8/2/2024

BITS Pilani
presentation
BITS Pilani Dr Pratik N Sheth
Pilani Campus Department of Chemical Engineering

BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

EE ZG513 - Applied Transport Phenomena

Lecture No. 1

Introduction

• Transport of
• momentum (fluid mechanics),
• energy (heat transfer),
• mass of various chemical species (mass transfer)

• Why study together?

• They frequently occur simultaneously in industrial, biological, agricultural, and
meteorological problems; in fact, the occurrence of any one transport process by
itself is the exception rather than the rule.
• The basic equations that describe the three transport phenomena are closely
related.
• The similarity of the equations under simple conditions is the basis for solving
problems "by analogy.“
• The molecular mechanisms underlying the various transport phenomena are
very closely related.
• All materials are made up of molecules, and the same molecular motions and
interactions are responsible for viscosity, thermal conductivity, and diffusion..

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Introduction

• Transport of
• Momentum
• Heat
• Mass

• Transport by
• Diffusion
• Convection
• Radiation ( for heat transfer)

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Fluid Mechanics

• It involves the transport of momentum due to velocity

gradient

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Heat Transfer

• It involves the transport of energy due to temperature

gradient

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Mass Transfer

• It involves the transport of mass of various chemical

species due to concentration gradient or chemical
potential gradient

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Diffusion

• Carriers: Molecules/atoms/electrons: translation,

vibration & rotation in a random fashion
• Diffusion of mass, momentum & thermal energy
• From the region of high potential to the region of low potential until an equilibrium
is achieved
• Fluids: molecular random motion
• Solids: lattice vibration and motion of free electrons

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Diffusion (Molecular Transport)

1. Momentum transport and Newton’s law
: flux of x-directed momentum in z direction
= shear stress [(kgm/s2)/sm2]

: momentum diffusivity = kinematic viscosity [m2/s]

2. Heat transport and Fourier’s law

: heat flux in z direction [J/sm2]

: thermal diffusivity [m2/s]

3. Mass transport and Fick’s law

: flux of the molecule A in z direction [kgmol/sm2]

: (molecular) diffusivity of the molecule A in B [m2/s]

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Diffusion (Molecular Transport)

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Convection

• Transport with "bulk" or "macroscopic" flow

• Transport is not determined only by the random particle
motion (diffusion) but also by the bulk fluid motion.
• Transport by bulk flow is termed as advection or
convection in a narrow meaning:
• Convection = Conduction + Bulk energy transport
(advection)
• (ex) HT between a solid object and fluid or HT in a
moving fluid

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Convective transport

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Course Description

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Module 1

• Introduction to Transport Phenomena & Fundamentals of

Fluid Flow
• Introduction to fluid, heat and mass transport; Understand the basic concepts of
fluid mechanics: continuum, velocity field, stress field, and viscosity.

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Introduction to Fluid
Mechanics
• Fluid
• A substance in the gas or liquid
phase is referred to be a fluid

• Mechanics
• is the physical science that deals
with both stationary and moving
bodies under the influence of forces.
• STATICS
• deals with bodies at rest
• DYNAMICS

• Deals with bodies in motion

• Fluid mechanics is concerned with the behavior of liquids
and gases at rest or in motion.
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Solids Vs Fluids

• A solid is “hard” and not easily

deformed, whereas a fluid is
“soft” and is easily deformed.

• A closer look at the molecular

level:
• Solid has densely packed molecules with large intermolecular cohesive forces that
allow the solid to maintain its shape, and to not be easily deformed.
• Fluid molecules are spaced farther apart, the intermolecular forces are smaller than
for solids, and the molecules have more freedom of movement.

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Defining: Fluid

• A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously under the

application of a shear (tangential) stress no matter how
small the shear stress may be.
OR

A fluid is any substance that cannot sustain a shear stress

when at rest.
• Solids are referred to as elastic, whereas fluids being viscous. Few substances have
both springiness and friction and are viscoelastic.

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Introduction to Fluid
Mechanics
• Fluid mechanics is the discipline that is concerned with the
behavior of liquids and gases at rest or in motion.
• Traditional applications:
• Design of canals and dams;
• Design of pumps, compressor, pipes and ducts; etc.
• Fluid combustion systems engines, power generation

• Other exciting applications:

• Energy generation from ocean waves
• Biomechanics (e.g. artificial hearts and valves)
• Smart fluids (e.g. military uniform)

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@Introduction
Fluid Mechanics: Categories
• Hydrodynamics: The study of the motion of fluids that
are practically incompressible (such as liquids, especially
water, and gases at low speeds).
• Hydraulics: It is a subcategory of hydrodynamics and
deals with liquid flows in pipes and open channels.
• Gas dynamics deals with the flow of fluids that undergo
significant density changes, such as the flow of gases
through nozzles at high speeds.
• Aerodynamics deals with the flow of gases (especially
air) over bodies such as aircraft, rockets, and
automobiles at high or low speeds.
• Meteorology, oceanography, and hydrology deal with
naturally occurring flows.
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Some of the Applications

• Automobile
• Engine
• Wind tunnel testing
• Medical Science
• Piping Design
• Electrical appliances
• Ships and boats
• Air crafts
• Power plants
• Fire safety
• Sports Ball
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Relevance with Chemical

Engineering
Piping Design
Pump/blower design for transporting material
Reaction Engineering
Heat Transfer
Mass transfer
Agitation
Flow metering and flow control valves
Separation and purification
Pneumatic transport and control
Drying

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No-Slip Condition

• A fluid in contact with a solid surface does not slip - it has

the same velocity as that surface because of the no-slip
condition, an experimental fact.

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Fluid as Continuum

• Fluids (Water & Gas):

• Considered as a continuous media
• Underlying is the molecular nature, if observed
with specialized equipment
• Mass is not continuously distributed in space
• Molecules are separated by relatively large
regions of empty space.

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Fluid as Continuum

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Fluid as Continuum

What is the minimum volume, δV, that a

“point” C must be, so that we can talk
about continuous fluid properties such
as the density at a point?
OR
In other words, under what
circumstances can a fluid be treated as
a continuum, for which, by definition,
properties vary smoothly from point to
point?

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Fluid as Continuum

• Fluid can be considered as a continuous medium

• if we consider a “point” to be no smaller than about 0.001 mm3 (Air at STP houses
on an average 2.5 x 1013 molecules)
• this is sufficiently precise for most engineering applications.

• As a consequence of the continuum assumption,

• each fluid property (density, temperature, velocity, and so on) have a definite value
at every point in space and thus are continuous functions of position and time.

