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The Earth and Its Peoples A Global History Volume I To
1550 4th Ed 4th Edition Richard Bulliet Digital Instant
Download
Author(s): Richard Bulliet, Pamela Crossley, Daniel Headrick, Steven Hirsch,
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ISBN(s): 9780618771509, 0618771506
Edition: 4
File Details: PDF, 36.73 MB
Year: 2007
Language: english
The Earth and
Its Peoples
A Global History
This page intentionally left blank
Fourth Edition

The Earth and

Its Peoples
A Global History
Richard W. Bulliet
Volume I: Columbia University
To 1550 Pamela Kyle Crossley
Dartmouth College

Daniel R. Headrick
Roosevelt University

Steven W. Hirsch
Tufts University

Lyman L. Johnson
University of North Carolina –Charlotte

David Northrup
Boston College

Houghton Mifflin Company

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9—VH—10 09 08 07 06
 Brief Contents

P ART O NE P ART T HREE

The Emergence of Human Growth and Interaction of Cultural
Communities, to 500 B.C.E. 2 Communities, 300 B.C.E.–1200 C.E 222
1 Nature, Humanity, and History, to 3500 B.C.E. 4
8 Networks of Communication and Exchange,
2 The First River-Valley Civilizations, 300 B.C.E.–1100 C.E 224
3500–1500 B.C.E. 28
9 The Sasanid Empire and the Rise of Islam,
3 New Civilizations in the Eastern and 200–1200 248
Western Hemispheres, 2200–250 B.C.E. 56
10 Christian Societies Emerge in Europe,
4 The Mediterranean and Middle East, 300–1200 274
2000–500 B.C.E. 86
11 Inner and East Asia, 400–1200 306
12 Peoples and Civilizations of the Americas,
P ART T WO 200–1500 338
The Formation of New Cultural
Communities, 1000 B.C.E.–400 c.e. 122
P ART FOUR
5 Greece and Iran, 1000–30 B.C.E. 124 Interregional Patterns of Culture
6 An Age of Empires: Rome and Han China, and Contact, 1200–1550 368
753 B.C.E.–330 C.E. 160
7 India and Southeast Asia,
13 Mongol Eurasia and Its Aftermath,
1200–1500 370
1500 B.C.E.–1025 C.E. 192
14 Tropical Africa and Asia, 1200–1500 400
15 The Latin West, 1200–1500 428
16 The Maritime Revolution, to 1550 458

v
This page intentionally left blank
 Contents
Maps xiii Egypt 42
Environment and Technology xiv The Land of Egypt: “Gift of the Nile” 42 • Divine
Diversity and Dominance xiv Kingship 43 • Administration and
Material Culture xiv Communication 45 • The People of
Issues in World History xiv Egypt 46 • Belief and Knowledge 47
Preface xv The Indus Valley Civilization 49
About the Authors xxi Natural Environment 49 • Material Culture 50
Note on Spelling and Usage xxiii • Transformation of the Indus Valley
Civilization 51
Comparative Perspectives 53
Summary 53 • Key Terms 54
PART O NE
Suggested Reading 54 • Notes 55
The Emergence of Human DIVERSITY AND DOMINANCE: Violence and Order in the
Communities, to 500 B.C.E. 2 Babylonian New Year’s Festival 34
ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY: Environmental Stress in
the Indus Valley 52

1 NATURE, HUMANITY, AND

HISTORY, TO 3500 B.C.E. 4
3 NEW CIVILIZATIONS IN THE EASTERN AND
WESTERN HEMISPHERES, 2200–250 B.C.E. 56
African Genesis 6
Interpreting the Evidence 6 • Human Evolution 7 • Early China, 2000–221 B.C.E. 58
Migrations from Africa 9 Geography and Resources 58 • The Shang Period,
History and Culture in the Ice Age 11 1750–1045 B.C.E. 61 • The Zhou Period,
Food Gathering and Stone Tools 12 • Gender Roles 1045–221 B.C.E. 64 • Confucianism, Daoism, and
and Social Life 15 • Hearths and Cultural Chinese Society 66 • The Warring States
Expressions 16 Period, 481–221 B.C.E. 70
The Agricultural Revolutions 18 Nubia, 3100 B.C.E.–350 C.E. 71
The Transition to Plant Cultivation 18 Early Cultures and Egyptian Domination,
• Domesticated Animals and Pastoralism 20 2300–1100 B.C.E. 71 • The Kingdom of
• Agriculture and Ecological Crisis 21 Meroë, 800 B.C.E.–350 C.E. 72
Life in Neolithic Communities 22 Celtic Europe, 1000–50 B.C.E. 74
Cultural Expressions 23 • Early Towns and The Spread of the Celts 75 • Celtic Society 76
Specialists 23 • Belief and Knowledge 77
Summary 25 • Key Terms 26 First Civilizations of the Americas: The Olmec and
Chavín, 1200–250 B.C.E. 77
Suggested Reading 27 • Notes 27
The Mesoamerican Olmec, 1200–400 B.C.E. 78
DIVERSITY AND DOMINANCE: Cave Art 12 • Early South American Civilization:
ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY: The Iceman 17 Chavín, 900–250 B.C.E. 80
Comparative Perspectives 82

2 THE FIRST RIVER-VALLEY CIVILIZATIONS,

3500–1500 B.C.E. 28
Summary 83 • Key Terms 84
Suggested Reading 84 • Notes 85
Mesopotamia 30 ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY: Divination in Ancient
Settled Agriculture in an Unstable Landscape 30 Societies 62
• Cities, Kings, and Trade 33 • Mesopotamian DIVERSITY AND DOMINANCE: Human Nature and Good
Society 38 • Gods, Priests, and Temples 39 Government in the Analects of Confucius and the
• Technology and Science 40 Legalist Writings of Han Fei 68

vii
viii CONTENTS

The Hellenistic Synthesis, 323–30 B.C.E. 151

4 THE MEDITERRANEAN AND MIDDLE EAST,

2000–500 B.C.E. 86
Comparative Perspectives 156
Summary 157 • Key Terms 158
Suggested Reading 158 • Notes 159
The Cosmopolitan Middle East, 1700–1100 B.C.E. 88
Western Asia 90 • New Kingdom Egypt 91 DIVERSITY AND DOMINANCE: Persian and Greek Perceptions
• Commerce and Communication 93 of Kingship 133
The Aegean World, 2000–1100 B.C.E. 95 MATERIAL CULTURE: Wine and Beer in the Ancient World 149
Minoan Crete 95 • Mycenaean Greece 95 ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY: Ancient Astronomy 154
• The Fall of Late Bronze Age Civilizations 99
The Assyrian Empire, 911–612 B.C.E. 99
God and King 100 • Conquest and Control 101
Assyrian Society and Culture 102
Israel, 2000–500 B.C.E. 103
6 AN AGE OF EMPIRES: ROME AND HAN
CHINA, 753 B.C.E.–330 C.E. 160
Rome’s Creation of a Mediterranean Empire,
Origins, Exodus, and Settlement 103 • Rise
753 B.C.E.–330 C.E. 162
of the Monarchy 105 • Fragmentation and
A Republic of Farmers, 753–31 B.C.E. 162 • Expansion
Dispersal 109
in Italy and the Mediterranean 166 • The Failure of
Phoenicia and the Mediterranean, 1200–500 B.C.E. 110 the Republic 167 • The Roman Principate,
The Phoenician City-States 110 • Expansion into 31 B.C.E.–330 C.E. 170 • An Urban Empire 171 • The
the Mediterranean 112 • Carthage’s Commercial Rise of Christianity 173 • Technology and
Empire 113 • War and Religion 114 Transformation 175
Failure and Transformation, 750–550 B.C.E. 116 The Origins of Imperial China, 221 B.C.E.–220 C.E. 178
Summary 116 • Key Terms 118 The Qin Unification of China, 221–206 B.C.E. 178
Suggested Reading 118 • Notes 119 • The Long Reign of the Han, 202 B.C.E.–220 C.E. 181
• Chinese Society 183 • New Forms of Thought and
DIVERSITY AND DOMINANCE: Protests Against the Ruling
Belief 185 • Decline of the Han 186
Class in Israel and Babylonia 107
Comparative Perspectives 187
ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY: Ancient Textiles
and Dyes 111 Summary 189 • Key Terms 190
ISSUES IN WORLD HISTORY: Animal Domestication 120 Suggested Reading 190 • Notes 191
DIVERSITY AND DOMINANCE: The Treatment of Slaves in
Rome and China 168
PART T WO ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY: Water Engineering in
The Formation of New Cultural Rome and China 174
Communities, 1000 B.C.E.–400 C.E. 122

5 GREECE AND IRAN,

1000–30 B.C.E. 124
7 India and Southeast Asia,
1500 B.C.E.–1025 C.E. 192
Foundations of Indian Civilization,
Ancient Iran, 1000–500 B.C.E. 126 1500 B.C.E.–300 C.E. 194
Geography and Resources 126 • The Rise of the The Indian Subcontinent 195 • The Vedic
Persian Empire 129 • Imperial Organization and Age 197 • Challenges to the Old Order: Jainism
Ideology 130 and Buddhism 198 • The Rise of Hinduism 200
The Rise of the Greeks, 1000–500 B.C.E. 135 Imperial Expansion and Collapse,
Geography and Resources 135 • The Emergence 324 B.C.E.–650 C.E. 203
of the Polis 136 • New Intellectual The Mauryan Empire, 324–184 B.C.E. 203 • Commerce
Currents 141 • Athens and Sparta 142 and Culture in an Era of Political Fragmentation
The Struggle of Persia and Greece, 546–323 B.C.E. 144 204 • The Gupta Empire, 320–550 C.E. 206
Early Encounters 144 • The Height of Athenian Southeast Asia, 50–1025 C.E. 212
Power 145 • Inequality in Classical Greece 147 Early Civilization 212 • The Srivijayan
• Failure of the City-State and Triumph of the Kingdom 214
Macedonians 148 Comparative Perspectives 217
 CONTENTS ix

Summary 218 • Key Terms 218 The Rise and Fall of the Caliphate, 632–1258 257
Suggested Reading 219 • Notes 219 The Islamic Conquests, 634–711 257 • The Umayyad
ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY: Indian and Early Abbasid Caliphates, 661–850 257 • Political
Mathematics 207 Fragmentation, 850–1050 258 • Assault from Within
and Without, 1050–1258 261
DIVERSITY AND DOMINANCE: Relations Between Women and
Men in the Kama Sutra and the Arthashastra 209 Islamic Civilization 263
Law and Dogma 263 • Converts and Cities 264
ISSUES IN WORLD HISTORY: Oral Societies and the
Women and Islam 267 • The Recentering of Islam 268
Consequences of Literacy 220
Comparative Perspectives 271
Summary 271 • Key Terms 272
Suggested Reading 272 • Notes 273
PART THREE DIVERSITY AND DOMINANCE: Secretaries, Turks,
Growth and Interaction of Cultural and Beggars 265
Communities, 300 B.C.E.–1200 C.E. 222 ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY: Chemistry 267
MATERIAL CULTURE: Head Coverings 269

8 NETWORKS OF COMMUNICATION AND

EXCHANGE, 300 B.C.E.–1100 C.E. 224
10 Christian Societies Emerge in Europe,
300–1200 274
The Silk Road 226
Origins and Operations 226 • Nomadism in Central The Byzantine Empire, 300–1200 276
and Inner Asia 229 • The Impact of the Church and State 276 • Society and Urban
Silk Road 230 Life 280 • Cultural Achievements 281
The Indian Ocean Maritime System 231 Early Medieval Europe, 300–1000 282
Origins of Contact and Trade 231 • The Impact of From Roman Empire to Germanic Kingdoms 282
Indian Ocean Trade 234 • A Self-Sufficient Economy 284 • Early Medieval
Society in the West 285
Routes Across the Sahara 235
Early Saharan Cultures 235 • Trade Across The Western Church 286
the Sahara 237 • The Kingdom of Ghana 239 Politics and the Church 288 • Monasticism 292
Sub-Saharan Africa 240 Kievan Russia, 900–1200 293
A Challenging Geography 240 • The Development The Rise of the Kievan State 293 • Society and
of Cultural Unity 240 • African Cultural Culture 296
Characteristics 241 • The Advent of Iron and the Western Europe Revives, 1000–1200 296
Bantu Migrations 241 The Role of Technology 296 • Cities and the Rebirth
The Spread of Ideas 242 of Trade 297
Ideas and Material Evidence 242 • The Spread of The Crusades, 1095–1204 298
Buddhism 243 • The Spread of Christianity 244 The Roots of the Crusades 298 • The Impact of the
Crusades 301
Summary 245 • Key Terms 246
Comparative Perspectives 302
Suggested Reading 246 • Notes 247
Summary 303 • Key Terms 304
DIVERSITY AND DOMINANCE: Travel Accounts of Africa
and India 232 Suggested Reading 304 • Notes 305
ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY: Camel Saddles 238 ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY: Iron Production 287
DIVERSITY AND DOMINANCE: The Struggle for Christian
Morality 290
9 THE SASANID EMPIRE AND THE RISE
OF ISLAM, 200–1200 248
The Sasanid Empire, 224–651 250
Politics and Society 250 • Religion and Empire 252 11 Inner and East Asia,
400–1200 306
The Origins of Islam 253 The Sui and Tang Empires, 581–755 308
The Arabian Peninsula Before Reunification Under the Sui and the Tang 310
Muhammad 253 • Muhammad in Mecca 253 • Buddhism and the Tang Empire 310 • To Chang’an
• The Formation of the Umma 255 by Land and Sea 311• Trade and Cultural Exchange 315
x CONTENTS

