R.S.

TUTORIAL
"A tradition of excellence..."

Class- Xth
Subject - Science
Revision Notes
(All Chapters)

Session - 2024 - 25
 5

CHAPTER – 1
CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS
Content (reference: CBSE SYLLABUS – 2024)
❖ Chemical reactions: Chemical Equation, Balanced chemical equation (Method)
❖ Types of chemical reactions:
• Combination
• Decomposition
• Displacement (Single & Double)
• Exothermic-Endothermic Reaction.
❖ Reduction-Oxidation Reaction, Rancidity

❖ Physical Change: Change in physical properties.

• Melting (Solid to Liquid)
• Boiling (Liquid to Gaseous)
• Condensation (Gaseous to Liquid)
• No change occurs in the identity of the substance
❖ Chemical Change: Atoms in the reactants are rearranged to form one or more
different substances.
● Old bonds are broken and new bonds are formed.
● Reactants lose their properties to form products of different properties.
4Fe(s) + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3 (rust).
Iron + Oxygen → Ferric oxide
❖ Chemical changes may be observed in following ways:
● CHANGE IN STATE: Magnesium ribbon burns with a dazzling white flame
(reaction between magnesium and oxygen present in the air) and changes into a
white powder of magnesium oxide.
2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
● CHANGE IN COLOR: Take lead nitrate solution in a test tube; add potassium
iodide solution to this, and then we observed that lead (II) iodide and potassium
nitrate is formed.
● EVOLUTION OF GAS: Take a few zinc granules in a conical flask, add dilute
hydrochloric acid or sulphuric acid to this, and then we observed that hydrogen
gas is evolved.
● TEMPERATURE INCREASE: Reaction between Quicklime and water.
❖ Chemical equation: The symbolic representation of a chemical reaction is called
a chemical equation.
❖ Features of a chemical equation:
● The reactants are written on the left-hand side with a plus sign between them.
 6

● The products are written on the right-hand side with a plus sign between them.
● An arrow separates the reactants from the products. The arrow head points
towards the products and indicates the direction of the reaction.

❖ Skeletal chemical equation: A chemical equation which simply represents the

symbols and formulas of reactants and products taking part in the reaction is
known as skeletal chemical equation for a reaction.
Example: The skeletal equation of burning of magnesium in the air is as follows-
Mg + O2 → MgO
❖ Balanced chemical equation: A balanced equation is a chemical equation in
which number of atoms of each element is equal on both sides of the equation i.e.
number of atoms of an element on reactant side is equal to number of atoms of
that element on the product side.
• Step 1: To balance a chemical equation, first draw boxes around each reactant
and product and do not make any changes to it.
Fe + H2O → Fe3O4 + H2
• Step 2: List the number of atoms of each element present in the unbalanced
equation.
• Step 3: We should always choose a compound with a maximum number of atoms
in it, either on reactants side or products side.
Fe + H2O → Fe3O4 + H2
(Here we select Fe3O4 which contains 4 oxygen atoms on the right-hand side. As
we cannot make H2O to H2O4 in order to increase oxygen atoms, so we make it to
4H2O.)
Fe + 4H2O → Fe3O4 + H2
• Step 4: Balance other atoms now like Fe and H.
Fe + 4H2O → Fe3O4 + H2
L.H.S. - Atoms of H are 8
R.H.S. - Atoms of H are 2
(So multiply H2 on R.H.S with 4, so we get)
Fe + 4H2O → Fe3O4 + 4H2
• Step 5: Fe + 4H2O → Fe3O4 + 4H2
Pick the last element Fe from the above partly balanced equation.
L.H.S. - Fe are 1
R.H.S. - Fe are 3
(So multiply 3 on L.H.S)
3Fe + 4H2O → Fe3O4 + 4H2
• Step 6: Check the equation whether it is balanced or not by counting the number
of atoms on L.H.S and R.H.S
3Fe + 4H2O → Fe3O4 + 4H2
 7

This is the balanced equation.

• Step 7: Indicate the physical state of all the reactants and products by writing
symbols in brackets as subscripts on the right corner below the formula.
3Fe(s) + 4H2O(l) → Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g)
❖ Identification of types of reactions:
✓ Combustion: AB + O2 → Oxide of A & B.
✓ Combination: A + B → C
✓ Decomposition: AB → A + B
✓ Displacement: A + BC (aq) → AC (aq) + B
✓ Double Displacement: AB (aq) + CD (aq) → AD (aq) + CB
❖ Definitions of reaction types with examples:
1. Combination Reaction: Two or more reactant combines to form a single product.
It may be classified into three types-
❖ Element-Element Combination reaction
2Mg (s) + O2 (g) → 2MgO
Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium oxide (White ash)
❖ Element-Compound Combination reaction
CO2 + C → 2CO
Carbon dioxide + Carbon → Carbon monoxide
❖ Compound-Compound Combination Reaction
CaO(s) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq)
(Quicklime) + Water → (Slakedlime)
2. Decomposition Reaction: Single compounds decompose or break down to give
two or more simpler substances. It may be classified into three types –
❖ Thermal decomposition – In presence of thermal energy
2FeSO4(Green crystal) HEAT Fe2O3 (s) + SO2 (g) + SO3(g)
CaCO3(s) HEAT CaO(s) + CO2(g)
(Limestone) (Quicklime) + (Carbon dioxide)
2Pb(NO3)2(s) HEAT 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(brown fumes) + O2(g)
(Lead nitrate) (Lead oxide) + (Nitrogen dioxide) + (Oxygen)
❖ Electric decomposition – In presence of electricity
H2O Electricity 2H2 + O2
The atomic mass percentage ration of Hydrogen and oxygen is 1:8. Whereas the
atomic count ration is 2:1.
❖ Photolytic decomposition- In presence of light
2AgCl Sunlight 2Ag + Cl2(g)
White Silver
3. Displacement Reaction: A more reactive element [metal] displaces less reactive
element [metal] from its aqueous salt solution
 8

Fe (s) + ZnSO4 (aq) → FeSO4 (aq) + Zn (s)

4. Double Displacement Reaction: Aqueous solution of two ionic compounds react
by exchange of their ions is called double displacement Reaction.
BaCl2 (aq) + Na2SO4 (aq) → BaSO4 (s) + 2 NaCl(aq)
Pb(NO3)2 + 2 KI (aq) → PbI2 ( ↓ ) + 2 KNO3 (aq)
5. Oxidation Reaction: In oxidation reaction, addition of oxygen or removal of
hydrogen or loss of electron takes place.
2Mg(s) + O2 (g) → 2MgO (s)
2Cu + O2 → 2CuO
6. Reduction Reaction: In reduction Reaction addition of hydrogen or removal of
oxygen or gain of electron takes place.
CuO(s) + H2 (g) →Cu(s) + H2O (l)
7. Redox Reaction: Reaction involving both oxidation and reduction simultaneously
CuO(s)+ H2 → Cu(s) + H2O(l)
8. Exothermic Reaction: Reaction in which heat is evolved.
C(s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + Heat
9. Neutralisation Reaction: When an acid and a base react together to form salt
and water.
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → H2O (l) + NaCl (aq)
(acid) + (base) → (Water) + (Salt)
❖ Law of Conservation of Mass: In a chemical reaction matter is conserved.
Total no. of atoms on reactant side= Total no. of atoms on product side
Total mass of reactants = Total mass of products.
[While Balancing a Chemical Equation Formula of reactants and products should not
be changed].
❖ Rancidity: Oxidation of oils or fats in a flood, resulting into a bad smell and taste.
• Preventions:
✓ Adding anti-oxidants.
✓ Replacing air by Nitrogen
✓ Refrigeration of food stuff
✓ Storing the food in air-tight containers (Vacuum Packing)
9
 10

Chapter – 2
ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Content: (reference: CBSE SYLLABUS – 2024)

❖ Their definitions in terms of furnishing of H+ and OH– ions
❖ General properties, examples and uses
❖ Neutralization
❖ Concept of pH scale (Definition relating to logarithm not required)
❖ Importance of pH in everyday life
❖ Preparation and uses of Sodium Hydroxide, Bleaching powder, Baking soda,
Washing soda
❖ Plaster of Paris.

❖ Properties of Acids:
• Produce hydrogen ions [H+] in H2O.
• Sour taste.
• Turn blue litmus red.
• Neutralize solutions carrying hydroxide ions.
• React with several metals releasing Hydrogen gas.
• React with carbonates releasing CO2(g)
• Corrode metal surface quickly.
❖ Types of Acid:
1. Based on the origin and composition, acids are classified as:
a) Organic acids: Acids derived from living organisms like plants and animals.
Examples:
✓ Citric acid is present in citrus fruits
✓ Acetic acid present in vinegar
✓ Oxalic acid present in tomato
✓ Tartaric acid present in tamarind
✓ Lactic acid present in sour milk and curd
b) Mineral acids: They are also called inorganic acids. They are corrosive in nature.
Examples:
✓ Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
✓ Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
✓ Nitric Acid (HNO3)
2. On the basis of their strength, acids are classified as:
a) Strong acids: Completely dissociate into its ions in aqueous solutions.
Example: Nitric acid (HNO3), Sulphuric acid (H2SO4), Hydrochloric acid (HCl).
 11

b) Weak acids: Weak acids are those acids which do not completely dissociate into
its ions in aqueous solutions.
Example: Carbonic acid (H2CO3), Acetic acid (CH3COOH).
3. On the basis of their concentration, acids are classified as:
a) Dilute acids: Have a low concentration of acids in aqueous solutions.
b) Concentrated acids: Have a high concentration of acids in aqueous solutions.

❖ Properties of Base:
• Produce hydroxide ions [OH–] in H2O.
• Water soluble bases are called alkalise.
• Bitter Taste
• Turn Red Litmus blue.
• Neutralize solutions containing H+ ions.
• Have a slippery, ‘soapy’ feel.

1. On the basis of their strength, bases are classified as:

a) Strong bases: Strong bases are those bases which completely dissociate into its
ions in aqueous solutions.
Example: Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
Potassium hydroxide (KOH)
b) Weak bases: Weak bases are those bases which do not completely dissociate
into its ions in aqueous solutions.
Example: Ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH)
2. On the basis of their concentration, bases are classified as:
a) Dilute bases: Have a low concentration of alkali in aqueous solutions.
b) Concentrated bases: Have a high concentration of alkali in aqueous solutions.

❖ Strength of Acid or Base Solutions:

A scale for measuring hydrogen ion concentration in a solution, called pH scale has
been developed. The p in pH stands for ‘potenz’ in German, meaning power.
• p = potential or Power
• H = Hydrogen
• pH = Anti log value of hydrogen ion concentration.
✓ pH = 7 (Neutral Solution H3O+ = OH–)
✓ pH > 7 (Basic Solution H3O+ < OH–)
✓ pH < 7 (Acidic Solution H3O+ > OH–)
• Range of pH is from 1 to 14
 12

❖ pH Sensitivity of Plants & Animals:

• Human body works in a narrow range of pH 7 to 7.8. Acidity can be lethal for
plants and animals.
• pH of Digestive System: Stomach secretes HCl to kill bacteria in the food. The
inner lining of stomach protects vital cells from this acidic pH.
• pH and tooth decay: Lower pH because of sour food and sweet food can cause
tooth decay. The pH of mouth should always be more than 5.5.
• pH as self defence mechanism in plants & animals: Certain animals like bee and
plants like nettle secrete highly acidic substance for self-defence.

❖ Properties of salts:
• Salts are formed by the combination of acid and base through neutralization
reaction.
• The acidic and basic nature of salts depends on the acid and base combining in
the neutralization reaction.
• The most common salt is sodium chloride or table salt which forms by the
combination of sodium hydroxide (base) and hydrochloric acid.
• Other examples include Epsom salts (MgSO4) used in bath salts, baking soda
(NaHCO3) used in cooking.
• The pH of salts solution depends on the strength of acids and base combined in
neutralization reaction.

