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Current Interruption
Transients Calculation
Current Interruption Transients Calculation

Second Edition

David F. Peelo
Consultant, former Specialist Engineer at BC Hydro,
Vancouver, Canada
This edition first published 2020
© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

Edition History
John Wiley & Sons Ltd (1e, 2014)

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data applied for

HB ISBN: 9781119547211

Cover Design: Wiley

Cover Images: Courtesy of David F. Peelo; Background
© chanchai howharn/Shutterstock

Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by SPi Global, Pondicherry, India

Printed and bound by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 v

Contents

Preface to the Second Edition ix

Preface to First Edition xi

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Short-Circuit Rating Basis for High-Voltage Circuit Breakers 2
1.3 Current Interruption Terminology 4
Further Reading 7

2 RLC Circuits 9
2.1 General 9
2.2 Series RLC Circuit with Step Voltage Injection 9
2.3 Source-Free Series RLC Circuit with Precharged Capacitor 15
2.4 Source-Free Parallel RLC Circuit with Precharged Capacitor 18
2.5 Parallel RLC Circuit with Ramp Current Injection 21
2.6 Alternative Equations 27
2.7 Traveling Wave Basics 28
2.8 Summary 34
References 34
Further Reading 34

3 Pole Factor Calculation 35

3.1 General 35
3.2 Pole Factors: Effectively Earthed Systems 44
3.3 Pole Factors: Non-Effectively Earthed Systems 52
3.4 Alternative Pole Factor Calculation Method 56
3.5 Three-Phase Test Circuit Arrangement 59
3.6 Summary 60
Further Reading 61
vi Contents

4 Terminal Faults 63
4.1 General Considerations 63
4.2 Standard TRV Derivation 65
4.3 Effect of Added Capacitance 73
4.4 Effect of Added Resistance 85
4.5 Effect of Series Reactors 88
4.6 Out-of-Phase Switching 96
4.7 Asymmetrical Currents 97
4.8 Double Earth Faults 105
4.9 Summary 108
Further Reading 109

5 Short Line Faults 111

5.1 General 111
5.2 Line Side Voltage Calculation 111
5.3 Effect of Added Capacitance 119
5.4 Discussion 122
Further Reading 123

6 Inductive Load Switching 125

6.1 General 125
6.2 General Shunt Reactor Switching Case 128
6.3 Shunt Reactors with Isolated Neutrals 135
6.4 Shunt Reactors with Neutral Reactor Earthed Neutrals 139
6.5 Shunt Reactors with Earthed Neutrals 140
6.6 Reignitions 141
6.7 Unloaded Transformer Switching 142
6.8 Discussion 143
6.9 Summary 143
Further Reading 146

7 Capacitive Load Switching 147

7.1 General 147
7.2 Shunt Capacitor Banks 147
7.2.1 Energization 147
7.2.1.1 Inrush Current 148
7.2.1.2 Limiting Inrush Current 154
7.2.2 De-Energization 156
7.2.2.1 General Considerations 156
7.2.2.2 Recovery Voltages 156
7.2.2.3 Reignitions and Restrikes 157
7.2.3 Outrush 163
7.3 Transmission Lines 164
 Contents vii

7.4 Cables 167

7.5 Special Case: Interrupting Small Capacitance Currents 170
7.6 Summary 173
References 174
Further Reading 174

8 Circuit Breaker Type Testing 175

8.1 Introduction 175
8.2 Circuit Breaker Interrupting Time 175
8.3 Inherent Transient Recovery Voltages 182
8.4 Inductive Load Switching 182
8.5 Capacitive Current Switching 183
Further Reading 183

Appendix A: Differential Equations 185

Appendix B: Principle of Duality 195
Appendix C: Useful Formulae 201
Appendix D: Euler’s Formula 205
Appendix E: Asymmetrical Current-Calculating Areas Under Curves 209
Appendix F: Shunt Reactor Switching – First-Pole-to-Clear Circuit Representation 213
Appendix G: Special Case: Generator Circuit Breakers TRVs 219
Appendix H: Evolution of Transient Recovery Voltages 239
Appendix I: Equation Plotting Using Excel 261

Index 277
 ix

Preface to the Second Edition

The intent of this second edition is to improve on the first edition content by way of changes
to and rearranging the original text as well as the addition of new material. The changes
include: a common first-pole-to-clear calculation for both effectively and non-effectively
earthed systems; series reactor application is covered in much more depth; short-line fault
transient recovery voltage (TRV) derivation and capacitive current recovery voltage calcu-
lation have been expanded to provide better understanding; and the derivation and use of
a generic TRV equation for shunt reactor switching. There are two major additions: the
calculation of generator circuit breaker TRVs in Appendix G replacing the former small
capacitive current switching content which has now moved to Chapter 7; and, as requested
by many, key calculation examples on the use of Excel for plotting TRV equations in
Appendix I.
I am grateful to all those who provided comments, criticism, ideas, and suggestions, most
of which have been adopted. Once again, I am greatly indebted to Sandra Giasson for her
patient and diligent word processing of the text.

David Peelo
Vancouver, BC, Canada
June 2019
 xi

Preface to First Edition

After a fortunate and rewarding career that started at ASEA in Ludvika, Sweden and was
followed by 28 years at BC Hydro in Vancouver, Canada, I took early retirement in May
2001. Not long afterwards, I was asked by the Association of Professional Engineers and
Geoscientists of BC if I would be interested in presenting continuing professional develop-
ment (CPD) courses on circuit breaker application and this started a second career in
teaching.
The first course was four hours long and eventually grew into far more detailed courses,
some up to five days’ duration. Experience with the courses showed that the part that gen-
erated the most questions from participants related to all types of current interruption tran-
sients and I started to consider developing a course on transients alone. Around about the
same time, the engineering manager at one of my consulting clients lamented the fact that
engineers today, particularly the younger generation of engineers, are much too dependent
on software and have lost sight of theory and practical reality. He asked if a course could be
developed to provide a fundamental understanding of transients and enable estimations
using only a hand calculator and a spreadsheet program.
The approach taken (after a number of false starts) was to draw the circuit diagrams for all
possible making, breaking, reignition, and restriking cases. Comparison showed that prac-
tically all cases are covered by four basic circuits (Tables 2.1 and 2.2). Some exceptions do, of
course, occur but are variations on a common theme. Three of the circuits involve second-
order linear homogenous differential equations which, instead of individually resorting to
Laplace transformation-based solutions, have a common solution of the form:
y = Aer1 x + Ber2 x
where the roots r1 and r2 are derived from the circuit RLC components and the constants A
and B from the initial or boundary conditions. The equation, in turn, has three possible var-
iations: the roots are real, equal, or complex corresponding to overdamping, critical damp-
ing, and underdamping, respectively. Once derived, the three equations enable a generic
approach to RLC oscillatory circuit calculations (Table A.1).
The fourth case involves a second-order non-homogenous differential equation which is
more difficult to solve than the homogenous case. However, mathematicians have long
resolved the difficulty by providing look-up tables, basically making a guess at the
xii Preface to First Edition

solution, and then using the method of undetermined coefficients to solve the equation
(Appendix A).
At this stage, we now have three equations for each of the four circuits incorporating the
r1 and r2 roots. The next step is to apply the boundary (initial) conditions and the equations
for current or voltage in real time are derived. The final step is to convert the equations to a
generic format by expressing the circuit damping and time in relative terms, i.e. damping
relative to critical damping and time relative to the period of the frequency of the transient
oscillation (Tables 2.1 and 2.2). General curves can then be drawn and are easily convertible
to current or voltage in real time for any switching case.
For multi-phase faults, sequential interruption of the fault current in the individual cir-
cuit breaker poles leads to AC recovery voltages higher than rated voltage. The AC recovery
voltages are related to rated voltage − actually pre-fault voltage at the point of the fault −
by pole factors calculated using the method of symmetrical components. A number of
approaches are considered including a generic approach to first-pole-to-clear pole factor
calculation.
As the reader will learn, there is a certain symmetry to current interruption transients.
For any switching event, first taking the status before the switching operation and then
the status after the operation, the transient is the transition from “before” to “after.” On
this basis, all transients have a starting point, an aiming point or axis of oscillation and
a maximum point. Take for example, the transient recovery voltage (TRV) for a terminal
fault on an effectively earthed system: the starting point is zero, the axis of oscillation is
around the AC recovery voltage and the maximum value is dependent on the damping
and nature of the involved circuit. Understanding this overall concept enables a graphical
approach to transients’ calculation in many cases (see Figures 6.7 and 6.8).
This is not a book about circuit breaker application and readers are referred in this regard
to the references following Chapter 1. Also, it is not a book about how to use Excel for
equation-based calculations: guidance is readily available in instruction manuals and
online. Using the generic approach to transient calculation is well suited to Excel because
generic time is always in radians, a prerequisite for plotting sinusoidal and hyperbolic func-
tions. A note of caution with respect to plotting in Excel is that, in contrast to software which
permits the plotting of functions, Excel plots points. This means, for example, if no point is
calculated at a maximum value, then the maximum value will not appear in the plot.
A further note is in combining plots with different frequencies, such as the case of adding
series reactors, all plots have to be referred to common real-time coordinates before attempt-
ing addition or subtraction.
The book is intended to be inclusive. The switching cases are covered in detail in the main
text and supporting calculations and information can be found in Appendices A–G. The
evolution of TRVs and their understanding is interesting and is reviewed in Appendix H.
The first circuit breakers became commercially available around 1910 and technical papers
started to appear within a few years in AIEE publications. The notion of a TRV was first
recognized in 1927 by J.D. Hilliard of GE, who used the descriptive term “voltage kick”
for the concept. The first standards for fault current TRVs were developed in the 1950s
and evolved further into the standards of today.
I would not have been able to write this book without the support that made my career
possible. I am grateful to BC Hydro for supporting my participation in learned societies,
 Preface to First Edition xiii

