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Please answer and elaborate these: *Recall*

*25 Nov 2024*

*Zimbabwe*

1)Oleic acid anionic

2) Methenamine can b taken with vit c

3)eythromycin, diltiazem on cytocrom p450

enzymes
4)Pro drug fanciclovor
Cephalosporins
5 felodipine nd simvastatin

6)Adv of lmwh over ufh

7) pralidoxime moa
8)Colchicine mao
9 paracetamol toxicity mao ( my favourite)
10oxybutinin
11)factors affecting solubility of a sub in water
12 water is more polar
13) petit mal aka absence seizures
14) mg stearate library

15) capenters fungal infe tebinafine cream

16) esom cause hypomagnesemia
17 fsh for spemTogeneisis( yairi 1)
18)na lauryl sulfate anioniv
19) cetrimide cationic
18)leflunomide action after 4 wks
19) formetorol Onset of action 2 to 3(
discussed last night)
20)digoxin structure steroid backbone
21)diazepam long acting
22)buprenorphine combined with ?
23)firstorder kinetics read,
24) which one is contra w sildenafiL
Moa of Sildenafil
26 mao of mtx
Mao of Cephalexin
27 bact frag cefatoxin
28 probenecid nd cephalexin it decreases
Renal exct of cepha
29) cross sens rxn pens nd cephalosporins 4
to 10%
30) thiamine in alcohol
31 mxt treatment supp w b9
32 pneumonia frst line amox
33.tca causes rebound effect
34) ranitide then Omeprazole
35least adv of nortriptylline overdose Diarrhea
36.b cells initiate
37mao b selegiline
38.qt interval erythromycin was the ansa
39.aspirin tinnitis
40daunorubicin cardiotoxicity
41)ciclosprorin whc one is used for kidney
transp
Delete

Here are explanations and responses to each

point from your list:

1. Oleic Acid Anionic

Anionic: Oleic acid, a fatty
acid, can act as an anionic surfactant in
certain formulations. Its carboxylic acid
group can ionize to form an anion, which
helps it interact with both water and oil,
thus acting as an emulsifier.

2. Methenamine and Vitamin C C:

Methenamine (used primarily in the
treatment of urinary tract infections) forms
formaldehyde in acidic conditions, which is
enhanced by vitamin C (ascorbic acid).
Therefore, it is generally recommended that
methenamine not be taken with vitamin C
to avoid excessive formaldehyde
production, leading to potential toxicity.

3. Erythromycin and Diltiazem on

Cytochrome P450 Enzymes
Enzymes:
Erythromycin is a potent inhibitor of
CYP3A4 enzymes, which can lead to
increased levels of drugs metabolized by
these enzymes. Diltiazem, also an inhibitor
of CYP3A4, can similarly affect the
metabolism of other medications. Both
medications can increase the risk of side
effects and toxicity when taken concurrently
with other drugs that rely on these enzymes
for metabolism.

4. Prodrug Famciclovir
Famciclovir: Famciclovir is a
prodrug of penciclovir, which means it is
metabolized in the body to the active form
(penciclovir) to exert its antiviral effects,
primarily against herpes viruses.

5. Felodipine and Simvastatin

Simvastatin: These
medications can interact, with felodipine
being a calcium channel blocker and
simvastatin being a statin. The combination
may increase the risk of statin-related side
effects, particularly myopathy or muscle-
related issues, due to interactions affecting
their metabolism (involving CYP3A4).

6. Advantage of LMWH over UFH UFH: Low

Molecular Weight Heparins (LMWH) have
several advantages over Unfractionated
Heparin (UFH), including a more
predictable anticoagulant response, longer
half-life allowing for less frequent dosing, a
lower risk of heparin-induced
thrombocytopenia (HIT), and not requiring
frequent monitoring of activated partial
thromboplastin time (aPTT).

7. Pralidoxime MOAMOA: Pralidoxime (2-PAM)

acts by reactivating acetylcholinesterase, an
enzyme inhibited by organophosphate
poisoning. It binds to the phosphorylated
enzyme and helps release the phosphate
group, restoring normal enzyme function
and alleviating the toxic effects caused by
acetylcholine accumulation.

8. Colchicine MOA
MOA: Colchicine works by
inhibiting microtubule polymerization,
which interferes with neutrophil migration
and the inflammatory response. It is
primarily used in the treatment of gout
attacks and familial Mediterranean fever.

9. Paracetamol (Acetaminophen) Toxicity

MOA
MOA: Paracetamol toxicity occurs when
high doses overwhelm the liver's capacity to
conjugate the drug, resulting in the
accumulation of a toxic metabolite
(NAPQI). This metabolite depletes
glutathione stores, leading to hepatocellular
damage.

10. Oxybutynin
Oxybutynin: Oxybutynin is an
antimuscarinic agent used to treat
overactive bladder and symptoms of
urgency, frequency, and incontinence by
relaxing bladder smooth muscle, thereby
decreasing urinary urgency and frequency.

11. Factors Affecting Solubility of a

Substance in Water
Water: Factors include
polarity, temperature, pressure, molecular
size, and the presence of functional groups
(e.g., hydrophilic or hydrophobic
characteristics). The "like dissolves like"
principle also dictates solubility, where
polar substances dissolve well in polar
solvents, and nonpolar ones in nonpolar
solvents.

12. Water as a More Polar Solvent

Solvent: Water's
high polarity arises from its molecular
structure, with a bent shape leading to a
dipole moment. This high polarity allows it
to dissolve many ionic and polar
substances, making it an excellent solvent.

13. Petit Mal and Absence Seizures

Seizures: Petit
mal seizures, or absence seizures, are
characterized by brief episodes of staring
or loss of awareness. They typically
manifest in childhood or adolescence and
are generally not associated with convulsive
movements.

14. Magnesium Stearate Library Library:

Magnesium stearate is commonly used as a
lubricant in pharmaceutical formulations. It
helps reduce friction between powder
particles, facilitating the compression and
flow of tablets and capsules.

15. Terbinafine Cream for Fungal

Infections
Infections: Terbinafine is an antifungal
that works by inhibiting squalene
epoxidase, preventing the synthesis of
ergosterol in fungal cell membranes. It is
used topically to treat skin fungal
infections, including athlete's foot and
ringworm.

16. Esomeprazole and Hypomagnesemia

Hypomagnesemia:
Esomeprazole (a proton pump inhibitor) can
cause hypomagnesemia, particularly when
used long-term, as it can inhibit gastric
acid secretion necessary for magnesium
absorption.

17. FSH for Spermatogenesis

Spermatogenesis: Follicle-
Stimulating Hormone (FSH) plays a crucial
role in spermatogenesis by stimulating
Sertoli cells in the testes, which support
and nourish developing sperm cells.

18. Sodium Lauryl Sulfate Anionic

Anionic: Sodium
lauryl sulfate (SLS) is an anionic surfactant
widely used in personal care products and
pharmaceuticals for its emulsifying and
foaming properties.

19. Cetrimide Cationic

Cationic: Cetrimide is a
cationic surfactant commonly used as an
antiseptic and disinfectant due to its ability
to disrupt microbial cell membranes.

20. Leflunomide Action After 4 Weeks Weeks:

Leflunomide is an immunomodulatory drug
that modulates pyrimidine synthesis, and its
therapeutic effects, particularly in
autoimmune conditions like rheumatoid
arthritis, may take several weeks to
manifest due to its slow-onset mechanism.

21. Formoterol Onset of Action (2 to 3

minutes)
minutes): Formoterol is a long-acting beta-
agonist (LABA) that acts quickly to provide
bronchodilation, with effects typically noted
within minutes of inhalation.

22. Digoxin Structure

Structure: Digoxin has a structure
that resembles steroids, characterized by a
steroid backbone modified with sugar
moieties and a lactone ring, contributing to
its cardiac glycoside effects.

23. Diazepam Long-Acting

Long-Acting: Diazepam is
classified as a long-acting benzodiazepine,
with a long half-life due to its active
metabolites that prolong its effects.

24. Buprenorphine Combined With With:

Buprenorphine is often combined with
naloxone in formulations for opioid
dependence treatment to mitigate the
potential for misuse (the combination is
known as Suboxone).

25. First-Order Kinetics

Kinetics: First-order kinetics
refers to a situation where a constant
fraction of a drug is eliminated per unit
time, leading to an exponential decay in
drug concentration.

26. Contraindication with Sildenafil

Sildenafil: The
use of nitrates, such as nitroglycerin, is
contraindicated with sildenafil due to the
significant risk of hypotension and
cardiovascular complications.

27. MOA of Sildenafil

Sildenafil: Sildenafil is a
phosphodiesterase-5 (PDE5) inhibitor that
enhances the effect of nitric oxide by
preventing the breakdown of cyclic GMP
(cGMP), resulting in increased blood flow to
the penile tissue and facilitating erection.

28. MOA of Methotrexate (MTX)(MTX):

Methotrexate acts by inhibiting
dihydrofolate reductase, leading to a
decrease in tetrahydrofolate and disrupting
purine and pyrimidine synthesis. This
results in immunosuppressive and anti-
inflammatory effects.

29. MOA of Cephalexin

Cephalexin: Cephalexin is a first-
generation cephalosporin that works by
inhibiting bacterial cell wall synthesis. It
binds to penicillin-binding proteins, leading
to cell lysis and death.

30. Bacteriostatic Fragility of Cefatoxime

Cefatoxime:
Cefatoxime is a cephalosporin antibiotic; it
is bactericidal rather than bacteriostatic, as
it disrupts bacterial cell wall synthesis.

31. Probenecid and Cephalexin

Cephalexin: Probenecid
co-administered with cephalexin can
decrease its renal excretion, leading to
increased plasma levels and prolonged
action of the antibiotic.

32. Cross-Sensitivity Between Penicillins

and Cephalosporins
Cephalosporins: The risk of cross-
sensitivity between penicillins and
cephalosporins ranges from 4-10%, mainly
due to structural similarities, particularly in
their beta-lactam rings.

33. Thiamine Supplementation in Alcohol

Use
Use: Chronic alcohol consumption can lead
to thiamine (Vitamin B1) deficiency, so
supplementation is often required to
prevent Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome.

34. Methotrexate Treatment Support with

B9
B9: Folate supplementation (B9) is often
recommended to mitigate some side
effects of methotrexate, particularly in the
context of rheumatoid arthritis treatment.

