Electricity

Charge If number of electrons in a body is smaller than

Property of the body which enables the body to that of protons, then that body has positive

exert and experience electric force is called charge.

electric charge. Quantisation of charge

Charge of a body is usually denoted with letter ‘Q’ According to quantization of charge, charge (Q)

or ‘q’. possessed by any body is integral multiple of

S.I unit of electric charge is coulomb, denoted with basic elementary charge ‘e’, where ‘e’ is charge of

letter C electron = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶.

Electric charge is a scalar quantity. 𝑄 = ± 𝑛𝑒

Types Where ‘n’ = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4……………….

There are two types of charges.  Quantisation of charge is the direct

 Positive Charge consequence of the concept ‘cause of

 Negative charge charging is transfer of electrons and an

All objects in nature are made up of electron electron cannot be split into two parts’.
proton and neutron. --------------------------------------------------------

 Electron – Negative charge Electric Current

 Proton – Positive charge Flow of charges in a definite direction

 Neutron – neutral constitutes electric current.

Charge of an electron is = −1.6 × 10−19 C Electric current: Rate of flow of charge with

Charge of a proton is = 1.6 × 10−19 C respect to time is known as electric current.

A neutral (no charge) body has equal number of 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒

𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
electrons and protons in it.
𝑄
--------------------------------------------------- 𝐼 =
𝑡
Cause of charging In S.I system electric charge is measured in
Transfer of electrons between the bodies is the ampere, denoted by A.
cause of charging. 𝑸 𝒏𝒆
𝑰 = =
If number of electrons and protons are not equal 𝒕 𝒕

in a body, then the body is said to be a charged

Electric current is measured with ammeter.
body.
A milliammeter measures current in
If number of electrons in a body is greater than
milliampere.
that of protons, then that body has negative
1 milliampere ( 1mA) = 10−3 𝐴
charge.
1 microampere ( 1μA) = 10−6 𝐴

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 Electricity

Define 1A (in terms of charge flow) Materials which allow flow of current are known
𝑄
We know that 𝐼 = as conductors
𝑡
Materials which do not allow flow of current are
If Q = 1C and t = 1s, then
1 known as insulators.
𝐼 = = 1A,
1
In metallic conductors current is due to the flow
i.e. If rate of flow of charge through a point is
of free electrons.
1 coulomb per second, then current which is
In electrolytes current is due to the flow of ions
flowing through that point is said to be 1A.
[anions and cations]
-------------------------------------------------------------
 coulomb per second = ampere.
Electric potential
Direction
Electric potential at a point is defined as the
Electric current has direction; it is in the
work done against the electric field to bring a
direction of motion of positive charge and
unit positive charge from infinity to that point
opposite to the direction of motion of negative
without acceleration.
charge.
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
It is a scalar quantity. 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 =
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
Conventional current 𝑊
𝑉=
 The current which flows from positive 𝑄
terminal of a cell to the negative terminal in a In S.I system electrical potential is measured in
circuit is known as conventional current. volt, denoted by V.
 Conventional current flows from high Potential Difference
potential to low potential. Electric potential difference between two points
 It is in the direction of flow of positive charge. is defined as the work done against the electric
 The direction of current shown in a circuit field to move unit positive charge between those
diagram is the direction of conventional two points without acceleration.
current. 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
Conventional current
Flow of electrons 𝑊
𝑉=
_ _ _ _ _ 𝑄
Potential difference is known as voltage
In S.I system electrical potential difference is
measured in volt, denoted by V.

---------------------------------------------------------- Potential is a scalar quantity.

-------------------------------------------------------------

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 Electricity

 To have current in the circuit, there should be Circuit elements and their symbols
a source that maintains potential difference Component Symbol
in the circuit.
+ −
-------------------------------------------------------------- Electric cell

