radium 226.0254
Cobalt 58.9332 Radon (222)
Copper 63.546 Rhenium 186.207
Curium (247) Rhodium 102.905 5
Dysprosium 162.50 Rubidium 85.467 8
Einsteinium (254) Ruthenium 101.07
Erbium 167.26 Samarium 150.4
Europium 151.96 Scandium 44.9559
Fermium (257) Selenium 78.96
Fluorine 18.998 40 Silicon 28.0855
Francium (223) Silver 107.868
Gadolinium 157.25 Sodium 22.989 77
Gallium 69.72 Strontium 87.62
Germanium 72.59 Sulphur 32.06
Gold 196.966 5 Tantalum 180.9479
Hafnium 178.49 Technetium (97)
Helium 4.002 60 Tellurium 127.60
Holmium 164.9304 Terbium 158.9254
Hydrogen 1.0079 Thallium 204.37
Indium 114.82 Thorium 232.038 1
Iodine 126.904 5 Thulium 168.934 2
Iridium 192.22 Tin 118.69
Iron 55.847 Titanium 47.90
Krypton 83.80 Tungsten 183.85
Lanthanum 138.9055 Uranium 238.029
Lawrencium (260) Vanadium 50.9414
Lead 207.2 Xenon 131.30
Lithium 6.941 Ytterbium 173.04
Lutetium 71 174.97 Yttrium ah) 88.9059
Magnesium 12 24.305 Zinc Zn 30 65.38
Manganese 2S 54.9380 Zirconium 91.22
Mendelevium Md 101 (258)
of the
*From Pure Appl. Chem., vol. 47, p. 75 (1976). A value in parentheses is the mass number of the longest lived isotope
element.

965
 APPENDIX B
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF AIR AT STANDARD
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Specific Dynamic Kinematic
Density, p weight, viscosity, viscosity, v

Temperature kg/m? N/m? N-s/m? m*/s

2026 1.40 (37 1.61 x 10> 1.16 x 10->

= ORG 1.34 13.2 1.67 x 10° 124 10m
OLG 1.29 127 2a lOme 1330x1052
10/2@ 1.25 12) 1e7Ge cullOme 1.41 x 10°
ae 1.20 11.8 Sie l0me Sil x 10
B0°E iL1) 11.4 1.86 x 10° 1.60 x 10->
40°C 1.13 iii LOI Se WO 1.69 x 10°>
SOG 1.09 10.7 1.95 x 10> 1791 Ome
60°C 1.06 10.4 2.00 x 10> 1.89 x 10°
ADOC 1.03 10.1 2.04 x 10°> 1.99 x 10>
80°C 1.00 9.81 2.09 x 10> 2.09 x 10°
90°C 0.97 9.54 D3 Ome 2.19 x 10°
100°C 0.95 9.28 DAG SM 2.29 x 10°
120°C 0.90 8.82 DNS 10? DSi xe 10
140°C 0.85 8.38 D24ra0me 2.74 x 10>
160°C 0.81 7.99 2.42 x 10°> DOT S< IO
180°C 0.78 7.65 2.50 x 10-> BD0n 10m
200°C 0.75 TD DST Se iy 2 3.44 x 10>

966
 APPENDIX C
APPROXIMATE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER AT
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Specific Dynamic Kinematic Vapour
Density, p weight, viscosity, [ viscosity, v pressure

Temperature kg/m? N/m’ N--s/m? m?/s N/m?

We 1000 9810 1.79 x 10-7 Ona Ome 611

2)1 1000 9810 SIL seOr? LSI 3 1O-” 872
10°C 1000 9810 Lil s¢O-? LBM se iO? 1230
iis Ee 999 9800 Ie 9 1O== jlikA s¢ 1° 1700
20°€ 998 9790 1.00 x 10°37 1.00 x 10° 2340
PAS 997 9781 BON s¢MO 8.94 x 10” 3170
JOE 996 SH 7.96 x 10-4 7.99 x 10-7 4250
35)€ 994 9751 TAD <<10 7.24 x10’ 5 630
40°C 992 9732 658 < 10 6.58 x 10 7 7380
SE 988 9693 5.47 x 1074 5.54 x 10-7 12 300
60 °C 983 9643 4.66 x 10+ 4.74 x 10-7 20.000
WOE 978 9594 ANA enim 4.13 x 1077 31200
80°C 972 9535 3.54 x 10-4 3.64 x 10°” 47400
0s 965 9467 Bi 3 Or 3.26 x 10°’ 70 100
100 °C 958 9398 2.82 x 10-4 DiSAR a Ome 101 300

967
 APPENDIX D
CARBONATE EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS
AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE
T, Ky, K, Ksp,*
Sp
2c Ke mol/L mol/L mol*/L?

5 30D x NO" DAS WO Snigeanll Ome

10 3.46 x 1077 BOA se ik TOS Ome
15 3.80 x 1077 39D Oe 6.03 x 10-°
20 ANG xe NO” LAND Oe 55 climes
25 158 «x 10° MOG se 1-0 4.68 x 101! 4.57 x 107°
40 SO) 3 10>? 6.03G10m a 3.09 x 107-?
60 5.07 x 1077 MDA alOm eS2alOme
* Solubility product constant for CaCO3.

968
 INDEX

Absorption processes, 671—2 obstacles to, 781-2 source, 335

Absorption system, 757-61 odorous emissions, 795 trace species concentrations, 336
Acid-base reactions, 86, 92 point sources, 782-7 vehicles, 866-70
Acid deposition, 358 site selection, 783-4 Air Pollution Act 1987, 335
Acid neutralizing capacity (ANC), 66-70 sizing of structural facilities, 784-6 Air Pollution Control Act 1955, 6, 10,
Acid rain, 91, 100 water, 782-3 334, 335
Acidification, 259 Agricultural systems: Air quality legislation, US, 21
biological effects, 286 industrialization of, 7 Air quality modelling, 936-43
freshwater, 284—5 nutrient cycles in, 421-4 box models, 938-40
lakes, 283 potential pathways from land-based, Gaussian modelling, 940-2
surface waters, 283-8 430 multibox models, 940
Acidity of water, 66-70 Agricultural wastes, anaerobic digestion, photochemical models, 942-3
Acoustic far field, 411 563-4, 573 US EPAs preferred models, 943
Acoustic intensity, 410 Air emissions: Air quality standards, 335, 937
Acoustic near field, 411 abatement equipment, 750-1 Air stream:
Activated carbon adsorption, 554 design, 754-73 characterization, 751—2
Activated sludge systems, 525-6, 532-9 selection, 752-3 measurable properties, 751
domestic effluent, 140 control Air stripping, ammonia removal by, 555
F/M ratio, 529-31 flow sheet options, 751 Air toxics, 10
industrial effluent, 140-1 technologies, 753 Airborne vibrations, 865
modelling, 932 industrial, 750-80 Airport noise, land use guidance (LUG)
Adaptation, 45—6 Air environment: zones for, 415-16
Adiabatic lapse rate, 367-8 EU Directives, 13 Alanine deaminase (ALDA), 258
ADR/RID classification system, 705 history, 4-7 Algae, 110, 279-80, 283, 292, 314
Adsorption processes, 485, 761—4 quality standards classification, 110
for odour control, 772 EU, 15-17 Alkalinity, 259
Advection, 886 US, 24 of water, 66-70
Advective diffusion, 890 Air pollutants: Aluminium, 259
Aerobes, 108 Ambient Air Quality Standards, 338 Aluminium sulphate, 458-9
Aerobic degradation, 743 criteria pollutants, 338, 340-57 Ambient lapse rate, 367-8, 371-3
Aerobic digestion, 595-7 inorganic substances, 364 Ammonia:
two-stage process, 665 non-criteria pollutants, 362 in groundwater, 218
Agrichemicals, 74 primary pollutants, 337 removal by air stripping, 555
Agricultural pollution, 420-34 secondary pollutants, 338 Amoebae, 111
legislation, 432-3 units of concentration, 338-40 Anabaena, 280
potential pollutants, 43 1—2 Air pollution, 4-7, 334-89 Anaerobes, 108
waste production, 427-8 episodes, 6 Anaerobic degradation, 743
(see also Farm waste production) EU standards, 16, 335 Anaerobic digestion, agricultural wastes,
Agricultural pollution control, 781—97 index modelling, 937 563-4, 573
design and construction of facilities, meteorology, 366-74 Anaerobic digestion (A/D), 563-74, 595,
786-7 modelling, deterministic models, 596, 662-5
land application of wastes, 787-94 937-8 agricultural applications, 563-4
non-point sources, 783, 787 prediction, vehicular, 867-8 agricultural wastes, 573