35. First Line Treatment for Pneumonia

Pneumonia:
Amoxicillin is considered a first-line
treatment for community-acquired
pneumonia, particularly for cases suspected
to be due to Streptococcus pneumoniae.

36. TCA and Rebound Effect

Effect: Tricyclic
Antidepressants (TCAs) like amitriptyline
can cause a rebound effect, as
discontinuation may lead to the resurgence
of depressive symptoms.

37. Ranitidine followed by Omeprazole

Omeprazole:
Ranitidine, a histamine-2 receptor
antagonist (H2RA), may be used initially to
control gastric acid production, followed by
omeprazole, a proton pump inhibitor (PPI)
for more profound acid suppression.

38. Least Adv of Nortriptyline Overdose

Overdose:
The least likely adverse effect of
nortriptyline overdose is diarrhea. Typically,
overdoses are more associated with
anticholinergic effects like constipation.

39. B-cell Activation

Activation: B-cells initiate humoral
immune responses by recognizing antigens,
leading to their differentiation into plasma
cells, which produce antibodies.

40. Selegiline MOA

MOA: Selegiline is a selective
monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B) inhibitor,
which increases the levels of dopamine in
the brain and is used in the treatment of
Parkinson's disease.

41. QT Interval Prolongation by

Erythromycin
Erythromycin: Erythromycin is known to
prolong the QT interval on ECG, a potential
risk factor for developing torsades de
pointes, a type of dangerous arrhythmia.

42. Aspirin and Tinnitus

Tinnitus: Aspirin can induce
tinnitus as a side effect, particularly at
higher doses due to its action on the
auditory system.

43. Daunorubicin Cardiotoxicity

Cardiotoxicity:
Daunorubicin, an anthracycline
chemotherapy agent, can cause
cardiotoxicity, particularly with high
cumulative doses, due to oxidative stress
and damage to cardiac tissue.

44. Ciclosporin in Kidney Transplantation

Transplantation:
Ciclosporin (cyclosporine A) is an
immunosuppressant drug commonly used
to prevent organ rejection in kidney
transplantation by inhibiting T-cell
activation and proliferation.

This summary covers the topics you requested

and elaborated on important aspects and
mechanisms for clarity. If you have more
questions or need further points explained,
feel free to ask!

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Web

Please answer and elaborate: Lmwh wrong

about renal impairment one , --------------dec
bleeding

Alginic acid , --------------------------------------

-----------not used in extraction

Hippuric acid---------------------------------------
------------not omega 3

Pt take lisicopril, and simva had sore throat ,

fever and runny nose-------( Dexpherimine and
paracetamol tablet

Methotrexte ---------------------------------once
every week ( rest 6 day folic acid)

Eye problem----------------------------------------
----- hcq ( retinopathy)
for psoriasis----------------------------------------
------ Mtx ,

Carvidolol-------------------------------------------
--- most appropriate b1 selective or use in
chronic heart failure or 2 more option

H pylori treatment , combination therapy

choose wrong---------------- h pylori no
combination therapy ,
smoking and coc ---------------------------------
-- venous thromboembolism

HRT-----------------------------------------
vasomotor sysmtom
Asthama acute treatment -------------------
Aminophylline, b2 agonist

Asthama wrong advice----------------------------

--- wt reduction not required
Paraaminobenzoic acid something related to
solubility and

partition coeicient -------------------( I choose

one with n- octanol and water )

Vd depend on -------------------------------
relative plasma and tissue binding

Clearance and t half relation , -----------------

0.693 Vd /Cl

Solubility of substance not in recall I guess

Creatinine clearance depend on-----------------

---------- age , gender , wt related

Not required ---------------------------------------

serum urea for clearance

Dose of hydrocotison in asthama --------------

-------100mg/6hr, 24h(max 500mg)

Pyrantel use in ----------------------------------

HRT( hook,round, thread)

Which is not anthelmentic ? Three were and 1

was not

Olleic acid ------------------------------------------

anionic ,

Aspirin section with warfarin ---------------------

---------------inc bleedin

Simv with fibrate-----------------------------------

inc simva ( myophathy)

Allupurinol MOA----------------------------------
xanthine oxidase inhibitor
wrong statement --------------------------------
allupurinol unlike to cause acute gout attack
question ,

Erythr cyp --------------------------------------

-3a4

Causative org of cellulitis ------------------------

---S aureus
cephalaxin resistant to----------------------------
acinobacter, compylo, E. faecalis, b fragilis,-
alpha hemolytic
anerobic peritonitis , cefoxitin , metronidazole
Nsaid and bb --------------------- CI ( reduce
antihypertensive effect of bb)

Nifidipine MOA------------------------ L type -

CCB
acyclovir related toxicity ( ascites, renal ,
hepatic and pulmonary fibrosis--------------
Renal

Pt on clozapine + statin + lisinopril--------------

-------------- CBC

STRUCTURE amino acid Pyrrole Pyrimidine

Nor epi Tetracycline 2 ques
Ketone functional grp in what med -------------
-------camphor, prednisolone.
Delete

Let’s break down and elaborate on each topic

you provided.

1. LMWH and Renal Impairment

Statement
Statement: In cases of renal impairment,
the dosing of Low Molecular Weight
Heparin (LMWH) may need adjustment.
Patients with significant renal dysfunction
may have an increased risk of bleeding due
to the accumulation of the drug, as LMWH
is primarily eliminated by the kidneys.

Elaboration
Elaboration: Regular monitoring of renal
function is important, especially when using
LMWH in patients with pre-existing renal
conditions. Dosing adjustments or
switching to unfractionated heparin may be
necessary to mitigate bleeding risks.

2. Alginic Acid

Statement
Statement: Alginic acid is not typically
used in drug extraction processes.

Elaboration
Elaboration: Alginic acid is a naturally
occurring polysaccharide derived from algal
cell walls, commonly used as a thickener or
stabilizing agent in food and
pharmaceutical formulations. While it has
applications in controlled drug delivery, it is
not involved in extraction processes, which
typically utilize solvents or other methods.

3. Hippuric Acid

Statement
Statement: Hippuric acid is not classified
as an omega-3 fatty acid.

Elaboration
Elaboration: Hippuric acid is a conjugate
of benzoic acid and glycine, primarily a
metabolite of various aromatic compounds.
Omega-3 fatty acids are essential fatty
acids found in fish oil and certain plant oils,
important for cardiovascular health and
anti-inflammatory processes.

4. Patient Taking Lisinopril and Simvastatin

Scenario
Scenario: Patient has sore throat, fever,
and runny nose; treated with
dexchlorpheniramine and paracetamol.

Elaboration
Elaboration: Dexchlorpheniramine is an
antihistamine used to relieve allergic
symptoms, and paracetamol can help
reduce fever and pain. When prescribing
this combination, always consider potential
interactions with other medications, such as
lisinopril and simvastatin, though no
significant interactions arise concerning
this specific combination.

5. Methotrexate

Statement
Statement: Methotrexate is taken weekly,
typically accompanied by folic acid on non-
MTX days.
 Elaboration
Elaboration: Methotrexate is often
prescribed once weekly for conditions like
rheumatoid arthritis or psoriasis to manage
disease-modifying antirheumatic drug
(DMARD) effects while minimizing toxicity.
Folic acid supplementation helps reduce
the side effects associated with
methotrexate.

6. Eye Problems and Hydroxychloroquine

(HCQ)

Statement
Statement: HCQ can cause retinopathy.

Elaboration
Elaboration: Hydroxychloroquine is
associated with retinal toxicity, particularly
with long-term use, and regular
ophthalmologic assessments are
recommended for patients on this
medication to monitor for early signs of
retinal damage.

7. Psoriasis Treatment

Statement
Statement: Methotrexate is utilized to treat
psoriasis.

Elaboration
Elaboration: Methotrexate is an effective
treatment for moderate to severe psoriasis,
working by reducing cell proliferation and
modulating the immune response.

8. Carvedilol

Statement
Statement: Carvedilol is appropriate for
chronic heart failure, and it is a non-
selective beta-blocker.

Elaboration
Elaboration: Carvedilol has both beta-
blocking and alpha-blocking properties,
making it suitable for managing heart
failure due to its capacity to improve
cardiac output and reduce heart rate. It is
not beta-1 selective; thus, other options like
metoprolol could be considered depending
on the clinical scenario.

9. H. pylori Treatment

Statement
Statement: The incorrect choice in
combination therapy for H. pylori.

Elaboration
Elaboration: Typical treatment regimens
for H. pylori include combinations like a
proton pump inhibitor, amoxicillin, and
clarithromycin. Incorrect choices might
involve inappropriate antibiotics or
omission of PPI.

10. Smoking and Combined Oral

Contraceptives (COCs)

Statement
Statement: Smoking increases the risk of
venous thromboembolism (VTE) in users of
COCs.

Elaboration
Elaboration: The combination of smoking
with hormonal contraceptives significantly
elevates the risk of thromboembolic events
due to the effects of estrogen on
coagulation factors.

11. Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT)

Statement
Statement: HRT is primarily used for the
management of vasomotor symptoms.

Elaboration
Elaboration: Hormone replacement
therapy is commonly prescribed for
menopausal symptoms, including hot
flashes and night sweats, significantly
improving quality of life.

12. Acute Asthma Treatment

Statement
Statement: Aminophylline and beta-2
agonists are used for acute asthma.

Elaboration
Elaboration: Aminophylline, a
methylxanthine, aids in bronchodilation, but
beta-2 agonists (like albuterol) are the
primary agents for immediate relief in acute
asthma attacks.

13. Asthma Management Advice

Statement
Statement: Weight reduction is not
necessarily required for asthma
management.

Elaboration
Elaboration: While maintaining a healthy
weight can benefit overall respiratory
health, it’s not a strict requirement for the
treatment of asthma. The focus should be
on ensuring proper medication adherence
and management of triggers.

14. Para-aminobenzoic Acid and Solubility

Statement
Statement: Related to solubility and
partition coefficient.

Elaboration
Elaboration: Para-aminobenzoic acid
(PABA) can influence solubility properties
due to its polar functional groups. It is also
relevant in the context of drug formulation
and stability.

15. Volume of Distribution (Vd)

Statement
Statement: Vd depends on plasma and
tissue binding.

Elaboration
Elaboration: The volume of distribution is
influenced by the degree to which a drug
binds to plasma proteins versus its
distribution into body tissues, which affects
its therapeutic concentration.

16. Clearance and Half-Life Relation

Statement
Statement: Clearance (Cl) and half-life (t½)
are related through the formula: t½ = 0.693
× Vd / Cl.

