1. WHAT IS A CITY, DEFINING CITY AND TYPES OF CITIES?

A city is a relatively large, dense, permanent, heterogeneous, and politically autonomous

settlement whose population engages in a range of nonagricultural occupations. Definitions of
cities and their associated phenomena vary by time and place, and by population size, area, and
function². The city is often defined in terms of administrative area, which may be larger than,
smaller than, or equal to the area of relatively dense settlement that comprises what is
otherwise known as the city proper. The suburb is a less dense but permanent settlement that is
located outside the city proper and contains populations that usually have social and economic
ties to the city².

Urban sociology is the sociological study of life and human interaction in metropolitan areas. It is a
normative discipline of sociology seeking to study the structures, environmental processes, changes
and problems of an urban area and by doing so provide inputs for urban planning and policy making.
In other words, it is the sociological study of cities and their role in the development of society¹.
Urban sociology draws from several fields, including cultural sociology, economic sociology, and
political sociology. Urban sociology also uses various methods, such as statistical analysis,
observation, social theory, interviews, and others to study a range of topics, such as migration and
demographic trends, economics, poverty, race relations and economic trends¹.

The basis of defining a city can be based on different criteria, such as population size, density,
function, morphology, history, culture, or administration. However, there is no universal agreement
on what constitutes a city or how to measure it. Different countries and regions may have different
definitions and classifications of urban areas. For example, the United Nations defines an urban area
as a settlement with a population of at least 20,000 people and a city as a settlement with a
population of at least 100,000 people². However, some countries may use lower or higher thresholds
for defining urban areas or cities. Moreover, some urban areas may consist of multiple cities or
towns that are contiguous or functionally integrated².

The types of cities can be classified according to various typologies that reflect their characteristics or
functions. For example, one typology is based on the historical stages of urban development: ancient
cities (e.g., Babylon), medieval cities (e.g., Paris), industrial cities (e.g., Manchester), modern cities
(e.g., New York), and postmodern cities (e.g., Tokyo)³. Another typology is based on the economic
functions of cities: trade centers (e.g., Singapore), industrial centers (e.g., Detroit), service centers
(e.g., London), administrative centers (e.g., Washington D.C.), cultural centers (e.g., Rome), or global
cities (e.g., Shanghai)⁴. A third typology is based on the spatial forms of cities: compact cities (e.g.,
Amsterdam), dispersed cities (e.g., Los Angeles), edge cities (e.g., Tysons Corner), megacities (e.g.,
Mumbai), or megaregions (e.g., Pearl River Delta)⁵.

In conclusion, urban sociology is a branch of sociology that studies life in cities and their impact on
society's development. A city is a relatively large, dense, permanent, heterogeneous, and politically
autonomous settlement whose population engages in nonagricultural occupations. The definition
and classification of a city can vary by different criteria and contexts. The types of cities can be
categorized according to various typologies that reflect their characteristics or functions.

2. RURAL URBAN CONTINUUM

The rural urban continuum is a concept that describes the socio-economic interaction between the
rural and urban areas. It implies that there is no sharp distinction or dichotomy between the rural
and urban, but rather a gradation or continuum of characteristics that vary along a scale from the
most rural to the most urban. The rural urban continuum also reflects the process of urbanization,
which involves the transformation of rural areas into urban areas, and the diffusion of urban
influences into rural areas.

The concept of rural urban continuum was developed by Robert Redfield, who studied the Mexican
peasants of Tepoztlan and observed that they had both folk and urban elements in their culture. He
argued that there was a folk-urban continuum that ranged from the small rural villages to the large
cities, and that urbanization involved the loss of folk culture and the adoption of urban culture. He
also suggested that there were different types of societies along this continuum, such as folk society,
peasant society, urban society, and mass society¹.

However, Redfield's concept of rural urban continuum was criticized by many sociologists for being
too simplistic and ethnocentric. Some of the criticisms are:

- Redfield assumed that folk culture was homogeneous, static, and isolated, while urban culture was
heterogeneous, dynamic, and cosmopolitan. However, many studies have shown that folk culture is
not uniform or unchanging, but rather diverse and adaptive to different contexts and influences.
Similarly, urban culture is not necessarily modern or progressive, but may also contain elements of
tradition and conservatism².

- Redfield ignored the historical and structural factors that shape the rural-urban relations, such as
colonialism, capitalism, class, power, and inequality. He also overlooked the conflicts and
contradictions that may arise between the rural and urban interests and values. He assumed that
urbanization was a linear and inevitable process that led to cultural convergence and integration.
However, many studies have shown that urbanization is a complex and uneven process that may
result in cultural diversity and differentiation³.

- Redfield based his concept of rural urban continuum on his study of a single case of Mexico, which
may not be representative or generalizable to other contexts and regions. He also used his own
Western criteria to define and measure the rural and urban characteristics, which may not be
applicable or relevant to other cultures and societies⁴.
Despite these criticisms, Redfield's concept of rural urban continuum has stimulated further research
and debate on the nature and dynamics of rural-urban relations. Some of the alternative approaches
are:

- The ecological approach, which focuses on the spatial patterns and distributions of population,
settlement, land use, and resources in relation to the natural environment. It examines how different
types of rural and urban areas are organized and connected by various factors such as transportation,
communication, migration, trade, and technology⁵.

- The functional approach, which focuses on the economic activities and functions of different types
of rural and urban areas. It examines how different types of rural and urban areas specialize in
different sectors such as agriculture, industry, services, or administration, and how they exchange
goods, services, information, and labor with each other.

- The cultural approach, which focuses on the social values, norms, beliefs

3. APPROACHES TO STUDY URBAN PHENOMENA IN URBAN SOCIOLOGY

Urban sociology is the branch of sociology that studies life and human interaction in metropolitan
areas. It seeks to understand the structures, processes, changes, and problems of urban areas and
their impact on society. Urban sociology uses different approaches to cover different aspects of city
and city life. Some of the major approaches are:

- The historical approach, which focuses on the origins, development, and evolution of cities and
urbanization in different regions and periods of history. It examines how cities emerged from ancient
civilizations, how they grew and changed with industrialization and modernization, and how they
face new challenges and opportunities in the contemporary world. It also explores how cities reflect
and influence the broader social, cultural, political, and economic contexts of their times¹.

- The ecological approach, which focuses on the spatial patterns and distributions of population,
settlement, land use, and resources in relation to the natural environment. It examines how different
types of urban areas are organized and connected by various factors such as transportation,
communication, migration, trade, and technology. It also analyzes how urban areas affect and are
affected by environmental issues such as pollution, climate change, natural disasters, and
sustainability².

- The functional approach, which focuses on the economic activities and functions of different types
of urban areas. It examines how different types of urban areas specialize in different sectors such as
agriculture, industry, services, or administration, and how they exchange goods, services,
information, and labor with each other. It also studies how urban areas compete and cooperate with
other urban areas at local, regional, national, or global levels³.

