MECE 227

Sensors and Actuators

Chapter 1

Dr. Amir Nobahar

ATILIM University
2023-2024 Fall Semester
 Introduction
In almost all engineering systems, we mainly pay attention to measurements, sensors,
transducers and actuators. However, it is very important to understand why sensors and
actuators are involved in a particular application, which can be process control problem or
control engineering problem, a robotic application or a mechatronics engineering related
problem.

Sensor
A device that responds to a physical stimulus and transmits a resulting impulse.
Transducer
A device or mechanism that converts power of one form into power of another form.
Actuator
A device or mechanism capable of performing a physical action or effect.

2
 Introduction
Sensor
Sensor, transducer, probe, gauge, detector, pickup, receptor, perceptron, transmitter,
transponder are often used interchangeably.
Sensors serve as inputs to systems.

Actuator
Actuator, driver, operating element are often used interchangeably. Often, actuators are
called by their function or by their primary use (motor, valve, solenoid, etc.) rather than
using the term actuator.
Actuators serve as outputs to systems.

3
 Introduction
Introduction to Sensors and Actuators

Sensors
• Classification
• Principle of Operation
• Selection Criteria
• Signal Conditioning
• Calibration

Actuators
• Classification
• Principle of Operation
• Selection Criteria

4
Classification of Sensors and Actuators

5
Sensor Categories by Stimulus

6
 Sensor and Actuator Characteristics
Range
Resolution
Sensitivity
Error
Repeatability
Linearity and Accuracy
Impedance
Nonlinearities
Static and Coulomb Friction
Eccentricity (deviation from an established pattern or norm)
Backlash
Saturation
Deadband
System Response
1st-Order System Response
Underdamped 2nd-Order System Response
Frequency Response 7
 Selection Criteria for Sensors
A number of static and dynamic factors must be considered in selecting a suitable sensor to
measure the desired physical parameter. Following is a list of typical factors:
Range: Difference between the maximum and minimum value of the sensed parameter
Resolution: The smallest change the sensor can differentiate
Accuracy: Difference between the measured value and the true value
Precision: Ability to reproduce repeatedly with a given accuracy
Sensitivity: Ratio of change in output to a unit change of the input
Zero offset: A nonzero value output for no input
Linearity: Percentage of deviation from the best-fit linear calibration curve
Zero Drift: The departure of output from zero value over a period of time for no input
Response time: The time lag between the input and output
Bandwidth: Frequency at which the output magnitude drops by 3 dB
Resonance: The frequency at which the output magnitude peak occurs
Operating temperature: The range in which the sensor performs as specified
Dead-band: The range of input for which there is no output
Signal-to-noise ratio: Ratio between the magnitudes of the signal and the noise at the output
8
 Selection Criteria for Actuators
In general, the following performance parameters must be addressed before choosing an
actuator for a specific need. Following is a list of typical factors:
Continuous power output: The maximum force/torque attainable continuously without
exceeding the temperature limits
Range of motion: The range of linear/rotary motion
Resolution: The minimum increment of force/torque attainable
Accuracy: Linearity of the relationship between the input and output
Peak force/torque: The force/torque at which the actuator stalls
Heat dissipation: Maximum wattage of heat dissipation in continuous operation
Speed characteristics: Force/torque versus speed relationship
No load speed: Typical operating speed/velocity with no external load
Frequency response: The range of frequency over which the output follows the input
faithfully, applicable to linear actuators
Power requirement: Type of power (AC or DC), number of phases, voltage level, and current
capacity

9
 Process-Control Principles
Process-Control Block Diagram

10
 Process-Control Principles
Example: Regulation control of level of liquid in a tank
Objective is to regulate the level of water in the tank.

Level of liquid is measured by a sensor.

Liquid out flow rate is increased or decreased by opening
or closing of a valve by an actuator.

Human-aided control Automatic control

11
 Analog and Digital Processing
Signals obtained from measurements, sensors, transducers, and control signals to actuators
(data) can be represented in analog or digital form.
Representation of data refers to how the magnitude of some physical variable is represented.
Example: if a sensor outputs a voltage whose magnitude varies with temperature, then the
voltage represents the temperature. Now, sensor output voltage can be represented in analog
form or digital form.

12
 Analog Representation of Data
Analog representation of data means that there is a smooth and continuous variation
between a representation of a variable value and the value itself.

Analog relationship between a variable, c, and its representation, b.

Notice that, for every value of c, there is a unique value of b.