969
970 INDEX

applications, 573-4 Bacillus megaterium, 116 (see also Sludge; Sewage sludge;
bacterial species, 566 Bacteria, 115—23 Solid waste treatment)
basic process, 566 commonly encountered, 116 Biosphere, 36
benefits of using, 564 growth curve, 121 Biotic component, 34-5
biological agents, 564—S indicator, 122 Biotic index for rivers, 270
definition, 563 metabolic groups, 118 Biotowers, 544
design and operating data, 569 morphological characteristics, 116 Blue-green algae, 279, 281, 282
high solids, 663 of special interest to environmental Blue Nile, 243, 244
hydraulic retention time (HRT), engineering, 122-3 BOD (biochemical oxygen demand), 3,
568-9 pathogenic, 122-3 : 76, 291, 292, 303-9, 493-4,
industrial applications, 563 physical parameters affecting, 118-19 552, 789
industrial wastes, 574 physiological characteristics, 116 and dissolved oxygen in streams,
low solids, 663 Bacterial cells: 309-11
methane production, 570-3 basic elements, 117—18 Boreholes, 209
microbiology, 564—5 composition and characterization, Bowen ratio, 179
municipal wastes, 574 118 Briggs equation, 381-3
process design, 568-70 growth and death, 119-22 British Standard BS 7750, 750
reactor configurations, 565-8 respiration and synthesis, 527 Buffers, 91-2
solids retention time (SRT), 568-9 Bacterial growth: Buoyancy, 557-8
subprocesses, 564 in pure cultures, 526-7 Business impacts, 873
two-stage process, 665 kinetics, 527-9
Animals (worms) and water quality, 108 Bacterial rate processes, 127—9 Cadmium, 297, 352, 700
Anion-cation balance, 61, 90 Bantry Bay, 295 Calcium carbonate, 86
Anion exchange capacity (AEC), 426 Barophil, 119 mass concentrations as, 55
Antoine equation, 756, 757 Base neutralizing capacity (BNC), 66 Calibrated parameter model, 919
Anxiety caused by vehicles, 870 Batch culture, 121 California Assembly Bill 939, 627
Aquatic pollutants, 276 Batch process, 137-8 Canadian Clean Air Act 1971, 335
Aquifers, 200-1 Batch reactors, 136 Capitella, 292
confined, 212 Bathing waters, 15 Carbohydrates, 74
flow, 203 EU Directive, 495 Carbon biogeochemical cycle, 43
unconfined, 213 Beaches, cleaning, 294 Carbon dioxide, 99, 360
unconfined flow, 205 Bellmer Winkler press, 591 Carbon monoxide, 99, 340-1
unconfined island with recharge, 207 Belt filter press, 591-2 Carbonaceous biochemical oxygen
water yielding capacity, 202 Benthic zone, oxygen diffusion into, 315 demand (CBOD), 307
Areal reduction factor (ARF) for Best management practices (BMPs), 787 Carbonaceous organic matter, biological
precipitation, 158 Bhopal disaster, 6 oxidation, 312-13
Aspergillus flavus, 109 Bilham’s equation, 161 Carbonate system, 86—92
Aspidisca, 111 Binary fission, 119 major equilibria, 88
Asteriorella, 279 Bioaccumulation, 256—7 Carbonic acid, 91
Aswan High Dam, 243-5 Biochemical models, 893-4 Carboxylic acids and esters, 74
Atlantic Ocean, 248, 249 Biochemical oxygen demand (see BOD) Carchesium, 111
Atmospheric boundary layer (ABL), 96 Biochemical reactions, 124—9 Carcinogenicity, 363, 478
Atmospheric chemistry, 95—102 Bioconcentration, 256 Catchment modelling, 187-9
Atmospheric dispersion, 374 Biodegradation: relationship of water to soil, 189
and lapse rates, 371-2 organic carbon, 494 Catchments:
Gaussian modelling, 374-6 organics, 525 gauged, 193-4
terrain effects on, 373-4 Biodiversity, 30-1, 33 ungauged, 192-3
Atmospheric stability, 368-9 Biogeochemical cycles, 41-3 Cation/anion exchange, 104-6
discontinuities, 372 Biological nitrogen and phosphorus Cation exchange capacity (CEC), 105-6,
Attached growth systems, 529, 540—S combined removal, 549-60 426
Attenuation: Biological nutrient removal, 546 Centrifuges, 593
atmospheric, 412 Biological oxidation, principles of, 524-6 Chandler Score biotic index scheme, 270,
by trees, 413 Biological phosphorus removal, 548-9 275
due to distance, 411 Biological toxins, 281 Chemical compounds, lethal and
due to meteorological conditions, 412 Biomagnification, 256-7 sublethal effects, 258
effect of ground topography, 413 Biomes, 36 Chemical energy, 38
ground surface effects, 412 BIOPLUME II model, 928 Chemical industry, 6
reflecting surfaces and noise barriers, Bioremediation, contaminated sites, Chemical oxidation, 485-6
413 743-5 Chemical oxygen demand (COD), 76-7,
Audiogram, 399 Biosolids: 84, 124, 127, 309, 494, 527,
Autotrophic organisms, 108 characteristics, 576-84 789
Auxins, 297 disposal problems, 575 Chemical precipitation, water softening
Average Chandler Score, 271 international regulations, 574-6 by, 482-4
Avogadro number, 54 metals in, 580, 581 Chemical reactions, 124-9
processing routes, 584-606 Chemistry, basic principles, 52-8
Bacillus, 118 volumes produced, 575—6 Chemoautotrophs, 108
 INDEX 971