- The cultural approach, which focuses on the social values, norms, beliefs,

attitudes, lifestyles, identities, and behaviors of urban populations. It examines how urban
populations differ from or resemble rural populations in terms of their culture and subculture. It also
explores how urban populations create and consume various forms of culture such as art, music,
literature, religion, media, fashion, sports, etc⁴.
- The conflict approach, which focuses on the social inequalities, power relations,

struggles, and movements that exist within and between urban populations. It examines how urban
populations are divided by class, race, ethnicity,

gender,

sexuality,

age,

or other factors that affect their access to resources,

opportunities,

and rights. It also investigates how urban populations resist or challenge the dominant or oppressive
structures,

institutions,

or ideologies that shape their lives.

These approaches are not mutually exclusive or exhaustive. They can be combined or complemented
by other perspectives or methods to provide a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of
urban phenomena. Urban sociology is a dynamic and diverse field that reflects the complexity and
diversity of urban life.

4. SCOPE OF URBAN SOCIOLOGY

Urban sociology is a branch of sociology that deals with the impact of city life on social actions, social
relationships, social institutions, and the types of civilizations derived from and based on urban
modes of living. It attempts to study the structures, processes, changes and problems of urban areas
and to provide input for planning and policymaking. The scope of urban sociology is very vast and
multidimensional. Urban sociology relies on the related sciences and borrows from history,
economics, social psychology, public administration and social work. Some of the main areas of study
within urban sociology are:

- Urbanization: Urbanization is the process by which rural areas are transformed into urban areas, or
by which existing urban areas expand in size, population, or functions. Urbanization is influenced by
various factors such as industrialization, modernization, globalization, migration, and environmental
change. Urbanization has various consequences for society, such as economic development, social
differentiation, cultural diversity, political participation, environmental degradation, and social
problems¹.

- Urbanism: Urbanism is the way of life or culture that emerges from living in urban areas. Urbanism
is characterized by certain features such as heterogeneity, anonymity, individualism, rationality,
mobility, secularism, and specialization. Urbanism also involves various forms of social interaction
such as formal associations, impersonal relations, mass communication, and public opinion.
Urbanism affects various aspects of human behavior such as values, norms, beliefs, attitudes,
lifestyles, identities, and deviance².

- Urban ecology: Urban ecology is the study of the spatial patterns and distributions of population,
settlement,

land use,

and resources in relation to the natural environment. Urban ecology examines how different types of
urban areas are organized and connected by various factors such as transportation,

communication,

migration,

trade,

and technology. Urban ecology also analyzes how urban areas affect and are affected by
environmental issues such as pollution,

climate change,

natural disasters,

and sustainability³.

- Urban social organization: Urban social organization is the study of the social structures and
processes that shape urban life. It includes the analysis of various social institutions such as family,

religion,

education,

economy,

politics,

and law that operate in urban areas. It also includes the study of various social groups such as class,

race,

ethnicity,

gender,

sexuality,

age,

or subculture that exist in urban areas. Urban social organization explores how urban populations are
divided or integrated by various factors such as power,

inequality,

conflict,

cooperation,

or social movements⁴.
- Urban problems: Urban problems are the challenges or difficulties that arise from living in urban
areas. They include various issues such as housing,

sanitation,

slums,

poverty,

crime,

violence,

deviance,

health,

mental disorders,

suicide,

divorce,

traffic congestion,

zoning anomalies etc. Urban problems are caused by various factors such as rapid urbanization,

overcrowding,

social disorganization,

anomie,

alienation etc. Urban problems require various solutions such as urban planning,

urban development,

urban renewal etc⁵.

Urban sociology is a dynamic and diverse field that reflects the complexity and diversity of urban life.
It aims to understand and explain the various phenomena that occur in urban areas and their
implications for society.

5. URBANIZATION MEANING AND ITS IMPACT ON RURAL AREAS

Urbanization is the process by which rural areas are transformed into urban areas, or by which
existing urban areas expand in size, population, or functions. Urbanization is influenced by various
factors such as industrialization, modernization, globalization, migration, and environmental change.
Urbanization has various consequences for society, such as economic development, social
differentiation, cultural diversity, political participation, environmental degradation, and social
problems¹.
Urbanization has a significant impact on rural areas, both positive and negative. Some of the impacts
are:

- Economic impact: Urbanization can create new markets and opportunities for rural producers and
consumers. It can also increase the demand for rural labor and resources, and improve the
infrastructure and services in rural areas. However, urbanization can also create competition and
inequality between urban and rural areas. It can also cause rural depopulation, unemployment,
poverty, and underdevelopment².

- Social impact: Urbanization can enhance the social mobility and integration of rural populations. It
can also expose them to new ideas, values, norms, and lifestyles. However, urbanization can also
disrupt the traditional social structures and networks of rural communities. It can also create social
problems such as crime, violence, deviance, health issues, and cultural conflicts³.

- Environmental impact: Urbanization can improve the environmental quality and sustainability of
rural areas. It can also reduce the pressure on natural resources and biodiversity in rural areas.
However, urbanization can also cause environmental degradation and pollution in rural areas. It can
also contribute to climate change and natural disasters that affect rural livelihoods⁴.

Urbanization is a complex and dynamic process that affects both urban and rural areas. It requires
careful planning and management to balance the benefits and costs of urbanization for society.

ON FAMILY:

Urbanization is the process by which rural areas are transformed into urban areas, or by which
existing urban areas expand in size, population, or functions. Urbanization has various impacts on the
institution of family, especially in the context of Indian society. Some of the impacts are:

- Family structure: Urbanization can change the family structure from the joint family form to the
nuclear family form or small joint family system. This can be due to various factors such as lack of
space, privacy, and resources in urban areas, or due to the need for mobility and flexibility in urban
occupations. The joint family system may also be replaced by other forms of social support such as
friends, neighbors, or voluntary associations¹.

- Family functions: Urbanization can affect the family functions such as economic, social, educational,
religious, and recreational. The economic function of the family may be reduced due to the
availability of wage employment and market services in urban areas. The social function of the family
may be weakened due to the loss of kinship ties and community bonds in urban areas. The
educational function of the family may be enhanced due to the exposure to formal schooling and
mass media in urban areas. The religious function of the family may be modified due to the diversity
and secularization of urban culture. The recreational function of the family may be diversified due to
the variety and accessibility of entertainment options in urban areas².

- Family relations: Urbanization can influence the family relations such as marital, parental, and filial.
The marital relation may become more egalitarian and companionate due to the increased
participation and autonomy of women in urban areas. The parental relation may become more
democratic and permissive due to the reduced authority and control of parents in urban areas. The
filial relation may become more distant and individualistic due to the reduced dependence and
obligation of children in urban areas³.

Urbanization is a complex and dynamic process that affects both rural and urban areas. It requires
careful planning and management to balance the benefits and costs of urbanization for society.

0N KINSHIP:

Urbanization is the process by which rural areas are transformed into urban areas, or by which
existing urban areas expand in size, population, or functions. Urbanization has various impacts on the
institution of kinship, especially in the context of Indian society. Some of the impacts are:

- Kinship structure: Urbanization can change the kinship structure from the patrilineal and patrilocal
to the bilateral and neolocal. This can be due to various factors such as the need for mobility and
flexibility in urban occupations, the increased participation and autonomy of women in urban areas,
and the exposure to different cultural norms and values in urban areas. The bilateral kinship system
may also be more adaptive to the nuclear family form and the individualistic orientation in urban
areas¹.