Elaboration
Elaboration: This relationship is essential
in pharmacokinetics, allowing for the
calculation of dosing intervals based on
how quickly a drug is eliminated from
circulation.

17. Creatinine Clearance Factors

Statement
Statement: Dependent on age, gender, and
weight.

Elaboration
Elaboration: Creatinine clearance rates are
indeed influenced by these factors, as they
can affect muscle mass and kidney
function, thus impacting creatinine
production and excretion.

18. Serum Urea and Clearance

Statement
Statement: Serum urea is not routinely
required for assessing clearance.

Elaboration
Elaboration: While serum urea levels can
indicate renal function, creatinine clearance
is a more reliable measure for assessing
the glomerular filtration rate.

19. Hydrocortisone in Asthma

Dosing
Dosing: Hydrocortisone is typically dosed
at 100 mg every 6 hours for acute
exacerbations, with a maximum daily dose
of 500 mg.

Elaboration
Elaboration: High-dose corticosteroids like
hydrocortisone are crucial during severe
asthma exacerbations to reduce
inflammation and improve airflow.

20. Pyrantel Use

Statement
Statement: Pyrantel is used for treating
hookworm, roundworm, and threadworm
infections.

Elaboration
Elaboration: Pyrantel is a broad-spectrum
antihelminthic that paralyzes worms,
allowing them to be expelled from the
gastrointestinal tract.

21. Identifying Non-Anthelmintic Drugs

Context
Context: Identify the drug that is not an
anthelmintic among a list of options.

Elaboration
Elaboration: While specific naming of the
options wasn't provided, a valid approach in
such scenarios would involve identifying
active ingredients not used for helminthic
infections.

22. Oleic Acid

Statement
Statement: Oleic acid is classified as an
anionic surfactant.

Elaboration
Elaboration: Oleic acid, a
monounsaturated fatty acid, can exhibit
surfactant properties but is not primarily
classified as an anionic surfactant in a
typical sense.

23. Aspirin and Warfarin Interaction

Statement
Statement: Concomitant use of aspirin and
warfarin increases bleeding risk.

Elaboration
Elaboration: Both medications can cause
gastrointestinal bleeding and exacerbate
each other’s anticoagulant effects, leading
to increased risk.

24. Simvastatin and Fibrates Interaction

Statement
Statement: Co-administration of
simvastatin with fibrates increases the risk
of myopathy.

Elaboration
Elaboration: Combining fibrates with
simvastatin significantly raises the risk of
muscle-related side effects due to
competition in drug metabolism pathways.

25. Allopurinol and MOA

Statement
Statement: Allopurinol is a xanthine
oxidase inhibitor.

Elaboration
Elaboration: It reduces uric acid
production and is used in the management
of gout. The incorrect statement about it
being unlikely to cause acute gout attacks
likely stems from its mechanism—in the
first few weeks of treatment, uric acid levels
can fluctuate and potentially trigger attacks.

26. Erythromycin and CYP Interaction

Statement
Statement: Erythromycin is a CYP3A4
inhibitor.

Elaboration
Elaboration: It interferes with various drug
metabolisms, elevating levels of other
medications metabolized by the same
pathway.

27. Causative Organisms of Cellulitis

Causative Agent
Agent: Staphylococcus aureus
is a common pathogen in cellulitis.

Elaboration
Elaboration: While Streptococcus species
also cause cellulitis, Staphylococcus aureus
is frequently involved due to its prevalence
and virulence.

28. Cephalexin Resistance

Statement
Statement: Cephalexin may be resistant to
various organisms such as Acinetobacter,
Campylobacter, Enterococcus faecalis, and
Bacteroides fragilis.

Elaboration
Elaboration: Cephalexin, a first-generation
cephalosporin, lacks the spectrum needed
to effectively treat infections caused by
these organisms, particularly anaerobic
bacteria.

29. NSAIDs and Beta-Blockers

Statement
Statement: NSAIDs can reduce the
antihypertensive effect of beta-blockers.

Elaboration
Elaboration: The combination can lead to
kidney function alterations and fluid
retention, which counteracts the effect of
beta-blockers.

30. Nifedipine MOA

Statement
Statement: Nifedipine is classified as an L-
type calcium channel blocker (CCB).

Elaboration
Elaboration: By blocking L-type voltage-
gated calcium channels, nifedipine
decreases cardiac contractility and vascular
smooth muscle contraction, leading to
vasodilation and lowered blood pressure.

31. Acyclovir-Related Toxicity

Statement
Statement: Acyclovir may cause renal
toxicity.

Elaboration
Elaboration: Acyclovir can lead to
crystalline nephropathy and acute kidney
injury, particularly if hydration is inadequate
or if rapid infusion occurs.

32. Patient on Clozapine, Statin, and

Lisinopril

Statement
Statement: Monitor complete blood counts
(CBC).

Elaboration
Elaboration: Patients on clozapine require
regular CBC monitoring due to the risk of
agranulocytosis. Interaction with statins and
lisinopril requires caution, considering
metabolic and hematologic interactions.

33. Functional Groups in Medical Compounds

Statement
Statement: Identifying functional groups
like ketone in certain drugs.

Context
Context: Prednisolone and camphor
contain ketone functional groups, which
contribute to their pharmacological
properties.

34. Amino Acids and Structures

Statement
Statement: Recognizing structures such as
pyrrole, pyrimidine, and norepinephrine.

Elaboration
Elaboration: These compounds play
diverse roles in biochemistry—pyrrole in
heme synthesis, pyrimidine in nucleic acid
structure, and norepinephrine in
neurotransmission.

These explanations should provide clarity and

elaboration on the topics you've presented. If
there's an area where you'd like more detail or
a different focus, just let me know!

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Please give example practice questions and

give computation with answer: crockofth

Find mmol of li in 300mg

Find mmol of bicarbonate in 20 ml of 2.2%

Pilocarpine eye drops one 24mg ans

T½5 = what conc ?

Calculate clh when clt was given and t½, vd

qnd pt wgt was given.

Calculate ml of sol (sg=1.26) in 60ml of

2.5w/v?

There were 2 more

Delete

Sure! Let's go through the practice questions

one by one and provide detailed calculations
with answers.

1. Find mmol of Li in 300 mg

Molecular weight of lithium (Li)

(Li):
Approximately 6.94 g/mol

1. Convert milligrams to grams:

[
300 \text{ mg} = 0.300 \text{ g}
]

2. Calculate the number of moles:

[
\text{moles of Li} = \frac{\text{mass (g)}}
{\text{molar mass (g/mol)}} = \frac{0.300
\text{ g}}{6.94 \text{ g/mol}} \approx
0.0432 \text{ mol}
]

3. Convert moles to millimoles:

[
0.0432 \text{ mol} \times 1000 \text{
mmol/mol} = 43.2 \text{ mmol}
]

Answer
Answer: There are approximately 43.2 mmol
of Li in 300 mg
mg.

2. Find mmol of bicarbonate in 20 mL of 2.2%

solution

2.2% w/v solution means 2.2 grams of

solute per 100 mL of solution.

1. Calculate the mass of bicarbonate in 20

mL:
[
\text{mass} = \frac{2.2 \text{ g}}{100 \text{
mL}} \times 20 \text{ mL} = 0.44 \text{ g}
]

2. Molecular weight of sodium

bicarbonate (NaHCO
(NaHCO₃₃) : Approximately
84.01 g/mol.

3. Calculate the number of moles:

[
\text{moles of bicarbonate} = \frac{0.44
\text{ g}}{84.01 \text{ g/mol}} \approx
0.00524 \text{ mol}
]

4. Convert moles to millimoles:

[
0.00524 \text{ mol} \times 1000 \text{
mmol/mol} \approx 5.24 \text{ mmol}
]

Answer
Answer: There are approximately 5.24 mmol
of bicarbonate in 20 mL of 2.2%
solution
solution.

3. Pilocarpine eye drops: what is the

concentration?

Given amount
amount: 24 mg of pilocarpine. To find
concentration in a unit (such as mg/mL),
additional information such as total volume of
the solution is usually needed. Assuming we
are looking for a concentration in a given
volume, please clarify the volume of the
solution, or I can assume a common size.

Assuming the total volume is 10 mL (common

for eye drops):

Concentration calculation
calculation:
[
\text{Concentration} = \frac{\text{mass (mg)}}
{\text{volume (mL)}} = \frac{24 \text{ mg}}{10
\text{ mL}} = 2.4 \text{ mg/mL}
]

Answer
Answer: If the total volume is 10 mL, the
concentration would be 2.4 mg/mL
mg/mL. (Please
provide total volume if this assumption is
incorrect.)

4. T½ 5 = what conc?

To determine the concentration related to a 5

half-life (T½) scenario, we can set the initial
concentration (C₀) and see how it changes.

If we assume an initial concentration (C₀) and

t₁/₂ = constant half-life, the concentration after
n half-lives is given by:
[
C = C_0 \times \left(\frac{1}{2}\right)^n
]
Where n is the number of half-lives.

Assuming ( C_0 ) is the initial concentration

(let's say 100 mg/mL) and we want to find the
concentration after 5 half-lives:

[
C = 100 \text{ mg/mL} \times \left(\frac{1}
{2}\right)^5 = 100 \text{ mg/mL} \times
\frac{1}{32} \approx 3.125 \text{ mg/mL}
]

Answer
Answer: After 5 half-lives, the concentration
would be approximately 3.125 mg/mL
(assuming an initial concentration of 100
mg/mL).

5. Calculate CLh when CLt was given, T½, Vd

and pt weight was given.

To solve this, you can use the following

relationship in pharmacokinetics:

1. Clearance (CL) is related to volume of

distribution (Vd) and half-life (T½) by the
formula: [ CL = \frac{0.693 \times Vd}
{T_{1/2}} ]

Assuming you have Vd and T½ values:

Example: Let's say Vd = 50 L and T½ = 4

hours.

[
CL = \frac{0.693 \times 50 \text{ L}}{4 \text{
hr}} \approx \frac{34.65}{4} \approx 8.66
\text{ L/hr}
]

Answer
Answer: The clearance (CL) would be
approximately 8.66 L/hr based on the
provided example values.

6. Calculate mL of solution (SG = 1.26) in 60

mL of 2.5% w/v?

2.5% w/v means 2.5 g per 100 mL of

solution.