Rivals for Power in Inner Asia and China, 600–907 315 The Mongols and Islam, 1260–1500 379
The Uighur and Tibetan Empires 316 • Upheavals Mongol Rivalry 379 • Islam and the State 380
and Repression, 750–879 317 • The End of the Tang • Culture and Science in Islamic Eurasia 381
Empire, 879–907 319 Regional Responses in Western Eurasia 383
The Emergence of East Asia, to 1200 319 Russia and Rule from Afar 383 • New States in
The Liao and Jin Challenge 320 • Song Industries 322 Eastern Europe and Anatolia 385
• Economy and Society in Song China 323 Mongol Domination in China, 1271–1368 386
New Kingdoms in East Asia 327 The Yuan Empire, 1279–1368 386 • Cultural and
Chinese Influences 327 • Korea 327 Scientific Exchange 388 • The Fall of the Yuan
• Japan 329 • Vietnam 331 Empire 388
Summary 333 • Key Terms 334 The Early Ming Empire, 1368–1500 388
Suggested Reading 334 • Notes 335 Ming China on a Mongol Foundation 389
• Technology and Population 390 • The Ming
DIVERSITY AND DOMINANCE: Law and Society in China and
Achievement 393
Japan 312
Centralization and Militarism in East Asia,
ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY: Writing in East Asia,
1200–1500 393
400–1200 328
Korea from the Mongols to the Yi, 1231–1500 393
• Political Transformation in Japan, 1274–1500 395

12 PEOPLES AND CIVILIZATIONS

OF THE AMERICAS, 200–1500 338
• The Emergence of Vietnam, 1200–1500 397
Summary 397 • Key Terms 398
Classic-Era Culture and Society in Mesoamerica, Suggested Reading 398 • Notes 399
200–900 340 DIVERSITY AND DOMINANCE: Observations of
Teotihuacan 342 • The Maya 344 Mongol Life 374
The Postclassic Period in Mesoamerica, 900–1500 347 ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY: From
The Toltecs 347 • The Aztecs 348 Gunpowder to Guns 392
Northern Peoples 350
Southwestern Desert Cultures 352 • Mound
Builders: The Hopewell and Mississippian Cultures 353
Andean Civilizations, 200–1500 354
Cultural Response to Environmental Challenge 354
14 Tropical Africa and Asia,
1200–1500 400
Tropical Lands and Peoples 402
• Moche and Chimu 356 • Tiwanaku and Wari 357 The Tropical Environment 402 • Human
• The Inca 360 Ecosystems 403 • Water Systems and
Comparative Perspectives 363 Irrigation 405 • Mineral Resources 405
Summary 364 • Key Terms 365 New Islamic Empires 406
Suggested Reading 365 • Notes 365 Mali in the Western Sudan 407
DIVERSITY AND DOMINANCE: Burials as Historical Texts 358 • The Delhi Sultanate in India 412
ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY: Inca Roads 361 Indian Ocean Trade 415
ISSUES IN WORLD HISTORY: Religious Conversion 366 Monsoon Mariners 415 • Africa: The Swahili and
Zimbabwe 417 • Arabia: Aden and the Red Sea 419
• India: Gujarat and the Malabar Coast 419
PART FOUR • Southeast Asia: The Rise of Malacca 420
Social and Cultural Change 420
Interregional Patterns of Culture Architecture, Learning, and Religion 420
and Contact, 1200–1550 368 • Social and Gender Distinctions 422
Comparative Perspectives 424

13 MONGOL EURASIA AND ITS AFTERMATH,

1200–1500 370
Summary 425 • Key Terms 426
Suggested Reading 426 • Notes 427
DIVERSITY AND DOMINANCE: Personal Styles of Rule in
The Rise of the Mongols, 1200–1260 372
Nomadism in Central and Inner Asia 372 India and Mali 410
• The Mongol Conquests, 1215–1283 376 ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY: The Indian
• Overland Trade and the Plague 378 Ocean Dhow 416
 CONTENTS xi

15 THE LATIN WEST,

1200–1500 428 16 The Maritime Revolution,
to 1550 458
Rural Growth and Crisis 430 Global Maritime Expansion Before 1450 460
Peasants and Population 430 • The Black Death and The Pacific Ocean 460 • The Indian Ocean 462
Social Change 433 • Mines and Mills 433 • The Atlantic Ocean 465
Urban Revival 435 European Expansion, 1400–1550 465
Trading Cities 435 • Civic Life 438 • Gothic • Motives for Exploration 466 • Portuguese
Cathedrals 441 Voyages 467 • Spanish Voyages 470
Learning, Literature, and the Renaissance 443 Encounters with Europe, 1450–1550 473
Universities and Learning 443 • Humanists and Western Africa 473 • Eastern Africa 474
Printers 444 • Renaissance Artists 446 • Indian Ocean States 475 • The Americas 479
Political and Military Transformations 448 Comparative Perspectives 482
Monarchs, Nobles, and Clergy 448 • The Hundred Summary 483 • Key Terms 484
Years War, 1337–1453 450 • New Monarchies
Suggested Reading 484 • Notes 485
in France and England 451 • Iberian Unification 452
ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY: Vasco da Gama’s Fleet 471
Comparative Perspectives 453
DIVERSITY AND DOMINANCE: Kongo’s Christian King 476
Summary 454 • Key Terms 455
ISSUES IN WORLD HISTORY: Climate and Population, to 1500 486
Suggested Reading 455 • Notes 456
DIVERSITY AND DOMINANCE: Persecution and Protection
of Jews, 1272–1349 439
Glossary G-1
ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY: The Clock 442

Index I-1
This page intentionally left blank
 Maps
1.1 Human Dispersal to 10,000 Years Ago 10 10.2 Germanic Kingdoms 283
1.2 Early Centers of Plant and Animal 10.3 Kievan Russia and the Byzantine Empire in the
Domestication 19 Eleventh Century 295
2.1 River-Valley Civilizations, 3500–1500 B.C.E. 32 10.4 The Crusades 299
2.2 Mesopotamia 33 11.1 The Tang Empire in Inner and Eastern Asia, 750 311
2.3 Ancient Egypt 42 11.2 Liao and Song Empires, ca. 1100 320
3.1 China in the Shang and Zhou Periods, 11.3 Jin and Southern Song Empires, ca. 1200 321
1750–221 B.C.E. 60
12.1 Major Mesoamerican Civilizations,
3.2 Ancient Nubia 71 1000 B.C.E.–1519 C.E. 342
3.3 The Celtic Peoples 74 12.2 Culture Areas of North America 351
3.4 Olmec and Chavín Civilizations 79 12.3 Andean Civilizations, 200 B.C.E.–1532 C.E. 355
4.1 The Middle East in the Second Millennium 13.1 The Mongol Domains in Eurasia in 1300 377
B.C.E. 91
13.2 Western Eurasia in the 1300s 380
4.2 Minoan and Mycenaean Civilizations of the
13.3 The Ming Empire and Its Allies, 1368–1500 389
Aegean 96
13.4 Korea and Japan, 1200–1500 395
4.3 The Assyrian Empire 100
14.1 Africa and the Indian Ocean Basin: Physical
4.4 Phoenicia and Israel 103
Characteristics 404
4.5 Colonization of the Mediterranean 113
14.2 Africa, 1200–1500 408
5.1 The Persian Empire 128
14.3 South and Southeast Asia, 1200–1500 413
5.2 Ancient Greece 137
14.4 Arteries of Trade and Travel in the Islamic World, to
5.3 Hellenistic Civilization 152 1500 417
6.1 The Roman Empire 164 15.1 The Black Death in Fourteenth-Century
6.2 Han China 179 Europe 434
7.1 Ancient India 196 15.2 Trade and Manufacturing in Later Medieval
7.2 Southeast Asia 213 Europe 436
8.1 Asian Trade and Communication Routes 228 15.3 Europe in 1453 449
8.2 Africa and the Trans-Saharan Trade Routes 236 16.1 Exploration and Settlement in the Indian and Pacific
9.1 Early Expansion of Muslim Rule 254 Oceans Before 1500 462
9.2 Rise and Fall of the Abbasid Caliphate 259 16.2 Middle America to 1533 466
10.1 The Spread of Christianity 279 16.3 European Exploration, 1420–1542 469

xiii
Features
Environment
and Technology
Material
The Iceman 17 Culture
Environmental Stress in the Indus Valley 52
Divination in Ancient Societies 62 Wine and Beer in the Ancient World 149
Ancient Textiles and Dyes 111 Head Coverings 269
Ancient Astronomy 154
Water Engineering in Rome and China 174
Indian Mathematics 207
Camel Saddles 238
Chemistry 267
Issues in
Iron Production 287 World History
Writing in East Asia, 400–1200 328
Animal Domestication 120
Inca Roads 361
Oral Societies and the Consequences of
From Gunpowder to Guns 392
Literacy 220
The Indian Ocean Dhow 416
Religious Conversion 366
The Clock 442
Climate and Population, to 1500 486
Vasco da Gama’s Fleet 471

Diversity and
Dominance
Cave Art 12
Violence and Order in the Babylonian New
Year’s Festival 34
Human Nature and Good Government in the Analects of
Confucius and the Legalist Writings of Han Fei 68
Protests Against the Ruling Class in Israel and
Babylonia 107
Persian and Greek Perceptions of Kingship 133
The Treatment of Slaves in Rome and China 168
Relations Between Women and Men in the Kama Sutra and
the Arthashastra 209
Travel Accounts of Africa and India 232
Secretaries, Turks, and Beggars 265
The Struggle for Christian Morality 290
Law and Society in China and Japan 312
Burials as Historical Texts 358
Observations of Mongol Life 374
Personal Styles of Rule in India and Mali 410
Persecution and Protection of Jews, 1272–1349 439
Kongo’s Christian King 476

xiv
 Preface

W hen a textbook reaches its fourth edition, the au-

thors feel justified in assessing their work a suc-
cess. The first edition contained a basic concept.
The second used the myriad valuable comments made by
Central Themes
We subtitled The Earth and
Its Peoples “A Global History”
because the book explores the common challenges
and experiences that unite the human past. Although
teachers and reviewers to make major adjustments in the the dispersal of early humans to every livable environ-
presentation of that concept. The third edition incorpo- ment resulted in a myriad of different economic, social,
rated a further round of comments and suggestions aimed political, and cultural systems, all societies displayed
at filling lacunae and improving the flow of the exposition. analogous patterns in meeting their needs and exploit-
At the same time, pedagogical aids were steadily improved ing their environments. Our challenge was to select the
to make the text more accessible to both students and particular data and episodes that would best illuminate
teachers. these global patterns of human experience.
In the fourth edition the authors have focused on To meet this challenge, we adopted two themes for
refining their work, updating bibliographies, and incor- our history: “technology and the environment” and “di-
porating the most recent scholarship. Refinement con- versity and dominance.” The first theme represents the
sists of scrutinizing the text closely for clarity, logical commonplace material bases of all human societies at
consistency, reading comfort, and adequacy of cover- all times. It grants no special favor to any cultural group
age. In a few cases, chapters have been substantially even as it embraces subjects of the broadest topical,
rewritten, and in one instance the sequence of chapters chronological, and geographical range. The second
has been altered. The authors are confident that by theme expresses the reality that every human society has
making hundreds of relatively small changes and constructed or inherited structures of domination. We
adding new pedagogical aids, they have produced a examine practices and institutions of many sorts: mili-
text that retains the vision and values of the earlier edi- tary, economic, social, political, religious, and cultural,
tions but that will be easier to teach and easier for stu- as well as those based on kinship, gender, and literacy.
dents to study. Simultaneously we recognize that alternative ways of life
Our overall goal remains unchanged: to produce a text- and visions of societal organization continually manifest
book that speaks not only for the past but also to today’s themselves both within and in dialogue with every struc-
student and teacher. Students and instructors alike should ture of domination.
take away from this text a broad vision of human societies With respect to the first theme, it is vital for students
beginning as sparse and disconnected communities react- to understand that technology, in the broad sense of ex-
ing creatively to local circumstances; experiencing ever perience-based knowledge of the physical world, under-
more intensive stages of contact, interpenetration, and lies all human activity. Writing is a technology, but so is
cultural expansion and amalgamation; and arriving at a oral transmission from generation to generation of lore
twenty-first-century world in which people increasingly about medicinal or poisonous plants. The magnetic
visualize a single global community. compass is a navigational technology, but so is Polyne-
Process, not progress, is the keynote of this book: a sian mariners’ hard-won knowledge of winds, currents,
steady process of change over time, at first differently ex- and tides that made possible the settlement of the Pa-
perienced in various regions, but eventually connecting cific islands.
peoples and traditions from all parts of the globe. Stu- All technological development has come about in
dents should come away from this book with a sense that interaction with environments, both physical and hu-
the problems and promises of their world are rooted in a man, and has, in turn, affected those environments.
past in which people of every sort, in every part of the The story of how humanity has changed the face of the
world, confronted problems of a similar character and globe is an integral part of our first theme. Yet technol-
coped with them as best they could. We believe that our ogy and the environment do not explain or underlie all
efforts will help students see where their world has come important episodes of human experience. The theme
from and learn thereby something useful for their own of “diversity and dominance” informs all our discus-
lives. sions of politics, culture, and society. Thus when