- Kinship functions: Urbanization can affect the kinship functions such as economic, social, political,
and religious. The economic function of kinship may be reduced due to the availability of wage
employment and market services in urban areas. The social function of kinship may be weakened
due to the loss of kinship ties and community bonds in urban areas. The political function of kinship
may be modified due to the diversity and secularization of urban culture. The religious function of
kinship may be diversified due to the variety and accessibility of religious options in urban areas².

- Kinship relations: Urbanization can influence the kinship relations such as affinal, consanguineal,
and fictive. The affinal relation may become more egalitarian and companionate due to the increased
participation and autonomy of women in urban areas. The consanguineal relation may become more
distant and individualistic due to the reduced dependence and obligation of kinsmen in urban areas.
The fictive relation may become more important and supportive due to the need for social support
and integration in urban areas³.

Urbanization is a complex and dynamic process that affects both rural and urban areas. It requires
careful planning and management to balance the benefits and costs of urbanization for society.

ON ENVIRONMENT:

Urbanization is the process by which rural areas are transformed into urban areas, or by which
existing urban areas expand in size, population, or functions. Urbanization has various impacts on the
environment, both positive and negative. Some of the impacts are:
- Air pollution: Urbanization can increase the emission of greenhouse gases and other pollutants
from various sources such as transportation, industry, energy use, and waste disposal. Air pollution
can have negative effects on human health, such as respiratory diseases, cardiovascular diseases, and
cancer. Air pollution can also affect the climate system by altering the radiative balance and cloud
formation¹.

- Water pollution: Urbanization can increase the discharge of wastewater and runoff from various
sources such as domestic, industrial, agricultural, and stormwater. Water pollution can have negative
effects on aquatic ecosystems, such as eutrophication, hypoxia, acidification, and biodiversity loss.
Water pollution can also affect human health by contaminating drinking water sources and causing
waterborne diseases².

- Land use change: Urbanization can cause the conversion of natural landscapes and ecosystems into
built-up areas and infrastructure. Land use change can have negative effects on biodiversity, such as
habitat loss, fragmentation, degradation, and invasion. Land use change can also affect the
biogeochemical cycles, such as carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycles³.

- Resource consumption: Urbanization can increase the demand and consumption of natural
resources such as water, energy, food, and materials. Resource consumption can have negative
effects on the environment by depleting non-renewable resources, increasing waste generation, and
contributing to environmental degradation⁴.

Urbanization is a complex and dynamic process that affects both rural and urban areas. It requires
careful planning and management to balance the benefits and costs of urbanization for society.

0N MARRIAGE:

Urbanization is the process by which rural areas are transformed into urban areas, or by which
existing urban areas expand in size, population, or functions. Urbanization has various impacts on the
institution of marriage, both positive and negative. Some of the impacts are:

- Marriage forms: Urbanization can change the marriage forms from traditional ones such as
arranged marriage, endogamy, dowry, and polygamy to modern ones such as love marriage,
exogamy, bride price, and monogamy. This can be due to various factors such as the exposure to
different cultural norms and values, the increased participation and autonomy of women, and the
need for mobility and flexibility in urban occupations¹.

- Marriage functions: Urbanization can affect the marriage functions such as economic, social,
emotional, and sexual. The economic function of marriage may be reduced due to the availability of
wage employment and market services in urban areas. The social function of marriage may be
weakened due to the loss of kinship ties and community bonds in urban areas. The emotional
function of marriage may be enhanced due to the increased companionship and intimacy between
spouses. The sexual function of marriage may be diversified due to the variety and accessibility of
sexual options in urban areas².

- Marriage stability: Urbanization can influence the marriage stability by increasing or decreasing the
chances of divorce and separation. Urbanization can increase the chances of divorce and separation
due to various factors such as economic independence, individualism, anomie, alienation, and
marital conflict. Urbanization can also decrease the chances of divorce and separation due to various
factors such as legal constraints, social stigma, religious beliefs, and marital satisfaction³.

Urbanization is a complex and dynamic process that affects both rural and urban areas. It requires
careful planning and management to balance the benefits and costs of urbanization for society.

TRENDS AND PATTERNS OF URBANIZATION:

Urbanisation is the process by which rural areas are transformed into urban areas, or by which
existing urban areas expand in size, population, or functions. Urban sociology is the branch of
sociology that studies life and human interaction in metropolitan areas. Urban sociology uses
different perspectives and methods to analyse the trends and patterns of urbanisation across the
world. Some of the main trends and patterns are:

- Levels of urbanisation: The level of urbanisation refers to the proportion of population living in
urban areas. According to the United Nations, the world's urban population increased from 751
million in 1950 to 4.2 billion in 2018, and the level of urbanisation rose from 29.6% to 55.3%. It is
projected that by 2050, 68% of the world's population will live in urban areas, with most of the
increase occurring in Asia and Africa¹.

- Types of urbanisation: The type of urbanisation refers to the process or mode by which
urbanisation occurs. There are different types of urbanisation such as natural increase, rural-urban
migration, reclassification, annexation, suburbanisation, counterurbanisation, and reurbanisation.
Natural increase refers to the excess of births over deaths in urban areas. Rural-urban migration
refers to the movement of people from rural to urban areas. Reclassification refers to the change of
status of an area from rural to urban due to administrative or statistical criteria. Annexation refers to
the expansion of urban boundaries to incorporate adjacent areas. Suburbanisation refers to the
movement of people from central cities to peripheral areas. Counterurbanisation refers to the
movement of people from urban to rural areas. Reurbanisation refers to the movement of people
from suburban or rural areas back to central cities².

- Patterns of urbanisation: The pattern of urbanisation refers to the spatial distribution and
organisation of urban areas. There are different patterns of urbanisation such as concentric zone,
sector, multiple nuclei, edge city, megacity, metacity, and megaregion. Concentric zone refers to the
model that depicts a city as a series of circular zones with different functions and characteristics
radiating from the central business district. Sector refers to the model that depicts a city as a series
of wedge-shaped sectors with different functions and characteristics extending from the central
business district along major transportation routes. Multiple nuclei refers to the model that depicts a
city as a collection of separate and distinct nuclei with different functions and characteristics
scattered throughout the urban area. Edge city refers to the model that depicts a city as a network of
suburban centres that function as independent nodes of economic and social activity. Megacity
refers to a city with a population of more than 10 million people. Metacity refers to a city with a
population of more than 20 million people. Megaregion refers to a cluster of interconnected cities
that form a large-scale economic and social system³.
Urbanisation is a complex and dynamic process that affects both rural and urban areas. It requires
careful planning and management to balance the benefits and costs of urbanisation for society.

6. SOCIO ECONOMIC PROFILE OF SLUMSIN INDIA , PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS OF SLUMS :

Slums are informal settlements that lack adequate living space, basic services, security of tenure, and
legal recognition. Slums are a manifestation of urban poverty and inequality, and a challenge for
urban development and governance. According to the Census of India 2011, there were about 140
million slum dwellers in India, accounting for 17.4% of the urban population and 11.8% of the total
population. However, some independent studies suggest that the actual number of slum dwellers
may be much higher, as many slums are not officially recognized or enumerated by the census¹.

