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The Worldwide History of Telecommunications 1st
Edition Anton A. Huurdeman Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Anton A. Huurdeman
ISBN(s): 9780471205050, 0471205052
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 12.04 MB
Year: 2003
Language: english
THE WORLDWIDE
HISTORY OF
TELECOMMUNICATIONS

ANTON A. HUURDEMAN

A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION

Cover: Inauguration of the New York–Chicago telephone line by A. Graham Bell on October 18, 1892.
(Scanned with permission of the ITU from Catherine Bertho Lavenir, Great Discoveries:
Telecommunications, International Telecommunication Union, Geneva, 1990, p. 39.)

Copyright 6 2003 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.

Published simultaneously in Canada.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as
permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior
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Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best e¤orts in
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Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print,
however, may not be available in electronic format.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Huurdeman, Anton A.
The worldwide history of telecommunications / Anton A. Huurdeman.
p. cm.
‘‘A Wiley-Interscience publication.’’
Includes index.
ISBN 0-471-20505-2 (cloth : alk. paper)
1. Telecommunication—History. I. Title.
TK5102.2 .H88 2003
384—dc21
2002027240

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
CONTENTS

FOREWORD xv
PREFACE xvii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xix

PART I INTRODUCTION AND PERIOD BEFORE 1800 1

1 Introduction 3
1.1 Definition of Telecommunications, 3
1.2 Telecommunications Tree, 7
1.3 Major Creators of Telecommunications, 11

2 Evolution of Telecommunications Up to 1800 14

2.1 Evolution of Telecommunications Prior to 1750, 14
2.2 Evolution of Telecommunications from 1750 to 1800, 16

3 Optical Telegraphy 18
3.1 Tachygraphe of Claude Chappe, 18
3.2 Optical Telegraph of Claude Chappe, 20
3.3 Beginning of Optical Telegraphy, 24

PART II PERIOD FROM 1800 TO 1850 27

4 Evolution of Telecommunications from 1800 to 1850 29

v
vi CONTENTS

5 Optical Telegraph Systems Worldwide 34

5.1 Optical Telegraph Systems in France, 34
5.1.1 Chappe Systems, 34
5.1.2 Other Optical Telegraph Systems in France, 37
5.2 Optical Telegraphy Outside France, 45

6 Electrical Telegraphy 48
6.1 Evolution Leading to Electrical Telegraphy, 48
6.2 Electrical Telegraphy in the United States, 55
6.2.1 Morse Telegraph, 55
6.2.2 Washington–Baltimore Electrical Telegraph Line, 59
6.2.3 Pioneering Telegraph Companies, 61
6.2.4 House Direct Printing Telegraph Systems, 65
6.3 Electrical Telegraphy in Canada, 66
6.4 Electrical Telegraphy in Great Britain, 66
6.4.1 Electrical Telegraphs of Cooke and Wheatstone, 66
6.4.2 Electrochemical Telegraph of Bain, 72
6.5 Electrical Telegraphy in France, 72
6.6 Electrical Telegraphy in Germany, 74
6.6.1 Railway Telegraph Lines in Germany, 74
6.6.2 German Electrical Telegraph Equipment for Public Use, 76
6.7 Electrical Telegraphy in Austria, 83

PART III PERIOD FROM 1850 TO 1900 85

7 Evolution of Telecommunications from 1850 to 1900 87

8 Electrical Telegraph Systems Worldwide 91

8.1 Telegraph Transmission Technology, 91
8.1.1 Open-Wire Lines, 91
8.1.2 Underground Cable, 94
8.1.3 Submarine Cable, 95
8.2 Electrical Telegraph Lines in the United States, 98
8.2.1 Western Union, 98
8.2.2 The Pony Express, 98
8.2.3 First Transcontinental Telegraph Line, 99
8.2.4 Collins Overland Telegraph Line and the Purchase of
Alaska, 100
8.2.5 The Hughes Direct Letter Printing Telegraph, 103
8.3 Electrical Telegraph Lines in Canada, 104
8.4 Electrical Telegraph Lines in Great Britain, 106
8.5 Summary of National Electrical Telegraph Achievements, 107
8.6 Major Terrestrial Telegraph Lines, 119
8.6.1 Australian Overland Telegraph Line, 119
8.6.2 Indo-European Telegraph Line, 124
 CONTENTS vii

8.6.3 Great Northern Telegraph Line, 128

8.6.4 Central American Telegraph Line, 128
8.7 Submarine Telegraph Cables, 129
8.7.1 European Submarine Cables, 129
8.7.2 Transatlantic Telegraph Cables, 130
8.7.3 Submarine Telegraph Cables Connecting Europe
Worldwide, 135
8.7.4 Inter-American Submarine Telegraph Cables, 138
8.8 Worldwide Electrical Telegraph Network, 139
8.9 Morse, the Father of Electrical Telegraphy, 141
8.10 Morse Codes, 143
8.11 Morse Telegraphers, 145

9 Image Telegraphy 147

9.1 Facsimile Device of Bain, 147
9.2 Image Telegraph of Bakewell, 148
9.3 Pantelegraph of Caselli, 149
9.4 Autographic Telegraph of Bernhard Meyer, 151
9.5 Telautograph of Elisha Gray, 151

10 Telephony 153
10.1 Evolution Leading to Telephony, 153
10.2 The Telephone of Alexander Graham Bell, 156
10.2.1 Alexander Graham Bell, the Father of Telephony, 156
10.2.2 Early Days of Bell in Great Britain, 159
10.2.3 Bell’s Telephone Experiments in the United States, 159
10.2.4 Bell’s Telephone: ‘‘It DOES Speak’’, 163
10.2.5 Bell Telephone Company, 165
10.2.6 Bell’s Honeymoon Trip to Europe, 167
10.2.7 Telephone Developments in Sweden, 174
10.2.8 Biggest Patent Battle on Telecommunications, 176
10.2.9 Battle of David Against Goliath, 178
10.2.10 Pioneers Leave the Telephone Business, 179
10.3 Companies with Common Bell Roots, 180
10.4 Worldwide Introduction of Telephony, 181
10.5 International Telephony, 181
10.6 The Art of Telephone Sets, 185

11 Telephone Switching 188

11.1 Manual Switching, 188
11.2 Evolution Leading to Automatic Switching, 192
11.3 Strowger System, 194
11.3.1 Strowger’s First Operating Exchange, 194
11.3.2 Strowger’s Up-and-Around Switch, 195
viii CONTENTS

12 Radio Transmission 199

12.1 Evolution Leading to Radio Transmission, 199
12.2 Experiments of Heinrich Hertz, 201
12.3 Radio Transmission from Theory to Practice, 204
12.4 The Radio Invented by Marconi, 207
12.5 Radios of Marconi’s Competitors, 212

13 International Cooperation 217

PART IV PERIOD FROM 1900 TO 1950 223

14 Evolution of Telecommunications from 1900 to 1950 225

15 Worldwide Telephone Penetration 229

15.1 Worldwide Telephone Statistics, 229
15.2 Telephone Penetration in the United States, 231
15.3 Telephone Penetration Outside the United States, 234

16 Electromechanical Telephone Switching 237

16.1 Worldwide Introduction of the Strowger System, 237
16.1.1 Strowger System in the United States, 237
16.1.2 Strowger System in Canada, 238
16.1.3 Strowger System in Japan, 240
16.1.4 Strowger System in Germany, 241
16.1.5 Strowger System in Great Britain, 244
16.1.6 Strowger System in Austria, 246
16.1.7 Strowger System in Sweden, 246
16.2 Automatic or Semiautomatic Switching?, 247
16.3 Electromechanical Indirect-Control Systems, 250
16.3.1 Automanual and All-Relay Systems, 251
16.3.2 Lorimer System, 252
16.3.3 Panel System, 255
16.3.4 Rotary System, 258
16.3.5 Uniselector System in France, 260
16.3.6 LME 500-Point System, 261
16.3.7 Hasler Hs 31 System, 262
16.3.8 Automatic Switching Systems in the USSR, 264
16.4 Crossbar Switching, 264
16.5 Private Switching, 266

17 High-Frequency Radio Transmission 269

17.1 Evolution of Radio Technology, 269
17.1.1 Spark Radio Transmitters, 269
17.1.2 Squenched Spark Radio Transmitter, 271
17.1.3 Poulsen Convertor Arc Radio Transmitter, 274
 CONTENTS ix