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Limitation to Fluid as
Continuum
• It only breaks down when the mean free path of the
molecules becomes the same order of magnitude as the
smallest significant characteristic dimension.
• Ex. Rarefied gas flow (as encountered in flights into the upper reaches of the
atmosphere)

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Specific Gravity

The specific gravity, SG, of a substance is

expressed as

Typically, the maximum density of

water, Density of air at
= 1000 kg/m3 at 4oC, NTP, i.e. at
= 1.94 slug/ft3 at 39oF 20oC and 1 atm ,
air=1.205 kg/m3
For most liquids,
SG  as T

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Velocity Field

• Velocity vector:

• In terms of scalar components:

where,

• indicates the velocity field of all particles.

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Steady Flow

• If properties at every point in a flow field do not change

with time, the flow is termed steady.
• Mathematically,

• In steady flow:
• any property may vary from point to point in the field,
• but all properties remain constant with time at every point.

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Uniform Flow &

Uniform Flow Field
• All fluid satisfying the continuum assumption also satisfies
the no-slip condition, and are thus inherently, two or three-
dimensional.
• Uniform flow: In a flow that is uniform at a given cross
section, the velocity is constant across any section normal
to the flow.
• In uniform flow field, the velocity is constant, i.e.,
independent of all space coordinates, throughout the
entire flow field.

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Animation

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Animation

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One-, Two-, and Three-

Dimensional Flows

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Stress Field

• Forces experienced by fluid particles:

• Surface forces (Pressure, Friction)
• Body forces (gravity and electromagnetic)

• Surface forces on a fluid particle lead to stresses.

• Useful for describing how forces acting on the boundaries

of a medium (fluid or solid) are transmitted throughout the
medium.
• In solid, deflection. In fluid, motion

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Stress Field

• Consider a portion, , of the surface at some point C. The

orientation of is given by the unit vector, ,
• The vector is the outwardly drawn unit normal with respect to the
particle.

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Stress Field

Normal Stress: Shear Stress:

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Stress Field

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Stress Field

Note the double subscript notation to label the stresses.

The first subscript (in this case, x) indicates the plane on
which the stress acts (in this case, a surface perpendicular
to the x axis).
The second subscript indicates the direction in which the
stress acts.
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Stress Field

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Stress Field
The stress at a point is
specified by the nine
components:

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Stress Field

• The planes in terms of the coordinate

axes.
• The planes are named and denoted as
positive or negative according to the
direction of the outwardly drawn normal
to the plane.
• Thus the top plane, for example, is a
positive y plane and the back plane is
a negative z plane.
• The right plane is positive x and front
plane is positive z plane.

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Stress Field

sign convention for stress

• A stress component is positive when the direction of the
stress component and the plane on which it acts are both
positive or both negative.

• Thus τyx =10 kPa represents a shear stress on a positive y

plane in the positive x direction or a shear stress on a
negative y plane in the negative x direction.

• In Fig. all stresses have been drawn as positive stresses.

• Stress components are negative when the direction of the

stress component and the plane on which it acts are of
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opposite
8/2/2024
sign. BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
EE ZG513 Applied transport Phenomena

What it Shows???

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Viscous action

• The behavior of fluid to resist motion under the

application of force is due to the intermolecular forces or
molecular interactions
• This phenomena is called viscous action of the fluid.

• Implications of this phenomena

• The time required to fill a reservoir is different for different fluids
• Energy requirement would be different for pumping different fluids

• To find the force/energy required for achieving

• a particular flow rate is very important in designing of fluid moving machinery

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Viscosity & Density

Q) Can we say that the fluids having higher density also

has high viscosity and vice-versa.
• To answer this specific question:
• the density of ethanol is 789kg/m3 and it's viscosity is 0.001095 Ns/m2.
• The density of water is 1000kg/m3 and its viscosity is 0.00089 Ns/m2.
• So water is more dense, but less viscous than ethanol at the same temperature.

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Viscosity

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Viscosity

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Viscosity

For the fluid deformation,

For very small angle,

Velocity of upper plate is given as,

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Viscosity
Taking the limits of both sides of the equality, we obtain,

Thus, the considered fluid element, when subjected to

shear stress , experiences a rate of deformation
(shear rate) given by du/dy.

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Relation between
Shear Stress & Shear Rate
Fluids for which:

Shear Stress  Shear Rate

Newtonian Fluids Ex. Water

Shear Stress  Shear Rate

Non-Newtonian Fluids
Ex. Toothpaste (behaves as solid below the threshold or yield
stress)

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Newtonian Fluid

• Obeys Newton’s law of viscosity

(Shear Stress  Shear Rate)
• Ex. Water, Air, Gasoline etc.

=>

Where, µ is the absolute (or dynamic) viscosity.

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Newtonian Fluid

Dimensions and Units of Viscosity:

Absolute (or dynamic) viscosity (µ):
Dimensions: SI Units:
N.s/m2 or
kg/(m.s)

Kinematic Viscosity ( ):
Dimensions: [ L2/t ]
SI Units: m2/s

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Appendix A

A3

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Viscosity Dependence on
Temperature & Pressure
• Gas viscosities increases with temperature:

• n  0.65 air;
 0.9 for CO2 and simple hydrocarbons
 1.1 for SO2 and steam
• Gas viscosity is independent of pressure under Ideal gas
law, otherwise increases at very high pressures.
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Viscosity Dependence on
Temperature & Pressure
• Viscosity of liquids: Viscosity of liquids is much greater
than those of gases at same temperature.

• Viscosity of liquids decreases with increase in

temperature.

• For temperatures below the normal boiling point (approx.):

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2.40

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2.40

y Area vector for upper plate

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Stress Field

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2.40

y Area vector for upper plate

x
Area vector for lower plate

+
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Non-Newtonian Fluids

• Fluids in which shear stress is not directly proportional

to deformation rate are nonNewtonian.

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Non-Newtonian Fluids

Class-I: Time-independent behavior [ηf(t)]

• Power Law (1-D): Ensures same sign

=>

n- is flow behavior index

η – apparent viscosity
k – consistency index
• For n<1: Pseudoplastic (or shear thinning)
η with  shear rate Ex. Polymer soln,
paper pulp in water
• For n>1: Dilatant (or shear thickening)
η with shear rate Ex. Suspension of starch/sand

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Viscosity Vs Shear Rate

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Non-Newtonian Fluid

Concept of Yield Stress:

• A “fluid” that behaves as a solid until
a minimum yield stress, y, is exceeded and
subsequently exhibits a linear relation between stress
and rate of deformation
is referred to as an ideal or Bingham plastic.

Ex. Clay suspension, drilling mud, toothpaste.

