1 James Joyce – The Boarding House (1914)

2 T.S. Eliot – The Waste Land – the Burial of the Death (1922)
3 Virginia Woolf: Modern Fiction (1925)
4 D.H. Lawrence – The Rocking Horse Winner (1926)
5 George Orwell – Shooting an Elephant (1936)
6 W.H. Auden – Spain (1937)
7 W.H. Auden - 1st September (1939)
8 George Orwell – Looking back on the Spanish War (1943)
9 John Osborne – Look Back in the Anger (1956)
10 Samuel Beckett – Endgame (1957)
11 Harold Printer – The Birthday Party (1958)
12 Martin Esslin – The Theatre of the Absurd (1961)
13 Salman Rushdie – The Prophet´s Hair (1981)
14 Kazuo Ishiguro – A Family Supper (1983)
 JAMES JOYCE – THE BOARDING HOUSE (1914)

BASIC CHARACTERISTICS
-Type: Short story
-Genre: Modernist literature; part of the Dubliners collection by James Joyce. It depicts the
complexities of everyday life in Dublin through realistic and psychologically intricate
narratives.
-Speaker: The speaker is an omniscient third-person narrator who provides insight into
the thoughts, emotions, and motivations of multiple characters, particularly Mrs. Mooney,
Polly, and Mr. Doran.
-Tense: The story is told in the past tense, allowing for a reflective and analytical depiction
of events.
-Time: Early 20th century.
-Place: A boarding house in Dublin, Ireland. The story reflects the conservative and closely
knit nature of Dublin middle-class society at the time. The house itself becomes a world of
social norms and power struggles, especially regarding marriage and social reputation.
-Connection to Social Situation: The story reflects the moral rigidity and social scrutiny of
early 20th-century Ireland, particularly the influence of the Catholic Church on personal
decisions and the limited roles available to women.

PLOT SUMMARY
Mrs. Mooney, a determined and resourceful woman, establishes a boarding house after
separating from her abusive husband. Her daughter, Polly, begins an affair with Mr. Doran,
one of the boarders. Mrs. Mooney tactfully observes the relationship, deciding to intervene at
the right moment to ensure a socially advantageous outcome. Mrs. Mooney confronts Mr.
Doran, pressuring him to marry Polly under the guise of protecting her daughter's honor. Mr.
Doran reluctantly prepares to accept his fate, while Polly optimistically anticipates a future
with him.

THEMES
-Manipulation: with Mrs. Mooney orchestrating Polly’s affair to force Mr. Doran into
marriage. She waits for the right moment, using societal norms to control the situation.
-Social class plays a significant role, as Mr. Doran fears public scandal and the potential
damage to his middle-class respectability. (conflict of marrying Polly – lower status)
-Personal responsibility weighs heavily on Mr. Doran. Though he knows he is partially
responsible for the affair, his anxiety prevents him from taking decisive action, showing a
reluctance to fully accept the consequences.
-Spiritual paralysis is reflected in Mr. Doran’s Catholic guilt after confessing his sin. He
feels morally obligated to marry Polly but struggles with a desire for freedom. Even when
characters attempt to work within the system or make their lives better, they are paralyzed at
both ends between social restrictions and human nature.
-Inability to act dominates the story. Mr. Doran, paralyzed by fear and societal pressure, is
unable to make a decision on his own, while Polly passively waits for her future to be decided
for her, reinforcing Joyce’s broader theme of paralysis.
CHARACTERS:
-Mrs. Mooney - The dominant character, a "determined woman" who orchestrates events for
her own ends. She is the architect of her daughter’s future, using her experience and societal
pressures to manipulate Mr. Doran into marriage. Her sharp, calculating nature reflects a
predatory aspect, where she waits for the right moment to strike, much like a butcher,
aligning with her background as a butcher’s daughter.
-Polly Mooney - Mrs. Mooney's daughter, portrayed as naive but complicit. Polly flirts with
the boarding house’s residents under her mother's passive supervision.
-Mr. Doran - A man caught in a moral and social dilemma. He is depicted as anxious and
trapped, both by his sin (the affair with Polly) and by the pressure of social and religious
expectations. His inner conflict reveals a man torn between his instinct for freedom and his
sense of duty or "reparation."
-Jack Mooney - Polly’s brother, a minor but significant figure, represents a threatening,
hyper-masculine force that indirectly pressures Mr. Doran.

LITERARY DEVICES
-Symbolism:
-Bread-pudding crumbs: Mrs. Mooney’s frugality and practical nature.
-Curtains and windows: Confinement and the illusion of openness.
-Cleaver: a large knife butchers use to cut bone—symbolizes the forceful and
decisive power of social oppression. Here, the cleaver symbolizes the ways in which Dublin’s
patriarchal society oppressed and even terrorized women in early 20th-century Dublin.
-Alliteration: Alliteration, while more commonly used in poetry, can serve useful in prose as
a means of introducing rhythmic or repetitive elements. In the following passage, Joyce aptly
utilizes alliteration to achieve this effect, repeating "white" three times.
-Irony:
-Mrs. Mooney’s manipulation contrasts with her role as an “outraged mother.”
-Mr. Doran’s realization that he is trapped mirrors Polly’s initial vulnerability.
-Imagery: Vivid descriptions (e.g., Polly’s appearance, the cluttered breakfast table)
emphasize the physical and social setting.
-Stream of Consciousness: Insight into Mr. Doran’s internal conflict adds psychological
depth.
-Foreshadowing: Early references to Polly’s interactions with boarders hint at her eventual
affair.
-Dialogue: The conversations reveal character motivations and the underlying tensions.
-Epiphany: Both Polly and Mr. Doran experience epiphanies. Mr. Doran realizes he is
trapped by societal expectations and has no choice but to marry Polly, a realization that fills
him with dread. Polly, on the other hand, transitions from despair to calm acceptance, as if
understanding that this marriage will secure her future, though it may not be based on love.
 T.S. ELIOT – THE WASTE LAND – THE BURIAL OF THE DEATH (1922)

BASIC CHARACTERISTICS
-Type: poem
-Genre: epic poem
-Speaker: shifts between anonymous observer/ historical figures/ mythological personas
-Tense: primary present tense
-Time: between the immediate aftermath of World War I. (1910-1920s) and timeless
mythological or literary landscapes
-Place: both real and symbolic locations such as London, the Steinberger’s and mythological
settings
-Connection to Social Situation: mirrors the cultural and psychological aftermath of World
War I. (Europe is spiritually desolated)

PLOT SUMMARY
The poem is divided into five sections, each exploring themes of despair, fragmentation, and
spiritual desolation in a world recovering from war.
1. The Burial of the Dead: Introduces the themes of death and rebirth and highlights
the barrenness of the post-war world. The speaker reflects on memory, seasonal
cycles, and spiritual emptiness.
2. A Game of Chess: Juxtaposes opulence with emotional sterility. It portrays strained
relationships and disjointed communication.
3. The Fire Sermon: Highlights sexual degradation and the loss of spiritual connection,
drawing on Buddhist and Christian imagery.
4. Death by Water: Briefly contemplates mortality and the inevitability of death.
5. What the Thunder Said: Ends with fragmented hope for renewal and spiritual
salvation through the invocation of Eastern philosophy and the Upanishads.

