EVALUATION OF PROPERTIES OF CORRODED REINFOORCED CONCRATE BEAMS USING

SENSOR ENABLED METHODS

BY

OMOWAYE, Babajide Bidemi

(FPA/CE/21/3-0065)

SUMMITED TO
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
THE FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC ADO EKITI,

EKITI STATE NIGERIA

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF HIGHER NATIONAL

DIPLOMA (HND)
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Background to the Study

Reinforced concrete (RC) makes up a large part of the civil infrastructures. For instance, most

modern building and bridge inventories in Nigeria are reinforced concrete. Normally, concrete

reinforced with steel is a rather splendid combination in which concrete also provides a high

alkaline environment for the steel, helping to protect it from corrosion. However, corrosion of

steel is inevitable, especially when RC structures are exposed to harsh environments with high

carbon dioxide or chloride concentrations. The resulting corrosion

Products occupy volumes 6–10 times that of the steel (Broomfield, 2007).The increased volume

induces tensile stresses in the concrete which result in cracking, delaminating, and spalling. As a

result, the reinforcements get exposed to direct environmental attack and the corrosion is

accelerated. Corrosion, if undiscovered can cause catastrophic failure of the structure, is

currently one of the primary durability concerns for RC structures.

The corrosion of reinforcement is a major deterioration problem in concrete structures, especially

in marine and coastal environments. Although both carbon-induced corrosion and chloride-

induced corrosion are harmful to the reinforcement, chloride-induced corrosion is more

dangerous due to its localized nature. Chloride ions can enter concrete structures by means of

contaminants in the raw mixing materials during construction and can also be introduced by

environmental exposure. It normally takes a relatively long time for ions to be transported to the

location of the reinforcement and accumulate to a critical level through the concrete covers.

However, the speed of the transportation process can be greatly increased due to the presence of

micro cracks and macro cracks when the concrete structure is under load.( Dmitry et al, 2022)
A wide range of techniques have been reported in the literature that may be suitably employed

for the monitoring of corrosion of steel in concrete structures for the purpose of diagnosing the

properties, causes and extent of the reinforcement corrosion (Brown, 2018).However, there are

still many challenges and difficulties of these physical based monitoring techniques for practical

application of condition evaluation of properties of corrosion in reinforced concrete because the

reinforcements are typically embedded inside concrete. Therefore, it is still imperative to

investigate effective monitoring devices for early detection of corrosion in steel embedded in

concrete. Among the proposed are the sensor-enabled methods. Many extensive studies in the

area of sensor technology for corrosion monitoring in concrete structures have increasingly been

carried out in recent years. (Clear, 2015).

In this paper, the properties of corroded reinforced concrete beams using sensor-enabled methods

will be described. Special attention will be given to corrosion properties of corroded reinforced

beams using gravimetric method,corrosion properties of corroded reinforced concrete beams

using potentio-dynamic polarization method and the empirical relationship between laboratory

results and sensor-based results.

1.2 Aim and Objectives of the Study.

This study aim to evaluate the properties of corroded reinforced concrete beams using sensor-

enabled methods.

1.3 Objectives of the study

The specific objectives of this study are to:

determine corrosion properties of corroded reinforced beams using gravimetric method

determine corrosion properties of corroded reinforced concrete beams using potentio-

dynamic polarization method

 develop empirical relationship between laboratory results and sensor-based results..

1.4 Statement of Problems

In the maintenance of concrete structures, corrosion of reinforcement is a well-known issue that

can result in a reduction of the rebar's cross-section, decreasing the structure's ability to support

loads. Concrete beams are permitted to develop fractures under typical design circumstances. On

the other hand, the presence of cracks can greatly accelerate the reinforcement's rate of corrosion.

Rust develops as a result of moisture and oxygen coming into touch with the reinforcement steel

in concrete, causing corrosion. The steel expands as a result of the rust, pressing against the

nearby concrete. This has become a significant issue over time, causing the concrete beam to

crack, spall, and lose some of its structural integrity. Steel's yield strength is decreased and

weakened by corrosion bonding properties between reinforcement and concrete, and affects the

seismic performance and static load capacity of reinforced concrete structures. Iron oxidation

(with F2O3) is produced by the corrosion of steel bars, which causes the expansion of volume

and tensile stress in the concrete, and subsequently causes the concrete to deform and crack

(Zhao et al., 2017). By using sensor-enabled methods, engineers can effectively evaluate the

properties of corroded reinforced concrete beams and develop appropriate strategies for

maintenance and repair. This helps to ensure the safety and longevity of structures, minimizing

the risk of failure and preserving valuable infrastructure.

1.5 Justification of the Study

Evaluating corroded reinforced concrete beams using sensor-enabled methods offers several

advantages compared to traditional evaluation methods. Corrosion in reinforced concrete beams

can compromise structural safety. Corrosion causes billions of US dollars to be spent

Annually in repair, rehabilitation, and reconstruction efforts of RC structures, which makes it

arguably the single largest infrastructural problem facing the industrialized countries (Fanous et;

al, 2012). Sensor-enabled techniques offer several advantages over traditional procedures when

analyzing corroded reinforced concrete beams. The structural stability of reinforced concrete

beams may be jeopardized by corrosion. RC structure maintenance, rehabilitation, and

reconstruction cost billions of US dollars annually due to corrosion, which is without a doubt the

largest infrastructure problem facing developed countries (Fanous et al., 2012).

Developing efficient monitoring methods is essential for evaluating the corrosion status of

reinforced concrete. Sensor-enabled techniques offer an early warning system that makes

maintenance and intervention possible in a timely manner. By detecting corrosion immediately,

potential breakdowns can be prevented, assuring the safety of the structure and its occupants.

Global civil construction is impacted by the corrosion-induced deterioration of concrete

structures, with consequences contingent on the number of incidents reported. The annual cost of

corrosion worldwide exceeds 3% ofthe world's Gross Domestic Product (GDP), approximately

USD 2.2 trillion (Hays, 2020). Depending on when the intervention is carried out, the costs can

be compounded (Meira, 2017), and may even exceed the original cost of construction (Dong et

al., 2011). The use of sensor-enabled methods for evaluating corroded reinforced concrete beams

offers accurate and real-time data, non-destructive testing capabilities, cost-effectiveness,

increased safety, and data-driven decision-making. These benefits make sensor-enabled methods

a valuable tool for maintaining and assessing the structural integrity of reinforced concrete

beams. Sensors can detect and measure corrosion rates, identify localized corrosion, and monitor

the extent of damage. This data allows for a more precise evaluation of the structural integrity of

the beams.
1.6 Scope of the Study

The scope of the study involves the properties of corroded reinforced concrete beams. The most

important property of concrete is the strength, since the most important feature of a concrete is to

be able to withstand loads. From there, other properties of the concrete can also be determined

through tensile strength test and flexural strength test.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Reinforced Concrete (RC)

Reinforced concrete (RC) structures serve as the basic composite material for modern

civilization. This composite material is used to construct industrial buildings, energy and

transportation infrastructure and social facilities. The unique properties of RC make it possible to

implement any technical and architectural solution and construct buildings of virtually any size,

form, and function. RC is a durable material with an expected repair-free service life of up to 100

years, according to EN 1991 (2002–2006 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures). However, there

have been numerous cases, when such structures required maintenance long before the end of the
design service life. Without timely and proper maintenance, RC structures are prone to collapse.

(Dmitry et; al 2022).