xv
xvi PREFACE

narrating the histories of empires, we describe a range • Material on the Western Hemisphere in Chapters 12 and
of human experiences within and beyond the imperial 16 has been significantly updated and revised.
frontiers without assuming that imperial institutions • Coverage of Japan and Korea has been expanded in Chapters
are a more fit topic for discussion than the economic 11 and 13, and Chapter 27 contains new materials on Japan.
and social organization of pastoral nomads or the lives • The sequence of Chapters 25 and 26 has been reversed to
of peasant women. When religion and culture occupy avoid divided coverage of Egypt and to improve the tran-
our narrative, we focus not only on the dominant tradi- sition from topic to topic.
tion but also on the diversity of alternative beliefs and • Chapter 34 has been thoroughly revised and updated to
practices. cover the war in Iraq and other contemporary problems.
• Suggested Reading lists have been updated with impor-
tant recent scholarship.
The most visible structural
Changes in the change between the third and
Fourth Edition fourth editions is the addition The Earth and Its Peoples
Organization uses eight broad chronologi-
of one new category of historical essays and three new
pedagogical aids. The new essays, one for each of the cal divisions to define its con-
book’s eight parts, expand the scope of one of the im- ceptual scheme of global historical development. In
provements in the third edition, the essays on Issues in Part One: The Emergence of Human Communities, to
World History. While those essays were designed to alert 500 B.C.E., we examine important patterns of human
students to broad and recurring conceptual issues that communal organization in both the Eastern and West-
are of great interest to contemporary historians, the new ern Hemispheres. Small, dispersed human communi-
essays on Material Culture call particular attention to ties living by foraging spread to most parts of the world
the many ways in which objects and processes of every- over tens of thousands of years. They responded to
day life can play a role in understanding human history enormously diverse environmental conditions, at dif-
on a broad scale. Thus essays like “Wine and Beer in the ferent times in different ways, discovering how to culti-
Ancient World” and “Fast Food” are not only interesting vate plants and utilize the products of domestic
in and of themselves but also suggestive of how today’s animals. On the basis of these new modes of suste-
world historians find meaning in the ordinary dimen- nance, population grew, permanent towns appeared,
sions of human life. and political and religious authority, based on collec-
The pedagogical aids added to the fourth edition in- tion and control of agricultural surpluses, spread over
clude the following: extensive areas.
Part Two: The Formation of New Cultural Commu-
Chapter Opening Focus Questions These ques-
nities, 1000 B.C.E.–400 C.E., introduces the concept of a
tions are keyed to every major subdivision of the
“cultural community,” in the sense of a coherent pattern
chapter and are repeated and summarized in the
of activities and symbols pertaining to a specific human
completely revised summaries found at the end of
each chapter. community. While all human communities develop dis-
tinctive cultures, including those discussed in Part One,
Comparative Perspectives Though interregional historical development in this stage of global history
comparison has always been a strong point of The
prolonged and magnified the impact of some cultures
Earth and Its Peoples, new sections added at the end
more than others. In the geographically contiguous
of many chapters specifically focus on comparison in
African-Eurasian landmass, the cultures that proved to
order to highlight comparative lessons and ease the
transition to the next chapter. have the most enduring influence traced their roots to
the second and first millennia B.C.E.
Icons Throughout the text, icons direct students to Part Three: Growth and Interaction of Cultural Com-
online interactive maps and primary sources corre-
munities, 300 B.C.E.–1200 C.E., deals with early episodes of
sponding to discussions in the text and to the Online
technological, social, and cultural exchange and interac-
Study Center.
tion on a continental scale both within and beyond the
Though chapter-by-chapter changes, including new framework of imperial expansion. These are so different
illustrations, new maps, and text changes in many of the from earlier interactions arising from more limited con-
boxed feature essays, are too numerous to mention, a quests or extensions of political boundaries that they con-
few may be highlighted: stitute a distinct era in world history, an era that set the
 PREFACE xvii

world on the path of increasing global interaction and to European values and philosophies, while at other
interdependence that it has been following ever since. times triggering strong political or cultural resistance.
In Part Four: Interregional Patterns of Culture and For Part Eight: Perils and Promises of a Global Com-
Contact, 1200–1550, we look at the world during the munity, 1945 to the Present, we divided the last half of
three and a half centuries that saw both intensified cul- the twentieth century into three time periods: 1945–1975,
tural and commercial contact and increasingly confi- 1975–1991, and 1991 to the present. The challenges of the
dent self-definition of cultural communities in Europe, Cold War and postcolonial nation building dominated
Asia, and Africa. The Mongol conquest of a vast empire most of the period and unleashed global economic, tech-
extending from the Pacific Ocean to eastern Europe nological, and political forces that became increasingly
greatly stimulated trade and interaction. In the West, important in all aspects of human life. Technology is a key
strengthened European kingdoms began maritime ex- topic in Part Eight because of its integral role in the growth
pansion in the Atlantic, forging direct ties with sub- of a global community and because its many benefits in
Saharan Africa and beginning the conquest of the improving the quality of life seem clouded by real and po-
civilizations of the Western Hemisphere. tential negative impacts on the environment.
Part Five: The Globe Encompassed, 1500–1750, treats
a period dominated by the global effects of European ex-
pansion and continued economic growth. European ships To accommodate different aca-
took over, expanded, and extended the maritime trade of Formats demic calendars and approaches
the Indian Ocean, coastal Africa, and the Asian rim of the to the course, The Earth and Its
Pacific Ocean. This maritime commercial enterprise had Peoples is available in three formats. There is a one-volume
its counterpart in European colonial empires in the Amer- hardcover version containing all 34 chapters, along with a
icas and a new Atlantic trading system. The contrasting ca- two-volume paperback edition: Volume I: To 1550 (Chap-
pacities and fortunes of traditional land empires and new ters 1–16) and Volume II: Since 1500 (Chapters 16–34). For
maritime empires, along with the exchange of domestic readers at institutions with the quarter system, we offer a
plants and animals between the hemispheres, underline three-volume paperback version: Volume A: To 1200 (Chap-
the technological and environmental dimensions of this ters 1–12), Volume B: From 1200 to 1870 (Chapters 12–26),
first era of complete global interaction. Volume C: Since 1750 (Chapters 22–34). Volume II includes
In Part Six: Revolutions Reshape the World, an Introduction that surveys the main developments set
1750–1870, the word revolution is used in several senses: out in Volume I and provides a groundwork for students
in the political sense of governmental overthrow, as in studying only the period since 1500.
France and the Americas; in the metaphorical sense of rad-
ical transformative change, as in the Industrial Revolution;
and in the broadest sense of a perception of a profound A wide array of supplements
change in circumstances and world-view. Technology and Ancillaries accompany this text to help stu-
environment lie at the core of these developments. With dents better master the material
the rapid ascendancy of the Western belief that science and to help instructors teach from the book:
and technology could overcome all challenges—environ-
• Online Study Center Online Study Center
mental or otherwise—technology became an instrument
student website
not only of transformation but also of domination, to the
• Online Teaching Center
point of threatening the integrity and autonomy of cultural Online Teaching Center
instructor website
traditions in nonindustrial lands.
• Online Instructor’s Resource Manual
Part Seven: Global Diversity and Dominance,
• HM Testing CD-ROM (powered by Diploma®)
1850–1945, examines the development of a world arena
• PowerPoint® maps, images, and lecture outlines
in which people conceived of events on a global scale.
• PowerPoint® questions for personal response systems
Imperialism, world war, international economic con-
• Blackboard® and WebCT® course cartridges
nections, and world-encompassing ideological tenden-
• Eduspace® (powered by BlackboardÆ)
cies, such as nationalism and socialism, present the
• Interactive eBook
picture of a globe becoming increasingly intercon-
nected. European dominance took on a worldwide di- The Online Study Center is a companion website for
mension, seeming at times to threaten the diversity of students that features a wide array of resources to help
human cultural experience with permanent subordination students master the subject matter. The website, prepared
xviii PREFACE

by John Reisbord of Vassar College, is divided into three in classroom presentations. Detailed lecture outlines
major sections: correspond to the book’s chapters and make it easier for
instructors to cover the major topics in class. The art col-
• “Prepare for Class” includes material such as learning ob- lection includes all of the photos and maps in the text, as
jectives, chapter outlines, and preclass quizzes for a stu- well as numerous other images from our other world his-
dent to consult before going to class. tory titles. Power Point® questions and answers for use
• “Improve Your Grade” includes practice review material with personal response system software are also offered
like interactive flashcards, chronological ordering exer- to adopters free of charge.
cises, primary sources, and interactive map exercises. A variety of assignable homework and testing ma-
• “ACE the Test” features our successful ACE brand of prac- terial has been developed to work with the Black-
tice tests as well as other self-testing materials. board® and WebCT® course management systems, as
well as with Eduspace®: Houghton Mifflin’s Online
Students can find additional text resources in the Learning Tool (Powered by Blackboard®). Eduspace®
“General Resources” section, such as an online glossary, is a web-based online learning environment that pro-
audio mp3 files of chapter summaries, and material on vides instructors with a gradebook and communication
how to study more effectively. Throughout the text, icons capabilities, such as synchronous and asynchronous
direct students to relevant exercises and self-testing mate- chats and announcement postings. It offers access to
rial located on the Online Study Center. Access the Online assignments such as over 650 gradable homework exer-
Study Center for this text by visiting college.hmco.com/ cises, writing assignments, interactive maps with ques-
pic/bulliet4e. tions, primary sources, discussion questions for online
The Online Teaching Center is a companion website discussion boards, and tests, which all come ready to
for instructors. It features all of the material on the stu- use. Instructors can choose to use the content as is,
dent site plus additional password-protected resources modify it, or even add their own. Eduspace® also con-
that help instructors teach the course, such as the In- tains an interactive eBook, which contains in-text links
structor’s Resource Manual and PowerPoint® slides. Ac- to interactive maps, primary sources, and audio pro-
cess the Online Teaching Center for this text by visiting nunciation files, as well as review and self-testing mate-
college.hmco.com/pic/bulliet4e. rial for students.
The Online Instructor’s Resource Manual, thoroughly
revised by Sheila Phipps of Appalachian State University,
provides useful teaching strategies for the world history In preparing the fourth edi-
course and tips for getting the most out of the text. Each Acknowledgments tion, we benefited from the
chapter contains instructional objectives, a detailed critical readings of many col-
chapter outline, discussion questions, lecture topics, pa- leagues. Our sincere thanks go in particular to the fol-
per topics, and Internet resources. lowing instructors: Kathleen Addison, California State
HM Testing (powered by DiplomaTM) offers instruc- University, Northridge; Bruce A. Castleman, San Diego
tors a flexible and powerful tool for test generation and State University; Lynne M. Getz, Appalachian State Uni-
test management. Now supported by the Brownstone versity; Jane Hathaway, Ohio State University; Em-
Research Group’s market-leading DiplomaTM software, manuel Konde, Albany State University; Patrick M.
this new version of HM Testing significantly improves Patterson, Honolulu Community College; Stephen H.
on functionality and ease of use by offering all the tools Rapp, Jr., Georgia State University; Eric C. Rust, Baylor
needed to create, author, deliver, and customize multi- University; Sara W. Tucker, Washburn University; David J.
ple types of tests. DiplomaTM is currently used by thou- Ulbrich, Ball State University; and Michael C. Weber,
sands of college and university campuses throughout Salem State College.
the United States and Canada. The HM Testing content When textbook authors set out on a project, they are
for this text was developed by Kathleen Addison of Cali- inclined to believe that 90 percent of the effort will be
fornia State University, Northridge, and offers 15 to 25 theirs and 10 percent that of various editors and pro-
key term identifications, 5 to 10 essay questions with duction specialists employed by their publisher. How
answer guidelines, 35 to 40 multiple-choice questions, very naïve. This book would never have seen the light of
and 2 to 8 history and geography exercises for each day had it not been for the unstinting labors of the great
chapter. team of professionals who turned the authors’ words into
We are pleased to offer a collection of world history beautifully presented print. Our debt to the staff of
Power Point® lecture outlines, maps, and images for use Houghton Mifflin remains undiminished in the fourth
 PREFACE xix