THEMES
-Spiritual and Cultural fragmentation of Post-World War I Europe, depicted as a barren
“waste land”
-Disillusionment and Despair: A reflection on the futility of modern existence.
-Death and Rebirth: Cycles of decay and regeneration are explored through mythological
and religious symbols.
-Isolation and Alienation: The disconnection between individuals in the modern world.
-Search for Meaning: A yearning for spiritual redemption amidst chaos.

CHARACTERS
-Marie: A woman reminiscing about her childhood, symbolizing a yearning for lost innocence.
-Madame Sosostris: A clairvoyant who delivers cryptic prophecies, representing modern
anxiety and uncertainty.
-Stetson: A figure connected to war and mortality, evoking questions of cyclical violence and
death.
-Unnamed Figures: Lovers, urban crowds, and fragmented personas reflecting the
disjointed modern world.
LITERARY DEVICES
-Allusion: References to Dante, Shakespeare, the Bible, the Upanishads, and more enrich
the text and create a multi-layered narrative.
-Imagery: Vivid descriptions of barrenness, decay, and opulence underscore the poem's
themes.
-Fragmentation: The disjointed structure mirrors the chaos of the modern world.
-Symbolism: Water (death and rebirth), the tarot cards (fate), and the seasons (cycles of
life).
-Intertextuality: The poem draws heavily on literary, religious, and mythological sources to
comment on the human condition.

Otázky za textom:

1. Discuss the title of the poem and the context of WW I.

- TITLE = desolate landscape, spiritual and cultural decay in the post-World War I
Europe
- ruined economy, society, loss, and meaningless
- WWI shattered pre-war optimism, progress and traditional values
- collapse in faith, religion, and human nature

2. Try to identify connections between the imagery presented in the poem, and the context of
the post-war Europe.

- dry landscapes = the devastated state of post-war Europe

- ruins of many “Unreal“ cities = collapse of European civilization
- isolated and damaged relationships, emotional isolation
- spiritual emptiness

3. Discuss the allusions to other literary works, people, places, etc.

- mythology – Tereus and Philomela

- religion – crucifixion, baptism, the voice of God...
- Shakespeare
- Dante
- Budha...

4. What are typical features of literary Modernism that can be observed in the poem?

- non-linear way of narration

- shifts in voice, perspective, time
- integration of myths, religious texts, historical references
- break from traditional values
- stream-of-consciousness
 VIRGINIA WOOLF: MODERN FICTION (1925)
BASIC CHARACTERISTICS
-Type: essay
-Genre: literary criticism
-Speaker: Author is the speaker
-Tense: predominantly in the present tense, but there are some shifts to past and future
tenses when referencing the works of past authors and speculating about the direction of
fiction.
Time and Place: The essay was written in 1925, post World-War I. England, period of great
literary innovations (compares with earlier periods + context of Russian writers)
Connection to Social Situation: Cultural and Social shifts after World-War I. – the
breakdown of traditional values, the growth of psychoanalysis and questioning of established
norms

PLOT SUMMARY (not traditional plot)

Woolf starts by critiquing the perception that modern fiction is an improvement on past
literature. She examines the works of authors like H.G. Wells, Arnold Bennett, and John
Galsworthy, calling them materialists and accusing them of focusing too much on external,
trivial matters instead of capturing the true essence of life. Woolf contrasts their works with
those of Thomas Hardy and Joseph Conrad, whom she admires for delving deeper into the
human experience. The essay shifts to an exploration of how modern writers like James
Joyce, influenced by Russian literature, focus more on spiritual and psychological aspects of
life rather than external material concerns. Woolf calls for a more direct representation of life
in its complexity and imperfection, where the focus is on inner consciousness rather than on
plot and structure.

THEMES
-Criticism of materialism in contemporary fiction and the call for a deeper, more
authentic portrayal of life: modern fiction should be focused on the internal and spiritual life
of characters (importance of psychological depth)
-The Evolution of Fiction: the modern fiction is different – influenced by new literary
techniques (does not have to bring progress!)
-The Nature of Reality in Fiction: incoherent nature of real everyday life should be shown
and not rigid structures and conventions
-Materialism vs. Spirituality: Through her critique of authors like Wells, Bennett, and
Galsworthy, Woolf critiques materialism in literature, where the focus is on the physical and
external aspects of life. In contrast, she elevates the works of Hardy, Conrad, and Joyce,
which engage more deeply with the psychological and spiritual dimensions of life.
-The Role of the Writer: writers should be able to express their personal vision and interest
without external pressure or conventional expectations
-The Influence of Russian Literature: she praises depth of understanding pf the human
condition of Dostoevsky and Tchekov