17.1.4 Frequency Alternator Radio Transmitter, 277

17.1.5 Electronic Radio Equipment, 279
17.1.6 Shortwave Transmission, 280
17.2 Maritime Radio, 281
17.3 Mobile Radio, 285
17.4 Intercontinental Radiotelephony, 287
17.5 RCA and C&W Created to Beat Marconi, 289
17.5.1 Radio Corporation of America, 289
17.5.2 Cable & Wireless, 290

18 Phototelegraphy 294
18.1 Kopiertelegraph of Gustav Grzanna, 294
18.2 Telautograph of Arthur Korn, 294
18.3 Telegraphoscope of Edouard Belin, 295
18.4 Siemens–Karolus–Telefunken Picture Transmission System, 296
18.5 Facsimile Machines of AT&T and Western Union, 297
18.6 Photograph Transmission Equipment in Japan, 298

19 Teleprinters 300
19.1 Teleprinter Development in the United States, 300
19.2 Teleprinter Development in Great Britain, 303
19.3 Teleprinter Development in Germany, 306
19.4 Teleprinter Development in Japan, 307

20 Copper-Line Transmission 308

20.1 Telegraphy Transmission on Copper Lines, 308
20.2 Telephony Transmission on Copper Lines, 314
20.3 Phantom Circuits, 316
20.4 Pupin Coils, 317
20.5 Krarup Cable, 321
20.6 Telephone Amplifiers, 322
20.7 Analog Multiplexing, 324
20.8 Digital Multiplexing, 327
20.9 Coaxial Cable, 331

21 Radio-Relay Transmission 337

21.1 Evolution Leading to Radio-Relay Transmission, 337
21.2 World’s First Radio-Relay Link, 342
21.3 Initial Radio-Relay Systems, 343

22 Cryptography 350
22.1 Manual Coding, 351
22.2 Automatic Coding, 352

23 International Cooperation 357

x CONTENTS

PART V PERIOD FROM 1950 TO 2000 361

24 Evolution of Telecommunications from 1950 to 2000 363

24.1 The Semiconductor Era, 364
24.2 Digitalization, 366
24.3 New Telecommunications Networks, 367

25 Radio-Relay Networks 369

25.1 Technological Development of Radio-Relay Systems, 369
25.1.1 All-Solid-State Radio-Relay Systems, 370
25.1.2 Digital Radio-Relay Systems, 371
25.1.3 Radio-Relay Systems for the Synchronous Digital
Hierarchy, 374
25.1.4 Transhorizon Radio-Relay Systems, 375
25.2 Radio-Relay Systems Worldwide, 376
25.2.1 Radio-Relay Systems in North America, 376
25.2.2 Radio-Relay Systems in Latin America, 376
25.2.3 Radio-Relay Systems in Europe, 379
25.2.4 Radio-Relay Systems in Asia, 381
25.2.5 Radio-Relay Systems in Australia, 382
25.2.6 Radio-Relay Systems in Africa, 383
25.3 Wireless Access Systems, 386
25.4 Radio-Relay Towers and Aesthetics, 391

26 Coaxial Cable Transmission 397

26.1 Terrestrial Coaxial Cable, 397
26.2 Submarine Coaxial Cable, 399
26.2.1 Transatlantic Coaxial Telephone Cables, 399
26.2.2 Worldwide Submarine Coaxial Telephone Cables, 404

27 Satellite Transmission 407

27.1 Evolution Leading to Satellite Transmission, 407
27.1.1 Rocketry Pioneers, 408
27.1.2 Passive Satellites, 410
27.1.3 Postwar Rocket Development in the United States, 410
27.1.4 Postwar Rocket Development in the USSR, 411
27.1.5 Sputnik, the First Satellite, 412
27.1.6 First Communication Satellites, 413
27.2 First Synchronous Communication Satellites, 419
27.3 Satellite Launching, 421
27.4 Satellite Transmission Systems, 426
27.4.1 Global Satellite Systems, 427
27.4.2 Regional Satellite Systems, 428
27.4.3 Domestic Satellite Systems, 431
27.4.4 Mobile Satellite Systems, 433
 CONTENTS xi

27.4.5 Global Mobile Personal Communication by Satellite, 435

27.4.6 Multimedia Satellite Systems, 439

28 Optical Fiber Transmission 445

28.1 Evolution Leading to Optical Fiber Transmission, 445
28.2 Terrestrial Optical Fiber Cable Systems, 456
28.3 Submarine Optical Fiber Cable Systems, 459
28.3.1 Transatlantic Optical Fiber Cables, 460
28.3.2 SEA–ME–WE Cable System, 461
28.3.3 Caribbean ARCOS Network, 463
28.3.4 Global Submarine Optical Fiber Cable Systems, 463
28.3.5 African Cable Network Africa ONE, 466
28.3.6 Various Submarine Cable Systems, 467
28.3.7 Repeaterless Submarine Cable Systems, 467
28.4 Fiber-in-the-Loop Systems, 471
28.4.1 Worldwide Testing of FITL Solutions, 472
28.4.2 Delay of FITL Deployment, 475

29 Electronic Switching 480

29.1 Continuation of Deployment of the Prewar Switching
Systems, 480
29.1.1 Crossbar Switching, 480
29.1.2 Siemens Rotary Switch, 480
29.1.3 End of the Strowger Switch, 482
29.2 Implementation of Automatic Telephone Switching, 483
29.2.1 National Automatic Switching, 483
29.2.2 International Automatic Switching, 484
29.3 Electronic Switching Systems, 485
29.3.1 Evolution toward Electronic Switching, 485
29.3.2 Preliminary Electronic Switching Systems, 489
29.3.3 Commercial Electronic Switching Systems, 494
29.4 Digital Switching Systems, 495
29.5 Data Switching, 500
29.6 Integrated Services Digital Network, 505
29.7 Broadband Switching, 506
29.8 Private Switching, 507

30 Telex 510
30.1 Continuation of Teleprinter Deployment, 510
30.2 Telex Service, 510
30.3 Teletex, 512
30.4 Termination of Telex Services, 512

31 Telefax 515
31.1 Technological Development of Telefax, 515
31.2 Worldwide Telefax Penetration, 517
xii CONTENTS

32 Cellular Radio 519

32.1 Evolution of Cellular Radio, 519
32.2 Analog Cellular Radio, 521
32.2.1 Analog Cellular Radio in Japan, 522
32.2.2 Analog Cellular Radio in Scandinavia, 523
32.2.3 Analog Cellular Radio in North America, 523
32.2.4 Analog Cellular Radio in West Europe, 524
32.3 Digital Cellular Radio, 524
32.3.1 Global System for Mobile Communication, 528
32.3.2 D-AMPS System, 532
32.3.3 Personal Digital Cellular System, 534
32.4 Personal Communications Network, 535
32.4.1 CT1–CT3 Systems, 536
32.4.2 Japanese Personal Handyphone System, 537
32.4.3 Digital European Cordless Telecommunications, 537
32.4.4 Personal Access Communications System, 539
32.5 International Mobile Telecommunication System, 540

33 Telephony and Deregulation 546

33.1 Telecommunications Deregulation and Liberalization, 546
33.2 Telephony and Deregulation in the Americas, 551
33.2.1 Telephony and Deregulation in the United States, 551
33.2.2 Telephony and Deregulation in Canada, 555
33.2.3 Telephony and Deregulation in Mexico, 556
33.2.4 Telephony and Deregulation in Central America, 557
33.2.5 Telephony and Deregulation in the Caribbean, 558
33.2.6 Telephony and Deregulation in Brazil, 558
33.2.7 Telephony and Deregulation in Chile, 559
33.2.8 Telephony and Deregulation in Argentina, 561
33.2.9 Telephony and Deregulation in Peru, 561
33.2.10 Telephony and Deregulation in Venezuela, 561
33.2.11 Telephony and Deregulation in Colombia, 561
33.2.12 Telephony and Deregulation in Ecuador, 562
33.2.13 Telephony and Deregulation in Bolivia, 563
33.2.14 Telephony and Deregulation in Uruguay, 563
33.2.15 Telephony and Deregulation in Paraguay, 563
33.3 Telephony and Deregulation in Africa, 563
33.3.1 Telephony and Deregulation in North Africa, 565
33.3.2 Telephony and Deregulation in South Africa, 566
33.3.3 Telephony and Deregulation in Sub-Saharan Africa, 566
33.4 Telephony and Deregulation in Asia, 567
33.4.1 Telephony and Deregulation in India, 568
33.4.2 Telephony and Deregulation in China, 569
33.4.3 Telephony and Deregulation in Japan, 571
33.4.4 Telephony and Deregulation in Other Asian
Countries, 573
33.5 Telephony and Deregulation in Europe, 574
 CONTENTS xiii