If c changes by some small amount, δc then b will change by a proportional amount, δb.

13
 Digital Representation of Data
Digital data means that numbers are represented in terms of binary digits, also called bits,
which take on values of one (1)or zero (0). When data are represented digitally, some range of
analog numbers is encoded by a fixed number of binary digits. The consequence is a loss of
information because a fixed number of binary digits has a limited resolution.

Digital relationship between a variable, c, and its representation, n.

In above figure a variable c, is represented by a digital quantity, n. Notice that variations of c,
such as δc may not result in any change in n. The variable must change by more than some
minimum amount, before a change in representation is assured.
Consequence of digital representation of data:
- The smooth and continuous relation between the representation and the variable data value
is lost,
- The digital representation can take on only discrete values
14
 Digital Representation of Data
Below table shows how voltage from 0 to 15 volts could been coded by four binary digits. A
change of one volt produces a change of the least significant bit (LSB). You can see that, if the
voltage changed by less than one volt, the digital representation would not change. So, the
representation cannot distinguish between 4.25V and 4.75V because both would be
represented by 0100.

15
 Data Conversions
(ADC & DAC)
Special devices are employed to convert analog data such as voltages into a digital
representation. These are called analog-to-digital converters (ADCs).

Above figure shows how an ADC might be used to convert voltage into a 4-bit digital
signal (as illustrated in previous Table).

Similarly, there are digital-to-analog converters (DACs) that convert a digital signal into an
analog voltage.
 Computerized Data-Acquisition System
To implement process control, the computer must collect data from and transmit signals
to the production process.
Components required to implement the interface:
1. Sensors to measure continuous and discrete process variables
2. Actuators to drive continuous and discrete process parameters
3. Devices for ADC and DAC
4. I/O devices for discrete data

17
 General Computerized DAQ System
Components of a Data Acquisition System
All data acquisition systems consist of three essential elements:
Sensor, Signal Conditioning, and Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC).

18
 Computerized DAQ System
Example: Use of ADC, DAC, sensor, actuator in a temperature control system
ADC converts analog data from measurement system (which is simply sensor output) into
digital form that the computer accepts.
The computer being a digital system generates digital data to control the actuator
(heater). However, actuator need analog data, hence computer output which is a digital
data is converted into analog data by a DAC.
 International System (SI) of Units
To ensure precise technical communication among individuals employed in technological
disciplines, it is essential to use a well-defined set of units of measurement. The metric
system of units provides such communication and has been adopted by most technical
disciplines.

The international system of units is maintained by an international agreement for

worldwide standardization. The system is based on seven well-defined base units and
two supplementary, dimensionless units. Everything else falls into the category of
defined units, which are defined in terms of the seven base and two supplementary
units.

A steradian can be defined as the solid

angle subtended at the centre of a
unit sphere by a unit area on its surface.
 International System (SI) of Units
All other SI units can be derived from these nine units, although in many cases a special
name is assigned to the derived quantity.
force is measured by the newton (N), 1N = 1 kg.m/s2;
energy is measured by the joule (J) given by 1 J = 1 N.m = 1 kg.m2/s2;
and so on.
The description of other physical quantities can be provided in terms of derived units that
are expressible in terms of the basic set.
 International System (SI) of Units
Example:
A motor shaft is rotating with an angular speed  = 3 rad/s.
What is the angular speed of the shaft in rev/min units (that is revolution per minute) ?
 Metric (SI) Prefixes
With the wide variation of variable magnitudes that occurs in industry, there is a need to
abbreviate very large and small numbers. Scientific notation allows the expression of
such numbers through powers of 10. A set of standard metric prefixes has been adopted
by the SI to express these powers of 10, which are employed to simplify the expression of
very large or very small numbers.
The SI decimal multiple and submultiple designations are shown below.
Metric Prefixes
Metric Prefixes
 Analog Data Representation
Two analog standards are in common use as a means of representing the range of
variables in control systems.
For electrical systems, we use a range of electric current carried in wires, and for
pneumatic systems we use a range of gas pressure carried in pipes. These signals are
used primarily to transmit variable information over some distance, such as to and from
the control room and the plant.

The most common current transmission signal is 4 to 20 mA

The most common pressure transmission signal is 20 to 100 kPa (3-15 psi)
Analog Data Representation

Another way of solution:

Using linear relationship
between I versus T, draw a
line, then make
interpolation..

T
 Analog Data Representation

As a transmission signal, current is used instead of voltage because the system is then
less dependent on load.
Voltage is not used for transmission because of its susceptibility to changes of resistance
in the line.

