Are L1 and L2 acquisitions fundamentally the same or fundamentally different?

We
show how this question launched the field of SLA research in the early 1970s in Chapter
1. We do not address this question in this chapter but return to it in the Epilogue once the
reader has reviewed research on the major questions that form the focus of this book.
• What does development look like? In Chapter 2, we describe various aspects of the
ordered and staged development of formal features of language (e.g., sentence structure,
inflections, and endings on verbs and nouns) while also touching on variation in such
ordered development and any observed L1 influence on this development.
• What are the roles of input and output? One of the fundamental findings of the early
research on L2 acquisition was the critical role that communicatively embedded input
plays as the data for language acquisition. Chapter 3 reviews this idea while also
addressing later hypotheses that communicatively embedded output (i.e., learner
production) somehow affects acquisition.
• What is the initial state? Of concern to researchers since the early 1970s is whether or
not L2 learners begin the task of acquisition by massively transferring their L1 into the
“hypothesis space” for L2 acquisition. In Chapter 4, we explore research related to this
question.
• Can L2 learners become nativelike? In Chapter 5 we address this question, looking at
the outcome of L2 acquisition from a variety of perspectives. What will emerge from this
discussion is that nativelikeness is not an all-or-nothing proposition, but that it likely
depends on what aspects of language and language use we examine.
• Does instruction make a difference? Almost since the foundation of contemporary L2
research there has been debate about the extent to which instruction on the formal
properties of language (i.e., what most people call “grammar”) affects acquisition. We
take up this question in Chapter 6.
• What are the roles of explicit and implicit learning? Increasingly, L2 researchers are
converging on the importance and fundamental nature of implicit learning in L2
acquisition (i.e., learning without intent and without awareness of what you are learning).
However, there is debate about the contribution of explicit learning and explicit processes
in L2 acquisition. In a sense, the question raised here is related to the previous question
about instruction. We take these issues up in Chapter 7.
• What are individual differences and how do they affect acquisition? Individual
differences refer to non-linguistic things such as motivation, attitude, aptitude for
learning, and working memory, among others. In Chapter 8, we focus on the most
researched of the individual difference variables, namely, motivation, aptitude, and
working memory. We purposely situate this chapter and the
What are the five 5 components of second language acquisition?
With this, Krashen has developed a popularized theory of second language
acquisition in which he has divided the process into the following 5 stages.
• Pre-production or Receptive Stage. ...
• Early Production Stage. ...
• Speech Emergence Stage. ...
• Intermediate Fluency Stage. ...
• Advanced Fluency.

How do we acquire a language?

According to Stephen Krashen, a language theorist from the University of Southern
Carolina, “in the same way.” Krashen concedes that there is individual variation in the
language learning process, but the main points in the process are the same. In his work,
he also emphasizes that in order to make progress in language acquisition, the individual
must have exposure to language that is comprehensible to them. In an immersion school,
this is accomplished via direct conversation, gestures, books, and the tangible objects
used in the classroom every day. With this, Krashen has developed a popularized theory
of second language acquisition in which he has divided the process into the following 5
stages.

What are the five major factors that affect second language acquisition?
There are five types of factors that affect the language learning process: cognitive,
affective, personal, environmental, and cultural. All of these factors affect language
learning in different ways. Cognitive factors have to do with how your mind helps you
learn a new language.

What are at least 3 important theories of second language acquisition?

In general, there are three types of second language or foreign language learning
theories: nativist theory, environmental theory, and functional theory. Krashen [14] are
two of the most prominent proponents of the nativist hypothesis, which holds that
humans are born with the potential to acquire a language.

Answer from Poe:

Three important theories of second language acquisition are:
1. Behaviorism: This theory emphasizes the role of environmental stimuli and
reinforcement in language learning, with a focus on habit formation and conditioning.
2. Innatism: Also known as the Universal Grammar theory, it posits that humans are born
with innate language acquisition abilities and that language acquisition follows a
predetermined, universal grammatical structure.
3. Sociocultural Theory: This theory, influenced by Vygotsky, highlights the importance
of social interaction, cultural context, and collaborative learning in language acquisition.
It emphasizes the role of social interaction and scaffolding in language development.
1. Compare L1 and L2 learners regarding the initial, intermediate and final
states of learning. (Saville-Troike’s articles)
2. Which of the three theoretical approaches to explaining the L2 can be more
suitable to consider when you teach an L2 in Pasto?
3. What is Universal Grammar and what is its role in explaining language
acquisition?
4. Which of Krashen’s hypothesis are suitable to be implemented or adapted in
order to enhance L2 learning?
5. valuate CPH (that is, state its characteristics, the positive and negative aspects
of it)
6. What is, in your opinion, the role of input in L2 instruction?
7. What strategies can we use to help our students notice the language feature we
want to teach?
1. According to Saville-Troike's articles, L1 (first language) learners typically have a
natural and effortless acquisition of their native language, reaching a high level of
proficiency in all language skills. In contrast, L2 (second language) learners face
challenges in the initial stage, such as limited vocabulary and grammar knowledge. In the
intermediate stage, L2 learners show progress but may still struggle with accuracy and
fluency. In the final stage, L2 learners can achieve varying levels of proficiency, influenced
by factors such as age, motivation, and exposure to the target language.
2. The sociocultural theory of L2 acquisition may be more suitable when teaching an L2 in
Pasto. This approach emphasizes the role of social interaction and cultural context in
language learning. Given that language is influenced by social and cultural factors,
focusing on meaningful communication, collaborative learning, and providing
opportunities for interaction with native speakers or proficient users of the L2 can be
effective in enhancing L2 learning in a specific context like Pasto.
3. Universal Grammar is a theory proposed by Noam Chomsky, suggesting that humans
possess an innate, universal set of grammatical principles and structures that underlie all
languages. It posits that children are born with the ability to acquire language and that
Universal Grammar provides the framework for language acquisition. It explains why
children can generate and understand sentences they have never heard before and why
language acquisition follows certain patterns across different languages.
4. Krashen's Input Hypothesis and Affective Filter Hypothesis are suitable for enhancing
L2 learning. The Input Hypothesis emphasizes the importance of comprehensible input in
language acquisition. Teachers can provide meaningful and engaging input that is slightly
above the learners' current level to promote language development. The Affective Filter
Hypothesis highlights the role of affective factors such as motivation and anxiety. Creating
a supportive and low-anxiety learning environment can facilitate language learning.
5. The Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) suggests that there is a biologically determined
period during which language acquisition is optimal and becomes more challenging
afterward. Its characteristics include a sensitive period for language acquisition and
potential limitations in acquiring native-like proficiency beyond this period. Positive
aspects include the opportunity for early exposure to multiple languages, while negative
aspects include potential barriers for older learners in achieving native-like proficiency.
6. In L2 instruction, input plays a crucial role in language acquisition. Input provides
learners with exposure to the target language, allowing them to observe and internalize its
structures, vocabulary, and communicative patterns. Input should be comprehensible and
meaningful to facilitate comprehension and acquisition. By providing rich and authentic
input through various sources such as texts, audio, and interactive activities, language
instructors can create an environment that promotes language development and learning.
7. Strategies to help students notice specific language features include explicit instruction,
highlighting or underlining target structures, providing examples and non-examples, using
contrastive analysis, and incorporating guided practice activities. Teachers can also
encourage learners to actively engage with the language feature through noticing tasks,
explicit error correction, and providing feedback. Additionally, raising learners' awareness
through authentic language use, context-based examples, and meaningful communication
can enhance their ability to notice and internalize language features.
 ‘The influence that the learner’s L1 exerts over the acquisition of an
L2.′
• D. Interference
Explanation
Interference refers to the influence of the learner's first language (L1) on the
acquisition of a second language (L2). It occurs when the learner applies the
rules or structures of their L1 to the L2, leading to errors or difficulties in
language production. Interference can manifest in various forms, such as
incorrect word order, pronunciation, or vocabulary usage. It is a common
challenge faced by language learners, especially when there are structural
differences between the L1 and L2.
The mixture of L2 and some local words and terms that may have
been imbued with other meanings than what was intended by the
original language.
• Pidgin
Explanation
Pidgin is the correct answer because it refers to a language that develops as a
means of communication between two or more groups who do not share a
common language. In this context, the mixture of L2 (second language) and
local words and terms suggests the development of a simplified form of
communication that combines elements from different languages. Pidgin
languages often arise in situations where there is a need for basic
communication, such as trade or colonization.
Source: https://aplingcompexam.wordpress.com/questions/