CHARACTERS
=There are no conventional characters in the essay, as it is a critical reflection on other
authors and their works.
LITERARY DEVICES
-Metaphor: Woolf uses metaphors like "the writer is a free man and not a slave" and "life is a
luminous halo" to emphasize the fluidity and complexity of human experience, as opposed to
the rigid conventions of traditional fiction.
-Contrast: Woolf contrasts "materialist" authors like Wells and Bennett with "spiritual" writers
like Hardy, Conrad, and Joyce. This is a central device that underpins much of her critique,
as she advocates for a more introspective and less conventional approach to fiction.
-Imagery: Woolf uses vivid imagery to describe life, for example, the comparison of the
human mind to "a luminous halo, a semi-transparent envelope," which conveys the ethereal
and ever-changing nature of consciousness.
-Allusion: The essay makes several allusions to well-known literary works, such as Ulysses
by James Joyce, as well as the works of Thomas Hardy, H.G. Wells, and others, to support
Woolf’s arguments.
-Philosophical Tone: The essay adopts a contemplative and philosophical tone as Woolf
ponders the nature of fiction, reality, and the writer’s role in capturing life. The tone allows
Woolf to engage with complex ideas about art and literature.
 D.H. LAWRENCE – THE ROCKING HORSE WINNER (1926)
BASIC CHARACTERISTICS
-Type: modernist short story
-Genre: fantasy / psychological fiction
-Speaker: third-person omniscient narrator (allows the reader to gain into the thoughts and
feelings of various characters)
-Tense: immediate past tense
-Time: story is set in early 20th-century England, during a time of social change and
industrialization. This period reflects a growing emphasis on consumerism and the middle
class’s aspirations for wealth and status. The suburban setting contrasts the internal
emotional turmoil of the characters, emphasizing the disconnection between their material
circumstances and emotional realities.
-Place:
-Connection to Social Situation: Lawrence critiques the societal values of his time,
particularly the obsession with wealth and status that permeates the middle class. The
pressure to conform to societal expectations of success leads to emotional alienation within
families. Hester’s insatiable desire for money and status reflects the broader societal belief
that happiness is tied to financial security, which ultimately proves to be a hollow pursuit.

PLOT SUMMARY
In "The Rocking-Horse Winner," young Paul seeks to win his mother's love by acquiring
wealth, believing that luck will solve their family's financial troubles. He discovers he can
predict horse race winners while riding his rocking horse, which he associates with luck. As
he wins money through gambling, he becomes increasingly consumed by the need to prove
himself to his mother. Despite his success, Paul's efforts only intensify his mother's insatiable
desire for more money. Ultimately, the story concludes tragically, highlighting the destructive
nature of materialism and the pressures of familial expectations.

THEMES
-Greed and Materialism = the story critiques society´s obsession with wealth and the notion
that money can bring happiness, as seen in the mother´s relentless desire for more
-Familiar Relationships/ Family and intimacy = examines the impact of parental
expectations on children, particularly how Paul's desire for his mother's approval drives him
to extreme measures
-Luck and Fate/ Luck and Hard work = The narrative raises questions about the nature of
luck and whether it can be controlled or predicted, as Paul tries to harness luck to change his
family's fortunes
-Isolation and Alienation = Paul's emotional distance from his family reflects a deeper
sense of isolation, despite his attempts to connect through his winnings
-Psychological pressure/ Anxiety = story delves into the psychological toll of societal and
familial pressures, highlighting how the pursuit of wealth can lead to destructive behaviors
and tragic outcomes
CHARACTERS
Paul = A young boy who longs for his mother's love and approval. He believes that winning
money through gambling will make his family happy and alleviate their financial struggles.
His obsession with luck leads him to develop a unique ability to predict horse race winners
while riding his rocking horse.
Hester (mother) = Paul's materialistic and emotionally distant mother. She is dissatisfied
with her life and constantly feels the need for more money, which she believes equates to
happiness. Her lack of affection for Paul drives him to seek validation through wealth
Father = Paul's father is largely absent from the story, representing the family's financial
instability. He is portrayed as ineffectual and somewhat indifferent to the family's struggles,
contributing to Hester's dissatisfaction.
Uncle Oscar = Paul's uncle, who is somewhat supportive but also a figure of the adult world
that Paul is trying to navigate. He represents a contrast to Paul’s innocence and serves as a
confidant in some of Paul's gambling ventures
Gardener Bassett = The family gardener who becomes an ally to Paul in his quest for luck.
He encourages Paul's betting activities and helps him place bets on horse races, symbolizing
the adult world's complicity in Paul's obsession
Sister Joan = Paul's sister, who has a minor role in the story. She reflects the normalcy of
childhood but is largely overshadowed by Paul's intense desire to please their mother and
the ensuing chaos of his actions

LITERARY DEVICES
-Symbolism:
-The rocking horse = symbolizes both Paul's childhood innocence and his futile
quest for approval. It represents the tension between play and the harsh realities of adult
expectations.
-Eyes = reflect the emotional states of characters (mostly Paul)
-Irony: despite Paul’s success in betting and accumulating wealth, he ultimately fails to gain
his mother's love and dies, highlighting the emptiness of material success.
-Foreshadowing: Early hints about the family's financial struggles and Paul's growing
obsession foreshadow the tragic ending, creating a sense of inevitability.
- "the house was haunted by the whispering of the need for money." = This
foreshadows the ultimate consequences of the family's obsession with wealth
“I think you care too much about these races, It´s a bad sign.” – said by Pauls
mother when she saw that something was going on with him – he dies at the end
-Imagery: Lawrence uses vivid imagery to contrast the warmth of childhood with the
coldness of adult aspirations, emphasizing the emotional distance between Paul and Hester.
-Personification= The house is described as whispering about the need for money: "There
was no money in the house." This personification adds a haunting quality, suggesting that
the house itself is aware of the family's desperation and desire for wealth.
-the house was whispering : “There must be more money!!”
-Allegory = The story serves as an allegory for the dangers of materialism. Paul's tragic fate
illustrates how the relentless pursuit of money can lead to emotional and psychological
destruction, particularly in familial relationships.
 GEORGE ORWELL – SHOOTING AN ELEPHANT (1936)

BASIC CHARACTERISTICS
-Type: Non-fiction, essay
-Genre: Autobiographical essay, reflective essay
-Speaker: 1st person perspective - author himself as colonial police officer in Burma
-Tense: past tense (reflecting what author experienced while serving as police officer)
-Time: 20th century (1920s/1930s) – during the period of British colonial rule
-Place: Moulmein, Lower Burma
-Connection to Social Situation: This essay discusses the complex relationship between
the British Empire and its colonies. While Orwell dislikes imperialism, his lore as a colonial
officer force him to uphold it. In colonial Burma, Orwell feels torn between empathizing with
the oppressed Burmese people and maintaining his authority as required by his job.