Socio economic profile of slums in India

The socio economic profile of slums in India reflects the diversity and complexity of urban poverty
and deprivation. Some of the main characteristics of slums in India are:

- Demographic profile: Slums have a high population density, with an average of 277 persons per
hectare, compared to 181 persons per hectare for the urban average. Slums also have a high
population growth rate, with an average annual growth rate of 2.6%, compared to 2.1% for the urban
average. Slums have a young age structure, with about 40% of the population below 18 years of age,
compared to 29% for the urban average. Slums have a high sex ratio, with 929 females per 1000
males, compared to 905 females per 1000 males for the urban average².

- Economic profile: Slums have a low income level, with an average monthly per capita expenditure
(MPCE) of Rs. 1,238, compared to Rs. 2,630 for the urban average. Slums have a high incidence of
poverty, with about 35% of the population below the poverty line (BPL), compared to 14% for the
urban average. Slums have a low employment rate, with about 54% of the population in the labour
force, compared to 64% for the urban average. Slums have a high informal sector employment, with
about 90% of the workers engaged in informal activities such as street vending, domestic work,
construction work, waste picking etc., compared to 68% for the urban average³.

- Social profile: Slums have a low educational attainment level, with about 57% of the population
literate, compared to 85% for the urban average. Slums have a high dropout rate, with about 40% of
the children aged 6-14 years not attending school, compared to 4% for the urban average. Slums
have a low health status, with about 20% of the population suffering from chronic illnesses or
disabilities, compared to 12% for the urban average. Slums have a high fertility rate, with about 3.2
children per woman, compared to 2.1 children per woman for the urban average⁴.

- Cultural profile: Slums have a diverse cultural composition, with about 72% of the population
belonging to Hindu religion, followed by Muslim (16%), Christian (6%), Sikh (3%), Buddhist (2%), and
others (1%). Slums have a high caste diversity, with about 32% of the population belonging to
Scheduled Castes (SC), followed by Other Backward Classes (OBC) (30%), General Castes (25%),
Scheduled Tribes (ST) (10%), and others (3%). Slums have a high linguistic diversity, with about 41%
of the population speaking Hindi as their mother tongue,

followed by Bengali (9%), Marathi (8%), Telugu (7%), Tamil (6%), Urdu (5%), Gujarati (4%), Kannada
(4%), Malayalam (3%), Oriya (3%), and others (10%) .

Problems and solutions of slums in India

The problems and solutions of slums in India are interrelated and require a holistic and participatory
approach that involves multiple stakeholders and sectors. Some of the main problems and solutions
are:

- Lack of basic services: Slums lack access to adequate water supply, sanitation, drainage,

solid waste management,

electricity,

and transport facilities.

These services are essential for improving the quality of life,

health,

and productivity of slum dwellers.

The solutions include providing universal coverage and quality of these services through public-
private-community partnerships,

demand-responsive approaches,

and decentralized management systems.

- Lack of secure tenure: Slums lack legal recognition and protection from eviction and harassment by
the authorities and other vested interests. This insecurity hampers the investment and improvement
of slum housing and infrastructure, and also affects the social and psychological well-being of slum
dwellers. The solutions include providing legal identity and tenure security to slum dwellers through
enumeration, mapping, regularization, titling, and upgrading programs, as well as ensuring their
participation and representation in urban governance and planning processes.

- Lack of livelihood opportunities: Slums lack access to formal employment, credit, markets, and
social protection schemes. This limits the income generation and asset accumulation of slum
dwellers, and exposes them to various risks and vulnerabilities. The solutions include enhancing the
employability, entrepreneurship, and empowerment of slum dwellers through skill development,
microfinance, social enterprises, cooperatives, and self-help groups, as well as linking them to
existing welfare programs and schemes.

- Lack of social integration: Slums face social exclusion and discrimination based on their location,
identity, and status. This affects their access to education, health, justice, and civic amenities, and
also leads to social conflicts and violence. The solutions include promoting the s
Slums are informal settlements that lack adequate living space, basic services, security of tenure, and
legal recognition. Slums are a manifestation of urban poverty and inequality, and a challenge for
urban development and governance. According to the Census of India 2011, there were about 140
million slum dwellers in India, accounting for 17.4% of the urban population and 11.8% of the total
population. However, some independent studies suggest that the actual number of slum dwellers
may be much higher, as many slums are not officially recognized or enumerated by the census¹.

Socio economic profile of slums in India

The socio economic profile of slums in India reflects the diversity and complexity of urban poverty
and deprivation. Some of the main characteristics of slums in India are:

- Demographic profile: Slums have a high population density, with an average of 277 persons per
hectare, compared to 181 persons per hectare for the urban average. Slums also have a high
population growth rate, with an average annual growth rate of 2.6%, compared to 2.1% for the urban
average. Slums have a young age structure, with about 40% of the population below 18 years of age,
compared to 29% for the urban average. Slums have a high sex ratio, with 929 females per 1000
males, compared to 905 females per 1000 males for the urban average².

- Economic profile: Slums have a low income level, with an average monthly per capita expenditure
(MPCE) of Rs. 1,238, compared to Rs. 2,630 for the urban average. Slums have a high incidence of
poverty, with about 35% of the population below the poverty line (BPL), compared to 14% for the
urban average. Slums have a low employment rate, with about 54% of the population in the labour
force, compared to 64% for the urban average. Slums have a high informal sector employment, with
about 90% of the workers engaged in informal activities such as street vending, domestic work,
construction work, waste picking etc., compared to 68% for the urban average³.

- Social profile: Slums have a low educational attainment level, with about 57% of the population
literate, compared to 85% for the urban average. Slums have a high dropout rate, with about 40% of
the children aged 6-14 years not attending school, compared to 4% for the urban average. Slums
have a low health status, with about 20% of the population suffering from chronic illnesses or
disabilities, compared to 12% for the urban average. Slums have a high fertility rate, with about 3.2
children per woman, compared to 2.1 children per woman for the urban average⁴.

- Cultural profile: Slums have a diverse cultural composition, with about 72% of the population
belonging to Hindu religion, followed by Muslim (16%), Christian (6%), Sikh (3%), Buddhist (2%), and
others (1%). Slums have a high caste diversity, with about 32% of the population belonging to
Scheduled Castes (SC), followed by Other Backward Classes (OBC) (30%), General Castes (25%),
Scheduled Tribes (ST) (10%), and others (3%). Slums have a high linguistic diversity, with about 41%
of the population speaking Hindi as their mother tongue,

followed by Bengali (9%), Marathi (8%), Telugu (7%), Tamil (6%), Urdu (5%), Gujarati (4%), Kannada
(4%), Malayalam (3%), Oriya (3%), and others (10%) .

Problems and solutions of slums in India

The problems and solutions of slums in India are interrelated and require a holistic and participatory
approach that involves multiple stakeholders and sectors. Some of the main problems and solutions
are:

- Lack of basic services: Slums lack access to adequate water supply, sanitation, drainage,

solid waste management,

electricity,

and transport facilities.