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Non-Newtonian Fluid

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Non-Newtonian Fluid
Class-II: Time-dependent behavior
(Apparent viscosity varies with
time):
• Thixotropic fluids: Or

η with  time η
• Rheopectic fluids:
η  with  time
• Viscoelastic fluids:
partially return to their original
shape when the applied stress is
released;

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Thank You

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BITS Pilani
presentation
BITS Pilani Dr Pratik N Sheth
Pilani Campus Department of Chemical Engineering

BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

EE ZG513 - Applied Transport Phenomena

Lecture No. 2

Covered in Last Class

• Introduction to transport Phenomena

• Basics of Fluid mechanics
• Fluid as a continuum
• Velocity and Stress fields
• Newton’s Law of Viscosity
• Non-Newtonian fluids

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Module - 2

• Basics of Heat Transfer

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Introduction

• Heat Transfer
• Energy change which is solely responsible due to change in temperature
• Takes place between material bodies

• When two bodies are at different temperatures

• thermal energy transfers from the body which is at high temperature to the one at
lower temperature.
• The net flow is always in the direction of decrease in temperature.

• Study Aspects
• Not to find weather heat is transferred or not
(covered in thermodynamics)
• The rate at which heat is transferred
• Mechanisms of Heat Transfer
• Heat Transfer Operations
• Unit operations whose prime motive is heat transfer
• Heat exchangers, evaporators, boiler, condenser etc. BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Basic Laws of Heat Transfer

• The Driving force for heat transfer is temperature

difference
• The resistance depends upon the mechanisms by which
heat may flow
• Conduction
• Convection
• Radiation
• Combination of above all or any two

• The mechanism of heat transfer depends upon range of

temperature and physical system involved

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Conduction

• Conduction is the transfer of heat within

• an object or between two objects in physical contact without appreciable displacement of
object
• The material medium transporting heat remains at rest
• Heat flows through solids
• from the more energetic to the less energetic particles of a substance due to interactions
between the particles
• It is due to the mechanism of inter-molecular interactions
• In metals
• motion of free electrons
• In solids (poor conductor of electricity) & in liquids
• momentum transfer between adjacent vibrating molecules
• In gases
• Random motion of molecules
• Examples
• Heat flow through brick wall of a furnace
• Heat flow through metal wall of heat exchanger tubes
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Fourier’s Law of heat

conduction
• The heat flux is directly proportional to the temperature
gradient and opposite to it in sign.
• For 1D system

Q - Rate of heat flow in a direction normal to surface

A - Surface area
T - Temperature
k - Thermal Conductivity
x - Distance normal to the surface
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Convection

• Convection is the transfer of heat from one point to

another point within a fluid by the movement of
molecules
• Convective heat transfer can be classified
• Free or Natural convection
• Forced convection

• In free convection,
• the fluid motion is caused due to density difference produced by temperature
gradients
• The vessel containing liquid water are heated by means of a gas flame
• Water near the bottom surface gets heated, expands and rises as its density
decreases than that of remaining liquid
• Cold liquid of higher density takes its place and a circulating current is set up

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Convection

• In forced convection
• circulating currents are set up by external means
• such as pump, fan or blower, agitator that forces fluid to flow over surface

• The fluid velocity is exceedingly higher than that of free

convection
• Hence the heat transfer rate is more in case of forced
convection

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Convection

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Newton’s Law of Cooling

• At wall
• Stationary layer of film exists and heat is transferred by conduction

h – heat transfer coefficient

Depends upon the fluid

properties such as
Viscosity
Density
Thermal conductivity
Specific heat
&
Fluid Velocity BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

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Radiation

• Radiation
• is the term given to the transport of energy by electromagnetic waves
• does not require any intervening medium
• Heat can be transmitted across an absolute vacuum

• If the medium intervenes in radiative exchange,

• the intervening medium may

• partly absorb, partly reflect or partly transmit

• It is only the absorbed energy that appears as heat and
this transformation is quantitative.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Stefan Boltzmann’s Law

• The energy emitted by an ideal thermal radiator or black

body is proportional to the fourth power to the absolute
temperature

• The net radiant exchange between two surfaces will be

proportional to the difference in absolute temperature of
the body of the fourth power

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Modes of Heat Transfer

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Pilani Campus

Thermal Conductivity

Thermal Conductivity

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Thermal Conductivity

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Thermal Conductivity

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Thermal Conductivity

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Thermal Conductivity

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Comparison

• Thermal Conductivity varies by a factor of about 105 between gases and diamond
at room temperature
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Heat Transfer Coefficient

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Combination of 3 mechanisms

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

1.9

• A certain insulation has a thermal conductivity of

10 mW/m ˚C. What thickness is necessary to effect a
temperature drop of 500 ˚C for a heat flow of 400 W/m2 ˚C?

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

1.16

• Steam at 1 atm pressure (Tsat =100 ˚C) is exposed to a 30-by-

30-cm vertical square plate that is cooled such that 3.78 kg/h is
condensed. Calculate the plate temperature.
• Given data
• hfg = 2257 kJ/kg

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1.22

• A flat wall is exposed to an environmental temperature of 38 ˚C.

The wall is covered with a layer of insulation 2.5 cm thick whose
thermal conductivity is 1.4 W/m ˚C, and the temperature of the
wall on the inside of the insulation is 315 ˚C. The wall loses heat
to the environment by convection. Compute the value of the
convection heat-transfer coefficient that must be maintained on
the outer surface of the insulation to ensure that the outer-surface
temperature does not exceed 41 ˚C
• Is value of h acceptable?
• If not assume reasonable value and find outside temperature of
the insulating wall. (Refer Table 1.3)
• Assume h = 5 W/m2 ˚C (Free convection)
• Assume h = 10 W/m2 ˚C (Forced Convection)
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Solution

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1.28

• A 5.0-cm-diameter cylinder is heated to a temperature of

200 C, and air at 30 ˚C is forced across it at a velocity of 50
◦

m/s. If the surface emissivity is 0.7, calculate the total heat loss
per unit length if the walls of the enclosing room are at 10 ˚C.
Comment on this calculation.
• Compare the convective and radiative heat transfer rate
• If h = 180 W/m2 ˚C

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Fourier’s Law of heat

conduction
• The heat flux is directly proportional to the temperature
gradient and opposite to it in sign.
• For 1D system

Q - Rate of heat flow in a direction normal to surface

A - Surface area
T - Temperature
k - Thermal Conductivity
x - Distance normal to the surface
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Plane wall

• Fourier’s Law of Hear Conduction

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

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Thermal Resistance

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Plane wall (k (T))