PLOT SUMMARY
The essay recounts an event in which George Orwell, as a British colonial police officer in
Burma, is summoned to deal with a rogue elephant that has been causing destruction in a
local bazaar. While initially unsure of what action to take, Orwell feels pressured by the
expectations of the local Burmese crowd, who anticipate him shooting the elephant. Despite
his personal reluctance, Orwell feels compelled to kill the elephant in order to maintain his
authority and avoid ridicule. The act becomes a symbol of the oppressive nature of
colonialism, as Orwell realizes that the act of shooting the elephant is not one of personal
choice but a forced action dictated by the expectations of those around him.

THEMES
-Imperialism and its Psychological Effects: The main theme of the story revolves around
the dehumanizing effects of imperialism on both the colonizers and the colonized. Orwell
grapples with his role as a colonial officer and the inherent contradictions of his position. His
decision to shoot the elephant is not driven by necessity but by the desire to maintain his
power and prevent himself from appearing weak. The story illustrates how the structures of
imperialism strip both the colonizer and the colonized of agency.
-Power and Authority: Orwell reflects on the power dynamics between the British colonizers
and the Burmese people. Though he holds a position of authority, he realizes that he is, in
fact, controlled by the expectations of the crowd. His role as a colonial officer forces him to
act in ways that contradict his own beliefs and desires.
-Guilt and Morality: Orwell struggles with the moral implications of his actions. The act of
shooting the elephant, a peaceful animal, becomes an uncomfortable symbol of the guilt and
moral compromise inherent in the colonial system.
-Conformity and the Fear of Loss of Reputation: Orwell’s decision to shoot the elephant is
motivated by his fear of being mocked and losing face in front of the Burmese crowd. This
highlights the theme of how the desire for social approval and the fear of ridicule can shape
actions, even when they conflict with personal morals.
CHARACTERS
-George Orwell: The main character, a British colonial police officer in Burma, who is caught
between his personal beliefs and the demands of his role. He represents the complexity of
colonial authority and the psychological burden of serving an oppressive empire.
-The Elephant: Though not a human character, the elephant serves as a powerful symbol of
imperialism. The animal’s senseless death represents the destruction caused by the British
Empire, and its suffering mirrors Orwell’s internal struggle.
-The Burmese Crowd: They play a crucial role in shaping Orwell’s decision. Their
expectation that Orwell will shoot the elephant, and their excitement when it happens,
highlight the way in which colonial power dynamics shape both the colonizers’ and the
colonized people's actions and attitudes.
-The Elephant’s Mahout: The mahout, the elephant’s owner, is absent during the incident,
but his absence underscores the idea that the elephant, a source of labor and wealth, is
treated like a tool within the colonial system.

LITERARY DEVICES
-Symbolism: The elephant symbolizes the destructive nature of colonialism. Its death
becomes a metaphor for the moral decay and destruction of life (both human and animal)
under imperial rule.
-Irony: There is a deep irony in the story. Orwell, who is critical of imperialism, is compelled
to perpetuate the system by shooting the elephant, something he does not want to do. His
action reveals the hollowness of his power in the colonial context—he is forced to perform
actions that go against his beliefs to maintain his authority.
-Foreshadowing: Orwell’s initial reluctance to shoot the elephant and his thoughts on the
absurdity of his position foreshadow the moral struggle he faces later in the story.
-Metaphor: The death of the elephant is a metaphor for the death of freedom and moral
agency within the colonial system. Orwell’s realization that he must shoot the elephant
because of external pressures reflects the constraints that imperialism places on the
colonizer as well as the colonized.
-Imagery: Orwell uses vivid imagery to describe the elephant’s suffering, making the reader
feel the slow, painful death of the animal. The detailed description of the elephant’s body, the
mud, and the sounds of its dying breaths intensify the emotional weight of the story.
 W.H. AUDEN – SPAIN (1937)
BASIC CHARACTERISTICS
-Type: Poem
-Genre: Modernist and Political Lyric
-Speaker: Omniscient, reflective voice
-Tense: -past: Evocations of historical achievements and human progress
-present: focus on the immediate crisis of the Spanish Civil War
-future: aspirations and hopes for progress and renewal
-Time: focuses sharply on the 1930s, particularly the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939).
-Place: References range from ancient and global settings to the contemporary
battlegrounds of Spain, described as a crossroads of Europe and Africa.
-Connection to Social situation: Deeply rooted in the Spanish Civil War, reflects the
ideological clash between fascism and anti-fascism, capturing the urgency intellectuals and
artists felt to take sides. It monitors the anxiety of a word on the brink of widespread conflict.

PLOT SUMMARY
The poem chronicles humanity's achievements and challenges through history, culminating
in the present, where the struggle in Spain epitomizes the confrontation between progress
and destruction.

THEMES
-The moral imperative of action in times of political and social crisis: need to commit to
the present struggle, despite its ambiguities and morel compromises
-The Legacy of History: weight of historical achievements on the present development
-The Conflict between Idealism and Reality: The tension between utopian visions and the
harsh demands of political struggle.
-Human Responsibility: The individual's duty to engage in collective action
-Mortality and Sacrifice: Recognizing the human cost of political and military engagements

CHARACTERS
-The Speaker: Represents a collective consciousness, encompassing poets, workers, and
ordinary citizens grappling with history and their role in change.
-Personified Concepts: Life, history, and Spain are depicted as characters shaping human
destiny.
-Abstract Forces: The poem alludes to scientists, explorers, and soldiers as representatives
of humanity's striving and struggles.

LITERARY DEVICES
-Anaphora: Repetition of "Yesterday," "To-day," and "To-morrow" structures the poem,
reinforcing its temporal shifts.
-Imagery: Rich visual descriptions evoke historical epochs, war scenes, and future visions.
-Personification: "Life" and "History" are given human traits, making them active agents
-Juxtaposition: Contrasts between the grandeur of history and the grim reality of the
present highlight the urgency of action.
-Irony: critique passive intellectualism and romanticism in the face of political crises
-Symbolism: "Spain" symbolizes a battleground for humanity’s moral and political conflicts
-Tone: Shifts between contemplative, urgent, and mournful - reflecting the complexity
 W.H. AUDEN – 1ST SEPTEMBER, 1939 (1939)
BASIC CHARACTERISTICS
-Type: Poem
-Genre: Political and Reflective lyric
-Speaker: reflective, observant persona
-Tense: primary present with reflection on paste events
-Time: The poem is set on September 1, 1939, the day World War II began.
-Place: The speaker is in a bar on Fifty-second Street in New York City
-Connection to social situation: The outbreak of World War II and the failures of
the 1930s, characterized as a "low dishonest decade."