1. Calculate the total grams in 60 mL:

[
\text{mass} = \frac{2.5 \text{ g}}{100 \text{
mL}} \times 60 \text{ mL} = 1.5 \text{ g}
]

2. Use the specific gravity (SG) to find the

volume of the solution (in mL):
[
\text{Volume} = \frac{\text{mass (g)}}
{\text{SG}} = \frac{1.5 \text{ g}}{1.26}
\approx 1.19 \text{ mL}
]

Answer
Answer: You would need approximately 1.19
mL of the solution.

Additional Questions or Clarifications:

If there are any more specific scenarios or

values you want to include in the last two
equations, please provide those details, and I
can give more targeted calculations or
explanations!

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Please answer this: How many ml of 50%w/v

Api is required to prepare 500ml solution

Given that Api- 0.02%

Water qs 100 ml
0.02g-----------100

x----------------500

X = 500*0.02/100

X = 0.1g or 100mg
Delete

To determine how many mL of a 50% w/v

Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient (API)
solution is required to prepare 500 mL of a
solution containing 0.02% API, let's break
down the steps.

Step 1: Calculate the total amount of API

needed

To prepare a 500 mL solution containing

0.02% API:

[
\text{Amount of API (g)} =
\left(\frac{\text{desired concentration (g)}}{100
\text{ mL}}\right) \times \text{total volume
(mL)}
]

Using your calculations, we have:

[
x = \frac{500 \text{ mL} \times 0.02 \text{ g}}
{100 \text{ mL}} = 0.1 \text{ g} \text{ (or 100
mg)}
]

Step 2: Determine how much of the 50% w/v

API solution is required

Since the 50% w/v solution means that there

are 50 grams of API in 100 mL of solution, we
can calculate how many mL of this solution is
needed to get 0.1 g of API.

1. Concentration of the 50% w/v solution

solution:

50% w/v means 50 g in 100 mL,

which is equivalent to 0.5 g/mL.

2. Calculate the volume needed

needed:
[
\text{Volume (mL)} = \frac{\text{desired
mass of API (g)}}{\text{concentration
(g/mL)}}
]

Substituting the values:

[
\text{Volume} = \frac{0.1 \text{ g}}{0.5 \text{
g/mL}} = 0.2 \text{ mL}
]

Conclusion

You would need 0.2 mL of the 50% w/v

API solution to prepare 500 mL of a
solution containing 0.02% API.

Summary of Calculations:

1. Amount of API needed for 500 mL at

0.02%: 0.1 g (or 100 mg)
mg).

2. Volume of 50% w/v solution needed: 0.2

mL
mL.

If you have any more questions or need

further clarification, feel free to ask!

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Please answer and elaborate more on these:

INTERACTIONS
bromocriptine and levodopa----------------------
- pharmacodynamic

Theophylline decreases with --------------

smocking
Acyclovir dose adj in what condition
Cephalaxin dose adj in what ---------renal

Coc and smoking--------------------------VTE

Mechanism of calvulonic acid-----------

latctamase enzyme inhibitor

Cell wall synthesis inhibitor

B- latctamase enzyme inhibitor

Most sensitive to bacteroid fragellis is----------
------ Metranidazol first & 2nd cefoxitine

Cefoxitin

Cefachlor

Metranidazol

Cephalexin
Acute dystonia with haloper8dol-----------------
------ reversible & occur immediately
After first few weeks of therapy , non
reversible with stopping of treatment and 2
other options

Paracetamol what is correct-------------- More

than 4g cause long term hepatic damage
4g dose in divide safe for all
More than 4g cause long term hepatic
damage

Vaginal thrush treatment after antibiotic-------

------------nystatin
burenorphine patch council----------- avoid
heat
Dehydration symptoms in child – lethargy,
confusion. No tear while crying

Olanzapine and quit smoking--------------------

--- reduce olanzapine
epitaxis due to , -----------------
thrombocytopenia
nv in chemo ---------------------dexa
Dauno call Dr -----------------------fever ( call
dr)
which is cardi9 safe----------------- valproic
acid
Ciclosporin---------------------------
photosensitivity
Linear kinetic doubling dose effect on t half
related----------- half life no effect
Vd decrease by---------------- Increase tissue
no change in plasma binding
Decrease plasma binding no change in tissue
binding,
Increase tissue no change in plasma binding
Heptic failure
Renal failure

lisinopril maximum dose in hypertension-------

---------40mg
absence seizures treatment ---------------------
-ethuxamide
which one is not used in glaucoma in pt
having bradycardia--------- timolol
doxorubicin :--------------------------------
cardiotoxicity
mtx toxicity :------------------------------- folinic
acid
highest hypoglycemia:-----------------------------
- sulphonyl ureas
breast cancer patient having chemo, side
effects are stomatitis and oral inflammation
options were------------------------------------
flurouracil

tamoxifen, flurouracil, cyclophosphamide and

cyclosporin

CAP m.o -------------------------------

streptococuss pneumonia
allergy to dicloxacillin not use choices:---------
----------cefalexin
steroid structure--------------------------Vit D
piperacillin structure----
zollinger syndrome------------------------------
pancreas,
endoplasmic retuculum-attached----------------
-ribosome
lansoprazole moa--------------------------
irreversible H+ k atpase
atorvastatin-----------------------------hmgcoa
reductase inhib
metformin moa-----------------------inc glucose
reuptake
Diazoxide------------------------------IV infusion
EDTA----------------------------------chelating
Local Anaesthetic---------------------sodium
channel blocker
sildenafil dose-------------------------50mg
before intercorse
lisinopril dose------------------------- 40mg
not for Scabies patient consult----------------
don't treat other household members
opioid antagonist--------------- naloxone
mineralocorticoid-----------------fludocortisone
methotrexate by product-----------------------
uric acid,hypoxanthine ( unclear )
Isotretinon----------------------------------------
taken with food
Doxorubicin-------------------------------------
cardiotoxic
Methadone--------------------------------------
longest acting
Labetalol----------------------------------------bb
for pregnant htn
not with diabetic foot- -------------------------
mrsa
htn+ Angina- --------------------------------
Verapamil,
methotrexate tt. -----------------------------
folinic acid
Vitamin K-----------------------------------
-2,7,9,10
Vit. Teratogenic on high dose--------------------
vit A
most rapid onset----------------
desflurane,nitrous oxide,isoflurane (chose
lowest PC)
px taking statin and htn med with sore throat-
runny nose fever-----dexclorpheniramine+pcm
colchicine dose----------------------1000mcg,
and 500mcg after 1hr max. 1.5mg
Absence seizure----------------------------
ethosuximide
• Tonic clonic----------------------------------
Valproate
Delete

Sure! Here’s a complete overview of the topics

you've listed, elaborating on the interactions,
mechanisms, effects, and treatments
mentioned.

1. Bromocriptine and Levodopa

(Pharmacodynamic Interaction)

Pharmacodynamic Interaction
Interaction:
Bromocriptine, a dopamine agonist, and
levodopa, a precursor to dopamine, are often
used together in the management of
Parkinson's disease. Bromocriptine can
reduce the amount of levodopa needed by
enhancing dopamine receptor activation. This
can lead to an additive or synergistic effect,
improving symptoms while potentially
reducing the side effects associated with
higher doses of levodopa.

2. Theophylline and Smoking

Interaction
Interaction: Smoking decreases the serum
concentrations of theophylline, a
bronchodilator, through induction of CYP1A2,
an enzyme responsible for the metabolism of
theophylline. Patients who smoke may require
higher doses of theophylline to achieve
therapeutic effects.

3. Acyclovir Dose Adjustment

Condition for Dose Adjustment

Adjustment: Acyclovir
requires dose adjustment in renal impairment,
as the drug is excreted primarily via the
kidneys. Impaired renal function can lead to
increased drug levels and a higher risk of
toxicity, especially neurological symptoms.

4. Cephalexin Dose Adjustment

Condition for Dose Adjustment

Adjustment:
Cephalexin also requires dose adjustment
based on renal function. Similar to acyclovir,
impaired renal clearance results in elevated
levels of the medication in the body,
increasing the risk of adverse effects.

5. COCs and Smoking (V TE Risk)

Risk
Risk: Combined oral contraceptives (COCs)
and smoking significantly increase the risk of
venous thromboembolism (VTE). This is
especially important in women over the age of
35 or those who smoke heavily, as the
estrogen component of COCs increases
clotting factors, while smoking increases the
risk of cardiovascular events.

6. Mechanism of Clavulanic Acid

Mechanism
Mechanism: Clavulanic acid is a beta-
lactamase inhibitor. It inhibits beta-lactamase
enzymes produced by bacteria that normally
confer resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics.
By blocking these enzymes, clavulanic acid
helps to restore the efficacy of the paired
antibiotics (like amoxicillin) by preventing
their destruction.

7. Cell Wall Synthesis Inhibitors

Class of Antibiotics
Antibiotics: This class includes
antibiotics that inhibit the synthesis of
bacterial cell walls, such as penicillins and
cephalosporins. They block the
transpeptidation process, which is essential
for cross-linking peptidoglycan layers, thus
leading to bacterial lysis.

8. Most Sensitive to Bacteroides Fragilis

Antibiotics
Antibiotics: Metronidazole is most effective
against Bacteroides fragilis, particularly for
anaerobic infections. Cefoxitin is also
effective but slightly less so.

Options include:

Metronidazole: First-line treatment.

Cefoxitin: Second option.

9. Acute Dystonia with Haloperidol

Characteristics
Characteristics: Acute dystonia can occur
early in treatment with antipsychotics such as
haloperidol and can be reversed with
anticholinergic medications. If not treated
early, chronic exposure can lead to tardive
dyskinesia, which is often irreversible even
after stopping the drug.

10. Paracetamol (Acetaminophen)

Safety Concerns
Concerns:

Long-term hepatic damage

damage: Doses over
4 grams per day increase the risk of liver
toxicity.

Dosing
Dosing: Regular dosing should not exceed
this threshold to prevent hepatotoxicity.

11. Vaginal Thrush Treatment After Antibiotic

Use

First-Line Treatment
Treatment: Nystatin is often used
to treat thrush following antibiotic therapy,
which can disrupt normal flora leading to
yeast overgrowth.

12. Buprenorphine Patch Counseling

Recommendation
Recommendation: Caution patients to avoid
heat exposure when using buprenorphine
patches, as heat can increase systemic
absorption, leading to potential overdose.

13. Dehydration Symptoms in Children

Symptoms Include
Include: Lethargy, confusion, and
absence of tears while crying indicate
significant dehydration and require prompt
medical evaluation.