2.2 CorrosionCorrosion is a physical-chemical reaction between the material and the

environment. In a simplified form, it can be said that corrosion is interaction between a metal and

the environment. Its result is a permanent chemical change of the metal, which significantly

changes its chemical, physical and mechanical properties. Corrosion of metals occurs

spontaneously because the metal tends to reach a thermodynamically stable state (the natural

state in which it is found in nature). In the production of pure metal, a huge amount of energy is

expended, part of which becomes part of the metal. This energetically richer state of pure metal

is referred to as met stable, therefore it tends to return to a stable state under normal conditions

(Palˇcek, et tal 2013). The environment includes all the conditions to which the metal is exposed

such as air, water, sun, sheltered or unsheltered conditions, de-icing salt and all other actions

affecting the metal. The corrosion effect can be determined by many ways, such as visual

inspection, measured or calculated corrosion speed (i.e., corrosion rate r corr or corrosion loss Dcorr,

current density icorr or weight loss ∆m). The most widespread type of corrosion is uniform

corrosion (corrosion over the whole surface of a metal) or pitting corrosion (corrosion localized

on the small area of a metal) under outdoor conditions, the so-called atmospheric corrosion. It

can be said that local corrosion (pitting corrosion) causes local notches on the reinforcement. The

effect of notches due to corrosion on the mechanical properties of the reinforcement has also not

been investigated in the previous papers. The result of corrosion acting on reinforced concrete

structures is a reduction in the cross-sectional area of the reinforcement and volume changes of

the corrosive products (rust). The cross-sectional area reduces the resistance of the element, and

the volume changes of the corrosive products degrade the concrete cover layer and thereby
reduce the lifetime of the element (Hawileh, et al, 2013). Ultimately, this can lead to a structural

failure (Proske,et tal 2020) or collapse of the structure. Long-term research is ongoing in the

field of reinforcement corrosion. Many research works were focused on the effect of

reinforcement corrosion on change in resistance and stiffness of elements (or the entire

structure). It is mainly about the effect of corrosion on the bending resistance or shear resistance

of reinforced concrete (RC) elements. Val has examined the effect of corrosion of reinforcing

steel on flexural and shear strength, and subsequently on reliability, of reinforced concrete

beams, (Koteš and Viˇcan, 2013) Two types of corrosion general and pitting—were considered,

with particular emphasis on influence of the pitting corrosion of stirrups on performance of

beams in shear. The authors of works (Koteš and Viˇcan, 2014) also dealt with the effect of

reinforcement corrosion on change in resistance of the RC elements subjected to bending or/and

shear. It has been shown that the change in resistance of an RC element in shear is more sensitive

to corrosion than the change in resistance of an element subjected to bending. This is due to the

fact that the shear reinforcement is closer to the surface (smaller concrete cover layer) and

therefore begins to corrode significantly earlier than the main longitudinal reinforcement.

Francois et al, 2012 dealt with the impact of corrosion on the mechanical properties of steel in

reinforced concrete. Steel bars were extracted from a 27-year-old corroded reinforced concrete

beam that had been exposed to a chloride environment. Bars with different degrees of corrosion

and with different corrosion pit depths were tested in tension. The work Gaal et; al 2019 dealt

with the potential effect of corrosion damage on performance of the reinforced concrete member.

The problem was solved by numerical modeling. The thesis presented a parametric study to

assess the influence of different levels of corrosion to the structural performance. Lee, 2013 deals

with the effect of reinforcement corrosion in combination with sustained load on the resistance of
the compressed member (column). However, the resistance of the elements depends on the bond

between the reinforcement and the concrete as well, which is also affected by corrosion Herald,

(2019). The effect of corrosion of the reinforcement on the bond between concrete and

reinforcement is significant mainly for smooth reinforcement and depends on the type and

method of anchoring the reinforcement (Fliz et al; 2012).Many times, however, it is first

necessary to know the effect of corrosion on the change in the resistance of the reinforcement

itself, that is, on the change in the mechanical properties of the reinforcement. The effect of

reinforcement corrosion on the mechanical properties of SAE 1020 structural steel was

investigated by (Martínez et al, 2012). As part of the research,the reinforcement samples were

exposed to various aggressive environments from C2 to C5 for a period of 36 months. It was

demonstrated that all mechanical properties of the reinforcement decreased as a function of

environmental atmospheric aggressiveness. Tsonev et al, (2013) once again investigated the

impact of atmospheric corrosion on mechanical properties of B235 steel bars. In this case, the

samples were exposed to natural atmospheric corrosion in a temperate climate zone for 25 years.

The initial stress-percentage extension curves were determined. Apostolopoulos et al, (2015)

investigated the tensile behavior of corroded reinforcing bars BSt 500s. The experiments in the

laboratory showed that the corrosion exposure causes an appreciable mass loss which increases

with increasing duration of exposure. That led to a significant increase of the applied stress.

(Allam et al,2014) investigated the influence of atmospheric corrosion on the mechanical

properties of reinforcement.

It is often possible to simulate the corrosion of steel reinforcement in concrete as a two-stage

process. The initial phase, referred to as the initiation, diffusion, or incubation period, occurs

when chloride ions move from the surface of the concrete to the level of reinforcement. There is
very little rust on the reinforcing steel at this point. According to Fick's Second Law of

Diffusion, the amount of time needed for the chloride concentration to reach the previously

specified chloride threshold value at the reinforcement level can be calculated using the chloride

ion's diffusion through concrete (Weyers et al., 2014; Gaal et al., 2019). The second stage,

known as the active corrosion period of steel reinforcement, starts and spreads after the passive

layer disintegrates (i.e., the chloride threshold is crossed). The rate at which the corroded steel

reinforcement deteriorates and causes noticeable distress determines how long the second stage

will last. RC structures eventually reach a point where they require maintenance, even if

estimating how long the second stage will take is not an easy operation. When corrosion

happens, the steel reinforcing essentially "dissolves" in the pore water, releasing electrons and

generating cations, which are ions with a positive charge. Oxidation is the process of losing

electrons. The basic oxidation of steel is represented by the chemical process that follows.

reinforcement at the anode (the location that releases electrons).

2.2.1 Corrosion Process

Both mild and high-strength steel reinforcement corrode in the presence of oxygen and water. As

concrete generally has interconnected pores, air and moisture are ever present around the

reinforcement. Initially, at least, the alkaline nature of the surrounding concrete naturally

prevents embedded steel reinforcement from corroding. Specifically, microscopic pores within

the concrete matrix with high concentrations of soluble calcium, sodium, and potassium oxide

form hydroxide when water is present. This process subsequently creates this alkaline condition

(i.e., pH 12–13) (Broomfield 2017). The alkaline condition leads to the formation of a “passive”

layer on the steel reinforcement surface. This passive layer is a dense, impenetrable film that, if

fully established and maintained, prevents further corrosion of the steel reinforcement. A true
passive layer is a very dense, thin layer of oxide that leads to a very slow rate of corrosion

(Broomfield 2017). The passive layer formed on steel reinforcement in concrete is most likely

part metal oxide-hydroxide and part mineral from the cement paste. There is some discussion as

to whether this layer is a true passive layer, as it is thick compared to other known passive layers

and consists of more than just metal oxides. However, it behaves similarly to a passive layer and,

therefore, is generally referred to as such. Corrosion engineers try to stop the corrosion of steel

by simulating the naturally occurring, yet fragile, passive layer with applied protective coatings.

Metals such as zinc or polymers such as acrylics and epoxies are sometimes used to stop

corrosive conditions from reaching the steel surfaces. The true passive layer is the ideal

protective coating, as it will form, maintain, and repair itself as long as the alkaline environment

is sustained. This is a far better situation than any artificial coating, as artificial coatings can be

consumed or damaged, allowing corrosion to proceed in damaged areas. However, in reality the

passive environment is not always maintained in RC. Most notably, the chloride attack

mechanism can break down the alkaline condition in concrete, resulting in a corrosion-

susceptible environment. 2.3 Chloride Attack Mechanism

Chloride ions in structures can originate from various sources. They may be intentionally added

to the concrete or they may be cast into the concrete. For instance, calcium chloride was

frequently employed as a concrete set accelerator up to the middle of the 1970s (Broomfield

2017). Utilizing seawater or gravel that has been dredged from the sea can potentially introduce

chloride into the concrete mixture. Salt storage, marine salt spray, and deicing salt application

can all cause chlorides to permeate into concrete. The main source of chlorides in the majority of

contemporary RC structures is the diffusion of chlorides caused by the use of deicing solutions

or marine salt spray. Nonetheless, cast-in chloride should not be disregarded. If more chlorides
are made available by the environment, corrosion can start to occur quickly even with a minimal

amount of cast-in chloride. This frequently occurs in maritime environments, as saltwater

infiltrates the initial concrete mixture and permeates into the solidified concrete. When the

concentration of chloride ions at the reinforcing surface is high enough, the ions can function as

catalysts to cause corrosion through the capillaries in concrete. This can cause the steel's passive

oxide layer to dissolve, starting the corrosion process. Since chlorides are typically difficult to

remove once they are incorporated into an RC structure, chloride attacks are challenging to

remediate.