• Fourier’s Law of Hear Conduction

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Multi layer plane wall

The temperature gradients in the three

materials are shown, and the heat flow
may be written:

Solving these three equations

simultaneously, the heat flow is written
composite wall

Note: the heat flow must

be the same through all
sections.
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

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Multi layer plane wall

composite wall

Note: the heat flow must Rth = the thermal resistances of the
be the same through all various materials
sections.
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Series Parallel Combination

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Newton’s Law of Cooling

• At wall
• Stationary layer of film exists and heat is transferred by conduction

h – heat transfer coefficient

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

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Convective Resistance

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Overall Resistance

Overall heat transfer coefficient

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

2.1

• A wall 2 cm thick is to be constructed from material that has

an average thermal conductivity of 1.3 W/m ˚C. The wall is to
be insulated with material having an average thermal
conductivity of 0.35 W/m ˚C, so that the heat loss per square
meter will not exceed 1830W. Assuming that the inner and
outer surface temperatures of the insulated wall are 1300 and
30˚C, calculate the thickness of insulation required.
• If Glass wool having thermal conductivity of 0.038 W/m ˚C
used, What is the thickness required ?

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

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2.4

• Find the heat transfer per unit area through the

composite wall in Figure below. Assume 1 D heat flow.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

2.4

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

Cylindrical System

15
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Hollow Cylinder

• Consider a long cylinder of inside radius r , outside radius r ,

i o

and length L
• Observations
• Area normal to heat transfer is varying with r
• Total heat flow same but heat flux changing
• Temperature would not be varying linearly

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Hollow Cylinder

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Multiple Cylindrical Section

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

16
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Convective and Conductive

Resistance

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

Spherical System

Hollow sphere

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

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Composite Sphere +
convective Resistance

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Thank You

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 8/10/2024

BITS Pilani
presentation
BITS Pilani Dr Pratik N Sheth
Pilani Campus Department of Chemical Engineering

BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

EE ZG513 - Applied Transport Phenomena

Lecture No. 3

Covered in Last Class

• Basics of Heat Transfer

• Conduction

• Thermal conductivity
• Convection

• Heat transfer coefficient

• Radiation
• Examples

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Overview of Mass transfer

Operations
• Introduction
• Importance
• Classification
• Diffusion
• Various Mass transfer operations
• Distillation
• Absorption
• Extraction
• Leaching

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Introduction

• It involves the changes in compositions of the

solutions.
• It is characterized by
• transfer of one substance through another on a
molecular scale.
• Ex: Diffusion of water vapor from a pool to an air
stream flowing over its surface.
• Driving force is the concentration difference, or
gradient
• No Bulk Movement

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Introduction

• In a two-phase system not at equilibrium

• molecular diffusion also occurs and ultimately lead a
system to the state of equilibrium, whereupon
alteration stops
• Concentration would be uniform throughout the
phase, mostly quantitative values would be different in
both phases
• Chemical potential would be same throughout the
system at equilibrium
• Ex: Transfer of NH3 (solute) from ammonia solution to
stagnant air.

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Importance

• Mass Transfer Operations are used

• For preliminary purification process of raw materials
• And separation of products from byproducts and
unreacted reactants
• The cost involved in Separation/Purification
• To maintain the product purity
• To meet the environmental standards
• To decrease the utility requirement for the separation

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Classification

• Direct Contact of Two Immiscible Phases

• Taking the advantage of “different distribution of
components between the phases”
• Example of NH3-Air-Water system
• Phases Separated by a membrane
• Diffusion of a component by selectively controlling
passage of the components from one side to another
• Direct Contact of Miscible Phases

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Molecular Diffusion in Fluids

• It is concerned with the movement of

individual molecules through a substance by
virtue of their thermal energy
• The rate of diffusion
• is very slow due to highly zig-zag travel path of
molecules
• Net distance in a particular direction in a given time
is a small fraction of its actual path
• Increases by T ( Molecular velocity increases)
• Decreases by P (Reducing the collisions
9 8/10/2024
between particles)
EE ZG513 Applied transport Phenomena BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

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Molecular Diffusion in Fluids

Contd…

• The phenomenon of molecular diffusion

ultimately leads to completely uniform
concentration of substance throughout a
solution
• Ex: CuSO4 in water ( Blue solution)

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Rate of Diffusion

• It is described in terms of Molar Flux

• (mol/ area time), area is measured in a direction
normal to the diffusion
• Two ways to define the Flux
• N Flux of a constituent relative to the
fixed location in space
• J Flux of a constituent relative to the
average molar velocity of all
constituent

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Rate of Diffusion
Contd…

• Fick’s First Law

Negative sign emphasizes that diffusion
occurs in the direction of drop in
concentration

Flux Concentration
Gradient
Diffusivity or
Diffusion Coefficient Function of (T,P,C, Medium)
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Rate of Diffusion
Contd…
P
P

2 kg
1 kg Water 1 kg Water + Ethanol
(A) Ethanol (B) of 50 wt % concentration

Net mass movement to the right

If direction to the right is taken as positive
Flux NA relative to the fixed position P +ve
Flux NB relative to the fixed position P -ve
Net Flux (N) = NA + NB
13 8/10/2024 EE ZG513 Applied transport Phenomena BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Rate of Diffusion
Contd…

NA = N x A + JA
NA = (NA + NB) xA + JA
NB = (NA + NB) xB + JB

JA = - JB
NA - NB
14 8/10/2024 EE ZG513 Applied transport Phenomena BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Steady State Molecular Diffusion in Fluids

at Rest And in Laminar Flow Contd…

NA and NB constant (Steady State)

DAB is constant

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Steady State Molecular Diffusion in Fluids

at Rest And in Laminar Flow
Contd…

On integration
and putting z = (z2-z1)

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Steady State Molecular Diffusion in Fluids

at Rest And in Laminar Flow Contd…
Molecular Diffusion in Gases

Catalytic Reaction
CH4  C + 2H2 NB = -2 NA
(A) (B) (NA / NA+NB ) = -1
17 8/10/2024 EE ZG513 Applied transport Phenomena BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Steady State Molecular Diffusion in Fluids

at Rest And in Laminar Flow Contd…
Steady State Diffusion of A through
nondiffusing B
NB = 0,
pt pt
A
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

18 z1
8/10/2024 Distance, z z2 Applied transport Phenomena
EE ZG513 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

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Direct Contact of Two Immiscible Phases