These services are essential for improving the quality of life,

health,

and productivity of slum dwellers.

The solutions include providing universal coverage and quality of these services through public-
private-community partnerships,

demand-responsive approaches,

and decentralized management systems.

- Lack of secure tenure: Slums lack legal recognition and protection from eviction and harassment by
the authorities and other vested interests. This insecurity hampers the investment and improvement
of slum housing and infrastructure, and also affects the social and psychological well-being of slum
dwellers. The solutions include providing legal identity and tenure security to slum dwellers through
enumeration, mapping, regularization, titling, and upgrading programs, as well as ensuring their
participation and representation in urban governance and planning processes.

- Lack of livelihood opportunities: Slums lack access to formal employment, credit, markets, and
social protection schemes. This limits the income generation and asset accumulation of slum
dwellers, and exposes them to various risks and vulnerabilities. The solutions include enhancing the
employability, entrepreneurship, and empowerment of slum dwellers through skill development,
microfinance, social enterprises, cooperatives, and self-help groups, as well as linking them to
existing welfare programs and schemes.

- Lack of social integration: Slums face social exclusion and discrimination based on their location,
identity, and status. This affects their access to education, health, justice, and civic amenities, and
also leads to social conflicts and violence. The solutions include promoting THE Social inclusion and
cohesion of slum dwellers through community mobilization, awareness generation, capacity
building, advocacy, networking, and conflict resolution mechanisms.

Slums are a complex and dynamic phenomenon that pose significant challenges for urban
development and governance in India. However, slums also offer opportunities for innovation,
resilience, and transformation of urban society. By addressing the problems and harnessing the
solutions of slums in India, we can achieve a more inclusive, sustainable, and equitable urban
future.

7. FOLK SOCIETY BY OSCAR LEWISS CRITIQUE:

Oscar Lewis was an American anthropologist who conducted extensive fieldwork in Mexico, Puerto
Rico, Cuba, and India. He is best known for his concept of the culture of poverty, which argues that
poverty is not only a material condition, but also a way of life that is transmitted across generations
and that hinders the poor from escaping their situation. He is also known for his critical restudy of
Tepoztlan, a Mexican village that was previously studied by Robert Redfield, the founder of the folk-
urban continuum.

The folk-urban continuum is a conceptual scheme that defines an ideal type of society, the folk
society, which is the polar opposite of urban society. The folk society is characterized by small size,
isolation, non-literacy, homogeneity, group solidarity, tradition, kinship, religion, and status economy.
The urban society is characterized by large size, integration, literacy, heterogeneity, individualism,
rationality, contract, secularism, and market economy. The continuum implies that there are
intermediate types of societies that combine elements of both folk and urban societies.

Lewis challenged the validity and utility of the folk-urban continuum on several grounds. First, he
argued that Redfield's depiction of the folk society was based on a romanticized and idealized view of
rural life that ignored the realities of conflict, inequality, and change. He showed that Tepoztlan was
not a harmonious and stable community, but rather a divided and dynamic one, where land disputes,
political factions, class struggles, and religious conflicts were prevalent. He also showed that
Tepoztlan was not isolated from the outside world, but rather connected to it through migration,
trade, communication, and cultural influences.

Second, he argued that Redfield's distinction between folk and urban societies was based on a false
dichotomy that overlooked the diversity and complexity of both types of societies. He showed that
there were variations and gradations within each type of society, and that there were similarities and
interactions between them. He also showed that there were other factors besides size and
technology that influenced the social organization and cultural patterns of different societies.

Third, he argued that Redfield's use of the folk-urban continuum as a tool for studying social change
was based on a simplistic and deterministic view of history that ignored the agency and creativity of
human actors. He showed that social change was not a linear and inevitable process of
modernization from folk to urban societies, but rather a contingent and multidimensional process of
adaptation and innovation in response to various challenges and opportunities. He also showed that
social change was not a passive and uniform process of acculturation from folk to urban cultures, but
rather an active and selective process of negotiation and resistance among different cultural groups.
In conclusion, Lewis's critique of the folk-urban continuum was based on empirical evidence from his
fieldwork in Tepoztlan and other sites. He exposed the weaknesses and limitations of Redfield's
conceptual scheme and offered alternative perspectives and methods for studying rural-urban
relations and social change. His critique contributed to the development of urban anthropology as a
distinct subfield within anthropology.

8. URBANISM AS A WAY OF LIFE BY LOUIS WIRTH:

Urbanism as a way of life is a classic essay by Louis Wirth, an American sociologist and urban scholar.
It was published in 1938 in the American Journal of Sociology. In this essay, Wirth argues that
urbanization has profound effects on the social and psychological characteristics of individuals and
groups. He defines urbanism as a mode of living that is shaped by the physical and social features of
cities.

Wirth identifies three main features of cities that distinguish them from rural areas: size, density, and
heterogeneity. He explains how each of these features influences the urban way of life.

- Size: The large population of cities creates a high degree of anonymity, impersonality, and division
of labor among urban dwellers. It also reduces the significance of primary relationships, such as
family and kinship, and increases the importance of secondary relationships, such as occupation and
association. It also fosters a sense of individualism, freedom, and mobility among urbanites.

- Density: The concentration of people and activities in cities creates a high degree of stimulation,
competition, and differentiation among urban dwellers. It also generates a high level of social
interaction, communication, and organization among urbanites. It also enhances the cultural
diversity, creativity, and innovation of urban life.

- Heterogeneity: The diversity of people and groups in cities creates a high degree of tolerance,
pluralism, and cosmopolitanism among urban dwellers. It also reduces the influence of tradition,
custom, and conformity on urbanites. It also encourages the development of subcultures, lifestyles,
and identities in urban society.

Wirth argues that urbanism is not only a product of the physical environment, but also a state of
mind that can be found in any type of settlement. He suggests that urbanism is a universal
phenomenon that can be studied scientifically and comparatively. He also acknowledges that
urbanism has both positive and negative consequences for human welfare. He concludes by calling
for more research on the social problems and potentials of urban life.

Wirth's essay is considered to be one of the most influential and cited works in urban sociology. It
has inspired many subsequent studies on the nature and effects of urbanization on society and
culture. It has also generated many criticisms and debates on its theoretical assumptions, empirical
validity, and normative implications. Wirth's essay remains a classic source for understanding the
social significance of cities in modern civilization.

9. URBAN POVERTY NATURE AND POLICY:

Urban poverty is a complex and multidimensional phenomenon that affects millions of people living
in cities around the world. Urban poverty can be defined as the lack of adequate income, assets,
capabilities, opportunities, and services to meet the basic needs and aspirations of urban dwellers.
Urban poverty is influenced by various factors such as economic, social, political, environmental, and
spatial processes that shape the urban context.

The nature of urban poverty can be understood from different analytical perspectives that emphasize
different aspects and causes of urban poverty. Some of the main perspectives are:

- The individual responsibility-agency perspective: This perspective focuses on the personal

characteristics and behaviors of the urban poor, such as their skills, education, work ethic, values,
culture, and choices. It assumes that urban poverty is largely a result of individual failures or
deficiencies that prevent the urban poor from taking advantage of the opportunities and resources
available in cities. It also assumes that urban poverty can be overcome by enhancing the human
capital, motivation, and empowerment of the urban poor.