2.3.1 Chloride Threshold

The previously mentioned passive layer will not be destroyed by a tiny concentration of chloride

ions in concrete pore water, especially if the system is successfully reestablishing itself. The

concentration of chloride ions needed to start corrosion is known as the chloride-hydroxyl ratio,

and it indicates the chloride threshold for corrosion. To determine the chloride threshold, a

number of researchers have examined uncoated reinforcement in lab experiments using calcium

hydroxide solutions. When the concentration of chloride surpasses 0.6 times that of hydroxyl in

uncoated mild steel reinforcement, corrosion is frequently observed (Hausmann 2017). If

chlorides are cast into concrete, this translates to an approximate concentration of 0.4% chloride

by weight of cement; if they diffuse into concrete, the concentration is closer to 0.2% (Clear

1975; Clear 1976). The estimated chloride threshold for uncoated reinforcement is 0.71 kg/m3

(1.2 lb./cu. yd.) of concrete, based on an assumed 5 sacks of cement per cubic meter of concrete

(6.5 sacks of cement per cubic yard) (Weyers et al. 2017; Weyers 2015). Unlike uncoated

reinforcement, no published literature provides definite values for the chloride threshold for

epoxy-coated mild steel reinforcement or MMFX micro composite. This might be the result of a
number of things, including questions about the integrity of the epoxy's organic layer and

potential degradation during storage or transit.epoxy-coated reinforcement, or loss of adhesion

between the coating and the base metal. For these reasons, a range of chloride threshold from

1.96 to 2.14 kg/m3 (3.3 to 3.6 lb./cu. yd.) and 0.71 to 2.14 kg/m3 (1.2 to 3.6 lb./cu. yd.) at the

reinforcement level has been suggested, respectively, for MMFX and epoxy-coated

reinforcement (Darwin et al. 2012; Sagues 2014). The lower limit of the range for epoxy-coated

reinforcement represents an empirical chloride threshold for uncoated reinforcement (Clear

2015; Clear 2019).

2.4 Methods of Corrosion Monitoring

For RC structures, corrosion monitoring techniques are well-established. Since corrosion is an

electrochemical process, gathering and analyzing data is not too difficult. Electrons are emitted

as a byproduct of the anode chemical reaction, which is initiated during the corrosion of steel

reinforcement. Electrons move from the anode, or corrosion site, to the cathode, or non-

corroding site. This makes it possible to assess corrosion risk and rate electronically (i.e.,

voltmeter measurements). Four of the numerous approaches that could be used for corrosion

monitoring were employed in this study. The following sections provide descriptions of each of

these four strategies for the purpose of reference. 2.4.1 Half-Cell Potential Monitoring

The saturated calomel 8 reference electrode can be used to calculate the corrosion risk of any

steel reinforcement. A current is created and voltage is monitored by placing the electrode on the

concrete surface and directly connecting it to the top or bottom reinforcement with a voltmeter. It

is well recognized that the iron content of the pore water environment affects the electrical

potential difference, or voltage. Therefore, a measurement of the corrosion risk is the electric

potential.
2.4.2 Macrocell Corrosion Monitoring

In the case of chloride attack, the anodes and cathodes (i.e., the corrosion locations) are often

separated by areas of non-corroded steel. This is known as the macro cell phenomenon. In

macrocell corrosion in bridge decks, the anode and cathode are commonly located on different

steel bars, often the top and bottom layers. Chloride-induced corrosion, the typical type of

corrosion that occurs in bridge decks, is particularly prone to macrocell formation, as a high level

of water is usually present to carry chloride ions into the concrete. The presence of water in the

pores increases the electrical conductivity of the concrete. The higher conductivity allows the

separation of the anode and cathode, as the chloride ions can easily transport through the water

filled pores. In the macrocell is commonly used as a way of measuring the corrosion rate. The

current flow between the top and bottom steel reinforcement layers is monitored by measuring

the voltage across a resistor connecting the layers of reinforcement, by Faraday’s Law, the mass

loss rate (i.e., corrosion rate) is directly proportional to the monitored corrosion current.

(Dmitry,et;al 2022).

2.4.3. CMS V2000 Silver-Silver Chloride Electrode Monitoring

With the CMS V2000 silver-silver chloride electrode (V2000 electrode), the potential difference

between the silver electrode and the anode steel reinforcement is measured. This relationship is

described by Faraday’s laws and is a direct result of the relationship between dissimilar metals in

the presence of an acidic or alkaline substance. The electrochemical process of corrosion causes

current via the flow of free electrons. The V2000 electrode generates a second, independent

current as a function of the dissimilarity of the metals, the amount of moisture and chlorides

present, etc. The two processes are additive. By measuring both the induced voltage and current,

the corrosion risk and corrosion rate can be determined. This makes the V2000 electrode a
viable, permanent embedded sensor for the long-term monitoring of bridge deck steel

reinforcement. (Dmitry,et;al 2022).2.4.4. Chloride Ion Concentration Monitoring

The chloride concentration in concrete at the level of the reinforcement is a major factor in the

corrosion of reinforcing steel. The chloride ions migrate to the reinforcement by permeating

through the concrete or by penetrating through cracks in the concrete. To initiate the corrosion of

steel reinforcement, the concentration of chloride ions must reach the previously described

corrosion threshold at the steel reinforcement level. The chloride ion concentration of concrete

can be evaluated using several different methods. The AASHTO T 260-94 test (Sampling and

Testing for Chloride-ion in Concrete and Concrete Raw Materials) suggests three procedures

(Procedure A, B, and C) for determining the chloride ion content in concrete (Scannell and

Sohanghpurwala 2016). Procedures A and B are time consuming and complicated tests:

Procedure A determines the chloride ion concentration potentiometric titration, whereas

Procedure B uses an atomic absorption process to determine the concentration of chloride ion. In

Procedure C, the chloride ion concentration is determined using a specific ion probe. An

alternative to these three procedures is the nondestructive use of X-ray fluorescence (XRF)

spectroscopy to analyze the chloride ion concentration in the powder samples (Dmitry,et;al

2022).

2.5 Physical Techniques for Monitoring

Corrosion in RC There is some other physical techniques for monitoring steel corrosion. These

techniques are briefly reviewed as follows.

2.5.1. Electrical Resistance Probe.

Electrical resistance (ER) probe is on specific type of embedded sensor which is simple to be

used for monitoring corrosion. In the technique, resistance probes made of the same material
with steel bar are first embedded in concrete, and then the resistance of probe scan be measured

by balance in bridge which is inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area. Therefore, the

thickness reduction due to corrosion can be estimated from concentration of elements contained

in a solid, powdered, and liquid sample (Schlorholtz 2018), the change in resistance of probes so

as to achieve the test purpose (Locke, 2016). Although applications of these probes in concrete

are relatively rare, the results have proved that they can accurately determine the cumulative

corrosion damage of steel in cementations materials [70]. Consequently, reliable assessment of

the average general corrosion rate over defined time intervals is possible (Manning, 2016). On

the other hand, the response of these probes to localized corrosion types and transient events is

limited. ER probes are based on physical response to corrosion and are therefore not directly

susceptible to variations in the electrochemical parameters. For this reason they are particularly

suited for the long-term verification of the suitability of electrochemical sensors for corrosion

measurements in concrete (Pepe,2018).

2.5.2 X-Ray Diffraction.

X-Ray technique is based on the principle that intensity of X-Ray beams reduces while passing

through a corroded material. Analysis of material composition and relative amounts of corrosion

products can be achieved by the technique. It is simple but hazardous.(Smith and Virmani,

2016).4.3. Vortex and Magnetic Flux Leakage. Steel bar reaches magnetic saturation with the

electromagnetic devices placed on the surface of concrete. Abnormal phenomenon in magnetic

field will appear due to loss in cross-sectional area of steel bar caused by corrosion. Loss rate of

the cross-sectional area of reinforcement can be determined with analysis of these exceptions. It

is an effective method to quantitatively detect the loss of reinforcement with accuracy and it is

nondestructive (Pfeiffer, 2020). 4.4. Acoustic Emission. Yuma et al. studied corrosion
mechanisms in reinforced concrete by acoustic emission (AE) (Broomfield, 2017). During

corrosion in reinforcement concrete, the surrounding concrete will crack due to the expansion

stress resulted from the corrosion products. When it is cracking, part of energy will release in the

form of sound waves. Therefore position and strength of the emission source can be detected by

acoustic emission sensors. It is hard to avoid interference with other waves, so it is difficult to

establish the relationship between the level of reinforcement corrosion activity and the intensity

of acoustic emission Snannel et ; al, 2016. Calabres et al, 2019, recently studied noise removal

and univariate and multivariate statistical analysis in AE corrosion monitoring of steel

reinforcement in concrete. Kundu et al, 2014 used a combination of a PZT and an

electromagnetic acoustic transducer (EMAT) to inspect the interface between steel bar and

concrete, such that arrangement was made to overcome the major shortcoming of PZT and

EMAT. Elfergani et al 2016 reported on using the acoustic emission (AE) technique to detect

and locate the early stages of corrosion and macro cracks and furthermore classify different crack

types to aid maintenance priorities. Benedetti et al.2013 presented an accelerated corrosion and

continuous AE monitoring test. The effectiveness of AE in detecting and characterizing the

initiation of the corrosion process is discussed on the basis of results from small-scale,

precracked RC specimens that are representative of areas near the clear cover in typical RC

members. They proposed a new approach of AE data interpretation based on time-driven

parameters.