33.5.1 Telephony and Deregulation in the European Union, 575

33.5.2 Telephony and Deregulation in Eastern Europe, 575
33.6 Telephony and Deregulation in Oceania, 577

34 Multimedia 580
34.1 Evolution Leading to Multimedia, 580
34.2 Computers and Communications, 581
34.3 Global Information Infrastructure, 581
34.4 Internet, 583
34.5 Global Village, 589
34.6 Multimedia Services, 590

35 International Cooperation 597

APPENDICES

A Chronology of the Major Events in the Two Centuries of

Telecommunications 601

B Worldwide Statistics of Population, Internet Users, Cellular Phones, and

Main Telephones 607

C Glossary 613

INDEX 621
FOREWORD

Communication—the exchange of information—is essential both for the social life

of mankind and the organization of nature. Since human communication is restricted
to a relatively small spatial environment, due to physiological and physical con-
ditions, human endeavor has always been directed at the enhancement of natural
communication possibilities: achieving telecommunications. The history of the devel-
opment of telecommunications is therefore not only of technical interest but also of
general cultural importance.
The beginning of modern telecommunications in the nineteenth century is marked
by the discovery of electromagnetism, which initiated new e¤ective methods for long-
distance information transmission. Further progress soon resulted from the applica-
tion of electromagnetic wave propagation in telecommunications systems. In this
period the development was stimulated additionally by economic, political, and mil-
itary requirements. In the twentieth century the introduction of electronics and
semiconductor physics led to more rapid and dramatic technical progress, followed
by widespread dissemination of telecommunications. Today, telecommunications
governs nearly all economic, social, and scientific domains of life with ever-increasing
intensity.
This book presents the fascinating story of the technical development of tele-
communications. It shows the impressive scientific and technical e¤orts and the
achievements of many ingenious inventors, discoverers, physicists, and engineers
during the long journey from telegraphy and telephony—via radio, fiber, and satel-
lite transmission—to mobile radio, Internet, and multimedia services.
This representation o¤ers a concise overview of the field based on the large pro-
fessional experience and competence of the author. A special feature of the book is
the detailed documentation of the worldwide development of telecommunications,
covering various countries, thus filling a gap in the relevant technical literature.
The author treats the vast and complex matter in a well-structured and compre-
hensive form that avoids tedious theoretical detail. The text is enriched by many
xv
xvi FOREWORD

instructive graphics and photos, together with a lot of historical and technical
data and observations. The wide range of original material utilized by the author is
cited extensively at the end of each chapter. Historically and technically interested
readers—not only those with a scientific background but also persons in the fields of
economics, politics, and sociology—will find the book to be an invaluable guide to
the basic ideas and most current aspects of global communications and its sources.
The author’s opus deserves broad attention.

Prof. Dr. phil. nat. Dr.-Ing. E.h. Dietrich Wolf

Institute of Applied Physics

Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität
Frankfurt am Main, Germany
March 2002
PREFACE

This book has been written to present a comprehensive overview of the worldwide
development of telecommunications in a single volume. Ample information on the
evolution of various domains of telecommunications in specific countries is preserved
in numerous specialized books, magazines, and other publications in libraries of
universities and museums, but a single book in the English language covering the
entire field of worldwide telecommunications does not exist. To fill this gap, I have
collected, evaluated, interpreted, and cross-checked almost a hundred books and
even more journals over the last 15 years. Based on my experience and knowledge of
telecommunications, I have condensed their contents into a chronological story of
the worldwide development of telecommunications. In the interest of truly worldwide
coverage, I give information on telecommunications events that took place in over
100 countries and include statistics for over 200 countries. Writing the worldwide
history of telecommunications necessarily means using information already pub-
lished by many experts in their fields. George P. Oslin spent 35 years researching
telecommunications documents and interviewing the pioneers or their descendants
before, at the age of 92, submitting the manuscript for his fascinating book The Story
of Telecommunications. Oslin’s book, which he relates to his nation’s history, was a
great inspiration and a valuable resource for me to write this book related to world-
wide history. Instead of interviewing pioneers, I have endeavored to find the best
published sources available for each subject covered in my book, and thus I could
reduce the manuscript preparation time to about five years.
Numerous statements in the book are the result of combined information found in
two or more sources and occasionally, cross-checked with a third or even a fourth
source. Making reference to all those sources within the text would have a negative
e¤ect on readability, so I have cited the references at the end of each chapter. I have
mentioned the source directly in the text only in the few cases where a larger portion
was based on a single source.
I cover telecommunications starting with optical telegraphy at the end of the
xvii
xviii PREFACE

eighteenth century; followed in the nineteenth century by electrical telegraphy of

coded signals, images, and written text transmitted via open wires and terrestrial and
submarine cables; followed by telephony and telephone switching and by radio
transmission. Then follows the entire range of new technologies developed in the
twentieth century: intercontinental radio, mobile radio, radio-relay, cryptography,
satellites, coaxial and optical fiber, terrestrial and submarine cable networks, telex,
telefax, electronic switching, cellular radio, and the convergence into multimedia
of most of those technologies via a global information infrastructure. To enable
adequate coverage of this wide range of technologies within the scope of a single
volume, I have excluded the domains of radio and television broadcasting, naviga-
tion, telemetry, and computers. This book covers the history from the end of
the eighteenth century up to the end of the twentieth century. Some events that hap-
pened between January 2001 and December 2002 which were relevant to the status
described in the text are covered in footnotes.
I took special care to present the evolution and development of telecommunica-
tions as a human achievement attained thanks to the perseverance of many ingenious
pioneers who had the vision and capability to turn the discoveries and inventions of
contemporary scientists into new and useful applications. Wherever appropriate and
available, I include personal information about the major pioneers and protagonists.
Applications of the new telecommunication devices have been introduced by sev-
eral newly founded companies, manufacturers, and service providers, which grew,
merged, and still exist or have disappeared. Those companies made telecommunica-
tions happen and, again, wherever appropriate and available, I include briefly the
relevant industrial history.
For those readers who are not familiar with telecommunications technologies and
want to obtain a better understanding of the subject matter, I have included Tech-
nology Boxes, which give a concise description of the underlying technologies in
more technical language. Numerous footnotes give additional related details.
I have written this book without sponsorship or obligation to any company.
Moreover, I have endeavored to present the history in an objective way with bal-
anced coverage of significant events in several countries without overemphasizing the
achievements of particular companies or specific countries.
Telecommunications is a nonpolluting employment-generating industry which
plays an ever-increasing role in our human relations. It is an indispensable tool for
economic growth and better distribution of wealth. My hope is that this book will
contribute to the preservation and greater awareness of the worldwide heritage of
telecommunications and to responsible future applications.

Anton A. Huurdeman

Todtnauberg, Germany
April 2002
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I have written this book in the English language, although my mother tongue is
Dutch and I have been living in Germany since 1958. I am very grateful, therefore,
to an English friend, Peter Jones, for proofreading, removing Dutch and German
influences, and very conscientiously safeguarding the Queen’s English. I am also
grateful to my previous department director, Dipl.-Ing. Gerd Lupke, for proof-
reading to safeguard the historical truth and for supplying interesting photographs
from his private archive. My thanks also go to Prof. Dr. Dietrich Wolf for his valu-
able suggestions on manuscript improvements and, especially, for writing the fore-
word.
It was my objective to provide wide international coverage with historical photos,
adequately balanced among various companies and museums. Unfortunately, the
international response was not su‰cient to meet that objective. Personal contacts
proved to be important in obtaining the right information and historical photos. I am
very obliged, therefore, to those persons who supplied me generously with numerous
photos that are reproduced in the book. I thank especially Dr. Helmut Gold, Dieter
Herwig, and Jürgen Küster of the Museum für Kommunikation Frankfurt, Ger-
many; Dr. Lanfredo Castellitte of the Musei Civici Como, Italy; Gertrud Braune,
Karin Rokita, Dr. Marie Schlund, and Dr. Lothar Schön, of Siemens AG, Munich,
Germany; and Gerhard Schränkler of Alcatel SEL, Stuttgart, Germany.
I thank Dr. Julie Lancashire of Artech House Books, London, for permission to
reuse drawings and parts of the text that I prepared originally for the book Radio-
Relay Systems, published by Artech House Books in 1995, and for the book Guide to
Telecommunications Transmission Systems, published in 1997. Text from those two
books has been reused for all Technology Boxes except Boxes 11.1 and 16.2 to 16.5,
which are based on information given in great detail in the two volumes of 100 Years
of Telephone Switching, by R. J. Chapuis and A. E. Joel Jr., published by North-
Holland Publishing Company, New York, in 1982 and 1990.
Finally, I thank Mrs. Marie-José Urena of the ITU, Geneva, for granting per-
xix
xx ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

mission to use information from the ITU Indicators Updates, and to scan photos
from the ITU publications From Semaphore to Satellite, Great Discoveries: Tele-
communications, and ITU News. ITU made this permission subject to an acknowl-
edging statement indicating that:

1. The texts/figures extracted from ITU material have been reproduced with the
prior authorization of the Union as copyright holder.
2. The sole responsibility for selecting extracts for reproduction lies with the ben-
eficiary of this authorization alone and can in no way be attributed to the ITU.
3. The complete volume(s) of the ITU material, from which the texts/figures
reproduced are extracted, can be obtained from:
International Telecommunication Union
Sales and Marketing Division
Place des Nations–CH-1211 Geneva 20 (Switzerland)
Telephone: þ41 22 730 61 41 (English)
þ41 22 730 61 42 (French)
þ41 22 730 61 43 (Spanish)
Telex: 421 000 uit ch / Fax: þ41 22 730 51 94
E-mail: [email protected] / http://www.itu.int/publications

Upon request of the ITU and Artech House Books, I have given in the caption
of each figure covered by a publication permission the complete and exact source.
Figures without such a credit line in the caption are either from photos taken from
my own archive or from drawings that I made especially for this book.
PART I

INTRODUCTION AND PERIOD

BEFORE 1800
1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 DEFINITION OF TELECOMMUNICATIONS

Telecommunication is a technology that eliminates distance between continents,

between countries, between persons. To contact another person by telephone, only
the distance between one’s actual location and the next telephone needs to be cov-
ered. This distance can be mere centimeters in the industrialized world and kilo-
meters in the developing world. For centuries, messages were transported by mes-
sengers, or couriers, who either walked or were transported by horse, coach, or boat,
and when fire, smoke, or sound signals were sent they simply confirmed prearranged
messages. With telecommunications a message does not need a messenger. Tele-
communications eliminated a master-to-servant relationship: replacing the service of
a messenger by mechanical telegraph in 1794, by copper wires in 1837, by electro-
magnetic waves in 1896, and by optical fiber in 1973. Telecommunications enor-
mously reduces the time required to transport messages, accelerates business trans-
actions, and improves human relationships.
The word communications, derived from the Latin word communicatio, the social
process of information exchange, covers the human need for direct contact and
mutual understanding. The word telecommunication, adding tele (¼ distance), was
created by Edouard Estaunié (1862–1942)1 in 1904 in his book Traité pratique de
télécommunication electrique (télégraphie–téléphonie) (Figure 1.1), in which he de-
fined telecommunication as ‘‘information exchange by means of electrical signals.’’
Estaunié thus limited telecommunications explicitly to ‘‘electrical signals.’’ In the

1 Director of the Ecôle Supérieure des Postes et Télégraphes de France, author of various books in which
he criticized the prevailing social conditions, and member of the Académie Française.
The Worldwide History of Telecommunications, By Anton A. Huurdeman
ISBN 0-471-20505-2 Copyright 6 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

3
4 INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.1 Facsimile of the title page of the book in which the word telecommunication
was created. (Scanned from Catherine Bertho, Histoire des télécommunications en France,
1984, p. 13.)

preface to his book, he modestly apologized for the invention of the new word, stat-
ing: ‘‘I have been forced to add a new word to a glossary that is already too long in
the opinion of many electricians. I hope they will forgive me. Words are born in new
sciences like plants in spring. We must resign ourselves to this, and the harm is not
so great after all, because the summer that follows will take care of killing o¤
the poor shoots.’’ Fortunately, the word telecommunication did not belong to the
‘‘poor shoots’’ and has already survived a hundred summers. Telecommunications
became more complex, and new definitions were created, as summarized in Tech-
nology Box 1.1.
In order to telecommunicate, local, regional, national, and international telecom-
munication networks are required. Figure 1.2 shows the basic configuration of the
classical telecommunication networks. In local telecommunication networks, also
called access networks, individual telecommunication users (the telecommunication
originators as well as the telecommunication recipients) are all connected with one or
more local switches (also called local exchanges or central o‰ces). Telecommunica-
tion users such as the subscribers of public networks are connected by their local
exchange—primarily by means of a single cable pair but previously also by open
wire, at distant or isolated locations by radio, and currently, increasingly, by broad-
band optical fiber or wireless systems. In regional and national telecommunication
 DEFINITION OF TELECOMMUNICATIONS 5

TECHNOLOGY BOX 1.1

Definitions of Telecommunications
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) o‰cially recognized the term
telecommunications in 1932 and defined it as: ‘‘any telegraph or telephone com-
munication of signs, signals, writings, images and sound of any nature, by wire,
radio, or other system or processes of electric or visual (semaphore) signaling.’’
Currently, the ITU defines telecommunications as ‘‘any transmission, emission, or
reception of signs, signals, writings, images, and sounds; or intelligence of any
nature by wire, radio, visual, or other electromagnetic systems.’’
In this definition the ITU postulates transmission as a basic function of tele-
communications. The word transmission, from the Latin trans mettere for transfer
or transport in the figurative sense, however, quite confusingly, is used for many
purposes. It was used in the industrial revolution to represent a transmission sys-
tem for the transmission by mechanical means of power from a central steam
engine to the various production machines in a factory. In electrical power tech-
nology, high-tension transmission line and ht-transmission grid are well-known
names for high-voltage overhead electricity distribution lines.
In the book Transmission Systems for Communications published by members
of the technical sta¤ of Bell Labs in 1954, which used to be the bible of transmis-
sion, the primary function of a transmission system is described as being ‘‘to pro-
vide circuits having the capability of accepting information-bearing electrical sig-
nals at a point and delivering related signals bearing the same information to a
distant point.’’
In my book Guide to Telecommunications Transmission Systems, published in
1997, transmission within the context of telecommunications is defined concisely
as the ‘‘technology of information transport.’’
In the context of telecommunications, a transmission system transports infor-
mation between the source of a signal and a recipient. Transmission thus stands
for the tele part of the word telecommunications and as such is the basis of all
telecommunication systems. Transmission equipment serves to combine, send,
amplify, receive, and separate electrical signals in such a way that long-distance
communication is made possible.
In terms of technology, telecommunications transmission systems are divided
into line transmission and radio transmission systems:

Line transmission is the technology of sending and receiving electrical signals

by means of copper wire, and nowadays, increasingly by means of optical
fiber, on overhead lines, by underground cable, and by submarine cables.

Radio transmission in the context of telecommunications stands for the tech-
nology of information transmission on electromagnetic waves by means of
high-frequency radio and mobile radio, including cellular radio systems, radio
relay, and satellites.