- The structural perspective: This perspective focuses on the social and economic structures and
systems that create and reproduce urban poverty, such as the labor market, the welfare state, the
political system, the legal system, and the global system. It assumes that urban poverty is largely a
result of structural inequalities and injustices that limit the access and participation of the urban
poor in the benefits and opportunities of urban development. It also assumes that urban poverty can
be reduced by transforming the structural conditions and policies that generate and maintain urban
poverty.

- The social exclusion perspective: This perspective focuses on the social and spatial processes that
exclude and marginalize the urban poor from the mainstream society and economy, such as
discrimination, stigmatization, segregation, isolation, and violence. It assumes that urban poverty is
largely a result of social exclusion that deprives the urban poor of their rights, dignity, recognition,
and belonging in the urban society. It also assumes that urban poverty can be alleviated by
promoting the social inclusion and integration of the urban poor in the urban society.

The policy of urban poverty can be understood from different normative perspectives that emphasize
different goals and strategies for addressing urban poverty. Some of the main perspectives are:

- The residual perspective: This perspective views urban poverty as a temporary and exceptional
problem that affects only a small and undeserving segment of the urban population. It advocates for
a minimal and selective intervention by the state or other actors to provide basic relief and
assistance to the most needy and deserving urban poor. It relies on market mechanisms and
individual initiatives to solve most of the problems of urban poverty.
- The universal perspective: This perspective views urban poverty as a chronic and widespread
problem that affects a large and deserving segment of the urban population. It advocates for a
comprehensive and inclusive intervention by the state or other actors to provide adequate
protection and support to all urban poor. It relies on public policies and collective actions to address
most of the problems of urban poverty.

- The participatory perspective: This perspective views urban poverty as a complex and dynamic
problem that affects a diverse and capable segment of the urban population. It advocates for a
collaborative and empowering intervention by the state or other actors to enable the participation
and contribution of all urban poor. It relies on local knowledge and community initiatives to tackle
most of the problems of urban poverty.

Urban poverty is a major challenge for urban development and governance in both developed and
developing countries. It requires a holistic and participatory approach that involves multiple
stakeholders and sectors. It also requires a balanced and flexible approach that combines different
analytical and normative perspectives. By understanding and addressing the nature and policy of
urban poverty from an urban sociological perspective, we can achieve a more inclusive, sustainable,
and equitable urban future

10. EVOLUTION OF URBAN LOCAL GOVERNANCE IN INDIA:

Urban local governance refers to the third tier of governance in India, at the level of the municipality
or urban local body. Urban local governance has a long and varied history in India, dating back to the
colonial period and undergoing several changes and reforms after independence.

The colonial period (1664-1947)

The first municipal corporation in India was established by the Dutch in Fort Kochi in 1664, but it was
dissolved when the Dutch authority weakened in the 18th century. The British followed with the
formation of municipal corporations in Madras (1687), Bombay (1726), and Calcutta (1726). These
municipal bodies were mainly concerned with providing basic services such as water supply,
sanitation, drainage, street lighting, and public health. They were also used as instruments of
revenue collection and social control by the colonial administration.

In 1882, Lord Ripon, the then Viceroy of India, introduced a resolution of local self-government that
aimed to democratize the municipal bodies by introducing elected representatives, enlarging their
functions, and granting them financial autonomy. This resolution is considered as the Magna Carta of
urban local governance in India. However, its implementation was uneven and partial across different
provinces and cities.

In 1919 and 1935, two Government of India Acts were passed that further devolved powers and
functions to the provincial governments and the municipal bodies. The acts also recognized different
types of urban local bodies such as municipal corporations, municipalities, notified area committees,
town committees, and cantonment boards. However, the acts also gave wide discretionary powers to
the provincial governments and the governors to intervene in and control the affairs of the urban
local bodies.

The post-independence period (1947-present)

After independence, urban local governance was largely neglected by the central and state
governments, as they focused more on rural development and planning. The Constitution of India
did not provide any specific provisions for urban local governance, except for a brief mention in
Article 40 that directed the state governments to organize village panchayats as units of self-
government.

It was only in 1992 that urban local governance received constitutional recognition and status
through the 74th Constitutional Amendment Act. The act added Part IX-A and Schedule XII to the
Constitution that laid down the basic framework for urban local governance in India. The main
features of the act are:

- It defined an urban area as a transitional area, a smaller urban area, or a larger urban area with a
population of not less than such number as may be specified by the state government.

- It provided for three types of urban local bodies: nagar panchayats for transitional areas, municipal
councils for smaller urban areas, and municipal corporations for larger urban areas.

- It provided for a uniform structure of urban local bodies with a directly elected council consisting of
representatives from wards and a chairperson elected by the council or directly by the people.

- It provided for reservation of seats for scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, and women in
proportion to their population in urban local bodies.

- It provided for a fixed tenure of five years for urban local bodies and fresh elections within six
months in case of dissolution.

- It provided for a state election commission to conduct elections to urban local bodies.

- It provided for a state finance commission to review the financial position of urban local bodies and
make recommendations on their devolution of funds.

- It provided for a district planning committee and a metropolitan planning committee to prepare
development plans for districts and metropolitan areas respectively.

- It provided for a list of 18 functions that may be entrusted to urban local bodies by the state
governments.

The 74th Constitutional Amendment Act was a landmark legislation that aimed to strengthen urban
local governance in India. However, its implementation has been slow and uneven across different
states and cities. Many challenges remain such as inadequate devolution of powers and functions,
insufficient financial resources and autonomy, weak accountability and transparency mechanisms,
poor capacity and performance, lack of citizen participation and empowerment, and political
interference and corruption.

11. INVASION OF SUCCESSION AS ECOLOGICAL PROCESS:

Invasion and succession are two ecological concepts that have been applied to the study of urban
sociology by the Chicago School of Sociology in the early 20th century. These concepts are used to
explain the process of urban growth and change, especially in relation to the spatial distribution and
social organization of different groups and communities in the city.

Invasion refers to the process by which a new group or activity enters an area that was previously
occupied by another group or activity. For example, a new immigrant group may invade a
neighborhood that was dominated by an older immigrant group, or a new commercial activity may
invade an area that was mainly residential. Invasion is usually driven by factors such as population
growth, economic opportunities, social mobility, and cultural preferences.

Succession refers to the process by which a new group or activity replaces or displaces an older
group or activity in an area. For example, a new immigrant group may succeed an older immigrant
group in a neighborhood, or a new commercial activity may succeed an older residential activity in
an area. Succession is usually driven by factors such as competition, conflict, adaptation, assimilation,
and segregation.

Invasion and succession are seen as cyclical and continuous processes that shape the urban ecology
of the city. They result in the formation and transformation of different zones or areas that have
distinct characteristics and functions. For example, the Chicago School of Sociology identified five
concentric zones in the city: the central business district, the zone of transition, the zone of working-
class homes, the zone of better residences, and the commuter zone. Each zone was subject to
invasion and succession by different groups and activities over time.