principally CIGRE and the IEEE, and in the development of circuit breaker standards in
IEC; to my colleagues past and present at BC Hydro and in the IEEE Switchgear Committee,
CIGRE Study Committee A3 and IEC Technical Committee 17A; to those who have
attended the course and asked the great questions that contributed to the book content;
and, most of all, to Sandra Giasson for her patient and diligent word-processing of the text
through several drafts to the final version.
Writing the book took 10 months but really it has been 30 years in the making. Now it’s
done and I hope that you will find it to be useful and of value.

David Peelo
Vancouver, BC, Canada
August 2013
 1

Introduction

1.1 Background

The intent of this textbook is to explain the origin and nature of the transients associated with
fault and inductive and capacitive load current interruption. The transients in general have a
power frequency and an oscillatory component. The oscillatory components have a RLC circuit
basis with such a degree of commonality between the above current interruption cases that
a generic calculation approach is possible. The power frequency component is either a
balanced or momentarily unbalanced quantity and, in some cases, is the axis of oscillation
for the oscillatory component. In overview, the following transients will be analyzed and the
resulting equations applied to real current interruption cases:

• Fault current interruption: The transient of interest is the transient recovery voltage
(TRV) that appears across the circuit breaker after current interruption. For terminal
faults, i.e. a fault at the circuit breaker, the power frequency component is dependent
on the system earthing and the type of fault. The oscillatory component can be either
overdamped or underdamped with traveling waves contributing to the former oscillation.
The TRV may be on one side of the circuit breaker only, for example, a three-phase-to-
earth fault on an effectively earthed system, or on both sides of the circuit breaker as for
the out-of-phase switching and short-line fault cases.

• Inductive current interruption: The transients for consideration in this case are the TRV,
which is the difference between the source power frequency and the load circuit oscilla-
tion, and also the transients due to reignitions. The load circuit and reignition transient
oscillations are underdamped.

• Capacitive current interruption: The transients in this case are related to both current and
voltage. The transient currents to be considered are those due to inrush on switching in a
single-shunt capacitor bank or in back-to-back switching and outrush current when a
bank discharges into a fault. At current interruption, the TRV is the difference between
the source power frequency voltage and the trapped DC voltage on the capacitive load at
current interruption. The voltage transient of issue is that due to restriking.
The structure of the textbook is the following:

• Chapter 1: The short-circuit rating basis for high-voltage circuit breakers is described with
reference to the IEC circuit breaker standard IEC 62271-100 followed by a review of cur-
rent interruption terminology.
Current Interruption Transients Calculation, Second Edition. David F. Peelo.
© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
2 1 Introduction

• Chapter 2: Oscillatory RLC circuits are treated using a generic solution approach without
any recourse to the traditional Laplace transforms method. An examination of all the var-
ious circuits involved in current interruption, reignitions, or restriking and making sure
that, by treating four basic circuit configurations, almost all switching cases can be cov-
ered. Some exceptions of course occur but, as the reader will appreciate later, these are
actually variations on a common theme. A basic knowledge of traveling waves is required
later in text and an overview of basic considerations is included in this chapter.

• Chapter 3: Symmetrical component theory is applied to calculate the unbalanced power

frequency voltage values, expressed as per unit pole factors, that occur during fault and
inductive, and capacitive load current interruption.

• Chapter 4: The basis for the TRVs for terminal faults, i.e. faults located at the terminals of
the circuit breaker, is derived. This basis is then applied to the test duties required by IEC
62271–100 and further, to show the effects of added capacitance, opening resistors and
series reactors. The special cases of out-of-phase switching and double earth faults are
then treated. This is followed by the derivation of asymmetrical current requirements
and the relationship to time constants and so-called X/R values.

• Chapter 5: The short-line fault is a special case with the circuit breaker being stressed by
the difference between TRVs on the source and line sides. The derivation of the line-side
transient, which is not oscillatory in the usual sense but rather is traveling- wave based, is
described and related to standard requirements.

• Chapter 6: Inductive load current switching includes the switching out of unloaded trans-
formers and shunt reactors. The former switching case is not onerous for circuit breakers
but the same cannot be said for the latter case. The multiple variations of shunt reactor
switching configurations are treated using the generic approach.

• Chapter 7: Capacitive load current switching involves both the switching in and switch-
ing out of shunt capacitor banks and unloaded cables and lines. The derivation of inrush
and outrush currents, TRVs and restriking events are treated in detail.

• Chapter 8: Circuit breaker type testing requirements for fault current interruption and
load current switching are reviewed.

No chapter is stand-alone as such and the reader should note that Chapters 2 and 3 pro-
vide the basic theory for the calculations in Chapters 4–7.
Supporting calculations and information relating to the main text is provided in Appen-
dices A to F. Appendix G covers the special case of TRVs associated with generator circuit
breakers. A brief history of how the understanding and appreciation of TRVs evolved and
became standard is provided in Appendix H. Lastly, Appendix I demonstrates, by way of
actual equations from the text, how Excel is used for plotting transient voltages and
currents.

1.2 Short-Circuit Rating Basis for High-Voltage Circuit

Breakers

High-voltage circuit breakers are rated on the basis of clearing three-phase faults. The most
onerous case with respect to TRVs is for the first-pole-to-clear (FPTC or fptc). This is due to
the fact that, after the first circuit breaker pole clears, the system becomes unbalanced
 1.2 Short-Circuit Rating Basis for High-Voltage Circuit Breakers 3

causing the AC recovery voltage across the pole to exceed its normal phase-to-earth value.
Two cases can be distinguished based on the earthing of the power system:
Case 1: Power System Effectively Earthed
An effectively earthed power system is one where the ratio of the zero-sequence reactance
to the positive-sequence reactance is positive and equal to three or less (neutrals solidly or
low impedance earthed). Circuit breakers applied on such systems are rated on the basis of
clearing a three-phase-to-earth fault. After the most onerous first pole clearing, this leaves a
double-phase to-earth fault and, in turn, after second pole clearing, leaves a single-phase to
earth fault to be cleared by the third pole. This sequence is shown in Figure 3.6.
Case 2: Power System Non-Effectively Earthed
A non-effectively earthed power system is not defined by sequence reactances but rather
as one where the neutral is isolated, high impedance or resonant earthed. Circuit breakers
applied on such systems are rated on the basis of clearing a three-phase unearthed fault.
First pole clearing leaves a phase-to-phase fault to be cleared simultaneously by the second
and third pole in series. Prior to the second and third pole clearing, the fault side neutral will
shift by 0.5 pu and the AC recovery voltage for the first-pole-to-clear is 1.5 pu. This sequence
is shown in Figure 3.7.
The standard TRV requirements for a 245 kV circuit breaker on an effectively earthed
system and a 72.5 kV circuit breaker on a non-effectively earthed system are given in
Tables 1.1 and 1.2, respectively.
Without going into detail at this point, the TRVs are based on the two components briefly
discussed earlier: a power frequency component given by the first-pole-to-clear factor kpp
(Chapter 3) and an oscillatory component, which may actually be aperiodic, given by
the amplitude factor kaf (Chapter 2).
The short-line fault and out-of-phase switching requirements are also shown in Tables 1.1
and 1.2.
In general, circuit breakers are designed to withstand voltage, carry load current and clear
faults. However, circuit breakers are also required to interrupt load currents. Load currents
at or around unity power factor present no difficulty but, at zero power factor leading or
lagging, current interruption is an onerous duty. No rated interrupting current values

Table 1.1 Standard TRV values for 245 kV rated circuit breaker on an effectively earthed system

First-pole- First TRV

Rated to-clear Amplitude reference peak Time
voltage Test duty factor factor voltage Time value Time delay Voltage Time RRRV

Ur kpp kaf u1 t1 uc t2 td u’ t’ u1/t1

kV pu pu kV μs kV μs μs kV μs kV/μs
245 Terminal 1.3 1.40 195 98 364 392 2 98 51 2
fault
Short-line 1 1.40 150 75 280 300 2 75 40 2
fault
Out-of- 2 1.25 300 196 500 392–784 2–20 150 117 1.54
phase
4 1 Introduction

Table 1.2 Standard TRV values for 72.5 kV rated circuit breaker on a non-effectively earthed
system

TRV
Rated Type First-pole-to- Amplitude peak Time
voltage of test clear factor factor value Time delay Voltage Time RRRV

Ur kpp kaf uc t3 td u’ t’ uc/t3

kV pu pu kV μs μs kV μs kV/μs
72.5 Terminal 1.5 1.54 137 93 5 45.6 36 1.47
fault
Short-line 1 1.54 91.2 93 5 30.4 36 0.98
fault
Out-of- 2.5 1.25 185 186 28 61.7 90 0.99
phase

are stated in the standards since in practice they are application dependent. Preferred capac-
itive current switching ratings are stated in the expectation that type testing to these values
will cover a majority of actual applications.