2.6 MMFX Micro composite Steel Reinforcement ResearchMMFX micro composite steel

reinforcement is publicized as a proprietary chemical composition material and advertised as

having a unique microstructure with enhanced corrosion resistance characteristics and higher

mechanical properties (yield and tensile strengths) than conventional ASTM A 615 steel. With
no published study available concerning MMFX reinforcement performance, the University of

Kansas Center for Research conducted a study to evaluate the performance of MMFX

reinforcement, with a major emphasis placed on comparing the corrosion resistance of MMFX,

epoxy-coated reinforcement, and uncoated reinforcement (Darwin et al. 2012). This study was

conducted in cooperation with the United States Department of Transportation (DOT), the

FHWA, the Kansas DOT, the South Dakota DOT, and the National Science Foundation. The

Rapid Macrocell accelerated corrosion test was used as the principal evaluation test in that

study.The complete evaluation involved corrosion testing, measurement of bar deformation,

analysis of material composition, and a general study of the impact of the material’s

reinforcement properties on the structural performance of bridge decks. The results of the

laboratory evaluation were supplemented with construction and maintenance experience in South

Dakota and other states to evaluate the impact of implementing MMFX on the life expectancy

and cost effectiveness of concrete bridge decks. From the physical and mechanical tests

conducted by the University of Kansas Center for Research, several issues in implementing

MMFX reinforcement were identified in three sample bridge deck designs in South Dakota.

Based only on design, MMFX reinforcement provides few satisfactory options for replacing

conventional reinforcement under the current AASHTO design procedures. For example, MMFX

reinforcement was found to exceed the maximum allowable steel and concrete stresses, violate

crack control and fatigue provisions, and exceed the maximum allowable percentage of

reinforcement (Darwin et al. 2012). Furthermore, the mechanical properties provided by the

manufacturer were found to be higher than the properties described by a series of tests conducted

by the University of Kansas Center for Research. (MMFX Steel Corporation of America 2015;

Darwin et al. 2012). From laboratory corrosion testing, epoxy-coated reinforcement was found to
be more effective in corrosion resistance than the MMFX steel. Overall, the report concluded

that using MMFX reinforcing steel in bridge decks did not appear to be cost effective compared

to using epoxy-coated reinforcement.

2.7. Sensors for Corrosion Monitoring in Concrete Structures

2.7.1 Chemical micro sensors

Compared to normal-sized sensors, chemical micro sensors are exposed to a higher con-osion

risk.<27l Corrosive damage can be caused by both the direct attack of the medium being

measured on the chemically sensitive layer and the corrosion of the substrate materials or the

electrical contacts due to absorption or penetration of moisture through the encapsulating

material. Corrosion phenomena on chemical sensors have been investigated using

electrochemical methods such as the measurement of electrode potentials and sensor output

signals or the measurement of electrochemical noise, by resistance and impedance

measurements, by gravimetric methods, and by microscopic examinations of the specimen under

test. pH glass electrodes, pH sensors, semiconductor based miniaturized oxygen sensors and

zirconium-based potentiometric gas sensors belong to this category.<28l The lifetime and

performance of sensors are strongly influenced by the operating temperature of the sensor and

the chemical environment to be analyzed. Mainly conduct metric and potentiometric

measurements,<29lpolarisation methods, impedance spectroscopy, investigations of the

electrochemical noise and microscopical methods ( optical and SEM) are

utilized for studying the corrosion behavior of construction materials.

2.7.2 Ring sensors or macrocell sensors

Since 1990, a special macrocell system, the so-called anode-ladder system, has been used

worldwide to monitor new concrete structures in addition to other systems. The anode-ladder
system used to monitor the corrosion risk of the reinforcement in concrete structures. This sensor

system indicates the depth of the critical chloride content that initiates corrosion, i.e., the critical

depth of the reinforcement with respect to corrosion. Subsequently, the time-to-corrosion can be

determined, enabling owners of buildings to initiate preventive protection measures before

cracks and spalling occur. By measurement of the potentials and the electrical resistance of the

concrete around the sensors, estimation of the humidity, the availability of oxygen and the

corrosion behavior after depassivation is possible. The equipment of the anode-ladder system

consists of anode ladder element with 6single anodes including temperature sensors as main

monitoring sensors, a cathode bar of40-cm-long platinum-coated titanium (8 mm dia.) as counter

electrode for the electrical measurements against the anode ladder, and reinforcements. The

terminal box has geometry as small as possible to ensure that it can be moved through the

reinforcement from the sensor location to the final measuring position in most cases. The step-

by-step installation procedure for the expansion-ring anode into the concrete in the aggressive

environment is depicted. The development of corrosion monitoring sensors was based on an

extensive research program on the main factors influencing chloride-induced macrocell corrosion

of steel in concrete. More than 500 concrete specimens with different concrete compositions

have been investigated by Raupach and Schiebl under varying environmental conditions.<30l.

These investigations have been carried out using macrocell current measurements between

anodically and cathodically acting steel surface areas. The tests have shown that this technique

can also be used to monitor the ingress of aggressive ions such as chloride or carbonation by

measuring electrical signals between different steel bars installed at defined locations. In

chloride-free and noncarbonated concrete, both anode and cathode are protected against

corrosion due to the alkalinity of the solution in the pores of the concrete(passive state). The
electrical current between both electrodes is negligibly low under such conditions. If, however, a

critical chloride content is reached, or if the pH of the concrete decreases due to carbonation, the

steel surface of the anode is no longer protected against corrosion. Provided that the selected

cathode material is corrosion-resistant in chloride contaminated or carbonated ·concrete and

sufficient moisture and oxygen are available, oxygen reduction takes place at the surface of the

cathode bar. The local separation of anodically and cathodically acting areas leads to an electron

flow between the black steel and the noble metal, which can easily be measured using an

external cable connection. The measuring electrodes are made of steel with a composition similar

to that of reinforcing steel to ensure that they will start to corrode at the same time a re bar at the

same depth would start to corrode. Comparative tests have been carried out at the Institute for

Building Materials Research of the RWTH Aachen, showing that there was no significant

difference in the con-osion behavior of the steel used for the measuring electrodes (anodes)and

reinforcing steel, when using different degrees of perusing before installation into the concrete

specimens. Because the results of extensive laboratory and field investigations ofthe anode-

ladder system limit the following alarm valuesC3 J) for the el. cun-ents: (1) Elcurrent 5 s after

coupling< 15 μA (and long-term-cun-ent e.g. after 24 h < 1,5 μA) indicateo con-osion and (2) El

cun-ent 5 s after coupling> 15 μA (and long-term-cun-ent e.g. after24 h >> 1,5 μA) indicate

depassivation. These limit values are related to conventional concretes for no submerged outdoor

exposure; this may be slightly different for unconventional concrete compositions or

environmental conditions.

This sensor has the following advantages over other sensors:

1) It is not only shown whether the reinforcement corrodes, but it can also be estimated when the

reinforcement will start to con-ode.

2) The corrosion monitoring system shows the depth of the critical chloride content directly and

not the absolute chloride content. Compared to the measurement of chloride profiles, this is a

decisive advantage because, as known from experience, the interpretation of absolute chlmide

content is generally difficult. Therefore, the installation of con-osion monitoring sensors cannot

be replaced by taking concrete samples alone for chloride profiles.

3) The use of the corrosion monitoring system is especially economic for inaccessible locations,

e.g. at the outer surfaces of tunnels or in the tidal zones of pier shafts.

4) When the corrosion monitoring systems are used as an effective integrated part of a

maintenance program, the operating costs, i.e., inspection, maintenance and repair costs, can be

reduced significantly. Interesting fields of application are the following:

1) Reinforced concrete structures exposed to aggressive environments (offshore structures

buildings near the coast, bridges, parking structures, tunnels, foundations)

2) Areas with difficult access or without any access (outer areas of tunnels and pipes,

foundations and tanks, piers, piles of b1idges near the water level).