PLOT SUMMARY
The speaker, seated in a bar on September 1, 1939, the day Germany invaded
Poland, reflects on the failures of the preceding decade and humanity’s broader
moral and political shortcomings.

THEMES
-The moral imperative of love and justice in a fractured, violent world
-Cultural and Historical Failure: critiques the failings of Western culture, from the
Reformation to contemporary imperialism.
-Human Frailty: human flaws like selfishness, denial, and the craving for exclusive love
-Moral Responsibility: individuals must fight the lies
-Isolation and Connection: individual loneliness versus the necessity of communal bonds.
-The Cycle of Violence: acts of violence perpetuate further violence through history.

CHARACTERS
-The Speaker: A contemplative and morally concerned individual, likely representing Auden
himself.
-Humanity (Collective Characters):
-Ordinary people (“Faces along the bar”) lost in denial and distraction.
-Leaders and governments embodying mismanagement and ethical failure.
-Historical Figures and Concepts: References to Thucydides (historian of democracy and
war), Nijinsky and historical events like the Reformation and Nazi rise to power….

LITERARY DEVICES
-Imagery: Vivid depictions of urban life, global despair, and moral crisis (“blind skyscrapers,”
“ironic points of light”)
-Allusion: References to history, art, and mythology (e.g., Luther, Linz, Thucydides,…)
-Symbolism:
-"Imperialism’s face": Represents global greed and exploitation.
-"Ironic points of light": Moments of justice and hope amid despair.
-"Affirming flame": Symbolizes resilience and moral courage.
-Personification: Authority and imperialism are given human traits
-Anaphora: Repeated phrases like “All I have” emphasize key ideas
-Juxtaposition: Contrasts personal introspection with global events, hope with despair.
-Tone: Shifts from somber and reflective to resolute and hopeful
-Rhetorical Questions: Pose challenges like human limitations and ethical dilemmas
 GEORGE ORWELL – LOOKING BACK ON THE SPANISH WAR (1943)

BASIC CHARACTERISTICS
-Type: essay
-Genre: reflective and political non-fiction
-Speaker: 1st person – Orwell himself (his experiences in Spanish War)
-Tense: past tense (reflection on past events)
-Time: Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)
-Place: Spain – War (conflict between Republicans and Nationalists)
-Connection to Social Situation: deeply connected to the ideological and political climate of
the late 1930s and early 1940s, highlighting Orwell´s experience with internal divisions
among anti-fascist forces and his broader critique of totalitarianism

PLOT SUMMARY
Reflects on his participation in the Spanish Civil War, critically examining the conflict and his
role in it. He recalls his time on the frontlines, his initial idealism, and his growing
disillusionment with the factions involved, particularly the infighting among communist and
anarchist groups within the anti-fascist forces. Orwell discusses the betrayal and division
within the left-wing groups, which undermined the efforts to defeat Franco's fascist forces. He
critiques the Soviet Union's role in supporting the Spanish Republicans, highlighting how
Stalinist interference damaged the war effort. The essay concludes with Orwell’s reflections
on the war’s long-term implications and his disillusionment with the political ideologies he
once supported, emphasizing the moral and political lessons he learned.

THEMES
-Disillusionment with Ideology: Orwell´s idealistic views were shattered by internal
conflicts and betrayals within the anti-fascist forces (his real-life experiences)
-The Dangers of Totalitarianism: Orwell critiques totalitarian tendencies within both fascist
and communist ideologies, highlighting how the quest for power can corrupt their ideals
-The Reality of War: contrast of the brutal reality of war with idealized notions, highlighting
soldier´s suffering and war´s futility
-Class and Politics: Class tension within left-wing factions influenced the war and led to its
failure
-Moral Ambiguity: Political conflicts often distort noble causes, leading to moral
compromises

CHARACTERS
-George Orwell (the Speaker): Reflects on his experiences in the Spanish Civil War,
providing a critique of the conflict and political dynamics
-The Spanish Republican Fighters: Idealistic soldiers driven by justice but hindered by lack
of organization and infighting (ultimate failure)
-Stalinists and Communists: Orwell criticizes the Soviet-backed factions within the anti-
fascist coalition, highlighting the divisive influence of Stalinist politics and their efforts to
suppress rival leftist factions, particularly anarchists and Trotskyists.
-Franco’s Nationalist Forces: Fascist forces led by Franco, known for their brutal tactics in
suppressing opposition
LITERARY DEVICES
-Imagery: Orwell uses vivid imagery to describe the harsh conditions of the war, particularly
the physical suffering of soldiers and the destruction caused by the conflict. His descriptions
often focus on the futility and brutality of war, emphasizing its devastating impact on
individuals and society.
-Irony: Orwell’s use of irony is evident in his reflections on the contradictions within the anti-
fascist forces. He points out the paradox that those fighting against fascism were themselves
guilty of engaging in factionalism and political repression, undermining their own cause.
-Political and Social Critique: Orwell uses the essay as a platform to criticize both the
fascist and communist ideologies, exposing the moral and practical failures of each. His
critique of the Soviet Union’s role in the Spanish Civil War would later be expanded upon in
his novel Animal Farm.
-Tone and Diction: The tone of the essay is often bitter and disillusioned, reflecting Orwell’s
deep disappointment with the war’s outcome and his evolving views on politics. His diction is
straightforward, unembellished, and often blunt, as he seeks to convey the harsh realities of
the situation without idealization or pretense.
 JOHN OSBORNE – LOOK BACK IN THE ANGER (1956)

BASIC CHARACTERISTICS
-Type of Work: play
-Genre: Kitchen sink realism (a form of drama)
-Speaker: dialogues between characters
-Tense: present tense (it emphasizes the urgency and rawness of emotions and conflict)
-Time and Place: The play is set in the mid-1950s in England (post-war Britain), specifically
in a small, modest flat in a northern industrial city – a reflection of this changing time
-Connection to Social Situation: reflects post-war Britain´s societal issues – frustration of
the working class (criticize middle and upper class). It also addresses the disillusionment felt
by many young people who saw little meaningful change after the war (generational
dissatisfaction)

PLOT SUMMARY
In Act 1, the play is set in the flat of Jimmy and Allison Porter. The act opens with a tense
domestic atmosphere, where Jimmy is engaging in a fierce argument with his wife, Allison.
Jimmy’s anger seems to be directed at everything around him—his wife, his life, society, and
his lack of progress. Allison, emotionally exhausted, tries to calm him down, but is clearly
worn out by his emotional outbursts. Cliff, who is staying with them, attempts to mediate but
remains largely passive. The arrival of Helena, Allison’s friend, adds to the tension. Jimmy's
hostility toward her is palpable, and the interactions between the characters are charged with
unresolved conflict. The act ends with Jimmy’s emotional outbursts and the evident
dysfunction within their relationships. The entire act sets up a claustrophobic and volatile
domestic situation that seems impossible to escape.