Chemoheterotrophs, 108 heat transfer coefficient, 755—6 wastewater, 555

Chemotrophs, 108 operating principles, 754—5 Dissolved air flotation thickeners, 590
Chernobyl] nuclear accident, 6, 8, 42 outlet stream composition, 756-7 Dissolved oxygen (DO), 303-4
Chezy equation, 885 Conductivity factors, 72 and biochemical oxygen demand
Chick’s law, 471 Conductivity of water, 71-3 (BOD) in streams, 309-11
Chilodonella, 111 Conservation of momentum equation, Distributed models, 919
Chimney stack: 883-6 Diversity indices, 271
emissions, 371-3 Conservation quality standards, US, 26 Drinking water, 4, 23-4
plume behaviour, source effects, Conservative constituents, modelling, EU Directive, 432, 439, 442
386-7 909-11 pathogenic bacteria, 122
plume characteristics, 375 Construction impacts, 874 quality guidelines, 267
plume dispersion, 374 Contact stabilization, 539 standards, 443, 444
plume rise, 380-5 Contaminants: US primary standards, 487
Chloramines, 473 in water, 74 Dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR), 368
Chloride in groundwater, 219 transport modelling, 928-30 Dual biological suspended and attached
Chlorinated aromatic compounds, 75 Contaminated sites, 11, 742—5 growth systems, 529
Chlorination, 474-8 bioremediation, 743—5 Dunne surface runoff mechanism, 182-3
Chlorine, 556 thermal treatment, 743 Dupuit equation, 206
Chlorine dioxide, 472, 556 Continuity or mass conservation Dupuit parabola, 206
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 8, 11, equations, 882-3, 927 DYRESM computer program, 926
360-1 Continuous flow stirred tank reactors
Chlorophyll-a, 279, 326 (CFSTR), 570, 573 Ear:
Chloroplasts, 110 model, 894-8 and sound perception, 398
Chromatophores, 110 Continuous gravity thickeners, 589 damage mechanisms, 399-400
Ciliophora, 111 Continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR), Earth’s atmosphere:
Citrobacter fruendii, 123 136, 574 average composition, 97
Cladophora, 280 Continuous watershed model, 918 chemical composition, 98
Clarification, secondary, 550-2 Cooling waters, 298, 755 contamination gases, 98-102
Clean Air Act 1956, 6, 334, 335 Copper, 700 primary pollutants, 99
Clean technology, 812-15 Coriolis effect, 248 secondary pollutants, 99
definition, 802 Cost-benefit analysis, 34 structures of, 96-8
Clean Water Act, 433 Crop protection chemicals, 432 variable constituents, 98
Climatic changes, 44, 48, 358-62 Cryptosporidum, 111 vertical temperature profile, 97
Clostridium, 118 Cryptosporidum cysts, 466 Ecological concepts, 29-51
Clostridium perfringens, 122 Cultural eutrophication, 278-80 Ecological perspective, 29-30
Coal: Cultured micro-organisms, characteristic Ecological systems, 34—5
for energy and heating, 4 growth curves, 526 disturbances and pollution, 231-62
SO, from, 6 CWA, wastewater standard, 24 Ecosystem processes, 36—43
Coal combustion, fly ash composition, Cyanobacteria, 280 Ecosystems:
101 Cyanophyta, 281 disruption, 34
Coastal Zone Management Act (1972), Cyclone separators, 767—9 disturbance resistance, 232
26 dynamics, 35
Coliform count, E. coli, 292, 555-6 Dams, 243-5 low range, 37-8
Colloids, 59 Darcy’s law, 170, 203, 204, 206, 212, 927 middle range, 38
Combined heat and power unit (CHP), DDD, 257 normal range, 37
603 DDI 257,259 transportation effects, 873
Combustion, 665 Decibels, 394, 398 very high range, 38
Commercial products, 32 Decomposer food chain, 40-1 EEC treaty 1958, 9
Comminutors, 513 Decomposition, 40-3 Effluent National Pollutant Discharge
Communities, 35 DELYV equation, 885 Elimination System
disturbance resistance, 232 Denitrification, 531-2, 545, 547 (NPDES), 495
dynamically fragile, 232 Denmark, environmental legislation, 10 Effluent treatment, 139-42
overall stability, 232 Deoxygenation, 912-13 Eichormia cassipes, 280
Complete mix reactors, 533-6 Diatoms, 279 Ekman spiral, 248
Complete or comprehensive watershed Dibenzofuran (PCDF), 364 Electrodialysis, 486, 487
models, 919 Diffusers: Electrostatic precipitators (ESP), 753,
Completely stirred tank reactor (CSTR) design, 558-9 770-1
process, 138 for wastewater treatment, 556-9 El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO),
Composting, 597-600, 657-62 plume flow, 557-8 251
Comprehensive Environmental Diffusion, 886 Emission standards:
Response, Compensation and Diffusion equation, 377-8 incineration, 735
Liability Act 1980 Dinoflagellates, 110 industrial sources, 362-4
(CERCLA), 10, 25, 627 Dioxins, 6, 75, 256, 364, 431, 580, 671, petrol vehicles, 335
Concentration, methods of expressing, 695-6 waste incinerators, 363-4
53-5 Disinfectants, 472 Employment impacts, 873
Condensation, 147, 754—7 Disinfection, 471-8 Endangered Species Act 1973, 26, 44
972 INDEX

Energy balance, 152-3 biotic index scheme, 270 Farm waste production, 427-33
Energy budget, 152-3 EPA Act 1990, 627 pollution potential, 428-9
evaporation, 177, 179-80 Equalization, 516-18 Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and
Energy flow, 36-9, 41 facilities, 517 Rodenticide Act 1972
hydraulic analogy, 39 Equipment modification to reduce waste (FIFRA), 25
Energy pyramid, 39 generation, 823 Federal Pollution Control Act (FPCA), 10
Energy sources, 36 Equivalent continuous level (La.q), 402— Federal Water Pollution Acts, 11
Engineering, ethics and the environment, 3 Federal Water Pollution Control Act
7-8 ERU biotic index scheme, 273 (FWPCA), 10
Entamoeba histolytica, 111 Escherichia coli, 111, 117, 119, 122, » Ferric chloride, 458
Enterobacter aerogenes, 123 123, 217, 292, 441 Ferrous sulphate, 458
Enterobacteria, 119 Estuaries: Fickian diffusion, 890
Enterococcus, 116 modelling water quality in, 921—5 Fickian molecular diffusion model, 891
Enteromorpha, 292 origin of pollutants, 289-91 Fickian plus advective diffusion, 890
Environmental Assessment Review pollution, 288-91 Fick’s law, 901
Process (EARP), 833-4 water quality, 288-91 Field capacity, 169
Environmental audit, 30-3 EU Directives, air environment, 13 Filtration, 465—70
Environmental changes: Euglena, 111 classification systems, 466
normal responses, 46-8 European Union (EU): gas, 764-6
responses over time-scales, 48-9 air environment quality standards, granular media, 553
Environmental components, functions 15-17 mechanisms and performance, 467
and attributes, 31 comparison with US, 26 percolating filters, 540-4
Environmental engineering practice, 7 air pollution standards, 335 rapid gravity, 468-70
Environmental ethics, 7-8, 34 environmental legislation, 8-19 slow sand, 466-8
Environmental gradients, 44-8 habitat quality standards, 18-19 trickling filters, 540-4
Environmental impact assessment (EIA), noise quality standards, 18 First-order reactions, 125—6
831-56 pollutant standards in air Fish habitats, 15
case study, 851-2 environment, 16, 335 Fixed bed adsorption, 761-3
EU Directives, 19, 834-5, 836-7 waste quality standards, 17-18 Flagellates, 111
initial environmental evaluation water environment quality standards, Flood flows, 191-5
(IEE), 836 13-15 determination for gauged and
legislative option (NEPA), 833 European Union (EU) Directives: ungauged catchments, 192-5
middle ground option (EC Directive), bathing water, 495 versus return periods, 195, 196
834-5 drinking water, 432, 439, 442 Flood peak data series, 194
noise section, 416-17 environmental, 12—14 Flooding:
origins, 832 environmental impact assessment engineering implications, 236
policy option (EARP), 833-4 (EIA), 19, 834-7 rivers and streams, 234-6
practice, 836-7 hazardous waste, 745-8 Flotation systems, 515-16
procedure, 832-5 landfills, 624, 626, 676 Flow duration curve, 196, 197
project screening, 835-7 major accidents, 695-6 Flow equalization, 516
road developments, 876 noise pollution, 400 Flow modelling in groundwater, 927-8
stages, 831 noise standards, 404 Flue gas cleaning, 670-3, 732-5, 757
Environmental impact of transportation, soil, 13 Flue gas desulphurization (FGD), 773-6
857-77 wastewater treatment, 15, 493, 495, chemistry, 774
Environmental impact statement (EIS): 552 Fluidized bed combustion, 730-1
examples of, 844—7 water quality standards, 13, 15, 439 Fluoridation, 478-9
landfills, 684—5 Eutrophication, 110, 239-40, 278-83 Fly ash composition of coal combustion,
mining projects, 845—7 effects on man, 280-2 101
motorway projects, 847—9 reduction and control of, 282-3 F/M (food to microbes) ratio, 529-31
multidisciplinary team management, Evaporation, 147, 149, 174-81 Food, 31-2
841-4 energy budget, 177, 179-80 Food chains, 38
noise section, 416-17 factors causing, 175, 176 Food source, 38
planning, 839-40 from open water surface, 177 Food webs, 38
preparation, 838-41 mass transfer method for, 178-9 Forest and Rangeland Renewable
project management, 842 water balance method for, 180 Resources Planning Act 1974,
public participation, 840-1 Evapotranspiration (ET), 173-81 26
review, 841 importance of, 178 Forestry, land spreading in, 614
scope studies, 838 water balance method for, 180 Fragillaria, 280
selection of study team, 842-3 Event model, 918 Freshwater systems, 233-45
study approach, 843-4 Exfiltration flow rates, 496-7 acidification, 284—5
wastewater treatment projects, 850-1 Extended aeration, 538 catastrophic disturbances, 235-6
Environmental modelling, 878-946 chemistry, 237-8
fundamentals, 879 Facultative anaerobes, 108 consumer processes of resources, 263
mechanism of pollutant fate in Faecal bacteria in groundwater, 217 current factor, 233-7
environment, 880-6 Faecal coliforms standards, 555—6 current, substrate and longitudinal
Environmental Research Unit (ERU) Faecal contamination of seawater, 292 changes, 236-7
 INDEX 973