Contd…

• Gas-Liquid
• If only one component or group of component
distribute between the phases
• Example :Gas absorption/Stripping
• May be pure unidirectional mass transfer or
involving a chemical reaction
• Higher the pressure & lower the temperature
increases the absorption rate
• (1) Absorption of CO2 gas from flue gas
mixture in MEA (Mehtyl Ethyl Amine);
• (2) NH3 stripping from waste water
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Gas Absorption

Gas absorption is operation in which a gas mixture is

contacted with a liquid for preferentially dissolving
one or more components of the gas & to provide a
solution of them in liquid.
Examples:
• Acetone can be recovered from acetone-air mixture by passing the gas
stream into water in which acetone dissolves and air passes out.
• Washing of ammonia from ammonia-air mixture with liquid water.
• Removal of objectionable hydrogen sulfide from naturally occurring
hydrocarbon gases by various alkaline solutions in which it is absorbed.
• Absorption of oxides of nitrogen to give nitric acid.
20 8/10/2024 EE ZG513 Applied transport Phenomena BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Gas Absorption
Absorption processes are conveniently divided into two groups
• those in which the process is solely physical e.g. removal of
ammonia from ammonia-air mixture by absorption in water
• those where a chemical reaction is occurring, e.g. absorption of
carbon dioxide in a solution of NaOH

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Equilibrium between Liquid & Gas

The degree to which gas is absorbed from gaseous mixture by

liquid solvent is determined by its partial pressure
Each dissolved gas exerts a partial pressure at a given
temperature and concentration
• Gas is said to be slightly soluble when the partial pressure
exerted by the dissolved gas from solution is higher
• Gas is said to be more soluble when the partial pressure
exerted by dissolved gas of given concentration is lower

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Equilibrium between Liquid & Gas

In case of curve B
• the gas is relatively insoluble
for curve C
• the solubility is high

Solubility of gas
decreases with increasing
temperature
Eg. Curve A and D

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Ideal/ non-Ideal Liquid Solution

Raoult’s Law:

Henry’s Law:

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Choice of Solvent for Absorption

Gas solubility:
• should be high, thus increasing the rate of absorption and
decreasing the quantity of solvent required
• Solvents of chemical nature similar to that of the solute to be
absorbed will provide good solubility eg. hydrocarbon oils ,
and not water, are used to remove benzene from coke-oven
gas
• A chemical reaction of solvent with the solute will frequently
result in very high gas solubility, but if the solvent is to be
recovered for reuse, the reaction must be reversible.

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Choice of Solvent for Absorption

Volatility:
• The solvent should have a low vapor pressure since the gas
leaving absorption operation is generally saturated with the
solvent and much may thereby be lost. Viscosity:
Viscosity:
• Viscosity of the solvent should be less to obtain high
absorption rates
Cost:
• Solvent should be inexpensive and should be readily available.
Solvent should be Nontoxic, Nonflammable & Chemically Stable
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Equipments for Absorption

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Equipments for Absorption

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Direct Contact of Two

Immiscible Phases
• Gas-Liquid
• All components of system distribute between
the phases at equilibrium
• Gas phase is created from liquid by
application of heat
• Example: Distillation

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Distillation
Distillation is a gas-liquid operation in which a solution
is separated into two fractions, one in vapor phase and
the other in liquid phase.
Absorption Distillation
1. Separation is effected by 1. Separation is effected by
addition of a liquid. application of heat.
2. Stripping is required to get back 2. Distillation is the direct product. No
the product. further step necessary
3. Transfer is only from gas to 3. Transfer is in both direction
liquid phase.
Evaporation Distillation
One component is non-volatile. Both components are volatile
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Distillation

Relative Volatility
Let A is the more volatile component
B is the less volatile component
y is the mole fraction in vapor (gas) phase
x is the mole fraction in liquid phase
Relative volatility is the ratio of the concentration ratio of A
and B in one phase to that in the other.

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Relative Volatility (α or αAB)

Ideal gas law:

Raoult’s law:

Relative volatility AB is a ratio of vapor pressure of

32 A to8/10/2024
vapor pressure of B.
EE ZG513 Applied transport Phenomena BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Relative Volatility (α )

x 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

y* 0 1.0

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V-L-E diagram
At constant pressure

 = 1 (No separation)
The larger the value of α
above unity, greater the
degree of separability.
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Single Stage Operation

Flash Vaporization
• Single stage operation wherein a liquid mixture is partially
vaporized
• The vapor is allowed to come to equilibrium with the residual
liquid

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Flash Vaporization

Material Balance
F = D+W
FzF = DyD + WxW F moles/time
zF

Straight line through (xw,yD) and (zF, zF) in V-L-E diagram

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Continuous Fractionation
(Distillation with Reflux)
Condenser

Rectifying Distillate
or enriching Reflux
section A
B More volatile component is enriched
Less volatile component is absorbed
Feed
B
A More volatile component is stripped
Stripping Less volatile component is enriched
section
Residue
Reboiler

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Continuous Distillation
V, y Condenser

Distillate
Reflux D, xD
L, x
V L
Feed
F, xF
(A + B)
Reboiler
Residue
W, xW

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Direct Contact of Two Immiscible Phases

Contd…

• Gas-Liquid
• If the liquid phase is a pure liquid and gas
contains two or more
• Example :Humidification/Dehumidification

• Contact of dry air with liquid water

• Evaporation of some water in air

• Contact of moist air with water

• Condensation of some water in liquid

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Direct Contact of Two Immiscible Phases

Contd…

• Gas-Solid
• Solid which is moistened with a volatile liquid
is exposed to a relatively dry gas,
• the liquid leaves the solid and diffuses into the gas
• It is called Drying or Desorption
• Removal of moisture from filter cake by exposing to
a dry gas
• If the diffusion takes place in the opposite
direction
• Operation is known as Adsorption

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Direct Contact of Two Immiscible Phases

Contd…

• Liquid-liquid
• Separations involving the contact of two
insoluble liquid phases
• components of a liquid solution are separated by
using an additional solvent
• which preferentially dissolves one of the
components of the solution
• It is called Liquid Extraction
• Ex: Removal of acetone from the mixture of acetone
and water by adding carbon tetra chloride
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Extraction
It is a mass transfer operation in which components of
a liquid solution are separated by using an
additional solvent which preferentially dissolves
one of the components of the solution.