Define 1 volt potential

We know that + −
Battery
𝑊
𝑉=
𝑄
If 𝑊 = 1 J and 𝑄 = 1C, then Plug key (open)
1J Plug key
𝑉= = 1 J/C = 1 𝑉
1C
( closed)
i.e. If 1 joule of work is done against the electric
field to bring 1 coulomb of charge from infinity Wire joint

to a point without acceleration, then potential at

Wire crossing
that point said to be 1volt.
Define 1 volt potential difference (voltage) Electric bulb
i.e. If 1 joule of work is done against the electric
field to move 1 coulomb of charge between two Resistor

points without acceleration, then potential Variable resistor

difference between those two points is said to be ( Rheostat)
1volt. + −
Ammeter A
 Joule per second = volt
 Electric potential difference is measured with + −
Voltmeter V
voltmeter.
Electric Cell: Maintains potential difference in the
A millivoltmeter measures potential in millivolt.
circuit. Longer and thin line in the symbol
1 millivolt ( 1mV) = 10−3 𝑉
represents positive side (Higher potential) and
1 microvolt ( 1μV) = 10−6 𝑉
short and thick line represents the negative side
---------------------------------------------------
of the cell.
Electric Circuit
Battery: Combination of the cells
Electric circuit is the path along which electric
Key/switch: A device which is used to break the
current flows.
flow of current in the circuit. Resistance of the
Circuit Diagram
closed key (closed circuit / current flows) is zero
A schematic diagram that shows how various
and resistance of the open key (open circuit/
components of the circuit are connected in the
current does not flow) is infinity.
circuit with the help of symbols of components of
the circuit.
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 Electricity

Resistor: A conductor which offers some Resistance: It is the property of the conductor by
appreciable opposition to the flow of current is virtue of which it opposes the flow of current.
known as resistor.
Rheostat: A three terminal device, which can be This opposition arises due to the force of
used as interaction (collision) between the free electrons
(i) Variable resistor to vary the resistance of and fixed atoms.
the circuit so that current in the circuit can --------------------------------------------------------------
be varied. To vary the current upper S.I unit of resistance is ohm, denoted by 𝛀 .
terminal and one of the lower terminals Define 1 ohm
should be used. We know that
(ii) Potential divider. 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
Ammeter: A device which is used to measure 𝑉
𝑅=
electric current. It is a low resistance device. It 𝐼
If 𝑉 = 1 V and 𝐼 = 1A, then
has positive and negative terminal. It should be
1𝑉
connected in series in the circuit in such a way 𝑅= = 1Ω
1𝐴
that current enters through positive terminal. i.e. 1ohm is the resistance of a conductor which
Voltmeter: A device which is used to measure allows 1 ampere current when 1 volt potential
potential difference. It is a high resistance device. difference is applied across its ends
It has positive and negative terminal. It should be -------------------------------------------------------------
connected in parallel in the circuit in such a way Resistance of resistance is conductance and its
that current enters through positive terminal. unit is ohm−1 𝑜𝑟 siemen
------------------------------------------------------------- V-I graph
OHM’S LAW A graph between V and I is a straight line passing
The potential difference, 𝑽, across the ends of a through the origin.
given metallic wire in an electric circuit is
directly proportional to the current 𝑰 flowing
Δ𝑉 Δ𝑉
through it, provided its temperature remains the 𝑉 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = =𝑅
Δ𝐼
same.
Δ𝐼
i.e.
𝐼
𝑉𝛼𝐼
𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹 Slope of 𝑉 − 𝐼 graph is equal to resistance.
Where constant of proportionality 𝑅 is the
resistance of the conductor.

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 Electricity

Ohm’s Law verification circuits. Define Resistivity

We know that
K Rh
+ − 𝒍
𝑹=𝝆
𝑨
+ 𝑨
A + V− ∴ 𝝆=𝑹
− 𝒍
If 𝐴 = 1𝑚2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙 = 1𝑚, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑹 𝝆 = 𝑹 𝛀𝒎
i.e. Resistivity of a material is numerically equal
to the resistance of a conductor of that material
of length 𝟏𝒎 and of 𝟏 𝒎𝟐 area of cross section.
+
A Unit of resistivity is ohm - metre (𝛀𝒎)
− + V −  Materials which are having very small
resistivity are good conductors of electricity.
𝑹  Silver has the least resistivity among pure

----------------------------------------------------------- metals.