❖ Indicators – Indicators are substances which indicate the acidic or basic nature of
the solution by their colour change.
The colour of some acid – base indicators in acidic and basic medium are given
below:

S. No. Indicators Colour in acidic Colour in basic

medium medium

1. Litmus Solution Red Blue

2. Methyl Orange Pink Orange

 13

3. Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink

4. Methyl Red Yellow Red

❖ Chemical properties of acids:

• Acids react with active metals to give hydrogen gas.
Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2
• Acids react with metal carbonate and metal hydrogen carbonate to give
carbon dioxide.
NaHCO3 + HCl → NaCl + H2O + CO2
• Acids react with bases to give salt and water. This reaction is called as
neutralization reaction.
NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O
• Acids react with metals oxides to give salt and water.
CuO + H2SO4 → CuSO4 + H2O
❖ Addition of Acids or Bases to Water: The process of dissolving an acid,
especially nitric acid or sulphuric acid or a base in water is a highly exothermic
one.
Note: Always add acid to water and never the other way! The acid must be added
slowly to water with constant stirring. If one mixes the other way by adding water
to a concentrated acid, the heat generated causes the mixture to splash out and
cause burns.
❖ Chemical properties of Bases:
• Reaction with Metals - Certain reactive metals such as Zinc, Aluminium, and Tin
react with alkali solutions on heating and hydrogen gas is evolved.
2NaOH + Zn → Na2ZnO2 +H2
• Reaction with acids -Bases react with acids to form salt and water.
KOH +HCl → KCl +H2O
• Reaction with Non-metallic oxides – These oxides are generally acidic in nature.
They react with bases to form salt and water.
2NaOH + CO2 → Na2CO3 + H2O
❖ Some Important Chemical Compounds:
• Common Salt (NaCl): Sodium chloride is known as common salt. Its main source
is sea water. It also exists in the form of rocks and is called rock salt. Common
salt is an important component of our food. It is also used for preparing sodium
hydroxide, baking soda, washing soda etc.
❖ Chlor-Alkali process: Electricity is passed through an aqueous solution of
Sodium chloride (called brine). Sodium chloride decomposes to form sodium
hydroxide. Chlorine gas is formed at the anode, and hydrogen gas at the cathode.
Sodium hydroxide solution is formed near the cathode.
2NaCl(aq) + 2 H2O (l) → 2NaOH(aq) + Cl2(g) + H2(g)
 14

(Source: https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/jesc102.pdf)

a) Uses of Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) –

• It is used as a cleansing agent and in the manufacturing of washing soda.
• Sometimes, sodium hydroxide is also used as a reagent in the laboratories.
• It is used in the preparation of soda lime.
• It is used in the extraction of aluminium by purifying bauxite.
b) Uses of Hydrogen gas (H2) –
• Hydrogen with oxygen produces oxy-hydrogen flame which is used for cutting and
welding.
• Hydrogen gas is used as a fuel.
• Hydrogen is used for hydrogenation of vegetable oil.
• Hydrogen gas is used extensively in the manufacture of ammonia gas, which is
used to produce fertilizers.
c) Uses of Chlorine gas (Cl2) –
• For bleaching
• For the preparation of insecticides
• For removing stains in the fabric
• For purification of water
• For the preparation of bleaching powder
❖ Bleaching powder: Molecular formula is CaOCl2. Bleaching powder is produced
by the action of chlorine on dry slaked lime.
Preparation: Ca(OH)2 + Cl2 → CaOCl2+ H2O
Uses:
• As disinfectant and germicide especially in the sterilization of drinking water.
• Manufacturing of chloroform.
 15

• Bleaching of silk, cotton, linen, wool (fabric industry) and wood pulp (paper
industry).
• As an oxidising agent in chemical industries
❖ Baking Soda: Baking soda is known as sodium bicarbonate. (NaHCO₃).
❖ Baking Powder: Baking powder is a mixture of Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO₃)
and tartaric acid (NaHCO3)
Preparation: NaCl + H2O + CO2+ NH3 → NH4Cl + NaHCO3
Uses:
• Use to lighten the texture and to increase volume of various baked foods.
• Used instead of yeast for the end- products where the fermentation flavours would
be undesirable.
• Used as antacid in acidity.
❖ Washing soda: Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3.10H2O)
Preparation: It is two-step process
First step- sodium carbonate is obtained by heating baking soda.
2NaHCO3 (heat) → Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
Second step- Washing soda is produced by recrystallisation of sodium carbonate
Na2CO3 + 10H2O → Na2CO3.10H2O
Uses:
• Used in glass, soap and paper industries.
• Used in the manufacture of sodium compounds such as borax.
• Used in domestic cleaning purposes.
• Used for removing permanent hardness of water.
❖ Plaster of Paris: Calcium sulphate hemihydrate CaSO4.½ H2O
Preparation: By heating Gypsum at 373K.
CaSO4.2H2O (Heat at 373K) CaSO4. ½ H2O + 1½ H2O
Uses:
• Used in making casts and patterns for moulds and statues.
• Used as cement in ornamental casting and for making decorative materials.
• Used as a fire proofing material and for making chalks.
• Used in hospitals for immobilising the affected part in case of bone fracture or
strain.
 16

IMPORTANT KEY POINTS

✓ Acid is a compound which yields hydrogen ion (H+), when dissolved in water.
✓ Acid is sour to the taste and corrosive in nature. The pH value for acids is less
than 7.
✓ Generally, all acids readily react with metal to release hydrogen gas. For example,
metal zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid to form zinc chloride and hydrogen gas.
✓ Acid reacts with limestone (CaCO3) to produce carbon dioxide. For example,
hydrochloric acid reacts with limestone to produce carbonic acid and calcium
chloride.
✓ Acid can be classified in organic and inorganic acids. Acetic acid (CH 3COOH) is
the best example of organic acid, while acid produced from minerals are termed
as inorganic acids like sulphuric acid (H2SO4), hydrochloric acid (HCl).
✓ Acid converts the colour of blue litmus paper to red.
✓ Acids have a tendency to corrode metal surfaces quickly.
✓ Acids and bases conduct electricity because they produce ions in water. There is
a flow of electric current through the solution by ions.
✓ Indicators are those chemical substances which behave differently in acidic and
basic mediums and help in determining the chemical nature of the substance.
✓ Acid base indicators indicate the presence of an acid or a base by a change in
their colour or smell.
✓ Indicators can be natural or synthetic.
✓ Olfactory indicators: These are those indicators whose odour changes in acidic or
basic medium.
• Onion: Smell of onion diminishes in a base and remains as it is in an acid.
• Vanilla: The odour of vanilla essence disappears when it is added to a base. The
odour of vanilla essence persists when it is added to an acid.
• Turmeric: In acids, the yellow colour of turmeric remains yellow. In bases, yellow
colour of turmeric turns red.
• Red cabbage juice which is purple in colour changes to red in acidic medium.
• Litmus: Litmus is a natural indicator. Litmus solution is a purple dye which is
extracted from lichen. Acids turn blue litmus red. Bases turn red litmus blue.
✓ Water is essential for acids and bases to change the colour of litmus paper.
✓ Remember that litmus paper will act as an indicator only if either the litmus paper
is moist or the acid or base is in the form of aqueous solution. This is because
acids and bases release H+ and OH- ions respectively in aqueous solutions.
✓ Phenolphthalein: Phenolphthalein remains colourless in acids but turn pink in
bases.
✓ Methyl orange: Methyl orange turns pink in acids and becomes yellow in bases.
✓ Living organisms are pH sensitive. Human body works within a pH range of 7.0 to
7.8.
✓ Rain water with a pH less than 5.6 is called acid rain. This acid rain if it flows into
river water makes the survival of aquatic life difficult.
 17

✓ Plants also require a specific pH range of soil for their healthy growth.
✓ pH is also significant as it is used in self-defence by animals and plants. Bees use
acids in their sting. To neutralise the effect a mild base like baking soda can be
used.
✓ Water of crystallisation: It is the fixed number of water molecules present in one
formula unit of a salt.
✓ Bases are compounds which yield hydroxide ion (OH-), when dissolved in water.
✓ Bases are bitter to taste and corrosive in nature. They feel slippery and soapy.
✓ Bases are good conductors of electricity and show pH value more than 7.
✓ Bases react with oils and grease to form soap molecules.
✓ Bases convert red litmus paper to blue in colour.
✓ Bases also have the tendency to corrode metal surfaces.
✓ A reaction between a base and a metal is similar as for acid to form salt and
release hydrogen gas. But this reaction can only occur when a metal is strong
enough to displace another metal from its parent constituent.
2NaOH + Zn → Na2ZnO2 + H2
✓ Phenolphthalein solution turns pink in colour in the basic solution. Bases turn
methyl orange to yellow. Red cabbage juice which is purple in colour changes to
yellow in basic medium.
✓ Strong bases: They are completely ionized in water to produce hydroxide ions.
✓ Weak bases: Partially ionized and equilibrium lies mostly towards the reactants
side, Eg. Ammonia in water:
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) → NH4+ (aq) + OH-(aq)
✓ A salt is defined as a compound formed by the complete or incomplete
replacement of the hydrogen ion of an acid by a basic radical.
✓ A normal salt is formed by the complete replacement of the hydrogen ion of an
acid by a basic radical whereas an acid salt is formed by the incomplete
replacement of the hydrogen ion of an acid by a basic radical.
18
 19

Chapter – 3
METALS AND NON-METALS
CONTENT: (reference: CBSE SYLLABUS – 2024)
❖ Properties of metals and non-metals
❖ Reactivity Series
❖ Formation and properties of ionic compounds
❖ Basic metallurgic processes
❖ Corrosion and its prevention

Elements are classified broadly into two categories on the basis of their properties:
• Metals: Iron, Zinc, Copper, Aluminium etc.
• Non-metals: Chlorine, Nitrogen, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Sulphur etc.
Apart from metals and non-metals some elements show properties of both metals
and non – metals, e.g. Silicon, Arsenic, Germanium. They are called metalloids.
❖ Physical properties of Metals and Non-metals: -

S. No. Property Metals Non-Metals

1 Physical State Metals are solid at room Non-metals generally exist as solids
temperature. Except mercury and gases, except Bromine.
and gallium.

2 Melting and Metals generally have high MP Non-metals have low MP and BP
boiling and BP except gallium and except diamond and graphite.
points cesium.

4 Malleability Malleable and ductile. Neither malleable nor ductile.

and
Ductility

5 Electrical and Good conductors of heat and Generally poor conductors of heat
thermal electricity. and electricity except graphite.
conductivity

6 Lustre Metals possess a shining lustre Do not have lustre except iodine.

7 Sonorous Give sonorous sound when Does not give sonorous sound.
struck.
sound

8 Hardness Generally hard except Na, K. Solid non-metals are generally soft
except diamond.
 20

❖ Chemical properties of Metals and Non-metals: -

METAL NON-METAL

REACTION WITH OXYGEN

Metals form basic oxides Non-metals form acidic oxides

Metal + Oxygen → Metal Oxide Non-metal+Oxygen →Non-metal oxide
4Na(s) + O2(g) → 2Na2O(s) C + O2 → CO2
4Al(s) + 3O2(g) → 2Al2O3(s) S + O2 → SO2
• Zn and Al form amphoteric oxides (they • CO and H2O are neutral oxides
show the properties of both acidic and (they are neither acidic nor basic in
basic oxides) nature)
• Most of the metal oxides are insoluble in • Non-metal oxides are soluble in
water. water.
• Some of them dissolve to form Alkali • They dissolve in water to form acids.
• Na2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) • SO2 + H2O → H2SO3

REACTION WITH WATER

Metals react with water to form metal oxides Non-metals do not react with water,
or metal hydroxide and H2 gas is steam to evolve hydrogen gas.
released.
2Na(s)+2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(s)+H2(g)+Heat

REACTION WITH DILUTE ACIDS

Metal + Acid → Metal salt + Hydrogen Non-metals do not react with acids to
release H2 gas
• With HCl
Mg(s)+2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq)+H2(g)
• With H2SO4
2Na(s)+H2SO4→Na2SO4(aq)+H2(g)
• With HNO3
Metal + HNO3 → H2 gas is not evolved.
Reason- HNO3 is strong oxidizing agent.

REACTION WITH SALT SOLUTIONS

Metals react with salt solution and more When non-metals react with salt
reactive metal will displace a less reactive solution, more reactive non-metal
metal from its salt solution – Single will displace a less reactive non-
displacement reaction. metal from its salt solution.
CuSO4(aq) + Zn(s) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s) 2NaBr(aq)+Cl2(g)→2NaCl(aq)+Br2(aq)
 21

❖ Reactivity Series: Metals are arranged in a reactivity series based on their

reactivity with water and acids. This series helps predict how metals will react with
different substances. Reactivity decreases from top to bottom in the series (e.g.,
potassium is highly reactive, whereas gold is least reactive).
❖ Ionic Compounds:
• Metals tend to lose electrons to form cations (+).
• Non-metals gain electrons to form anions (-).
• Ionic compounds are formed through the transfer of electrons from metals to non-
metals (e.g., NaCl)
❖ Properties of ionic bonds:
• Physical nature: solid and hard due to strong force of attraction. (generally brittle)
• Melting point and boiling point: have high M.P and B.P, as large amount of
heat energy is required to break strong ionic attraction.
• Solubility: soluble in water and insoluble in kerosene and petrol.
• Conduction of electricity: ionic compounds in solid state do not conduct
electricity. (Reason—Ions cannot move due to rigid solid structure.)
Note: Ionic compounds conduct electricity in molten state. (Reason-- Ions can move
freely since the electrostatic forces of attraction between the oppositely charged
ions are overcome due to heat.)
❖ Occurrence of metals: -
Metals occur in Earth’s crust, Sea-water.
❖ Minerals: Elements or compounds occurring naturally in the earth‘s crust are
called Minerals.
❖ Ores: Minerals that contain a very high percentage of a particular metal and these
metals can be extracted economically on a large scale.
Example:
o Bauxite ore → Aluminium
o Haematite ore → Iron
o Magnetite ore → Iron
o Limestone → Calcium
o Gypsum → Calcium
o Bauxite → Aluminium
o Calamine → Zinc
❖ ORE PROCESSING: METAL PURIFICATION

CALCINATION ROASTING

• It is applicable for carbonate ores. • It is applicable for sulphide ores.