Invasion and succession are also seen as processes that affect the social structure and culture of the
city. They create patterns of social differentiation and integration among different groups and
communities. They also generate social problems and opportunities for urban development and
governance. For example, invasion and succession may lead to social issues such as overcrowding,
crime, poverty, discrimination, and social disorganization. They may also lead to social opportunities
such as diversity, innovation, mobility, and social organization.

Invasion and succession are useful concepts for understanding the dynamics of urban sociology.
However, they also have some limitations and criticisms. Some of the limitations and criticisms are:
- They are based on a biological analogy that may not capture the complexity and variability of
human behavior and interaction.

- They assume a linear and deterministic model of urban change that may not account for the
multiple and contingent factors that influence urban development.

- They tend to focus on spatial patterns and neglect other dimensions of urban life such as temporal,
functional, and symbolic aspects.

- They tend to emphasize conflict and competition over cooperation and collaboration among
different groups and communities.

- They tend to ignore the role of agency and power in shaping urban outcomes and processes.

12. URBAN PLANNING:

Urban planning is the process of designing and regulating the physical and social aspects of urban
areas. Urban planning aims to improve the quality of life, sustainability, and efficiency of urban
development. Urban planning involves various disciplines such as architecture, engineering,
geography, economics, and politics. However, urban sociology is also an important and relevant
discipline that contributes to urban planning in various ways.

Urban sociology is the sociological study of life and human interaction in metropolitan areas. Urban
sociology seeks to understand the structures, processes, changes, and problems of urban society and
culture. Urban sociology also seeks to provide inputs for urban planning and policy making by
analyzing the needs, preferences, values, and behaviors of urban dwellers.

Urban sociology has a long and rich history that dates back to the 19th century when urbanization
became a major social phenomenon in Western societies. Urban sociologists such as Karl Marx,
Emile Durkheim, Max Weber, Georg Simmel, and Ferdinand Tonnies developed various theories and
concepts to explain the economic, social, and cultural effects of urbanization on individuals and
groups. They also examined the issues of social differentiation, integration, conflict, and change in
urban settings.

Urban sociology rose to prominence in the 20th century with the emergence of the Chicago School
of Sociology, which pioneered the use of empirical research methods such as observation, surveys,
interviews, and mapping to study urban life. The Chicago School of Sociology focused on topics such
as urban ecology, social disorganization, community studies, subcultures, migration, race relations,
and social problems. The Chicago School of Sociology also influenced the development of human
geography and urban planning through its analysis of spatial patterns and processes in cities.

Urban sociology has continued to evolve and diversify in the 21st century with the emergence of
new perspectives and approaches that reflect the changing nature and complexity of urbanization in
different contexts. Some of these perspectives and approaches include:
- The global perspective: This perspective examines the impact of globalization on urbanization and
urban development. It explores topics such as global cities, transnational migration, cultural diversity,
social movements, and environmental challenges.

- The critical perspective: This perspective challenges the dominant paradigms and practices of urban
planning and development. It exposes topics such as power relations, inequality, injustice, resistance,
and alternative visions.

- The feminist perspective: This perspective highlights the gender dimensions of urbanization and
urban development. It addresses topics such as gender roles, identities, inequalities, violence, and
empowerment.

- The postmodern perspective: This perspective questions the rationality and universality of modern
urban planning and development. It emphasizes topics such as diversity, complexity, uncertainty,
fragmentation, and creativity.

Urban sociology has a significant role in urban planning by providing theoretical insights, empirical
evidence, normative values, and practical recommendations for improving urban life. Urban
sociology can help urban planners to:

- Understand the social and cultural characteristics and dynamics of urban populations and
communities.

- Identify the needs, preferences, values, and behaviors of different groups and stakeholders in urban
settings.

- Assess the impacts and outcomes of urban policies and interventions on various aspects of urban
life.

- Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of different models and approaches of urban planning and
development.

- Engage with diverse perspectives and voices in participatory and inclusive processes of urban
planning and decision making.

- Promote social justice, equity, diversity, sustainability, and democracy in urban planning and
development.

13. SOCIAL AREA ANALYSIS CONCEPT AND TECHNIQUE:

Social area analysis is a technique used to study the spatial distribution and social characteristics of
urban populations. It is based on the assumption that urban areas can be divided into smaller units
or zones that have distinct and homogeneous social features. Social area analysis aims to identify,
describe, and explain these social features and their relationships with the physical and ecological
aspects of urban environments.
Social area analysis originated from the Chicago School of Sociology in the early 20th century, which
applied the concepts and methods of human ecology to the study of urban life. The Chicago School
of Sociology focused on topics such as urban ecology, social disorganization, community studies,
subcultures, migration, race relations, and social problems. The Chicago School of Sociology also
influenced the development of human geography and urban planning through its analysis of spatial
patterns and processes in cities.

The basic procedure of social area analysis involves three steps: data collection, data analysis, and
data interpretation. The data collection step involves gathering information on various social
indicators or variables that reflect the socioeconomic status, family status, and ethnic status of urban
residents. These indicators may include income, education, occupation, housing quality, family size,
marital status, nativity, language, religion, etc. The data are usually obtained from census records or
surveys at the level of census tracts or other small geographic units.

The data analysis step involves applying multivariate statistical techniques such as factor analysis and
cluster analysis to reduce the number of variables and to group the geographic units into clusters or
types based on their similarity or dissimilarity in social characteristics. Factor analysis is used to
identify the underlying dimensions or factors that account for most of the variation in the data.
Cluster analysis is used to classify the geographic units into categories or clusters that have similar
factor scores or profiles.

The data interpretation step involves mapping and describing the clusters or types of geographic
units and examining their spatial distribution and relationship with other urban features such as land
use, transportation, infrastructure, services, etc. The interpretation also involves explaining the
causes and consequences of the social patterns and processes observed in the data.

Social area analysis has been widely used by urban sociologists, geographers, planners, and
policymakers for various purposes such as:

- Describing and comparing the social structure and diversity of urban areas across time and space.

- Identifying and measuring the extent and patterns of social inequality, segregation, integration,
mobility, and change in urban areas.

- Exploring and testing various theories and hypotheses on urbanization and urbanism.

- Evaluating and monitoring the impacts and outcomes of urban policies and interventions on
different aspects of urban life.

- Developing and implementing urban plans and strategies that are responsive to the needs and
preferences of different groups and communities in urban areas.
Social area analysis has been a useful and influential technique in urban sociology. However, it also
has some limitations and criticisms such as:

- It relies on secondary data sources that may be outdated, inaccurate, incomplete, or inconsistent.

- It assumes that geographic units are homogeneous and stable entities that reflect the social
characteristics of their residents.

- It ignores or oversimplifies the diversity and complexity within and between geographic units and
social groups.

- It neglects or underestimates the role of individual agency, choice, behavior, interaction, and
culture in shaping urban outcomes and processes.

- It tends to focus on static snapshots rather than dynamic trajectories of urban change.

14. HUMAN AND ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE TO STUDY URBAN SOCIOLOGY:

Human and ecological perspective is an approach to study urban sociology that focuses on the
relationship between human society and the urban environment. It draws on the concepts and
methods of human ecology, which is a social science paradigm that seeks to understand how human
organization and behavior are influenced by the physical and social environment, and how human
actions affect the environment in return.