1.3 Current Interruption Terminology

Current interruption terminology can be understood by considering an actual event.

Figures 1.1–1.3 show the trace of a close-open (CO) three-phase unearthed fault current test
on a vacuum circuit breaker (trace courtesy of KEMA). Taking each figure in turn, the ter-
minology is as follows:
Figure 1.1 timing related quantities:

• The circuit breaker is initially open, and a close signal is applied to the close coil to initiate
closing.

• After a short electrical delay time, the moving contact starts in motion (travel curve at the
bottom of the trace) and makes contact with the circuit breaker fixed contact. This instant
is referred to as contact touch or contact make. In practice, actual electrical making of the
circuit may precede mechanical contact due to a prestrike between the contacts. The time
between application of the close signal and contact touch is the mechanical closing time
of the circuit breaker.

• The circuit breaker is now closed and carrying fault current. A trip signal is applied to the
trip coil initiating opening, also referred to as tripping, of the circuit breaker. After a short
electrical time delay, the moving contact is set in motion and mechanical separation of
the fixed and moving contacts occurs. This instant is referred to as contact part, contact
parting or contact separation. The time between application of the trip signal and contact
part is the mechanical opening time.

• An arc is drawn between the contacts and current interruption attempts are made as the
zero crossings occur, first on b-phase, then on a-phase and successfully on c-phase.
c-phase is thus the first-pole-to-clear with an arcing time – time between contact part
 1.3 Current Interruption Terminology 5

Va
Total break time

la

Arcing time
Mechanical opening
a-phase
time
Vb

Arcing time
b-phase
lb

Vc
Arcing time
c-phase

lc

Contact
Contact Trip signal applied part
touch here

Travel curve

Figure 1.1 Current interruption terminology: timing related quantities. Source: trace courtesy of KEMA.

and current interruption – of about one half-cycle. The interrupting time, also referred to
as the break time, on c-phase is the mechanical opening time plus the arcing time.

• At current interruption in c-phase, the currents in a-phase and b-phase become equal in
magnitude and opposite in polarity by means of a 30 shift, a shortened half-cycle in the
former phase and a longer half-cycle in the latter. The total break time is the mechanical
opening time plus the maximum arcing occurring in these two phases.

Figure 1.2 current related quantities:

• For a fault initiated at a voltage peak, the current will be symmetrical. Symmetrical means
that each half-cycle of the current, also referred to as a loop of current, will be identical to
the preceding half-cycle of current. The current in a-phase is near symmetrical as a result
of fault initiation just prior to the voltage peak.

• The currents in b-phase and c-phase are asymmetrical and consist of long and short loops
of current referred to as major loops and minor loops, respectively. Maximum asymmetry
occurs when the fault is initiated at a voltage zero crossing. Asymmetrical currents are
discussed in detail in 4.7.

Figure 1.3 voltage-related quantities:

• Current zeros occur every 60 and the pole closest to a zero after contact part will make
the first attempt to interrupt the current. The b-phase pole that is the closest to the first
zero, makes the attempt to interrupt the current but reignites because the contacts are
too close to withstand the TRV. The a-phase pole in turn also makes an attempt but
6 1 Introduction

Contact
touch near
voltage peak
Va
Ia near
symmetrical

la
Contact touch between
voltage peak and *
voltage zero
Vb
Ib asymmetrical
*a-phase and b-
*
phase currents
shift by 30°
lb
Contact
touch near
voltage zero
Vc

Minor loop
lc asymmetrical

lc
c-phase
clears first

Major loop

Figure 1.2 Current interruption terminology: current related quantities. Source: trace courtesy
of KEMA.

a-phase TRV

Va

Reignition
la

Reignition
Vb

b-phase TRV
lb
c-phase TRV
TRV ringdown
complete
Vc

AC recovery voltage

lc
c-phase first-
phase-to-clear

Figure 1.3 Current interruption terminology: voltage related quantities. Source: trace courtesy
of KEMA.
 Further Reading 7

reignites followed by successful interruption on c-phase, i.e. recovering against the TRV
and AC recovery voltage.

• The TRV is a transient oscillation as the voltage on the source side of the circuit breaker
recovers to the prefault system voltage. The TRV oscillates around the AC recovery volt-
age, its aiming point or axis of oscillation, reaching a peak value depending on the damp-
ing in the circuit. As the trace shows, the TRV rings down within a power frequency
quarter cycle. The first-pole-to-clear is exposed to the highest TRV. Theory behind TRVs
is discussed in Chapters 2 and 3 and applied in the later chapters.

• a-phase and b-phase poles clear 90 later; each with its own TRV of lower magnitude than
for c-phase and of opposite polarities. The AC recovery voltage is the line voltage and is
shared by both poles.

Further Reading
The following references are for the textbooks covering the broad range of circuit breaker
types and related switching transients in high-voltage networks (see also Bibliography in
Appendix H).
Flurscheim, C.H. (ed.) (1982). Power Circuit Breaker Theory and Practice. Peter Peregrinus Ltd.
Ito, H. (ed.) (2018). “Switching Equipment” Cigre Study Committee A3 Green Book. Springer
Nature.
Janssen, A.L.J., Kapetanovich, M., Peelo, D.F. et al. (2014). Switching in Electric Transmission and
Distribution Systems. Wiley.
Kapetanovich, M. (2011). High Voltage Circuit Breakers. Sarajevo: ETF – Faculty of
Electrotechnical Engineering.
Peterson, H.A. (1951). Transients in Power Systems. Wiley.
Ragaller, K. (ed.) (1978). Current Interruption in High-Voltage Networks. Plenum Press.
van der Sluis, L. (2001). Transients in Power Systems. Wiley.
 9

RLC Circuits

2.1 General

The transients associated with transient recovery voltage (TRV), reignition or restriking
events can, in general, be related to either a series or parallel RLC circuit each with
specific boundary initial conditions. The transients of most interest with respect to current
interruption can, in fact, be represented by four basic RLC circuits as shown in Figure 2.1.
Each of these circuits will be treated in detail and the following considerations apply to
all cases:

1) All transients have a starting point which may be zero or a finite value.
2) All transients have an axis of oscillation – or aiming point – which then becomes the
ultimate steady-state value after the transient has died out.
3) All transients have a maximum value dependent on the degree of damping in the circuit.
4) All transients have a certain frequency determined by the values of L and C in the circuit;
however, note that not all transients are oscillatory; the exceptions being the cases where
the oscillations are aperiodic.

The calculation of the transient oscillations in each case will be based on the general solu-
tions of second-order linear homogenous or non-homogenous differential equations dis-
cussed in Appendix A. The initial conditions to be used in each case are those of the
value and the rate-of-change of the value of the applicable current or voltage transient at
time zero.

2.2 Series RLC Circuit with Step Voltage Injection

The circuit for this case is as shown in Figure 2.1a. The solutions for the transient current
can be used to calculate inrush currents associated with single and back-to-back capacitor
bank switching and also for the currents associated with reignition and restriking events.
Applying Kirchoff’s voltage law to the circuit in Figure 2.1a, we can write:
di t qt
V = Ri t + L + 21
dt C

Current Interruption Transients Calculation, Second Edition. David F. Peelo.

© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
10 2 RLC Circuits

(a)
R L C

(b)
R L C

Vo

(c)

R L Vo C

(d)

I.t C
R L

Figure 2.1 Basic RLC circuits: (a) Series RLC circuit with step voltage injection (b) Source-free series
RLC circuit with precharged capacitor (c) Source-free parallel RLC circuit with precharged capacitor
(d) Parallel circuit with ramp current injection.