THEMES
-Anger and its destructive power in human relationships. Jimmy Porter, the central
character, embodies this theme with his unrelenting bitterness, resentment, and frustration.
His anger is rooted in his disillusionment with life, society, and personal failures, and he
directs it outward, especially at those closest to him—his wife, Allison, and his friends.
-Class Conflict and Social Change: Jimmy’s anger is partly directed at the British class
system, which he perceives as stagnant and unjust. His frustration is not just personal but
social, reflecting the broader dissatisfaction of the working class with the establishment in
post-war Britain.
-Alienation and Isolation: The play explores feelings of alienation, particularly through
Jimmy’s character. He feels disconnected from society, from his wife, and even from his own
identity. His harsh outbursts and cynicism only deepen this isolation.
-Love and Resentment: The complicated dynamics of love and resentment in Jimmy and
Allison’s marriage are at the forefront. While they clearly have moments of affection, their
relationship is strained by Jimmy's constant anger, Allison’s emotional fragility, and the
pressure from external sources like social expectations and class struggles.
-Identity and Generational Conflict: Jimmy embodies the frustration of a young generation
that feels betrayed by the older generation, particularly in the aftermath of World War II. His
disillusionment with his social position and his personal failures points to a deeper existential
crisis about who he is and where he fits in society.
CHARACTERS
-Jimmy Porter: A 25-year-old working-class man, who is intelligent but deeply embittered
and angry. He is highly critical of those around him and feels trapped in a society that does
not meet his expectations. His anger is his most defining feature, and he directs it at
everyone—his wife, his friends, and society at large. He is deeply dissatisfied with his life and
relationships.
-Allison Porter: Jimmy’s wife, who is emotionally fragile and patient, yet increasingly weary
of her volatile relationship with Jimmy. She seems to be constantly trying to appease him but
also suffers in silence, reflecting the limited agency women had in the 1950s.
-Cliff Lewis: A lodger and friend of Jimmy’s, who acts as a buffer between Jimmy and
Allison. Cliff is non-confrontational and tries to ease the tension, though he is also
disillusioned and somewhat passive in the face of Jimmy's aggression.
-Helena Charles: Allison’s friend, who arrives at the Porter household in Act 1. She is more
self-assured than Allison and quickly becomes an emotional catalyst for Jimmy's anger. Her
presence in the household adds to the friction and further complicates the relationships
between the characters.

LITERARY DEVICES
-Realism: Osborne employs realism to portray the gritty, often uncomfortable realities of
working-class life. The dialogue is naturalistic, filled with the contradictions, frustrations, and
tension of everyday interactions.
-Symbolism: The domestic space in the play acts as a symbol of the emotional turmoil the
characters are experiencing. The flat, with its mundane and constrained environment,
represents their trapped, unfulfilling lives.
-Conflict: The play’s primary literary device is the conflict, particularly the verbal and
emotional battles between Jimmy and Allison. Jimmy’s internal conflict, expressed through
his anger, is mirrored in the external conflicts between the characters.
-Irony: There is a strong sense of irony in the play, particularly in the way Jimmy’s anger,
which he directs at others, is also a self-destructive force. His bitter criticisms of others,
especially Allison, seem to reflect his inability to confront his own emotional inadequacies.
 SAMUEL BECKETT – ENDGAME (1957)

BASIC CHARACTERISTIC
-Type of work: play
-Genre: Absurdism
-Speaker: dialogue between characters
-Tense: primary in the present tense - with little sense of past or future
-Time and Place: set in an undefined, post-apocalyptic world. No specific time. They are
trapped in a small, enclosed space - symbolizing the limitations of human existence.
-Connection to Social Situation: A reflection of post-World War II Europe, where existential
crises were prevalent, and people grappled with the meaning of life, collapse of traditional
values in a world that had experienced unprecedented destruction.

PLOT SUMMARY
Hamm, an old, blind, and paralyzed man, is being tended to by his servant Clov, who is able-
bodied but disillusioned. The play shows the two of them engaged in a ritualistic, almost
absurd set of interactions. They have a strained, dependent relationship marked by constant
bickering. Nagg and Nell, Hamm's elderly parents, are in trash cans, making occasional
comments. The characters are all caught in a state of stasis, unable to escape their
circumstances. The plot has no traditional "beginning, middle, and end" structure; instead, it
emphasizes the repetition of meaningless actions and conversations. In the end, Clov
appears to be on the verge of leaving, but it is unclear whether he actually does.

THEMES
-The absurdity of human existence and the inevitability of death. The play highlights the
idea of life being reduced to repetitive, senseless routines, suffering and helplessness
-Isolation and Loneliness: The characters in Endgame are deeply isolated, both physically
and emotionally
-Death and Decay: the stages of decaying physical and emotional states of the characters
-Power and Servitude: The relationship between Hamm and Clov highlights themes of
power dynamics and dependency. Clov is the servant, but Hamm, though physically
disabled, maintains a psychological power over Clov.
-Absurdity and Futility: dialogue is full of repetition, contradictions, and meaningless
gestures, all reflecting the absurdist philosophy that human life lacks inherent meaning.

