Report

On

LITERATURE REVIEW ON VIBRATIONAL METHODS ON

STRUCTURAL HEALTH MONITORING OF POLY MATRIX COMPOSITES

BY

Ashish Sharma

MECH 7003: Advanced Dynamic Systems

Lecturer’s/Tutor’s Name: KEVIN XIAO

18th May, 2024

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Table of Contents
Abstract.............................................................................................................................1
1.Introduction....................................................................................................................1
1.1 Polymer Matrix Composites........................................................................................2
2.PMCs and Mechanism of Damage..................................................................................6
2.1 Composition.................................................................................................................6
2.2 Mechanism of Damage................................................................................................7
3.Vibration methods for Structural health Monitoring.....................................................10
3.1 Linear Vibration Methods..........................................................................................10
3.2Non-Linear Vibration Methods...................................................................................13
4.Conclusion....................................................................................................................15
5.References....................................................................................................................15

Abstract: This article aims to offer an overview of the experimental methods and
procedures utilizing vibration techniques for monitoring the structural health of
Polymer-Matrix Composites (PMCs). It is intended to serve as a roadmap for all
researchers conducting vibration experiments. The initial presentation of linear
methods occurs. However, due to the complexity of PMC, these traditional
techniques have certain limitations, including reduced precision for minor
damages and significant dependence on the environment. The reason nonlinear
methods are also analyzed is due to the fact that the complicated nature of PMCs
leads to nonlinear structural behavior following damage. The various ways in
which damage occurs are thoroughly explained to assess each vibration
technique's ability to identify them.

1. Introduction
The use of composite materials initially started in the aerospace industry during
the 1970s. In modern times, composite materials are utilized extensively in
different engineering structures such as sports equipment, space crafts, airplanes,
boats, bridges, automobiles, and buildings. The reason why composite materials
are widely used in industry is because of their favorable strength to density and
hardness to density properties. The potential for enhancing these traits through
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advanced technology and different production techniques has expanded the use of
these materials. At the same time, the automotive sector, seen as a key industry in
every country, has taken advantage of the capabilities and properties of these
advanced materials. As technology advances, composite materials are being used
more often in place of metallic automotive parts. The technologies that are
currently available and those that are expected to become more widely used can
be implemented and combined to decrease the overall weight of vehicles, leading
to enhanced fuel efficiency. Certain components or systems, along with specific
engineering materials like carbon fiber composites, aluminum, high-strength steel,
or magnesium, are expected to show the potential for significant weight reduction
in structures at reasonable costs without sacrificing safety and durability, using
project-developed design, analysis, and manufacturing methods. (Sajan and Philip
Selvaraj, 2021)

1.1 Polymer Matrix Composites

PMCs consist of various organic polymers with continuous or short fibers and
various reinforcing agents. This enhances the characteristics like rigidity, superior
durability, and resistance to cracking of composite materials. The mechanical load
is supported by the strengthened fibers of PMCs. The goal of the matrix is to
maintain the cohesion of fibers, distribute loads among the reinforcing fibers, and
shield the fibers from mechanical and/or environmental harm.

Material Properties

Table-1 compares the mechanical properties of three types of PMCs with those of
steel and aluminum. The main synthetic factors considered to evaluate the
mechanical characteristics of a composite are the specific modulus (E/p, the ratio
of elasticity modulus to density) and the specific power (the relationship between
maximum power and weight Re/p). Normally, these characteristics are controlled
by the fibers. The three PMC materials appear to show more potential in terms of
mechanical properties when taking into account the mass, compared to the two
metallic materials. Recently, there has been a notable rise in the quantity of
articles discussing PMCs, as shown in Figure 1, with a marked increase beginning

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in 2010. PMCs consist of both fiber and matrix materials. The mixing and
changing proportions of fibers lead to a complex, diverse, and anisotropic
material, causing complications in its damage processes. This is why it is
important to measure, understand, and evaluate their impact on the structure to
ensure service continuity. This is referred to as Structural Health Monitoring
(SHM). The idea of structural health monitoring entails the following four steps:

(i) detecting damage in the structure;

(ii) pinpointing its location;
(iii) determining its extent and nature; and
(iv) Providing an assessment of the structure's remaining lifespan.