Area One:
Theories and Principles of Language Instruction (foundations of language teaching,
theories of language acquisition, development of communicative competence, literacy,
etc.). Courses: 605, 621, 612, 698

1. Define “communicative competence.” Discuss why it has become such an

important focus of language teaching and how it can be developed in the classroom.
2. H.D. Brown dedicates chapter 5 of “Principles of language learning and teaching”
to Learning styles and strategies. How might we apply some of the insights about
language learning he discusses to culture learning in the classroom? For example,
what role is played by a person’s tolerance of ambiguity, their degree of impulsivity
or reflectivity, their field dependence and independence and more? (from Kate in 612)
3. State and support your position on the usefulness of a goal of “native speaker.”
What are the pros and cons? Why is it not realistic? Why is it dangerous not to aim
for this goal? What else could one aim for? (from Kate in 612)
4. Which model of “knowledge” do you prefer as a frame for thinking about what to
“teach”: Byram’s saviors or Moran’s knowings? Or would you combine them?
Analyze the commonalities and differences. (from Kate in 612)
5. What is language? What are its characteristics?
6. How do personality factors affect language learners’ success? What role does
motivation play?
7. How does the language teacher develop cultural literacy in language learners?

1. Communicative competence refers to the ability to use language effectively and

appropriately in various communicative contexts. It encompasses linguistic, sociolinguistic,
discourse, and strategic competences. It has become a focus of language teaching because
it emphasizes the practical use of language for communication rather than mere
grammatical accuracy. Communicative competence can be developed in the classroom
through activities that promote meaningful interaction, authentic communication tasks,
role-plays, simulations, and real-world language use situations, fostering learners' ability
to use language in a communicatively effective manner.
2. Insights about language learning styles and strategies can be applied to cultural learning
in the classroom. Tolerance of ambiguity can help learners embrace and navigate cultural
differences, while impulsivity or reflectivity can influence learners' willingness to engage
and reflect on cultural experiences. Field dependence and independence can affect learners'
ability to adapt to new cultural contexts. By understanding learners' individual traits,
teachers can tailor cultural learning activities to accommodate different learning styles and
provide opportunities for reflection, discussion, and experiential learning.
3. The goal of achieving "native speaker" proficiency has both pros and cons. While native-
like proficiency can be seen as a high standard to strive for, it may not be realistic for most
language learners. Setting this goal can lead to frustration and discouragement, as
achieving native-like proficiency is challenging and time-consuming. It is important to
acknowledge that language learning is a dynamic and ongoing process, and learners can
aim for high levels of proficiency without aiming for native-like mastery. Focusing on
effective communication, intercultural competence, and language fluency can be more
realistic and beneficial goals.
4. Both Byram's savoire and Moran's knowings provide valuable perspectives on language
teaching. Byram's savoire emphasizes the intercultural communicative competence and
understanding of cultural contexts. Moran's knowings focus on the knowledge of cultural
practices and cultural perspectives. Combining these models can provide a comprehensive
framework for language teaching, incorporating both the cognitive and experiential aspects
of cultural learning. By integrating the commonalities and differences, teachers can foster
learners' cultural awareness, sensitivity, and competence through a holistic approach
5. Language is a complex communication system used by humans to express thoughts,
ideas, and emotions. Its characteristics include arbitrariness (the lack of inherent
connection between words and their meanings), productivity (the ability to create new
utterances), displacement (the ability to refer to past, present, or future events), cultural and
social significance, and systematicity (the structured organization of linguistic elements).
It is a dynamic and evolving system influenced by cultural, social, and individual factors.
6. Personality factors can influence language learners' success. Extroverted learners may
be more inclined to engage in communicative activities, while introverted learners may
prefer reflective and individual tasks. Self-confidence, perseverance, and openness to new
experiences can contribute to language learning progress. Motivation plays a crucial role,
as learners with intrinsic motivation tend to be more engaged and persistent. Positive
attitudes, goal-setting, and creating a supportive learning environment can foster learners'
motivation and enhance their language learning outcomes.
7. Language teachers can develop cultural literacy in language learners by integrating
cultural content and activities into their lessons. This can include exposing learners to
authentic cultural materials, such as literature, music, and films, and incorporating
discussions, presentations, and projects that explore cultural practices, beliefs, and values.
Encouraging interactions with native speakers or speakers from different cultures,
promoting respectful inquiry, and providing opportunities for learners to reflect on their
own cultural perspectives and biases can also contribute to the development of cultural
literacy.