 22

• Heating of ores in absence of oxygen. • Heating of ores in presence of oxygen.

• CO2 gas is released and Metal oxide • SO2 gas is released and Metal oxide
is obtained. is obtained.
ZnCO2(s) HEAT ZnO(s) + CO2(g) 2ZnS(s)+3O2(g) HEAT 3ZnO(s)+SO2(g)

❖ Electrolysis: This is the final process to find purest form of metal. In a

jar/container electrolysis performed here impure metal(anode) and a strip of pure
metal (cathode) are used as electrodes. They are dipped in an electrolytic bath
which contains the soluble salt of the same metal. As electricity is passed through
the solution, the less basic metal moves towards the anode mud leaving the more
basic metal in the solution. For example, copper is purified using this method.
 23

❖ Corrosion: Corrosion is oxidation of metals. Example of corrosion are as

follows
• Blacking of silver (Silver sulphide)
4Ag + 2H2S + O2 → 2Ag2S + 2H2O
• Green layer on copper (Copper carbonate)
2Cu+O2+CO2+H2O→CuCO3.Cu(OH)2
• brown flaky substance on iron
4Fe + 3O2 + 6H2O → 4Fe(OH)3
2Fe(OH) → Fe2O3.3H2O
Note: Corrosion of iron also known as Rusting.
• Prevention methods:
✓ Galvanization
✓ Painting
✓ Using alloys (Metals are combined to form alloys to enhance properties) (e.g.,
brass is an alloy of copper and zinc).
 24

Chapter – 4
CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

CONTENT: (reference: CBSE SYLLABUS – 2024)

❖ Covalent Bonding in Carbon compounds

❖ Versatile nature of Carbon
❖ Homologous series
❖ Nomenclature of carbon compounds functional groups
(Halogens, Alcohol, Ketone, Aldehyde, Alkenes and Alkynes)
❖ Difference between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons
❖ Chemical properties of carbon compounds
(Combustion, Oxidation, Addition and Substitution)
❖ Ethanol and Ethanoic acid (only properties and uses)
❖ Soaps and detergents

❖ CARBON: Study of carbon known as organic chemistry. It is a ubiquitous atom

like it is the seventeenth most abundant element found on The Earth. It may be
found in both free as well as in the combined state i.e. coal, graphite, diamond as
pure form and as metal carbonates, hydrocarbons, and carbon dioxide gas in the
combined state. The atomic number of carbons is 6 and the atomic mass is 12.01
gmol-1. Carbon is a member of the 14th group. It combines with other elements
such as dihydrogen, dioxygen, chlorine, and sulphur and provides amazing arrays
of materials that can vary from most living and non-living part of universe.

❖ Bonding in Carbon – Carbon valence count is 4, so it involves sharing of

electrons between bonding atoms known as COVALENT BOND.

❖ Characteristics of covalent compounds:

• These are weaker than ionic bonds.
• These are insoluble in water and soluble in benzene, kerosene and petrol etc.
• These compounds are poor conductors of electricity.
• These have low melting and boiling points.
❖ Allotropy in Carbon: The property due to which an element exists in two or more
forms, which differ in their physical and some of the chemical properties is known
as “Allotropy” and the various forms are called “Allotropes”.
Carbon exists in two allotropic forms
 25

• Crystalline: The crystalline forms are diamond and graphite

• Amorphous: The amorphous forms are coal, charcoal, lamp black etc.
• Fullerenes form another class of carbon allotropes. The first one to be identified
was C-60, which has carbon atoms arranged in the shape of a football.
❖ Unique Nature of Carbon: Following reason that carbon has unique nature:
• Catenation: The property of elements to form long chains or rings by self-linkage
of their own atoms through covalent bonds is called catenation. (Carbon atom
forming bonds with carbon atoms)
• Tetravalency: The ability to form four bonds with four other atoms of carbon or
atoms of some other mono-valent element.

❖ Types of organic compound: There are two types of organic compound

• Saturated Carbon Compounds: The valencies of all the carbon atoms are
satisfied by single covalent bonds between them.
• Unsaturated Carbon Compounds: At least one double or triple bond between
the carbon atoms is present.
• Straight chain compounds: (Aliphatic compounds) the compounds which
contain a straight chain of carbon atoms e.g. normal butane (C4H10), normal
pentane (C5H12) etc.
• Cyclic compounds: (Aromatic compound) the compounds are called closed
chain or ring compounds e.g. cyclohexane (C6H12), cyclopentane (C5H10) etc.
• Branched chain compounds: Those compounds which have branched
structure. e.g. isobutane (C4H10), isopentane (C5H12), neopentane (C5H12) etc.

❖ IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS:
• Hydrocarbons: All those compounds which contain just carbon and hydrogen are
called hydrocarbons.
• Isomers: Chemical compounds that have the same chemical formula but different
chemical structure (arrangement of atoms in the molecule) are called isomers and
this phenomenon is called Isomerism.
• Functional Group: The atom or group of atoms which replaces hydrogen atom/
atoms and determines the properties of a compound is known as a functional
group. e.g. —OH (alcohol), —CHO (aldehyde),
>C=C< (alkene), — C≡C — (alkyne) etc.
• Homologous Series: A series of compounds in which the same functional group
substitutes hydrogen in a carbon chain is called a homologous series.
Consecutive members of the series differ by a —CH2 unit and 14 amu mass.
CH4 and C2H6 - These are differ by a -CH2 -unit
C2H6 and C3H8 - These are differ by a -CH2 unit
 26

❖ Nomenclature: A set of rules were developed for naming organic compounds

based on their structures. The IUPAC name of organic compounds consists of
three parts.
Prefix – Root Word – Suffix
• Root word indicates the number of carbon atoms present in the longest chain. It
includes count of carbon in Latin language is as follows
Number of Carbons Name
1 methane
2 ethane
3 propane
4 butane
5 pentane
6 hexane
7 heptane
8 octane
9 nonane
10 decane
• In case a functional group is present, it is indicated in the name of the compound
with either as a prefix or as a suffix.
Functional group Prefix Suffix
carboxylic acids none -oic acid
aldehydes none -al
ketones none -one
alchols hydroxy- -ol
fluorine fluoro- None
chlorine chloro- None
bromine bromo- None
iodine iodo- None
• While adding the suffix to the root word the terminal “e” of the carbon chain is
removed.
• If the carbon chain is unsaturated then the final ‘ane’ in the name of the carbon
chain is substituted by “ene or yne” for double and triple bonds respectively.

❖ Chemical Properties of Carbon Compounds:

• Combustion: Carbon compounds undergo combustion reaction to produce CO 2
and H2O with the evolution of heat and light.
CH4+2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O + heat and light
 27

• Oxidation: The substances which are used for oxidation are known as oxidising
agents. e.g. alkaline KMnO4, acidified K2Cr2O7.
• Addition reaction: Unsaturated hydrocarbons (alkenes and alkynes) undergo
addition reaction in presence of catalysts such as palladium or nickel to give
saturated hydrocarbons. e.g. hydrogenation of vegetable oils using a nickel
catalyst.
• Substitution reaction: Saturated hydrocarbons give substitution reaction e.g.
Chlorination reaction - methane in presence of sunlight undergo substitution
reaction as one type of atom or a group of atoms takes the place of another.
❖ Some Important Carbon Compounds
ETHANOL C2H5OH:
Properties of ethanol is as follows –
• Physical Properties of Ethanol
✓ Ethanol is colourless.
✓ It is liquid at room temperature.
✓ Ethanol mixes with water quite well.
✓ Ethanol is a combustible material. It produces CO2, water vapour, heat and light
when it is burnt in the presence of oxygen.
✓ Ethanol, when oxidised with monatomic oxygen, gives ethanoic acid.
• Chemical properties of Ethanol
▪ Dehydration: Intramolecular dehydration: Ethanol, when heated with excess
conc. H2SO4 at 443K undergoes intramolecular dehydration (i.e. removal of water
from a molecule of ethanol) to give ethene (unsaturated hydrocarbon).
CH3CH2OH hot conc.H2SO4 CH2=CH2+H2O
▪ Reaction with sodium: Ethanol reacts with sodium metal to form sodium
ethoxide and hydrogen gas.
2C2H5OH+2Na → 2C2H5ONa+H2↑
▪ Oxidation: Ethanol is oxidized to ethanoic acid with alkaline KMnO 4 or
acidified K2Cr2O7. During this reaction, the orange colour of K2Cr2O7 changes to
green. Therefore, this reaction can be used for the identification of alcohols.
CH3CH2OH2 Alkaline KMnO4/ Acidified K2Cr2O7+Heat CH3COOH
▪ Esterification: Ethanol reacts with Ethanoic acid in the presence of
conc. H2SO4 to form ethyl ethanoate and water. The compound formed by the
reaction of an alcohol with carboxylic acid is known as an ester (a fruity smelling
compound used as perfumes) and the reaction is called esterification.
C2H5OH+CH3COOH conc.H2SO4 CH3COOC2H5+H2O
Ethanoic Acid (Acetic Acid) CH3COOH:
• Physical Properties of Ethanol:
✓ Ethanoic acid, commercially known as acetic acid belongs to a group of acids
called carboxylic acid.
 28

✓ 5-8% solution of acetic acid in water is called vinegar and is used widely as a
preservative in pickles.
✓ The melting point of pure ethanoic acid is 290 K and hence it often freezes during
winter in cold climates.
✓ This gave rise to its name glacial acetic acid.
• Chemical properties:
▪ Reaction with a base:
2CH3COOH + 2NaOH → 2CH3COONa + H2O
▪ Reaction with carbonates and bicarbonates:
a. 2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 → 2CH3COONa + CO2 + H2O
b. CH3COOH + NaHCO3 → CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
▪ Reaction with alcohol: (Esterification) Esters are most commonly formed by
reaction of an acid and an alcohol. Esters react with a base to give back the
alcohol and sodium salt of carboxylic acid (Saponification)
CH3COOC2H5 NaOH C2H5OH + CH3COONa
❖ Soaps and Detergents: Hardness of water needs the use of detergent
• Soaps: Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of long chain acid carboxylic acids.
• Detergent: Detergents are sodium salts of sulphonic acids or ammonium salts
with chlorides or bromides ions
• Scum: an insoluble substance (scum) remains after washing with water. This is
caused by the reaction of soap with the calcium and magnesium salts, which
cause the hardness of water.

(Source: https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/jesc104.pdf)

❖ The mechanism of the cleaning action of soaps: The dirt present on clothes is
organic in nature and insoluble in water. Therefore, it cannot be removed by only
washing with water. When soap is dissolved in water, its hydrophobic ends attach
themselves to the dirt and remove it from the cloth. Then, the molecules of soap
arrange themselves in micelle formation and trap the dirt at the centre of the
cluster. These micelles remain suspended in the water. Hence, the dust particles
are easily rinsed away by water.
 29

(i) Grease or oil on surface of cloth.

(ii) Stearate ions arranged around the grease or oil droplet.
(iii) Grease or oil droplet surrounded by stearate ions (ionic micelle formed)
30
 31

CHAPTER 5
LIFE PROCESSES

CONTENTS (reference: CBSE SYLLABUS – 2024)

❖ Life processes: ‘Living Being’
❖ Basic concept of
• Nutrition
• Respiration
• Transport in plants and animals
• Excretion in plants and animals

❖ LIFE PROCESSES
• All physiological processes required by an organism to survive.
• In unicellular organisms, all these processes are carried out by a single cell,
where as in multicellular organism life processes occur in various specialized body
parts.
❖ NUTRITION: The process, by which an organism takes food and utilizes it, is
called nutrition. Nutrition is obtained through nutrients-Carbohydrates, fats,
proteins, minerals and vitamins

❖ NUTRITION IN PLANTS: AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION

• Organisms prepare its own food by a process called photosynthesis. Green plants
and blue-green algae make their food by photosynthesis.
• Photosynthesis is a photochemical reaction.
• Photosynthesis is an oxidation- reduction reaction in which carbon dioxide is
reduced to sugar and water is oxidized.
• Chloroplast is the site of photosynthesis in leaves.
• Stoma helps in exchange of gases.
• Raw materials for photosynthesis- CO2 and H2O.
• Essential requirements- chlorophyll and sunlight
• Products - Glucose and O2.

Equation of photosynthesis

(Source- https://ncert.nic.in/textbook.php?jesc1=5-13)
 32

❖ Events occur during photosynthesis

• Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
• Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water molecules into
hydrogen and oxygen.
• Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates.