This review primarily focuses on the initial. The methods used in two stages of
SHM are examined, with no mention of the prognostic aspect. (Rytter, 1993)

Table: 1. Comparision of three PMCs and two metals. (Ashby and Jones, 2012)

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Several Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) methods can be used for Structural
Health Monitoring (SHM) (Tuloup et al., 2019) including Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
(Bastianini, Di Tommaso and Pascale, 2001) (Aymerich and Meili, 2000),
Acoustic Emission (AE) (BOURCHAK et al., 2007) (Harizi et al., 2022), Digital
Image Correlation (DIC) (Rastogi and Hack, 2012) (McCormick and Lord,
2010), X-ray tomography (Schilling et al., 2005) (Wang et al., 2003), Infrared
thermography (Ibarra-Castanedo and Maldague, 2013), Vibration analysis (Pankaj
Chaupal and Rajendran, 2023), and more. Many literature reviews focus on the
numerical aspects of vibration analysis and may not differentiate between
different types of materials. Due to the increased use of PMC materials and their
intricate properties, it is essential to comprehend the vibrations they produce and
the impact that damage mechanisms have on these vibrations.

The structure's vibration gives valuable information about its physical

characteristics, leading to its application as an indication of damage. (Guilherme
Ferreira Gomes et al., 2019) (Wei Fan and Pizhong Qiao, 2010)

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Vibration of the system is given by equation of the forced damped system as
follows:

m ẍ+ c ẋ +kx=F (t)

Here, x¨ , ẋ stands for the displacement's first and second time-derivatives, while m
represents the mass, c denotes the viscosity coefficient, k signifies the system's
stiffness, and F(t) is the external force acting on the system based on time. The
formula allows for the calculation of vibration parameters like natural frequeny (
f 0) and damping ratio (ζ), demonstrating that changes in material properties from
damage will impact vibration.

F (t)
ẍ +2 ζ ẋ + ω20 x=
m

c
ζ=
√2 mk

f 0=2 π ω0=2 π
√ k
m

The techniques for detecting vibrations in structural health monitoring are

categorized into two groups: linear and nonlinear methods. Linear vibration
techniques have been understood and employed for a considerable period, yet
advancements in their use continue to be a subject of present-day study.
Conversely, there has been a growing interest in nonlinear methods from the
2010s to the present. Due to the anisotropy and diverse nature of PMCs, detecting
and quantifying their damage mechanisms is better achieved through nonlinear
vibration methods (Hassani, Mousavi and Gandomi, 2021). Given this, it is
important to conduct an examination that points out the superior efficiency of
nonlinear techniques compared to linear ones for PMC material, while also
incorporating both methods. The aim is to provide detailed descriptions of various
experimental vibration methods, the corresponding equipment and devices, as

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well as the types of damages studied in the literature. The structure of this article
is as follows.

The initial section presents the PMCs, including their structure, varying
architecture types, and potential damage mechanisms. The methods and
equipment utilized in the literature are outlined in the second section. The main
focus of this review is the third section, which covers the experimental analysis of
linear and nonlinear vibrations, as well as specificities related to damage.

2. PMCs and Mechanism of Damage

2.1 Composition
PMCs consist of various organic polymers that include continuous or short fibers
along with various reinforcing agents. Enhancing characteristics like rigidity,
superior strength, and resistance to fracture in composite materials is achieved
through this. The strengthened fibers in PMCs help carry the mechanical weight.
The matrix's purpose is to keep fibers grouped, transfer loads between them, and
shield them from potential harm. A polymer matrix that has been strengthened
with natural fibers possesses strong resistance, and the interfacial bonding
between the two components helps to preserve their mechanical and chemical
characteristics. Typically, the fibers hold the electric charge, while the matrix
secures them in place in the correct position, serves to shield them from harm, and
facilitates the transfer of charge between the fibers. The variety of fibers' volume
and orientation, the layer quantity, possible structures, and constituents enhance
the potential for PMC creation.

Table 2: Shows PMCs and its material composition in various settings (Sajan and
Philip Selvaraj, 2021).

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2.2 Mechanism of Damage
During the lifespan of a PMC, four primary factors can lead to the failure of the
structure: matrix cracking, fiber breakage, delamination, and fiber-matrix
interface debonding.