edition. Nancy Blaine, Senior Sponsoring Editor, has of- outstanding job of photo research. And Susan Zorn
fered us firm but sympathetic guidance throughout the again lent her considerable copyediting skills to the text.
revision process. Julie Swasey offered astute and sympa- We thank also the many students whose questions and
thetic assistance as the authors worked to incorporate concerns, expressed directly or through their instructors,
many new ideas and subjects into the text. Carol New- shaped much of this revision. We continue to welcome all
man, Senior Project Editor, moved the work through the readers’ suggestions, queries, and criticisms. Please con-
production stages to meet what had initially seemed tact us at our respective institutions or at this e-mail ad-
like an unachievable schedule. Carole Frohlich did an dress: [email protected].
This page intentionally left blank
 About the Authors
RICHARD W. BULLIET Professor of Middle Eastern His- STEVEN W. HIRSCH Steven W. Hirsch holds a Ph.D. in
tory at Columbia University, Richard W. Bulliet received his Classics from Stanford University and is currently Associate
Ph.D. from Harvard University. He has written scholarly works Professor of Classics and History at Tufts University. He has re-
on a number of topics: the social history of medieval Iran (The ceived grants from the National Endowment for the Humani-
Patricians of Nishapur), the history of human-animal relations ties and the Massachusetts Foundation for Humanities and
(The Camel and the Wheel and Hunters, Herders, and Hamburg- Public Policy. His research and publications include The
ers), the process of conversion to Islam (Conversion to Islam in Friendship of the Barbarians: Xenophon and the Persian Em-
the Medieval Period), and the overall course of Islamic social pire, as well as articles and reviews in the Classical Journal, the
history (Islam: The View from the Edge and The Case for Islamo- American Journal of Philology, and the Journal of Interdiscipli-
Christian Civilization). He is the editor of the Columbia History nary History. He is currently working on a comparative study
of the Twentieth Century. He has published four novels, of ancient Mediterranean and Chinese civilizations.
coedited The Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East, and
hosted an educational television series on the Middle East. He LYMAN L. JOHNSON Professor of History at the Univer-
was awarded a fellowship by the John Simon Guggenheim sity of North Carolina at Charlotte, Lyman L. Johnson earned
Memorial Foundation. his Ph.D. in Latin American History from the University of Con-
necticut. A two-time Senior Fulbright-Hays Lecturer, he also
PAMELA KYLE CROSSLEY Pamela Kyle Crossley re- has received fellowships from the Tinker Foundation, the Social
ceived her Ph.D. in Modern Chinese History from Yale Univer- Science Research Council, the National Endowment for the Hu-
sity. She is Professor of History and Rosenwald Research manities, and the American Philosophical Society. His recent
Professor in the Arts and Sciences at Dartmouth College. Her books include Death, Dismemberment, and Memory; The Faces
books include A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in of Honor (with Sonya Lipsett-Rivera); The Problem of Order in
Qing Imperial Ideology; The Manchus; Orphan Warriors: Three Changing Societies; Essays on the Price History of Eighteenth-
Manchu Generations and the End of the Qing World; and (with Century Latin America (with Enrique Tandeter); and Colonial
Lynn Hollen Lees and John W. Servos) Global Society: The Latin America (with Mark A. Burkholder). He also has pub-
World Since 1900. Her research, which concentrates on the lished in journals, including the Hispanic American Historical
cultural history of China, Inner Asia, and Central Asia, has Review, the Journal of Latin American Studies, the International
been supported by the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Review of Social History, Social History, and Desarrollo
Foundation and the National Endowment for the Humanities. Económico. He recently served as president of the Conference
on Latin American History.
DANIEL R. HEADRICK Daniel R. Headrick received his
Ph.D. in History from Princeton University. Professor of History DAVID NORTHRUP Professor of History at Boston College,
and Social Science at Roosevelt University in Chicago, he is the David Northrup earned his Ph.D. in African and European His-
author of several books on the history of technology, imperial- tory from the University of California at Los Angeles. He earlier
ism, and international relations, including The Tools of Empire: taught in Nigeria with the Peace Corps and at Tuskegee Insti-
Technology and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Cen- tute. Research supported by the Fulbright-Hays Commission,
tury; The Tentacles of Progress: Technology Transfer in the Age of the National Endowment for the Humanities, and the Social
Imperialism; The Invisible Weapon: Telecommunications and In- Science Research Council led to publications concerning pre-
ternational Politics; and When Information Came of Age: Tech- colonial Nigeria, the Congo (1870–1940), the Atlantic slave trade,
nologies of Knowledge in the Age of Reason and Revolution, and Asian, African, and Pacific islander indentured labor in the
1700–1850. His articles have appeared in the Journal of World nineteenth century. A contributor to the Oxford History of the
History and the Journal of Modern History, and he has been British Empire and Blacks in the British Empire, his latest book is
awarded fellowships by the National Endowment for the Hu- Africa’s Discovery of Europe, 1450–1850. In 2004 and 2005 he
manities, the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation, served as president of the World History Association.
and the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation.

xxi
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 Note on Spelling and Usage

W here necessary for clarity, dates are followed by

the letters C.E. or B.C.E. The abbreviation C.E.
stands for “Common Era” and is equivalent to
A.D. (anno Domini, Latin for “in the year of the Lord”).
context justifies slightly different Turkish or Persian forms,
again for ease of comprehension.
Before 1492 the inhabitants of the Western Hemi-
sphere had no single name for themselves. They had nei-
The abbreviation B.C.E. stands for “before the Common ther a racial consciousness nor a racial identity. Identity
Era” and means the same as B.C. (“before Christ”). In was derived from kin groups, language, cultural practices,
keeping with our goal of approaching world history and political structures. There was no sense that physical
without special concentration on one culture or another, similarities created a shared identity. America’s original
we chose these neutral abbreviations as appropriate to inhabitants had racial consciousness and racial identity
our enterprise. Because many readers will be more fa- imposed on them by conquest and the occupation of their
miliar with English than with metric measurements, lands by Europeans after 1492. All of the collective terms
however, units of measure are generally given in the Eng- for these first American peoples are tainted by this history.
lish system, with metric equivalents following in paren- Indians, Native Americans, Amerindians, First Peoples, and
theses. Indigenous Peoples are among the terms in common us-
In general, Chinese has been Romanized according age. In this book the names of individual cultures and
to the pinyin method. Exceptions include proper names states are used wherever possible. Amerindian and other
well established in English (e.g., Canton, Chiang Kai- terms that suggest transcultural identity and experience
shek) and a few English words borrowed from Chinese are used most commonly for the period after 1492.
(e.g., kowtow). Spellings of Arabic, Ottoman Turkish, Per- There is an ongoing debate about how best to render
sian, Mongolian, Manchu, Japanese, and Korean names Amerindian words in English. It has been common for au-
and terms avoid special diacritical marks for letters that thors writing in English to follow Mexican usage for Nahu-
are pronounced only slightly differently in English. An atl and Yucatec Maya words and place-names. In this
apostrophe is used to indicate when two Chinese sylla- style, for example, the capital of the Aztec state is spelled
bles are pronounced separately (e.g., Chang’an). Tenochtitlán, and the important late Maya city-state is
For words transliterated from languages that use spelled Chichén Itzá. Although these forms are still com-
the Arabic script—Arabic, Ottoman Turkish, Persian, mon even in the specialist literature, we have chosen to
Urdu—the apostrophe indicating separately pronounced follow the scholarship that sees these accents as unneces-
syllables may represent either of two special consonants, sary. The exceptions are modern place-names, such as
the hamza or the ain. Because most English-speakers Mérida and Yucatán, which are accented. A similar prob-
do not hear the distinction between these two, they lem exists for the spelling of Quechua and Aymara words
have not been distinguished in transliteration and are from the Andean region of South America. Although there
not indicated when they occur at the beginning or end is significant disagreement among scholars, we follow the
of a word. As with Chinese, some words and commonly emerging consensus and use the spellings khipu (not
used place-names from these languages are given famil- quipu), Tiwanaku (not Tiahuanaco), and Wari (not Huari).
iar English spellings (e.g., Quran instead of Qur’an, Cairo However, we keep Inca (not Inka) and Cuzco (not Cusco),
instead of al-Qahira). Arabic romanization has normally since these spellings are expected by most of our potential
been used for terms relating to Islam, even where the readers and we hope to avoid confusion.

xxiii
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The Earth and
Its Peoples
A Global History
Part One
The Emergence of
Human Communities,
to 500 B.C.E.

CHAPTER 1
Nature, Humanity, and History, to 3500 B.C.E.

CHAPTER 2
The First River-Valley Civilizations, 3500–1500 B.C.E.

CHAPTER 3
New Civilizations in the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, 2200–250 B.C.E.

CHAPTER 4
The Mediterranean and Middle East, 2000–500 B.C.E.

H uman beings evolved over several million years from primates in Africa.
Able to walk upright and possessing large brains, hands with opposable
thumbs, and the capacity for speech, early humans used teamwork and cre-
ated tools to survive in diverse environments. They spread relatively quickly
to almost every habitable area of the world, hunting and gathering wild plant
products. Around 10,000 years ago some groups began to cultivate plants, do-
mesticate animals, and make pottery vessels for storage. This led to perma-
nent settlements—at first small villages but eventually larger towns as well.
The earliest complex societies arose in the great river valleys of
Mesopotamia, Egypt, Pakistan, and northern China. In these arid regions
agriculture depended on river water, and centers of political power arose to
organize the labor required to dig and maintain irrigation channels. Kings
and priests dominated these early societies from the urban centers, helped
by administrators, scribes, soldiers, merchants, craftsmen, and others with
specialized skills. Surplus food grown in the countryside by a dependent
peasantry sustained the activities of these groups.
Certain centers came to dominate broader expanses of territory, seeking
access to raw materials, especially metals. This also stimulated long-
2
 Babylonian Map of the World, ca. 600 B.C.E.
This map on a clay tablet, with labels written in Akkadian cuneiform, shows a flat, round world with the
city of Babylon at the center. Nearby features of the Mesopotamian landscape include the Euphrates
River, mountains, marshes, and cities. Beyond the great encircling salt sea are seven islands. Like many
ancient peoples, the Babylonians believed that distant lands were home to legendary beasts, strangely
formed peoples, and mysterious natural phenomena. (British Museum/HIP/Art Resource, NY)

distance trade and diplomatic relations between major powers. Artisans

made weapons, tools, and ritual objects from bronze. Culture and technol-
ogy spread to neighboring regions, such as southern China, Nubia, Syria-
Palestine, Anatolia, and the Aegean.
In the Western Hemisphere, different geographical circumstances called
forth distinctive patterns of technological and cultural response in the early
civilizations in southern Mexico and the Andean region of South America.
3
Engraving of Two Cattle in the Sahara, ca. In light of scientific advances in our understanding
5000 B.C.E. Around 10,000 B.C.E. people of human origins, what have we learned about our
settled in the central Sahara and began to relationship to the earth and other living species?
engrave rocks with pictures of animals. The
engravings display an expert knowledge of How did the physical and mental abilities that humans
animal stance, movement, and anatomy. gradually evolved enable them to adapt their way of life
(David Coulson/Robert Estall Photo Agency) to new environments during the Great Ice Age?
After nearly 2 million years of physical and cultural
development, how did human communities in different
parts of the world learn to manipulate nature?
What cultural achievements characterized life in the
Neolithic period?

4
 1 Nature, Humanity,
and History,
to 3500 B.C.E.

CHAPTER OUTLINE
African Genesis

History and Culture in the Ice Age

The Agricultural Revolutions

Life in Neolithic Communities

Diversity and Dominance: Cave Art

Environment and Technology: The Iceman

T hough much remains to be learned, scientists have uncovered a

great deal of evidence about life in the earliest periods of human
history. Perhaps the most impressive creations of our earliest human
ancestors are paintings and engravings on stone. Monuments of an-
cient “rock art,” many of which were created tens of thousands of years
ago, have been found in abundance on every major continent—from
Africa, Europe, and Asia to Australia and the Americas. An unknown
artist in central Africa carved this image of two cattle around 5000
B.C.E., when the Sahara was not a desert but a verdant savanna capable
of supporting numerous species of wildlife. Why the image was carved
and what significance it held for those who first admired it will likely
remain a mystery, but for us it represents a beautiful work of art that
has much to tell us about our common human ancestry.
Long before the invention of writing, societies told themselves
This icon will direct you to interactive stories about their origins: how human beings and the natural world
activities and study materials on the
website: college.hmco.com/pic/bulliet4e.
5
were created. Some, like the Yoruba° people of West like that of modern humans but with a face that, like the
Africa, related that the first humans came down from faces of apes, had heavy brow ridges and a low forehead.
Although we now know these “Neanderthals” were a
the sky; others, like the Hopi of southwest North
type of human common in Europe some 40,000 years
America, that they emerged out of a hole in the earth. ago, in the mid-nineteenth century the idea that humans
Although such creation myths typically explain how a so different in appearance from modern people could
people’s way of life, social divisions, and cultural sys- have existed was so novel that some of the scholars who
tem arose, historical accuracy in the modern sense first examined them thought they must be deformed in-
dividuals from recent times.
was not their primary purpose. Like the story of Adam
Three years after the Neanderthal finds, Charles
and Eve in the Hebrew Bible, their goal was to define Darwin, a young English naturalist (student of natural
the moral principles that people thought should gov- history), published On the Origin of Species. In this work
ern their dealings with the supernatural world, with he argued that the time frame for all biological life was
far longer than most persons had supposed. Darwin
each other, and with the rest of nature.
based his conclusion on pioneering naturalists’ research
In the nineteenth century evidence began to ac- and on his own investigations of fossils and living plant
cumulate that human beings had quite different ori- and animal species in Latin America. He proposed that
gins. Natural scientists were finding remains of early the great diversity of living species and the profound
humans who resembled apes. Other evidence sug- changes in them over time could be explained by evolu-
tion, the process by which biological variations that en-
gested that the familiar ways of life based on farming
hance a population’s ability to survive became dominant
and herding did not arise within a generation or two in that species. He theorized that, over very long periods
of creation, as many myths suggested, but tens of of time, the changes brought about by evolution could
thousands of years after humans first appeared. Al- lead to distinct new species.
though such evidence has long stirred controversy, a Turning to the sensitive subject of human evolution
in The Descent of Man (1871), Darwin summarized the
careful questioning of it reveals insights into human growing consensus among naturalists that human be-
identity that may be as meaningful as those pro- ings had also come into existence through the same
pounded by the creation myths. process of natural selection. Because humans shared so
many physical similarities with African apes, he pro-
posed that Africa must have been the home of the first
African Genesis humans, even though there was no fossil evidence at the
time to support his hypothesis.
Instead, the next major discoveries pointed to Asia,

T he discovery in the mid-nineteenth century of the

remains of ancient creatures that were at once hu-
manlike and apelike generated both excitement and con-
rather than Africa, as the original human home. On the
Southeast Asian island of Java in 1891 Eugene Dubois un-
covered an ancient skullcap of what was soon called “Java
troversy. The evidence upset many people because it man,” a find that has since been dated to 1.8 million years
challenged accepted beliefs about human origins. Others ago. In 1929 near Peking (Beijing°), China, W. C. Pei dis-
welcomed the new evidence as proof of what some re- covered a similar skullcap of what became known as
searchers had long suspected: the physical characteris- “Peking man.”
tics of modern humans, like those of all other creatures, By then, even older fossils had been found in south-
had evolved over incredibly long periods of time. Until re- ern Africa. In 1924, while examining fossils from a lime
cently, the evidence was too fragmentary to be convincing. quarry, Raymond Dart found the skull of an ancient
creature that he named Australopithecus africanus°
(African southern ape), which he argued was transitional
In 1856 in the Neander Valley between apes and early humans. For many years most
Interpreting the of what is now Germany, labor- specialists disputed Dart’s idea, because, although Aus-
Evidence ers discovered fossilized bones tralopithecus africanus walked upright like a human,
of a creature with a body much

Beijing (bay-jeeng) Australopithecus africanus (aw-strah-loh-

Yoruba (yoh-roo-bah) PITH-uh-kuhs ah-frih-KAH-nuhs)

6
 African Genesis 7

C H R O N O L O G Y
Geological Epochs Species and Migrations Technological Advances

3,000,000 3,000,000 B.C.E.