❖ NUTRITION IN ANIMALS: HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION

• Nutrition is obtained by the organism from other living organism (parasite) e.g. or
dead and decaying objects (saprophyte) e.g. Fungi like bread moulds, yeast and
mushrooms or by taking in the entire food inside the body (holozoic).
• Nutrition in amoeba: Amoeba captures food with the help of pseudopodia, forms
a food vacuole with the food particle within it. Inside the food vacuole digestion
take place and the digested material, is then diffused into the cytoplasm. The
undigested material is moved to the surface of the cell and thrown out.
• Nutrition in Paramecium: Paramecium is another unicellular organism; the cell
has a definite shape and food is taken in at a specific spot. Food is moved to this
spot by the movement of cilia present on the entire body surface.

(Source- https://ncert.nic.in/textbook.php?jesc1=5-13)

❖ NUTRITION IN HUMAN BEING: Human has digestive system for nutrition. It

also known as alimentary canal.
• Alimentary canal - Alimentary canal is a tubular structure from mouth to anus.
Three glands function along with different parts of alimentary canal.

Buccal cavity & • Food is crushed and mixed with saliva with the help of teeth
salivary glands and tongue.
• Saliva present in the salivary glands contains salivary
amylase, an enzyme that break down starch (digestion starts
in the mouth).

Oesophagus • Peristaltic movement (Rhythmic movement muscles in

oesophagus) pushing the food towards stomach.
 33

Stomach • A large sac like structure.

• Gastric gland present in the wall of stomach secretes HCl,
pepsin, mucus.
• HCl kill the germs in food and make the food acidic medium,
which is essential for pepsin to digest proteins in the food.
• Mucus protects the inner lining of alimentary canal by HCl.

Small Intestine • It is the longest and coiled tube and it receives secretions of
liver and pancreas through a common duct.
• It is site for complete digestion of food and converts
carbohydrates to glucose, proteins to amino acids and fats to
fatty acid and glycerol.
• Villi on the inner walls of small intestine have small finger like
projections that increase the surface area for absorption of
digested food.

Liver • Produce bile juice and store it in the gall bladder. Bile juice
• make the medium alkaline for enzymes of the pancreatic juice
Break
• the fat molecules into smaller parts (emulsification)

Pancreas • Pancreatic juice has enzymes- Trypsin to digest protein and

Lipase digest lipid.

Large intestine • Unabsorbed food enters into large intestine for further
absorption
• of water. The undigested food is removed from body via anus.
(Source- https://crispindia.net/assets/files/study/Class%2010_Bio_Structured%20LP%20Book.pdf)
 34

❖ RESPIRATION
1. Aerobic
occurs in presence
Cytoplasm • Glucose is broken down
respiration
of oxygen into pyruvate in cytoplasm
and
Mitochondria of cell
• In presence of oxygen
pyruvate enters into
mitochondria and
completely oxidized there
to produce CO2 and
energy (ATP).

2. Anaerobic
occurs in absence Cytoplasm • In absence of oxygen
of oxygen pyruvate partially
respiration
decomposes and form
• Lactic acid in tired muscle
cells

3. Anaerobic
Occur in few Cytoplasm • In absence of oxygen
microorganisms pyruvate partially
respiration
like Yeast decomposes and form
(fermentation)
ethanol in yeast.

❖ Human respiratory system:

• Consists of nostrils, nasal passage, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles,

alveoli, diaphragm and ribcage.
• When we breathe in air through nostrils, from nostril air passes through the
pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and finally alveoli.
• When we breathe in air ribs are lifted with the flattening of the diaphragm, thereby
the chest cavity increases and the air is sucked into the alveoli.
• Exchange of gases takes place at alveoli by diffusion. The blood brings carbon
dioxide from the rest of the body to go into the alveoli and the oxygen in the
alveolar air is taken up by blood to be transported to all the cells in the body.
• During the breathing cycle, when air is taken in and let out, the lungs always
contain a residual volume of air so that there is sufficient time for oxygen to be
absorbed and for the carbon dioxide to be released.
• An iron containing haemoglobin (present in RBC) is the respiratory pigment that
takes up oxygen from the air in the lungs and carries it to tissues which are
deficient in oxygen as it has a very high affinity for oxygen. Carbon dioxide is more
soluble in water than oxygen is and hence is mostly transported in the dissolved
form in our blood.
 35

(Source- https://ncert.nic.in/textbook.php?jesc1=5-13)

❖ RESPIRATION IN PLANTS
• They have stomata (present in leaves) and lenticels (present in stems) which are
involved in the exchange of gases by diffusion.
• At night, CO2 elimination is the major exchange activity going on.
• During the day, CO2 generated during respiration is used up for photosynthesis;
hence oxygen release is the major event at this time.

❖ TRANSPORTATION IN HUMAN BEING:

IMPORTANT TERMS

• Blood • A type of connective tissue consists of RBC,

WBC, Platelets and plasma.

• Plasma • Fluid portion of blood

• Systole • Contraction of heart chambers

• Diastole chambers • Relaxation of heart

• Double circulation • Blood goes through the heart twice

• Arteries • Thick walled. elastic, Carry blood away from

heart to various organs

• Veins • Thin walled, carry blood from different organs

to the heart

• Platelets • Helps in blood clotting during injury.

• Lymph / Tissue fluid • Fluid in intercellular space in the tissues. They

carry digested and absorbed fat.

• Sphygmomanometer • Measures blood pressure

 36

❖ HUMAN HEART:
• Human heart is four chambered – two atria and two ventricles. Amphibians have
three chambered heart, Fish – two chambered heart. The septum separates
separation of the right side and the left side of the heart is useful to keep
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood from mixing. Birds and mammals hat have
high energy needs to maintain their body temperature constant. Amphibians or
many reptiles have three-chambered hearts, and tolerate some mixing of the
oxygenated and de-oxygenated blood streams as they do not use energy for this
purpose, the body temperature depends on the temperature in the environment.
Fishes, have only two chambers to their hearts, blood goes only once through the
heart in the fish during one cycle of passage through the body.
• Right atrium and right ventricle contain deoxygenated blood while left atrium and
left ventricle contains oxygenated blood.
• Oxygenated blood from lungs enters in left atrium via pulmonary veins. When the
left atrium contracts the blood enters to left ventricle.
• The blood goes outside to different parts of body via aorta when left ventricle
contracts.
• From different part of body deoxygenated blood is carried out by vena cava to the
right atrium. When right atrium contracts the blood enters into right ventricle.
• The deoxygenated blood goes to the lungs through pulmonary arteries when right
ventricle contracts.

(Source- https://ncert.nic.in/textbook.php?jesc1=5-13)

❖ TRANSPORTATION IN PLANTS

• Stomata • Gaseous exchange, Transpiration

• Xylem • Xylem tissue- vessels and tracheids.

• Transport water and mineral from root to aerial part
(unidirectional)

• Phloem • Transport food from the leaves to other part

(multidirectional).
 37

❖ EXCRETION IN PLANTS:
• Stomata remove O2 in photosynthesis, CO2 in respiration and water vapour in
transpiration.
• Some waste products are removed as resin, gums, latex etc. They get stored in
leaves, bark etc and fall off upon shedding.

❖ EXCRETION IN HUMAN BEING

• Basic filtration unit in kidneys are tuft of thin walled capillaries called glomerulus in
cup like structure called Bowman’s capsule where ultrafiltration takes place and
filtered urine is collected here.
• There is reabsorption of glucose, amino acids, salts and water in tubules of
nephrons. The final urine gets collected in the collecting duct where amount of
water to be excreted is decided. The concentrated urine enters the urinary bladder
via ureter and finally passes outside the body through urethra.

(credit: https://ncert.nic.in/textbook.php?jesc1=5-13)
(credit: https://crispindia.net/assets/files/study/Class%2010_Bio_Structured%20LP%20Book.pdf)

❖ REFERENCES
• https://ncert.nic.in/textbook.php?jesc1=5-13
• https://docs.google.com/document/d/1x4PG4fqTinTBhaxdLsgk2D-9utxTUns6/edit
• https://crispindia.net/assets/files/study/Class%2010_Bio_Structured%20LP%20Bo
ok.pdf
https://cbseacademic.nic.in/web_material/CurriculumMain25/Sec/Science_Sec_20
24-25.pdf
38
 39

CHAPTER 6
CONTROL AND COORDINATION

CONTENTS (reference: CBSE SYLLABUS – 2024)

❖ Tropic movements in plants
❖ Introduction of plant hormones
❖ Control and co-ordination in animals: Nervous system; Voluntary,
involuntary and reflex action
❖ Chemical co-ordination: animal hormones.
❖ Movements are shown by organisms in response to stimuli.

❖ Types of tropic movements In plants movements are growth dependent and

growth independent. They are also under the control phytohormones.

• Phototropism Light is the Towards – positive Away from the light-

stimulus phototropism negative
phototropism

• Geotropism Earth is the Towards – positive Away from the light-

stimulus geotropism negative geotropism

• Hydrotropism Water is the Towards – positive Away from the light-

stimulus hydrotropism negative
hydrotropism

• Chemotropism Chemicals are Towards – positive Away from the light-

the stimulus chemotropism negative
chemotropism

PHOTOTROPISM GEOTROPISM

❖ CHEMICAL COORDINATION IN PLANTS – Plant hormones / Phytohormones/

Plant growth regulators
• They are the chemical compounds regulating plant growth and development.
• These are synthesized in less quantity in one part of plant body and transported to
other part where they perform specific physiological processes.
• Different phytohormones and their functioning in plants are
 40

PLANT HORMONE ACTION

a) Auxin • Growth promoter

• Stem elongation
• Root growth
• Apical dormancy
• Photo tropism

b) Gibberellins • Growth promoter

• Growth of Stem
• Cell elongation

c) Cytokinin • Growth promoter

• Shoot and branch growth
• Cell division

d) Abscisic acid • Growth inhibitor

• Wilting of leaves

e) Ethylene • Growth inhibitor

• Ripening of fruits

❖ CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION IN ANIMALS: In man the responses are

coordinated and controlled by the nervous, muscular and endocrine systems.
❖ HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM: One of the most complex organ systems to ever
evolve, the human nervous system consists of two parts, namely:
• Central Nervous System (consists of the brain and spinal cord)
• Peripheral Nervous System (includes all the nerves of the body)
 41

❖ CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS) is often called the central processing unit
of the body. It consists of the brain and the spinal cord. The brain and spinal cord
constitute the central nervous system. They receive information from all parts of
the body and integrate it.
• Brain: The brain is one of the important, largest and central organs of
the human nervous system. It is the control unit of the nervous system, which
helps us in discovering new things, remembering and understanding, making
decisions, and a lot more.
• The brain is protected by cranium (bony box). Inside the box, the brain is
contained in a fluid-filled balloon which provides further shock absorption. The
vertebral column or backbone which protects the spinal cord. The brain and spinal
cord both are cushioned by 3 layers of membranes (called meninges) and
cerebrospinal fluid, which provides frontal, lateral and dorsal protection. The
human brain is composed of following major parts-

a) Forebrain: The anterior part of the brain consists of Cerebrum, Hypothalamus

and Thalamus.
Function: Cerebrum a part of the largest part of the fore brain and is responsible
for reasoning, memory, visual processing, emotions, speech, recognition of
auditory and taste stimuli, etc. It initiates voluntary actions.
b) Midbrain: The smaller and central part of the brainstem consists of Tectum and
Tegmentum.
Function: Mid brain is the centre for visual and auditory reflexes. Many involuntary
actions are controlled by coordination of mid brain and hind brain.
c) Hindbrain: The central region of the brain composed of Cerebellum, Medulla and
Pons.
Function: Cerebellum is responsible for precision of voluntary actions and
maintaining the posture and balance of the body. Pons relays signals from the
hindbrain to the forebrain. It also takes care of the functions like sleep, respiration,
facial sensation etc.
Note:
✓ Medulla Oblongata controls all involuntary movements like vomiting, sneezing,
yawning, heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure, etc and continues as the spinal
cord.
✓ The brain and spinal cord constitute the central nervous system. They receive
information from all parts of the body and integrate it. The communication
 42

between the central nervous system and the other parts of the body is facilitated
by the peripheral nervous system consisting of cranial nerves (12 pairs) arising
from the brain and spinal nerves (31 pairs) arising from the spinal cord.

❖ PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS) is the lateral part of the nervous

system that develops from the central nervous system which connects different
parts of the body with the CNS. We carry out both voluntary and involuntary
actions with the help of peripheral nerves. PNS includes two types of nerve fibers:
• Afferent nerve fibers – These are responsible for transmitting messages from
tissues and organs to the CNS.
• Efferent nerve-fibers – These are responsible for conveying messages from CNS
to the corresponding peripheral organ.
❖ Classification of the peripheral nervous system:

• Somatic neural system (SNS): It is the neural system that controls the voluntary
actions in the body by transmitting impulses from CNS to skeletal muscle cells. It
consists of the somatic nerves.
• Autonomic neural system (ANS): The autonomic neural system is involved in
involuntary actions like regulation of physiological functions (digestion, respiration,
salivation, etc.). It is a self-regulating system which conveys the impulses from the
CNS to the smooth muscles and involuntary organs (heart, bladder and pupil).

❖ NEURON: Nerve cell or neuron is the structural and functional unit of the nervous
system in man. Each neuron is having: dendrites, cyton/cell body, axon and nerve
ending.