Area Two:
Foreign Language Methodology (methods and materials, curriculum development,
assessment, integration of the teaching of culture and language, etc.). Courses: 611, 612,
614

1. What are the different types of language syllabi and how are they used?
2. Discuss the importance of context in language teaching.
3. Discuss the impact of the communicative language teaching (CLT) approach?
What are some of its characteristics and implications? Advantages? Disadvantages
4. How are evaluation, adaptation and assessment utilized in the language
classroom? Give examples of each.
5. Discuss the different language skills and how the language teacher might
approach each skill. What does an integrated approach look like?
6. How is an intercultural approach different from communicative language
teaching? What is the role of the teacher in each approach?
7. How do Cummins’ hypotheses about SLA relate to Corbett’s (and Byram’s)
intercultural competence?
8. A popular frame for many language textbooks is “task‐based” and “information
gap” activities. Why and how is this insufficient in an intercultural competence
approach? (from Kate)
9. What are two different theories of multiculturalism? How does each theory
approach language teaching?
10. What is critical pedagogy and who are two of its proponents?
1. Different types of language syllabi include grammatical syllabus (sequencing language
learning based on grammar structures), functional-notional syllabus (organizing language
learning around communicative functions and notions), situational syllabus (focusing on
language use in specific contexts), task-based syllabus (centering learning around real-
world tasks), and content-based syllabus (integrating language learning with subject matter
content). Syllabi are used to guide curriculum planning, determine learning objectives,
select materials and activities, and provide a framework for language instruction.
2. Context plays a crucial role in language teaching as it provides the meaningful backdrop
for language learning and use. By incorporating authentic and relevant contexts, teachers
can enhance learners' understanding and engagement. Contextualized language learning
helps learners make connections between language forms and their real-life applications.
It enables learners to develop communicative competence by understanding the cultural,
social, and pragmatic aspects of language use in different situations.
3. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) emphasizes the importance of
communication in language learning. Its characteristics include a focus on meaningful and
authentic language use, learner-centered activities, interactive and collaborative tasks, and
the integration of all language skills. Advantages of CLT include promoting communicative
competence, learner engagement, and contextualized learning. However, challenges may
arise in balancing accuracy and fluency, providing sufficient language input, and
addressing individual learner needs within a communicative framework.
4. Evaluation, adaptation, and assessment are important in the language classroom.
Evaluation involves assessing learners' progress and identifying areas for improvement.
Adaptation involves adjusting teaching strategies, materials, and activities to meet learners'
needs. Assessment involves measuring learners' language proficiency and achievement.
Examples include using diagnostic tests, providing individualized feedback, adapting
lesson plans based on learner performance, and conducting formal assessments such as
exams or portfolios to measure language proficiency.
5. The different language skills are listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Language
teachers can approach each skill by incorporating authentic materials, providing explicit
instruction, offering varied practice opportunities, and promoting meaningful
communication. An integrated approach involves integrating these skills in a balanced and
interconnected manner, allowing learners to develop their overall language proficiency.
Teachers can design activities that require the integration of skills, such as reading and
discussing a text, or listening and responding orally or in writing.
6. An intercultural approach focuses on developing learners' intercultural competence and
understanding of different cultures, emphasizing the ability to navigate cultural differences
and communicate effectively across cultures. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT),
on the other hand, primarily focuses on developing learners' communicative competence.
In an intercultural approach, the role of the teacher is to facilitate learners' exploration of
cultural perspectives, foster critical thinking about cultural issues, and provide
opportunities for intercultural communication. In CLT, the teacher acts as a facilitator,
creating an interactive and communicative classroom environment
7. Cummins' hypotheses about Second Language Acquisition (SLA) and Corbett's (and
Byram's) intercultural competence share a relationship in that they both emphasize the
importance of cultural and linguistic knowledge in language learning. Cummins' theories
highlight the role of cultural and linguistic proficiency in academic success, while Corbett's
intercultural competence framework emphasizes the ability to navigate cultural differences
and communicate effectively in intercultural contexts. Both perspectives recognize the
interconnectedness of language and culture in language teaching and learning.
8. Task-based and information gap activities, while valuable in language teaching, may be
insufficient in an intercultural competence approach. An intercultural competence
approach goes beyond language proficiency to develop learners' understanding of cultural
perspectives, critical thinking skills, and ability to navigate cultural differences. It involves
exploring cultural practices, beliefs, and values, engaging in meaningful intercultural
interactions, and developing empathy and cultural sensitivity. Therefore, an intercultural
competence approach requires additional components beyond task-based and information
gap activities to develop learners' intercultural understanding
9. Two different theories of multiculturalism are the melting pot theory and the cultural
mosaic theory. The melting pot theory promotes assimilation and blending of diverse
cultures into a unified culture, resulting in a homogenous society. In language teaching,
this theory may prioritize language conformity and downplay cultural diversity. The
cultural mosaic theory emphasizes preserving unique cultural identities within a pluralistic
society. In language teaching, this theory recognizes and values diverse cultural
backgrounds, promoting the understanding and appreciation of different languages and
cultures.
10. Critical pedagogy is an educational philosophy that aims to challenge and transform
oppressive social structures through education. Two prominent proponents of critical
pedagogy are Paulo Freire and bell hooks. Freire advocated for transformative education
that empowers learners to critically analyze and challenge societal inequalities. Hooks
emphasized the importance of engaged and inclusive education that addresses issues of
race, class, and gender. Critical pedagogy encourages learners to question authority, engage
in critical thinking, and advocate for social justice.
Area Three:
Linguistic Factors (psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic factors in language learning,
general linguistic theory, first and second language acquisition issues and theories, etc.)
Courses: 601, 621, 623, 625, 605