3) Monitoring the durability of special protection systems for new structures especially with a

high designed service life, e.g. 100 years (high performance concrete, coatings,inhibitors)

4) Monitoring the durability of special repair systems (cathodic protection, desalination,

coatings, inhibitors)

2.7.3 Acoustic sensor

The operation of this sensing system is based on well-known acoustic emission physics. The

ability of this sensing system depends on how they detect emissions from corrosion induced wire

failure above ambient noise and to distinguish them from other acoustic events. Furthermore, to

be effective, this process should be continuous with minimum interruptions for a significant
length of time in order to establish the absence of wire breaks or the rate at which they are

occurring. A stressed high-tensile steel elements such as wires, strands, bars are suddenly

released the energy at the moment of fracture. This energy is dissipated through the structure in

the form of an acoustic response, which can be detected by sensors mounted on the surface of the

concrete. The sensor consists of piezoelectric accelerometers connected by cables to the on-site

data acquisition terminal with suitable filters.(Cullington et al, 2013). first demonstrated this

sensor in the UK site installation of a monitoring system that detects the fracture of wires in post-

tensioning tendons by listening with acoustic sensors attached to the surface of the concrete.

<32) Trials have shown the system towork reliably for grouted and ungrouped tendons. Acoustic

events from other sources such as road traffic are discarded using software and hardware filters

at the unattended site. Data from possible wire-fracture events are sent off-site for final

identification and positioning. The system runs continuously on site, on a viaduct, with close to

100% up-time. In open and blind trials on the viaduct, 41 out of 44 wire break or facsimile

events were correctlylocated and identified and a further two were correctly located. The system

can assist in the management of bridges where the post-tensioning system is at risk from

corrosion. An invasive investigation should be used to confirm the condition at the wire break

locations identified by this sensor. It should then be possible to establish a management strategy

for the structure, which may require immediate attention, but may equally be perfectly safe for

further service until a significant loss of priestess occurs. In these circumstances a monitoring

system could play an important part in the immediate and long-term management of the

structure.

The quantitative damage estimation of concrete by acoustic emission is reported. Measurement

of acoustic emission activity in the uniaxial compression test of a core sample confirmed that
acoustic-emission-generating behavior is closely associated with the presence of micro cracks in

concrete.

2.7.4 Chloride ion sensors

The embedded steel in reinforced concrete is corroded by the chloride ions found in deicing

products, endangering concrete-based civil infrastructure like highways, parking lots, and

bridges. In reality, the infiltration of chloride ions is the principal cause of degradation of these

structures. When the concentration of chloride ions in the concrete around the embedded

reinforcement hits 0.2%, the embedded steel reinforcement in the concrete starts to corrode. The

depth of the embedded reinforcement, the exposure environment, and the quality of the concrete,

corrosion in concrete infrastructure can begin as early as the first few years to as late as 25 years

in the life of a structure.

This time-to-corrosion parameter for embedded steel reinforcement determines the lifetime of a

structure. Numerous studies have been undertaken to study the time-to-corrosion with respect to

concrete quality, exposure, and initial chloride levels in the concrete. In these studies, as well as

in the everyday maintenance of the infrastructure, the chloride content and concentration profile

are measured by crushing concrete samples and evaluating the extracted chlorides through wet

chemistry. These methods determine the chloride content by weight based on the concrete

sample itself. These tests are typically performed during the later ages of a structure's life when it

approaches the end of its predicted lifespan or when evidence of deterioration indicates a

potential corrosion problem. Other methods of detecting the initiation of corrosion also have

been developed. These methods do not detect or depend on a parameter such as chloride content

to determine the corrosion potential, but detect when corrosion is actually occurring. Although

the chloride content of the concrete is not the only parameter that determines when corrosion will
begin, it is the one parameter that is well established as a major contributor to corrosion. Thus, a

sensor that would report chloride levels from the interior of concrete structures is needed. An

embedded nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) that determines chloride levels in concrete would

be an especially attractive solution to the problem because NMR is quite specific in its

identification of chloride; also, because there is no chemical interaction of the device with the

chloride, it could be easily designed to operate for the predicted lifespan of the structure.NMR

can, in principle, determine the presence and concentration of chloride. NMR is the phenomenon

by which a signal is generated when nuclei having nonzero nuclear spin undergo transitions

between energy states. A magnetic field, B, aligns the magnetic moments of the nuclei, which

process around the direction of the applied field. Excitation of these moments with there is

detectable energy transitions caused by electromagnetic radiation with frequency characteristics

of the species of interest. A diagnostic for the existence of the species is the presence of

detectable transitions at recognized frequencies. The nonzero spin of chlorine is 3/2 in the most

prevalent isotopes. Chlorine can therefore be detected in theory using NMR. A permanent

magnet that produces a uniform magnetic field (B 0), a coil that generates a small excitation

magnetic field (B1) in the sample and receives the signal back from the sample, and electronic

components for filtering, mixing, digitizing, and summing the readings taken from the coil are

the main parts of any remotely deployed NMR sensor. The crucial and fascinating query is

whether a small system with all of these features could can be expected to detect chloride in

concrete. The sample volume is most critical because it governs the number of atoms one can

expect to be present. For deployment in concrete infrastructure, the overall system must have a

characteristic length scale of less than 5 cm on a side, which is close to the maximum size of

coarse aggregate in concrete. A magnetic field of 7-19 T typically is used to obtain signal; a
potential in situ NMR sensor, however, would be limited by available permanent magnet

materials to 1 T or less. The magnet occupies much of the volume of the device because it must

deliver both a maximum field strength and good uniformity. The solenoid coil connected to the

electronic chip might have a diameter of 2-4 mm and would be placed in the barrel of the

specially designed permanent magnet. Fundamental calculations of the field homogeneity inside

such a package probably constrain the sample size to 1 mm3. Thus, the research question

becomes whether one can reasonably expect to detect chloride in a volume of characteristic

dimension (1 mm) with a magnetic field strength less than 1 T. NMR has been employed in

cement and concrete research since the early 1980s, but because of its low sensitivity, chloride

(35Cl and 37Cl) has not been extensively researched. Since aluminum is 100% plentiful and

more sensitive than chlorine, most investigations pertaining to chlorides have used 27 Al NMR.

Additionally, the number of free chloride ions in Portland cement concrete is inversely correlated

with the amounts of C3A and C4AF. For cement research, Yu and Kirkpatrick, 2012) and

(Kirkpatrick et al 2012. <34.35) published reports on 35Cl NMR experiments. (Qiao et al, 2012.)

2.7.5 Electrochemical Methods

Electrochemical assessment methods allow identifying the corrosion of steel reinforcement bars

in concrete either directly or indirectly, based on the changes in the properties of the concrete

cover. The principles underlying these methods are based on the quantitative relations between

the assessed parameters such as, for instance, the relation between the circuit voltage and the

concentration or activity of particular chemical elements, or the presence of ions in the corrosive

environment, etc. (Qiao et al, 2012.)Described below are the most common electrochemical

methods for monitoring the health of reinforcements and sensor systems based on them,
including commercially available ones. The methods are listed from the most to the least popular

(Taher, 2019).

2.7.6 Half-Cell Potential (HCP) Sensor

Measuring the free corrosion potential of steel reinforcements (E cor) on the surface of concrete is

one of the earliest methods for assessing the corrosion condition of RC. The first articles on the

topic were published in the 1970s (Bloomfield, 2017) On the whole, half-cell potential

measurements present a reliable qualitative method, which has been proved by a number of

laboratory Herald, 2019 and field (Clear, 2019) studies. This method has been adopted as

standard in a number of countries (Abu- Hawash, 2019) and is widely used. The generally

accepted values of Ecor and the corresponding corrosion conditions of reinforcement. The

drawbacks of the HCP method include the lack of a fixed range for the measured potential, the

dependence of the results on the temperature and the level of moisture in concrete, and the effect

of the films of the coatings and hydrophobisators on the concrete surface. At the moment,

portable sensors are the most popular. They consist of a voltmeter with high input impedance and

a reference electrode providing for the consistency of the measurements performed during in situ

studies. The most common reference electrodes are copper/copper sulphate and calomel

electrodes. The devices have different commercial names in different countries: Canin+ or

Photometer Corrosion produced by Proceq, Switzerland;Elcometer 331T by Elcometer, the UK;

Giatech iCOR by Giatec Scientific Inc., Ottawa,ON, Canada; Armkor-1 by InterPribor, Russia,

etc. The devices differ in their functions, which range from simply measuring and displaying the

circuit voltage to mapping the potentials and determining the areas most prone to corrosion on

site (the data are not processed by a computer). The application of such devices requires

engineers to be in proximity to the examined structures Cady and Gannon, 2012.Of more
convenience for remote continuous monitoring systems are sensors, which can be embedded into

concrete in the areas most prone to corrosion (Abu- Hawash, 2019). There are studies describing

sensors based on copper/copper sulphate and silver chloride (Chappelow, et al, 2012) electrodes

that were embedded into concrete. However, the problem of maintaining the stability of such

reference electrodes when used with liquid electrolyte solutions have not been solved yet;

stability can be lost and some elements can even be destroyed by the alkaline medium of

concrete, resulting in the contamination of the concrete with the components of

the solution. (Jin et al. 2016) suggested using a solid MnO 2-based reference electrode, which

allows for polarisation measurements by means of the HCP method, linear polarisation, and

electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. Muralidharan et al. (2017) confirmed the effectiveness

of MnO2-based electrodes for concrete embedded sensors. Later, (Karthick et al. 2019) suggested

a modified reference electrode based on graphene oxide-manganese oxide (GO-MnO 2), which

demonstrated the ability to function stably for at least two years in concrete. (Chand et al. 2019)

suggested a new method of HCP measurement by means of two coils functioning according to

Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. Although this approach can hardly become

widespread, it demonstrates that researchers today have a wide range of instruments to solve the

problem. We should note that there are hardly any sensors that only monitor the free corrosion

potential. Most commonly, integrated systems are used which monitor several parameters

simultaneously (pH, chloride concentration, microcell current, etc.) or systems with reference

electrodes for polarisation methods. In the latter case, the free corrosion potentials an additional

parameter. Taking into account the qualitative nature of the method and the presence of

undefined values, this approach is quite reasonable.