(Source- https://ncert.nic.in/textbook.php?jesc1=6-13)

• Dendrites acquire information

• Information travels through axon as an electrical impulse
• At nerve ending this electrical impulse converts into a chemical signal for onward
transmission.

Note: How nervous impulse travels in the body?

• The stimuli is detected the specialised tips of some nerve cells usually called
receptors usually located in our sense organs, such as the inner ear, the nose, the
tongue, and so on. (gustatory receptors will detect taste while olfactory receptors
will detect smell)
• This information, acquired at the end of the dendritic tip of a nerve cell sets off a
chemical reaction creating an electrical impulse.
 43

• This impulse travels from the dendrite to the cell body, and then along the axon to
its end.
• At the end of the axon, the electrical impulse sets off the release of some
chemicals. These chemicals cross the gap, or synapse, and start a similar
electrical impulse in a dendrite of the next neuron. This is a general scheme of
how nervous impulses travel in the body.
• Similar synapse finally allows delivery of such impulses from neurons other cells,
such as muscles cells or gland

❖ REFLEX ACTION: A spontaneous sudden, involuntary reaction of the body as a

response to stimuli from the surroundings.
❖ REFLEX ARC: Reflex arc is the path followed by an electrical impulse during a
reflex action.

(Source- https://ncert.nic.in/textbook.php?jesc1=6-13)

(Source- https://crispindia.net/assets/files/study/Class%2010_Bio_Structured%20LP%20Book.pdf)

❖ HORMONE IN ANIMALS: “Hormones are chemicals synthesized and produced

by the specialized glands to control and regulate the activity of certain cells and
organs. The specialized secretary glands are known as endocrine glands.”
To regulate various functions, different types of hormones are produced in the body.
They are classified as follows:
• Peptide Hormones: Peptide hormones are composed of amino acids and are
soluble in water. Example: Insulin.
 44

• Steroid Hormones: steroid hormones are fat-soluble and are able to pass through
a cell membrane. Example: Sex hormones such as testosterone, estrogens and
progesterone.

GLANDs LOCATION HORMONE ROLEs REMARKs

Pituitary Located at Growth Regulate • Also called Master gland as

the base hormone growth and it controls the secretions of
of the development all the other endocrine
brain. glands.
• Under-secretion causes
Dwarfism.
• Over-secretion causes
Gigantism in children.

Thyroid Thyroxin located in Regulates • Iodine is required to

the carbohydrate synthesize thyroxin in the
throat s, proteins body.
and fats
• Under-secretion of thyroxin
metabolism
leads to goitre.
in the body.

Pancreas Insulin behind the Regulate blood • It is a dual gland that is

stomach sugar level works as both endocrines as
in the well an exocrine gland.
abdome
• Under secretion of insulin
n.
leads to diabetes.

Adrenal adrenaline Occurs in Stress hormone • Adrenaline helps in flight

pairs and fights response so it is
(enable the
one on also called flight and flight
body to
above hormone.
prepare in
each the stressed
kidney. situation)
Increasing,
breathing
rate.

Testes testosterone Outside the Take care of • They are dual glands that
abdomin male are work as both endocrines
al cavity secondary as well exocrine glands.
in male. sexual
characters.

Ovary oestrogen On either Take care of • They are dual glands that
 45

side of female are work as both endocrines

uterus in secondary as well exocrine glands.
the sexual
lower characters.
abdome
n.

❖ Movements are shown by ants in response to stimuli

TROPIC MOVEMENTS NASTIC MOVEMENTS

Growth dependent movement in the Growth independent movement in the

response to stimuli. response to stimuli.

Directional movement Non-directional movement

Depends on the direction of the Does not depends on the direction of the
stimulus stimulus

Cell division is the reason for action Change in the turgor pressure is the reason
for action

Slow (Time taking) Immediate (Real time response)

• Geotropism: Roots growing • Thigmotropism: Drooping of leaves of

towards earth in response to water. ‘Touch me not plant’ on just touching it.
• Phototropism: Shoot turns towards • Internal response: Opening and closing of
light stomata.
• Chemotropism: Growth of pollen
tube towards ovule.

❖ REFERENCES
✓ https://ncert.nic.in/textbook.php?jesc1=6-13
✓ https://docs.google.com/document/d/1Y2QyzN4-
8M2icQCpIdfOAOUa3ZAZhwQu/edit?rtpof=true
✓ https://crispindia.net/assets/files/study/Class%2010_Bio_Structured%20LP%20Bo
ok.pdf
✓ https://cbseacademic.nic.in/web_material/CurriculumMain25/Sec/Science_Sec_20
24-25.pdf
✓ https://docs.google.com/document/d/1Y2QyzN48M2icQCpIdfOAOUa3ZAZhwQu/e
dit?rtpof=true
 47

CHAPTER 7
HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?
CONTENTS (reference: CBSE SYLLABUS – 2024)
❖ Reproduction in animals and plants (asexual and sexual)
❖ Reproductive health - need and methods of family planning.
❖ Safe sex v/s HIV-AIDS.
❖ Child bearing and women’s health.

Reproduction: The production of new individuals of the same kind from the existing
organisms is known as reproduction.
• Reproduction is necessary for continuation of same species.
• Reproduction helps in transferring genetic material from first generation to the
next one and introducing variations in the population for better chances of
survival.
✓ Variations: The differences of new individual from the parent give rise to variations
in a species. Variations help the individuals to tolerate adverse changes in the
environment for their survival.
✓ The DNA is the information source for making proteins in the nucleus of a cell.
Any change in the information, different proteins will be made leading to altered
body designs. Therefore, a basic event in reproduction is the creation of a DNA
copy where cells use chemical reactions to build copies of their DNA.
• There are two modes of reproduction:
a) Asexual reproduction
b) Sexual reproduction

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Involves only one parent Often involves two parents

Gametes are not produced. Gametes are produced.

No fertilization takes place. Male and female gametes fuse to form

zygote. Thus fertilization takes place.

It involves mitosis It involves meiosis

❖ Asexual reproduction: It is a mode of reproduction in which a new offspring is

produced by a single parent. The new individuals produced are genetically and
physically identical to each other so basically they are the clones of their parents.
• There are different types of asexual reproduction:
✓ Binary Fission
 48

✓ Budding
✓ Fragmentation
✓ Vegetative Propagation
✓ Sporogenesis
• Fission: The word “fission” means “to divide”. If the parent cell divides into
multiple progeny cells. The cell division patterns vary in different organisms, i.e.,
some are directional while others are non-directional. Fission can be two types
based on the progeny counts-
o Binary Fission: When one parent cell split into two identical halves and form new
individuals. In leishmania the binary fission occurs in a definite orientation. In
amoeba it is non-definite orientation.

o Multiple fission: When one parent cell divides and splits internally to form a

number of daughter cells, it is called multiple fission.

(Source-https://ncert.nic.in/textbook.php?jesc1=7-13)

• Budding: Budding is the process of producing an individual through the buds that
develop on the parent body. Hydra is an organism that reproduces by budding.
The bud derives nutrition and shelter from the parent organism and detaches
once it is fully grown.
o In Hydra, a bud develops as an outgrowth due to repeated cell division at one
specific site, which further develops into tiny individuals and when fully mature,
detach from the parent body and become new independent individuals.
 49

o Bud may remain attached to the parent as seen in the yeast.

(Source-https://crispindia.net/assets/files/study/Class%209_Eng_Structured%20LP%20Book.pdf)

• Regeneration and Fragmentation:

REGENERATION FRAGMENTATION

Type of asexual reproduction that Type of asexual reproduction that takes

takes place in multicellular place in fully differentiated multicellular
organisms with simple body organisms with complex body
organisation. organisation

An organism breaks into fragments An organism if breaks into pieces by

and each fragment develops into chance, and each piece may or may
new individual. not develop into new individual.

Fragmentation is not carried out by Regeneration is carried out by specialised

specialised cells. cells (regenerative cells).

Example: Spirogyra Example: Planaria, Hydra etc

(Source:
https://crispindia.net/assets/files/study/Class%209_En (Source-https://ncert.nic.in/textbook.php?jesc1=7-13)
g_Structured%20LP%20Book.pdf)

Spore formation: Spore formation is evolutionary developed mode of asexual

reproduction. In unfavourable conditions, the organism develops sac-like
structures called sporangium that contain spores. When the conditions turn into
favourable, the sporangium burst opens and spores are released that germinate
to give rise to new organisms.
o Fungus like Rhizopus (bread mould), Bacteria and non-flowering plants reproduce
by this method. These organisms produce many microscopic reproductive units
called spores in blob (sporangium). The spores are covered by thick walls that
 50

protect them until favourable conditions appear for growth. Under favourable
condition, they germinate to form new progeny organism.

(Source-https://ncert.nic.in/textbook.php?jesc1=7-13)

• Vegetative propagation: In plants occurs through their vegetative parts such as

leaves, roots, stems, and buds. This is called vegetative propagation. For
example, potato tubers, runners/stolon, onion bulbs, etc. This property of
vegetative propagation is used in methods such as layering or grafting to grow
many plants like sugarcane, roses, or grapes for agricultural purposes (artificial).
Advantage of vegetative propagation-
✓ Easy propagation flower production variety like Rose, Jasmine, Banana and
Orange, which have lost the capacity to produce seeds.
✓ All plants produced are genetically similar enough to the parent plant.
✓ Tissue Culture is used to develop new plants from a cell or tissue in a nutrient
medium under aseptic conditions.

❖ SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

• The reproductive parts of angiosperms are located in the flower.
• Non-Essential parts of Flowers are sepals and petals.
• Sepals (calyx) protect the inner parts of the flower and petals(corolla) aid in
attracting pollinating agents.
• Essential/ reproductive parts present in the flower are- stamen (androecium) and
pistil (gynoecium). Stamen produce pollen grains bearing male gametes and pistil
produce ovule/ egg cell.

(Source-https://ncert.nic.in/textbook.php?jesc1=7-13)
 51

• The flower may be unisexual (papaya, watermelon) when it contains either

stamens or pistil or bisexual (Hibiscus, mustard) when it contains both stamens
and pistil.
❖ POLLINATION: The process of transfer of pollen grains from an anther to the
stigma of the flower is called pollination. Pollination can be
• Self-pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the
same flower or another flower of the same plant
• Cross-pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of
another flower or another flower of a different plant of the same species.
Note: Pollination generally takes place with the help of some agents like insects,
birds, wind and water.
❖ FERTILIZATION:
• Pollination is followed by fertilization.
• Pollen grains land on the stigma of the ovary.
• Pollen tubes having male gametes grow and travel through the style and reach
the ovary. Ovule has female gametes.
• Pollen tube releases 2 male gametes inside the ovule, one of which fuses with
female germ cell and forms a zygote which grows into the baby plant i.e. embryo.
Other gamete fuse with 2 polar nuclei to form endosperm.
❖ POST FERTILIZATION CHANGES:
• The ovule develops a tough coat and changes into the seed.
• The ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form a fruit.
• Zygote divides several times and forms an embryo inside the ovule.
• Petals, sepals, stamens, style and stigma shrivel and fall off(Source-

https://ncert.nic.in/textbook.php?jesc1=7-13) (Source-https://ncert.nic.in/textbook.php?jesc1=7-13)

❖ SEED AND ITS PARTS:

• Cotyledons store food for the growing embryo.
• Embryo has two parts:
a) Plumule: develops into shoot
b) Radicle develops into root.
 52

• The process of development of a new plantlet from the embryo is called

germination.

(Source-https://ncert.nic.in/textbook.php?jesc1=7-13)

❖ REPRODUCTION IN HUMAN BEING: Human beings become reproductively

active from the onset of puberty. Puberty is associated with changes secondary
sexual characters Human has two gender with distinguish character to support –

o Male Reproductive System:

• Male reproductive system consists of one pair of testes, sperm ducts or vas
deferens, urethra, a system of glands-Seminal vesicles and prostate gland.
• The formation of germ-cells or sperms takes place in the testes located outside
the abdominal cavity in scrotum because sperm formation requires a lower
temperature than the normal body temperature.
• Testes secrete testosterone hormone which brings about changes in appearance
seen in boys at the time of puberty in addition to the formation of sperms. The
sperms formed are travel through the vas deferens. Vas deferens tube opens into
a common tube called urethra.
(Source- https://crispindia.net/assets/files/study/Class%209_Eng_Structured%20LP%20Book.pdf)
 53

• It runs through a muscular organ called Penis.