B.C.E. Australopithecines
2,500,000 B.C.E. 2,500,000—2,000,000 B.C.E.
Early homo habilis Earliest stone tools; hunting
and gathering (foraging)
societies
2,000,000 2,000,000–9000 B.C.E. 2,000,000—8,000 B.C.E.
1,900,000–350,000 B.C.E.
B.C.E. Pleistocene (Great Ice Age) Paleolithic (Old Stone Age)
Homo erectus
1,000,000
B.C.E. 400,000–130,000 B.C.E. 500,000 B.C.E. Use of fire
Archaic Homo sapiens for cooking
150,000 B.C.E. Modern Homo
sapiens in Africa
100,000 100,000 B.C.E. Modern
70,000 B.C.E. First known cave art
B.C.E. humans in Eurasia
50,000 B.C.E. Modern humans
30,000 B.C.E. First cave
in Australia
paintings
13,000 B.C.E. Modern humans
10,000 in Americas
B.C.E. 9000 B.C.E.–present Holocene 8000–2000 B.C.E. Neolithic (New
Stone Age); earliest agriculture

its brain was ape-size. Such an idea went against their By combining that evidence with the growing un-
expectations that large brains would have evolved first derstanding of how other species adapt to their natural
and that Asia, not Africa, was the first home of humans environments, scientists can describe with some precision
Since 1950, Louis and Mary Leakey and their son when, where, and how human beings evolved and how
Richard, along with many others, have discovered a they lived. As the result of this new work, it is now possible
wealth of early human fossils in the exposed sediments to trace the evolutionary changes that produced modern
of the Great Rift Valley of eastern Africa. These finds are humans during a period of 4 million years. As Darwin sus-
strong evidence for Dart’s hypothesis and for Darwin’s pected, the earliest transitional creatures have been found
guess that the tropical habitat of the African apes was the only in Africa; the later human species (including Java man
cradle of humanity. and Peking man) had wider global distribution.
The development of precise archaeological tech-
niques has enhanced the quantity of evidence currently
available. Rather than collect isolated bones, modern re- Evidence that humans evolved
searchers literally sift the neighboring soils to extract the Human Evolution gradually over millions of years
remains of other creatures existing at the time, locating caused much debate about
fossilized seeds and even pollen by which to document how species should be defined. Biologists now classify
the environment in which the humans lived. They can australopithecines° and humans as members of a
also measure the age of most finds by the rate of molec-
ular change in potassium, in minerals in lava flows, or in
carbon from wood and bone. australopithecine (aw-strah-loh-PITH-uh-seen)
8 CHAPTER 1 Nature, Humanity, and History, to 3500 B.C.E.

(and controversial) to say that we are descended from

apes. Modern research has found that over 98 percent of
human DNA, the basic genetic blueprint, is identical to
that of the great apes.
But three traits distinguish humans from apes and
other primates. As Dart’s australopithecines demon-
strated, the earliest of these traits to appear was bipedal-
ism (walking upright on two legs). This frees the forelimbs
from any necessary role in locomotion and enhances an
older primate trait: a hand that has a long thumb that can
work with the fingers to manipulate objects skillfully. Mod-
ern humans’ second distinctive trait was a very large brain.
Besides enabling humans to think abstractly, experience
profound emotions, and construct complex social rela-
tionships, this larger brain controls the fine motor move-
ments of the hand and of the tongue, increasing humans’
tool-using capacity and facilitating the development of
speech. The physical possibility of language, however, de-
pends on a third distinctive human trait: the location of
the human larynx (voice box). It lies much lower in the
neck than does the larynx of any other primate. This trait is
associated with many other changes in the face and neck.
How and why did these immensely important bi-
ological changes take place? Scientists still employ
Darwin’s concept of natural selection, attributing the de-
velopment of distinctive human traits to the preserva-
tion of genetic changes that enhanced survivability.
Although the details have not been fully worked out, it is
widely accepted that major shifts in the world’s climate
led to evolutionary changes in human ancestors and
other species. About 10 million years ago, falling temper-
atures in temperate regions culminated in the Great Ice
Age, or Pleistocene° epoch, extending from about 2 mil-
lion to about 11,000 years ago (see Chronology). The
Fossilized Footprints Archaeologist Mary Leakey (shown at top) Pleistocene included more than a dozen very cold peri-
found these remarkable footprints of a hominid adult and child at ods, each spanning several thousand years, separated by
Laetoli, Tanzania. The pair had walked through fresh volcanic ash
warmer periods. These temperature changes and the al-
that solidified after being buried by a new volcanic eruption. Dated
tered rainfall and vegetation that accompanied them im-
to 3.5 million years ago, the footprints are the oldest evidence of
posed great strains on existing plant and animal species.
bipedalism yet found. (John Reader/Photo Researchers, Inc.)
As a result, large numbers of new species evolved.
During the Pleistocene, massive glaciers of frozen wa-
ter spread out from the poles and mountains. At their peak
family of primates known as hominids°. Primates are such glaciers covered a third of the earth’s surface and con-
members of a family of warm-blooded, four-limbed, tained so much frozen water that ocean levels were low-
social animals known as mammals that first appeared ered by over 450 feet (140 meters), exposing land bridges
about 65 million years ago. The first hominids date to between many places now isolated by water (see Map 1.1).
about 7 million years ago. Although the glaciers did not extend beyond the arc-
Within the primate kingdom modern humans are tic and temperate zones, the equatorial regions of the
most closely related to the African apes—chimpanzees world probably also experienced altered climates before
and gorillas. Since Darwin’s time it has been popular and during the Pleistocene epoch. Between 3 million

hominid (HOM-uh-nid) Pleistocene (PLY-stuh-seen)

 African Genesis 9

Evolution of the Human Brain These drawings of skulls show the extensive cranial
changes associated with the increase in brain size during the 3 million years from
Homo habilis to Homo sapiens sapiens.

Homo Homo Homo

habilis erectus sapiens

and 4 million years ago, several new species of bipedal new hominid, Homo erectus° (upright human), which had
australopithecines evolved in southern and eastern first appeared in eastern Africa about 1.9 million years ago.
Africa. In a remarkable find in northern Ethiopia in 1974, These creatures possessed brains a third larger than those
Donald Johanson unearthed a well-preserved skeleton of of Homo habilis, which presumably accounted for their
a twenty-five-year-old female, whom he nicknamed better survivability. A nearly complete skeleton of a twelve-
“Lucy.” Mary Leakey’s related discovery of fossilized foot- year-old male of the species discovered by Richard Leakey
prints in Tanzania in 1977 provided spectacular visual ev- in 1984 on the shores of Lake Turkana in Kenya shows that
idence that australopithecines walked on two legs. Homo erectus closely resembled modern people from the
Bipedalism evolved because it provided australo- neck down. Homo erectus was very successful in dealing
pithecines with some advantage for survival. Some with different environments and underwent hardly any bi-
studies suggest that walking and running on two legs ological changes for over a million years.
is very energy efficient. Another theory is that bipeds However, by a long, imperfectly understood evolu-
survived better because they could carry armfuls of tionary process between 400,000 and 130,000 years ago,
food back to their mates and children. Whatever its a new human species emerged: Homo sapiens° (wise
decisive advantage, bipedalism led to other changes. human). The brains of Homo sapiens were a third larger
Climate changes between 2 million and 3 million than those of Homo erectus, whom they gradually super-
years ago led to the evolution of a new species, the first to seded. Indeed, these brains were more than three times
be classified in the same genus (Homo) with modern hu- the size one would expect in another primate of compa-
mans. At Olduvai° Gorge in northern Tanzania in the rable body size and gave Homo sapiens tremendous ca-
early 1960s, Louis Leakey discovered the first fossilized pacity for speech.
remains of this creature, which he named Homo habilis° This slow but remarkable process of physical evolu-
(handy human). What most distinguished Homo habilis tion, which distinguished humans by a small but signifi-
from the australopithecines was a brain that was cant degree from other primates, was one part of what
nearly 50 percent larger. A larger brain would have was happening. Equally remarkable was the way in
added to the new species’ intelligence. What was hap- which humans were extending their habitat.
pening in this period that favored greater mental ca-
pacity? Some scientists believe that the answer had to
do with food. Greater intelligence enabled Homo ha- Early humans first expanded
Migrations their range in eastern and
bilis to locate a vast number of different kinds of things
to eat throughout the seasons of the year. They point to
from Africa southern Africa. Then they
seeds and other fossilized remains in ancient Homo ventured out of Africa, perhaps
habilis camps that indicate that the new species ate a following migrating herds of animals or searching for
greater variety of more nutritious seasonal foods than more abundant food supplies in a time of drought. The
did the australopithecines. reasons are uncertain, but the end results are vividly
By 1 million years ago Homo habilis and all the aus- clear: Humans successfully colonized environments,
tralopithecines had become extinct. In their habitat lived a

Homo erectus (HOH-moh ee-REK-tuhs)

Olduvai (ol-DOO-vy) Homo habilis (HOH-moh HAB-uh-luhs) Homo sapiens (HOH-moh SAY-pee-enz)
 10
0 1500 3000 Km.

CHAPTER 1
0 1500 3000 Mi.

Nature, Humanity, and History, to 3500 B.C.E.

ASIA
NORTH
AMERICA

ATLANTIC
OCEAN
AFRICA
PACIFIC
OCEAN
INDIAN SOUTH
OCEAN AMERICA

AUSTRALIA

ANTARCTICA

Areas of human occupation Probable migration routes

100,000 years ago Before 100,000 years ago Probable coastline, 20,000 years ago
100,000–40,000 years ago After 100,000 years ago Ice sheets, 20,000 years ago
40,000–10,000 years ago

Map 1.1 Human Dispersal to 10,000 Years Ago Early migrations from Africa into southern
Eurasia were followed by treks across land bridges during cold spells, when giant ice sheets had
lowered ocean levels. Boats may also have been employed.
 History and Culture in the Ice Age 11