Resistance – Factors  Pure metals resistivity is in the order of

Resistance of a metallic conductor 10−8 𝑡𝑜 10−6 Ω𝑚

(i) Directly proportional to the length of the  Alloys resistivity is in the order of

conductor. 10−6 𝑡𝑜 10−5 Ω𝑚

𝑅𝛼𝑙  Materials which are having very high

(ii) Inversely proportional to the area of cross- resistivity in the order of 1012 𝑡𝑜 1017 are

section of the conductor. known as insulators [ glass, paper, rubber

1 etc]
𝑅𝛼
𝐴 --------------------------------------------------------
(iii) Depends upon temperature ( Increases with  Materials like copper, aluminium etc are
increase in temperature) chosen to make power cables and electrical
(iv) Depends up on material of the conductor transmission lines [ very small resistivity]
i.e.  Alloys like nichrome, manganin and
𝒍 constantan are used to make heating
𝑹=𝝆
𝑨
elements of toasters, geysers etc. [ They have
Where constant of proportionality 𝝆 is the
high resistivity and have large melting point ]
resistivity of the material of the conductor.
--------------------------------------------------
 Resistivity depends on material and
temperature.
-------------------------------------------------------------
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 Electricity

Resistivity of conductor will not vary with its RS

dimensions, i.e, if a wire is cut into two pieces,
resistance of the wire changes, but resistivity I

remains same.
V
 Resistivity is the characteristics property of
Let R s be the equivalent resistance
the material
∴ 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅𝑠 − − − − − (iii)
 Resistance is the property of the given wire,
𝐼𝑅𝑠 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 + 𝐼𝑅3
and this property depends on dimensions
------------------------------------------------------------ 𝑹𝒔 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑

RESISTANCE OF A SYSTEM OF RESISTORS If ‘n’ identical resistors each of resistance

(i) Resistors in Series 𝑅 are connected in series, then
 Resistors are said to be connected in 𝑹𝒔 = 𝑹 + 𝑹 + ⋯ … … … .. (𝒏 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒔)
series if same current flows through each
𝑹𝒔 = 𝒏𝑹
resistor.
 Voltage across the circuit is the sum of the ----------------------------------------------------------
voltages across each component. Equivalent resistor
 Equivalent resistance of series combination. It is the single resistor that allows same
R1 R2 R3 current as is done by the combination when

V1 V3 same potential difference is applied across

V2
both.

I ----------------------------------------------------------
V
Characteristics of series combination
Consider three resistors R1, R2 and R3 are
(i) Same current flows through all devices in
connected in series with cell of voltage V as
series connection.
shown in the figure such that current I flow
(ii) Voltage across the resistor is directly
through the circuit.
proportional to its resistance
Applied Voltage = V
(iii) Voltage across the combination is equal to
V = V1 + V2 + V3 − − − −(i)
the sum of the voltages across each
We know that 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
resistor.
∴ 𝑉1 = 𝐼𝑅1 , 𝑉2 = 𝐼𝑅2 , 𝑉3 = 𝐼𝑅3
(iv) Equivalent resistance is equal to the sum
∴ V = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 + 𝐼𝑅3 − − − −(ii)
of the individual resistances of the
Equivalent resistance is a single resistance
combination
that allows same current as is done by the
(v) Equivalent resistance is greater than the
combination when same potential difference
largest resistance in the combination.
is applied across the combination.
---------------------------------------------------------
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 Electricity

(ii) Parallel Combination Let R p be the equivalent resistance

 Resistors are said to be connected in 𝑉
∴ I= − − − − − (iii)
parallel if voltage across each resistor is 𝑅𝑝

the same. 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
= + +
𝑅𝑝 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
 Total current is the sum of the currents
through each component. 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +
𝑹𝒑 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
 Equivalent resistance of Parallel
combination. If ‘n’ identical resistors each of resistance
I1 R1 𝑅 are connected in parallel, then
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
R2 = + + ⋯ … … … .. (𝒏 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒔)
I2 𝑹𝒑 𝑹 𝑹