1. Describe two major theories of first language acquisition. Choose the theory you
consider most tenable and substantiate your response.
2. How does age affect second language acquisition? What does the critical period
hypothesis argue about age and acquisition?
3. What role does feedback and correction play in language teaching? Discuss
what type of feedback you consider to be most effective and why.
4. What kind of information and knowledge does psycholinguistics provide?
Specifically, how could this knowledge impact language teaching? Support your
answer with examples and refer to the various readings we have done (Cook,
VanPatten, and Mitchell & Myles
5. What is Interlanguage Theory (IL)? What are the main characteristics of IL?
Provide one example. How can that theory affect your teaching practice? In what
aspects? Be specific.
6. What is the biological connection of language in the Brain and how do we know
about it? What are the main features of bilingual speech? Briefly present and analyze
the perspectives regarding the development of language in the brain of Bilingual
Children
7. How is L1 influence on L2 acquisition much more complex that what the
Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) predicted? Your presentation of CAH should
be brief. Support your assertions with references to the current literature.
8. Present and analyze Krashen’s Monitor Model. What are some of the strengths
and weaknesses inherent in his hypotheses? Which part of his theory can be
applicable to classroom practice? How?
9. Discuss the role of input and interaction in second language acquisition. What
kind of input is most helpful? How might interaction help language learning? What
are the implications for teaching? Be specific.
10. ZPD and i +1: Similar or different? Discuss their similarities and differences and
how they offer differing explanations for second language learning. Support your
discussion by referring to research studies in second language learning, and by giving
examples.
11. Provide an explanation of three (out of four) of the following language phenomena
from a cognitive and an interactionist (NOT sociocultural) perspective: a)
interlanguage variability; b) pace/rate of acquisition; c) fossilization; d) transfer. (You
must explain the same three phenomena for each of the two theoretical perspectives.
If a theory does not address one of the phenomena that you have chosen, state this
and explain why the phenomenon is not addressed).
12. Is there an order of acquisition that most language learners follow? Cite research
that supports/disproves this theory.
13. What (dis)advantages do bilinguals have in third language acquisition (TLA)?
14. What can pidgins and creoles (and their processes) tell us about the nature of
language? What role have they traditionally played in linguistic research? How is
this role changing today?
1. Two major theories of first language acquisition are behaviorism and nativism.
Behaviorism, associated with B.F. Skinner, suggests that language learning is a result of
environmental stimuli and reinforcement. Nativism, supported by Noam Chomsky,
proposes that humans have an innate capacity for language acquisition through a universal
grammar. Nativism is more tenable as it accounts for the complexity and speed of language
acquisition, the presence of language universals, and the ability to generate and understand
novel sentences
2. Age affects second language acquisition, and the critical period hypothesis argues that
there is a specific window of opportunity for optimal language learning. Younger learners
tend to acquire language more easily and attain native-like proficiency, while older learners
may struggle with pronunciation and grammar. The critical period hypothesis suggests that
there is a biologically determined period, typically ending in adolescence, during which
language acquisition is most effective. After this period, language learning becomes more
challenging.
3. Feedback and correction play a crucial role in language teaching as they provide learners
with information about their language production and help them improve their language
skills. Effective feedback is timely, specific, and focuses on aspects relevant to the learner's
level and goals. Corrective feedback can be provided through direct error correction,
recasts (rephrasing the learner's incorrect utterance), or clarification requests. The most
effective type of feedback may vary depending on the learner, task, and context.
4. Psycholinguistics investigates the mental processes involved in language learning,
comprehension, and production. It provides insights into how learners process and store