Sensor-to-current converter (also called a Transmitter), is designed to launch a current

into the line regardless of load. A resistor, R, has been added to the lines connecting the
plant to the control room. In the control room, the incoming current is converted to a
voltage using resistor. Note that if the short around resistor R is cut so that R is now in
the circuit, no change in current will occur. The transmitter is designed to adjust
conditions (in this case, output voltage) so that the current is held constant. Practically
speaking, most current transmitters can work into any load, from 0 to about 1000 W.
 Definitions
Accuracy:
deviation of the output from the true value
indicates the closeness of measured and true values
Precision:
degree of reproducibility of a measurement
indicates the repeatability of measured values
 Definitions
Error:
When used to describe the results of a measurement, error is the difference between the
actual value of a variable and the measured indication of its value. In that case, the
accuracy of the measurement system places bounds on the possible error.
Two classifications of errors are:
• bias (or systematic) errors
• precision (or random) errors.
Bias errors are present in all measurements made with a given sensor, and cannot be
detected or removed by statistical means.
systematic error (bias error) = average of readings – true value
Precision errors can be accounted for by averaging several measurements or other
operations such as low-pass filtering.
random error = reading – average of readings
 Definitions
Bias errors can be divided into

• calibration errors (a zero or null point error is a common type of bias error created by a
nonzero output value when the input is zero),

• loading errors (adding the sensor to the measured system changes the system),

• errors due to sensor sensitivity to variables other than the desired one (e.g.,
temperature effects on strain gages).

Precision errors cause a lack of repeatability. Electrical noise and hysteresis both
contribute to a loss of repeatability.
 Definitions

Transfer Fuction (TF):

The transfer function, of a sensor or an actuator describes the relationship between the
input and output for the sensor or for the actuator.

Static TF and Dynamic TF:

The static transfer function describes the input/output relationship when the input is not
changing in time. The dynamic transfer function describes the input/output relationship
when there is time variation of the input.
 Definitions
Static transfer functions may be presented in the form of equations, tables, or graphs.

For example, a flow meter may relate flow, Q, in kg per minute, to a differential pressure,
in Pa, via an equation such as

However, an RTD temperature sensor is usually represented by a table of resistance

versus temperature.

Graphs are often used to visually display how input and output vary.

Frequently, the transfer is valid only over a certain range of variable values.

The dynamic transfer function is often represented by a differential equation in time.

 Definitions
Accuracy:
Accuracy is used to specify the maximum overall error to be expected from a device, such as
measurement of a variable. Accuracy is usually expressed as the inaccuracy and can appear
in several forms:

1. Measured variable

The accuracy is 2 C in some temperature measurement. Thus, there would be an

uncertainty of 2 C in any value of temperature measured.

2. Percentage of the instrument full-scale (FS) reading

Thus, an accuracy of  0.5% FS in a 5-V full-scale range meter would mean the
inaccuracy or uncertainty in any measurement is  0.025 V.
 Definitions

3. Percentage of instrument span

That is percentage of the range of instrument measurement capability. Thus, for a

device measuring  3% of span for a 20 to 50 Pa range of pressure, the accuracy would
be ( 0.03)(50-20)=  0.9 Pa

4. Percentage of the actual reading.

Thus, for a  2% of reading voltmeter, we would have an inaccuracy of  0.04 V for a

reading of 2 V.
Definitions
Definitions
Definitions
 Definitions

System Accuracy: overall accuracy due to components which are in interaction in

representing a variable. System accuracy is described by expressing accuracy of each
component in terms of the transfer functions.

Consider below block diagram of a measurement system with two transfer functions that act
on the dynamic variable C to produce an output voltage V as shown.

The output variable is:

 Definitions
The output variable of the system is:

The output uncertainty: In terms of fractional uncertainties:

Negligible
G K

G K

Worst-case uncertainty

Root-mean-square (rms) Uncertainty less than worst-

uncertainty is: case but more likely to
reflect the actual value
Definitions
 Definitions
Sensitivity: Sensitivity is a measure of the change in output of an instrument (sensor
or transducer or actuator) for a change in input.
• High sensitivity is desirable in an instrument .
• Sensitivity must be evaluated together with other parameters, such as linearity
of output to input, range, and accuracy.
• The value of the sensitivity is generally indicated by the transfer function. For
example, when a temperature transducer outputs 5 mV per degree Celsius, the
sensitivity is 5 mV/C
 Definitions
Hysteresis : A different reading of an instrument results for a specific input, depending on
whether the input value is approached from higher or lower values. This effect, called
hysteresis, is shown in below Figure, where the output of an instrument has been plotted
against input.