euphotic zone, 238 assessment, 221 Herbicides, 297-8, 364

eutrophic, 239 mapping, 221 Heterotrophic organisms, 108, 109
flooding disturbance, 234—6
Heterotrophic slimes, 109
hydrogen ion toxicity in, 259 Habitats, 35 Holland, environmental legislation, 10
lentic, 233 quality standards, EU, 18-19 Holland equation, 382
light penetration, 238 Haloforms, 75 Holland formula, 380
littoral zone, 238 Halogenated compounds, 74 ‘Honour’ system, 8
lotic, 233 Halogenated hydrocarbons, 75 Horton surface runoff mechanism, 182-3
oligotrophic, 239 Halophiles, 119 HSPF model, 187, 920-1
organic pollution in, 277-8 Hazardous air pollutants (HAPs), 84 Human dimension, 43-4
pollution, 276-88 Hazardous chemicals, 6 Humanity, influences on terrestrial
profundal or deeper zone, 238 Hazardous substance, definition, 693 ecosystems, 253
quality issues, 266 Hazardous waste: Hydraulic conductivity, 170, 202, 203
Froude number, 325, 925 ADR/RID classification system, 705 Hydraulic gradient, 202, 203, 205
Fugacity modelling, 932-6 categorization, 701 Hydraulic models, 894
Fugitive emissions, 777-8 classification, 700 Hydraulic retention time (HRT), 138
legislation, 778 collection centre, 711 Hydrocarbons, 74, 102, 348-50
Fungi, 109 collection systems, 710 alicyclic, 102
Furans, 671 decision tree, 698-9 aliphatic or acyclic, 102
definition, 696-9 aromatic, 102
Gas-solid separation devices, 753 EU Directive, 745-8 Hydrodynamic models:
Gas-solid technologies, 753 EU hazard categories, 697 introduction to, 903-9
Gas solubility in water, 81 generation, 699-700 of rivers, 903-9
Gasification, 665 household, 705 Hydrofluosilicic acid, 479
Gaussian distribution of concentration, industries producing, 700, 702 Hydrogen ion toxicity in freshwater
889 inventory, 702-3 ecosystems, 259
Gaussian modelling, 374-6, 940-2 legislaiton, US, 22 Hydrogen ions, 65
General model, 919 medical, 703—5 Hydrogen sulphide in groundwater, 215
Generation time, 119 preparation, 706—7 Hydrogeology, 200
Germany, environmental legislation, 10 pre-transport, 706-7 Hydrograph, 184-5
Giardia cysts, 466 public perception, 693 Hydrological cycle, 147-50
Giardia lamblia, 111 transfer station, 710-11 components of, 148
Granulated activated carbon (GAC), 554 transport in bulk, 707-10 material balance, 148
Gravity belt thickeners, 589-90 transportation, 705—11 Hydrology, 146-227
Great Barrier Reef, 250 ubiquitous nature of, 693 instrumentation, 189-90
Great Bitter Lakes, 251 Hazardous waste treatment, 693-749 low flows, 195-7
Great Plains, 254 analytical aspects, 714 remote sensing, 190
Great Smoky Mountains, Tennessee, 47 facilities for, 712-16 urban, 198-200
Greenhouse effect, 43 handling of residues, 738-41 Hydroxide ions, 65
Greenhouse gases, 8, 334, 358-62 incineration, 714-16, 719-38 Hydroxyl ions, 65
Gringorton equation, 195 inorganic wastes, 716-18 Hypochloric acid, 475
Gnit channels, 513-18 oil, 718
Gross primary production, 37 pre-treatment prior to incineration, IAWPRC program, 932
Ground level emissions, 379-80 714-16 Imhoff cone, 62
Groundborne vibrations, 865 reception, 712-14 Impingement separators, 766-9
Groundwater, 15, 23-4, 166, 200-13 sampling procedure, 712-14 Incineration, 601—3, 607-8, 665-73
chemistry, 214-21 systems for, 719-35 air emission, 670-3
contaminant transport modelling, tasks involved, 693-4 bottom ash, 673
928-30 Health Impact Statement (HIS), landfills, chemistry, 720
contamination, 328-9 684-5 combustion process, 669
contamination indicators, 217-19 Hearing damage, 399-400 costs, 720
flow, 203-8 Hearing process, 398 design principles, 666-8
flow in saturated medium, 203-5 Heat effects, 298-9 emission standards, 363-4, 735
flow modelling, 927-8 (see also Thermal treatment) flue gas cleaning, 670-3, 732-5
hardness, 214 Heat exchanger, 755 flyash, 673
hydrogeological pollution factors, Heat transfer coefficient, condensation, hazardous waste treatment, 714-16,
220 755-6 719-38
investigations, 208-9 Heavy metal pollution, 271 heat balance, 723
iron in, 480 Heavy metals, 256, 274, 291, 295-7, 352, heat transfer, 722-4
manganese in, 480 671, 700 historical background, 666
modelling, 927-32 HEC-1 program, 905-9, 921 monitoring of emissions, 735
pollution, 215-17 HEC-2 program, 903-5 stoichiometric reactions, 722
quality, 214-15, 328-9, 446 HEC-5Q program, 917 thermodynamics, 721
HELP computer program, 931 three phase locations, 669
ridging, 184
unconfined flow, 205 Henry’s law, 86 types of incinerators, 724-8
vulnerability to pollution, 219-21 Henry’s law constant, 82, 86 waste as fuel, 669-70
974 INDEX