As shown in Figure 1

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Numerous articles have incorporated impact damage into their investigations,
particularly, focusing on BVID (Barely Visible Impact Damage), a prevalent
method used to introduce damage in PMC materials via low-velocity impact. The
damage caused by BVID may involve a combination of the four primary damage
mechanisms, which can differ depending on the structure and composition of the
PMC. Typically, damage initiates with minute matrix cracking (microcracks)
which then triggers the three other mechanisms, leading to a combination of all
four. Artificially creating damages on a smaller scale in a laboratory setting is
possible, such as causing fiber-breakage through cutting fibers before production
or introducing delamination by inserting Teflon or foreign film between layers.
Similarly, impact damage is frequently seen in real-world applications, leading to
the same types of damage. (Loi et al., 2023)

Fig: 2 Shows the progression of damage

1. Crack in Matrix

The initial stage of damage involves the formation of tiny matrix cracks caused by
the resin breaking. They come in two shapes: either transverse or longitudinal.
The lateral waves move at a right angle to the mechanical load, while the axial

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waves travel in the same direction as the load. Hence, the two structures are
influenced by the specific mechanical stress applied (such as tension,
compression, shear, or bending) and the alignment of the fibers in the composite
material. As stress levels rise, these cracks will continue to spread and ultimately
reach the fibers. At this stage, the mechanical characteristics are slightly reduced,
making it challenging to identify these matrix cracks because of their low energy
release. The damage process will either halt or progress less vigorously through
crack propagation at the interface of the fiber and the matrix. This will result in
the separation of fibers from the matrix. (Duchene et al., 2018)

2. Interfacial Debonding of Fibre-Matrix

Fiber-matrix interfacial debonding occurs when the bond between the fiber and
matrix is weaker than the strength of the matrix or when the adhesion between
them is poor. The fracture in the matrix causes separation without damaging the
fibers. The level of debonding will rise as the stress level rises. This form of
damage is more severe compared to matrix cracks, but it remains minor and does
not greatly impact mechanical properties. As the matrix starts to break and
separation spreads, cracks between layers will form and the fibers will begin to
bear more load, causing delamination and eventually fiber failure. (Duchene et al.,
2018)

3. Delamination

Delamination is related to laminated composites. It involves a resin interlaminar

cracking and results in the separation of two consecutive layers. Delamination
may occur internally or close to the surface. It has the ability to expand and
increase its size, ultimately resulting in the laminated composite's failure. It is
regarded as one of the most serious damages for laminate composite materials.
(Bolotin, 2001)

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4. Breakge of Fibre

Fiber breakage is another significant cause of PMC structure failure; once the
stress exceeds the fiber's fracture strength, it will snap. It typically occurs when
the stress direction aligns with the fiber's orientation. The breaking of a fiber
results in the release of a large amount of energy and significantly reduces the
mechanical properties of the structure. That is the reason why the majority of
NDT techniques are able to identify such a severe form of damage. The eventual
breakdown of the PMC material results from a blend and a buildup of these
different sources of damage. (Duchene et al., 2018)

3. Vibration methods for Structural health Monitoring

3.1 Linear Vibration Methods
3.1.1 Natural frequency
The resonant frequencies of a system are the frequencies at which the system will
naturally vibrate following the application of an external force. Utilizing these
frequencies to stimulate the structure will result in the phenomenon of resonance,
causing an increase in the magnitude of vibration. They have a direct connection
to the mass and stiffness of the structure, along with its boundary condition. This
is why numerous researchers have chosen to utilize them as indicators of damage.
Certainly, the loss of stiffness caused by the damage will result in a decrease in
natural frequencies as shown in Figure 4. Furthermore, this method is also
inexpensive and simple to carry out.

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 Fig 3: Shift in frequency as induced by fault

3.1.2 Modal Shape

The mode shapes represent how a structure moves at a specific natural frequency
(mode). A basic illustration is the oscillation of a stationary string; each mode
shows nodes (the stationary points) and antinodes (the highest level of
movement).

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 Fig 4: Two modes of vibration of string

Various methods employ modal shapes to identify and pinpoint damages;

traditional approaches include Mode Shape Displacement difference (MSD) or
the application of assurance measures like Modal Assurance Criterion (MAC)
(Pastor, Binda and Harčarik, 2012), along with related criteria like Co-Ordinate
MAC (COMAC) and others (Allemang, R.J., 2003).

3.1.3 Damping

The structure requires vibration, which can be dampened using various

techniques, with the most traditional being the −3 dB method. The approach
involves transmitting either a white noise or a sweep signal with a wide frequency
range and examining the damping parameter of both undamaged and impaired
structures. The main factors affecting it are primarily operational considerations
and uncertainty in damping characterization. (Cao et al., 2017)

3.1.4 Wavelet Transform

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The Wavelet Transform (WT) is frequently utilized in vibration analysis to
analyze vibration data collected from different sensors. The concept is based on
breaking down a time-series signal into a group of smaller signals (wavelets) and
collecting information from these smaller signals. Various types of Wavelets, like
Daubechies and Symlet, are in existence. The primary downside is the
requirement for additional processing, and ensuring the appropriate wavelet is
selected is crucial. (D. Montalvão, Ribeiro and J. A. B. Duarte-Silva, 2011).