CHARACTERS
-Hamm: The central character, Hamm is a blind and paralyzed man who sits in a chair and
gives orders to Clov. He represents the absurdity of existence, using his wit and bitterness to
engage in meaningless banter. Hamm is a tyrant in his small, isolated world, exerting control
over Clov despite his physical impotence.
-Clov: Clov is Hamm's servant, who is physically able but emotionally drained. He is on the
edge of despair and often contemplates leaving, but is unable to break free from his
servitude to Hamm.
-Nagg: Hamm’s father, who is frail and confined to a trash can. His condition mirrors that of
the other characters, representing the theme of decay and the inevitable approach of death.
-Nell: Hamm’s mother, similarly frail and trapped in a trash can. Like Nagg, she speaks
rarely and serves as another symbol of aging, degeneration, and the futility of life.
LITERARY DEVICES
-Repetition: repetition is used to reflect the monotony and meaninglessness of the
characters' lives. There are loops in dialogues emphasizing a lack of progress
-Minimalism: The sparse set and minimal props—Hamm’s chair, Clov’s ladder, Nagg and
Nell’s trash cans—create a sense of emptiness and isolation, underscoring the bleakness of
the world.
-Irony: Beckett uses irony to highlight the disparity between the characters' attempts at
meaning and the absurdity of their situation. Hamm's attempts to assert power, for instance,
are made laughable by his helplessness.
-Dark Humor: Much of the play’s dialogue is filled with dark humor, which serves to
underline the absurdity of human suffering. The characters often make sarcastic or bitter
remarks that highlight the absurdity of their situations.
-Symbolism: The trash cans that house Nagg and Nell symbolize degradation and the
irrelevance of the older generation in this decaying world. The ladder that Clov uses
represents the futility of trying to escape the trap of his existence.
-Non-linear Structure: The play avoids traditional narrative structure, offering fragmented
dialogue and seemingly random moments of action. This enhances the feeling of a world in
stasis, with no clear progression or resolution.
 HAROLD PRINTER – THE BIRTHDAY PARTY (1958)

BASIC CHARACTERISTICS:
-Type: play
-Genre: Theatre of Absurd (dark humor, mystery, existential themes)
-Speaker: dialogues between characters
-Tense: present tense, unfolding in real time for the audience.
-Time and Place: The play is set in the living room of a dilapidated boarding house in an
unnamed seaside town. Reflects post-World War II England, likely in the 1950s.
-Connection to Social Situation: reflects the anxieties of mid-20th-century society,
particularly concerns about authoritarianism, identity, and the fragility of individuality in the
face of societal pressures; Cold War paranoia – fear of being controlled all the time

PLOT SUMMARY
The play revolves around Stanley Webber, a disgruntled and reclusive man staying at a
boarding house run by Meg and Petey Boles in a seaside town. Their mundane routine is
disrupted when two mysterious strangers, Goldberg and McCann, arrive, purportedly for a
“birthday party” for Stanley. The party descends into chaos, culminating in psychological
torment for Stanley. The next day, Goldberg and McCann take Stanley away, leaving the
reasons for their visit and Stanley’s fate ambiguous.

THEMES:
-Power and Control: how individuals and institutions assert dominance over others.
Goldberg and McCann exert psychological and physical control over Stanley, representing
unseen forces of authority and conformity
-Alienation and Isolation: Stanley’s detachment from society and his dysfunctional
relationship with the boarding house owners highlight his existential loneliness
-Reality vs. Illusion: Characters frequently distort or question reality, blurring the line
between truth and deception
-Conformity and Resistance: Stanley’s resistance to societal norms contrasts with
Goldberg and McCann’s enforcement of them
-The Absurdity of Existence: The dialogue often lacks logical coherence, emphasizing the
unpredictability and irrationality of life

CHARACTERS:
-Stanley Webber: A pianist turned recluse, paranoid and possibly hiding from something or
someone. His psychological unraveling drives much of the play’s tension.
-Meg Boles: The boarding house owner, naive, maternal, and flirtatious, whose relationship
with Stanley is both nurturing and unsettling.
-Petey Boles: Meg’s husband, a passive and pragmatic man who avoids confrontation.
-Goldberg: A suave and authoritative man, one of the two mysterious visitors. He speaks in
clichés and represents oppressive institutional power.
-McCann: Goldberg’s accomplice, more physically intimidating and methodical, contributing
to the menace.
-Lulu: A young woman who briefly visits the house, representing innocence and later
victimization.
LITERARY DEVICES:
-Repetition: Dialogue often repeats phrases, creating rhythm and highlighting absurdity.
-Silence and Pause: Strategic pauses in conversation create tension and unease.
-Symbolism: The birthday party symbolizes societal rituals imposed upon individuals.
-Ambiguity: The lack of clear motivations or resolutions forces the audience to question
reality and intent.
-Irony: Situational and verbal irony undercuts characters’ statements and actions.
-Menace and Absurdity: The juxtaposition of comedic banter with violent undertones
creates a sense of menace.
 MARTIN ESSLIN – THE THEATRE OF THE ABSURD (1961)
BASIC CHARACTERISTICS:
-Type: seminal text
-Genre: dramatic criticism
-Speaker: the author himself – functions as scholar and critic
-Tense: primary present tense, discussing the works / also past tense for historical context
-Time and place: post-World War II period, primarily in Europe (1950s and 1960s) -reflecting
the existential and nihilistic concerns of the time
-Connection to the social situation: mirrors existential anger of the post-war era - people
were questioning the meaning of life and the reliability of established norms

PLOT SUMMARY:
As a critical text, it doesn't follow a traditional plot. Instead, it examines key playwrights like
Samuel Beckett, Eugène Ionesco, Jean Genet, and Harold Pinter. Esslin defines the
movement as reflecting the existential philosophy of figures like Albert Camus and Jean-Paul
Sartre. It focuses on the absurdity of human existence, the lack of clear meaning in life, and
the breakdown of traditional literary and dramatic structures. He analyzes how these plays
avoid conventional plot, character development, and dialogue to portray the fragmented,
chaotic nature of existence.

THEMES:
-The absurdity of human existence: these playwrights illustrate the existential idea that life
is inherently meaningless, and attempts to find meaning often lead to confusion or despair.
-Alienation and Isolation: Characters in absurd plays often struggle with a profound sense
of disconnection from others and their environment.
-The Breakdown of Communication: Inability of language to convey meaning accurately
-Time and Memory: Absurd plays often manipulate time, reflecting the fluidity of human
memory and the subjective nature of experience.
-Rebellion Against Traditional Structures: The rejection of linear narratives and well-
defined character arcs = rebellion against the conventions of classical theatre and literature.
-Existential Freedom: The absurdity allows characters (and audiences) to reject created
meanings and create their own.

CHARACTERS -not classical characters, but analyzes archetypes and character

representation in absurd drama
-Anti-Heroes: Characters like Vladimir and Estragon in Waiting for Godot are emblematic of
individuals trapped in repetitive, meaningless cycles.
-Everyman Figures: lack of identities, reflecting the universality of the absurd condition.
-Symbolic Figures: Many characters represent broader existential or philosophical ideas
rather than being fully fleshed individuals.