• The urethra thus forms a common passage for both the sperms and urine glands
like the prostate and the seminal vesicles add their secretions so that the sperms
are now in a fluid which makes their transport easier and this fluid also provides
nutrition.
o Female Reproductive System: It consists of ovaries, fallopian tube/oviduct,
uterus, and vagina. A pair of ovaries is located in the abdominal cavity near the
kidney. Ovaries produce female gamete (ovum or egg) and secrete female
hormones estrogen. The egg is carried from the ovary to womb/uterus through a
thin oviduct or fallopian tube. The two oviducts unite into an elastic bag like
structure known as the uterus. Uterus opens into the vagina.
o Sexual Cycle in female: On the onset of puberty, only one egg is produced
alternately from ovary after a period of 28 days. If fertilization takes place, then the
fertilized egg (zygote) gets implanted in the lining of uterus which later forms
embryo.
o Zygote divides repeatedly to from embryo which gets embedded in the uterine
wall, this is called implantation. Embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with
the help of special tissue called placenta.
o The uterus prepares itself every month to receive the fertilized egg. If the egg is
not fertilized, the thick spongy uterine its lining slowly breaks down and comes out
through the vagina as blood and mucus. This cycle takes place every month and
is called as menstruation and it usually lasts for about 2-5 days.

(Source-https://ncert.nic.in/textbook.php?jesc1=7-13)

❖ SEXUAL TRANSMITTED DISEASES (STD’s): The diseases can be transmitted

from person to person due to a sexual act are called sexually transmitted
diseases. These can be bacterial infections- gonorrhoea and syphilis viral
infections - warts and HIV-AIDS. Here the best policy is ‘Prevention is better than
cure’:
• Avoid unprotected sex
• Avoid sexual contacts with multiple partners
• Consult a qualified doctor for diagnosis and treatment.
 54

❖ Birth Control methods: To control size of the growing population and prevent
unwanted pregnancies, birth control methods are used. Prevention of pregnancy
in women is called contraception.
• Birth control methods can be broadly categorised as:
✓ Barrier methods- In this method, physical devices such as condoms (for males)
and diaphragm (for females) are used. These prevent meeting of sperm and egg
by acting as a mechanical barrier and also protecting sexually transmitted
diseases.
✓ Chemical methods- oral pills contain chemicals which stop the ovaries from
releasing egg. These pills lead to side effects due to hormonal imbalance.
✓ Intra-uterine contraceptive methods (IUCD)- Copper-T used to prevent
pregnancy, is inserted inside the uterus preventing the implantation of fertilized
egg in uterus. They can cause side effects due to irritation of the uterus.
✓ Surgical methods- In this method a surgery operated of certain parts of the
reproductive system is the surgical method of birth control. It can be performed on
both males and females. They are as follows:
a) Vasectomy: A small portion of the vas deferens is cleaved, and the ends are tied
in the males during vasectomy. It prevents the flow of sperm from the testis to the
semen.
b) Tubectomy: A small part of the female fallopian tube is removed, and ends are
tied with a nylon thread during tubectomy. It prevents the transport of the egg
(released from the ovary) into the uterus.

❖ REFERENCES
• https://ncert.nic.in/textbook.php?jesc1=7-13
• https://docs.google.com/document/d/1x4PG4fqTinTBhaxdLsgk2D-9utxTUns6/edit
• https://crispindia.net/assets/files/study/Class%2010_Bio_Structured%20LP%20Bo
ok.pdf
• https://cbseacademic.nic.in/web_material/CurriculumMain25/Sec/Science_Sec_20
24-25.pdf
• https://docs.google.com/document/d/1FfOsSYgkRKVb34iFt244PCQXY6V1N1Zx/
edit#heading=h.gjdgxs
 60

CHAPTER - 9
LIGHT - REFLECTION AND REFRACTION

CONTENTS (reference: CBSE SYLLABUS – 2024)

❖ Reflection of light by curved surfaces; Images formed by spherical mirrors, centre
of curvature, principal axis, principal focus, focal length, mirror formula (Derivation
not required), magnification.
❖ Refraction; Laws of refraction, refractive index.
❖ Refraction of light by spherical lens; Image formed by spherical lenses; Lens
formula (Derivation not required); Magnification. Power of a lens.

❖ LIGHT: The form of energy which gives vision through our eyes. This has
phenomenon like – Reflection and Refraction.
❖ Reflection of Light: The phenomenon of bouncing back of light into the same
medium by the smooth surface is called reflection. Highly polished (smooth)
surfaces such as a mirror reflect most of the light falling on it.
• Incident light: Light which falls on the surface is called incident light.
• Reflected light: Light which goes back after reflection is called reflected light.
• The angle of incidence: The angle between the incident ray and the normal.
• An angle of reflection: The angle between the reflected ray and the normal.

❖ Laws of reflection: There are two laws of reflection:

a) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence, all lie
in the same plane.
b) Angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of reflection i.e. ∠i = ∠r
❖ Image: If light rays coming from a point and after reflection or refraction meet at
another point or seems to meet at another point, then second point is called
image of the first point. There are two types of image, i.e.-
a) Real image: When the rays of light, after reflection from a mirror, actually meet at
a point, the image formed by these rays is said to be real. Real images can be
obtained on a screen.
b) Virtual image: When the rays of light, after reflection from a mirror, appear to
meet at a point, then the image formed by these rays is said to be virtual. Virtual
images can’t be obtained on a screen.
❖ Mirror: The shiny/polished surface which can reflect the light is a mirror. Mirror is
of two types:
1. Plane Mirror: If the reflecting surface is a plane then the mirror is plane.
2. Spherical Mirror: If the reflecting surface is part of the hollow sphere then the
 61

mirror is a spherical mirror.

The spherical mirror is of two types:
a. Convex mirror: In this mirror reflecting surface is curved outwards (convex). It
diverges the light so it is also called a diverging mirror.
b. Concave mirror: In this mirror reflecting surface is curved inwards (concave). It
converges the light so it is also called converging mirror.
❖ Pole (Vertex): The central point of a mirror is called its pole.
❖ Centre of curvature: The centre of the sphere of which the mirror is a part is
called the centre of curvature. It is denoted by C.

❖ Radius of curvature: The radius of the sphere of which the mirror is a part is
called the radius of curvature. It is denoted by R.
❖ Principal axis: The straight line passing through the pole and the centre of
curvature is called the principal axis.
❖ Principal focus: It is a point on the principal axis at which the rays parallel to the
principal axis meet after reflection or seem to come from it. For a concave mirror,
the focus lies in front of the mirror and for a convex mirror, it lies behind the mirror.
In short, a concave mirror has a real focus while a convex mirror has a virtual
focus.
❖ Focal plane: A plane, drawn perpendicular to the principal axis and passing
through the principal focus.
❖ Focal length: The distance between the pole and the focus is called the focal
length. It is represented by f. The focal length is half the radius of curvature. f=R/2
❖ Reflection by Spherical mirror: A ray of light which is parallel to the principal
axis of a spherical mirror, after reflection converges or diverges from focus.
 62

❖ RULE OF REFLECTION IN CURVED MIRROR

• A ray of light which is parallel to the principal axis of a spherical mirror, after
reflection converges or diverges from focus.

• A ray of light passing through or appearing from the center of curvature of

spherical mirror is reflected back along the same path.

• A ray of light passing through or appearing from the focus of spherical mirror
becomes parallel to the principal axis.

• A ray of light which is incident at the pole of a spherical mirror is reflected back
making same angle with principal axis.

❖ IMAGE FORMATION OF CONCAVE MIRROR

 63

❖ IMAGE FORMATION OF CONCAVE MIRROR

❖ SIGN CONVENTIONS OF SPHERICAL MIRROR

All the distances are measured from the pole of the mirror as the origin.
• Distances measured in the direction of incident rays are taken as positive.
• Distances measured opposite to the direction of incident rays are taken as
negative.
 64

• Distances measured upward and perpendicular to the principal axis are taken as
positive.
• Distances measured downward and perpendicular to the principal axis are taken
as negative.
❖ IMAGE FORMATION OF CONVEX MIRROR

POSITION OF POSITION OF IMAGE SIZE OF IMAGE NATURE OF

OBJECT IMAGE

At Infinity At the focus F, behind Highly diminished Virtual and Erect

the mirror

Between Infinity and Between P and F, Diminished Virtual and Erect

the Pole behind the mirror

USES OF CONCAVE MIRROR USES OF CONVEX MIRROR

• Shaving mirrors • Rear-view mirrors of all the vehicles.

• Head light of vehicles • Security purposes in school, hotel, and
hospital galleries.
• Ophthalmoscope
• In ATM to view the behind person
• Astronomical telescopes
• Telescopes
• Headlights
• Sunglasses
• Solar furnaces
• Street light

❖ Magnification by Mirrors
• Increase/decrease in the image size produced by spherical mirrors with respect to
the object size is known as magnification.
• It is the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object.
• It is denoted as m.
 65

❖ Refraction through a Rectangular Glass Slab

Light emerges from the glass slab in direction parallel with that in which it enters the
glass slab. Perpendicular distance between incident ray and emergent ray coming
out of glass slab is called lateral displacement.

❖ REFRACTIVE INDEX
Absolute refractive index is the ratio of speed of light in vacuum or air to speed of
light in the medium. (n = c/v)
• Relative refractive index
✓ n21 = Speed of light in medium-1 / Speed of light in medium-2
(Refractive index of medium-2 wrt medium 1 is known as refractive index of medium
✓ n12 = Speed of light in medium 2 / Speed of light in medium 1
(Refractive index of medium 1 wrt medium 2 is known as refractive index of medium 1)

• When light goes from rarer medium to denser medium than refracted ray bend
toward normal.
• When light goes from denser medium to rarer medium than refracted ray bend
away from the normal.
 66

• Refractive index depends on nature of material of medium, density of medium,

colour or wavelength of light.

❖ REFRACTION BY SPHERICAL LENSES

i. Convex lens: Lens which converge the light after the refraction is known as
converging lens.
ii. Concave lens: Lens which diverge the light after refraction is known as diverging
lens.

❖ IMAGE FORMATION OF CONVEX LENS

 67

❖ IMAGE FORMATION OF CONCAVE LENS

❖ SIGN OF DATA WITH LENS

 68

USES OF CONCAVE LENS USES OF CONVEX LENS

• Concave lens used in peepholes/spy • Used in making microscope

holes. • These are used on spectacles to
• These are also used in flashlights. correct the vision.
• They are also used in terrestrial • These are used in the camera to focus
telescopes, binoculars. on a single object.
• These are used on spectacles to • Convex lenses are used widely in the
correct the vision. camera, focusing on an image and
magnifying it.
• These are used as a magnifying glass.
• Convex lenses are used widely in the
overhead projectors.

❖ Magnification by Lens
• Increase in the image size produced by spherical lens with respect to the
object size is known as magnification.
• It is the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object.
• It is denoted as m.

• POWER OF LENS: - The ability of lens to converse or diverge light rays is

called power of lens. It depends on focal length of lens.
P = 1/f, the SI unit of power of lens is dioptre (D).
 70

Chapter- 10
HUMAN EYE AND COLOURFUL WORLD

CONTENTS (reference: CBSE SYLLABUS – 2024)

❖ Functioning of a lens in human eye, defects of vision and their corrections,
applications of spherical mirrors and lenses.
❖ Refraction of light through a prism, dispersion of light, scattering of light,
applications in daily life. (Excluding color of the sun at sunrise and sunset).

The Human Eye: It is a natural optical organ which is used to see the objects by
human. It is like a camera which has a lens and screen system.

NAME DETAILS RESULT

Retina It is a light sensitive screen Captures the light rays focused by

inside the eye on which an the lens and send electric signals to
image is formed. It contains the brain.
rods and cones.

Cornea It is a thin membrane which It acts like a lens which refracts the
covers the eye trail. light entering the eye.

Aqueous It is fluid which fills the space Medium for light travel from cornea
between cornea and eye lens to retina
humour

Eye lens It is a convex lens made of It’s can be adjusted with the help of
transparent and flexible jelly ciliary muscles to focus light on
like material. retina

Pupil It is a hole in the middle of iris Opens and closes in order to

through which light enters the regulate and control the amount of
eye. It appears black because light.
light falling on it goes into the
eye and does not come back.

Ciliary These are the muscles which Modify the shape of eye lens which
muscles are attached to eye lens. leads to the variation in focal length

Iris Covered part of pupil Controls light level similar to the

aperture of a camera

Optical nerve Nerves between Retina black Transmit the image to the brain in
spot and Brain the form of electrical signals
 71

❖ The pupil of an eye provides a variable aperture, whose size is controlled by iris.
(a) When the light is bright: Iris contracts the pupil, so that less light enters the eye.
(b) When the light is dim: Iris expands the pupil, so that more light enters the eye.
Pupil opens completely when iris is relaxed.
❖ Color Blindness: A person having defective cone cells is not able to distinguish
between the different colors (red and green spectrum). This defect is known as
Color Blindness.
Defects of Vision:
❖ Myopia (Short-sightedness): It is a kind of defect in the human eye due to which
a person can see nearby objects clearly but he cannot see the distant objects
clearly.
Causes of Myopia
(i) Excessive curvature of the eye lens.
(ii) Elongation of eyeball.
❖ Hypermetropia (Long-sightedness): It is a kind of defect in the human eye due
to which, a person can see distant objects properly but cannot see the nearby
objects clearly.
Causes of Hypermetropia
(i) Decrease in the power of eye lens i.e., increase in focal length of eye lens.
(ii) Shortening of eyeball.
❖ Presbyopia: It is a kind of defect in human eye which occurs due to ageing.
Causes of Presbyopia
(i) Decrease in flexibility of eye lens. Gradual weakening of ciliary muscles.
(ii) In this, a person may suffer from both myopia and hypermetropia.
❖ Astigmatism: It is a kind of defect in human eye due to which a person cannot
see (focus) simultaneously horizontal and vertical lines both.
❖ Cataract: Due to the membrane growth over eye lens, the eye lens becomes
 72

hazy or even opaque. This leads to a decrease or loss of vision. This problem is
called a cataract. It can be corrected only by surgery.