Index of Community Sensitivity, 271 trophic quality, 326 water quality, 20

Indian Ocean, 251 water quality, 303-33 Less developing nations, 8
Individual organisms, 35 zonation, 238-9 Lethal effects, 258
Industrial air emissions (see Air Land access, changes in, 873 Life cycle assessment (LCA), 802-8
emissions) Land application of wastes, 787-94 critique, 808
Industrial emissions, 362—4 application rates, 789-94 data collection, 806
Industrial products, 32 codes of practice, 794 data treatment, 808
Industrial Revolution, 4 nutrients, 791—2 definition, 803-4
and public health, 5 Land consumption, 872-3 evaluation, 808
Industrial solvents in groundwater, 216 Land reclamation, 611—14 planning, 804-6
Industrial wastes, 291 from the sea, 614 screening, 806
anaerobic digestion (A/D), 574 landfills, 677 Light, 252-3
Infiltration, 163-74 Land revegetation, 610-11 Lime stabilization, 595
@ index method, 173 Land spreading, 608-10 Limiting factors, 46
cumulative, 173 in forestry, 614 Lipids, 74
excess overland flow model, 184 Land use guidance (LUG) zones for Liquid injection incineration, 726
flow rates, 496-7 airport noise, 415-16 Litter, vehicular-borne, 870
Horton’s equation, 172-3 Land values, changes in, 873 Los Angeles Basin, 334
potential, 172 Landfills, 614-17, 673-88 Loss of property, 872-3
simple models, 172-4 co-disposal, 687 Loudness levels, 398—9
Inorganic plant nutrients, 278 contro! and monitoring, 686 Lough Neagh, 282
Inorganic waste treatment plant, 716-18 deposit area, 686 Love Canal, 10, 694-5
Integrated Solid Waste Management, 628 depression infill, 677 Low flows, 195-7
Integrated waste management, 688 design, 684—7 frequency, 197
Interception, 149 EU Directive, 624, 626, 676 parameters of, 196
International environmental agreements, excavated cells, 677 Lumped models, 188, 919
11 gas, 678-80
Intolerance zone, 45 geotechnical site aspects, 683-4 Macropore flow, 184
Inventory control, 821 ground level, 677 Maintenance procedures, 822
Inventory management, 821 internal roads, 686 Major Accident Directive, EU, 695-6
Inverse square law, 410 land reclamation, 677 Major ionic species, in natural waters, 61
Ion exchange processes, 484—5 leachate in, 680—2 Manganese:
Iron: leachate test, 740-1 in groundwater, 215, 219, 480
in groundwater, 215, 219, 480 legislations, 676 in surface water, 480
in surface water, 480 lining system, 683-4 in water, 480
in water, 480 methane, 679-80 removal procedures, 482
removal procedures operations and processes, 674, 687 undesirable properties, 480-1
for high concentrations, 481 practices, 677 Manning equation, 905
for low concentrations, 481 receiving area, 685 Marine pollution, 292-9
for poorly buffered waters, 481 secure, 739 Marine systems, 245-51
undesirable properties, 480-1 stabilization (solidification), 740-1 Masking agents, 772
ISO 9000, 750 types, 676 Mass concentrations as CaCQ3, 55
water balance, 682—3 Mass/mass method, 53
Kinetics, 124-9 modelling, 931 Mass transfer method for evaporation,
Kluyveromyces fragilis, 811 Laplace equation, 205, 927 178-9
Kommunekemi treatment plant, 712—14 Lapse rates, 367-8 Mass transport, mathematics of, 886-92
and atmospheric dispersion, 371—2 Mass/volume method, 53
Lactococcus, 116 ‘Law of the Sea’, 11 Mastigophora, 111
Lake Clear, California, 257 Leachate in landfills, 680-2 Material balances, 130-6
Lake Kariba, 244 Leachate test, landfills, 740-1 hydrological cycle, 148
Lake Nasser, 243 Lead, 297, 352, 700 methodology, 133
Lake Washington, 280 Legislation, 7-9 Material change, 822
Lakes: agricultural pollution, 432-3 Material control, 821
acidification, 283 air quality, US, 21 Material loss, 822
classification, 239, 240 Denmark, 10 Materials recovery facilities (MRF), 653—
diffusion coefficients, 327 environmental impact assessment i
eutrophic, 240 (EIA), 833 Mathematical modelling, 878
modelling water quality in, 925-7 EU, 9-19 Measured parameter model, 919
monomictic, 239 fugitive emissions, 778 Medical waste, 703-5
numerical concepts, water quality in, Germany, 10 Medicines, 32
324 Holland, 10 Mediterranean Sea, 251
oligotrophic, 240 landfills, 676 Membrane filter method (MF), 123
oxygen-depth profile, 242, 243 levels of, 9 Membrane processes, 486—7
phosphorus in, 327 solid waste, 21, 626 Mercury, 259, 296, 352, 671, 700
temperature-depth profile, 242, 243 US, 10-11, 19-26 Metals, in biosolids, 580, 581
thermal stratification, 241 waste minimization, 814 Methane, 361
 INDEX 975

landfills, 679-80 Nitrogen: In water, 63

production, 570-3 in water, 63-4 land application, 791-2
Microbial classification, 107-8 removal from wastewater, 545—50 sources of, 279
Microbial nomenclature, 108 Nitrogen cycle, 421-3
Microbiology, 107-23 Nitrogen dioxide, 100 Oak Ridge formula, 380
Microcystis, 281 Nitrogen oxides (NO,), 100, 341-3 Occult deposition, 284
Microfiltration, 486 abatement equipment, 777 Ocean dumping, 8, 607
Micro-organisms, 107 formation, 776-7 Oceans:
and temperature, 119 methods of reduction, 777 anthropogenic disturbances, 251
generation times, 120 removal, 776—7 circulation, 247—9
Mining projects, EIS, 845 Nitrogenous organic matter, biological coverage, 245
Minor ionic species in natural waters, 61 oxidation, 312-13 mixing properties, 247
Modelling (see Environmental Nitrosomonas, 119 natural disturbances, 250-1
modelling; Mathematical Nitrous oxide, 361 oxygen in, 247
modelling) Noise, vehicular (see Traffic noise) physicochemical properties, 246
Molality, 54 Noise barriers, 413 salinity, 246
Molarity, 54 Noise contours, 415—16 stratification and productivity, 246-7
Mole, 54 Noise control, 417-18 surface currents, 248-9
Mole fraction, 54 Noise criteria, 401—3, 861 temperature, 246
Molecular diffusion, 888—9 Noise emissions: waves, 249
Monod model, 128, 129 environmental impact assessment Octave band analysis, 397
Montreal Protocol, 8, 11 (EIA) and statement (EIS), Odour abatement, 771-3
Most probable number method (MPN), 416 Odour control, agricultural, 795
123 vehicles, 392 Oil pollution, 293-5
Motor Vehicle Act 1960, 10 Noise exposure: and public health, 295
Motorway projects, environmental impact patterns, 401 commercial damage, 295
assessment (EIS), 847-9 permissible levels, 404 ecological impact, 294
Moulds, 109 Noise impact, statement of, 417 Oil waste treatment, 718
Multiple-Use Sustained-Yield Act 1960, Noise levels, 391-2 Operational changes to reduce waste
26 prediction generation, 822
Municipal wastes: outdoor, 413-15 Opercularia, 111
anaerobic digestion, 574 traffic, 863 Organic content and water quality, 304-9
solid waste (see Solid waste) Noise measurement, 404-8, 862-3 Organic equalization, 516
wastewater (see Wastewater case study, 407-8 Organic poisons, 297
treatment) physical conditions for, 406 Organic pollution in freshwater systems,
Mushrooms, 109 recommended procedure, 406 277-8
Mutagenicity, 478 report, 406-8 Organic waste, 291
Mycoplasma, 117 Noise pollution, 390-419 Organochlorine compounds, 274, 291,
annoyance, 400 297
Naegleria fowleri, 111 EC Directive, 400 Organophosphorus compounds, 297
Naphthalenes, 364 official complaints, 391 O'Shaughnessy Reservoir, 7
National Ambient Air Quality Standards remedial measures, 417 Owens Valley, 7
(NAAQS), 334 sources, 390-1 Oxidation agents, 93
National Emission Standards for speech interference, 400 Oxidation ditch, 537-9
Hazardous Air Pollutants work interference, 400 Oxidation number, 92-3
(NESHAP), 10 Noise quality standards, EU, 18 Oxidation-reduction, 92—S
National Environmental Policy Act Noise standards, 404 Oxygen:
(NEPA) 1969, 25, 833 EU Directive on, 404 diffusion into benthic zone, 315
Natural environment, major components Noise survey, EIS, 416 in freshwater systems, 233
and subcomponents, 29 Noise thresholds, 861—2 in oceans, 247
Natural parks, 7 Non-conservative constituents, sag curve, 277
Natural resources, 29-51 modelling, 911-15 transfer in water bodies, 319-22
Natural waters: Non-renewable resources, 30 Ozone, 351-2
major ionic species in, 61 Non-volatile fraction, 60 depletion, 8
minor ionic species in, 61 Normality, 54 disinfection, 473, 556
Net primary production, 37 Nuclear power, 6 Ozone-depleting gases, 11
Nitrate in groundwater, 217-18 Numerical Models for Engineers, 880
Nitrate leaching, 429-30 Nutrient balancing, 516 Panama Canal, 251
Nitrate-nitrogen concentration in rivers, Nutrient cycles in agricultural systems, Paramecium, 111
4214 Partial contributing area model, 184
264
Nitric acid, 100 Nutrient losses, 429-30 Partial models, 919
Nitric oxide, 100 Nutrient recycling, 40-3 Particle size:
Nitrification, 531-2, 545-7 Nutrient removal: classification, 61
Nitrification-denitrification combined biological, 546 distribution, 636
from wastewater, 545-50 Particulate matter, 6, 101-2, 345-8
system, 547-8
Nutrients, 252-3 Pasquill-Gifford curves, 378-9
Nitrobacter, 119
976 INDEX