LITERARY DEVICES:
-Expository Analysis: interpretation of the works of playwrights with clarity and precision.
-Allusion: Frequent references to existential philosophy, classical drama, and modernist
literature enrich the text.
-Comparative Framework: contrast between absurdist plays with traditional dramatic works
-Quotations and Examples: Extracts from plays provide illustrations of absurdist techniques
-Thematic Cohesion: builds on the central theme of absurdity, creating a unified critique.
 SALMAN RUSHDIE – THE PROPHET´S HAIR (1981)
BASIC CHARACTERISTICS
-Type: short story
-Genre: magical realism with allegory; satire
-Speaker: 3rd person omniscient narrator
-Tense: past tense
-Time and place: modern Srinagar, Kashmir, blending real-world socio-political dynamics
with a mystical, timeless atmosphere.
-Connection to Social Situation: a critique of the socio-political climate in South Asia
(patriarchal society, inequality, corruption…)

PLOT SUMMARY = The story revolves around Hashim, a wealthy and secular moneylender
in Srinagar, who discovers a stolen relic, a strand of the Prophet Muhammad’s hair. Despite
initially intending to return it to the mosque, Hashim keeps the relic, believing it will bring him
blessings. Instead, the relic transforms him, amplifying his greed and moral rigidity, turning
him tyrannical toward his family. His daughter, Atta, and son, Huma, desperate to restore
normalcy, hatch a plan to steal the relic and return it. Tragedy ensues when their plan fails,
resulting in violence and the eventual death of the entire family. The relic is returned to its
rightful place, but only after wreaking havoc on Hashim's household.

THEMES:
-The destructive nature of blind faith and religious extremism: an obsessive, literal
interpretation of religious beliefs can lead to chaos and destruction
-Greed and Corruption: greed can corrupt not just the individual but family or community
-Moral Ambiguity: challenge of traditional notions of morality, questioning whether good
intentions justify harmful actions
-The Role of Women: though her fate underline societal constraints on women.
-Fate and Divine Intervention: The relic’s almost supernatural influence emphasizes destiny
and the power of higher forces over human lives.

CHARACTERS:
-Hashim: The central character whose greed and moral rigidity lead to his downfall.
-Huma: Hashim’s daughter, who exhibits courage and resourcefulness but is ultimately
constrained by her circumstances.
-Atta: Hashim’s son, who is naive and ineffective in his attempt to rectify the situation.
-The Thief: A morally ambiguous figure who aids Huma but meets a tragic end, symbolizing
the futility of crime and ambition.
-The Relic: it serves as a central "character," driving the plot and influencing all actions.

LITERARY DEVICES
-Magical Realism: relic's influence on Hashim + his family adds a mystical layer to the story
-Irony: belief of Hashim that the relic will bring blessings results in disaster.
-Symbolism: The relic symbolizes faith and its dual potential to inspire and destroy.
-Allegory: for the socio-political issues of South Asia - the danger of religious fanaticism.
-Satire: Rushdie employs humor and exaggeration to critique societal flaws and hypocrisy.
-Foreshadowing: Early descriptions of Hashim’s character and his obsession with the relic
hint at the ensuing tragedy.
-Contrast: the moral decay of Hashim versus sacred nature of the relic
 KAZUO ISHIGURO – A FAMILY SUPPER (1983)
BASIC CHARACTERISTICS:
-Type: Short story
-Genre: Modern literary fiction, psychological drama
-Speaker: 1st person perspective (the protagonist, son)
-Tense: past tense, with occasional reflections on past events.
-Time: Post-World War II era, likely the late 20th century
-Place: set in Tokyo and the family’s traditional home in the Kamakura district, emphasizing
contrasts between modernity and tradition.
-Connection to the social situation: the social changes in post-war Japan, including the
Westernization of society (tradition vs. modernism creates a generational conflicts)

PLOT SUMMARY
The narrator returns to Japan after his mother's death and reconnects with his father and
sister, Kikuko. Over the course of a meal, familial tensions, unspoken emotions, and the
complexities of Japanese tradition versus modernity are explored. The father is dealing with
the collapse of his business, and the shadow of his wife’s tragic death looms over them. A
supper featuring fish (possibly fugu) serves as a metaphorical and literal centerpiece,
highlighting themes of trust, regret, and ambiguity. The story ends unresolved, with the
narrator unsure about his future.

THEMES:
-Family and Generational Disconnect: strained relationships within the family, shaped by
unspoken emotions, cultural expectations, and past grievances.
-Tradition vs. Modernity: The father's adherence to traditional values contrasts with the
younger generation’s embrace of modern, Western ideals.
-Ambiguity and Trust: questions of trust, particularly between the father and his children.
-Regret and Loss: regret over missed opportunities and loss - of family bonds, cultural
heritage, and stability
-Mortality and Death: the death of the mother casts a shadow and creates tension

CHARACTERS:
-The Narrator (Son): Reflective, emotionally restrained, and detached, he struggles with his
identity and his relationship with his father.
-The Father: A stern, traditional figure representing old Japan. He grapples with loss, honor,
and disappointment.
-Kikuko: The younger sister, symbolizing the bridge between traditional and modern values.
She is more open and lighthearted but also cautious in the presence of their father.
-The Mother (Deceased): representing loss and unresolved family issues.
-Watanabe (Deceased): A former business partner of the father, his tragic end symbolizes
the weight of honor and failure in Japanese society.
LITERARY DEVICES
-Symbolism:
-Fugu (fish): Symbolizes danger, trust, and the delicate balance in relationships.
-The Well: Represents fear, mystery, and the unknown aspects of the family’s history.
-The Battleship Model: Reflects the father’s nostalgia and regret over lost ambitions
and control.
-Imagery: The descriptions of the house, garden, and supper create an atmosphere of
tension and unease.
-Ambiguity: The story leaves much unresolved, reflecting the complexity of relationships
and the uncertainty of the narrator's choices.
-Irony: The father’s admiration for Watanabe’s "principle" contrasts with the horrifying nature
of Watanabe’s actions.
-Foreshadowing: The ominous discussion of fugu early in the story sets the tone for the
suspense surrounding the meal.