3.2 Non-Linear Vibration Methods

Due to the complexity of damage mechanisms in composite structures, there is a

current trend towards utilizing nonlinear vibration methods to improve accuracy
and detect smaller damages. The majority of these approaches assume that the
structural composite's impairment will lead to nonlinearity, attributed to
microcracks, delaminations, or fiber fractures. As an example, initiating and
ending back-to-back stages of matrix cracking can produce a nonlinear reaction.
Several studies have looked into this behavior, leading to the emergence of
various nonlinear methods. Some of them transition from ultrasonic to vibration
fields, yet they are still presented to explore the potential requirements and
opportunities. Additionally, because non-linear methods are not as common, there
are fewer experimental studies on PMC materials.

3.2.1. Single Frequency Excitation (SFE) and Sub-/Super-Harmonics Generation

A harmonic is defined as a multiple of the fundamental frequency, which is
considered the first harmonic. Subharmonics and superharmonics are fractions or
multiples of the fundamental harmonic, with subharmonics being represented as
f/n and superharmonics as n × f (where f is the harmonic). The method for
detecting damage depends on exciting the structure with a harmonic signal, where
an undamaged structure will respond only with this harmonic, while a damaged
structure will exhibit higher and lower harmonics of lesser intensity. The
approach involves evaluating impaired and unscathed constructions by analyzing
variations in time domain and phase portraits, as well as examining sub and super-
harmonics, and indicators of damage. However, the issue with this approach is

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that insignificant peaks may be obscured by background noise during operational
detection.

3.2.2 Frequency Shifts from Different Excitation Amplitude

This method involves identifying the inherent frequencies of both an undamaged
and a damaged structure using various amplitudes of excitation, ranging from 0.1
to 1 V in increments of 0.1 V. An intact structure will have a consistent
frequency, whereas a damaged structure will experience a decrease in frequency.
The traditional linear frequency shift can be seen in both undamaged and
damaged structures, yet only the decreasing frequency rate is utilized. In this
technique, we analyze resonance curves from various excitation amplitudes for
both damaged and undamaged structures. Utilize nonlinear elastic and dissipative
characteristics as indicators of damage. However, the downside is that many tests
need to be carried out in order to acquire the resonance curves (typically 10) for a
single natural frequency. The boundary condition also affects the frequency shift.

3.2.3 Vibro-Acoustic Modulation—VAM

This technique is quite fascinating. It involves stimulating the system with a low-
frequency pumping signal and at the same time applying a high-frequency
probing signal which are both harmonic signals. Damage-induced nonlinearities
will lead to the generation of super-harmonics of the pump signal frequency
(similar to the SFE method) as well as sub- and super-harmonics created by
modulation of both frequencies (known as sidebands) (see Figure 40). This
method may be referred to by various names based on the frequencies utilized,
such as vibroacoustic modulation, Vibro-ultrasonic, and so on. When the pumping
and probing frequencies are extremely high, the technique will primarily operate
in the ultrasonic range rather than the vibration range. Typically, the pumping
frequency matches the structure's natural frequency, while the probing frequency,
such as ultrasound, is significantly higher. A lot of boundary conditions has to be
considered while using this method. (Pieczonka et al., 2015)

3.2.4 Non Linear Damping

Time-frequency domain signal is required for conducting the Continuous Wavelet
Transform (CWT) in this approach. To achieve this, we need to extract the current

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amplitude and phase of the response in order to calculate the current damping.
Examine the difference in it between whole and compromised buildings. A
drawback is that Post-processing methods (CWT) must be utilized to acquire the
instantaneous parameters needed for the damping calculation. (Dolbachian, Walid
Harizi and Zoheir Aboura, 2024)

4. Conclusion
This article has presented a significant number of techniques and the primary
approaches to vibration analysis for SHM, emphasizing PMC materials. This review
aimed to examine the methods, equipment, and setups employed, along with their
efficacy and in some cases, their disadvantages and constraints. We examined the
various damage mechanisms identified or not identified using these techniques,
enabling the selection of the most suitable method based on the type of damage being
studied. Initially, the traditional linear techniques were presented, despite being deemed
inadequate for identifying minor and intricate damage in composite structures, and
subsequently, nonlinear methods have exhibited intriguing abilities recently in
identifying and pinpointing damage with nonlinear structural behavior. There are still
ongoing developments in nonlinear methods, and currently, three primary techniques
available for performing SHM of PMC are the SFE, the VAM, and the nonlinear
resonance.

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