Differentiating Eq. (2.1) across then gives:

d2 i t di t 1
L +R + i t =0
dt 2 dt C
or

d2 i t R di t 1
2 + + i t =0 22
dt L dt LC
 2.2 Series RLC Circuit with Step Voltage Injection 11

Equation (2.2) has the abc format discussed in Appendix A and we can write:
R 1
a = 1, b = , c=
L LC
and further that
2
R R 1
α= and β = − = α2 − ω 2
2L 2L LC
where
1
ω=
LC
Case 1: The circuit is overdamped α2 > ω2.
From Table A.1, the solution for i(t) is given by:

i t = e − αt k 1 cosh βt + k2 sinh βt 23
To determine the values of k1 and k2, we must apply the initial conditions given by i(0) and
di(0)/dt.
At t = 0, i(0) = 0 and q = 0 and Eq. (2.3) becomes (sinh 0 = 0 and cosh 0 = 1):

0 = e − 0 k1 1 + k2 0
and therefore k1 = 0 giving

i t = k2 e − αt sinh βt
For the second initial condition:
di t
= k2 e − αt β cosh βt − α sinh βt
dt
= k2 β at t = 0

From Eq. (2.1), the current at time zero plus is determined by the inductance L and we
can write:
di 0 + 0
V =R 0 +L +
dt C
or
di 0 + V
=
dt L
and
V
k2 =
Lβ
The solution for i(t) is:

V
it = e − αt sinh α2 − ω2 t 24
L α2 − ω2
12 2 RLC Circuits

Case 2: The circuit is critically damped α2 = ω2.

From Table A.1, the solution for i(t) is:

i t = k1 + k 2 t e − αt
At t = 0, i(0) = 0:

0 = k1 + 0 e − 0
giving k1 = 0 and

i t = k2 te − αt
di t
= k2 e − αt 1 − αt
dt
di 0 +
= k2
dt
V
=
L
The solution for i(t) is:
V − αt
it = te 25
L
Case 3: The circuit is underdamped ω2 > α2.
From Table A.1, the solution for i(t) is:

i t = e − αt k 1 cos βt + k2 sin βt
Applying the initial conditions gives the same results as for Case 1:
k1 = 0
V
k2 =
Lβ
and the solution for i(t) is

V
it = e − αt sin ω2 − α2 t 26
L ω2 − α2

Equations (2.4)–(2.6) can be applied to any specific case for which R, L and C are known.
However, it is of more interest to determine the behavior of the circuit in general. This is
done by expressing the damping in the circuit relative to critical damping and time relative
to the period of the undamped oscillation, i.e. as generic time.
To first consider circuit damping, the value of R to give critical damping (RC) is deter-
mined as follows:

α2 = ω2

or
2
RC 1
=
2L LC
 2.2 Series RLC Circuit with Step Voltage Injection 13

giving

L
RC = 2
C

We now define the degree of damping ds1 in the circuit as:

α
ds =
ω
R LC
=
2L 1
R
=
L
2
C
R
=
RC
Substituting as applicable:
Overdamped case ds > 1 , R > RC

α 2
α2 − ω 2 = ω −1
ω 27
= ω d2s − 1

Underdamped case ds < 1, R < RC

α 2
ω 2 − α2 = ω 1 −
ω 28
= ω 1 − d2s

To derive generic time tg, we can simply express real time t in terms of one period of the
undamped oscillation T = LC giving:

t
tg =
T
t 29
=
LC
= ωt

where tg is in radians.

1 ds is sometimes referred to as a ‘damping factor’; however, that term tends to be used in another context (as
discussed later) and, therefore, the term ‘degree of damping’ is used throughout for RLC circuits.
14 2 RLC Circuits

We can now substitute Eqs. (2.7) and (2.9) in Eq. (2.4) noting that α = ωds giving:

V
i tg = e − ds ωt sinh d2s − 1 ωt
Lω d2s − 1
V
= e − ds tg sinh d2s − 1 t g
1
L ds − 1
2
LC
2 10
V
= e − ds tg sinh d2s − 1 t g
L
d2s − 1
C
V
i tg = e − ds tg sinh d2s − 1 t g
Z d2s − 1

L
where Z is the surge impedance of the circuit equal to and V/Z is the value of the
C
current if the circuit is undamped.
For the critically damped case, from Eqs. (2.5) and (2.9) (ds = 1):

V t g − ds ωt
i tg = e
L ω
V
= LC t g e − tg
L
V 2 11
= t g e − tg
L
C
V − tg
i tg = tg e
Z
For the underdamped case, Eqs. (2.6), (2.8) and (2.9) apply giving:

V
i tg = e − ds tg sin 1 − d2s t g 2 12
Z 1 − d2s

The last step is to express Eqs. (2.10)–(2.12) in pu by dividing across by V/Z giving the
following set of generic equations.
Overdamped: ds > 1, R > RC

e − ds t g
i tg pu
= sinh d2s − 1 t g 2 13
d2s −1

Critically damped: ds = 1, R = RC

it pu = t g e − tg 2 14
 2.3 Source-Free Series RLC Circuit with Precharged Capacitor 15

R/Rc = 0
1
0.1
0.8 0.2

0.6 0.5
Oscillation amplitude (pu)

0.4 1
2
0.2
5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
–0.2

–0.4

–0.6

–0.8

–1
Generic time tg

Figure 2.2 Generic damping curves for a series RLC circuit with step voltage injection.

Underdamped: ds < 1, R < RC

e − ds tg
i tg pu
= sin 1 − d2s t g 2 15
1 − d2s

Generic damping curves based on Eqs. (2.13)–(2.15) may now be plotted as shown in
Figure 2.2.
The starting point of the transient oscillation is zero and the axis of oscillation is also zero
since the current must go to zero when the capacitor C is charged to V. Because tg is in
radians, one complete cycle of the undamped oscillation takes 2π radians. One per-unit
generic time is thus one period of the undamped oscillation.

2.3 Source-Free Series RLC Circuit with Precharged Capacitor

From Figure 2.1b, the circuit for this case is reproduced as Figure 2.3. The solutions for the
transient voltage at the capacitor can be used to calculate transient recovery voltages for
inductive load switching and also voltage transients associated with reignition and restrik-
ing events.
Applying Kirchoff’s current law to the current in Figure 2.3, we can write:
di t
vc t + Ri t + L =0 2 16
dt
16 2 RLC Circuits

R L C Figure 2.3 Source-free series RLC

circuit with precharged capacitor.

Vo

where vc(t) is the voltage at the capacitor.

We can also write:

dq t
it =
dt
dvc t
=C
dt

and substituting in Eq. (2.16) gives

d2 v c t R dvc t 1
+ + vc t = 0
dt 2 L dt LC
From Appendix A:
R 1
a = 1, b = , c=
L LC
R
α=
2L
2
R 1
β= −
2L LC
= α2 − ω 2

The initial conditions at time zero are:

vc 0 = V o the initial charge on the capacitor

dvc 0
= 0 due to the inductance L in the circuit
dt
Case 1: The circuit is overdamped α2 > ω2.
From Table A.1, the solution for vc(t) is:

vc t = e − αt k 1 cosh βt + k2 sinh βt
Applying the initial conditions in turn:

V o = e0 k 1 1 + k2 0
k1 = V o
dvc
= V o e − αt − α cosh βt + β sinh βt + k2 e − αt − α sinh βt + β cosh βt
dt
 2.3 Source-Free Series RLC Circuit with Precharged Capacitor 17

and
dvc 0
= V oe − 0 − α 1 + β 0 + k2 e − 0 − α 0 + β 1
dt
= − αV o + βk 2
=0
α
k2 = V o
β
The solution for vc(t) is:
α
vc t = V o e − αt cosh βt + sinh βt 2 17
β
Case 2: The circuit is critically damped α2 = ω2.
From Table A.1, the solution for vc(t) is:

vc t = k 1 + k2 t e − αt
Applying the initial conditions at time zero:

V o = k1 + k2 0 e − 0
k1 = V o
dvc t
= − αV o e − αt + k2 e − αt − αt + 1
dt
dvc 0
= − αV o e − 0 + k2 e − 0 − α 0 + 1
dt
=0
k2 = αV o

The solution for vc(t) is:

vc t = V o e − αt 1 + αt 2 18
Case 3: The circuit is underdamped ω2 > α2.
From Table A.1, the solution for vc(t) is:

vc t = e − αt k 1 cos βt + k2 sin βt
Applying the initial conditions at time zero gives a result similar to that for Case 1:
k1 = V o
α
k2 = V o
β
and the solution for vc(t) is
α
vc t = V o e − αt cos βt + sin βt 2 19
β
As before, Eqs. (2.17)–(2.19) can be converted to per unit generic equations (dividing
across by Vo) by making the following substitutions:
18 2 RLC Circuits

α R
ds = =
ω RC
t g = ωt
αt ds ωt = ds t g
β= α2 − ω2

= ω d2s − 1 for Case 1

β = ω 1 − d2s for Case 3

α α
=
β ω d2 − 1
s

ds
= for Case 1
d2s − 1
α ds
= for Case 3
β 1 − d2s

The per-unit generic equations are as follows:

Case 1: Circuit overdamped ds > 1, R > RC

ds
vc t pu = e − ds tg cosh d2s − 1 t g + sinh d2s − 1 t g 2 20
d2s −1

Case 2: Circuit critically damped ds = 1, R = RC

vc t pu = e − tg 1 + t g 2 21

Case 3: Circuit underdamped ds < 1, R < RC

ds
vc t pu = e − ds tg cos 1 − d2s t g + sin 1 − d2s t g 2 22
1 − d2s

Generic damping curves based on Eqs. (2.20)–(2.22) are shown in Figure 2.4.
The starting point of the oscillations is at a defined voltage and the axis of oscillation
is zero.