2.7.7 Concrete Resistivity (CR) Measurement Sensors

Measuring the electrical resistivity of concrete is another popular method for monitoring the

corrosion condition of reinforcement bars ( Genius et al, 2012). There is a linear dependence

between the electrical resistivity of concrete, moisture content, and the concentration of soluble

salts (including chlorides) in concrete (Darwin, et al 2012). It is known that under otherwise

equal conditions, low resistivity is related to rapid electrochemical processes. However, the

dependence of CR on a number of factors, including temperature, relative humidity, amount of

atmospheric precipitation, etc., significantly impairs the interpretation of the results obtained

during the monitoring of resistivity (Lee, 2013). Therefore, it is only possible to estimate the

probability of corrosion.

2.8. The Importance of Corrosion Monitoring in Concrete Structures

The technique of conducting a survey of reinforced concrete structures suffering from

reinforcement corrosion is now well documented, and a number of techniques can be used to

carry out such an assessment. (Andrade and Alonso 2016). Muralidharan 2015 and coworkers

utilized many electrochemical techniques to assess the corrosion of fly-ash-blended cements in

chloride contaminated concrete. All of these techniques can be used in isolation or combination

to provide an integrated approach to the condition of a structure. However, because concrete

engineers are interested in the rate of deterioration of structures, it is useful to monitor changing

condition with time. This is now being carried out on new structures with long lifetime

requirements and older structures when corrosion damage has been found and repair is being

deferred due to cost, logistical or other reasons. Currently available probes do not meet all

requirements. A number of new innovative, inexpensive probes for monitoring existing

structures are therefore being developed, covering the most important deterioration mechanisms:

corrosion of reinforcement, carbonation of concrete, freeze-thaw damage, alkali-aggregate

reaction, and mechanical damage (overloading). The progress of these mechanisms can be

predicted by monitoring key material parameters (temperature, moisture, pH, chloride

concentration, corrosion current/ rate/ initiation), either on the surface or as a profile through the

concrete in the structure, as well as mechanical parameters (strain, deflection, vibration,

acoustics). The final result is an integrated system for monitoring existing structures that

includes:

1) Prototypes of integrated monitoring systems,

2) Manual for site-tailoring of monitoring systems,

3) Prototype of an integrated model for damage development,

4) Prototypes of new innovative, inexpensive probes, and

5) Local data-collecting units combined with a long-distance data-transfer system. It is estimated

that the use of this system could generate reductions on the order of 15% of current operating

costs. In addition, the design of new construction projects benefits from the improved predictive

models, yielding an additional savings on the order of

10% in life cycle costs. Some of the fields monitoring methods are:

1) Condition assessment and vital testing of concrete structures using advanced nondestructive

techniques such as radar, high-energy radiography, and seismic methods (Impact Echo, SASW

and UPV).

2) Electrochemical methods for evaluation of the corrosion condition of reinforcements

including half-cell potentials and galvanostatic pulse easements.

3) Permanent monitoring of concrete condition and reinforcement con-osion by embedded

probes and reference electrodes.

4) Evaluation of potential durability of concrete structures and preparation of suitable strategies

for maintenance and repair.

5) Laboratory analyses of concrete such as petrographic analysis, measurement of carbonation,

determination of chloride distribution and chloride threshold values for initiation of corrosion.

6). Design of CP for reinforcement in concrete structures and quality askance of installation.

Many different sectors of the industry, including bridge authorities, nuclear power, offshore,

housing, construction, harbor structures are utilizing sensors for corrosion

2.9 Definition of Terms

1. Corrosion: This is a physical-chemical reaction between the material and the environment. In

a simplified form, it can be said that corrosion is interaction between a metal and the

environment. Its result is a permanent chemical change of the metal, which significantly changes

its chemical, physical and mechanical properties.

3. Potentio-dynamic polarization technique: This technique is used for prediction of localized

corrosion. Potentio-dynamic polarization curves are interpreted using the relationship between

current and voltage as well as differences between forward and reverse scan thus delivering

information about, for example, the repassivation or protection potential, and the pitting potential
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Description of the Materials

1. Cement: is the main constituent of concrete. it (the BOA Portland cement conforming to BS

EN 197-1, 2000) can be defined as a material having adhesive and cohesive properties which

make it capable of bonding mineral fragments into a compact mass the main ingredient of

cement production is lime stone. World consumption of cement is forecast to increase throughout

the next 15 years taking the annual volume up from 2005. According to the global cement to

2021 world production and consumption of cement is high and a continuation of the annual

underlying expansion which has seen year on year growth in almost every year since the 1970.

2. Coarse Aggregate

The coarse aggregate is the strongest and the least porous component of concrete. It is also a

chemically stable material. The blue granite stone that was used has a coarse aggregate for this

work. The nominal size of the aggregate is 20mm.

3. Water
Water is a crucial and important ingredient of the concrete as it actively participates in the

chemical reaction with cement and results in hardening of the concrete. The water that was used

in this study was potable water. The potable water used was confirming to the requirements of IS

456-2000. Water is an important ingredient of concrete as it actively participates in the chemical

reaction with cement.

4. Reinforcement

Reinforcement bars of 12mm were used for the purpose of this research work to understand the

rate of corrosion and environmental effect on the reinforcement bars.

5. Fine Aggregate

Depending upon the particle size distribution, locally available river sand confirming to Zone II

of IS 383- 1970 was used in the casting process. Fine aggregate that was used should be properly

graded to give minimum void ratio and should be free from deleterious materials like clay, silt

content and chloride contamination etc. It is the aggregate most of which passes 4.75mm IS sieve

and contains only so much coarser as is permitted by specification.

6. Environment

In this study, experiments were conducted to investigate the effect of corrosion on the load-

carrying capacity of steel under two different environments. The aim was to better understand

the effects of natural corrosion on cracking and bond strength along the span of a beam. The

structural behavior of corrosion-induced damage in the form of flexural and tensile strength test

was studied. However, two different environments were considered for the purpose of this

research: However, two different environments were considered for the purpose of this research:
 Distilled water

Acid solution, Hydrochloride (HCL)

The above listed environment was considered since other researchers have focused their interest

in the strength, without considering the environmental influence on the rate of corrosion. The

experiments were carried out in three series. The first test series consist four specimens of beams

under distilled water environment, all of these specimens is casted with 12mm bars, the same

techniques are applied on the other environment in order to be able to study the behavior of rebar

under two major environment.

Method

3.2.1 Procurement of materials

The BOA Portland cement that complies with BS EN 197-1, 2000 was bought on the open

market along with 12mm high-yield reinforcement bars. Crushed granite with a size of 12.5 mm

was to be utilized as the coarse aggregate. Sand was procured from the city of Ekiti. Potable

water devoid of any materials that might alter the characteristics of concrete in its fresh or

hardened condition was needed.

3.2.2 Sample Preparation

The solution was made at Federal Polytechnic Ado Ekiti's Science and Laboratory Technology

Department. It was manufactured and used for the concrete mixture after an hour to let the

contents dissolve into the water.

3.2.3 Design of the Experiment

Throughout the experiment, concrete with a 1:2:4 mix (cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate)

and a water-to-cement ratio of 0.5 was utilized; standard concrete specimens were used as the

experiment's control. The concrete was batched in compliance with BS 5328-1, 1997 guidelines,

and the batching was carried out based on volume. Concrete mixing and casting for different

environments, as well as de mold and cure for seven, fourteen, twenty-one, and thirty-eight days

—are further explained in the table.