including deserts and arctic lands (see Map 1.1). This dis- skin color. The deeply pigmented skin of today’s indige-
persal demonstrates early humans’ talent for adaptation. nous inhabitants of the tropics (and presumably of all
Homo erectus was the first human species to inhabit early humans who evolved there) is an adaptation that
all parts of Africa and the first to be found outside Africa. reduces the harmful effects of the harsh tropical sun. At
Java Man and Peking Man were members of this species. some point, possibly as recently as 5,000 years ago, espe-
By migrating overland from Africa across southern Asia, cially pale skin became characteristic of Europeans liv-
Homo erectus reached Java as early as 1.8 million years ing in northern latitudes that had far less sunshine,
ago. At that time, because of the great volume of water especially during winter months. The loss of pigment en-
trapped in ice-age glaciers, sea levels were so low that abled their skin to produce more vitamin D from sun-
Java was not an island but was part of the Southeast Asian shine, though it exposed Europeans to a greater risk of
mainland. Java’s climate would have been no colder than sunburn and skin cancer in sunnier climates. In the Arc-
East Africa’s. The harsh winters of northern Europe and tic there were other ways to adapt. Eskimos who began
northern China, where Homo erectus settled between moving into northern latitudes of North America no
700,000 and 300,000 years ago, posed a greater challenge. more than 5,000 years ago retain the deeper pigmenta-
DNA and fossil evidence suggest that Homo sapi- tion of their Asian ancestors but are able to gain suffi-
ens spread outward from an African homeland, al- cient vitamin D from eating fish and sea mammals.
though some scientists hold that Homo sapiens may As distinctive as skin color seems, it represents a
have evolved separately from Homo erectus populations very minor biological change. What is far more remark-
in Africa, Europe, China, and Southeast Asia. Their mi- able is that these widely dispersed populations vary so
grations to the rest of the world would have been made little. Instead of needing to evolve physically like other
easier by a wet period that transformed the normally species in order to adapt to new environments, modern
arid Sahara and Middle East into fertile grasslands until humans have been able to change their eating habits
about 40,000 years ago. The abundance of plant and an- and devise new forms of clothing and shelter. As a result,
imal food during this wet period would have promoted human communities have become culturally diverse
an increase in human populations. while remaining physically homogeneous.
By the end of the wet period, further evolutionary
changes had produced fully modern humans (Homo
sapiens sapiens). This new species displaced older hu- History and Culture
man populations, such as the Neanderthals in Europe,
and penetrated for the first time into the Americas, Aus- in the Ice Age
tralia, and the Arctic.
During glacial periods when sea levels were low,
hunters would have been able to cross a land bridge
from northeastern Asia into North America. Recently a
E vidence of early humans’ splendid creative abilities
first came to light in 1940 near Lascaux in southern
France. Examining a newly uprooted tree, youths discov-
hypothesis has been advanced that some early coloniz- ered the entrance to a vast underground cavern. Once in-
ers of the Americas may also have come by boat along side, they found that its walls were covered with paintings
the Pacific coast. As these pioneers from East Asia and of animals, including many that had been extinct for
later migrants moved southward (penetrating southern thousands of years. Other ancient cave paintings have
South America by at least 12,500 years ago), they passed been found in Spain, Africa, Australia, and elsewhere.
through lands teeming with life, including easily hunted Modern observers have been struck by the artis-
large animal species. Meanwhile, traveling by boat from tic quality of these paintings. To even the most skep-
Java, other modern humans colonized New Guinea and tical person, such finds are awesome demonstrations of
Australia when both were part of a single landmass, and richly developed imagination and skill. The ancient cave
they crossed the land bridge then existing between the art is vivid evidence that the biologically modern people
Asian mainland and Japan. Australia was reached by who made such art were intellectually modern as well
about 50,000 years ago. For a time, new waves of mi- (see Diversity and Dominance: Cave Art).
grants entered the Americas and Australia. Then, when These ancient people’s specialized tools and com-
the glaciers melted, the seas rose and the lands under- plex social relations may be less striking visually, but they
went a long period of isolation from the rest of humanity. also display uniquely human talents. The production of
As populations migrated, they may have undergone similar art and tools over wide areas and long periods of
some minor evolutionary changes that helped them time demonstrates that skills and ideas were not simply
adapt to extreme environments. One such change was in bursts of individual genius but were deliberately passed
Cave Art imaginations wonder at the meaning of the world and the
celestial bodies above them?
Very little evidence exists to answer these important
W ere the people who lived tens of thousands of years
ago different from people today? Biologically, mem-
bers of Homo sapiens sapiens seem not to have become
questions except in one form: cave paintings. First discov-
ered in France in the late nineteenth century, such art imme-
more diverse over time. But what were our ancestors like diately suggested that those who drew it were sophisticated
inside—in their thoughts, imaginations, and emotions? Did modern people like ourselves. Just as the skeletal remains of
their eyes see beauty, their ears hear music, and their Homo sapiens of a hundred thousand years ago show they

The Lion Panel in Chauvet Cave, France (Courtesy, Jean Clottes)

Removed due to copyright

permissions restrictions.

along within societies. These learned patterns of action biological development, but only human communities
and expression constitute culture. Culture includes both display profound cultural developments over time. The
material objects, such as dwellings, clothing, tools, and development, transmission, and transformation of cul-
crafts, and nonmaterial values, beliefs, and languages. tural practices and events are the subject of history.
Although it is true that some animals also learn new
ways, their activities are determined primarily by inher-
ited instincts. Among humans the proportions are re- When archaeologists examine
versed: instincts are less important than the cultural Food Gathering the remains of ancient human
traditions that each generation learns from its elders. All and Stone Tools sites, the first thing that jumps
living creatures are part of natural history, which traces out at them is the abundant

12
had modern bodies, the art they made suggests they had ways. Citing the example of the rock art traditions of the San
modern minds. artists of southern Africa that continued into the twentieth
The oldest cave paintings discovered in southeastern century, he suggests that other cave art concerned the mys-
France date from 32,000 years ago—a very long time measured tical relationship of humans with the animals they hunted.
in human lifetimes, but a small part of human existence. The The form of the paintings and the ingredients that went into
oldest recognizable human art, a carefully crosshatched them meant that humans could absorb something of the
bone from Blombos Cave east of Cape Town, South Africa, power of the bears, antelope, bison, or other animals de-
dates from over 70,000 years ago. Even as the temporal dis- picted in the caves by viewing or touching them.
tance from us increases, the evidence supports the conclu- Finally, Fagan says, we need to consider what these caves
sion that these early people had minds and imaginations no were used for and why cave artists returned over many gen-
different from those of people today. erations, filling the walls and ceilings with their works. In
We may sense these cave artists’ common humanity with some places, later artists even painted over earlier works. Fa-
ourselves, but it is not easy to understand the cultural context gan compares the decorated caverns of remote antiquity
of their work. Why did they draw what they did? And why in with the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican, beautifully decorated
caves? In his book From Black Land to Fifth Sun (1998), ar- by the artist Michelangelo, where many religious ceremonies
chaeologist Brian Fagan suggests three approaches to bridg- are staged, including the election of the pope. The decorated
ing the gap, based on his own examination of cave paintings. caverns were not galleries where people went to view art,
His first suggestion is that the context in which the art but holy places where religious ceremonies were performed
was made tells us a great deal. Throughout the world, early and where those present would have had powerful religious
artists drew, carved, and painted on many surfaces, many experiences.
fairly inaccessible. The decision to work inside dark caves The scenes reproduced here from the large tableau of
that the artists could illuminate only with crude torches was animal drawings known as the “Lion Panel” show the skill
not an accident. The fact that the hidden caves protected techniques and the variety of art in the Chauvet Cave.
and preserved their art for tens of thousands of years could From the right come a band of female lions on the hunt,
not have been part of their plan. Rather, Fagan suggests, the approaching a herd of bison, who turn to regard them.
artists went deep underground “to feel the power of the Across a cleft in the rock the panel resumes with a herd of
earth.” Unlike contemporary urban people, who have lost a rhinoceroses and another group of lions at the far left of
sense of nature’s spiritual power, the cave painters would the panel.
have believed that the wild animals and the earth itself were
full of spiritual energy. The dark and enclosed caves would
QUESTIONS FOR ANALYSIS
have heightened the sense of nature’s mystery and power
with which they informed their paintings. It is thus likely 1. Is there anything in the depiction of the animals that
that the artists were already the spiritual guides of their suggests whether the artists were in awe of them, felt
communities. superior to them, or felt at one with them?
As for the art itself, one should begin with the cautionary 2. Are all the animals ones that people hunted to eat?
remark that even today’s art conveys many messages. Still, How persuasive are Fagan’s explanations?
Fagan believes, since the artists and original viewers were 3. What comparisons can you make between this cave
part of a community, it is likely that the common culture painting and the rock engraving of cattle that opens
they shared enabled them to understand art in the same this chapter?

evidence of human toolmaking—the first recognizable ravages of time. In the second place, this period of nearly
cultural activity. Because the tools that survive are made 2 million years contains many distinct periods and cul-
of stone, the extensive period of history from the appear- tures. Early students recognized two distinct periods in
ance of the first fabricated stone tools around 2 million the Stone Age: the Paleolithic° (Old Stone Age) down to
years ago until the appearance of metal tools around 10,000 years ago and the Neolithic° (New Stone Age) as-
four thousand years ago has been called the Stone Age. sociated with agriculture. Modern scientists have found
The name can be misleading. In the first place, not all evidence for many more subdivisions.
tools were made of stone. Early humans would also have
made useful objects and tools out of bone, skin, wood, and
other natural materials less likely than stone to survive the Paleolithic (pay-lee-oh-LITH-ik) Neolithic (nee-oh-LITH-ik)

13
14 CHAPTER 1 Nature, Humanity, and History, to 3500 b.c.e.

Tanzania, explored by Louis and Mary Leakey, has yielded

evidence that Homo habilis made tools by chipping flakes
off the edges of volcanic stones. Modern experiments
show that the razor-sharp edges of such flakes are highly
effective for skinning and butchering wild animals. Later
human species made much more sophisticated tools.
Lacking the skill to hunt and kill large animals, small-
brained Homo habilis probably obtained animal protein
by scavenging meat from kills made by animal predators
or resulting from accidents. There is evidence that this
species used large stone “choppers” for cracking open
bones to get at the nutritious marrow. The fact that many
such tools are found together far from the outcrops of
volcanic rock suggests that people carried them long dis-
tances for use at kill sites and camps.
Members of Homo erectus were also scavengers, but
their larger brains would have made them cleverer at it—
capable, for example, of finding and stealing the kills that
leopards and other large predators dragged up into trees.
They also made more effective tools for butchering large
animals, although the stone flakes and choppers of earlier
eras continued to be made. The stone tool most associated
with Homo erectus was a hand ax formed by removing chips
from both sides of a stone to produce a sharp outer edge.
Modern experiments show the hand ax to be an ef-
ficient multipurpose tool, suitable for skinning and
butchering animals, for scraping skins clean for use as
clothing and mats, for sharpening wooden tools, and for
Making Stone Tools About 35,000 years ago the manufacture digging up edible roots. Since a hand ax can also be
of stone tools became highly specialized. Small blades chipped hurled accurately for nearly 100 feet (30 meters), it might
from a rock core were mounted in a bone or wooden handle. Not also have been used as a projectile to fell animals. From
only were such composite tools more varied than earlier all-
sites in Spain there is evidence that Homo erectus even
purpose hand axes, but the small blades also required fewer rock
butchered elephants, which then ranged across south-
cores—an important consideration in areas where suitable rocks
ern Europe, by driving them into swamps, where they
were scarce. (From Jacques Bordaz, Tools of the Old and New Stone
became trapped and died.
Age. Copyright 1970 by Jacques Bordaz. Redrawn by the permission of
Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers, Inc.)
Members of Homo sapiens were far more skillful
hunters. They tracked and killed large animals (such as
mastodons, mammoths, and bison) throughout the
world. Their success reflected their superior intelligence
Most early human activity centered on gathering and their use of an array of finely made tools. Sharp
food. Like the australopithecines, early humans de- stone flakes chipped from carefully prepared rock cores
pended heavily on vegetable foods such as leaves, seeds, were often used in combination with other materials. At-
and grasses, but one of the changes evident in the Ice Age taching a stone point to a wooden shaft made a spear.
is the growing consumption of highly nutritious animal Embedding several sharp stone flakes in a bone handle
flesh. Moreover, unlike australopithecines, humans regu- produced a sawing tool.
larly made tools. These two changes—increased meat Indeed, members of Homo sapiens were so skillful
eating and toolmaking—appear to be closely linked. and successful as hunters that they may have caused or
The first crude tools made their appearance with contributed to a series of ecological crises. Between 40,000
Homo habilis. Most stone tools made by Homo habilis and 13,000 years ago the giant mastodons and mam-
have been found in the Great Rift Valley of eastern Africa, moths gradually disappeared, first from Africa and South-
whose sides expose sediments laid down over millions east Asia and then from northern Europe. In North
of years. One branch of this valley, the Olduvai Gorge in America the sudden disappearance around 11,000 years
 History and Culture in the Ice Age 15