2.4 Source-Free Parallel RLC Circuit with Precharged Capacitor

From Figure 2.1c, the circuit for this case is reproduced in Figure 2.5. This circuit and case
are a variation of the series case discussed in Section 2.3 and the solutions can be used for the
same purposes.
 2.4 Source-Free Parallel RLC Circuit with Precharged Capacitor 19

1
R/Rc = 5
0.8

0.6
Oscillation amplitude (pu)

2
0.4

0.2 1

0
0 1 2 3 0.5 4 5 6
–0.2

–0.4 0.2
–0.6 0.1
–0.8
0
–1
Generic time tg

Figure 2.4 Generic damping curves for series RLC circuit with precharged capacitor.

Figure 2.5 Source-free parallel RLC circuit with

precharged capacitor.

R L Vo C

Applying Kirchoff’s current law we can write:

vt 1 dv t
+ v t dt + C =0 2 23
R L dt

where v(t) is the node voltage common to all three elements. Differentiating across
Eq. (2.23) takes on the abc format

d2 v t 1 dv t 1
+ + v t =0
dt 2 RC dt LC

The initial conditions at time zero are:

v 0 = Vo

and

dv 0 Vo
= −
dt RC

which is determined from Eq. (2.23) recognizing that there is initial current in R only.
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
others, men or masters of men, and setting up his own will, he had
gained over human destinies a dominion so practical that he cared
little for the theory of king and Parliament. Of small import was it who
made the laws or who executed them so long as they did not take
from him the power to decide what share a worker should have of
the product of his hand.
For a year or two Tarsis worked at his trade of strike-breaking in
the United States, and that was the making of him, so far as external
things had to do with the man. He brought back to Sicily some
money-winning ideas about manufacturing that lifted him into the
place of superintendent of the silk-mill, and some notions about “high
finance” that he picked up bore rich fruit. One day the company
found itself reorganized, with Tarsis in command. That was his first
big victory. He followed it up in due time by laying siege to the large
silk makers of the North. His campaign took the form of a proposal to
unite their works with those of the South. At first they greeted his
project with smiles, but Tarsis played one company against the other
so craftily that in the end, obeying the law of self-preservation, all
were eager to join the union.
As master mind of the general company Tarsis smashed the idols
of custom, tore down everything that retarded the making of money.
The methods of generations went by the board. He struck out for
new fields, and quickly Italy’s product of spun silk was feeding the
looms of Russia, Austria, Great Britain, and the United States in
quantities double those of the old days. Mills were set up at places
easily reached by the farmer with his cocoons or near to shipping
points. At Venice he turned an ancient palace into a buzzing hive
and sent forth smoke and steam over the Grand Canal. There were
unions of shoe factories, glass and carriage works, steamboat lines,
and steel-mills; and never was Antonio Tarsis a factor unless a factor
that controlled. The journals of the New Democracy muttered, and
likened him to creatures of the brute world noted for their ability to
reach or swallow.
One of the things Tarsis learned in the United States was that
child labour in factories is a superior device for fattening stock
dividends. Mario Forza, from his place in the National Parliament,
once denounced him in a speech rebuking the Government for lack
of interest in the toiling masses. The bodily health and moral being of
thousands of children were ruined every year in Italy, he said, that
men like Tarsis might pile up their absurd fortunes—an outburst that
brought loud and long applause from the seats of the New
Democrats. This speech was green in the memory of Tarsis that
night on the riverside when he thanked Forza for the service
rendered his promised wife.
A situation created by the want of money had brought Hera and
Tarsis together. He had some cold-blooded reasons for wanting the
beautiful patrician for his wife. She ministered to his sense of beauty,
but it was the principle of success she typified that gave her greatest
value in his eyes. The man of peasant blood looked to an alliance
with the house of Barbiondi as the crowning triumph of his career.
Hera was the fairest prize of the Lombard aristocracy. Men of noble
blood and large fortune had failed to win her hand, because she
could not rid herself of the conviction that to become the wife of a
man for the sake of his fortune would be a mere bartering of her
charms. Against such a step her whole being rose in revolt.
Tarsis had conceived the thought to possess her and had
planned to do so as he had planned to gain control of the
Mediterranean Steamship Line. His faithful ally was Donna Beatrice,
Hera’s aunt, who strove mightily in the cause. But it was Hera’s love
for her father—her wish to relieve him from the torments of poverty—
that made it possible for Tarsis to attain his purpose. The sands of
the Barbiondi were almost run. Their villa, built two centuries before
Napoleon appeared on that side of the Alps, was all that remained of
an estate once the largest in the North. Charts of old days show its
forests and hillside fields bordering the river Adda from Lake Lecco
in the mountains clear to the Bridge of Lodi. Like his forebears of
many generations, Don Riccardo had seen the money-lenders
swallow his substance. If in his own time the bites were of necessity
small, they were none the less frequent. To Donna Beatrice’s skill in
concealing the actual state of their purse was due the fact that the
Barbiondi were able to spend a part of the winter in Milan, so that
Hera, whom her aunt recognised as the family’s last asset, might be
in evidence to the fashionable world. How she accomplished this
never ceased to be a riddle to her brother; and he gave it up, as he
gave up all riddles. His idea of a master stroke in contrivance was to
go to his banker and arrange another mortgage. He was likely to go
shooting or for a ride when there was a financial crisis to be met. It
was at the moment that the mortgagee’s mouth watered for the last
morsel that Hera, in the purest spirit of self-sacrifice, consented to a
marriage with Tarsis.
Matchmakers of Milan’s fashionable world, who had known that
the Tarsis millions were knocking at the Barbiondi gate, received the
announcement of the betrothal as the extinguishment of their last
hope, but in the world of creditors there was a wild rejoicing. The
mortgagee lost his appetite for the last morsel of the estate. Milliners,
makers of gowns and boots, purveyors of food and drink, sent in
humble prayers for patronage instead of angry demands for pay.
Everywhere the bloodhounds of debt slunk off the scent.
A day of mid-April was chosen for the wedding, and as it drew
near Hera retained her studied air of cheerfulness, that Don
Riccardo might not divine the price his peace of mind demanded of
her. She rode about the countryside, sometimes with her father,
oftener alone, while the task of preparation for the nuptials went
forward under the willing hand of Aunt Beatrice. To that contented
woman the bride-elect’s lukewarm interest in the affair was a source
of wonder. With eyes uplifted and hands clasped she paused now
and then to ask if ever Heaven had given an aunt a niece of such
scant enthusiasm. Such was the situation the day that Hera had her
adventure on the river. No experience of life had dwelt so pleasantly
in her thought as the meeting and converse with Mario Forza. No
coming event had ever interested her so warmly as that he was
going to dine in Villa Barbiondi—that she was going to meet him
again.
She spent the closing hours of Wednesday afternoon at her