Prism: A prism is a transparent refracting medium bounded by two plane surfaces,

inclined to each other at a certain angle. It has one triangular base and three
rectangular lateral surfaces.
• Refraction of light through a prism: When a ray of light is incident on a
rectangular glass slab, after refracting through the slab, it gets displaced laterally.
As a result, the emergent ray comes out parallel to the incident ray. Unlike a
rectangular slab, the side of a glass prism is inclined at an angle called the angle
of prism.
• Angle of Prism: Angle between two lateral faces is called angle of prism.
• Angle of Deviation: The angle between the incident ray and emergent ray.

Dispersion of white light by a glass prism: The phenomenon of splitting of white

light into its seven constituent colors when it passes through a glass prism is
called dispersion of white light. The spectrum sequence VIBGYOR. The different
component colors of light bends at a different angle with respect to the incident
angle. The violet light wavelength is minimum, frequency is maximum so bends
the least while the red wavelength is maximum and frequency is minimum so
bends the most.
 73

❖ Monochromatic light: Light consisting of single color or wavelength is called

monochromatic light, example; sodium light.
❖ Polychromatic light: Light consisting of more than two colors or wavelengths is
called polychromatic light, example; white light.
Recombination of white light: Newton found that when an inverted prism is placed
in the path of dispersed light then after passing through the prism, they recombine
to form white light.

❖ Rainbow: It is the spectrum of sunlight in nature due to complete internal

reflection. The water droplets act like small prism. They refract and disperse the
incident sunlight, then reflect it internally, and finally refract it again when it comes
out of the raindrop. Due to the dispersion of light and internal reflection, different
colors reach the observer ‘s eye.
✓ The formation of rainbow involves a series of physical phenomena refraction,
dispersion and internal reflection.
✓ Rainbow is always formed in a direction opposite to that of the sun, i.e. sun is
always behind the observer.
✓ Red color appears on top and violet at the bottom of rainbow.
Atmospheric Refraction: The refraction of light caused by the Earth‘s atmosphere
(having air layers of varying optical densities) is called Atmospheric Refraction.
 74

Appearance of Star Position:

Reason: Atmospheric refraction of star light.
The temperature and density of different layer of atmosphere creates different
medium. Starlight enters the Earth‘s atmosphere, it undergoes refraction
continuously, due to changing refractive index i.e., from Rarer to denser. It bends
towards the normal. Due to this, the apparent position of the star is different from
actual position. The star appears higher than its actual position.

Twinkling of Star:
Reason: Atmospheric refraction.
Physical condition of earth‘s atmosphere is not stationary so the beam of starlight
keeps deviating from its path, the apparent position of star keeps on changing.
The amount of light enters our eyes fluctuate sometimes bright and sometime dim
results into twinkling effect of stars.

❖ Scattering of light: According to Rayleigh’s Law of Scattering, the amount of

scattered light 1/λ4 (λ = wavelength). Scattering of light decreases with increase in
wavelength.
❖ Blue color of the sky: The sunlight that reaches the earth atmosphere is
scattered in all directions by the gases and dust particles. Sky appears blue; this
is because the size of the particles in the atmosphere is smaller than the
wavelength of visible light, so they scatter the light of shorter wavelength (blue
end of spectrum). The blue colour is scattered more and hence the sky appears
blue.
❖ Red Danger Signal: The danger signal or sign is made of red colour because red
colour scatters the most when strikes the small particle of fog and smoke because
it has the maximum wavelength (visible spectrum). Hence, from large distance
also, we can see the red colour clearly.
 75

❖ At noon sun appears white: At noon, the sun is overhead and sunlight would
travel shorter distance relatively through the atmosphere. Hence, at noon, the sun
appears white as only little of the blue and violet colours are scattered.
76
 77
Chapter-11
ELECTRICITY
CONTENTS (reference: CBSE SYLLABUS – 2024)
❖ Electric current, potential difference and electric current. Ohm’s law; Resistance,
Resistivity,
❖ Factors on which the resistance of a conductor depends. Series combination of
resistors, parallel combination of resistors and its applications in daily life.
❖ Heating effect of electric current and its applications in daily life. Electric power,
Interrelation between P, V, I and R.

❖ Important Definitions-
• Electric Current: The rate of flow of charge is called electric current.

• Potential: The work done require to bring a unit positive charge from infinity to a
particular point is called potential of that point
• Potential Difference: The work done require to bring a unit positive charge from
one point to another is called potential between those points.
• Battery: The device which offer potential difference.
• Resistance: The hindrance or obstacle offered by a conductor in the path of
electric current is called resistance.
• Resistor: It is a device that provides resistance in a circuit is resistor.
• Resistivity: The ability of material to offer resistance (resist the path of electric
current) is called resistivity.
• Electric power: The rate of doing work or consuming electrical energy is called
electric power.
• Voltmeter: The device that is used to measure potential difference between two
points.
• Ammeters: the device used to measure electric current in a circuit.
• Circuit: The path taken by electric current. It is always a closed loop
• Circuit diagram: The symbolic representation of a circuit.
• Heating effect of electric current: When electric current is supplied to a purely
resistive conductor, the energy of electric current is dissipated entirely in the form
of heat and as a result, resistor gets heated. The heating of resistor because of
dissipation of electrical energy is commonly known as Heating Effect of Electric
Current.
• Galvanometer: It is a device to detect current in an electric circuit.
• Conductors and Insulators: A substance which offers comparatively less
opposition to the flow of current is known as conductors. Substances which offer
larger opposition to the flow of electric current are insulators.
❖ Electric Potential and Potential Difference: The electric potential at a point is
defined as work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to that point.
The potential difference between two points is defined as the difference in electric
potentials between the two given points. It is denoted by the symbol ‘V’.
 78
• Equation: V=W/Q
• SI Unit of charge is Volt(V)
o 1 Volt is the potential difference between two points when 1 Joule of work done is
required to move a charge of one coulomb across them.
o A Voltmeter is used to measure potential difference.
❖ Conductors and Insulators
• A cell is a source of potential difference, which is created inside it due to internal
chemical reactions.
• A combination of cells is called a battery.
❖ Electric Current
• The rate of flow of electric charge is called electric current,
• Electric current is denoted by ’I’
• I=Q/t
• The direction of flow of electric current is from positive terminal to negative
terminal, i.e., opposite to the direction of flow of electrons.
• SI Unit of electric current is Ampere(A).
• 1 Ampere is the current constituted by the flow of 1C charge in 1s.
• An Ammeter is used to measure electric current.
❖ Electric circuit and circuit diagram
• A closed-loop path which a current take is called an electric circuit.
• Representation of an electric circuit through symbols is called a circuit diagram.

Ohm’s law: If the physical condition remains same, the current flowing through a
conductor is directly proportional to the applied potential difference between the
two ends of the conductor and vice a versa. For the current I flowing through a
conductor having potential difference V across its ends, we have:

o V∝I
o V = IR
• Here R is the constant of proportionality and known as the resistance of the
conductor.
• Value of resistance does not change on changing electric current or potential
difference.
❖ Resistance: Resistance is a measure of the opposition offered to the current flow
in an electric circuit. SI unit of resistance is ohm (Ω)
 79
❖ Factors affecting Resistance
• Resistance is: directly proportional to the length of the conductor.
R∝l
• Inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of the conductor.
R ∝ 1/A
• Combining the two we have
R ∝ l/A
R = ρ l/A
Here ρ is the constant of proportionality and known as resistivity.

❖ Resistivity-The electrical resistance offered by a substance of unit length and unit

cross-sectional area is called resistivity.
• SI Unit of resistivity is ohm meter (Ωm)
• Factors affects resistivity: Resistivity depends on
o Temperature
o Material of the conductor

❖ Combination of Resistors-
• Resistors in series: Two resistors are said to be combined in series if they
carry the same current. In this circuit the following applies.
o I1 = I 2 = I 3 = I
o Vs = V1 + V2 + V3
o Using ohm’s law V=IR
o IRs=IR1+IR2+IR3
o IRs=I (R1+R2+R3)
o So, Rs = R1 + R2 + R3

So, the resultant resistance of the combination of the resistors in the series is the
sum of all resistance.
• Resistors in parallel: Two resistors are said to be combined in parallel if the
same potential difference is applied to them. In this circuit,
o I =I1+I2+I3
o Using OHM’s law V=IR => I=V/R
o V/Rp=V/R1+V/R2+V/R3
o V/Rp=V(1/R1+1/R2+1/R3)
o 1/Rp=1/R1+1/R2+1/R3
 80

❖ Heating Effect of Electric Current: When current passes through a conductor, it

produces heat. This phenomenon is called heating effect of electric current. The
amount of heat produced can be given by Joules law. By definition
o Power P = work done W/time t
o P=W/t
o P=H/t (work done = energy and heat is a form of energy)
o H=PX t
o H=VIt (P=W/t = VQ/t =VI)
o H=I2Rt (V=IR)
❖ Joule’s Law:
o Heat (H) ∝ square of the current (I).
o H ∝ Resistance of the given circuit.
o H ∝ Time (t) for which current flows through the conductor.
o So, H=I2Rt
When a potential difference is established, it causes electrons to move, i.e., flow
of current.
❖ Electric Power: The rate of doing work or rate of consumption of electrical energy
is called Electric Power.
If W is work done in time t, then P=W/t.
o P= VQ/t (V=W/Q => W=VQ)
o P =VI (Q/t= I)
o P= I2R (V=IR)
o P= V2/R (I=V/R)
o S.I unit of power is Watt (W).
One watt of power is consumed when 1 A of current flows at a potential difference
of 1 V.
❖ Electrical Energy
o SI unit of energy is Joule(J)
o The commercial unit of electrical energy is a kilowatt-hour (kWh).
o 1kWh = 3,600,000J = 3.6×106 J
• One kilowatt-hour is defined as the amount of energy consumed when 1kW of
power is used for 1 hour.
81
 82

CHAPTER – 12
MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
CONTENT (reference: CBSE SYLLABUS – 2024)
❖ Magnetic effects of current: Magnetic field, field lines
❖ field due to a current carrying conductor,
❖ field due to current carrying coil or solenoid;
❖ Force on current carrying conductor, Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule,
❖ Direct current. Alternating current: frequency of AC.
❖ Advantage of AC over DC. Domestic electric circuits.

❖ Magnet: Magnet is an object that attracts objects made of iron, cobalt and nickel.
Magnet comes to rest in – South direction, when suspended freely.
❖ Properties of Magnet
a. A free suspended magnet always points towards the north and south direction.
b. The pole of a magnet which points toward north direction is called north pole or
north-seeking.
c. The pole of a magnet which points toward south direction is called south pole or
south seeking.
d. Like poles of magnets repel each other while unlike poles of magnets attract each
other.
❖ Use of Magnets:
a. In refrigerators.
b. In radio and stereo speakers.
c. In audio and video cassette players.
d. In children‘s toys.
❖ Magnetic field: The area around a magnet where a magnetic force is
experienced is called the magnetic field. It is a quantity that has both direction and
magnitude, (i.e., Vector quantity).
❖ Magnetic field and field lines: The influence of force surrounding a magnet is
called magnetic field. In the magnetic field, the force exerted by a magnet can be
detected using a compass or any other magnet.
 83

❖ Direction of field line:

• Outside the magnet, the direction of magnetic field line is taken from North Pole to
South Pole.
• Inside the magnet, the direction of magnetic field line is taken from South Pole to
North Pole.

❖ Strength of magnetic field: The closeness of field lines shows the relative
strength of magnetic field, i.e. closer lines show stronger magnetic field and vice –
versa. Crowded field lines near the poles of magnet show more strength.

❖ Magnetic field lines due to current a current carrying straight conductor

• A current carrying straight conductor has magnetic field in the form of concentric
circles, around it. Magnetic field of current carrying straight conductor can be
shown by magnetic field lines.

• The direction of magnetic field through a current carrying conductor depends upon
the direction of flow electric current.
Note: Let a current carrying conductor be suspended vertically and the electric
current is flowing from south to north. In this case, the direction of magnetic field
will be anticlockwise. If the current is flowing from north to south, the direction of
magnetic field will be clockwise.
• The direction of magnetic field - In relation to direction of electric current
through a straight conductor can be depicted by using the Right-Hand Thumb
Rule. It is also known as Maxwell ‘s Corkscrew Rule.
• Maxwell’s Corkscrew rule: As per Maxwell ‘s Corkscrew Rule, if the direction of
forward movement of screw shows the direction of the current, then the direction
of rotation of screw shows the direction of magnetic field.