Ex: In Acetic acid + Water solution (Feed)

• Ethyl Acetate can be added as a Solvent.
• Acetic acid gets distributed between Ester and aqueous
phase.
• Solvent rich Product (Ethyl acetate + Acetic Acid) is called
as Extract phase
• Residual liquid from which solute (Acetic Acid) has been
removed is the Raffinate phase
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Notation Scheme for Equilibria

• A and B are pure, substantially insoluble liquids, and C is the
distributed solute
• Mixtures to be separated by extraction are composed of A and C,
and B is extracting solvent.
• E Mass/time of Extract solution
• R Mass/time of Raffinate solution
• B Mass/time of Solvent
• x = weight fraction C in the solvent–lean (A-rich) or raffinate
• y = weight fraction C in the solvent–rich (B-rich) or extract
• Mass C / Mass non-C in the raffinate
• Mass C / Mass non-C in the Extract
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Notation Scheme for Equilibria

Contd…

• X = weight fraction C in the raffinate on a B free basis, mass/

(mass A + mass C)
• Y = weight fraction C in the extract on a B free basis, mass/
(mass A + mass C)
• N = weight fraction of B on a B free basis, mass B/ (mass A +
mass C)
• E' = mass B-free Extract solution / time
•

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Equilateral Triangular Coordinates

Property of an Equilateral
Triangle
the sum of the perpendicular
distances from any point within
the triangle to the three sides
equals the altitude of the triangle.
We can therefore let the Altitude
=100 percent composition distances
to the three sides = fractions of
the three components

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Equilateral Triangular Coordinates

Contd…
Each apex of the triangle
represents one of the pure
components
The perpendicular distance from
any point K to the base AB
represents the percentage of C in
the mixture at K,
the distance to the base AC the
percentage of B,
and that to the base CB the
percentage of A.

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Equilateral Triangular Coordinates

Contd…

Point D, for example, is a binary

containing 80 percent A, 20
percent B.
All points on the line DC
represent mixtures containing the
same ratio of A to B and can be
considered as mixtures originally
at D to which C has been added

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Equilateral Triangular Coordinates

Contd…
If R kg of a mixture at point R is
added to E kg of mixture at E
the new mixture is at point M ,
such that

Similarly, if a mixture at M has

removed from it a mixture of
composition E, the mixture is
on the straight line EM
extended in the direction away
form E and located at R so that
equation given above applies
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System of Three Liquids –

One Pair Partially Soluble
This is the most common type of system in extraction and typical
example are water (A) -Chloroform (B) –acetone (C)
Liquid C dissolves completely A and
B, but A and B dissolve only to a
limited extent to each other to give
rise to the saturated liquid solutions
at L (A-rich) and at K (B-rich).
A binary mixture J, anywhere
between L and K, will separate into
two insoluble liquids phases of
compositions at L and K, the relative
amount of the phases depending
49 8/10/2024
upon the position of J. BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
EE ZG513 Applied transport Phenomena

System of Three Liquids –

One Pair Partially Soluble
Contd…

Curve LRPEK is the binodal solubility curve, indicating the

change in solubility of the A –and B –rich phases upon the
addition of C
Any mixtures out sides this curve will
be a homogeneous solution of a one
liquid phase
Any ternary mixture underneath the
curve, such as M, will form two
insoluble, saturated liquid phases of
equilibrium compositions indicated
by R (A-rich) and E (B-rich)
The line RE joining this composition
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is a tie line
EE ZG513 Applied transport Phenomena BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

System of Three Liquids –

One Pair Partially Soluble
Contd…
point P, the plate point ,the of the tie lines and the point
where the A-rich and B- rich solubility curve merge

The percentage of C in the solution

E is clearly grater than that in R
and it is said that in this case the
distribution of C favors the B-rich
phase
The concentrations of C at the ends
of the tie-lines, when plotted
against each other, give rise to the
distribution curve shown

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System of Three Liquids –

One Pair Partially Soluble
Contd…

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Effect of Temperature

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 8/21/2024

BITS Pilani
presentation
BITS Pilani Dr Pratik N Sheth
Pilani Campus Department of Chemical Engineering

Covered in Last Class

• Overview of Mass transfer Operations

• Introduction
• Importance
• Classification
• Diffusion

• Various Mass transfer operations

• Distillation
• Absorption
• Extraction

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BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

EE ZG513 - Applied Transport Phenomena

Pending topics from Lecture No. 3

1
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Choice of Solvent
1. Selectivity
The effectiveness of solvent B for separating a solution of A and C
into its components is measured by comparing the ratio of C to A
in the B-rich phase to that in the A-rich phase at equilibrium.
The ratio of the ratios, the separation factor, or selectivity, β is
analogous to the relative volatility of distillation. If E and R are
the equilibrium phases,

For all useful extraction operations the selectivity must exceed

unity. If selectivity is unity, no separation is possible.
4 8/21/2024 EE ZG513 Applied transport Phenomena BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Choice of Solvent
Contd…
2. Distribution Coefficient
This is the ratio y*/x at equilibrium. While it is not necessary
that the distribution coefficient be larger than 1, large values
are very desirable since less solvent will then be required for
extraction.
3. Recoverability
It is always necessary to recover the solvent for reuse, and this
must ordinarily be done by another mass-transfer operation,
most frequently distillation.
If distillation to be used, the solvent should show high relative
volatility for low-cost recovery. If the solvent must be
volatilized, its latent heat of vaporization should be small.
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Choice of Solvent
Contd…
4. Density
A difference in densities of the saturated liquid phase is
necessary, both for stage wise and continuous-contact
equipment operation. The larger difference the better.
5. Interfacial Tension
The larger the interfacial tension, the more readily coalescence
of emulsion will occur but the more difficult the dispersion of
one liquid in the other will be Coalescence is usually of greater
importance, and interfacial tension should therefore be high.
6. Chemical Reactivity
The solvent should be stable chemically and inert toward the
other components of the systems and toward the common
6 materials construction.
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Choice of Solvent
Contd…

7. Viscosity, Vapor Pressure, and Freezing Point

These should be slow for ease in handling and storage
The solvent should be nontoxic, nonflammable and low of cost.