I3 R3 𝟏 𝒏
=
𝑹𝒑 𝑹

𝑹
I V 𝑹𝒑 =
𝒏
Consider three resistors R1, R2 and R3 are
----------------------------------------------------------
connected in parallel with cell of voltage V as
Characteristics of parallel combination
shown in the figure such that current I1, I2
(i) Voltage across each resistor is equal to
and I3 flow through R1, R2 and R3 respectively.
the voltage across the combination.
Total current = I
(ii) Current through the resistor is inversely
I = I1 + I2 + I3 − − − −(i)
proportional to its resistance.
𝑉
We know that 𝐼 = (iii) Total current drawn by the combination
𝑅
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 is equal to the sum of the current through
∴ I1 = , I2 = , I3 =
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 individual resistors.
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 (iv) Reciprocal of equivalent resistance is
∴ I= + + − − − −(ii)
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the
Equivalent resistance is a single resistance individual resistances of the combination
that allows same current as is done by the (v) Equivalent resistance is less than the least
combination when same potential difference resistance in the combination.
is applied across the combination. ---------------------------------------------------------
RS

V
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 Electricity

Advantages of parallel connection over series Work done by the cell in time 𝑡 to send this
(i) In parallel combination each appliance gets charge through the resistor is
the full voltage. 𝑊 = 𝑉𝑄 − − − −(2)
(ii) If one appliance is switched on/off others Work done by the cell is converted into heat.
are not affected. ∴ 𝐻=𝑊
(iii) The parallel circuit divide the current Using (2) in the above equ. We get,
through the appliances. Each appliance gets 𝑯 = 𝑽𝑸
proper current depending on its resistance. Using (1) in the above equ. We get,
(iv) In a parallel combination it is very easy to 𝑯 = 𝑽𝑰𝒕
connect or disconnect a new appliance From Ohm’s law
without affecting the working of other 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
appliances. ∴ 𝐻 = 𝐼𝑅 × 𝐼𝑡
------------------------------------------------------------- 𝑯 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝒕
HEATING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT i.e. Joule’s law of heating states that
When current flows through a Heat produced in a conductor is
conductor, heat energy is generated in the (i) Directly proportional to the square of
conductor. This effect of electric current is the current through the resistor.
known as Joule’s heating or heating effect of (ii) Directly proportional to the resistance
electric current. of the resistor.
Cause of Joule’s heating effect. (iii) Directly proportional to the time for
Free electrons which constitute the current which the current flows through the
collide with fixed atoms and other electrons resistor.
when current flows through a conductor. During -------------------------------------------------------------
this collision a part of energy of electrons is 𝑽𝟐 𝑉
Also 𝑯= 𝑹
𝒕 𝐼=𝑅
transferred to the fixed atoms. Energy absorbed
𝑽𝟐𝟐
by the atoms appears as heat energy. 𝑯 = 𝑽𝑸 = 𝑰 𝑹𝒕 = 𝒕
𝑹
------------------------------------------------------------- 1
 For the given voltage 𝐻 𝛼 𝑅
Laws of Joule’s heating effect
 For the given current 𝐻 𝛼 𝑅
Consider that a resistor of resistance 𝑅 is
-------------------------------------------------------------
connected to a cell of voltage 𝑉 as shown in
figure. Let 𝐼 be the current flows through the
resistor.
Let Q be the charge that flows through the
resistor during time 𝑡
𝑄 = 𝐼𝑡 − − − −(1)
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 Electricity

Practical Applications of Heating Effect of (iii) Joule’s heating element is used in electric
Electric Current fuse.
(i) Heat is produced in devices like, electric  Electric fuse is a safety device which is
iron, geyser, toaster etc due to Joule’s connected in series with devices in the
heating. circuit to protect the circuit and devices
 All these devices have a heating element from excessive current arises from short
(coil) which is made up of alloys. circuit and overloading.
 Alloys have high resistivity, and high  Fuse wire is made up of elements like
melting point. aluminium, zinc, copper, iron, silver etc
 Since they have high resistivity they can or some alloys like mixture of tin and
offer more resistance so that more heat lead of appropriate melting point.
can be produced (𝐻 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡) in heating  Working: If a current larger than the
element. specified value flows through the circuit,
 Since they have high melting point they the temperature of the fuse wire
can withstand very large temperature. increases (𝐻 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡). This melts the fuse
(ii) Light is produced by an incandescent bulb wire and breaks the circuit.
due to Joule’s heating of filament of the bulb.  The fuses used for domestic purposes
 Filament is made up of Tungsten. are rated as 1 A, 2 A, 3 A, 5 A, 10 A, etc
 As Tungsten is a strong metal, it can be -----------------------------------------------------
drawn into thin filament (small area of Electric Power
cross section). Therefore for the given The rate at which electric energy is dissipated or
length we can have high resistance. consumed in an electric circuit is known as
1 electric power.
(𝑅 𝛼 𝐴 ). Since resistance of the filament
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
is high, more heat is produced in the 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
filament. (𝐻 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡). A part of this heat 𝐸
𝑃=
is converted into light. 𝑡
 Tungsten has very high melting point We know that heat produced/ energy consumed