language, how they acquire grammar and vocabulary, and how they develop language skills
over time. This knowledge can impact language teaching by informing instructional
strategies, curriculum design, and assessment practices. For example, understanding the
role of implicit and explicit learning processes can help teachers design activities that
support both types of learning.
5. Interlanguage Theory (IL) explains how learners develop a unique linguistic system
during the process of second language acquisition. The main characteristics of IL include
language transfer from the native language, overgeneralization of rules, simplification of
grammar structures, and fossilization of errors. For example, a learner may say, "I goed to
the store" due to the influence of the native language (transfer). Understanding IL can
inform teaching by providing insights into learners' language development, identifying
common errors, and designing instruction that addresses their specific needs.
6. The biological connection of language in the brain is supported by various research
methods such as brain imaging (fMRI, PET scans) and studies of individuals with language
impairments (aphasia). Bilingual speech involves the ability to switch between languages,
code-switching, and language control. Perspectives on the development of language in the
bilingual brain include the separate underlying systems view, where each language is
represented independently, and the integrated systems view, where both languages share
common underlying resources. These perspectives impact teaching by highlighting the
importance of supporting bilingual language development and understanding potential
challenges.
7. The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) predicted that language transfer from the
native language to the second language would be the main source of errors. However, L1
influence on L2 acquisition is more complex, as learners' errors are influenced by various
factors such as interlanguage development, overgeneralization, and pragmatic differences.
Research suggests that errors can also arise from developmental stages in L2 acquisition
rather than solely from L1 influence. Therefore, the CAH alone cannot fully explain the
complexity of L1 influence in L2 acquisition.
8. Krashen's Monitor Model proposes that language acquisition is a subconscious process
influenced by comprehensible input, and the "monitor" (conscious learning) plays a limited
role in language production. Strengths of Krashen's hypotheses include the focus on
meaningful input and the importance of a low-anxiety environment. Weaknesses include
the limited role assigned to explicit instruction and the lack of emphasis on practice and
output. The input hypothesis, which states that learners need comprehensible input slightly
beyond their current level (i + 1), can be applicable to classroom practice by providing
learners with appropriate and engaging input.
9. Input and interaction are crucial for second language acquisition. Meaningful and
comprehensible input, in the form of authentic materials or modified texts, helps learners
develop language skills. Interaction provides opportunities for negotiation of meaning,
clarification, and practice in a communicative context. Incorporating interactive tasks, such
as role-plays, discussions, and pair/group work, can facilitate language learning. Teachers
can provide scaffolding, model language use, and create a supportive environment where
learners can engage in meaningful interactions to enhance their language acquisition.
10. The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and i + 1 offer differing explanations for
second language learning. ZPD, proposed by Vygotsky, emphasizes the importance of
social interaction and scaffolding from more knowledgeable others. It suggests that
learners can accomplish tasks with support that they cannot do alone. On the other hand, i
+ 1, proposed by Krashen, focuses on providing input that is slightly beyondthe learner's
current level of proficiency. It suggests that learners need input that is comprehensible yet
challenging to facilitate language acquisition.
While both ZPD and i + 1 highlight the importance of providing appropriate support and
challenges, they differ in their emphasis. ZPD emphasizes the role of social interaction and
guided assistance, whereas i + 1 focuses on the level of linguistic input. ZPD suggests that
collaborative activities and scaffolding can enhance language learning, while i + 1
emphasizes the importance of providing input that is slightly above the learner's current
level.