Note that if input parameter is varied from low to high, curve A gives values of the output.
If input parameter is decreasing, curve B relates input to output. Hysteresis is usually
specified as a percentage of full-scale maximum deviation between the two curves. This
effect is predictable if measurement values are always approached from one direction,
because hysteresis will not cause measurement errors.
 Definitions
Reproducibility (Repeatability): Frequently, an instrument will not have the same output
value for a given input in repeated trials. Such variation can be due to inherent uncertainties
that imply a limit on the reproducibility of the device. This variation is random from
measurement to measurement and is not predictable.

Resolution : Inherent in many measurement devices resolution is a minimum measurable

value of the input variable.
For example, a wire-wound potentiometer in which the slider moves across windings to vary
resistance. If one turn of the winding represents a change of R ohms, then the
potentiometer cannot provide a resistance change less than R . We say that the
potentiometer resolution is R . This is often expressed as a percentage of the full-scale
range.
Definitions
 Definitions
Example: Accuracy and precision are
two terms that are frequently
confused.

Figure illustrates four sets of

histograms for ten measurements of
angular velocity of an actuator turning
at a constant 100 rad/s.
The first set of data shows a high
degree of precision (low standard
deviation) and repeatability, but the
average accuracy is poor. The second
set of data shows a low degree of
precision (high standard deviation),
but the average accuracy is good. The
third set of data shows both low
precision and low accuracy, while the
fourth set of data shows both high
precision, high repeatability, and high
accuracy.
Definitions
 Definitions
Linearity :

In both sensor and signal conditioning, output is represented in some functional

relationship to the input. The only requirement is that this relationship be unique; that is,
for each value of the input variable, there exists one unique value of the output variable.

For simplicity of design, a linear relationship between input and output is highly desirable.
When a linear relationship exists, a straight-line equation can be used to relate the
measured variable and measurement output as,
Definitions
Definitions

Comparison of an actual curve and its best-fit straight line,

where the maximum deviation is 5% FS.
 Linear Least Square Data Fitting
Assume there are n (xi ,yi) data points.
Best-fit straight line (a first order polynomial) for these n data points is:

where,

Study, from the reference book

“Sensors, Actuators, and their Interfaces: A Multidisciplinary Introduction” by Nathan Ida,
Appendix A, Least Squares Polynomials and Data Fitting:
- Linear Least Square Data Fitting
- Parabolic Least Squares Fit
 Sensor Time Response
Below figure shows a sensor that produces an output, b(t), as a function of the input, c(t).
The static transfer function determines the output when the input is not changing in time.
To specify the (dynamic transfer function) time response, the nature of the time variation
in output, b(t), is given when the input exhibits a step change as shown.

input output
 Sensor Time Response
First Order Response:
First order time response of the sensor due to an applied step input is shown below,
 Sensor Time Response
First Order Response:
Sensor Time Response
 Sensor Time Response
Second Order Response:
In some sensors, a step change in the input causes the output to oscillate for a short period
of time before settling down to a value that corresponds to the new input. The oscillation
(and the decay of the oscillation itself ) is a function of the sensor.

Below figure shows a typical output curve that might be expected from a transducer having
a second-order response for a discontinuous change in the input. The response is called a
second-order response because, for this type of sensor, the time behavior is described by a
second-order differential equation.
 Sensor Time Response
Second Order Response:
General behavior of the response can be described in time as,
 Significance and Statistics
Significant Figures
Significance and Statistics
Significance and Statistics
Significance and Statistics
 Sensor Time Response
Statistics:
Often, confidence in the value of a variable can be improved by elementary
statistical analysis of measurements. This is particularly true where random errors in
measurement cause a distribution of readings of the value of some variable.

Arithmetic Mean:
If many measurements of a particular variable are taken, the arithmetic mean is
calculated to obtain an average value for the variable. The
arithmetic mean of a set of n values,
Sensor Time Response
Sensor Time Response
Sensor Time Response
Sensor Time Response
Sensor Time Response
 Assignment

• Study Chapter-1 of your textbook.

• Study reading assignments from The Mechatronics Handbook (CRC press, 2002)
Chapter 16 and Chapter 18. Introduction to Sensors and Actuators and Sensor and
Actuator Characteristics