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Steady-State Single-Stage
Solvent Extraction

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Steady-State Single-Stage
Solvent Extraction Contd…

Equilibrium Relationship
Mass Balance

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Steady-State Single-Stage
Solvent Extraction Contd…

The fraction of BA extracted is

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Steady-State Single-Stage
Solvent Extraction Contd…

= Ratio of feed to the solvent flow rate at equilibrium

= fraction of benzoic acid extracted

Substituting the above two dimensionless groups in

It means the fraction extracted is governed solely by the

value of the dimensionless group  (the ratio of rates of feed
11 to 8/21/2024
solvent at equilibrium).
EE ZG513 Applied transport Phenomena BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Example
Compute the fraction of solute that could be
extracted in a single-stage solvent extraction using
the numerical values of S = 12 R, m = 1/8, and C =
0.1 kg/m3.
if S =12 R; m = 1/8; and C = 0.1;

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Example
Compute the fraction of solute that could be
extracted in a single-stage solvent extraction using
the numerical values of S = 12 R, m = 1/8, and C =
0.1 kg/m3.
Alternatively

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Direct Contact of Two Immiscible Phases

Contd…

• Liquid-solid
• Separations involving the contact of liquid and
solid phases
• Ex: Crystallization
• It involves the formation of solid particles within a
homogeneous liquid phase.
• It is used to obtain pure solid material from solution.
• Driving force for crystallization is Super saturation.
• Ex: Leaching
• components of a solid mixture are separated by
contacting with a liquid solvent
• Mineral Processing Industry
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Phases separated by a membrane

• Membrane operates depending upon the

separation to be made
• It prevents
• the intermingling of the two miscible phases
• ordinary hydrodynamic flow
• Movement of substance through by them is
diffusion
• Component Separation by selectively
controlling passages of the components from
one side to other

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Phases separated by a membrane

Contd…

• Gas-gas
• Microporous membrane
• Gas passes through the pores at the rate
depending upon the molecular weights
• It is called gaseous diffusion
• Ex: Separation of isotopes of Uranium in the
form of uranium hexafluoride

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Phases separated by a membrane

Contd…

• Gas-liquid
• Permeation separations
• Liquid solution of two component brought into
contact of nonporous membrane
• One of the component dissolves and after
passage vaporized on the other side due to low
vapor pressure
• Alcohol-Water Separation

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Phases separated by a membrane

Contd…

• Liquid-liquid
• Ex: Dialysis
• Separation of a crystalline substance from a
colloid
• By contacting with a liquid solvent which
dissolves the crystalline substance and passes
through the membrane
• Removal of sugar solution from the mixture of
colloid and crystalline sugar using water as a
intervening solvent
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Phases separated by a membrane

Contd…

• Ex: Electro Dialysis

• In presence of electromotive force, separation of
charged particles by diffusion
• Ex: Reverse Osmosis
• Solvent diffuses into a Solution by a membrane,
which is only permeable to solvent (Osmosis)
• By superimposing the Pressure to oppose the
osmotic pressure, the flow of solvent is reversed
• And solvent and solution can be separated and
known as Reverse Osmosis

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Direct and Indirect Operations

• Two Phases from a • Addition of a foreign

single phase by substance
addition or removal • Removed substance is
of heat obtained as a solution
• Product is free of • Extra cost in separation of
added substance solution
• Fractional Distillation • Gas absorption, Stripping
• Crystallization • Adsorption, Drying
• Leaching, Liquid extraction
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BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

EE ZG513 - Applied Transport Phenomena

Lecture No. 4
Molecular and Convective
Momentum Transport

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Contents

• Revision
• Mechanism of Molecular Momentum transport
• Convective Momentum transport

• Shell Momentum Balance & Boundary conditions

• Velocity distribution in laminar flow,
• Examples: Falling film, circular tube, annulus

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Momentum Transport:
Molecular (Diffusion)
• The buildup to the steady, laminar velocity profile for a
fluid contained between two plates.
• Each of the plates have an area A, separated by a
distance Y. In the space let’s consider there is a fluid
(gas or liquid).

Y t<0 vz(y,t) Small t

vz(y)
t=0 Large t

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Momentum Transport:
Molecular (Diffusion)
• First: The system is at rest, but a time t= 0
• Second: At t= 0 the lower plate is set in motion in the direction at a constant
velocity
• Third: At time proceeds (Small t), the fluid gain momentum
• Fourth: Ultimately the linear steady-state velocity profile shown in the figure is
established.

Y t<0 vz(y,t) Small t

vz(y)
t=0 Large t

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Momentum Transport:
Molecular (Diffusion)
At final state of steady motion, a constant force F is required to maintain the
motion of the lower plate. The force is proportional to the area and to the
velocity and inversely proportional to the distance between plates.

: flux of z-directed momentum in y direction

= shear stress [(kgm/s)/sm2]
: velocity gradient
= shear rate [1/s = s-1]
Meaning:
: viscosity [kg/m·s]

A fluid contained between two infinite parallel plates

Linear velocity profile

Steady force (viscous drag) Bottom plate

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Momentum Transport:
Molecular (Diffusion)

: the flux of z-directed momentum in the y direction

(per second per unit area) [(kg·m/s) /s·m2] [(kg·m/s) /s·m2]

= the rate of flow of z-directed momentum per unit area

(per second) [(kg·m/s) /s] [(kg·m/s) /s·m2]

= the amount of z-directed momentum transferred per second per unit

area
[(kg·m/s) /s·m2]
= the force in the z direction on a unit area perpendicular to the y
direction
[(kg m/s2 / m2]

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Pressure and viscous forces

acting on planes
• The volume element can be cut
to each of three coordinates in
turn.
• Find the forces that have been
exerted on that surface by the
z fluid that was removed.
• There will be two forces that
x, y, z contribute
– Associated with the pressure
y
– Associated with the viscous forces

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Pressure force & Viscous

Forces
• Always perpendicular to the exposed surface
– For example in y direction the force will be a vector pδy that is the pressure (a
scalar) multiplied by the unit vector δy in the y direction. Similarly for the other
sections.

• Pressure forces will be exerted when the fluid is

stationary as well as when it is in motion
• Viscous forces exist only when the are velocity gradients
within the fluid.
• Viscous forces are neither perpendicular nor parallel to
the surface element, rather at some angle to the surface.

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Pressure and Viscous Forces

acting on planes
Each of these have scalar
components τxx τxy & τxz
pδy

pδx

pδz
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Summary of Molecular
Stresses

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Molecular Stresses

For convenient a new vector Molecular flux vector or

molecular stress πij is defined that include both

Where δij is the kronecker delta, which is 1 if i = j and zero if

i ≠ j.

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Interpretation

• Force in the j direction on a unit area to the i direction,

where it is understood that the fluid in the region of
lesser xi is exerting the force on the fluid of a greater xi.

• Flux of j-momentum in the positive (+) i direction, It is

understood that is, from the region of lesser xi to that of
greater xi.