(33800C) therefore it can with stand in a device is

very large temperature. 𝐸 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡

 The bulbs are usually filled with 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡

∴ 𝑃= = 𝐼2𝑅
𝑡
chemically inactive nitrogen and argon
𝑽𝟐
𝟐
gases to avoid oxidization and prolong 𝑷=𝑰 𝑹= = 𝑽𝑰
𝑹
the life of filament. S.I unit of power is watt denoted by (W)

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 Electricity

Define 1 watt Additional topic

We know that Equivalent power
𝐸 (i) Series connection
𝑃=
𝑡 Consider that two resistors of resistance R1 and
𝐼𝑓 𝐸 = 1 𝐽 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡 = 1 𝑠, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
R2, each of power P1 and P2 respectively at
1
𝑃 = =1𝑊 voltage V are connected in series to the same
1
i.e. 1 watt is the power of a device that consumes voltage V.

1 joule of energy in 1 second. We know that

---------------------------------------------------------- 𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑅1 = and 𝑅2 = − − − (1)
𝑃1 𝑃2
Electrical Power rating
Equivalent power of the resistors when
Power of an electrical device is always given
connected in series is
with its operating voltage. For example; power of
𝑉2 𝑉2
an electric bulb is 100W at 220V. 𝑃𝑠 = ⇒ 𝑅𝑠 = − − − (2)
𝑅𝑠 𝑃𝑠
This means that bulb consumes 100 joules of
Where 𝑅𝑠 is the equivalent resistance.
energy in every one second provided voltage
Equivalent resistance of the series connection is
across it is 220V.
𝑅𝑠 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 − − − (3)
-------------------------------------------------------------
Using (1) and (2) in equ (3), we get
1 kW = 1000 W
𝑉2 𝑉2 𝑉2
------------------------------------------------------------ = +
𝑃𝑠 𝑃1 𝑃2
Commercial Unit of energy 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + − − − (4)
Commercial unit of energy is 1kWh, this also 𝑷𝒔 𝑷 𝟏 𝑷𝟐
known as 1unit. (ii) Parallel connection
Define 1kWh Equivalent power of the resistors when
We know that connected in parallel is
𝐸 =𝑃×𝑡 𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑃𝑝 = ⇒ 𝑅𝑝 = − − − (5)
If 𝑃 = 1𝑘𝑊 and 𝑡 = 1ℎ then, 𝑅𝑝 𝑃𝑠

𝐸 = 1𝑘𝑊ℎ Equivalent resistance of the parallel connection

i.e. 1 kWh is the energy consumed by a device of is 𝑅𝑝 and

power 1kW in 1 hour. 1 1 1

= + − − − (6)
R s R1 R 2
-------------------------------------------------------------
Using (1) and (5) in equ (6) we get
Conversion of kWh to joule
𝑃𝑠 𝑃1 𝑃2
1 𝑘𝑊ℎ = 1000𝑊 × 60 × 60 𝑠 = +
𝑉2 𝑉2 𝑉2
1 𝑘𝑊ℎ = 1000 × 60 × 60 J [ Ws = J ] 𝑷𝒔 = 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐
𝟏 𝒌𝑾𝒉 = 𝟑. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝐉 ---------------------------------------------------

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 Electricity

Slope of Q – t graph = Current

Δ𝑄 Δ𝑄
𝑄 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = =𝐼
Δ𝑡

Δ𝑡

--------------------------------------------------
Area under I- t graph = Charge

𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝐼 × 𝑡 = 𝑄
𝐼

𝑡
𝑡

--------------------------------------------------------
 No of electrons required to constitute
1coulomb.
We know that
𝑄 = 𝑛𝑒
Here 𝑄 = 1𝐶 and 𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶
𝑄 1
𝑛= = = 6.25 × 1018
𝑒 1.6 × 10−19
****************************************

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