Plate 3.1: Cubes in Curing Tank
Plate 3.2: M

ixing of coarse Aggregate

3.2.3 Weight Loss Method

Two selected and well-labeled beakers of 250 ml capacity were used with water and acidic

solution. The two beakers were labeled and tagged according to the numbers of specimens as

with 12mm. The experiment was carried out at room temperature. The samples' initial weights

were recorded accurately using analytical balance of 0.1 mg sensitivity and were fully suspended

in 500 ml of the experimental media. This was monitored at 3-day interval for 18 days. After the
exposure period, the sample was then removed, dried, cleaned and weighed. From the waste loss,

the corrosion rate and resistivity properties of the samples were calculated using equation below:

ASTM G-102 described the equation used to measured the corrosion rate as depicted further in

equation 3.1

eqn 3.1

Where :

K = Constant depending on unit conversion as described in ASTM G-102

D = Density in g/cm3

A =Surface area of sample ( cm2)

T = Exposure time (h)

W -= Weight loss (mg)

Some of the equipment to be used are listed below:

Batching bowl

Spade

Trowel

Bucket

Compacting rod

100 x 100 x 50mm formwork

750 x 150 x 150mm formwork

3.3.4 Determination of corrosion rate using potentio-dynamic polarization

Potentio-dynamic polarization (PDP) was performed in a conventional three electrodes cell using

computer-controlled potentiostat/galvanostat (Autolab PGSTAT 302N). Platinum electrode was

used as the counter electrode (CE), Ag/AgCl in 3 M KCL as the reference electrode (RE) and the
working electrode (WE) which is the sample. The area of the sample was exposed to the

medium. Before each electrochemical study, the electrode was allowed to stabilize freely and its

open circuit potential (OCP) was recorded as a function of time up to 2min, which was sufficient

to attain a stable state. After this, the current density corresponding to the potential ( I corr) of the

working electrode was obtained show in plate 3.6 below.

Plate 3.6: Determination of corrosion rate using potentio-dynamic(Autolab PGSTAT

302N). polarization

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

This chapter presents the experimental results for the whole investigated ranges of water

concentration, salinity concentration, acid concentrations and alkaline concentration for both

seven days and twenty-eight days.

4.1 Weight Loss Method

One easy to use approach for determining how quickly metals corrode is the weight loss method.

A metal specimen was subjected to a corrosive solution for a predetermined period of time

before being removed and weighed to calculate the mass loss. The mass loss can then be divided

by the product of the exposed surface area, the metal’s density and the exposure duration to

determine the corrosion rate. The weight loss method is an inexpensive user friendly approach

that doesn’t call for complicated tools or steps. Its drawbacks meanwhile include the assumption

of a constant surface area which might cause notable difference in the outcomes.

The experimental data for the entire ranges of water and acid concentration that were tested for

seven, fourteen, twenty- one, and twenty – eight days, respectively are present in the table 4.1
below. Table 4.1 shows the weight loss values of 12mm reinforcement bars under different mole

of acid concentration 0.1M Acid, 0.2M Acid, 0.3M and water after 28days removal from the

corrosion chamber, the relative weight loss marked as the as the weight of the samples increases

with increases acid concentration.

Table 4.1: Weight loss method Results

Concentration 7 days 14 days 21 days 28 days

corrosion rate corrosion rate corrosion rate corrosion rate

(mm/yr) (mm/yr) (mm/yr) (mm/yr)

0.1M Acid 0.00 0.00 0.034 0.031

0.2M Acid 0.00 0.025 0.084 0.063

0.3M Acid 0.00 0.050 0.034 0.025

Water 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.012

Figure 4.1 Graph showing the weight Loss

Figure 4.1 describes the weight loss values of 12mm reinforcement bars under different mole of

acid concentration 0.1M Acid, 0.2M Acid, 0.3M and water after 28days removal from the

corrosion chamber, the relative weight loss marked as the as the weight of the samples increases

with increases acid concentration. It can be observed from Figure 4.1 that the corrosion rate shift

increases gradually with days, and even the curve is decreases in some parts the overall trend is

increased. Evidently, the corrosion rate shift is increased rapidly with days due to the high

concentration of acid and the numbers of days inside the concentration. There was also relatively

small increase in the curve with some fluctuations, which is due to the fact that the reinforced bar

is further corroded due less in concentration and days. In the last part, the corrosion rate shift is

declined at turning point because of the appearance of the bar, and the reinforcement is corroded
within the concrete structure, the resulting acid concentration deposits continuously on the

surface of the bar because the loss of mass is hindered by concrete, the volume of the steel rebar

decreases during corrosion, and the coverage concrete is finally cracked. During the corrosion,

the tensile strain is decreases with the decreasing diameter of steel reinforcement. Finally, the

tensile stress in the bar can reach the level to break, which to concrete crack.

4.2: Potentio-dynamic Polarization (PDP) Curve

Using a polarized electrode and applying a varying potential and scan rate yielded a series of

potentio-dynamic polarization curves. These are commonly used to evaluate the parameters

affecting corrosion and thus understand the mechanism of the corrosion processes. The PDP

results on reinforcement bar in the four different concentrations are examined for the possible

interpretations of the PDP results in the light of the discussion on OCP data in Table. 4.1 and 4.2.

Potentio- dynamic polarization curves were produced by using a polarized electrode, adjusting

the voltage, and scanning the area at a different rate. The result shows the difference that occur

as the reinforced bar is subjected to the different acid and days. At 0.3M acid, the corrosion rate

(mm/yr) increases at 28 days having 0.061, this describe that as the concentration increases with

the days spent, there is an increase in corrosion rate and resulted in decreases in reinforced bar.

These are frequently used to assess the factors influencing corrosion and consequently,

comprehend the mechanisms underlying the corrosion processes. In light of the discussion of

OCP data, the PDP results on reinforcement bars for both concentrations are analyzed for

potential implications.

Table 4.2: Potentio-dynamic Polarization (PDP) Results

 Concentration 7 days 14 days 21 days 28 days

corrosion rate corrosion rate corrosion rate corrosion rate

(mm/yr) (mm/yr) (mm/yr) (mm/yr)

0.1M Acid 0.08534 0.074163 0.065738 0.057776

0.2M Acid 0.080411 0.074018 0.077434 0.068321

0.3M Acid 0.15312 0.1084 0.071919 0.061989

Water 0.11715 0.10951 0.098938 0.059063

Figure 4.2 Potentio-dynamic polarization curves of different concentrations

Figure 4.2 Potentio-dynamic polarization curves of different concentrations

Figures 4.1 (a), (b) and (c) shows the 24 days (4 weeks) of reinforced bar spent under different

acid concentration, the corrosion rate for specimens with a high concentration relatively

increases as the bar was tested with 0.1 HCL, O.2 HCL and 0.3 HCL respectively.

For the reinforcement with high concentration acid, the corrosion rate for the top layer of

reinforcement increases at a relatively constant value of 0.61 through 28 days (4 weeks). At 28

days, a single specimen began corroding, which caused the rapid and continued increase to 0.3

HCL.
The corrosion rate for all the reinforcement specimens decreased beyond 0.61 (i.e., lower risk of

corrosion) by 14 days (2 weeks). After 14 days, the specimens had a corrosion rate lesser than

0.5. The corrosion potential rose to a maximum of 0.61(mm/yr) at 28 days (3 weeks) and

remained constant except is subsequently subjected to further concentration, this indicates a

continued severe risk for corrosion.

4.3 Predictive Models to Determine the Corrosion Rate of the Corroded Beams

The model to show the relationships between the corrosion rate and number of days of the steel

specimens was developed using statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) software. Several

observations were noted, recorded and interpreted. The results from the potentio-dynamic

polarization were used to develop a graph which shows common attributes between the two

situations and related to civil engineering specifications.

4.3.1 The Regression Model

The main aim of this multiple regression model is to develop a predictive model for the small

beam and long beam. A multiple regression formula is given by;

Ŷ = β0 + β1X1 + β2X2 + β3X3 +.....+ βn Xn eqn 4.1

Where,

Y = The dependent variable of the regression

β0 = Constant

βn = Slope or intercept of the regression

Xn= Independent variables of the regression.