Pasquill-Gifford stability classes, 368, Positive lapse rate, 96 (RCRA) 1976, 25, 627
369 Potable water, 14 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
Pasquill stability classes, 378-9 bacterial counts, 123 (RCRA) 1994, 10
PCBs (see Polychlorinated biphenyls) coliform standards, 124 Resource Recovery Act 1970, 25
Peat bed filters, 772-3 (see also Drinking water) Respiration, 314-15
Percolating filters, 540-4 Potassium in groundwater, 218 Return period, 191
Periphyton, 109 Potential evapotranspiration (PE), 180-1 versus flood flows, 196
Permeability in groundwater pollution, Powdered activated carbon (PAC), 554 Reverse flow cyclone, 767
220 Precipitation, 79, 147-50, 154-63 Reverse osmosis, 486-7
Pesticides, 6, 74, 291, 297, 432 analysis, 156-63 Rio Declaration, 11
pH: areal, 156—7 River Pollution Act 1876, 3
balancing, 516 areal reduction factor (ARF), 158 River pollution surveys, 274
seawater, 247 depth-area-duration analysis, 157—9 Rivers:
soil, 427 forms, 154 acidification, 283
water, 65-6, 259, 285-8 frequency, 159 biotic index for, 270
pH scale, 67 intensity-duration-frequency (IDF) classification, 239
Pharmaceutical industry, 6 analysis, 160—3 hydrodynamic models of, 903-9
Phosphorus: measurement, 154-6 nitrate-nitrogen concentration in, 264
in lakes, 327 Precipitation-evapotranspiration from sewage discharge to, 3
in water, 65—6 continents, 174 turbulent mixing in, 322-4
removal from wastewater, 545—50 Primary production, 37—8 water quality, 271, 303-33
runoff, 431 Production process modification, 822 Roads:
Phosphorus cycle, 423-4 Proteins, 74 developments, environmental impact
Photoautotrophic organisms, 108 Protoperphyrin IX, 258 assessment (EIA), 876
Photochemical models, 942-3 Protozoa, 110-11 environmental effects, 860
Photoheterotrophic organisms, 108 Pseudopodia, 111 Roadway impacts of transportation
Photosynthesis, 37, 252, 314-15 Public health and Industrial Revolution, 5 schemes, 871-3
Phototrophic organisms, 108, 109 Public lands quality standards, US, 26 Roseires Dam, 244
Physiological stress, 45 Public Utility Regulation and Policy Act Rotary drum thickeners, 590
Phytoplankton, 314—15 1981, 627 Rotary kiln incineration, 724-6
Picket fence thickener, 587-9 Publicly owned treatment works Rotating biological contactors, 545
Plant pigments, 74 (POTWSs), 495 Runoff, 181-4
Plants, 109 Pyrolysis, 603, 665 computation, rational method, 187
Plasma arc destruction incineration, 727— Dunne mechanism, 182-3
8 QUAL2 model, 915-17 flow rates, 497-8
Plasmodium, 111 Quality improvement programme (QIP), generation mechanisms, 185
Plastids, 110 778 Horton mechanism, 182-3
Plate filter presses, 592 urban, 198-200
Plug flow reactors (PFR), 136-7, 536-9 Radioactive ions, 256 FSR assessment, 198-200
model, 898-903 Radioactivity, 298 modelling, 199-200
Pollutants: Rainfall (see Precipitation; Runoff) rational method, 199
classification, 255 Rainfall-runoff relationships, 181—9 Runoff coefficient for different surfaces,
definition, 255 Raingauges, 154—5 199
effect on physical environment, 255 Raw water sources from freshwaters
EU standards in air environment, 16 including groundwater, 15 Safe Drinking Water Acts (SDWA), 11,
in natural waters, 268 Reactions of variable order, 139-42 19, 23
mechanism of fate in environment, Reactor analysis, 137 Safe minimum standards (SMS) criterion,
880-6 Reactor configurations, 136—42 34
mixtures of compounds, 257-8 Reaeration, 913-15 Salinity, 246
movement, transport and diffusion water bodies, 313 Sarcodina, 111
equations, 881-6 Recreation, 32 Saturated wedge flow, 184
persistence, 256 Recurrence interval, 191 Saturation excess overland flow, 184
toxic, 256 Recycling/reuse, 652—7, 811, 825-6 Scrubbers, 753, 769-70
‘Polluter pays principle’, 8 Red Sea, 251 Seawater, 246
Polyaromates (PAHs), 671 Redox equation, 92 density, 246
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 251, Redox reactions, 93-5 faecal contamination of, 292
256, 274, 291, 297, 298, 364, Reduction (see Oxidation-reduction) pH, 247
431, 580 Refined mineral oils in groundwater, Secondary production, 38-9
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 216-17 Second-order reactions, 126—7
(PAHs), 295 Refuse-derived fuel (RDF), 665-6 Sediment oxygen demand (SOD), 304,
Polyelectrolytes, 459 Renewable resources, 30 315
Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons Reoxygenation, 913-15 Seismic surveys, 208-9
(PAHs), 75 Reservoirs, water quality in, 324-8, 925— Sequencing batch reactors (SBRs), 539
Populations, 35 I Settling chamber, 766
models, 893-903 Resistivity tests, 208 Seveso dioxin accident, 6, 695-6
Porosity values by material, 202 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act Sewage, 291-3, 493
 INDEX 977