window looking over the river toward the fields and buildings of the
Social Dairy. She saw one herd after another wind its way homeward
up the pass and watched eagerly for the coming forth of Mario.
When the file of poplars that bordered the highway by the river were
casting their longest shadows she saw him ride out and begin the
descent of the hill. For some time she was able to keep him in view
as he trotted his horse along the level road. When he came upon the
Bridge of Speranza—the waters had not ended their spree—she was
conscious of a new anxiety, and when he had gained the nearer
shore she felt a strange relief. A little while and the shadows of the
poplars were neither short nor long, and darkness hid him from sight.
Presently the voice of her father, raised in welcome, mingled with the
most genial tones of Donna Beatrice, sounding up the staircase, told
her that he had arrived.
“Ha, my friend!” she heard Don Riccardo saying, “this is the
greatest of delights. Why, I knew your father, sir. The Marquis and I
served the old king. And a gay service it was for blades who knew
how to be gay. Magnificent old days!”
“I heard much of you, Don Riccardo, from my father,” Mario said.
“And I have heard much of you since you came to Milan,” the
other returned. “But I never recognised you without the title; nor in
the dim light of the other night did I see my old comrade in your face.
But I see him now. By my faith! you take me back thirty years. And
pictures of you—marvellous pictures—have I seen in the
newspapers. I remember one in particular,” he ran on, a gleam in his
eye. “It portrayed the Honourable Forza in action, if you please. I
think he was performing a feat no more difficult than getting out of a
carriage; but the camera immortalised him as an expert in the art of
standing on one foot and placing the other in his overcoat pocket.”
Hera was with them now joining in the laughter. Donna Beatrice
thanked Mario effusively for saving the life of Hera. The more she
had reflected on the deed the more heroic it had grown in her sight.
Her gratitude had its golden grain, for the fact loomed large to her
mind that but for his timely action there might have been no
forthcoming marriage with Antonio Tarsis, no saving of the Barbiondi
ship. She was prodigal in her praise of his knightly valour, as she
called it, and declared that the age of chivalry still lived. At this point
a footman came to Mario’s rescue by announcing that the vermouth
was served.
 “And what of the progress toward peace in the human family,
Honourable?” asked Don Riccardo, merrily, as they took their places
at table.
Mario answered that the progress, as to the branch of the human
family known as Italian, was for the time being somewhat backward.
“The trouble with our party,” he said, “is that we can’t break
ourselves of the habit of being right at the wrong time. Our foes are
better strategists. They are wise enough to be wrong at the right
time.”
“And what is this New Democracy all about, Signor Forza?”
asked Donna Beatrice, as she might have asked concerning some
doing on the island of Guam.
“It is an effort to mend a social machine that is badly out of
repair,” he answered. “The hewer of wood is demanding a fire, the
drawer of water a drink. The producer is striving to keep a little more
of what he produces.”
He held up a side of the industrial picture that was the reverse of
what Don Riccardo’s prospective son-in-law liked to present. His
words did not square with Tarsis’s assertion that the heart of a
statesman should be in his head. He gave reasons why some are
rich and some are poor, and though new to those at the table, they
felt that they were listening to no sentimental dreamer. He struck the
key-note of the century’s new thought. If his head did lift itself toward
the clouds at times, his feet remained firmly planted on the earth,
and his ideals were those of a man determined to be useful in the
world.
It was good, Hera thought, to look upon him; good to hear his
voice, good to feel that one admired him. And Donna Beatrice,
looking over the rims of her pince-nez, was seized with alarm. Their
guest’s discourse might be interesting, she told herself, but she was
positive there was nothing in it to command such wrapt attention on
the part of her niece. When they had risen, and Mario and Hera were
leading the way to the reception hall, she pulled at her brother’s coat
sleeve to hold him in the alcoved passage; and, standing there amid
the tapestries and trophies of shields and arms, the poor woman
made known her doubts and fears.
“Riccardo, what does this mean? I say it is most extraordinary.”
“Yes, the coffee was not delicious,” he observed. “The cook is
drinking absinthe again.”
“The coffee! I speak of Hera.”
“In what has she offended now?” he inquired, clasping his hands
behind him and looking up at an ancestral portrait dim with the
centuries.
“You ask that?” she rejoined sceptically. “But no; it is impossible
that even a man could be so blind. I thank Heaven Antonio Tarsis
was not present.”
“I always thank Heaven when he is not present,” Don Riccardo
confessed, and his sister winced. “What crime has Hera committed?”
“On the eve of her marriage she is showing a scandalous interest
in a man who is not to be her husband.”
Don Riccardo gave a low laugh of depreciation. “Mario Forza
saved her life,” he reminded her. “If the fact has slipped your
memory, it is not so with Hera.”
“I know,” Donna Beatrice argued, “but there are things to
remember as well as things not to forget.”
“My dear sister, let our girl indulge this natural sentiment of
thankfulness.”
“Thankfulness?” the other questioned, raising her brows.
“And what else? Come, my Beatrice, the strain of this wedding
business has wrought upon your nerves. When the fuss is over you
must go to the Adriatic for a rest.”
She said it was considerate of him, but she did not feel the need
of rest. In a corner of the reception hall they found Hera at the piano,
Mario beside her, turning the page. They asked him to sing, and he
began a ballad of the grape harvest in Tuscany. It pictured the
beauty of the rich clusters, the sun-burned cheeks and rugged mirth
of the peasant maids, stolen kisses, troths plighted, and the ruby
vintage drunk at the wedding feast. The song was manly and sung in
a manly voice.
While his clear baritone filled the room and Hera played the
accompaniment the feelings of Don Riccardo were stirred deeply.
From his chair by the wall he looked sadly upon his daughter and his
old comrade’s son, and hoped, for her sake, that what might have
given him gladness at one time would not happen now. The words of
his sister had moved him more than he let her know. What if Mario
Forza had come into her heart? What if the marriage to which she
was to go should prove the funeral of a true love? What if that were
added to the price she was going to pay for helping her father? His
impulse was to take her in his arms, tell her to accept any happiness
that destiny had to offer, and defy the issue whatever it might be.
Instead, he rang for a glass of cognac.
When Hera had sung a romance of old Siena Don Riccardo
asked Mario about that “idealistic experiment,” the Social Dairy, and
learned that it was no longer an experiment, but a prosperous object
lesson for those willing to listen to the New Democracy. Mario told
them a little of the life of the place, and Don Riccardo suggested that
they all go and see for themselves.
“It would give me pleasure,” Mario assured him.
“I should like to go very much,” Hera said.
“Then we shall visit you to-morrow.” Don Riccardo decided, with
an enthusiasm which Aunt Beatrice did not share.
 CHAPTER III
A DREAM REALISED