ago of highly successful large-animal hunters known as generally do not result in long-term pairing. Instead, the
the Clovis people was almost simultaneous with the ex- strongest ties are those between a female and her chil-
tinction of three-fourths of the large mammals in the dren and among siblings. Adult males are often recruited
Americas, including giant bison, camels, ground sloths, from neighboring bands.
stag-moose, giant cats, mastodons, and mammoths. In Very early human groups likely shared some of
Australia there was a similar event. Since these extinctions these primate traits, but by the time of modern Homo
occurred during the last series of severe cold spells at the sapiens the two-parent family would have been charac-
end of the Ice Age, it is difficult to measure which effects teristic. How this change from a mother-centered fam-
were the work of global and regional climate changes and ily to a two-parent family developed over the intervening
which resulted from the excesses of human predators. millennia can only be guessed at, but it is likely that
Finds of fossilized animal bones bearing the marks physical and social evolution were linked. Larger brain
of butchering tools clearly attest to the scavenging size was a contributing factor. Big-headed humans
and hunting activities of Stone Age peoples, but anthro- have to be born in a less mature state than other mam-
pologists do not believe that early humans depended mals so they can pass through the narrow birth canal.
primarily on meat for their food. Modern foragers Other large mammals are mature at two or three years
(hunting and food-gathering peoples) in the Kalahari of age; humans are not able to care for themselves until
Desert of southern Africa and the Ituri Forest of central the age of twelve to fifteen. The need of human infants
Africa derive the bulk of their day-to-day nourishment and children for much longer nurturing makes care by
from wild vegetable foods; meat is the food of feasts. It mothers, fathers, and other family members a biologi-
is likely that the same was true for Stone Age peoples, cal imperative.
even though the tools and equipment for gathering and The human reproductive cycle also became unique
processing vegetable foods have left few traces because at some point. In other species sexual contact is biologi-
they were made of materials unable to survive for thou- cally restricted to a special mating season of the year or
sands of years. to the fertile part of the female’s menstrual cycle. More-
Like modern foragers, ancient humans would have over, among other primates the choice of mate is usually
used skins and mats woven from leaves for collecting not a matter for long deliberation. To a female baboon in
fruits, berries, and wild seeds. They would have dug edi- heat (estrus) any male will do, and to a male baboon any
ble roots out of the ground with wooden sticks. Archae- receptive female is a suitable sexual partner. In contrast,
ologists believe that donut-shaped stones often found adult humans can mate at any time and are much
at Stone Age sites may have been weights placed on choosier about their partners. Once they mate, frequent
wooden digging sticks to increase their effectiveness. sexual contact promotes deep emotional ties and long-
Both meat and vegetables become tastier and easier term bonding.
to digest when they are cooked. The first cooked foods An enduring bond between human parents made it
were probably found by accident after wildfires, but much easier for vulnerable offspring to receive the care
there is new evidence from East and South Africa that they needed during the long period of their childhood.
humans may have been setting fires deliberately be- Working together, mothers and fathers could nurture de-
tween 1 million and 1.5 million years ago. The wooden pendent children of different ages at the same time, un-
spits and hot rocks that they would have used for roast- like other large mammals, whose females must raise
ing, frying, or baking are not distinctive enough to stand their offspring nearly to maturity before beginning an-
out in an archaeological site. Only with the appearance other reproductive cycle. Spacing births close together
of clay cooking pots some 12,500 years ago in East Asia is also ensured offspring a high rate of survival and would
there hard evidence of cooking. have enabled humans to multiply more rapidly than
other large mammals.
Other researchers have studied the few surviving
Some researchers have studied present-day foragers for models of what such early soci-
Gender Roles the organization of nonhuman eties could have been like. They infer that Ice Age women
and Social Life primates for clues about very would have done most of the gathering and cooking
early human society. Gorillas (which they could do while caring for small children).
and chimpanzees live in groups consisting of several Older women past childbearing age would have been the
adult males and females and their offspring. Status varies most knowledgeable and productive food gatherers.
with age and sex, and a dominant male usually heads Men, with stronger arms and shoulders, would have
the group. Sexual unions between males and females been more suited than women to hunting, particularly
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
banks, and widened out to forty feet or more. These sandy banks
were crumbling and projecting, overhanging the ravine (more
properly a “draw”), they presented an unstable footing.
Red-Knife noticed this “draw,” and at once, without consulting his
chiefs, whom he ignored, commenced operations. Detaching a party
of three to take charge of the distant draft-horses, he divided his
party of twenty into two portions. One of these he directed to creep
along the shadow of a projecting bluff until they had made half the
circuit of the horse-shoe; the other, commanded in person by
himself, was to enter the “draw,” keeping in shadow as much as
possible. Halting in the draw, they were to give a preconcerted
signal, then both parties were to prosecute a cross-fire with what
arms they possessed. Such a position would completely command
the horse-shoe fissure with its hidden occupants.
“Boys,” observed Cimarron Jack, sitting on a mud-bowlder, “this is
lovely; but the thorough-bred from Tartary don’t scare worth a cent. It
takes mighty fine working to face the grizzly domesticator—it does,
for a fact.”
“Oh, quit yer durned, disgustin’ braggin’! It makes me feel ashamed
of the hull human race,” growled Simpson.
Cimarron Jack went on, with a sly twinkle at the guide:
“In addition to my noble and manly qualities, I have the coveted and
rare faculty of insnaring women. Educated at college, of good looks,
as you can see, engaging manners, I cast rough rowdies like this
knave of a guide into the shade. That, you see, makes ’em hot—red-
hot; and when I give, as is my custom, a brief and extremely modest
synopsis of my talents, they call it, in their vulgar way, ‘braggin’.’ I’m
the cock of the walk—hooray! I’m the scorpion and centipede chewer
—the wildcat educator—hooray!”
“Faugh! it’s downright sickening. Durned ef I kain’t lick any man that
brags so!” declared the guide, with real rising choler. “An’ ef he don’t
like it he kin lump it—thet’s Simpson, the guide.”
“Dry up; what’s that?” whispered Jack. “Look out, boys—there’s
something forming. Look along that bluff yonder—I think I see
something moving there.”
The half-earnest wrangle was ceased, and shading his eyes, the
guide peered, as if endeavoring to pierce the drapery of shadow
under the bluff; but if Jack saw any thing, there was no repetition of
the object. Taking his eyes from the bluff, Cimarron Jack turned
round, then uttered a suppressed cry.
“What is it?” sharply demanded the guide, instantly on the alert.
“Whew! look there—look yonder!”
They followed the direction of his pointing finger with their gaze. Up
the draw, and in its widest part, were nearly a dozen Apaches, or
rather parts of them, moving rapidly about. They were visible from
their waists upward, and their arms were tossing as if violently
excited. The light of the yellow moon made this a most grotesque
spectacle, but an utterly incomprehensible one to the whites, who
watched them eagerly. It appeared as if a dozen Apaches had been
deprived of their legs at the loins, and had been cast into the draw
and were tossing their arms in agony. Part of them were upright, part
bending their necks forward, while others were bent backward; and
all were gesticulating violently.
It was strange, but they were all facing the west, at right angles to
the course of the draw. Though wildly gesturing, and, as it seemed,
struggling, they preserved the utmost silence, frequently gazing
toward the whites, as if fearful of attracting their notice.
“What can it mean?” asked Sam, utterly confounded. “What does it
all mean?”
“I think I know,” replied Jack, after a moment’s sober scrutiny; “don’t
you, Simpson?”
“Yes—think so.”
“What is it?” and Robidoux’s face wore a look of the most intense
surprise.
“By Jupiter—hooray! it is, it is! look, they are sinking.”
It was even so! Each and all were only visible from the breast
upward, now, and their rifles, still clasped tightly, were thrown about
in wild and vehement motions; the guide uttered a sharp
exclamation.
“Quicksanded—quicksanded! see—the draw is darker than at t’other
places. It’s the black sand—quicksand—hooray!”
“Great Heaven!” ejaculated Carpenter. “They are sinking into a
quicksand—hurrah!”
“They war makin’ a serround and got cotched—hooray!” shouted the
guide; then the voice of Cimarron Jack rung out:
“Give it to ’em boys—give it to ’em! aim steady till I count three, and
then—one!”
Up went the guns, each man taking a struggling, sinking savage.
“Two!”
A steady dead aim.
“Three!”
Crash—shriek! and then a cloud of dense, sluggish smoke obscured
the river. They had no more than lowered their rifles when a shrill yell
arose behind them, and a rush of feet was heard. Cimarron Jack
dropped his rifle and drew his knife and revolver, facing round.
“Draw, boys—draw! barkers and knives. A surround! here comes
t’other gang behind us—draw quick and don’t faze!”
They drew, each a knife and revolver, and faced round, fearing
nothing from the helpless band behind, some of whom must be
dead. They did so just in time.
From under the projecting bluff darted nine stalwart Apaches, knives
and tomahawks in hand. They had seen their comrades’ utter
helplessness and discomfiture, and looking over the smoke of the
volley, had seen four shot and instantly killed. Burning with rage and
chagrin, they were coming, fifty yards away, with determined faces
gleaming hideously through the red war-paint.
As they rapidly drew near, Jack cried:
“Work those pistols lively, boys—shoot a thousand times a minute.”
They obeyed. Crack—crack! went the pistols, and, though excited,
the aim was tolerably correct, and two Indians went down, one killed,
another disabled. Seven still came on, though warily, facing the
revolvers of the whites, Colt’s great invention doing deadly work at a
short distance. They were running at a dog-trot, dodging and darting
from side to side to prevent any aim being taken; in another moment
they were fighting hand to hand.
It was a short, deadly struggle, briefly terminated. Jack, Simpson,
and Burt fell to the ground when their respective antagonists were
nigh, avoiding the tomahawks which flew over their heads. Then as
an Apache towered over each, they rose suddenly, and throwing
their entire weight and muscle into the act, plunged their knives into
the savage breasts; the red-skins fell without a groan.
It was a perilous, nice operation, and few would have dared attempt
it; but knowing if they kept their nerve and temper they would prove
victorious, they accepted the chances, as we have seen, with the
highest success. Calculating nicely, each had about an interval of
two seconds to work in—the interval between the Apaches’ arrival
and his downward knife-thrust.
Gigantic, fiery Jack stayed not to enjoy a second and sure thrust, but
withdrawing his long knife, hastily glanced around. Back under the
bank was a man fighting desperately with two Apaches—fighting
warily, yet strongly, and in silence.
It was Carpenter, cutting, thrusting, and dodging. Jack needed but a
glance to satisfy him Carpenter would soon prove a victim to the
superior prowess of the Apaches, and with a wild hurrah sprung
forward, just as Burt and the guide were disengaging themselves
from the dead bodies of their antagonists. But, he was stopped
suddenly.
Covered with mud, dripping with water, and glowing with rage and
heat, a fierce, stalwart savage sprung before him, and he knew him
in a moment. It was Red-Knife—he had escaped from the quicksand
and was now preparing to strike, his tomahawk glinting above his
head.
“Dog from the bitter river—squaw! ugh!” and down went the hatchet.
But not in Jack’s skull—the Indian scout was too electric in his
thoughts and movements to stand calmly and feel the metal crash
into his brain. Bending low, with the quickness of a serpent, he
darted under the savage’s arm just in time, but he stopped not to
congratulate himself upon his escape, but turning clasped the chief
round the waist and suddenly “tripped him up.”
The savage’s thigh passed before his face as the chief was hurled
backward. A stream of deep-red blood was spirting from a wide gash
in it—the momentum of the hatchet had been so great Red-Knife
had been unable to check it, and it had entered his thigh and
severed the main artery. The blood was spirting in a large, red
stream in the air, and he felt the warm liquid plash and fall on his
back. But he whirled the faint chief over on his back, and with a
sudden, keen blow, drove the knife into his heart. With a last dying
look of malevolency the chief scowled on his victorious enemy, then
the death-rattle sounded in his throat—he was dead, no longer a
renegade.
Jack sprung up and stood on his guard, but there was no necessity.
Short as the combat had been (only three minutes in duration) it was
now over, being finished as the guide drew his knife from a
convulsively twitching savage, and wiped it on his sleeve.
Save the eight prostrate savages, not an Indian was in sight. Cool,
steady, reticent Tim Simpson sheathed his knife and picked up his
gun and revolver.
“Durned spry work!”
He was not answered. To the majority of the band the thought was
overwhelming—that, where fifteen minutes since, thirty cunning
Apaches were surrounding them, not one remained alive. For
several minutes no one spoke, but all gazed around on the battle
scene.
The draw above was empty—the sinking savages, foiled in their
bloody purpose, had sunk to their death. Carpenter moodily gazed
where they were last visible, and murmured:
“God bless the quicksand.”
“Ay, ay!” came from the others’ lips.
Cimarron Jack sprung up at the “reach,” and looked around.
“Yonder go three—no, four devils, striking away for dear life. Durn
them! they’ve got enough of it this time, I’ll bet.”
“Hosses thar?” asked Simpson.
“One, two, three, eight—every one of ’em.”
“Le’s git out’n this, then.”
“All right—before any more come down on us. Devilish pretty work,
wasn’t it?” admiringly queried Jack, looking down on the dead bodies
below. “How’d you get away with your job, Carpenter?”
“The guide and Burt came to my assistance just as I was giving out.
A minute more and it would have been too late.”
“And you, Ruby? curse me if I don’t forgive you—you fou’t like
thunder. Two on you, wasn’t there?”
“Yes; I stabbed one and the other ran off, seeing Simpson coming for
him,” modestly replied Robidoux.
“Well, we’ve no time to talk. The red rascals are cleaned out—pick
up your weapons, boys, and mount your mustangs, and we’ll get
away from this hot place.”
They stopped not to gaze longer upon the bloody scene, but
mounting their horses, which under the bank had bravely stood, rode
toward the deserted draft-horses. They were easily collected, and
then all rode away, just as the moonlight was yielding to the paler but
stronger one of day. Elated with victory they left Dead Man’s Gulches
(or that part of them) with the ghastly bodies, soon to wither into dry
skin and bone, and under the paling moonlight rode away, bound
back to the Hillock.
Thanks to the guide’s memory and cunning, they emerged from the
Gulches at sunrise, and struck out into the yellow plain—safe and
sound, wholly uninjured, and victorious.
“Five men victorious over thirty Apaches,” cried Jack. “A tiger-feat—
Hercules couldn’t do better with Sampson and Heenan, with fifty
gorillas thrown in for variety. Three and a tiger for the bravest,
smartest, handsomest men in the world. With a will, now!”
With a will they were given.
 CHAPTER XIV.
WHO SPEAKS?