Sewage discharge to rivers, 3 texture, 169 in dBA (Lyy), 403

Sewage discharge water, 4 moisture deficit (SMD), 171-2 Sound level meters, 404-6
Sewage sludge: particle density, 165 calibration, 406
chemical characteristics, 579 pH, 427 Sound power, 393-4, 410
composition, 581 physical properties, 424-6 Sound pressure levels, 409, 410
microbiological characteristics, 580— porosity, 166 attenuation, 411-13
4 reaction, 427 combining, 395-6
microbiological guidelines, 584 salinity, 106 Sound pressures, 394
physical characteristics, 578-9 structure, 426 Sound propagation:
primary and secondary, 577 suction, 170 directivity, 410-11
quality requirements, 582-4 system, use of term, 424 geometrical spreading, 409-10
(see also Sludge) tension, 170 outdoor, 409-15
Sewage treatment/disposal, 3-4 texture, 425 Sound sources:
Sewer networks, 495 and soil moisture characteristics, directivity, 410-11
Shannon-Wiener diversity index, 271 169 non-point, 411
SHE models, 187 use of term, 424 Sound waves, 392-3
Silica in water, 63 volumetric water content, 166 South Coast Air Quality Management
Single European Act, 9 water movement, 169-70 District, 334
Sludge: Solar radiation, 176 Spaerotilus natans, 118
blanket clarifiers, 463-5 Solid bowl centrifugation thickener, 590 Special purpose model, 919
chemical composition, 581 Solid waste: Species:
conditioning, 586—7 composition, 629-31 depletion, 33
dewatering, 5914 definition, 623 extinction, 33-4
dewatering equipment review, 594 environmental aspects, 627 Species niche, 35
disposal, 606-17 faecal contaminated, 625 Specific yield, 202
drying beds, 593 health hazard, 623 Sporozoa, 111
first stage treatment, 584-95 industrial types, 630 Stack emissions, 371-3
freezing beds, 594 integrated management, 624, 628 Staphylococcus, 116
heat drying, 595 legislation, 21, 626 Stockholm Declaration on the Human
injection, 608-10 municipal, 10, 623, 628-34 Environment, 8, 9, 11
lagoons, 594 biodegradability, 643 Stoichiometry, 80
melting, 604-6 biological properties, 642-3 examples, 55—7
production and disposal, 574, 577 biological treatment, 657-65 Stokes’ Law, 766
(see also Biosolids) chemical properties, 638-42 Storage coefficient, 202
quantities from primary settling, 522— collection systems, 650—2 Storm events, 181-2
4 energy content, 638-42 Straits of Oresund, case study, 851-2
second stage treatment, 595-606 international data, 633-4 Stratosphere, 96
settlement parameters, 531 physical properties, 635—7 Streeter-Phelps oxygen sag equation, 914
stabilization, 581, 595 separation, 643-5 Streeter-Phelps oxygen sag model, 315—
thickening, 551, 587-9 sorting, 644—S 18
Slurries, mineral/nutrient composition, storage, 645-52 Streptococcus, 116
428 transfer stations, 650 Sublethal effects, 258
Slurry spreading, code of good practice, transport, 645—52 Subsoils in groundwater pollution, 220
794 pathogens, 625 Subsurface streamflow, 184
Smog, 6 physical composition, 630 Suctoria, 111
Smoke pollution, 6 public health aspects, 624-6 Suez Canal, 251
Sodium chloride in groundwater, 215 quality standards, US, 24-5 Sulphate in groundwater, 215
Sodium fluoride, 479 sources, 629 Sulphur dioxide, 98, 99
Sodium silicofluoride, 479 tonnages, 633 emissions, 10
Soil water content, 103, 167-9 treatment, 623-92 from coal, 6
phases, 168-9 types, 629 Sulphur oxides (SO,), 99, 344-5
zones, 168 Solid Waste Act 1965, 25 Sulphur trioxide, 99
Soilbeds, 772 Solid Waste Disposal Act 1965, 10, 627 Sulphuric acid, 91, 99, 100
Soils, 252-3 Solids: Superfund Amendments and
air, 103 settling (sedimentation), 314 Reauthorization Act (SARA),
bulk density, 164-5 solubility in water, 79-80 ii, 25)
chemical composition, 103-4 Solubility of water, 78-86 Surface active agents, 75
chemical properties, 424, 426-7 Solvents in groundwater, 216 Surface overflow rate (SOR), 550
chemistry, 102-6 Sound: Surface runoff (see Runoff)
degree of saturation, 166 classification, 398 Surface water:
elemental properties, 164-6 frequencies, 396-7 iron in, 480
EU directives, 13 insulation, 417-18 manganese in, 480
exchangeable ions, 104—6 intensity, 393-4 quality parameters, 446
horizons, 166—7 perception, 398 Suspended growth systems, 529
minerals, 105 physical properties, 392-8 Suspended solids fraction, 59-60
moisture characteristics and soil Sound level exceeded for N% of the time Sustainability, 34
978 INDEX

Synthetic organic chemicals (SOC), 291, Turbulent diffusion, 890-2 Volatilization, 84-6
459 Turbulent mixing in rivers, 322-4 Volume reduction to reduce waste
System simulation models, 879 generation, 823
UCTOLD program, 932 Vorticella, 111
TA Luft (1986) regulations, 750 Ultvafiltration, 486
2,3,7,8-TCDD, 364 Ultraviolet radiation, 474, 556 Waste concentration, 825
Tennessee Valley, 7 Ulva, 292 Waste disposal, 811
Terrestrial ecosystems, 252-5 nit hydrograph, 185-6, 188 Waste elimination:
influence of humanity, 253 nited
ee Nations Environment Programme communications: line organization,
moisture, 252 (UNEP), 9 816
natural changes in vegetation and United States: environmental guidelines, 316
disturbance, 253-5 air environment quality standards, 24 policy statement, 816
temperature, 252 air quality legislation, 21 Waste management, integrated, 688
Thermal drying process, 600-1 Clean Air Acts, 10 Waste minimization, 652, 801—30
Thermal treatment: conservation quality standards, 26 benefits of, 812-15
contaminated sites, 743 environmental legislation, 8-11, 19— case study, 826-8
organic material, 665-73 26 community response, 814
Thermal waste, 291 comparison with EU, 26 elements of, 809-12
Titration curves, 91 hazardous waste legislation, 22 follow-up assessment, 819-20
Tolerance, 44-6 public lands quality standards, 26 implementation of programmes, 819
Total coliform count, 555-6 solid waste quality standards, 24—5 legislation, 814
Total organic carbon (TOC), 77 solid wastes legislation, 21 management involvement, 816
Total quality management (TQM), 782, water environment quality standards, monitoring, 819-20
783 23-4 policy continuation, 820
Total solids, 59 water quality legislation, 20 priorities, 815
Tourism, 32 Unsaturated/saturated zone, 167 programme elements, 815—20
Toxic pollutants, 256 USEPA, 19, 20 selection of targets, 817—18
Toxic Substance Control Act (TSCA), 25 setting of goals, 817
Toxic substances in water, 441 Vaporization/volatilization process, 84-6 source segregation, 823
Toxicity, environmental factors affecting, Vegetation: technical evaluation, 818-19
258-60 natural changes in, 253-5 techniques, 693
Traffic, environmental effects, 860 secondary succession, 253 Waste quality standards, EU, 17-18
Traffic accidents, 871 semi-natural, 253 Waste recovery, 825—6
Traffic congestion, 871 Vehicles: Waste reduction techniques, 820-6
Traffic generated by development air pollution, 866-70 Waste treatment, 811
proposals, 874-5 amelioration, 869 Wastes, land application of, 787-94
Traffic-induced vibrations, 865 prediction, 867-8 Wastewater:
Traffic noise, 861, 862 anxiety caused by, 870 CWA standard, 24
amelioration techniques, 863 exhaust emissions, 866 disinfection, 555
methods for reducing impact, 863 physical damage caused by, 870 environment, history, 3
prediction, 863 Vehicular-borne litter, 870 EU Directive on, 15, 493, 495, 552
Transformation processes in water Vehicular environmental impacts, 861—71 nutrient removal from, 545—50
bodies, 311-18 Vibration: US quality standards, 24
Transmissivity, 202, 210-11 airborne, 865 Wastewater flow rates:
feedback, 184 amelioration, 866 domestic, 495—7
Transpiration, 149 groundborne, 865 homes and commercial premises,
Transport processes in water bodies, measurement, 865 496
318-19 prediction, 865 industrial, 501—5
Transportation: threshold values, 865 Wastewater treatment, 493-562
and development, 858 traffic-induced, 865 advanced processes, 552-5
environmental impact of, 857-77 Vibrio cholera, 118 chemical pre-treatment of industrial
matrix of environmental impact, 859— Vibrios, 116 effluents, 512
60 Viruses, 113-15 chemical treatment, 554
planning, 858 classification, 114 chemically enhanced primary
Transportation schemes: diseases caused by, 115 sedimentation, 521-2
roadway impacts of, 871-3 in groundwater, 217 clarification, 519
safety and capacity impacts, 870-1 life cycle, 114 classification of wastewater
Trent Biotic Index, 269, 272 structural arrangement of capsid, prarameters, 499
Trent River, 269 113-14 diffusers for, 556-9
Trickling filter, 540-4 Volatile fraction, 60 domestic wastewater, 493
domestic waste, 141-2 Volatile organic carbon (VOC), air domestic wastewater characteristics,
industrial effluent, 142 stripping, 525 498-501
Trihalomethanes (THMs), 75 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), 84— equalization, 516-18
Trophic levels, 38, 39 6, 304, 348, 756, 761 EU Directives, 15, 493, 495, 552
Tropopause, 96 fugitive sources, 777 flow chart, 510
Troposphere, 96 removal efficiencies, 753 industrial, 493
 INDEX 979