• j- directed momentum flulx due to velocity gradient in

i direction

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Visualization
y
τyy

τyx
τyz
τxy
τzy
τxz τxx
τzx x
τzz

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Convective Momentum
transfer
• The momentum can be transported by bulk flow of the
fluid. This process is called convective transport. Use the
same figure on three planes
• The fluid vector at the centre is v
• The volume rate of flow across the area in the first figure
is vx. The fluid carries with it momentum ρv per unit
volume.
• Hence the momentum flux across this area is then vxρv
(vectors)

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Convective momentum fluxes through planes of unit

area perpendicular to the coordinates direction

pvyv

pvxv

pvzv
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BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

Shell Momentum Balance &

Boundary Conditions

Concept

• Setting up of momentum balances over a thin "shell" of

the fluid.
• For steady flow, the momentum balance is given by

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Concept

• This is a restricted statement of the law of conservation

of momentum.
• In this chapter we apply this statement only to one component of the
momentum—namely, the component in the direction of flow.
• To write the momentum balance we need the expressions for the convective
momentum fluxes and the molecular momentum fluxes
• keep in mind that the molecular momentum flux includes both the pressure and
the viscous contributions.

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Concept

• In this section
• the momentum balance is applied only to systems in which there is just one
velocity component, which depends on only one spatial variable;
• In the next chapter the momentum balance concept is extended to unsteady-
state systems and more than one velocity component.

• Steps involved
• Identify the nonvanishing velocity component and the spatial variable on which it
depends.
• Write a momentum balance of the form of Eq. 2.1-1 over a thin shell
perpendicular to the relevant spatial variable.
• Let the thickness of the shell approaches zero and make use of the definition of
the first derivative to get the corresponding differential equation for the
momentum flux.

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Concept
• Integrate this equation to get the momentum-flux distribution.
• Insert Newton's law of viscosity and obtain a differential equation for the velocity.
• Integrate this equation to get the velocity distribution.
• Use the velocity distribution to get other quantities, such as the maximum
velocity, average velocity, or force on solid surfaces.

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Boundary Conditions

• In the integrations mentioned above,

• several constants of integration appear, and these are evaluated by using
"boundary conditions"—that is, statements about the velocity or stress at the
boundaries of the system.

• The most commonly used boundary conditions are as

discussed here.
• At solid-fluid interfaces
• the fluid velocity equals the velocity with which the solid surface is moving;
• this statement is applied to both the tangential and the normal component of the
velocity vector.
• The equality of the tangential components is referred to as the "no-slip condition.“

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Boundary Conditions

• At a liquid-liquid interfacial plane of constant x,

• the tangential velocity components vy and vz are continuous through the interface
(the "no-slip condition") as are also the molecular stress-tensor components p +
τхх , τху and τxz.

• At a liquid-gas interfacial plane of constant x,

• the stress-tensor components τху and τxz are taken to be zero, provided that the
gas-side velocity gradient is not too large.
• This is reasonable, since the viscosities of gases are much less than those of
liquids.

• In all of these boundary conditions it is presumed that

there is no material passing through the interface;
• that is, there is no adsorption, absorption, dissolution, evaporation, melting, or
chemical reaction at the surface between the two phases.

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BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

Example: Flow of a falling film

8/21/2024
44 EE ZG513 Applied transport

Flow of a falling film

• Flow of a liquid down an inclined flat plate of length L

and width W, as shown in Fig
• Such films have been studied in connection with wetted-wall towers, evaporation
and gas-absorption experiments, and applications of coatings.
• We consider the viscosity and density of the fluid to be constant

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Flow of a falling film

• Assumptions
• W and L are large compared to the film thickness δ.
• For small flow rates we expect that the viscous forces will prevent continued
acceleration of the liquid down the wall, so that vz will become independent of z
in a short distance down the plate.

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Flow of a falling film

• Select as the "system"

• a thin shell perpendicular to the x direction

• Variables
• Vz = Vz(x)
• Vy = Vx = 0
• p = p(x)

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Flow of a falling film

• Set up a z-momentum balance over this shell, which is a

region of thickness Δx, bounded by the planes z = 0 and
z = L, and extending a distance W in the у direction.

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Flow of a falling film

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Flow of a falling film

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Flow of a falling film

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Flow of a falling film

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Flow of a falling film

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Flow of a falling film

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Calculation of other properties

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Flow of a falling film

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Flow of a falling film

Volumetric flow rate

through differential
element
cross-sectional area
of the film.

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Flow of a falling film

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Flow of a falling film

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Flow of a falling film

• Experimental Observation
– Experimental observations of falling films show that there are actually three "flow
regimes' and that these may be classified according to the Reynolds number, Re, 1

for the flow.

– For falling films the Reynolds number is defined by
Re = 4δ <vz>ρ/A.
– The three flow regime are then:

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BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

Flow through a circular tube

Flow through a circular tube

• Consider steady-state, laminar flow of a fluid of constant density

and viscosity in a vertical tube of length L and radius R. The liquid
flows downward under the influence of a pressure difference and
gravity.
• L >> R
• Cylindrical shell of fluid over which the z-momentum balance is
made for axial flow in a circular tube

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Flow through a circular tube

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Flow through a circular tube

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Flow through a circular tube

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Flow through a circular tube

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Calculation of other properties

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Flow through a circular tube

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Flow through a circular tube

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Flow through a circular tube

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Flow through a circular tube

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Flow through a circular tube

• Validity of above equations under following assumptions

• The flow is laminar; that is, Re must be less than about 2100.
• The density is constant ("incompressible flow").
• The flow is "steady" (i.e., it does not change with time).
• The fluid is Newtonian (Eq. 2.3-14 is valid).
• End effects are neglected. Actually an "entrance length," after the tube entrance,
of the order of Le = 0.035D Re, is needed for the buildup to the parabolic profile.
• If the section of pipe of interest includes the entrance region, a correction must
be applied.
• The fractional correction in the pressure difference or mass rate of flow never
exceeds Le/L if L> Le

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BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

Flow through an annulus

74

Flow through an annulus

• Steady-state axial flow of an incompressible liquid in an

annular region between two coaxial cylinders of radii kR
and R
• Upward flow

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Flow through an annulus

• The velocity must be maximum at some λR and shear

stress would be zero at that radius.

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Flow through an annulus

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Flow through an annulus

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Flow through an annulus

• Can we solve this problem without introducing the

boundary condition in terms of shear stress
• Yes, we can
• How?
• Solution procedure
• Let C1 be as it is and substitute the velocity gradient in place of shear stress
using Newton's law of viscosity
• Integrate the differential velocity variation and introduce the integration constant
as C2
• Find C1 and C2 using the appropriate boundary conditions.

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Calculation of other properties

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Flow through an annulus

• Maximum Velocity
• At r = λR ; τrz = 0
• Derivation from notes

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Flow through an annulus

• Average Velocity

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Flow through an annulus

• Average Velocity

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Flow through an annulus

• Mass flow rate

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Flow through an annulus

• The force exerted

• by the fluid on the solid surfaces is obtained by summing the forces acting on the
inner and outer cylinders,

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