14. Olanzapine and Smoking

Interaction
Interaction: Smoking may decrease the
plasma concentration of olanzapine, leading
to reduced efficacy. Patients who quit smoking
may require dose adjustments to avoid side
effects.

15. Epistaxis (Nosebleed)

Cause
Cause: Thrombocytopenia, or low platelet
counts, can lead to increased bleeding
tendencies, including epistaxis.

16. Nausea and Vomiting in Chemotherapy

Medication
Medication: Dexamethasone (dexa) is often
used as an antiemetic to prevent nausea and
vomiting associated with chemotherapy.

17. Daunorubicin - Contact Dr. for Fever

Concern
Concern: Patients receiving daunorubicin
should contact their doctor if they develop a
fever, as it can indicate possible neutropenia
and associated infection.

18. Cardio-Safe Medications

Choice
Choice: Valproic acid is often considered
safer for patients with a history of cardiac
issues compared to others in similar classes.

19. Ciclosporin and Photosensitivity

Side Effect
Effect: Ciclosporin can cause
photosensitivity, requiring patients to avoid
excessive sun exposure or use protective
measures.

20. Linear Kinetics and Half-Life

Understanding
Understanding: Doubling the dose of drugs
that follow linear kinetics does not affect the
half-life. Half-life is a pharmacokinetic
parameter that remains constant regardless of
dose.

21. Volume of Distribution (Vd) and Changes

Decrease in VdVd: Can occur due to

increased tissue binding or decreased
plasma protein binding, leading to
increased plasma concentration without
changing total body distribution.

Increased tissue binding

binding: May lead to
lower plasma concentrations but not impact
overall tissue distribution significantly.

22. Lisinopril Maximum Dose in Hypertension

Maximum Dose
Dose: The maximum
recommended dose of lisinopril for
hypertension management is 40 mg daily.

23. Absence Seizures Treatment

First-Line Treatment
Treatment: Ethosuximide is
specifically indicated for absence seizures.

24. Glaucoma Medication Precautions

Contraindicated
Contraindicated: Timolol should not be used
in patients with bradycardia or other severe
cardiac conditions due to its beta-blocking
effects.

25. Doxorubicin Risks

Adverse Effects
Effects: Doxorubicin is noted for its
potential cardiotoxicity
cardiotoxicity, necessitating
monitoring of cardiac function during
treatment.

26. Methotrexate Toxicity Treatment

Antidote
Antidote: Folinic acid (leucovorin) is used to
mitigate toxicity from methotrexate,
particularly in cases of overdose or high-dose
therapy.

27. Hypoglycemia Risk Among Medications

High Risk
Risk: Sulfonylureas, such as glipizide
and glyburide, are associated with a higher
risk of hypoglycemia compared to other oral
hypoglycemic agents.

28. Chemotherapy Side Effects

Common Side Effects

Effects: For breast cancer
patients undergoing chemotherapy, stomatitis
and oral inflammation can frequently occur
with agents like fluorouracil.

29. Community-Acquired Pneumonia (CAP)

Common Microorganism
Microorganism: Streptococcus
pneumoniae is the most common pathogen
associated with CAP.

30. Allergy Considerations

Cross-Sensitivity
Cross-Sensitivity: Patients allergic to
dicloxacillin should also avoid cephalexin due
to potential cross-reactivity among beta-
lactam antibiotics.

31. Steroid Structure

Relationship
Relationship: Many steroids are structurally
similar to vitamin D, particularly regarding
their sterol framework.

32. Piperacillin Structure

Class
Class: Piperacillin is a penicillin derivative,
structurally modified to enhance its activity
against certain bacterial strains, including
Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

33. Zollinger-Ellison Syndrome

Associated Organ
Organ: This condition involves
gastrin-secreting tumors, most commonly
affecting the pancreas.

34. Endoplasmic Reticulum Structure

Connection
Connection: The rough endoplasmic
reticulum is distinguished by ribosome
attachment, making it crucial for protein
synthesis.

35. Lansoprazole Mechanism of Action

Mechanism
Mechanism: Lansoprazole is a proton pump
inhibitor (PPI) that irreversibly inhibits H+/K+
ATPase in gastric parietal cells, reducing
gastric acid secretion.

36. Atorvastatin Mechanism of Action

Mechanism
Mechanism: Atorvastatin functions as an
HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor, reducing
cholesterol biosynthesis and lowering LDL
cholesterol levels.

37. Metformin Mechanism of Action

Mechanism
Mechanism: Primarily affects glucose
metabolism by improving insulin sensitivity
and increasing glucose uptake in peripheral
tissues.

38. Diazoxide Administration

Route
Route: Diazoxide is typically administered as
an intravenous infusion, primarily in a hospital
setting for acute hypertension or
hypoglycemia.

39. EDTA Use

Function
Function: Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid
(EDTA) is employed as a chelating agent in
cases of heavy metal poisoning.

40. Local Anesthetics Mechanism

Mechanism
Mechanism: Local anesthetics, such as
lidocaine, block sodium channels, inhibiting
the propagation of action potentials in nerve
fibers.

41. Sildenafil Dosage

Dosage
Dosage: The usual recommended dose of
sildenafil for erectile dysfunction is 50 mg
taken approximately one hour before sexual
activity.

42. Lisinopril Standard Dosage

Dose
Dose: A typical dose of lisinopril used in
hypertensive patients can go up to 40 mg
daily.

43. Scabies and Treatment Consultation

Recommendation
Recommendation: Patients with scabies
should be advised on preventive measures,
including treating household members to
avoid reinfestation.

44. Opioid Antagonist

Medication
Medication: Naloxone is utilized to reverse
opioid overdose effects.

45. Mineralocorticoid Example

Example
Example: Fludrocortisone is a synthetic
mineralocorticoid used to treat conditions like
Addison's disease.

46. Methotrexate Byproducts

Toxic Byproducts
Byproducts: Methotrexate can
generate metabolites such as uric acid and
hypoxanthine, contributing to potential
nephrotoxicity.

47. Isotretinoin Administration

Guideline
Guideline: Isotretinoin should be taken with
food to enhance absorption.

48. Doxorubicin and Cardiotoxicity

Consideration
Consideration: Prior monitoring of cardiac
function is essential during treatment with
doxorubicin due to its potential cardiotoxic
effects.

49. Methadone Characteristics

Duration
Duration: Methadone is specified as one of
the longest-acting opioids, often used in both
pain management and substance use disorder
treatments.

50. Labetalol in Pregnancy

Usage
Usage: Labetalol is commonly used to
manage hypertension during pregnancy due to
its favorable safety profile.

51. Diabetic Foot Considerations

Infection Concern
Concern: Methicillin-resistant
Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) typically
complicates infections in diabetic foot ulcers,
necessitating caution in treatment approach.

52. Hypertension and Angina Management

Medication
Medication: Verapamil is often prescribed for
concurrent management of hypertension and
angina due to its dual action as a calcium
channel blocker.

53. Methotrexate Treatment

Supportive Care
Care: Folinic acid is utilized in
conjunction with methotrexate to reduce
toxicity and counteract its effects during
treatments.

54. Vitamin K Function

Physiological Role
Role: Vitamin K is essential for
the synthesis of clotting factors II, VII, IX, and
X in the liver.
55. Teratogenic Risk of Vitamin A

Risk
Risk: High doses of vitamin A during
pregnancy are associated with teratogenic
effects, necessitating caution in
supplementation.

56. Rapid Onset Anesthetics

Selection Criteria
Criteria: Drugs such as desflurane
and nitrous oxide exhibit rapid onset of action
due to low pulmonary partition coefficients.

57. Patient with Symptoms and Medications

Treatment
Treatment: For a patient taking statins and
antihypertensive medication presenting with
cold symptoms, dexchlorpheniramine in
combination with paracetamol may be
appropriate for symptomatic relief.

58. Colchicine Dosing

Dosage Guidelines
Guidelines: The loading dose of
colchicine is 1000 mcg followed by 500
mcg after one hour, with a maximum
cumulative dose of 1.5 mg to avoid potential
toxicity.

59. Absence Seizure Treatment

Medication
Medication: Ethosuximide is the first-line
agent for treating absence seizures, whereas
valproate can be used for various types of
seizures.

60. Tonic-Clonic Seizure Treatment

Recommended Drug Drug: Valproate is often the

drug of choice for managing tonic-clonic
seizures due to its broad-spectrum activity.

If you require additional elaboration on any

specific point or further analysis, please feel
free to ask!

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Please answer and give computation and

explain: A hospital has 1l of 14% API having
molecular weight 50If a person came and ask
for 1 l of 0.1 molar solution.how much will you
dispense from the above solution
given.0.1*50--------1000x---------------1000x=
514%, 14g----------100ml 5g---------------
xx= 35.7ml
Delete

To determine how much of the 14% w/v Active

Pharmaceutical Ingredient (API) solution you
need to dispense in order to prepare 1 liter of
a 0.1 molar (0.1 M) solution, let’s follow the
steps methodically.

Given Information:

1. Concentration of API solution

solution: 14% w/v

This means there are 14 grams of API

in 100 mL.

2. Volume of API solution available

available: 1 L =
1000 mL

3. Molecular weight (MW) of the API

API: 50
g/mol

4. Desired concentration
concentration: 0.1 molar (0.1 M)

Step 1: Calculate the amount of API needed

for the desired solution

To form a 0.1 M solution, we first need to

calculate the total number of moles of API
required in 1 L of the solution.

[
\text{Molarity (M)} = \frac{\text{moles of
solute}}{\text{volume of solution (L)}}
]

From the desired molarity:

[
\text{Moles of API} = \text{Molarity} \times
\text{Volume} = 0.1 , \text{mol/L} \times 1 ,
\text{L} = 0.1 , \text{mol}
]

Now, convert moles to grams using the

molecular weight of the API:
[
\text{Mass of API (g)} = \text{moles} \times
\text{molecular weight} = 0.1 , \text{mol}
\times 50 , \text{g/mol} = 5 , \text{g}
]

Step 2: Determine how much of the 14% API

solution contains 5 g

Next, we need to figure out how much of the

14% w/v solution contains 5 grams of API.