Human and ecological perspective has its origins in the Chicago School of Sociology, which pioneered
the study of urban life and urban ecology in the early 20th century. The Chicago School of Sociology
applied the principles of biological ecology, such as competition, adaptation, succession, and
symbiosis, to explain the spatial patterns and social processes of urbanization and urbanism. The
Chicago School of Sociology also used empirical research methods such as observation, mapping,
surveys, and interviews to study various aspects of urban life, such as urban ecology, social
disorganization, community studies, subcultures, migration, race relations, and social problems.

Human and ecological perspective has evolved and diversified over time with the emergence of new
perspectives and approaches that reflect the changing nature and complexity of urbanization and
urbanism in different contexts. Some of these perspectives and approaches include:

- The global perspective: This perspective examines the impact of globalization on urbanization and
urbanism. It explores topics such as global cities, transnational migration, cultural diversity, social
movements, and environmental challenges.

- The critical perspective: This perspective challenges the dominant paradigms and practices of urban
planning and development. It exposes topics such as power relations, inequality, injustice, resistance,
and alternative visions.

- The feminist perspective: This perspective highlights the gender dimensions of urbanization and
urbanism. It addresses topics such as gender roles, identities, inequalities, violence, and
empowerment.
- The postmodern perspective: This perspective questions the rationality and universality of modern
urban planning and development. It emphasizes topics such as diversity, complexity, uncertainty,
fragmentation, and creativity.

Human and ecological perspective has several advantages and contributions for studying urban
sociology. Some of these are:

- It provides a holistic and interdisciplinary framework for understanding the interrelation of social
and environmental factors in urban areas.

- It helps to identify and measure the impacts and outcomes of urban policies and interventions on
various aspects of urban life.

- It helps to evaluate and monitor the trends and changes of urbanization and urbanism across time
and space.

- It helps to develop and implement urban plans and strategies that are responsive to the needs and
preferences of different groups and communities in urban areas.

- It helps to promote social justice, equity, diversity, sustainability, and democracy in urban planning
and development.

However, human and ecological perspective also has some limitations and criticisms such as:

- It relies on secondary data sources that may be outdated, inaccurate, incomplete, or inconsistent.

- It assumes that geographic units are homogeneous and stable entities that reflect the social
characteristics of their residents.

- It ignores or oversimplifies the diversity and complexity within and between geographic units and
social groups.

- It neglects or underestimates the role of individual agency, choice, behavior, interaction, and
culture in shaping urban outcomes and processes.

- It tends to focus on static snapshots rather than dynamic trajectories of urban change.

15. POST MODERN THEORY OF URBANISM:

Postmodern theory of urbanism is an approach to study urban sociology that challenges the
modernist assumptions and paradigms of urban planning and development. It emphasizes the
diversity, complexity, uncertainty, fragmentation, and creativity of urban life and culture. It also
questions the rationality and universality of modern urban planning and development. It explores
the impact of globalization, cultural transformation, social movements, and alternative visions on
urbanization and urbanism.
Postmodern theory of urbanism has its origins in the poststructuralist philosophy and the cultural
studies of the late 20th century, which criticized the dominant discourses and practices of modernity
and capitalism. It also drew on the insights and critiques of various disciplines such as architecture,
art, literature, geography, anthropology, and sociology. It was influenced by the works of such
theorists as Jean Baudrillard, Jean-Francois Lyotard, Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault, Fredric
Jameson, David Harvey, Edward Soja, Mike Davis, and Manuel Castells.

Postmodern theory of urbanism has several characteristics and contributions for studying urban
sociology. Some of these are:

- It provides a critical and reflexive perspective for understanding the interrelation of social and
spatial factors in urban areas.

- It helps to identify and analyze the multiple and contradictory dimensions and representations of
urban reality and identity.

- It helps to recognize and appreciate the diversity and hybridity of urban cultures and communities.

- It helps to explore and experiment with new forms and expressions of urban creativity and
innovation.

- It helps to challenge and transform the hegemonic and oppressive structures and practices of urban
planning and development.

- It helps to promote social justice, equity, diversity, sustainability, and democracy in urban planning
and development.

However, postmodern theory of urbanism also has some limitations and criticisms such as:

- It relies on abstract and obscure concepts and language that may be difficult to comprehend and
communicate.

- It assumes that there is no objective or universal truth or value that can guide or evaluate urban
planning and development.

- It ignores or neglects the material and economic conditions and constraints that shape urban
outcomes and processes.

- It celebrates or romanticizes the marginal and alternative aspects of urban life without addressing
their problems or potentials.

- It tends to be pessimistic or cynical about the possibilities of social change or improvement in urban
areas.

16. FORMAL AND INFORMAL SECTOR IN URBAN SOCIOLOGY:

Formal and informal sector are two terms that are often used to describe the different types of
economic activities and employment in urban areas. Formal sector refers to the activities and
employment that are regulated by the state and comply with the legal and institutional rules and
norms. Informal sector refers to the activities and employment that are not regulated by the state
and operate outside or beyond the legal and institutional rules and norms.

Formal and informal sector have different characteristics and implications for urban sociology. Some
of these are:

- Formal sector is usually associated with higher productivity, wages, skills, benefits, security, and
social protection. Informal sector is usually associated with lower productivity, wages, skills, benefits,
security, and social protection.

- Formal sector is usually dominated by large-scale, capital-intensive, and modern enterprises.

Informal sector is usually dominated by small-scale, labor-intensive, and traditional enterprises.

- Formal sector is usually concentrated in the core or central areas of urban space. Informal sector is
usually dispersed in the periphery or marginal areas of urban space.

- Formal sector is usually linked to the global or national markets and networks. Informal sector is
usually linked to the local or regional markets and networks.

- Formal sector is usually subject to the formal rules and regulations of the state and other actors.
Informal sector is usually subject to the informal norms and practices of the community and other
actors.

Formal and informal sector have different roles and functions in urban sociology. Some of these are:

- Formal and informal sector provide different sources of income, employment, livelihood, and
opportunity for urban residents, especially for the poor and marginalized groups.

- Formal and informal sector contribute to different aspects of urban development, such as economic
growth, social welfare, environmental sustainability, and cultural diversity.

- Formal and informal sector create different patterns of social differentiation, integration, conflict,
and change in urban society, such as class, gender, ethnicity, migration, mobility, and identity.

- Formal and informal sector generate different problems and challenges for urban governance, such
as taxation, regulation, planning, service delivery, participation, and accountability.

Formal and informal sector have different relations and interactions in urban sociology. Some of
these are:

- Formal and informal sector are not mutually exclusive or isolated categories, but rather
interdependent and interconnected parts of a complex urban system.
- Formal and informal sector have various forms of linkages and exchanges at different levels, such as
individual transactions, sub-sector networks, value chains, or hybrid arrangements.

- Formal and informal sector have various impacts and influences on each other at different levels,
such as competition, complementarity, cooperation, or conflict.

- Formal and informal sector have various responses and adaptations to each other at different
levels, such as innovation, diversification, regulation, or resistance.