The following afternoon Mario, on horseback, appeared at the

villa and said he had stopped to accompany the Barbiondi in their
ride to the Social Dairy. It was a proffer Donna Beatrice could not
regard with favour. From the first the trip across the river had
seemed to her a project of questionable taste; but now that it was to
include the company of a man in whom Hera had betrayed a
“scandalous interest,” it stood in her mind as a distinctly improper
proceeding. Drawing her brother aside, she said as much to him
while they waited for the horses to be brought from the stables.
But Don Riccardo failed to view the affair in that light. He was
glad to see Forza, and glad of the opportunity the three-mile ride
afforded for a chat with the son of his old comrade. His expectation
in regard to the chat, however, was not realised, for what Aunt
Beatrice pronounced a shocking display of indiscretion on the part of
her niece occurred before they had reached the Bridge of Speranza.
When the cavalcade, after a brisk trot, had dropped into a walk, Hera
and Mario fell behind and rode side by side. And in the rest of the
journey Donna Beatrice could not see that they made any
appreciable effort to lessen the distance separating them from the
others.
The day was a true one of the freakish month. In the morning
hours the clouds had played their many games, now gambolling on
the blue in fleecy flocks, now rolling sublimely in great white billows
or tumbling in darker shapes that shed big drops of rain. But the
present hour was one of purest sky, and all the land was gloried in
sunshine. Mysterious heralds of the springtime spoke to the spirit
and senses of the younger riders. The river was in gentler mood; the
grey brush of the poplars no longer strained in the wind, maple twigs
were dimpling with buds, and the green mantle of the hills seemed to
grow brighter with every glance. Their cheeks were smoothed by the
new breath that comes stealing over the land in April days. They
talked of the things about them. Hera rejoiced in the life of the outer
air. She knew the wild growths and the architecture of the birds, and
he, if saddened easily by the ugliness men impart to life, was ever
awake to the beauties of the world. They saw here and there a last
year’s nest in the leafing branches.
“There was the home of an ortolan,” she would say, or, “There a
blackbird lived, there a thrush.”
“And soon, when passing Villa Barbiondi,” he added once, “a
friend may say, ‘There Donna Hera lived.’”
“Yes,” she said; “I shall part from the dear old nest, as the birds
part from theirs.”
Where the road branched upward to the dairy Don Riccardo and
his sister were waiting. Together the four made the ascent of the
zigzag way, passing under oaks that had clung to their brown leaves
through all the assaults of winter and moving beneath the mournful
green of the needle-pines. They walked about the scrupulously
clean, well-ordered houses and yards of the Social Dairy, where
moral enlightenment and manual energy worked in concert. It was
one of the several hundred places, Mario told them, that the new,
industrial plan had brought into being. He explained the genius of co-
operation, and how in this instance it brightened the lives of
thousands of poor farmers. Hera remarked the air of well-being that
pervaded the place—the neat apparel of the men and women, the
interest they showed in their work, and the absence from their eyes
of the driven look she had observed in a factory of Milan.
“How bright and fresh and—happy they are!” she said to Mario.
“They are not overworked,” he explained. “They have only
themselves and their families to provide for.”
“I see nothing unusual in that,” observed Donna Beatrice.
“I mean,” Mario went on, “that there are no ladies and gentlemen
to be fed and clothed out of the profits of their work. That makes it
possible for them to earn in seven hours a day enough for their
needs and a little to spare for the bank—the bank that gives them an
interest in the earnings of their deposits.”
“Wonderful!” exclaimed Don Riccardo. “I don’t profess to
understand it at all. But tell me, Honourable, how it is possible that
you, the busiest man in Rome, can find time from your Parliamentary
work for—this sort of thing?”
“I like the country,” Mario answered, “and this is the part of my
work that is recreation.”
Going back to Viadetta they rode beside the pasture lands, where
herds of cattle browsed. In one field Mario pointed out a black heifer
that was frisking alone.
“That is the wayward youngster I started after with my lariat the
other day,” he said. “She came back this morning. I am grateful to
her, Donna Hera. But for that dash for liberty I should not be with you
to-day.”
She could have told him that her gratitude ought to be more than
his, and yet was not so, for the fate the river had offered now
seemed kinder than the one in store for her.
“I perceive that the heifer soon tired of her liberty,” Donna
Beatrice remarked, complacently. “Do you not think, Signor Forza, it
would be the same with your common people? Give them what they
think they want, and quickly they will be whining for what they had
before and which was better for them.”
“I suppose they would,” Mario assented, smiling, “if the new
condition left them hungry and shelterless, as it did our heifer. She
dreamed of freedom, but woke to find that her two stomachs were
exceedingly real affairs. So she came home and sold her freedom
for a mess of pottage.”
“Precisely!” Donna Beatrice exclaimed, triumphantly. “In the
practical brute kingdom as well as in the human world dreamers are
likely to come to grief.”
“That is true,” Mario agreed, “and yet the dreamer’s airy product
often becomes a reality. The dream of yesterday is the architect’s
plan of to-day on which the builders will be at work to-morrow. There
was our great compatriot who dreamed of having the people of Italy
pull together under some well-laid plan, and do away with the
necessity that drives so many to seek prosperity in foreign lands.
That man is dead, but part of his vision lives in the Social Dairy. The
farmers whose lot has been bettered by this system of co-operation
are stout believers in that dream, you may be sure.”
“In what way are the farmers benefited?” Donna Beatrice asked,
sceptically.
“They get a fair share of the profit of their toil. They send their
milk here, and by processes that are moral as well as scientific it is
turned first into butter, then into coin of the realm.”
“But, Signor Forza,” Donna Beatrice protested, “I call this
establishment eminently practical.”
“Everyone does now. Nevertheless, it was no more than a theory
two years ago—as much a dream then as the Employers’ Liability bill
is now.”
“Will you interpret this new dream, Honourable?” Don Riccardo
asked. “What is the Employers’ Liability bill?”
“A Parliamentary measure to oblige the employers of men and
women in dangerous work to insure their lives; to take care of them,
too, should they meet with injury.”
“Then the industrial army,” said Don Riccardo, “would fare better
at the hands of the state than the military.”
“And it ought to,” Mario returned. “Work is the hope of the world,
war is its despair.”
Don Riccardo, with a shake of the head, bespoke his doubt as to
that idea, and his sister, looking into the face of Hera, was alarmed
anew to read there a frank expression of sympathy with Forza’s
sentiment. Mario rode with them as far as the gates of the villa, and
at parting Hera gave him her hand.
“The day will live in my memory,” he told her.
 “And in mine,” she said. “Good-bye.”
Tarsis dined with the Barbiondi next day and took them in an
automobile to Milan for the opera. Hera, by his side, spent much of
the ten-mile journey in reflections that gave her no peace. Before
meeting Mario Forza she had begun to know the calm there is in
accepted bitterness. For the sake of others she had resolved to be
patiently unhappy. Now the future had a changed outlook—had
opened to a sudden gleam, as a cloud opens to sheet lightning at
sunset. The sacrifice demanded of her seemed far greater than it did
a few days before, and she was conscious of a growing doubt that
her strength should prove equal to it. There came a throb of
resentment, too, that what she had been calling duty should interpret
its law so remorselessly.
Not until after the meeting with Forza had the sense of
renunciation, of impending loss, been of a positive nature. She had
felt only that the future could hold no happiness for her; now she was
aware of a joy to be killed, of a destiny that should deny what her
soul was quickening with desire to possess. It was as if happiness
had come back from the tomb and she dared not receive it.
In the box at La Scala she looked on the stage spectacle, but the
eyes of her mind saw Mario Forza, and she heard his voice above
the music of the drama. The knowledge that she cared for him so
brought no feeling of shame, but shame assailed her when she
looked upon the ring and the man who had placed it on her hand. In
the gold circle and the clear stone she saw only the badge of a
hideous bargain.
They went to a restaurant where fashionable Milan assembles
after the opera. At a table apart from the one where they seated
themselves she saw Mario Forza in the company of some men
known as leaders of Italy’s political thought; and when Tarsis
perceived that Hera had caught sight of him he could not refrain from
venting his feelings. Without any leading up to the subject, he spoke
contemptuously of the new ideas of government in the air.
“I have no patience with them,” he said. “They are no more than
the wild flowering of poetic oratory in Parliament.”
 “And like all wild flowers, they soon will fade,” chimed in Donna
Beatrice.
“Nevertheless,” Tarsis went on, “these dreamers are doing much
harm. They clog the wheels of Italy’s true progress.”
“Can nothing be done to put down these dangerous men?” asked
Donna Beatrice, in alarm.
“Oh, no. Parliament is a talking machine, wound up for all time.
There’s no stopping it. These demagogues delude the masses by
telling them that labour is the parent of wealth.”
“I wonder if it isn’t?” mused Don Riccardo, lighting a cigarette.
“Admitting it,” Tarsis retorted, “should the parent try to strangle its
offspring? That is what these rainbow statesmen would do. They
proclaim capital a despoiler of labour, yet keep their addled wits at
work concocting schemes for the despoiling of capital. Take, for
example, the Employers’ Liability bill—simply a device to plunder the
employer under the cloak of law.”
“I agree with you fully!” exclaimed Donna Beatrice. “I have heard
of that iniquitous measure.”
“But capital will not flinch,” pursued the man of millions. “It has a
mission to redeem Italy by making her industriously great. On that
mission it will press forward in spite of the demagogues, and bestow
the blessing of employment on the poor in spite of themselves.”
Don Riccardo yawned behind his coffee cup, but his sister
brought her hands together in show of applause, and uttered a little
“Bravo!” For Hera, she gave no sign. When Tarsis was talking,
somewhat heavily, with his air of a rich man, his small, keen eyes
looking into hers now and then, she wondered what her life would be
with such a companion; but when they were moving homeward past
the darkened shop windows of Corso Vittorio Emanuele, out through
the Venetian Gate, and speeding in the moonlight of the open
country, her reflections took a different cast. Her soul cried out to be
free, and to the cry for freedom came an answering call to revolt.
 In the afternoon of the next day—the one before that set for the
wedding—she had her horse saddled, heedless of Donna Beatrice’s
warning that the skies foreboded a tempest. A few paces from the
villa gates she heard at her back the sound of galloping hoofs, and
presently Mario was riding at her side.
“I crossed the river yesterday,” he said, “in the hope that you
would ride, but met—disappointment.”
“I am sorry,” she told him, simply, yet he understood that she
meant, “It must not be.”
“Frowning skies invite us at times,” he went on, “and by that I
made my hope in to-day.”
“Yesterday was beautiful—far better for a ride,” she admitted, as
if to tell him that he had divined the truth.
For a while they rode in silence. They passed the ruins of a
monastery known of old as the Embrace of the Calm Valley. It had
been one of the many religious settlements in the domain of the
Barbiondi in the days of their power.
“I went there yesterday,” he told her, “and found a strange
sympathy in its desolate picture.”
“To me it always has been dear,” Hera said. “My mother loved the
old place. Often we went there and gathered the wild roses and
camellias that grew in the cloister.”
For a mile or more they rode on, then started homeward because
of danger signals not to be ignored. There were glimmers of far-
away lightning, and they caught the distant roll of thunder. Suddenly
a black curtain unfolded over the skies.
Before them was a long stretch of open road, at the end of which,
where the wood began, they could see the dark shape of the
monastery walls; and towards this they were making, their horses
lifted to a quicker pace, when they heard an ominous rattling in the
upper air.
 CHAPTER IV
A FACT OF LIFE