From the 14% solution, we know:

[
\text{14% w/v} = 14 \text{ g API in } 100 \text{
mL}
]

To find out how much volume contains 5

grams:

1. Set up a proportion based on the

percentage: [ \text{Let } x = \text{ amount of
14% solution needed (in mL)} ] [ \frac{14
\text{ g}}{100 \text{ mL}} = \frac{5 \text{ g}}
{x \text{ mL}} ]

Step 3: Solve for x

Cross-multiply:
[
14 \times x = 5 \times 100
]
[
14x = 500
]
[
x = \frac{500}{14} \approx 35.71 , \text{mL}
]

Conclusion

To prepare 1 L of a 0.1 M solution of the API,

you will need to dispense approximately 35.71
mL of the 14% w/v API solution.

Summary of Computation Steps:

Calculated moles needed for a 0.1 M

solution = 0.1 mol.

Converted moles to grams = 5 g (using

MW).

Used the percentage concentration to

determine how much volume contains 5 g =
35.71 mL of 14% solution.

If you have any further questions or need

clarification, feel free to ask!

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Please answer and elaborate: Patients get rash

30 mins Amoxicillin, then what should be
avoided in future-------cephal

correct below regarding the interaction

associated with amiodarone, the options are
like a) reduce the digoxin dose by 1/3 b)
inhibits CYP 3A4/5 substrates c) high risk of
QT prolongation with venlafaxine d) interfere
with the levothyroxine controlled
hypothyroidism.

reduce the blood cells after chemo (usually 7-

10 days), I have got the options of 6-8, and
10-14---------------------------------10-14days

cross sensitivity percentage of cephalo and

penicillin ------------------(4-10%)
"not a SE of nicotinic blockers"---------------
hypersalivation
Benzatropine side effect--------------------
anticholinergic (constipation)
Which class Withdrawal results in cholinergic
effects of salivation----------TCA
For this, PH is 8.2, Pka is 9.2, asked the ratio
of log (salt/acid)---------1:10
Non selective beta blocker------------------------
--- propranolol
•
onflicting option for benzatropine is weight
gain (I don't know which one is right among
weight gain and constipation)
•
hepatotoxicity the drug may withdraw,----------
-----------terbinafine
Most polar-------------------------------------------
----water
hepatotoxic drug was the question and in the
options Carbamazepine was there, I have
selected----------------------------------- cbz

Levetiracetam should not be given in which

seizure (I have answered absence seizures)
• . Absence also-------------------------------
called petit mal

which drug the reduce the effectiveness of

contraceptive (options are levetiracetam (or
some other anti convulsant inducer) and
valproate (usually inhibitor). I have selected
that inducer, and I don't remember the other
two options.
•
felodipine plus statin------------------------------
rx

TDM not required------------------------------:

metoclopramide

INR of warfarin needs to be monitored when

used in combination with following drug, I
couldn't find any inhibitors, but there was
HCTZ (usually causes hypokalemia which
further increases bleeding). I have selected
this, and I don't remember the other options
(edited)------------------------- choose
metanidazole

Metformin doesn't cause--------------------------

QT prolongation
• Atypical cause of pneumonia, options
(strepto, staphylo,---------------------
mycoplasma
• Buprenorphine comobined with which drug
to reduce the risk diversion (or something)----
-----------naloxone
DOC for Q fever------------doxycycline
• Diptheria caused by --------------------
corynebacterium bacterium
Drug used in angina and HTN ---------------
nifedipine
digoxin------------------------------------- use in
atrial fibrillation
•
which is right for digoxin, I am not sure of
answer from these two options 1) digoxin use
in atrial fibrillation by increasing the force of
contraction, 2) digoxin dose need to be
reduced in hypokalemia patients. I am sure
that the other two options are wrong.

• GTN dose in chronic angina. Options were

like GTN tablet, spray, and the other two are
transdermal patch (one for 24 hour and the
other for 12 hours).(Some 5mg in both the
transdermal options)------------------5mg/12—
14hr
• Capping, ---------------------------separation
of tablet
• Least appropriate factor in significant
transfer of drug through breast feeding
(options are lipophilicity, weak base, plasma
concentration, I don't remember the other
option)
--------------low mother plasma concentration
Which doesn't the affect the optical rotation --
--------------- ph,
Trimethoprim--------------------------- use in
pneumocystitis jirovecii.
Otitis media---------------------------
Amoxicillin.
AUC=F*D/Cl, I have got an calculation with
respect to this formula
Delete

Certainly! Let's address each of your points

systematically and provide elaborations and
clarifications where necessary.

1. Patient Rash After Amoxicillin

Avoid in Future
Future: If a patient develops a rash
within 30 minutes of taking amoxicillin, future
prescriptions should avoid cephalosporins
(i.e., "cephal" refers to this class) due to
potential cross-reactivity. The cross-reactivity
between penicillin and cephalosporins is
about 4-10%
4-10%, so it's prudent to switch to an
alternative antibiotic if there's a known allergy.

2. Interactions Associated with Amiodarone

Correct Options
Options:

a) Reduce the digoxin dose by 1/3 1/3:

Correct. Amiodarone increases digoxin
levels due to its effects on the renal
clearance of digoxin.

b) Inhibits CYP 3A4/5 substrates

substrates:
Correct. Amiodarone is a potent inhibitor of
CYP3A4, affecting drug metabolism.

c) High risk of QT prolongation with

venlafaxine
venlafaxine: Correct. Amiodarone can
increase the risk of QT prolongation when
used with other drugs that contribute to this
effect, including venlafaxine.

d) Interfere with levothyroxine control

of hypothyroidism
hypothyroidism: Correct. Amiodarone
can affect thyroid function due to its iodine
content, complicating the management of
hypothyroidism.

3. Time for Blood Cell Recovery After Chemo

Answer
Answer: You mentioned that recovery usually
takes 10-14 days
days, which is correct. After
chemotherapy, blood cell counts typically drop
and recovery may take this period, especially
for neutrophils.

4. Cross Sensitivity Percentage of

Cephalosporins and Penicillin

Percentage
Percentage: The cross-reactivity rate
between penicillins and cephalosporins is 4-
10%
10%. This is an essential consideration for
prescribing antibiotics to patients with a
known penicillin allergy.

5. Not a Side Effect of Nicotinic Blockers

The correct answer is that hypersalivation is

not typically a side effect of nicotinic blockers.
These agents primarily reduce muscle tone
and can cause dry mouth rather than
excessive salivation.

6. Benzatropine Side Effect

Class
Class: Benzatropine is an anticholinergic drug
commonly used to manage extrapyramidal
symptoms. Therefore, constipation is a
known side effect due to its anticholinergic
properties. Weight gain is less typically
associated with benzatropine, making
constipation the more relevant side effect.

7. Withdrawal Effects of TCAs

Effects
Effects: Withdrawal from tricyclic
antidepressants (TCAs) can result in
cholinergic rebound effects, such as
salivation, lacrimation, urination,
defecation
defecation, and other symptoms.

8. pH, pKa, and Salt/Acid Ratio

Calculation
Calculation: Given pH of 8.2 and pKa of 9.2:

The formula for the ratio is: [ \text{Ratio} =

\frac{[\text{Salt}]}{[\text{Acid}]} =
10^{(\text{pH} - \text{pKa})} ]

Thus, [ = 10^{(8.2 - 9.2)} = 10^{-1} = 0.1 ]

Which means the salt to acid ratio is 1:10

1:10.

9. Non-Selective Beta Blocker

Example
Example: Propranolol is a non-selective
beta-adrenergic blocker, used for
hypertension, anxiety, and migraine
prophylaxis.

10. Withdrawal Effects of Benzatropine

If weight gain and constipation are the

conflicting options, constipation is more
accurate as a side effect, while weight gain is
not commonly associated with
anticholinergics like benzatropine.

11. Hepatotoxicity and Withdrawal

^When you mention terbinafine

terbinafine, it is indeed
known to be hepatotoxic, especially with long-
term use.

12. Most Polar Substance

The most polar compound among common

liquids is water due to its hydrogen bonding
capabilities and high dielectric constant.

13. Carbamazepine

While Carbamazepine is known to have side

effects, it is not the most hepatotoxic. It's
important to look for drugs that have high
hepatotoxic potential when prompted for
hepatotoxicity questions, such as terbinafine
or acetaminophen
acetaminophen.

14. Levetiracetam and Seizures

Usage Note
Note: Levetiracetam is generally
considered safe for various seizure types.
However, it may not be the first-line treatment
for absence seizures (petit mal), where
ethosuximide or valproate is typically
preferred.

15. Contraceptive Effectiveness and Drug

Interaction

Inducers vs. Inhibitors

Inhibitors: Enzyme inducers
(potentially including some antiepileptic
drugs) may reduce the effectiveness of
hormonal contraceptives. Therefore, if you
have identified levetiracetam (or other
inducers), that is likely the correct choice.

16. Felodipine and Statins

Prescribing Note
Note: Concurrent use of
felodipine (a calcium channel blocker) with
statins is generally safe, but it's also good to
reassess interactions and monitor for any
increased side effects.

17. Therapeutic Drug Monitoring (TDM)

Drugs Not Requiring TDM TDM:

Metoclopramide does not typically require
routine therapeutic drug monitoring, unlike
drugs with narrower therapeutic windows.

18. Monitoring Warfarin with Other Drugs

For patients on warfarin, drug interactions that

can affect INR greatly include antibiotics like
metronidazole
metronidazole, which can increase the
anticoagulant effect and bleeding risk.

19. Metformin and QT Prolongation

Metformin does not cause QT prolongation

and is generally safe concerning heart rhythm.

20. Unusual Causes of Pneumonia

Pneumonia Etiology
Etiology: Among the atypical
causes, mycoplasma is indeed a significant
pathogen, while Streptococcus pneumoniae
and Staphylococcus aureus are more
common, classic bacterial causes.

21. Buprenorphine and Naloxone Combo

This combination is often used in formulations

to deter recreational use of buprenorphine
and reduce the risk of diversion.

22. Doxycycline for Q Fever

The drug of choice for treating Q fever is

indeed doxycycline
doxycycline.

23. Diphtheria Pathogen

Causative Agent
Agent: Diphtheria is caused by the
bacterium Corynebacterium diphtheriae
diphtheriae.

24. Angina and Hypertension Treatment

The drug used in managing both conditions is

nifedipine
nifedipine, a calcium channel blocker.

25. Digoxin Use

Option 11: It’s more accurate to say

"Digoxin is used in atrial fibrillation to
increase the force of contraction," as it
increases cardiac contractility.

Option 22: It requires reduced dosing in

hypokalemia, as low potassium levels can
increase digoxin toxicity.

26. GTN for Chronic Angina

The GTN known formulation for chronic angina

management is typically 5 mg transdermal
patch (12-14 hours)
hours), allowing for stable
levels of medication.