Source: Adapted from A. A. Huurdeman, Guide to Telecommunications Transmission Systems, Artech

House, Norwood, MA, 1997; with permission of Artech House Books.
6 INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.2 Classical telecommunication networks.

networks, a number of local exchanges are connected via transmission links in

transport networks with a tandem exchange (also called a toll or trunk exchange); all
the tandem exchanges of a region or a nation are also interconnected by transmission
links. A transmission link can consist of copper wire or optical fiber cable, radio
relay, or satellite.
In international telecommunication networks, telecommunication users are con-
nected via their local exchange and one or more tandem exchanges with international
exchanges in their country. International exchanges worldwide are interconnected by
transmission links either directly or by means of one or more other international
exchanges. Currently, this vast network of hierarchically arranged circuit-switching
exchanges is being complemented by a new network based on packet switching,
using the Internet Protocol.
 TELECOMMUNICATIONS TREE 7

1.2 TELECOMMUNICATIONS TREE

The evolution of telecommunications from optical telegraphy (also called semaphore

communication) to multimedia in its various stages can be visualized in a telecom-
munications tree (Figure 1.3). Indeed, a tree appears to be very appropriate to illus-
trate this evolution. On the one hand, it enables us to show the formation of a new
technology as soon as the necessary prerequisites are given, and on the other, it
demonstrates the complementary function of the various domains that together make
telecommunications happen. The trunk of the tree represents the technological pre-
requisites for successive unfolding of the various telecommunication domains into
the branches of the tree. The leaves of the branches represent evolution within the
separate telecommunication domains. In the following summary of the evolution, the
evolution stages that appear in the tree are italicized.
The bases of telecommunications, and thus the roots of the tree, are science and
industrialization. They made telecommunications possible, and on the other hand,
cannot now exist without telecommunications.
Optical telegraphy became possible, and thus telecommunications could germi-
nate, once the telescope was available and basic mechanical constructions could be
made with su‰cient accuracy. Optical telegraph lines were constructed within a
number of countries for exclusive communications within those countries. Optical
telegraphy is the only telecommunications domain so far that disappeared completely
and was replaced by a better technology (electrical telegraphy); thus this branch is
only a historical relic and therefore has been sawn o¤.
The theory of electromagnetism and the development of precision mechanics
nourished the growth of an electrical telegraphy branch. Electrical telegraphy started
with code-writing telegraphs and needle telegraphs, which were replaced by direct
text-writing teleprinters, which are still used in the international telex network but are
giving way increasingly to telefax, which developed over a 100-year period from
image telegraphy and photo telegraphy. Telegraphy, especially radio-telegraphy,
could easily be intercepted, so that cryptography became widely used to increase the
privacy of telegraphic messages.
Understanding the basic laws of electricity and the discovery of gutta-percha
began the evolution of copper-line transmission systems on open wire, copper cable,
and coaxial cable. Carrier-frequency systems were used to increase the number of
channels per physical circuit. Digitalization substantially improved the quality and
reduced the cost of transmission and switching.
The basic theory of sound developed by Helmholtz supported the evolution from
telegraphy to telephony. National telephone networks were built in most countries.
Direct dialing in international telephone networks became possible worldwide when
submarine telephone cables and satellite systems were installed.
The early automation of industrial processes enabled the replacement of manual
switchboards by automatic switching devices. In switching, quite unnoticed by the
general public, a tremendous evolution happened in a 100-year period, from electro-
mechanical switching by means of crossbar and electronic switching to digital switch-
ing with integrated services digital network (ISDN ) functions.
The discovery of electromagnetic radiation and the subsequent development of
devices for generating and detecting such waves led to the development of radio-
8 INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.3 Telecommunications tree.

 TELECOMMUNICATIONS TREE 9

telegraphy. The creation of electronic tubes (diodes and triodes) started the electronic
era, which enabled the evolution from radio-telegraphy to radio-telephony and mobile
radio. Marine radio was the first mobile radio application, followed by vehicle-
mounted private mobile radio and since the 1970s, by infrastructure-sharing trunk
systems.
The feedback principle applied in electronic circuitry facilitated the generation of
high frequencies and thus the development of medium- and shortwave radio trans-
mission and a new technology of circuit combination: carrier frequency, or multi-
plexing. Carrier frequency equipment enabled transmission on a single medium
(copper-wire pair, coaxial cable pair, radio-relay, satellite, or optical fiber pair) of
thousands of telephone channels. With analog and later also with digital multiplex
equipment, installation of national and international coaxial cable networks all over
the world began in the 1960s.
The development of very high frequency generators in 1920 and velocity-modulated
electronic tubes in the early 1930s made radio-relay transmission possible, whereby
relay stations, suitably located within lines of sight, receive, amplify, and retransmit
radio signals over hundreds and even thousands of kilometers. Radio-relay networks
were installed beginning in the 1950s, mainly for the distribution of television chan-
nels but also as a standby or instead of coaxial cable systems, especially in di‰cult
regions where laying cable would be more expensive. Currently, radio-relay systems
are used increasingly for direct access of single subscribers to the public telephone
network with wireless-local-loop (WLL) systems. This replaces the expensive ‘‘last-
mile’’ cable connection between a telephone subscriber and the nearest telephone
exchange.
Rockets, transistors, and solar cells were the ingredients for the satellite branch.
Here an evolution is going on of the complementary operation of fixed global and
international regional satellite networks, national domestic networks, and global
mobile personal communication by satellite networks for person-to-person commu-
nication.
The laser and extremely pure glass enabled the fiber optics branch to grow. Long-
distance systems with digital signal regenerating repeaters with optoelectronic com-
ponents are evolving by means of optical amplifiers to regeneration-free soliton
transmission systems. For new subscriber access networks, optical fiber cable with
fiber-in-the-loop (FITL) systems is used increasingly instead of copper cable. Cur-
rently, with wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM ), a number of composite data
streams, each with a capacity of 2.5 to 40 Gbps, are transmitted on a single optical
fiber pair. Optical fiber cables using WDM are currently being installed between the
continents as a major contribution to a global information infrastructure (GII).
ICs (integrated circuits) and microprocessors were the nourishment for the cellular
radio branch. Cellular radio is currently the quickest-growing domain of telecom-
munications. Here a rapid evolution took place from vehicle-bound analog cellular
radio, via vehicle-bound and handheld digital cellular radio, handheld cordless sys-
tems, and currently to personal communications networks with person-to-person
communication under a single worldwide personal telephone number independent of
home, o‰ce, or leisure-time location. By year-end 2000, in addition to 987 million
fixed telephone lines, some 740 million mobile phones were in use worldwide, and in
36 countries there are more mobile than fixed telephones.
10 INTRODUCTION

The convergence of communications and computers (C&C ) and the application of

CD-ROMs for high-volume data storage is currently leading to multimedia services,
such as the Internet for worldwide interactive information exchange, tele working/
medicine/banking/learning/shopping/booking/travel scheduling/entertaining services,
and the almost costless e-mail.
A global information infrastructure with satellites and optical fiber cable spans
the globe. As soon as this infrastructure has been completed, with su‰cient con-
nections to communities still unserved, the objective postulated by the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) can be met: ‘‘that everybody on this planet can
obtain the right answer to her/his questions in a matter of seconds, at a¤ordable
cost.’’
Within two centuries, telecommunications experienced tremendous progress.
Especially in the last 100 years, with the application of electronics, transistors,
microprocessors, satellites, and optoelectronics, telecommunications became the
decisive technology for global human development. This development is best dem-
onstrated by the example of transatlantic submarine cable transmission:

1866. The first transatlantic telegraph cable installed and operated by private
enterprise transmitted one Morse-coded telegraph channel with a speed of
about 5 words per minute.

1956. The first transatlantic telephone cable, TAT-1, co-owned by the U.S.
AT&T, the Deutsche Bundespost, the French France Telecom, the U.K. Gen-
eral Post O‰ce, and other administrations, operated 36 telephone channels on
two separate cables.

2000. The state-of-the art transatlantic fiber optic cable, Flag Atlantic-1, owned
by the private company Flag Telecom, has 12 fibers each with a capacity of 40
WDM 10-Gbps channels, thus a total of 4.8 Tbps, which is equivalent to
58,060,800 telephone channels.

In another recent comparison it was stated that if automobile technology had

progressed at the same pace as telecommunications, a Rolls-Royce would cost less
than $2 and get 40,000 miles to the gallon (equal to 17,000 km/L).
Despite its age, the telecommunications tree will continue to grow during a still
unpredictable future. Some leaves will drop, as already indicated for the leaves that
represent image telegraph, photo telegraphy, and teleprinter, which are no longer
used. In the near future other leaves will disappear, such as those representing elec-
tromechanical switching, crossbar switching, and telex. Complete branches will
probably disappear in the first quarter of the twenty-first century, such as electrical
telegraphy and copper-line transmission. New leaves will grow. The first new leaf will
probably represent an entirely new range of combined optical transmission-switching
systems. Another leaf might represent wireless broadband links in metropolitan areas
provided by ‘‘subspace’’ flying base stations located in unmanned balloons and air-
planes circling in the stratosphere.
The chronological development of telecommunications for the period 1790–2000
is shown in Figure 1.4. A more detailed chronological summary of the major tele-
communications events for this period is given in Appendix A.
 MAJOR CREATORS OF TELECOMMUNICATIONS 11

Figure 1.4 Chronology of telecommunications.