Hypothesis to determine the effect

H0 : β1 = β2 = β3 = 0, which means that there is no linear relationship or no significant effect

between y and any of the predictors

H1 :At least one of the coefficient of the predictors is not 0

Criterion for rejection of H0 : Reject H0 if p-value ˂ α-value otherwise do not reject

Level of significance

α = 0.05

Table 4.1: Results for Small Beam

Unstandardized Standardized 95.0% Confidence

Coefficients Coefficients Interval for B

Lower Upper

Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig. Bound Bound

1 (Constant) 23.563 .002 2.072 -.213 .927 -2.304 2.055

Initial vol. of
.341 .008 1.085 9.001 .000 .099 .192
3
cube (cm )

Final vol. of -.006 .027 .028 -.241 .000 -.027 .059

cube (cm3)
 Initial weight

(kg) .098 .421 -.522

-.394 .568 -.847 .972

Final weight .023 .491 .349

(kg)

a. Dependent Variable: Acidic content/water

The regression formula for the above table is

Ŷ = β0 + β1X1 + β2X2 + β3X3 + β4X4 eqn 4.2

The dependent variable is Acidic content/water of the beam while the independent or the

predictors are Initial vol. of cube (cm3), Final vol. of cube (cm3), Initial weight (kg) and Final

weight (kg) which were represented by X1, X2, X3 and X4 respectively. Therefore the predictive

model for Acidic content/water of small beams having 0.1M, 0.2M and 0.3M acidic content is;

Ŷ= -23.563+ 0.341- 0.006X2 + 0.098X3+ 0.23X4 eqn 4.3

From the analysis the p-value for the Acidic content/water of small beams having 0.1M,

0.2M and 0.3M acidic content is 0.927 which is ˃ α-value (0.05), we therefore do not reject

H0 and conclude that Acidic content/water of small beams having 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3 acidic

content has a high significant effect on the strength of the small beam at 0.05 level of

significance.

Table 4.2: Results for Long Beams

 Unstandardized Standardized 95.0% Confidence

Coefficients Coefficients Interval for B

Std. Sig.(p- Lower Upper

Model B Error Beta T values) Bound Bound

1 (Constant) 3.6 0.0001

-49.135 4.321 .237 -8.120 2.861
2

Initial vol. of
.080 .038 .372 1.282 .256 -.070 .181
3
cube (cm )

Final vol. of
-.167 .052 1.184 4.526 .017 .049 .327
3
cube (cm )

Initial weight
.833 .045
(kg) -1.29 5.591 .306 -.046 .273

Final weight -.128 -.495 .655 -.544 .584

.234 .372
(kg)

a. Dependent Variable: Acidic content/water

The regression formula for the above table is

Ŷ = β0 + β1X1 + β2X2 + β3X3 + β4X4

The dependent variable is Acidic content/water of the beam while the independent or the

predictors are Initial vol. of cube (cm3), Final vol. of cube (cm3), Initial weight (kg) and Final
weight (kg) which were represented by X1, X2, X3 and X4 respectively. Therefore the predictive

model for Acidic content/water of small beams having 0.1M, 0.2M and 0.3M acidic content is;

Ŷ = -49.135+ 0.080X1 - 0.167X2 + 0.833X3 + 0.234X4 eqn 4.4

From the analysis the p-value for the Acidic content/water of small beams having 0.1M, 0.2M

and 0.3M acidic content is 0.0001 which is ˂ α-value (0.05), we therefore do reject H 0 and

conclude that the effect ofacidic content/water of small beams having 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3 acidic

content is not significant on the strength of the small beam at 0.05 level of significance.

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECONMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion

Evaluation of properties of reinforced concrete (RC) structures is a rather complex and

demanding process. To determine the resistance of elements (e.g., in weight loss, corrosion rate

and their properties), it is necessary to know their material properties as accurately as

possible, including the mechanical properties of the reinforcements. The paper is dedicated

to evaluate the properties of corroded reinforced concrete beam (with sensor enabled method).

Subsequently, the effect of corrosion of the reinforcement on the change of properties and, in

addition to the effect of the notch on the weight loss cured for 28days under different mole of

concentration was investigated. An experimental program in laboratory was used to investigate

the Potentio-dynamic polarization (PDP) was performed in a conventional three electrodes cell

using computer-controlled potentiostat/galvanostat (Autolab PGSTAT 302N). Platinum electrode

was used as the counter electrode (CE), Ag/AgCl in 3 M KCL as the reference electrode (RE)

and the working electrode (WE) which is the sample.

5.2 Recommendations

For further research the following were recommend:

As part of future research in this area, we are planning a more extensive study that would

document this effect even at lower levels of corrosion loss on a larger number of

diameters and different manufacturers of individual reinforcements. This should also

document the influence of the chemical composition of the material and the size of the

cross-section within the individual levels of corrosion loss. A more distant goal is to

verify this influence not for all-surface corrosion, but for pitting (local) corrosion

occurring in the cracks of reinforced concrete elements.

By analyzing these properties, engineers and researcher can assess the current corrosion

state, predict potential future corrosion, and devise appropriate corrosion mitigation

strategies for the reinforced beam.

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APPENDIX

DATA FOR SMALL BEAMS:

7 DAYS CURING
Acidic Initial vol. of Final vol. of Initial Weight Final Weight

content/ cube (cm3) cube (cm3) (kg) (kg)

water

0.1 M 527.829 509.949 1.34 1.25

0.2 M 493.490 474.24 1.30 1.25

0.3 M 533.048 514.488 1.39 1.30

Water 552.70 535.60 1.33 1.25

21 DAYS CURING

Acidic content/ Initial vol. of Final vol. of Initial Weight Final Weight

water cube (cm3) cube (cm3) (kg) (kg)

0.1 M 547.65 530.40 1.10 1.00

0.2 M 549.52 533.61 1.08 1.00

0.3 M 508.98 490.00 1.19 1.10

Water 543.66 525.30 1.10 1.00

28 DAYS CURING

Acidic content/ Initial vol. of Final vol. of Initial Weight Final Weight

water cube (cm3) cube (cm3) (kg) (kg)

0.1 M 499.50 480.20 1.21 1.10

0.2 M 498.10 480.20 1.29 1.20

0.3 M 521.86 504.90 1.33 1.25

Water 546.50 530.00 1.28 1.20

DATA FOR LONG BEAMS

7 DAYS CURING

Acidic Initial Final vol. Initial Final Initial Weight Final Weight of
content/ vol. of of cube Weight Weight reinforcements reinforcements

water cube (cm3) of concrete (kg) (kg)

(cm3) concrete (kg)

(kg)

0.1 M 14147.05 13246.80 38.36 31.46 0.30 0.30

0.2 M 15489.74 14619.29 40.63 33.18 0.302 0.302

0.3 M 12180.26 12125.68 39.16 31.48 0.30 0.30

Water 12325.12 12377.94 41.05 34.03 0.30 0.30

14 DAYS CURING

Acidic Initial Final vol. Initial Final initial Weight Final Weight of

content/ vol. of of cube Weight Weight reinforcements reinforcements

water cube (cm3) of concrete (kg) (kg)

(cm3) concrete (kg)

(kg)

0.1 M 13380.02 12143.34 36.28 30.15 0.30 0.30

0.2 M 11928.49 10128.19 31.46 27.28 0.302 0.30

0.3 M 14571.93 14211.72 38.90 31.79 0.305 0.301

Water 12896.66 12498.66 35.54 29.22 0.30 0.30

21 DAYS CURING

Acidic Initial Final vol. Initial Final initial Weight Final Weight of

content/ vol. of of cube Weight Weight reinforcements reinforcements

cube (cm3) of concrete (kg) (kg)

 water (cm3) concrete (kg)

(kg)

0.1 M 15600.48 14982.11 35.89 29.70 0.305 0.301

0.2 M 13982.24 13127.17 38.48 32.31 0.310 0.30

0.3 M 14164.32 13672.15 36.10 29.48 0.305 0.301

Water 14675.07 14309.72 37.56 30.87 0.30 0.30

28 DAYS CURING

Acidic Initial Final vol. Initial Final initial Weight Final Weight of

content/ vol. of of cube Weight Weight reinforcements reinforcements

water cube (cm3) of concrete (kg) (kg)

(cm3) concrete (kg)

(kg)

0.1 M 15294.1 14100.00 36.36 32.40 0.305 0.30

0.2 M 13012.21 12594.076 37.18 28.60 0.310 0.30

0.3 M 14136.19 13386.905 35.62 31.25 0.304 0.30

Water 14862.32 14321.35 36.87 31.64 0.302 0.30

CORROSION RATE OF LONG BEAMS IN VARING DAYS

CONCENTRATION 7 DAYS 14 DAYS 21 DAYS 28 DAYS

CORROTIO CORROTIO CORROTIO CORROTIO

N RATE N RATE N RATE N RATE

(mm/yr.) (mm/yr.) (mm/yr.) (mm/yr.)

0.1M 0.00 0.00 0.034 0.031

0.2M 0.00 0.025 0.084 0.063

0.3M 0.00 0.050 0.034 0.025

Water 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.012