• Right-Hand Thumb Rule: If a current carrying conductor is held by right hand,

keeping the thumb straight and if the direction of electric current is in the direction
of thumb, then the direction of wrapping of other fingers will show the direction of
magnetic field.
 84

❖ Properties of magnetic field

• The magnitude of magnetic field increases with increase in electric current and
decreases with decrease in electric current.
• The magnitude of magnetic field produced by electric current decreases with
increase in distance and vice – versa. The size of concentric circles of magnetic
field lines increases with distance from the conductor, which shows that magnetic
field decreases with distance.
• Magnetic field lines are always parallel to each other inside the magnet.
• No two field lines cross each other.

❖ Magnetic field in circular current carrying conductor: The magnetic field is

produced in the same manner as it is in case of a straight current carrying
conductor.
• In case of a circular current carrying conductor, the magnetic field lines would be
in the form of iron concentric circles around every part of the periphery of the
conductor. Since, magnetic field lines tend to remain closer when near to the
conductor, so the magnetic field would be stronger near the periphery of the loop.
On the other hand, the magnetic field lines would be distant from each other when
we move towards the center of the current carrying loop. Finally, at the center, the
arcs of big circles would appear as a straight line.
 85

• The direction of the magnetic field in loop conductor

o Right Hand Thumb‘s Rule. Let us assume that the current is moving in anti-
clockwise direction in the loop. In that case, the magnetic field would be in
clockwise direction, at the top of the loop. Moreover, it would be in an anti-
clockwise direction at the bottom of the loop.
o Clock Face Rule: A current carrying loop works like a disc magnet. The polarity
of this magnet can be easily understood with the help of Clock Face Rule. If the
current is flowing in anti – clockwise direction, then the face of the loop shows
North Pole. On the other hand, if the current is flowing in clockwise direction, then
the face of the loop shows South Pole.
• Magnetic field and number of turns of coil: Magnitude of magnetic field gets
summed up with increase in the number of turns of coil. If there are ‘n‘turns of coil,
magnitude of magnetic field will be ‘n‘ times of magnetic field in case of a single
turn of coil. The strength of the magnetic field at the center of the loop(coil)
depends on -
o The radius of the coil: The strength of the magnetic field is inversely proportional
to the radius of the coil. If the radius increases, the magnetic strength at the
center decreases
o The number of turns in the coil: As the number of turns in the coil increase, the
magnetic strength at the centre increases, because the current in each circular
turn is having the same direction, thus, the field due to each turn adds up.
o The magnetic field produced by current carrying coil is directly proportional to the
magnitude of the current passing through it.

❖ Magnetic field due to a current in a Solenoid:

o Solenoid is the coil with many circular turns of insulated copper wire wrapped
closely in the shape of a cylinder.
o A current carrying solenoid produces similar pattern of magnetic field as a bar
magnet. One end of solenoid behaves as the North Pole and another end
behaves as the South Pole.
o Magnetic field lines are parallel inside the solenoid, similar to a bar magnet,
which shows that magnetic field is same at all points inside the solenoid.
o The strength of magnetic field is proportional to the number of turns and
magnitude of current.
o By producing a strong magnetic field inside the solenoid, magnetic materials can
be magnetized. Magnet formed by producing magnetic field inside a solenoid is
called electromagnet.

❖ Electromagnet: An electromagnet consists of a long coil of insulated copper wire

wrapped on a soft iron.
 86

❖ Force on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field: A current carrying

conductor exerts a force when a magnet is placed in its vicinity. Similarly, a
magnet also exerts equal and opposite force on the current carrying conductor.
This was suggested by Marie Ampere, a French Physicist and considered as
founder of science of electromagnetism.
• The direction of force over the conductor gets reversed with the change in
direction of flow of electric current. It is observed that the magnitude of force is
highest when the direction of current is at right angles to the magnetic field.

• Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule: If the left hand is stretched in a way that the index
finger, the middle finger and the thumb are in mutually perpendicular directions,
then the index finger and middle finger of a stretched left hand show the direction
of magnetic field and direction of electric current respectively and the thumb
shows the direction of motion or force acting on the conductor.
• Many devices, such as electric motor, electric generator, loudspeaker, etc. work
on Fleming‘s Left Hand Rule.

❖ A.C. & D.C. CURRENT

• A.C. Current – Alternate Current: Current in which direction is changed
periodically is called Alternate Current. In India, most of the power stations
generate alternate current. The direction of current changes after every 1/100
second in India, i.e., the frequency of A.C in India is 50 Hz.
• D.C. – Direct Current: Current that flows in one direction only is called Direct
current. Electrochemical cells produce direct current.

• Advantages of A.C. over D.C.

o A.C is transmitted up to a long distance without much loss of energy is advantage
of A.C. over D.C.
o Cost of generator of A.C is much less than that of D.C.
o A.C can be easily converted to D.C.
o A.C can be controlled by the use of choke which involves less loss of power
whereas; D.C can be controlled using resistances which involves high energy
loss.
o AC machines are stout and durable and do not need much maintenance.
• Disadvantages of AC
o AC cannot be used for the electrolysis process or showing electromagnetism as it
reverses its polarity.
o AC is more dangerous than DC.
 87

❖ Domestic Electric Circuits: We receive electric supply through mains supported

through the poles or cables. In our houses, we receive AC electric power of 220 V
with a frequency of 50 Hz. (The AC changes direction after every 1/100 second).
❖ The 3 wires in domestic circuits are as follows
o Live wire – (Red insulated, Positive)
o Neutral wire – (Black insulated, Negative)
o Earth wire – (Green insulated) for safety measure to ensure that any leakage of
current to a metallic body does not give any serious shock to a user.

• The potential difference (or voltage) which is supplied in India is 220V.

• The electric current in house is first passed through a circuit called a fuse (High
resistant and low melting point metal/ore conductor wire). If any high voltage,
overloading, voltage fluctuation or short circuit occurs, the fuse wire melts thereby
restricting the current supply and preventing the high voltage from reaching the
electric appliances.
• These wires are passed to different electric appliances of the house through the
meter board.
• Generally, 2 types of electric circuits are used for household use:
o 15A: Appliances that have higher power ratings. i.e. Geysers, ACs, Refrigerators.
o 5A: Appliances that have lower power ratings. i.e. Television, Fans, Bulbs.

❖ Short Circuit: Short-circuiting is caused by the touching of live wires and neutral
wire and sudden a large current flow. It happens due to
o Damage of insulation in power lines.
o A fault in an electrical appliance.
o Overloading of an Electric Circuit: The overheating of electrical wire in any circuit
due to the flow of a large current through it is called overloading of the electrical
circuit.
o A sudden large number of current flows through the wire, which causes
overheating of wire and may cause fire also.

❖ Electric Fuse: It is a protective device used for protecting the circuit from short-
circuiting and overloading. It is a piece of thin wire of material having a low melting
point and high resistance.
o Fuse is always connected to live wire.
o Fuse is always connected in series to the electric circuit.
o Fuse is always connected to the beginning of an electric circuit.
o Fuse works on the heating effect.
88
 89

CHAPTER 13
OUR ENVIRONMENT
CONTENTS (reference: CBSE SYLLABUS – 2024)
❖ Eco-system
❖ Environmental problems
• Ozone depletion
• Waste production and their solutions
• Biodegradable and non-biodegradable substances

❖ ENVIRONMENT- All the living and nonliving components present in the

surroundings of the organism forms an environment. The organism interacts with
all environment components direct or indirect.
❖ ECOSYSTEM- It is a dynamic functional unit where the biotic and abiotic
components are continuously interacting with each other in a given area.
• Biotic components- All the living things include Virus, Bacteria, Fungi, Algae,
Plants and Animals.
• Abiotic components – All the non-living things include soil, air, water, sunlight,
rain, temperature, humidity.

ECOSYSTEM

NATURAL ARTIFICIAL

TERESTRIAL AQUATIC TERESTRIAL

* Forest * Pond * Crop Field AQUATIC
* Mountain * Lake * Garden * Aquarium
* Desert * River * Orchard
* Grassland * Ocean

❖ BIOTIC COMPONENTS
• Producer: They are also known as autotrophic. They are always the initiative of
any food chain and perform as an energy source. They may perform
photosynthesis or chemosynthesis. Example- pants blue green algae and sulphur
bacteria.
• Consumer: They are also known as heterotrophic. They consume the food either
directly from the producer or indirectly by feeding on other consumers.
 90

• Types of consumers –
✓ Herbivores
✓ Carnivores
✓ Omnivores
• Decomposers: feed on dead and decomposed products. e.g. fungi, bacteria.
They break down the complex organic substance into simple inorganic
substances, clean the environment and thus help in recycling the materials in the
biosphere.
❖ ENERGY FLOW IN AN ECOSYSTEM
• Based on the law of conservation of energy, energy transfers as food from one
trophic level to another in one direction.
• The flow of energy can be represented as food chain, food web, pyramids etc.
• A food chain follows 10% law for the transfer of energy from one trophic level to
the next.
❖ FOOD CHAIN: The energy based interlinks sequence of living organisms where
one organism depends on another organism for food.
• Grass → Goat → Tiger
• Grass → Insects → Frog → Snake → Eagle
• Planktons → Insects → Fish → Crane
❖ 10% LAW FOR TRANSFER OF ENERGY IN A FOOD CHAIN: Only 10 % of
energy is transferred from one trophic level to another. Rest of energy is lost as
heat, into doing work, in digestion, growth, reproduction.
Note:
• The green plants capture 1% of solar energy that falls on their leaves and convert
it into food energy.
• Since the loss of energy at each step is so great that very little usable energy
remains after four trophic levels. So generally, food chains consist of only three or
four steps.
❖ TROPHIC LEVELS: The steps/ links /levels in a food chain/ food web at which the
transfer of food as energy takes place.
❖ ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID: It is a graphical representation of the food chain.
❖ FOOD WEB
• It is interconnected food chains in an ecosystem.
• It forms a network of relationships between various species.
 91

• In a food web, one organism may occupy a position in more than one food chain.
More stable food chain / food web means a more stable ecosystem.

(Image Source- https://www.doubtnut.com/qna/642804036)

❖ BIOMAGNIFICATION: It is also known as bio amplification or biological

magnification. It is the increase in concentration of a toxic substance (like
pesticide, harmful chemicals) in the body of organisms in a food chain.
❖ OZONE LAYER
• Ozone (O3) is a molecule formed by three atoms of oxygen and is a deadly
poisonous gas.
• At higher layers of atmosphere O3 shields the surface of the earth from ultraviolet
(UV) radiation from the Sun. UV radiation is highly damaging to organisms. It may
even cause skin cancer in human beings.
• Ozone at the higher levels of the atmosphere is a product of UV radiation acting
on oxygen (O2) molecules. The higher energy UV radiations split apart some
molecular oxygen (O2) into free oxygen (O) atoms. These atoms then combine
with the molecular oxygen to form ozone.

(Source-https://ncert.nic.in/textbook.php?jesc1=13-13)

❖ OZONE LAYER DEPLETION: Ozone layer depletion is directly meant to the

decreasing amount of this protective layer in the atmosphere. This phenomenon
came in the 1980s. This decrease has been linked to synthetic chemicals like
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which are used as refrigerants and in fire
extinguishers.
• In 1987, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) succeeded in
forging an agreement to freeze CFC production at 1986 levels.
 92

TYPES OF WASTE AROUND US

BIODEGRADABLE WASTES NON-BIODEGRADABLE WASTE

• Decomposers can decompose • Decomposers cannot decompose

these types of wastes by natural these types of wastes by natural
biological processes. biological processes.
• Ecosystem is not harmed by these • Ecosystem is harmed by these
wastes. wastes and creates pollution of the
environment.
• Examples are Food waste, plants
and animals and their wastes, • Examples are Chemical pesticides,
sewage, plant and animal products. DDT, mercury, lead, plastics,
polythene bags etc.

❖ MANAGEMENT OF GARBAGE THAT WE PRODUCE

• We have to use alternative substances creating only biodegradable wastes.
• We can encourage proper disposal of wastes.
• Follow Sewage treatment norms
• 5 R ‘principle to be encourage and made aware in the society-
✓ REFUSE
✓ REDUCE
✓ REUSE
✓ REPURPOSE
✓ RECYCLE.
❖ REFERENCES
• https://ncert.nic.in/textbook.php?jesc1=13-13
• https://docs.google.com/document/d/1x4PG4fqTinTBhaxdLsgk2D-9utxTUns6/edit
• https://crispindia.net/assets/files/study/Class%2010_Bio_Structured%20LP%20Bo
ok.pdf
• https://cbseacademic.nic.in/web_material/CurriculumMain25/Sec/Science_Sec_20
24-25.pdf

Branch -1 Nehru Chowk , Chapra

R.S.TUTORIAL Branch -2 Harimohan Gali , Salempur , Chapra
Contact - 8757483480 , 7091858048