The warning was a terribly familiar one to the people of

Lombardy. They knew it presaged one of the severe storms of hail
that plague the region—visitations which the farmer folk dread even
more than the sprees of the river. Within the space of ten minutes
the growing crops of a whole province had been devastated by one
of these onslaughts. The pellets of ice were so big as to fell cattle
and kill the herdsmen. Roof tiles of terra cotta were smashed like
thin glass. Of such grave import were the bombardments that official
means had been devised to ward them off; and now, while the
keepers hurried their droves to places of safety, the air was filled with
a thunder that did not come from the clouds. On the hilltops and in
the sloping fields cannon flashed and roared. With pieces aimed at
the blackness above, the peasant gunners fired volley after volley in
a scientific endeavor to choke the hailstorm. The picture, as they
saw it from their windows, was one to carry old soldiers back to
Solferino and Magenta, when the target was not clouds, but
Austrians, and the missiles were shot and shell.
Mario and Hera set their horses to a gallop and made for the
cover of the monastery, as troopers might have dashed across a
battle-field. They gained the crumbling portico at the moment that the
white bullets began to fall, crackling in the ivy of the wall and dancing
on the ground. A few columns of the cloister were standing, and
some of the roof remained. Here they left their horses to paw the
pavement where monks had walked in the ages long buried. He took
her hand and they made their way over a difficult mound of earth and
fallen stone to the chapel. Once or twice in the centuries something
had been done to save the little church from time’s ravage, though it
stood open yet, as to door and window, for the attacks of wind and
weather. Rooks had nested there, and the flutter of invisible wings
sounded from a dark corner beneath the ceiling. She told him that
the chapel was built by the first Riccardo of her line. Standing by a
window, they looked out and saw the hailstones beating on the
tombs of her ancestors.
Hera pointed to a place on the wall where a fresco painting once
had been. Fragments of a cornice carved in marble still clung about
it; to the eye there was only a patch of blank wall.
“It was the portrait of Arvida, a woman of our race,” she said,
regarding the spot and its remnant of frame thoughtfully. “At one time
her tomb was here, under the picture.”
“And is in the chapel no longer?”
“No; they branded her a heretic and drove her to her grave, as
our chronicles say; and still not satisfied, they disinterred her body
and burned it in Milan.”
“How strange it all seems in this day,” he mused, “when one may
think as he will about his soul without putting his body in peril before
or after it has returned to the ground.”
“And yet,” she said, quickly, as if in an outburst of feeling long
restrained, “there is still a power that persecutes—that takes the soul
and enchains the body.”
“The power you mean is duty,” he said, positively, as one who
understood.
“Yes,” she affirmed, eagerly, glad in the knowledge that he read
her thought.
There was silence between them as they moved to a part of the
chapel where a broad window looked out on the landscape of
ploughed fields that stretched high into the rainy distance. When he
spoke again it was in the tone of one who had come to a decision.
“The world’s cruelest wrongs have been committed in the name
of duty,” he said. “Fortunately for the happiness of the race, we have
cut loose from many ancient notions of obligation. The zealots who
persecuted Arvida acted from a sense of duty. With new ideals of
justice rise new conceptions of what we owe to others.”
 “How can we know what to do?” she asked of him, humbly.
“Ah, it is hard to know what to do—to decide what is right. But
there is a path that we may follow with safety at all times. It is the
path which keeps us true to ourselves. We have a right to be true to
ourselves!” he asserted, warmly—“a right no man may deny.”
“And when one renounces that right for the sake of others?” she
asked. “What then?”
“That is the noblest of all self-sacrifices,” he answered her,
reverently.
But in her sudden release of a breath and the drooping of her
eyes he read, with the magic sensitivity of love, that his answer was
a disappointment; that for the bread of censure the woman asked he
had given a stone of praise. When he spoke again Hera, with
quickening pulse, knew the calm of his character was going; and she
was glad for the passion in his tone and the anger that hardened his
voice.
“The sacrifice is divine!” he exclaimed. “But the demand for it, the
permitting of it, that is monstrous! No human interest can justify the
ruin of a life, the desecration of a soul!”
He drew closer to her, his studied control of the past all gone.
“Donna Hera!” he cried, “this must not be—this marriage to-
morrow. It is hideous in the eye of God and man.”
There was command in his words, and the glow of a splendid
hope filled her soul. But it lived only a moment, assailed by the
thought that commiseration was all that he had for her.
“Well may you pity me,” she said, the doubt that had risen
bringing a dreary smile to her lips.
“Pity!” he exclaimed, taking her hand, fervidly. “Ah, no! It is
greater than that! I love you, Hera. From the first it has been so—
from the very first. Knowing all and realising all, I have loved you with
the whole power of my being. I will not silence the cry of this love,
and you, too, must listen.”
 An alarming yet rapturous shudder went through her frame, and
she shrank from him. With hands at his temples, he stood like one
dizzy from a blow.
“Are you sorry?” he asked, and she made him no answer. “Oh,
not that!” he pleaded. “Not that!”
She saw her life of despair whirling away, and a new life dawning,
beautiful, glorious.
“Sorry?” she said at last, her breath going with the words. “No; I
am glad.” And he drew her to him, bent his head above hers, and
kissed her lips.
The shower had ceased and the sky was clearing. From rifts in
the speeding clouds streams of sunshine found their way to earth. A
golden shaft came in by the open clerestory and lingered upon them.
Two bluebirds talked blithely on a window ledge. The rook and his
mate came down from their dark corner to fly out into the sparkling
air.
Beholding the sunshine, Mario said: “See, the glory of heaven
falls upon this unison.”
They laughed together like careless children, forgetting all but
their new-found joy, and feared no more.
“I was lost; I have found my way,” she murmured.
“And the mariner sailing under sealed orders has learned his
destiny,” he said. “I dreaded the hour that was to take you from me,
dear, and reason lost hope; but not so the heart. And now you are
my own, my own for ever.”
“Yes; they shall not part us now,” she said, nestling to him.
“Hera, how often have I dreamed of finding you!”
“And I of finding you.”
“When, my darling?”
For answer he had her eyes turned upward, timorously, fluttering
under the depths of his, and then downcast, while she whispered the
words, “Always, Mario, always.” Again their lips were locked.
“Have I your permission to enter?”
The words rang grimly in the old temple, sending their echo from
wall to wall. Mario and Hera knew the voice. They turned toward the
door, a low opening arched in the Gothic form, and saw standing
there a dark figure sharply defined against the sunshine that flooded
the cloister. It was the figure of Antonio Tarsis. His posture was that
of one quite calm, his arms folded, on his lips an evil smile. He
surveyed the others with a mock air of amusement; then, taking off
his motoring cap, he made a low bow, and advanced with a broad
affectation of humility.
“I thank you for permitting me to enter,” he began, the
hoarseness of his tone betraying the anger that consumed him. “My
apology is offered—my apology, you understand—for breaking up a
love scene between the woman who is to be my wife to-morrow and
another man.”
He paused as if expectant of some word from them, but they did
not speak; nor did they stir from the spot where they stood when first
they beheld him.
“I was passing at the time of the hailstorm, and came in for
shelter,” Tarsis continued, feigning the tone of one who felt obliged to
explain an intrusion. “I saw your horses out there, and recognising
one of them, I judged that Donna Hera was near by. Uncertain of the
other horse, I jumped to the natural—possibly you will say foolish—
conclusion that it was her father’s.”
He paused again, and waited for one of the others to speak, but
both remained silent.
“I say this much in extenuation of the fact that I began to look
about in search of my friends,” Tarsis went on, retaining his tone of
apology. “Otherwise it might appear that I was spying upon my
promised wife. I assure you that it never occurred to me to set a
watch upon you, Donna Hera. At the door I saw you and—waited
until the scene should come to an end. I have been waiting some
time. I hope my conduct in the somewhat trying situation meets with
your approval—yours, Donna Hera, and yours, Honourable Forza?”
He gave the “Honourable” a long-drawn emphasis on the first
syllable, and the sound came back in a blood-chilling echo from the
glistening damp walls.
Mario moved forward and looked him squarely in the eye. “Signor
Tarsis,” he began, his voice without a quaver, “I am sorry, helplessly
sorry. We are confronted with an invincible fact of life. I love Donna
Hera. She loves me. By every natural law we belong to each other.”
A flush of anger overspread the face of Tarsis. He returned a
derisive laugh and put on his cap.
“Law of nature, eh!” he flung back. “Society is not governed by
laws of nature, and will not be until your anarchistic wishes prevail!”
“Do you mean,” Mario asked, retaining his self-control, “that after
what you have seen and what I have told you it is still your intention
to hold Donna Hera to her engagement?”
“I will not answer your question,” Tarsis replied, snapping his
upturned fingers at Mario in the Southern manner. “Whatever my
intention may be is not your affair. It is a subject for myself and my
promised wife. Of course, you will have some theory about what I
ought to do,” he added, his lip curving to the sneer.
Humanly sensible that the other’s provocation was great, Mario
quelled the words of resentment that came to his tongue, and said,
calmly: “There is no question of theory here. It is a fact inexorable.”
“And one, I suppose, in which I am not to be reckoned with,”
Tarsis retorted, his mouth twitching and his thick neck red with the
mounting blood. “You plot to rob me of the woman who is pledged to
me—you do me the greatest wrong one man can do another—and
you call it a fact inexorable. Bah! I know your breed! My factories are
full of fellows like you!”
Hera laid a restraining hand on Mario’s arm, saying, “Bear it, we
have given him cause,” and in that instant the enormity of the
situation their love had produced came fully to their minds. It was a
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