1.3 MAJOR CREATORS OF TELECOMMUNICATIONS

Telecommunications development has been the result of timely use of newly dis-
covered technical features by ingenious pioneers who had the vision to create new
applications. Those persons, in their time, however, usually faced strong opposition
and needed to put forth substantial e¤ort to obtain recognition and acceptance of
their invention. Most of them experienced the fate of any discoverer, described very
appropriately by the French physicist Dominique François Jean Arago (1786–1853):
‘‘Those who discover a new fact in the sciences of observation must expect, first, to
have its correctness denied,—next its importance and utility contested,—and after-
wards will come the chapter of priority,—then, passages, obscure, insignificant, and
previously unnoticed, will be brought forward in crowds as a¤ording evident proofs
of the discovery not being new.’’ In this introduction, a brief homage is given to the
major pioneers who created telecommunications.

Claude Chappe (1763–1805) Claude Chappe began the era of telecommunications

with the successful operation of his optical telegraph between Paris and Lille on
August 15, 1794. People accused him, however, of having copied what they claimed
to be their idea. Chappe took these attacks so seriously that he became depressed,
and he committed suicide at the age of 42.

Samuel Finley Breese Morse (1791–1872) The electrical telegraph had many
‘‘fathers’’ and they all developed unique solutions, so that a dozen di¤erent electrical
telegraph systems operated simultaneously in various countries. In the worldwide
competition for the best technology, the writing telegraph of Morse proved its supe-
riority and found worldwide use. Morse became an internationally respected tele-
communications expert. To celebrate his eightieth birthday in 1871, a bronze statue
12 INTRODUCTION

of Morse with his 1844 telegraph instrument was placed in Central Park in New
York. He died one year later.

Alexander Graham Bell (1847–1922) The telephone era begun in 1876 in the
United States with the operation of a telephone line across a 2-mile stretch between
Boston and Cambridge, Massachusetts, with telephone apparatus produced by Bell.
For Bell a 10-year patent battle started that in the end, legally gave him the honor
and satisfaction of being the inventor of the telephone. Bell then became the most
successful of all telecommunications pioneers and gained international prestige. With
his wife, Mabel Bell, he lived a prosperous life—the last years in Nova Scotia, where
he died at the age of 74.

Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1857–1894) Heinrich Hertz laid the basis for radio trans-
mission with successful experiments in 1887–1889 that proved the existence of elec-
tromagnetic radiation and its similarity to the behavior of light. Hertz very soon
gained substantial international appreciation. Unfortunately, he became ill and died
at the age of 37.

Guglielmo Marconi (1874–1937) It was Marconi who two years after Hertz died
began the radio era. Marconi succeeded in transmitting a radio signal over a few
kilometers at Bologna in 1896. He successfully combined technical ingenuity with
commercial aptitude. Famous and wealthy, at the age of 53 Marconi turned to pri-
vate life and Italian politics. A heart attack stopped his life at the age of 63. All radio
transmitters worldwide observed 2 minutes of silence.

Almon Brown Strowger (1839–1902) A funeral director in Kansas City, Missouri,

Almon B. Strowger, with his ‘‘girl-less, cuss-less, out-of-order-less, and wait-less
telephone exchange’’ started a development that has resulted in today’s gigantic
worldwide telephone network, which is interconnected through thousands of auto-
matic telephone exchanges. For health reasons, Strowger retired at the age of 57 to
Florida, where he died in Greenwood at the age of 62.

Michael Idvorsky Pupin (1858–1935) Michael Idvorsky Pupin was born the son of
a ‘‘free and independent farmer’’ in Idvor, Serbia–Croatia. He emigrated to the
United States, where he developed the Pupin coil, which made him a millionaire. In
1923 he published his autobiography, From Immigrant to Inventor, for which he
obtained a Pulitzer Prize. Pupin died in New York at the age of 76.

Alec H. Reeves (1902–1971) Alec H. Reeves conceived the idea of digitizing

speech and patented his pulse-code-modulation (PCM) procedure, but at a time
when the prevailing technology prevented its economical realization. Thirty years
later, when his ideas could be realized, the importance of his fundamental invention
was recognized by the award to Reeves in 1965 of the Ballantine Medal of the
Franklin Institute, by the City of Columbus Gold Medal in 1966 and in 1969 by the
inclusion of PCM on the 1-shilling postage stamp in the United Kingdom.

Remarkably, eight of the nine creators above are honored for achievements in the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. They conceived devices that could be realized
 MAJOR CREATORS OF TELECOMMUNICATIONS 13

with the help of only a few persons. To move the arms of his optical telegraph,
Chappe needed a mechanical motion device, which he obtained from the experienced
clockmaker Abraham-Louis Breguet. To construct an electromagnetic writing device
on his easel, Morse availed himself of the technical skill of his student, Alfred Lewis
Vail. Bell had his electrician, Watson, and Almon B. Strowger, fortunately, had a
technically talented nephew, Walter S. Strowger. Marconi experimented with his
radio with the assistance of his brother. Production of the first Pupin coil needed
the idea rather than much technical skill. However, to realize in the twentieth century
Reeves’s idea of PCM, even once the transistor was available, some 10 to 20
engineers at Bell Telephone Laboratories had to undertake years of research work.
In contrast to these essentially one-person inventions of the eighteenth and nine-
teenth centuries, teamwork was required for the big telecommunications achieve-
ments of the twentieth century, and even then, success was not always guaranteed.
Development of the first electronic telephone exchange in the 1950s, the No. 1 ESS
of AT&T, took seven years and absorbed $100 million. Before the world’s first
commercial cellular radio system, conceived by the engineers of Bell Labs in 1946,
could be put into operation in Japan in 1979, 100 Japanese engineers and technicians
required a 12-year period of development. ITT spent a record $1 billion in the 1980s
for the development of their digital switching system (System 12), and then aban-
doned telecommunications. Iridium, the first global mobile personal communication
satellite system, was conceived in 1987. Over 1000 engineers, technicians, and math-
ematicians, mainly in the United States but also in Europe and Asia, with great skill
and energy, worked out elaborate designs for components and systems for software,
management plans, and logistics at a cost of $3.4 billion before the system could be
put into operation on November 1, 1998. By then, unfortunately, they were too late.
The unexpectedly rapid worldwide penetration of cellular radio made the Iridium
system superfluous.
2
EVOLUTION OF
TELECOMMUNICATIONS
UP TO 1800

2.1 EVOLUTION OF TELECOMMUNICATIONS PRIOR TO 1750

In its definition of telecommunications in 1932, the ITU expressively postulated

‘‘visual (semaphore) signaling’’ as a means of telecommunications, which implies
that telecommunications started with the optical telegraph developed by Claude
Chappe during the French Revolution. Visual signaling was not invented by Chappe,
but his system was the first that found systematic use in various countries over about
half a century and then gradually became replaced by telegraphy with electrical
signals.
The Greeks, Persians, and Romans used smoke and fire signals for transmission
of predefined information about singular occurrences. For his attack on Troy, Aga-
memnon erected a 500-km line of beacons in 1084 b.c. After 10 years without being
used, the news of the fall of Troy was suddenly transmitted one night and then the
beacons became obsolete. The Persian King Darius I (550–485 b.c.) had a fire-
telegraph network throughout Persia, enabling him to obtain timely information
about any planned rebellion or attack from outside.
In addition to using smoke-and-fire signals, the Romans raised and lowered
wooden beams on a platform of special towers placed in a straight line of sight in
various areas throughout their empire, up to Hadrian’s Wall in northern England. In
the Middle Ages, smoke and fire signals were employed between Crusader-built
towns and forts in Palestine and Syria. In Spain by 1340, the Castilian navy had
adopted signal telegraphy. The Admiral of Castile, D. Fabrique, made use of di¤er-
ent-colored pennants to communicate orders and coded messages to his ships war-
ring against the kingdom of Aragon.
In England, a fire and beacon system was used in the sixteenth century to give

The Worldwide History of Telecommunications, By Anton A. Huurdeman

ISBN 0-471-20505-2 Copyright 6 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