industrial wastewater characteristics, turbidity, 58 turbidity, 440

501-2 Water balance, 150-1 Water quality parameters, 439
key effluent parameters, 493 and land use, 151 testing, 439
mass balance for industrial global annual, 149 Water quality standards, 439-43
wastewater, 502—5 method for evaporation, 180 EU directives, 439
modelling, 932 method for evapotranspiration, 180 Water resources, 263-4
municipal wastewater, 291, 493, 495 > of continents, 152
Water softening by chemical
508 world, 149
precipitation, 482-4
municipal wastewaters organics, 501 Water bodies:
Water sources, and water quality, 443-6
objectives, 494-5 oxygen transfer in, 319-22
Water supplies, requirements, 438-9
pollutant characteristics of raw reaeration of, 313
Water treatment, 437-92
domestic wastewater, 500 transformation processes in, 311—18
pre-treatment, 511-13 advanced processes, 479-87
transport processes in, 318-19
primary treatment, 519-24 aeration, 450
Water consumption:
processes, 508-10 chemical pre-treatment, 450-1
average daily per capita (ADPC), 438
projects, environmental impact classes, 446-8
examples, 438
statement (EIS), 850-1 projected, 439 coagulants, 458-60
screenings, 512-13 Water environment, history, 3 coagulation, 457-63
secondary clarification, 550-2 Water environment quality standards: flocculation, 460-1
secondary treatment, 524-32 European Union, 13-15 objectives, 437-8
sedimentation, 519 US, 23-4 pre-treatment, 449-5]
settling, 519 Water environments, F,/pH, 95 processes, 446-8
urban, 493, 494 Water pollution, ecological perspectives, recommended treatment for specific
(see also Anaerobic digestion (A/D); 263-302 impurities, 448
Biosolids) Water pollution control, agricultural, screening, 449
Water, 57-95 782-3 sedimentation, 451—7
acidity of, 66-70 Water Pollution Control Act discrete particles type I, 451-6
alkalinity of, 66-70 Amendments 1972, 433 flocculent particles type II, 456-7
chemistry, 237-8 Water quality, 264-76 of flocculent particles, 463
colour, 58 and organic content, 304-9 selection of processes, 448
conductivity of, 71-3 and water sources, 443-6 storage: equalization and
contaminants in, 74 assessment, 267-76 neutralization, 449
density, 239-41 biological assessment techniques, 268 turbidity, 459
EU directives, 13, 439 chemical assessment techniques, 268 (see also Disinfection; Chlorination;
gross chemical properties, inorganic, description of, 267 Filtration; Fluoridation)
65-73 ecological assessment methods, 268 Water vapour (H2O), 361-2
hardness/softness, 70-1, 259, 441, effects of acidification, 285-8 Watershed models:
482 estuarine, 288-91 classification, 918-20
impurities, 443 faecal contamination, 441 generalities, 920—S
inorganic chemical properties, 60-73 in estuaries, modelling, 921-5 Waves, 249
iron in, 480 in lakes (see also Sound waves)
manganese in, 480 modelling, 925—7 Weibull formula, 195
nitrogen in, 63-4 numerical concepts, 324 Weight/weight method, 53
nutrients in, 63 in reservoirs, 324-8 Well tests, 209-11
odour, 58-9 modelling, 925-7 Wells, steady state hydraulics, 212-13
organic chemical properties, 73-8 in rivers and lakes, 303-33
Wet air oxidation, 603-4, 728-30
organic compounds in, 74 indicator organisms, 441
Wilting point, 169
organic content, 75-8 legislation, 20
Wind direction, variation with altitude,
pH of, 65-6, 259, 285-8 microbiological parameters, 441
370-1
phosphorus in, 65-6 modelling in riverine systems, 909—
Wind speed, variation with altitude, 369—
physical properties, 58-60 17
70
raw water analysis, 445-6 monitoring, 267, 441
Wind systems and surface currents, 248
regulation, 241—S odour, 440
Wind tunnels, 374
silica in, 63 organoleptic parameters, 440
World Conservation Strategy, 34
softened, 441 physicochemical parameters, 440
World Health Organization (WHO), 9
solids content, 59-60 raw water, 445
rivers, 271
Worms and water quality, 108
solubility of, 78-86
synthetic substances in, 74 standards and parameters, 265—7
substances undesirable in excessive Yeasts, 109
taste, 59
temperature, 59 amounts, 440
thermal stratification, 239-41 taste, 440 Zero-order reactions, 125
toxic substances in, 441 toxic substances parameters, 441 Zinc, 700
—— 2 a ais =
 ENVIRONMENTAL
ENGINEERING
This new textbook is the first of its kind to completely satisfy the needs of both environmental engineering
and environmental science students. Its comprehensive discussion of the need for sensitivity towards the
ecological environment in the context of sustainable development, is unique to an engineering textbook.
Divided into four convenient parts, this book covers:
@ Essential scientific, ecological and legal backgrounds
@ Polluted environments: water, air and soil
@ Environmental engineering technologies
@ Environmental management
Without compromising the solid engineering content, Gerard Kiely has introduced a range of relevant related
topics which include:
@ Ecology and microbiology
@ Hydrology and groundwater
Farm waste and agricultural pollution
@ Noise and air pollution
The traditional engineering areas of water, wastewater and solid waste treatment are examined in detail
with fresh suggestions for solving problems such as biosolids and landfill leachate. The topical concerns of
hazardous and contaminated sites are discussed, and the concepts of waste minimization and waste audits
are introduced with particular reference to reduce, reuse and recycle.

Special features:
@ Comprehensive coverage of current environmental iedieavion in the US and EU
@ Up-to-date treatment of environmental impact assessment and environmental audits
@ Numerous problems solved throughout
@ Anextensive reference list and glossary

About the author

A graduate of University College Cork, the University of New South Wales and Colorado State University,
Dr Gerard Kiely has over 20 years’ experience in engineering around the world. He is currently a senior
lecturer in environmental engineering at University College Cork and in 1994 he recg
Fulbright Fellowship. He has consulted on environmental projects for flood alleviati
control, water/wastewater and solid waste management. His research interests incl
from sludges and municipal solid waste, catchment hydrology, land-atmosphere interaction proc
compound channel hydraulics.
se ISBN’ O=07=709 127-2

McGraw-Hill x2
A Division of The McGraw-Hill Companies 780077°091279">