For example, in a language classroom, ZPD can be applied by pairing learners of different
proficiency levels and encouraging them to engage in collaborative tasks. The more
proficient learner can provide support and guidance to the less proficient learner, promoting
language development through interaction. On the other hand, i + 1 can be implemented
by selecting texts or materials that are slightly more challenging than what learners are
comfortable with, allowing them to expand their linguistic abilities.

Research studies have shown that both ZPD and i + 1 can contribute to second language
learning. However, their specific applications may vary depending on the learning context,
learner characteristics, and instructional goals. By considering these theories, teachers can
design activities and provide materials that promote optimal language learning by
balancing support and challenge for their students.
11. a) Interlanguage variability: From a cognitive perspective, interlanguage variability
refers to the fluctuations and inconsistencies in learners' language production as they
develop proficiency in a second language (L2). It is seen as a natural result of cognitive
processes involved in language acquisition, such as hypothesis testing, restructuring of
linguistic knowledge, and overcoming transfer from the first language. From an
interactionist perspective, interlanguage variability is influenced by social and
communicative factors, such as exposure to input, feedback from interlocutors, and
negotiation of meaning during interactions
b) Pace/rate of acquisition: From a cognitive perspective, the pace or rate of acquisition
refers to the speed at which learners acquire a second language. It is influenced by
individual cognitive factors, such as working memory capacity, language aptitude, and
cognitive processing efficiency. Cognitive theories focus on internal cognitive mechanisms
and individual differences that affect the speed of language learning. From an interactionist
perspective, the pace of acquisition is influenced by social and interactional factors, such
as the frequency and quality of language input, opportunities for practice, and engagement
in meaningful communication.
c) Fossilization: From a cognitive perspective, fossilization refers to the phenomenon
where certain linguistic structures or errors persist in a learner's language development
despite extended exposure to the second language. It may result from cognitive constraints,
such as limited capacity for restructuring or difficulty in internalizing certain language
features. From an interactionist perspective, fossilization can be influenced by the lack of
targeted corrective feedback or opportunities for explicit instruction on the specific
language features, leading to the reinforcement of errors over time.
d) Transfer: From a cognitive perspective, transfer refers to the influence of a learner's first
language (L1) on the acquisition of the second language (L2). It occurs when learners apply
L1 knowledge, habits, or structures to the L2. Cognitive theories emphasize the role of
cognitive processes, such as generalization, analogy, and schema activation, in transfer.
From an interactionist perspective, transfer is influenced by the interactional context, such
as the communicative demands, interlocutors' feedback, and exposure to the target
language. Interactionist theories highlight the role of social interaction in facilitating or
inhibiting transfer effects.
12. The order of acquisition theory proposes that language learners follow a predictable
sequence in acquiring grammatical structures. Research by linguists such as Stephen
Krashen and Dulay and Burt has provided evidence supporting the existence of a natural
order of acquisition. However, it is important to note that the order may vary depending on
factors such as the learner's first language, age, and exposure to the target language.
Additionally, some studies have found individual differences in the order of acquisition,
suggesting that the process may not be entirely uniform for all learners.
13. Bilinguals may have advantages and disadvantages in third language acquisition (TLA).
Advantages include enhanced metalinguistic awareness, better language learning strategies,
and transfer of skills from previous language learning experiences. Bilinguals may also
have a larger linguistic repertoire to draw upon. However, disadvantages may arise due to
interference from the two existing languages, potential confusion or mixing of linguistic
features, and the need to manage multiple language systems. The specific advantages and
disadvantages can vary depending on factors such as proficiency levels in the existing
languages and the linguistic distance between them.
14. Pidgins and creoles provide insights into the nature of language as they represent unique
linguistic systems that emerge in contact situations. They demonstrate the human capacity
for language creation and adaptation, highlighting the role of communication needs and
social interactions in shaping linguistic structures. Traditionally, pidgins and creoles have
been studied to understand processes of language development, language change, and
linguistic universals. Today, they continue to be important subjects of research, with
increasing focus on sociolinguistic aspects, language contact phenomena, and the role of
colonialism and power dynamics in their formation and use.
Area Four:
Socio-Cultural Factors (assimilation, cultural discontinuities, cross-cultural
communication, culture shock, socio-cultural factors in language learning, literacy and
culture, etc.) Courses: 623, 614, 612, 605, 621
1. What cultural barriers must language learners overcome? How can language
teachers help learners to overcome these barriers?
2. Discuss Schumann’s Acculturation Hypothesis. How does social distance affect
language learners?
3. What is the relationship between words and culture? Do you agree or disagree
with the Whorfian hypothesis? Why?
4. What are speech communities and how do they affect language learners?
5. How do different dialects unite or divide speakers?
6. What are affective variables that impact language learners? Do you agree or
disagree with Krashen’s hypothesis about the affective filter?
7. What is ethnography and how is it used in language research? How does (or
might or can) ethnography (think of the interview) “map onto” critical pedagogy
and/or Freire’s idea of problem-posing? (from Kate)
8. What role does discourse play in language learning? What is Critical Discourse
Analysis and how is it used in language teaching?
9. How can language teachers prevent the oppression of minority students in the
language classroom? When and how might such oppression occur?