14
 EVOLUTION OF TELECOMMUNICATIONS PRIOR TO 1750 15

warning of the approach of the Spanish Armada. Many of the hills on which these
beacons stood are still remembered by names such as ‘‘Beacon Hill.’’
The North American Indians perfected smoke signaling. Not only did they use a
varying number of ‘‘pu¤s,’’ but by throwing substances on a fire, they added infor-
mation to a signal by changing the colors of the smoke.
All these examples of optical signaling applications were limited in their applica-
tion, and there was always the danger of misinterpretation. They cannot be consid-
ered as telecommunication systems in the sense of the ITU definition. The discovery
of the telescope in 1608 by the Dutch optician Hans Lippershey1 was a vital step
forward toward a genuine telecommunication system.
The first documented proposal to use the telescope for the transmission of mes-
sages was made in a letter dated March 21, 1651 found in the Bavarian state archives
in Wurzburg in 1985. The letter had been written at Trier by a Capuchin monk,
astronomer, and discoverer, Anton Maria Schyrleus de Rheita (1604–1660), and was
sent together with four telescopes to the archbishop and elector of Mainz, Johann
Philipp von Schönborn. The monk was born in Reutte, Tirol (hence the name de
Rheita), as Johann Burchard von Schyrle. In his letter he proposes placing ‘‘finger-
long’’ black characters of complete words in front of a white cloth so that the words
can be read through a telescope located at ‘‘an hour’s distance’’ (about 5 km). His
telescopes2 were produced in the workshop of one of his pupils at Augsburg. Some
telescopes were exported to England, where they were soon copied and used widely
on ships. Schyrleus de Rheita’s proposal for optical telegraphy did not find approval;
on the contrary, he became a victim of the Inquisition and died in exile at Ravenna
in 1660.
The first attempt to work out a reliable optical-mechanical signaling system was
made by the British astronomer Robert Hooke (1635–1703). On May 21, 1684 he
presented to the Royal Society in London a plan for ‘‘optical transmission of one’s
own thoughts on land and between ships at sea with a combination of a telescope
and a signaling frame,’’ later published in the Philosophical Transactions. He pro-
posed having boards of di¤erent shapes—square, triangular, circular, and others—
representing the letters of the alphabet, hung in a large square frame divided into
four compartments and shown in the order required from behind a screen. Each
board represented a letter according to the compartment in which it was hung.
Hooke describes the distance between stations and suggests that the signals could be
varied in 10.000 ways. The stations should preferably be high and exposed to the sky.
Each intermediate station should have two telescopes and three operators, although
two operators should su‰ce at the terminal stations. At night, lights should be used
instead of boards.
Hooke tried his system in 1672 between the garden of Arundel House and a boat
moored o¤ the far shore of the Thames half a mile away. The president of the Royal
Society objected that Hooke’s system would often be hindered by the British weather
and discouraged Hooke from making further trials.

1 A description of Lippershey’s invention, which enabled a 20- to 30-fold magnification of view, reached
Galileo in 1609 and then became widely known through Galileo’s publication in 1610 of Siderius Nuncius,
in which he reported the discovery of the moons of Jupiter with the aid of a telescope.
2 The telescopes were of his own design, as he described in a book entitled Oculus Enoch et Eliae Sive
Radius Sidereomysticus, published in Antwerp in 1645.
16 EVOLUTION OF TELECOMMUNICATIONS UP TO 1800

2.2 EVOLUTION OF TELECOMMUNICATIONS FROM 1750 TO 1800

Limited vision at a distance had always been a major obstacle to the introduction of
telecommunications. The telescopes available were very expensive and needed a
length of several meters to obtain su‰cient magnification, albeit with a very faint
view. In 1747, Leonhard Euler (1707–1783) found a way to correct the telescope’s
chromatic error by sandwiching two lenses together, thus making them achromatic,
allowing them to be located closer to each other. A few years later, a Swedish physi-
cian, Samuel Klingenstjerna (1698–1765), made detailed studies on the color sepa-
ration characteristics of di¤erent types of glass.
In 1757, an English optician, John Dollond (1706–1761), applied the existing
knowledge to the construction of a telescope with substantially improved image
quality and resolution. The Dollond telescope, with achromatic lenses became the
standard for many years. With a Dollond telescope, visibility on a line of sight
between geographical points could be increased to tens of kilometers, and an indis-
pensable tool for optical telegraphy thus became available.
Around 1760, a British–Irish teacher, Richard Lovell Edgwort (1744–1817), con-
structed a privately operated optical signaling line over 90 km between London and
Newmarket, probably based on the Hooke system.
A German scientist from Hanau, Johann Andreas Benignus Bergsträsser (1732–
1812), tried all kinds of communications: from fire, smoke, explosions, torches and
mirrors, trumpet blasts, and artillery fire, to a gymnastic signaling experiment using
Prussian soldiers. He proposed constructing an audio-optical telegraph line between
Leipzig and Hamburg using four types of rockets: rockets without detonation,
rockets with detonation, illuminating signal rockets, and firework rockets. Moreover,
he proposed light signals on clouds and audio signals using ringing bells.3
During the American War for Independence from 1775 to 1783, a signaling sys-
tem was used with flags in the daytime and lanterns at night. In France the first
practical application of optical signaling was used by Captain de Courrejolles of the
French marines in February 1783 on the west coast of Greece. A British squadron
under Admiral Hood had blocked French vessels. Courrejolles quickly erected an
optical signaling device on the highest accessible site on the Greek coast, from where
he watched the movements of the British and informed his commander on the nearby
leading French ship. Thanks to this information advantage, the French were able
to defeat the British squadron and reach the harbor safely. However, the French
authorities were still not convinced of the usefulness of optical signaling.
It was during the French Revolution, with the creation of a new national republi-
can state, that the merits of a permanently installed communication network were
finally recognized. At the height of the revolution, France was surrounded by the
allied forces of Britain, Holland, Prussia, Austria, and Spain. Moreover, the French
cities of Marseille and Lyon were in revolt and Toulon was held by the British fleet.
To master this dangerous situation, an optical telegraph as proposed by Claude
Chappe proved to be a very e¤ective instrument. Thus, receiving a message by means

3 In a five-volume work published in 1784 entitled Sinthematografie, Bergsträsser reviewed all known
means of communications ever devised and even gave an account of signaling using shutters or pivoted
arms set at angles and operated through bevel gears, so anticipating the telegraphs that were to be devel-
oped in the next few decades.
 EVOLUTION OF TELECOMMUNICATIONS FROM 1750 TO 1800 17

of an optical telegraph line within minutes instead of within weeks by a messenger

was at the time even more impressive than it is for us to send e-mail around the
world in seconds instead of a letter in a few days. The news of the creation of
Chappe’s optical telegraph spread widely throughout the world and encouraged
people to construct similar systems in most European countries as well as in India,
Australia, Canada, and the United States. Basically, three types of optical telegraphs
evolved:

1. Arms type: using movable arms whose positions represented coded signals for
letters, numerals, phrases, or operating commands
2. Boards type: using boards whose raising or lowering made up signals accord-
ing to the number of boards or partitions visible
3. Moved-to-fixed type: using moving elements (spheres, flags, boards, or parti-
tions) by which the signals were formed by the relative positions of the moving
elements in relation to fixed flags, boards, or panels

The optical telegraph was the first functional telecommunications device to be

used successfully until succeeded by a superior solution: the electrical telegraph. Thus
it is that the creator of the optical telegraph, Claude Chappe, deserves to be called
the ‘‘father of telecommunications.’’
3
OPTICAL TELEGRAPHY

3.1 TACHYGRAPHE OF CLAUDE CHAPPE

On July 14, 1789, the population of Paris claiming ‘‘we are the people,’’ attacked the
Bastille, liberated the prisoners, and started the French Revolution. On January 21,
1793, King Louis XVI was executed using the newly developed guillotine. The roy-
alty of surrounding countries, in a desperate e¤ort to prevent revolutionary ideas
from entering their territories, joined forces against France. On August 23, 1793, the
Convention Nationale declared the whole of France under a state of siege and decided
on a military enlistment en masse. In this dramatic situation, quick dissemination of
information and immediate reactions were essential. Fortunately for France, Abbé
Claude Chappe (1763–1805) had just started experiments with what he called a
tachygraphe (Latin for ‘‘rapid writer’’).
Born at Brûlon, Sarthe, on December 25, 1763, Chappe was the second child of
prosperous parents with five sons: Ignace Urbain Jean, Claude, Pierre-François,
René, and Abraham. Their uncle was a celebrated astronomer Abbé Jean Chappe
d’Auteroche. Claude was trained for the church but was more attracted by science
and devoted himself to scientific investigations, including a study of what we now
call telecommunications. He first attempted to use electricity for transmission of
messages. Due to the limitations of that early stage of electrical development, with
poor insulation, low mechanical strength of copper wires, and unreliable sources of
electricity, he turned to optical-acoustics and eventually to wholly optical methods.
By the age of 20, Claude had already been accepted as a member of the Société
Philomatique as an award for articles on his experiments published in the Journal de
Physique.
He first tried an optical-acoustic system using two large clocks, in 1790. The