27. Tablet Capping

The term "capping" in this context may refer

to the separation of a tablet, particularly
during manufacturing or storage.

28. Drug Transfer Through Breastfeeding

Among the factors that affect drug transfer

during breastfeeding, lipophilicity
significantly impacts transfer rate; low
mother plasma concentration is also a
critical factor, as lower levels in the mother's
circulation reduce the actual amount passing
to the infant.

29. Optical Rotation

Effect of pH
pH: Changes in pH can affect the
ionization state of a compound, shifting its
optical rotation. Optical rotation can be
impacted by functional groups but not all
compounds are sensitive to pH changes.

30. Trimethoprim

Use
Use: Trimethoprim is commonly used to treat
infections with Pneumocystis jirovecii
jirovecii,
especially in immunocompromised patients
like those with HIV/AIDS.

31. Otitis Media Treatment

First-Line Treatment
Treatment: Amoxicillin is the
standard treatment for acute otitis media,
effective against common pathogens
underlying the infection.

32. AUC Calculation

For the formula AUC = F × D / Cl

Cl:

This indicates how total drug exposure

(AUC) is influenced by the bioavailability (F),
dose (D), and clearance (Cl) of the drug.

If you have any further questions on these

topics or need additional details, feel free to
ask!

Copy Search Summarize Delete

Web

Please answer and elaborate: Which shouldn't

be taken in viral and fungal skin infections
• Isotretinoin
• Mometasone--------------------<
• Silver sulfasalazine
• please share the correct answer
•.
Nicotinic blockers cause-------------
hyposalivation & hypotension

Hyposalivation and hypertension

Hypersalivation and hypotension Hypotension
and hyposalivation Hypersalivation and
hypertension

choice in arrhythmia---------------------
verapamil
SE of doxepin------------------------
constipation, dry mouth & sinus tachycardia
whooping cough DOC----------------------
macrolides
cationic surfactant example--------------------
cetrimide & benzalkonium
anion surfactant------------------------------ Na
lauryl sulfact
epoprostenol action,-----------------------------
vasodilator & dec plat aggre
cortisol hypersecretion leads to which
condition----------------cushing
tamoxifen adverse effect in menopausal
womem-------------------endometriosis
ncreased ALT affects which organ---------------
---liver
herbal drug which has action on
estrogen/estrdiol------------- hypercum(st john)
( valerian, hypericum, St.johns wart)
testosterone secretion stimulated by---------
LH
amiodarone interaction---------------------3A4
Fluoxitine ----------------------------------longest
 washout period
Amiodaeone + lithium -----------------thyroid
toxicity
Amioderone with---------------------- venlaflexin
qt prolong
Toe infection------------------------- terbinafine
beer law not dep---------------------------
transmittance
Def enantionmer
diasteromer
Isomer

In exothermic process heat is release when

solute dissolve in solvents
As a solubility of subs dec with inc temp of
exo------------------inc temp dec vol

organophosphate toxicity cause-----------------

miosis, diarrhea
vitamin not imp for eye------------------vit D
alcohol added with water what will happen-----
------ inc tmp
structure of purine
thiazine, furan, amino acid

smoking theo,--------------------- dec theo

primarly hyperthyrodism ocurs due to-----------
-------- dec TSH, Inc t3 & t4
why we add salbactum with pen------------------
--- penicillinase inhibitor
oral cephalon--------------- cefixime, cefaclor,
cephalexin
iV cephalon-------------------- cefazolin,
cefoxitin, cefalothin
tragacanth is a:----------------------natural gum
pelvic ileus related one que----------------------
--pentathenic acid (vit b5)

atropine cause except-----------------------------

-------hypotension
miosis
bronchoconstriction
increase getstric motility
hypotention
diazepam moa---------------------------- Gaba
receptor agonist
CNs reakted drugs which not act on gaba------
-------------chlorpramazine
Non-angina drug-----------------------------------
--------- peridopril
drug used in pregnacy with
hypertension---------------------- labetalol,
methyldopa
counciling of rifampicin-------------------
----------- red urine, inc liver enzyme. Not take
with vit 6, change eye color

Salbutamol------------------------------------------
-SABA
Terbutaline------------------------------------------
----SABA
Which meditation reduces coc effectiveness --
-----------------Ans was topiramate
Which is an sglt2 inhibitor---------------------
gliflozin.
Slidenafil can be given with which drug---------
---------- nitrofurantoin
Mg stearate ----------------------------------------
--lubricant
Edta-----------------------------------------------
chelating agent
Acyclovir -----------------------------------------
antiviral
Which antiviral cause neutropenia --------------
-------------- ganiciclovor
Moa of mebendazole----------------------------
inhibit metabolism
Cephalosporins Moa-------------------------------
-------------cell synthesis inhib
Sterility not required for---------------------------
---------- enema
Isotonicity required for----------------------------
------- Nasal
Which drug least effect heart
A) doxepin
B) valproic acid----------------------------<
C) daunorubicin
D) Mebeverine
By applying stress, flow increase, and viscosity
decrease
A)Plastic
B)Pseudoplastic------------------------------------
--<
C)Dilatant
D)Newtonion

Which combination is correct for suspension

A) Newtonion and thixotropy
B) plastic without thixotropy
C) Pseudoplastic with thixotropy ----------------
------------<
D) dilatant with thixotropy

Delete

Sure! Let's go through each of your

statements and questions systematically,
clarifying the correct answers along with
explanations where necessary.

1. Medications Not to Take in Viral and Fungal

Skin Infections

Answer
Answer: Mometasone (or other topical
corticosteroids) should generally be avoided
in viral and fungal infections. While
isotretinoin is used for severe acne and has
different indications, mometasone can
suppress the local immune response and may
worsen a viral or fungal infection. Silver
sulfadiazine can be used on infected or
compromised skin but should be applied
cautiously to avoid further exacerbating
infections.

2. Nicotinic Blockers Cause

Answer
Answer: Nicotinic blockers typically lead to
hyposalivation and hypotension
hypotension. Unlike
anticholinergic agents, which can cause
hypersalivation, nicotinic blockers inhibit the
release of acetylcholine at the neuromuscular
junction, leading to decreased saliva
production (hyposalivation) and potential
drops in blood pressure (hypotension).

3. Choice in Arrhythmia

Answer
Answer: Verapamil is a choice for treating
various arrhythmias, particularly those related
to supraventricular tachycardias, because it is
a calcium channel blocker that affects heart
rhythm by slowing conduction through the AV
node.

4. Side Effects of Doxepin

Answer
Answer: Doxepin, a tricyclic antidepressant,
can cause constipation, dry mouth, and
sinus tachycardia as common side effects.

5. Whooping Cough DOC

Answer
Answer: The drug of choice (DOC) for
whooping cough (caused by Bordetella
pertussis) is macrolides (e.g., azithromycin or
erythromycin).

6. Examples of Surfactants

Cationic surfactants
surfactants: Cetrimide &
Benzalkonium chloride
chloride.

Anionic surfactant
surfactant: Common example is
sodium lauryl sulfate
sulfate.

7. Epoprostenol Action

Answer
Answer: Epoprostenol is a vasodilator and
helps to decrease platelet aggregation
aggregation. It
is used in conditions such as pulmonary
arterial hypertension.

8. Cortisol Hypersecretion Leads to Which

Condition

Answer
Answer: Cushing's syndrome results from
excess cortisol levels, often due to tumors of
the adrenal glands or pituitary gland
(Cushing's disease).

9. Tamoxifen Adverse Effect in Menopausal

Women

Adverse Effect
Effect: In menopausal women
taking tamoxifen, a potential adverse effect is
the development of endometrial
hyperplasia or endometriosis due to
estrogen-influencing properties.

10. Increased ALT Affects Which Organ

Answer
Answer: Increased ALT (alanine
aminotransferase) primarily indicates liver
damage or dysfunction.

11. Herbal Drug Acting on Estrogen

Answer
Answer: Hypericum (St. John’s Wort) is
known to influence estrogen/estradiol levels,
though effects can vary.

12. Testosterone Secretion Stimulated By

Answer
Answer: Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
stimulates testosterone secretion from the
Leydig cells in the testes.

13. Amiodarone Interaction

Answer
Answer: Amiodarone is known to inhibit the
CYP3A4 enzyme, impacting the metabolism
of various drugs.

14. Fluoxetine Longest Washout Period

Answer
Answer: Among antidepressants, fluoxetine
has the longest half-life and washout period,
making it important when switching to other
medications.

15. Amiodarone + Lithium

Answer
Answer: The combination of amiodarone
and lithium can lead to thyroid toxicity due
to the effects of both drugs on thyroid
function.

16. Amiodarone with Venlafaxine

Answer
Answer: This combination can lead to a high
risk of QT prolongation
prolongation. Caution is needed
to monitor for arrhythmias.

17. Toe Infection Treatment

Answer
Answer: Terbinafine is commonly used to
treat fungal infections of the toenails and is
effective against dermatophyte infections.

18. Beer-Lambert Law

Answer
Answer: In the Beer-Lambert Law, the law is
not dependent on transmittance
transmittance; it describes
the relationship between absorbance and
concentration (A = εcl), stating that
absorbance (A) is a logarithmic function of
transmittance, but A is what is most directly
used in absorptive measurements.

19. Definitions

Enantiomer
Enantiomer: Stereoisomers that are non-
superimposable mirror images of each
other.

Diastereomer
Diastereomer: Stereoisomers that are not
mirror images and have different physical
properties.

Isomer
Isomer: Compounds that have the same
formula but different structures, which
include structural, geometric, and optical
isomers.

20. Exothermic Process and Solubility

Clarification
Clarification: In an exothermic process, heat
is released when the solute dissolves in the
solvent. Generally, as temperature increases,
solubility can decrease for some solutes (e.g.,
gases), whereas exothermic dissolution can
have variable temperature and solubility
relationships.

21. Organophosphate Toxicity Symptoms

Answer
Answer: Organophosphate poisoning leads to
symptoms such as miosis, diarrhea
diarrhea, and
other cholinergic effects (e.g., salivation).

22. Vitamins for Eye Health

Answer
Answer: Among the vitamins, Vitamin D is
not crucial for eye health compared to others
like Vitamin A, which is essential for vision.

23. Alcohol and Water Mixture

Answer
Answer: When alcohol is added to water, the
resultant mixture can lead to increased
temperature due to the exothermic nature of
the mixing process.