When at the mysterious shot and death of one of their number, the
Apaches fled down the hillock, they scuttled for the wagons as
offering the best concealment. However, their doing so was to their
loss, diminishing their number by two. Duncan, incensed at the
ruthless waste of his flour, and in perfect keeping with his disposition,
had lain in watchful wait for an opportunity to present itself whereby
he could revenge his loss. An opportunity occurred as they fled
toward the wagons. One savage, with a scarlet diamond on his
broad back, offering a fair aim, he took advantage of it and fired. At
the same time, Pedro, ever ready to embrace any opportunity, fired
also.
Both shots were successful. Duncan’s Apache threw his arms aloft,
and with a yell, plunged headlong; the other sunk to the ground, with
a sharp cry of pain, then crawled slowly away, dragging himself
painfully. But he was summarily stopped by Duncan, who emptied
one of his cylinders at him. This was sufficient; with a last expiring
scowl back upon his foes, he settled prone upon the sand, and his
soul went to the happy hunting-grounds.
“There have been strange happenings here lately,” gloomily
remarked Pedro, ramming down a bullet. “Who shot just now—tell
me that?”
“Who can?” replied Mr. Wheeler. “Oh, God! if one misfortune were
not enough to bear without a mystery, deep and black, to drive one
to torments. Where is my child?” and he buried his face in his hands.
“And where is my gold—my precious, yellow treasure?” fiercely
demanded Pedro.
“What misfortune can compare with mine? what agony as great to
bear? how—”
Seeing his companion’s eyes fixed interrogatively upon him, he
stopped short, conscious he had been unduly excited and heedless.
Turning sharply to his peeping-place, he said:
“Senors, we have lessened their number; of them there remains but
six. One or two more killed or disabled would entirely free us, I think,
from their annoying company. Come, senors, look sharp!”
Duncan and Robidoux exchanged significant glances but said
nothing, only quietly taking their places at the entrance, leaving Mr.
Wheeler stricken again by his gloomy spirits.
And now faint streaks of daylight slanted across the eastern horizon,
and the yellow moonlight paled before the approach of the
predominating daylight. Perched upon the hubs of the wagon-wheels
the sullen Apaches grunted and growled at their constant defeats,
not daring to return to the hill, and too wary to expose any part of
their bodies. The whites watched and waited with the eyes of a lynx
and the patience of a cat, but to no avail—both parties were afraid to
show themselves.
“Hark!” suddenly cried Mr. Wheeler, springing into the center of the
cave. “What is it—who speaks?”
“No one spoke, senor,” said Pedro, calmly laying his hand on his
shoulder; “you are nervous and excited, senor—lie down and quiet
yourself.”
“Don’t talk to me of rest and peace—withdraw your hand! She spoke
—my daughter—and I will never rest until I have found her.”
In the gloomy light, his eyes shone with at once the sorrow and
anger of a wounded stag; and knowing to resist him would be to
endanger his present health, Pedro considerately withdrew his hand.
As he did so Duncan whispered:
“I’ll swear I heard her voice, just then—every hair of my head, I did.”
“I too imagined I heard a soft voice, but undoubtedly it was the band
outside,” continued the Canadian. “Hark—there it is again!”
All listened. Certainly some one spoke in a soft, effeminate voice,
though so faintly that it was impossible to distinguish the words.
All listened as though petrified, so intense was the interest—Pedro
alive with hope for his gold, and the others, more especially Mr.
Wheeler, for his lost child. But there was no repetition of the voice,
and after listening for some time they returned to the entrance
gloomily.
A sudden movement took place among the Apaches. Their
mustangs were grassing out on the plain some five hundred yards
distant, being some half a mile from the sorrel mustang which
avoided them. Starting suddenly from the wagon-wheels they darted
away rapidly toward their steeds, keeping the wagons between them
and the hillock, making it impossible for the whites to aim, even
tolerably.
“Every hair of my sorrel head! my boot-heels! what in Jupiter do
them fellows mean? they’re getting away from us like mad. Skunk
after ’em, I reckon.”
Pedro’s face lightened as he said, “There is some one approaching,
possibly the party. Certainly it is some one hostile to them, or—”
He stopped short as a thought flashed over him. Could it be possible
they had seen the apparition—that he had appeared to them? no—
the idea was rejected as soon as conceived. Not knowing the Trailer,
at least that he had been killed once, they would have promptly shot
at him, which they had not done. No—it was something else.
It was not a ruse to draw them from their concealment, as every one
of the six savages was now scampering hastily for their steeds. They
had all retreated—every one; and confident of no harm, Pedro
stepped boldly out into the daylight and the open plain.
Down in this country, twilights are brief, and even now the sun was
winking over the horizon. Looking round, his gaze fell upon a small
collection of objects, directly against the sun, a league or more
distant.
“Horsemen—whites.”
The Canadian and his companions came out.
“Horsemen, did you say?”
“Yes, senor—white horsemen.”
“Ah, I see—toward the east, against the sun. Coming this way too,
are they not?”
“Exactly, senor.”
“How do you know they are white horsemen?—there are many of
them.”
“Because they ride together. Indians scatter loosely or ride by twos.
These are coming together and are leading horses.”
“Every hair on my sorrel-top but you’ve got sharp eyes!” admiringly
spoke the cook.
“Experience, senor—experience. Any Mexican boy could tell you the
color of those coming horsemen. But look over the plain; see the
brave Apaches scamper toward the south-west, whipping their tardy
mustangs. They are gone, and we need fear them no more—they
will not come back for the present. We will meet our friends—for it is
they.”
Of course Pedro was right—he always was; and when the returning
and elated party drew up before the hillock, the savages had
disappeared.
They had scarcely dismounted when Mr. Wheeler appeared from
within. The old gentleman was greatly excited, and begged them to
come at once into the cave.
“What’s up?” cried Jack, springing toward the entrance. The old man,
in broken tones, said he distinctly heard his daughter’s voice in the
hill, mingled with a deep, harsh one—the voice of a man.
“There must be another chamber!” Pedro shouted.
“There are shovels in the wagons; get them and come on!” echoed
Sam.
The shovels were quickly brought, and the whole party, wildly
excited, sprung into the cave.
“Now listen!” whispered Mr. Wheeler.
They did so, and distinctly heard a female voice, in pleading tones,
at one end of the first chamber.
“There is another chamber, and here it is,” cried Jack. “Shovel away
—work and dig! Simpson, you and Scranton go outside and see no
one escapes. She’s in a third chamber, and we’ll find her—hurrah!”
“Hurrah! we’ll find her!” chorused the wild men, commencing to dig
furiously.
 CHAPTER XV.
TWICE DEAD.
They had not long to dig, as the soil was yielding, and the strong
arms of the excited and determined men drove the spades deep into
the hillside. Men clamored to relieve each other, and in their wild
desire to force their way through, yelled and even pitched dirt away
from the workmen with their hands. Never before had the hillock, in
all its experience of murders, robberies and crime, looked upon such
a wild, frenzied scene.
Furious were the blows showered upon the mold wall—strong the
arms of the resolute, high-strung men that wielded them, and eager
the hearts that beat for rescue. Indians, fatigue, hunger—all were
forgotten; and as fast as a shovelful of dirt was cast from the blade it
was thrown far back by the rapidly moving hands of those for whom
there were no shovels.
At last the foremost man, Sam, uttered a sharp cry, and struck a
furious blow at the wall; his shovel had gone through—there was a
third chamber. At the same moment a loud report rung out inside, a
woman’s voice shrieked, and Sam staggered back, clasping his left
arm above the elbow with his right hand; some one from the inside
had discharged a rifle at him.
Furious before, the excitement now had become frenzy. Several
ferocious blows were struck at the hole; it widened; several more,
and the men plunged headlong, found themselves in a third
chamber, with a body under their feet—a soft, pliant body.
Regardless of aught else, they drew it to the gap, and recognized the
features—the face—the form of—Kissie.
They heard a noise, a clamor above, and ran eagerly outside,
leaving Sam, pale and sick, yet wild with delight, and Mr. Wheeler,
caressing the fair girl, who had fainted away. It is useless to describe
the scene—pen can not do it; and knowing the reader’s imagination
is far more powerful than any description, we leave him to fancy it; it
was a meeting of intense joy.
Arriving outside, the men, headed by Cimarron Jack, found the guide
and Burt engaged in a fierce struggle with a gigantic man in a
serape, a conical hat and black plume. Knife in hand, backed up
against the hill, with swarthy face glowing, and black eyes sparkling,
he was lunging furiously at them in silence. Colossal in form, expert
in the use of his knife, rendered desperate by his small chances of
escape, the Trailer fought like a demon and kept his smaller
opponents at bay.
“Don’t kill him!” shouted Jack; “we must take him alive. Let me in to
him—stand back, boys. I know who he is—the Trailer.”
At the mention of his name, the latter turned and scowled at him, and
hoarsely cried:
“Cimarron Jack—my old enemy—may you burn in ——!”
Jack, dashing forward with clubbed gun, and with his huge form
towering above his companions, rushed at him. In vain the Trailer
endeavored to elude the descending weapon; in vain he darted
back; the gun descended full on his head, knocking him backward
and prone to the earth, senseless.
Just then a man appeared, running, with a bag in one hand and a
long, beautiful rifle in the other; it was Pedro Felipe with his
recovered treasure, which he discovered in the new chamber.
Finding that the apparition that had haunted him was none other
than the ex-robber lieutenant, and that, like himself, he was probably
in search of the treasure, he had burned with rage at his theft and
crime, and was now seeking his life.
“Dog of a robber—fit associate for your old captain; coward, villain, I
have come for your blood! Where is he? Let me reach him.”
But they held him back firmly, and after being made cognizant of
Cimarron Jack’s desire to keep him alive, he calmed himself, and
proceeded to bind the senseless robber securely. This he did with
his lariat, which he brought from inside, keeping the precious bag
with him wherever he went. Then after he had bound him fast, and
given the body a slight spurn with his foot, he said:
“When he recovers, we will kill him.”
“When the Trailer recovers, he will be shot dead!” added Cimarron
Jack.
“Ay, ay!” was the general response.
“All right, boys—let us go and see the pretty girl, and leave the two
Robidouxs to stand guard over him. My eye; ain’t she beautiful,
though?”
“You bet!” responded Burt, proudly.
Inside they found Kissie quite recovered, with her father and young
Carpenter sitting jealously by her. Though pale and thin, she, in her
joy, looked, to the eyes of the men, more charming than ever before.
What had come to pass? Was a revolution about to arise? for when
she signified she was very hungry, Duncan stirred hastily about,
actually glad of a chance to cook. Mind that—actually glad. As all
were hungry, he was forced to call upon the men for assistance,
services which they gladly rendered, and soon the savory odor of
cooking filled the cave.
“So he gave you enough to eat, did he, my daughter?” asked Mr.
Wheeler, gazing fondly into her face.
“Oh, yes, plenty; and a warm, soft blanket to sit upon; and he was
kind, too—only sometimes he would rave to himself, stricken by
remorse.”
“Did he maltreat you in any manner?” fiercely demanded Carpenter.
“Oh, no, not at all. He was away most of the time; and when he was
present he always kept busy counting a splendid—oh, so lovely!—
treasure he had; all gold, and jewels and ornaments—an immense
sum they must be worth.”
“That is what brought Pedro here, then,” remarked Sam; “he has the
bag, now, outside, where he is guarding the Trailer.”
“Oh, Pedro was so good to me. When he went out to tell you I was
here, that horrid man stole in by a secret passage, snatched the bag
from a small hole, then put out the torch and carried me in here. His
horse he kept there, and sometimes he would get stubborn and try to
kick me; then you should have seen him beat him. Once some
Indians tried to cut their way through to us and he shot and killed
one.”
“Yes, he lies outside now. We heard the shot, and it mystified us,”
remarked Napoleon Robidoux.
“That villain caused us enough trouble,” said Burt. “I’m downright
glad he has lost the gold—Pedro has fairly earned it.”
“So he has,” was the cry.
A shout came from without, in Pedro’s voice:
“Come out—come out!”
Expecting Indians, all rushed out but Sam and Mr. Wheeler, the
former being disabled by the bullet of the Trailer, which had passed
through his arm, though not breaking it. When they arrived outside
they found the Mexican glowering over the ex-robber, who had
recovered his senses, and was now scowling upon the party. The
blow from the rifle had not proved a very forcible one, as a large
“bunch” on his head was the only sign of it.
“Now he has recovered, we will shoot him at once!” and Pedro’s
eyes sparkled.
“Ay, ay—take him out!” was the unanimous cry.
The Trailer scowled.
All of these men had seen “Judge Lynch,” and many had assisted
him. Following the order of the age, they did not hesitate, but
proceeded at once to business.
They took him from the hillock, from the side of the savage he had
slain, and among other red corpses scattered about they placed him
upon his feet. He immediately lay down.
“Get up!” commanded Pedro, who was the acknowledged chief.
The robber only scowled in reply.
“Get up, and die like a man and not like a cowering hound!” urged
Jack.
This had the effect desired, and the Trailer rose.
“Now, senors, load your rifles!”
“They are all loaded.”
“It is well. Have you any thing to say, Trailer?”
No answer save a scowl.
“It is your last chance. Again, have you any thing to say?”
“Si: car-r-ramba!”
“It is enough. Take him out.”
He was placed now in the open plain, facing the hillock. The men
drew up in line, not twenty feet distant.
“Are you all ready, senors?” asked Pedro, aiming at the victim’s
heart.
“We are ready.”
“It is good. Aim well, each at his heart. I will count three. One.”
The Trailer’s face was a trifle paler now, but his scowl was blacker
and more malignant.
“Two!”
The Trailer stood firm. Along the line of men eying his heart he saw
no look of mercy, nor look of pity; only a settled determination to
execute the law of “Judge Lynch.”
Dead silence.
“Three!”
The Trailer fell flat on his face. Lifting him up they found him dead—
twice dead—but now forever on earth.
Our tale is ended. Cimarron Jack, with many good wishes and
blessings from his true friends, at length tore himself away, and rode
off toward the Colorado River, to which place he was en route, long
to be remembered by those he had befriended. Simpson parted with
Pedro much against his will, but was consoled by the latter’s
promising to meet him on the Colorado. Then he, Pedro, and
Cimarron Jack were to unite, and well armed and equipped were to
penetrate to the ruins of the old Aztecans—a much talked of, but
rarely seen, country. They underwent many marvelous and perilous
adventures, but we have not space to relate them.
Pedro was rich—enormously rich—and on returning safely to his
“sunny land” was joyfully welcomed back, and congratulated upon
his success. God bless him, say we.
When the party arrived at Fort Leavenworth, as they safely did, there
was a wedding, and a joyful one it was, too, Sam, of course, being
the happy groom. There the party separated, all but Duncan and
Simpson continuing their journey east.
Strange to say, Duncan—grumbling, unhappy Duncan—went back
with Simpson, in order to explore the Great Colorado Canon with the
three Indian-fighters, in the capacity of camp-cook. He was unhappy,
of course, and he had no cooking conveniences; but managed to
assume complete mastery over his strangely-assorted companions,
and to keep them alive with his original observations and half sulky
grumblings.
THE END.
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