The Worldwide History of Telecommunications, By Anton A. Huurdeman

ISBN 0-471-20505-2 Copyright 6 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

18
 TACHYGRAPHE OF CLAUDE CHAPPE 19

Figure 3.1 Tachygraphe of Claude Chappe. (Scanned with the permission of the Museum für
Kommunikation, Frankfurt, Germany, from Klaus Beyer et al., So weit das Auge reicht,
Museum für Kommunikation, Frankfurt, Germany, 1995, p. 35.)

clocks were synchronized and their dials showed agreed-upon signs. When the hand
of one dial reached the signal to be sent, two copper pans emitted a sound that could
be heard 400 m o¤. As synchronizing a long line was di‰cult, with the sound dis-
turbing people and limiting the operating distance, Claude turned to a less elaborate
optical solution, his tachygraphe. On one tachygraphe a pointer was rotated to a
coded signal; on a second tachygraphe, placed within visibility of a telescope, the
same signal, if recognized, was repeated. The tachygraphe (Figure 3.1) looked like an
upgraded guillotine, an early example of the peaceful use of arms. The first experi-
ments with the tachygraphe were made for local o‰cials over a 15-km distance
between Brûlon and Parcé on March 2, 1791. Further experiments were made in
Paris. Thanks to the influence of his brother Ignace, who was a member of the legis-
lative assembly, he was allowed to erect a tachygraphe at the Etoile barrier. On two
occasions a tachygraphe erected at the Etoile was destroyed by a furious mob which
20 OPTICAL TELEGRAPHY

suspected that Chappe was communicating with King Louis XVI, imprisoned in the
nearby Temple.

3.2 OPTICAL TELEGRAPH OF CLAUDE CHAPPE

The original tachygraphe was limited in visibility and the number of signal varia-
tions. With the assistance of Abraham-Louis Breguet (1747–1823), Chappe con-
structed a new model using moving arms, which, with minor changes, lasted for over
50 years. In 1792, he submitted details of his new machine to the Convention, suc-
cessor of the legislative assembly. The Convention referred the matter to the Com-
mittee of Public Instruction, which on April 1, 1793, reported most favorably to
the Convention and asked for an experiment. In the same month, Chappe’s friend,
Miot de Mélito (1762–1841), departmental chief in the Ministry of War, convinced
Chappe to change the name of his invention from tachygraphe to télégraphe aérien
(from the Greek tele ¼ distant and grapheus ¼ writer).1
Chappe’s telegraph (Figure 3.2) consisted of a regulator, approximately 4.5 m
long and 0.35 m wide, to which two indicators were attached, each approximately
2 m long and 0.33 m wide. The indicators were made like a window shutter, with
alternating slats and apertures, half the slats being set to the right and half to the left,
to lessen wind resistance and increase visibility. The indicators were balanced by thin
iron counterweights. Generally, the regulator and indicators were painted black, but
to improve visibility where necessary, blue triangles were painted on the white regu-
lator and indicators (blue and white being the colors of the French Revolution).
The positions of the regulator and indicators could be changed via three cranks
and wire ropes. The regulator could have four distinguishable positions (horizontal,
vertical, right inclined, and left inclined), and each indicator, seven positions (0
, 45
,
90
, 135
, 225
, 270
, and 315
). Altogether, then, 4  7  7 ¼ 196 di¤erent config-
urations were possible. Inside the station, a miniature version of the apparatus
reproduced the movements. Figure 3.3 shows the telegraph of Chappe on top of the
Louvre as well as a summary of 77 di¤erent configurations of the telegraph. Léon
Delaunay, related to the Chappes and a former French consul at Lisbon, drew up the
first vocabulary for the telegraph. This vocabulary, derived from diplomatic corre-
spondence, contained 9999 words, phrases, and expressions, each represented by a
number. It soon proved to be too slow and inconvenient, as from one to four signals
were needed to transmit a group of one to four ciphers.
To increase transmission speed, Chappe introduced a new code in 1795. The hor-
izontal and vertical positions of the regulator were reserved for ‘‘assuring’’ the sig-
nals, which were first executed with the regulator oblique, then reported and con-
firmed in the horizontal and vertical positions. The e¤ective number of ‘‘working’’
signal positions was thereby reduced to 96. Chappe then reserved 92 of the 96 signal
positions for sending information. He produced a new vocabulary with three cate-
gories each of 92 pages with 92 expressions, for a total of 3  92  92 ¼ 25;392 dif-
ferent significations. One sign was needed to show the category, another for the page,

1 The word semaphore (Greek for ‘‘bear a signal’’), created in 1801 by a Frenchman named Depillon, is
generally used for locally limited indication of a small number of signals by means of arms pivoted directly
on a mast.
 OPTICAL TELEGRAPH OF CLAUDE CHAPPE 21

Figure 3.2 Optical telegraph of Chappe. (Scanned with permission of the ITU from Anthony
R. Michaelis, From Semaphore to Satellite, International Telecommunication Union, Geneva,
1965, p. 18.)

and a third for the number of the word or expression on that page. The first category
contained 8464 words; the second category had 8464 expressions or parts of phrases,
such as degrees of urgency, incidence of fog, and destination of dispatch; and the
third category concerned names of places and phrases used in correspondence.
Once a first message had been given a specific configuration, an operator equipped
with a telescope at a second station had to recognize the configuration and bring his
telegraph into the same position. As soon as the second telegraph correctly repro-
duced the configuration of the first, the first would start sending the next signal and
an operator at a third station would bring his telegraph into the configuration of the
first signal. In this way a signal was repeated from one station to the next.
22 OPTICAL TELEGRAPHY

Figure 3.3 Paris terminal. (Courtesy of Museum für Kommunikation, Frankfurt, Germany.)

The coding of the 92 configurations was replaced in 1895 by a codebook with

92  92 ¼ 8464 words, abbreviations, and complete sentences, each allocated to a
group of two configurations. Any information then required two signals, the first
indicating the page of the codebook, the second referring to the respective line on
that page. Further sophistication eventually resulted in a total of 40,000 codes (kept
in the Post Museum in Paris). Coding and decoding were needed only at the terminal
stations and at divisional stations (every tenth to fifteenth station). At the repeater
stations the operator simply repeated the configuration without knowing the con-
tents. The operators at the intermediate stations needed to know only a few opera-
tional codes, such as ‘‘error in transmission,’’ ‘‘rain [or fog] prevents transmission,’’
and ‘‘end of transmission.’’
The decoding and coding at the divisional stations caused a delay in transmission.
However, this was of great value when bad weather interrupted the service on part of
the line. Messages thus stopped at a divisional station could be sent on by messenger
to a divisional station that did not su¤er from bad weather.
The mechanical construction of Chappe’s telegraph was made by Abraham-Louis
Breguet, the founder of the famous French–Swiss watch manufacturers and the
grandfather of Louis Breguet, the constructor of the French electrical telegraph, the
great-grandfather of Antoine Breguet, the first manufacturer of Bell telephones in
France, and the great-great-grandfather of Louis Breguet, a French aviation pioneer
and cofounder of Air France. Abraham-Louis Breguet produced a prototype of
 OPTICAL TELEGRAPH OF CLAUDE CHAPPE 23

Figure 3.4 World’s first telecommunications workshop at 39 Quai de l’Horloge, Paris.

Chappe’s telegraph in his watch workshop, which he had opened in 1774 at 51 Quai
des Morfondus, Paris, at that time a cosmopolitan location on the Ile de la Cité. For
many years, the mechanical parts of Chappe’s telegraph were manufactured in this
building, which thus can be considered to be the world’s first industrial telecommu-
nication equipment production site. The building still exists and is in the possession
of a Breguet descendant.2 In Figure 3.4 it is the four-story building at the right-hand
side with the ancient lantern on the wall.
Claude Chappe’s brother Ignace Chappe arranged for Claude to demonstrate his
improved telegraph to the Convention on March 22, 1793. Claude explained to the
Convention that with his telegraph, orders of the Convention could reach French

2 Unfortunately, the building—once called ‘‘Maison Breguet’’—does not show any signs of the Brequet
dynasty and currently accommodates the Librairie du Palais and a papeterie. Due to cadastral modifica-
tion under Napoleon, the name of the road was changed and the address is now 39 Quai de l’Horloge.
Exploring the Variety of Random
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