24. Structure of Purine

Purines are composed of a fused two-ring

structure of a pyrimidine and imidazole with
adenine and guanine as their configurations.

25. Theophylline and Smoking

Answer
Answer: Smoking leads to decreased
theophylline levels due to induction of
cytochrome P450 enzymes.

26. Primary Hyperthyroidism

Answer
Answer: Primary hyperthyroidism typically
occurs due to decreased TSH levels
(because of negative feedback), with
increased T3 and T4T4.

27. Adding Sulbactam with Penicillin

Reason
Reason: Sulbactam is added to penicillin to
act as a penicillinase inhibitor
inhibitor, which
prevents the degradation of penicillin by some
bacteria.

28. Oral Cephalosporins

Examples
Examples: Oral cephalosporins include
cefixime, cefaclor, and cephalexin
cephalexin.

29. IV Cephalosporins

Examples
Examples: IV cephalosporins include
cefazolin, cefoxitin, and cefalothin
cefalothin.

30. Tragacanth

Answer
Answer: Tragacanth is classified as a natural
gum
gum, often used in formulations as a
thickening agent.

31. Pelvic Ileus and Vitamin

Question
Question: This could potentially involve
Pantothenic acid (Vitamin B5) in various
metabolic pathways relating to energy
metabolism.

32. Atropine Effects

Atropine side effects generally include dry

mouth, tachycardia
tachycardia, but it can lead to
hypotension as a result of blocking vagal
tone but not miosis and increased gastric
motility (which is the opposite of what it
does).

33. Diazepam MOA

Answer
Answer: Diazepam acts as a GABA receptor
agonist
agonist, enhancing the inhibitory effects of
GABA in the central nervous system.

34. CNS Drugs Not Acting on GABA

Answer
Answer: Chlorpromazine does not directly act
on GABA receptors; rather, it is an
antipsychotic that blocks dopaminergic
receptors.

35. Non-Angina Drug

Answer
Answer: Perindopril is primarily used for
hypertension and heart failure rather than
chest pain relief like angina.

36. Drugs Used in Pregnancy for

Hypertension

Examples
Examples: Labetalol and methyldopa are
commonly prescribed for managing
hypertension during pregnancy.

37. Counseling of Rifampicin

Rifampicin should be counselled for:

Red urine discoloration

discoloration, a harmless side
effect.

It can increase liver enzyme levels

levels.

Avoid taking with vitamin B6

(pyridoxine), as it may interfere with its
effectiveness.

38. Salbutamol

Classification
Classification: Salbutamol is classified as a
SABA (short-acting beta-agonist), used for
asthma and COPD.

39. Terbutaline

Also classified as a SABA

SABA, used for
bronchospasm.

40. Drug Reducing Contraceptive

Effectiveness

Answer
Answer: Topiramate
Topiramate, an antiepileptic used
off-label for migraines and weight loss, can
reduce the effectiveness of contraceptives
due to its enzyme-inducing properties.

41. SGLT2 Inhibitor

Examples
Examples: Medications like gliflozin (e.g.,
canagliflozin, empagliflozin) are SGLT2
inhibitors used for diabetes management.

42. Sildenafil Compatibility

Answer
Answer: Sildenafil (Viagra) should not be
given with nitrates (e.g., nitroglycerin), due to
the risk of life-threatening hypotension. It
does not interact with nitrofurantoin.

43. Magnesium Stearate

Classification
Classification: Magnesium stearate is
commonly used as a lubricant in
pharmaceutical formulations.

44. EDTA

Function
Function: Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid
(EDTA) acts as a chelating agent
agent, used to
bind metal ions.

45. Acyclovir

Classification
Classification: Acyclovir is classified as an
antiviral
antiviral, effective against herpes viruses.

46. Antiviral Causing Neutropenia

Answer
Answer: Ganciclovir is known to cause
neutropenia as a common side effect,
particularly in patients with underlying
vulnerabilities.

47. Mebendazole MOA

Mechanism
Mechanism: Mebendazole works by inhibiting
the metabolism of helminths (worms),
impairing their ability to absorb glucose and
other nutrients.

48. Cephalosporins MOA

Mechanism
Mechanism: Cephalosporins work by
inhibiting cell wall synthesis
synthesis, similar to
penicillins.

49. Sterility Not Required For

Answer
Answer: Sterility is not required for certain
enemas unless specified for medical
procedures. Most are used rectally without the
need for strict sterility protocols.

50. Isotonicity Required For

Answer
Answer: Isotonicity is essential for nasal
preparations to prevent irritation of the nasal
mucosa.

51. Drug Least Effect on the Heart

In your list:
Answer
Answer: The drug that least affects the heart
is likely B) valproic acid
acid, as it primarily
affects neurotransmitter systems rather than
directly impacting heart rate or contractility.

52. Applying Stress, Flow Increases, and

Viscosity Decreases

Answer
Answer: This scenario describes a
pseudoplastic behavior (also known as
shear-thinning), where viscosity decreases
with increased shear (stress) application.

53. Correct Combination for Suspension

Answer
Answer: The correct combination is C)
Pseudoplastic with thixotropy
thixotropy, as
thixotropic materials can have both shear-
thinning behavior and support suspensions.

If you have any further questions or need

additional clarification on any of these topics,
feel free to ask!

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Web

Give similarities and differences of each, its

unique characteristics and easy mnemonics
on how can i remember: A) Newtonion and
thixotropy
B) plastic without thixotropy
C) Pseudoplastic with thixotropy ----------------
------------<
D) dilatant with thixotropy

Delete

Understanding the rheological behavior of

substances is important in various fields,
including pharmaceuticals, materials science,
and food technology. Below is a breakdown of
the similarities and differences, unique
characteristics, and easy mnemonics for four
types of flow behaviors: Newtonian, plastic
without thixotropy, pseudoplastic with
thixotropy, and dilatant with thixotropy.

A) Newtonian and Thixotropy

Similarities:

Viscosity Measurement
Measurement: Both are used to
describe how a fluid flows and its
resistance to flow.

Substance Behavior
Behavior: Both can be
observed in liquid systems.

Differences:

Newtonian
Newtonian:

Definition
Definition: A Newtonian fluid has a
constant viscosity regardless of the
shear rate applied (e.g., water, mineral
oil).

Characteristics
Characteristics: Linearly proportional
relationship between shear stress and
shear rate.

Thixotropy
Thixotropy:

Definition
Definition: A thixotropic material
shows a decrease in viscosity over
time under constant shear stress (e.g.,
certain paints, gels).

Characteristics
Characteristics: Viscosity decreases
progressively with time when stress is
applied, but recovers over time when
stress is removed.

Unique Characteristics:

Newtonian
Newtonian: Simple behavior, predictable
with inverse relationship to temperature
(lower viscosity at higher temperatures).

Thixotropy
Thixotropy: Time-dependent behavior,
memory of structure, often requires a
certain yield stress to begin flowing.

Mnemonic:

Newtonian
Newtonian: Think of "New" as predictable
and constant Viscosity (N for Newton).

Thixotropy
Thixotropy: Think of "Thixo" as time (T for
Thixo) reducing viscosity with time under
stress.

B) Plastic without Thixotropy

Similarities:

Compared to Pseudoplastic
Pseudoplastic, both have a
yield stress that must be exceeded to
trigger fluid flow.

Differences:

Plastic without Thixotropy

Thixotropy:

Definition
Definition: Exhibits a yield stress that
must be overcome before it begins to
flow (e.g., mayonnaise, toothpaste).

Characteristics
Characteristics: Flow begins only
after yield stress has been exceeded,
and viscosity remains constant after
yielding.

Pseudoplastic
Pseudoplastic: Exhibits a reduction in
viscosity with increased shear rate, without
the need for a yield stress.

Unique Characteristics:

Plastic
Plastic: Viscosity does not change with
time; it behaves like a solid until the yield
 stress is reached.

Mnemonic:

Plastic
Plastic: Think "Plastic bends but doesn't
flow" until stress is applied. Remember
Yield Stress (Y for Yield).

C) Pseudoplastic with Thixotropy

Similarities:

Both exhibit non-Newtonian behavior,

meaning viscosity is affected by the shear
rate or time.

Both can exhibit structure breakdown under

shear.

Differences:

Pseudoplastic with Thixotropy

Thixotropy:

Definition
Definition: Exhibits decreased
viscosity with increased shear rate,
and viscosity decreases over time at
constant shear (e.g., ketchup, yogurt).

Characteristics
Characteristics: Instantaneous
viscosity change with stress and also
shows recovery when stress is
removed.

Pseudoplastic alone would only reduce

viscosity but would not have the time
dependence characteristic of thixotropic
behavior.

Unique Characteristics:

Pseudoplastic with Thixotropy

Thixotropy: Exhibits
unique time-dependent behavior while
responding to stress applied.

Mnemonic:

Pseudoplastic with Thixotropy

Thixotropy: Think of
"Pseudo" meaning fake constant behavior
as in a change of viscosity, and Thixo for
time dependence (P for Pseudo).

D) Dilatant with Thixotropy

Similarities:

Both are non-Newtonian and show altered

viscosity under shear stress.

Differences:

Dilatant with Thixotropy

Thixotropy:

Definition
Definition: Viscosity increases with
the rate of shear (e.g., cornstarch in
water – oobleck).

Characteristics
Characteristics: Becomes thicker
when stirred rapidly (dilatant effect)
but shows time-dependent
degradation of viscosity when stress is
maintained.

Dilatant alone would not have the time-

dependent characteristics associated with
thixotropic behavior.

Unique Characteristics:

Dilatant
Dilatant: Generally behaves
counterintuitively, becoming more viscous
under stress, unlike other fluids.

Mnemonic:

Dilatant
Dilatant: Think "Dilate means expand and
thicken when pushing." Combine with
Thixotropy as "Thixotic
Thixotic Reaction Over
Time" (D for Dilate).

Summary Comparison Chart

Viscosity
Yield Change Time
Type
Stress from Dependence
Shear

Newtonian No Constant No

Constant
Plastic Yes No
after yield

Decreases
Pseudoplastic No No
with shear

Increases
Dilatant No No
with shear

Decreases
Plastic with
Yes with shear Yes
Thixotropy
and time

Pseudoplastic Decreases
with No with shear Yes
Thixotropy and time

Increases
Dilatant with
No with shear Yes
Thixotropy
over time

By using these mnemonics and understanding

the key characteristics of each category, you
can more easily recall the differences and
similarities between these types of flow
behavior in non-Newtonian fluids.

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