1. Language learners may face cultural barriers such as differences in customs, values, and
social norms. Language teachers can help learners overcome these barriers by
incorporating cultural content into language instruction, promoting cultural awareness and
sensitivity, providing opportunities for intercultural communication, and encouraging
learners to engage with the target culture through authentic materials, cultural events, and
interactions with native speakers.
2. Schumann's Acculturation Hypothesis suggests that a language learner's degree of
acculturation into the target language community affects their language acquisition. Social
distance, or the psychological and cultural distance between the learner and the target
language community, plays a role in language learners' willingness to adopt the target
language and culture. Learners with closer social distance, such as those who have more
contact with native speakers, tend to have better language outcomes
3. The relationship between words and culture is strong, as language reflects and embodies
cultural concepts, values, and practices. The Whorfian hypothesis, also known as linguistic
relativity, argues that language shapes our thoughts and perception of the world. While
some evidence supports the idea that language influences cognition, the extent of this
influence is a subject of debate. While language certainly reflects cultural patterns, the
Whorfian hypothesis in its strongest form is not widely accepted due to the complexity of
language and cognition interactions.
4. Speech communities are groups of people who share a particular language or variety of
a language and interact with each other using that language. These communities can have
a significant impact on language learners as they provide opportunities for exposure to the
target language, authentic language use, and social interactions. Learners who have access
to supportive speech communities, such as language study groups, language exchange
programs, or communities of native speakers, can benefit from increased language input
and practice.
5. Different dialects can both unite and divide speakers. Dialects are variations of a
language that differ in pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar. They can serve as markers
of group identity and solidarity, bringing speakers together. However, dialectal differences
can also create barriers to effective communication and contribute to misunderstandings or
prejudice. Language teachers can help learners navigate dialectal variations by promoting
understanding and acceptance of linguistic diversity, teaching dialectal features, and
highlighting the importance of effective communication across dialectal boundaries.
6. Affective variables, such as motivation, self-confidence, anxiety, and attitude, can
significantly impact language learners. They can influence learners' engagement,
perseverance, and willingness to take risks in language learning. Krashen's affective filter
hypothesis suggests that high levels of anxiety or negative affective factors can act as a
filter that hinders language acquisition. While the exact role and impact of affective
variables are complex and individualized, recognizing and addressing learners' affective
needs can create a positive and supportive learning environment
7. Ethnography is a research approach that involves observing and studying the social and
cultural practices of a particular group or community. In language research, ethnography
can be used to explore how language is used in real-life contexts, understand language
learners' experiences, and investigate the sociocultural aspects of language learning.
Ethnography can align with critical pedagogy and Freire's idea of problem-posing by
empowering learners to critically examine their social and cultural contexts, challenge
inequalities, and engage in transformative and reflective learning experiences
8. Discourse plays a crucial role in language learning as it encompasses the use of language
in specific contexts, including conversations, texts, and social interactions. Critical
Discourse Analysis (CDA) is an approach that examines how power, ideology, and social
structures are reflected and reinforced through language use. In language teaching, CDA
can be used to develop critical language awareness, promote understanding of social issues,
and foster critical thinking skills. It encourages learners to analyze and question the
discourses they encounter, enabling them to become more informed and active language
users.
9. Language teachers can prevent the oppression of minority students in the language
classroom by creating an inclusive and equitable learning environment. This can be
achieved by valuing and respecting diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds, providing
representation of minority cultures and languages in instructional materials, fostering
inclusive discussions and interactions, addressing linguistic biases or stereotypes, and
ensuring equal participation and opportunities for all students. Oppression can occur when
minority students' voices are marginalized, their cultural identities are devalued, or their
linguistic abilities are judged negatively. Teachers must actively counter such dynamics to
promote a supportive and empowering learning environment.