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Complete Physics By Radhika Mam (RBE)

Class – 1
Units And Measurement
• Unit
• Motion:
(i) Motion
(ii) Force and laws of motion
• Work, energy, and power
• Gravitation
• Pressure
• Floatation
• Surface Tension
• Viscosity
• Elasticity
• Simple Harmonic Motion
• Wave Radhika Goel Mam
• Sound Wave
(SSC CGL Selected)
• Heat
• Light
• Static Electricity
• Current Electricity
• Magnetism
• Atomic and Nuclear Physics
• Electronics
• Scientific instruments
• Inventions
• Important discoveries in Physics
• S.I. units of Physical Quantities
• Conversion of units from one system to another system
Unit:
1. A chosen standard used for measuring a physical quantity
2. It is of two types:
❖ Fundamental unit
❖ Derived unit
3. There are three systems of units:
❖ MKS system (meter kilogram second) / S.I. system
❖ CGS system (centimeter gram second)
❖ FPS system (Foot Pound Second)
4. In the S.I. system, there are 7 fundamental quantities:
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Length meter (m)
Mass Kilogram(kg)
Time second (s)
Electric current Ampere (A)
Temperature Kelvin (K)
Luminuous Intensity Candela (Cd)
Amount of substance mole (mol)
5. Some important units: (KHDOdcm)
K= kilo
H=hector
D= deca
O= main unit
d= deci
c= centi
m= milli
6. Some other units are:
Micro (1𝝁 = 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝒎)
Nano (1nm= 𝟏𝟎−𝟗 𝒎)
Pico (1pm= 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝒎)
Mega (1M= 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒎)
Femto (1fm= 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟓 𝒎)
There are two supplementary units:
1. Radian for plane angle
𝒂𝒓𝒄
𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 =
𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔

2. Steradian (sr) for solid angle

𝑨
𝜴=
𝒓𝟐
PYQ:
1. Parsec is a unit of ______. = length
2. In terms of SI prefixes 10(-15) is called = Femto
3. What is the power of second in the S.I. unit of acceleration? = -2
4. Which physical quantity is used for the expression arc/radius?= plane angle
5. Acceleration is equal to the rate of change of ______ = velocity
Motion:

Scalar Quantity Vector Quantity

1. Have only magnitude and no direction. 1. Have both direction and magnitude
2. Examples: speed, mass, volume, time, work, 2. Examples: Velocity, Acceleration, force,
power, etc. momentum, torque, etc.
3. Does not obey triangular laws. 3. Obey triangular laws.

Distance Displacement
1. Length of the actual path 1. Shortest distance covered by a body in a
2. Scalar quantity definite direction.
3. S.I. unit= metre 2. Vector quantity
4. Instrument= odometer 3. May be positive, negative or 0.
5. Always positive 4. S.I. unit= metre

Displacement ≤ Distance

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Speed:
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
1. S.I. unit= m/s

2. Instrument= speedometer

3. Scalar quantity

Velocity:
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆
1. 1. S.I. unit= m/s

2. 2. Vector quantity

Acceleration:

1. Rate of change of velocity

2. Vector quantity
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
𝒗−𝒖
𝒂=
𝒕

3. S.I. unit= 𝒎/𝒔𝟐

4. Negative acceleration is known as retardation or deceleration.

Circular motion:

1. Body describes a circular path

2. Body describes a circular path with uniform speed then; it is called uniform circular motion.

3. Uniform circular motion is accelerated as the direction of velocity changes continuously.

Angular velocity:

1. Angle subtended by the line joining the object from the origin of circle in unit time interval.

2. Generally denoted by 𝝎
𝜽
𝝎=
𝒕
Also,
𝟐𝝅
𝝎= = 𝟐𝝅𝒏
𝑻
Where, T= time period or time taken by object to complete one revolution

n= frequency= number of revolutions in one second

Linear speed:

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𝟐𝝅𝒓
𝒗= = 𝝎𝒓 = 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 × 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔
𝑻
Equations of motion:

𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕
𝟏
𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐
𝟐
𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔

Class – 2
Force & Laws Of Motion
Laws Of Motion
Inertia
The property by virtue of which the body resists any change in its state of rest or of uniform motion.
It is of three types:
1. Inertia of rest
2. Inertia of motion
3. Inertia of direction
Newton’s first law of motion
1. A body at rest will remain at rest and a body in motion will remain in motion with uniform speed on a
straight line until or unless an external force acts on it.
2. Also known as Galileo’s law of inertia.
Examples:
1. Carpet beaten with a stick
2. Car or bus stops/starts suddenly
3. The branches of a tree are shaken vigorously
Force
1. Push or pull acting on the body.
2. S.I. unit = Newton
3. C.G.S. unit = dyne

𝟏 𝑵 = 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝒅𝒚𝒏𝒆

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It is of two types:
a. Balanced forces
b. Unbalanced forces
Momentum
1. Product of mass and velocity
2. Vector quantity
𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 × 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝒑 = 𝒎𝒗

3. S.I. unit= kg/s

Newton’s second law of motion
The rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the applied force on the body and takes
place in the direction of applied force.
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎
𝑭∝
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
Examples:
1. Karate player breaking a pile of ice.
2. High jumper is provided with cushion or heap of sand
Newton’s third law of motion
1. For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
2. Acts on different bodies.
Examples:
1. Swimming
2. Recoil of a gun
3. Walking
Principle of conservation of momentum
When two or more bodies act upon each other, their total momentum remains constant, provided no
external forces are acting.
Or
Total linear momentum of the system remains constant if no external forces are acting.
Impulse:
1. When a large forces acts on a body for a very small time.
2. Product of force and time
𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒔𝒆 = 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 × 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆

3. S.I. unit= Ns
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4. Vector quantity
Centripetal force
1. The external force acting towards the center of the path to maintain the circular motion.

𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝑭=
𝒓
Centrifugal force
1. Pseudo force
2. Equal and opposite to centripetal force but not a reaction to it.
Moment of force
1. Rotational effect of a force on a body about an axis of rotation.
2. Product of force and the perpendicular distance of direction of force from the axis of rotation.
3. Vector quantity
𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 = 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 × 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒎
4. S.I unit= Nm
Center of gravity
1. Point through which the entire body weight of body acts.
2. It does not change with change in the orientation of body in space.
Equilibrium
1. Resultant of all forces acting on a body is 0
2. There is no change in the position of rest or of uniform motion.
3. If body is at rest then equilibrium is static otherwise dynamic.
Types of static equilibrium
1. Stable equilibrium
(a) Body regains its original position on slight displacement.
(b) Center of gravity remains at minimum height.
2. Unstable equilibrium
(a) Body does not regain its original position on slight displacement.
(b) Center of gravity remains at maximum height.
3. Neutral displacement
(a) Body has no tendency to move on slight displacement.
(b) Center of gravity remains at the same height.

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Class - 3
Work, Energy And Power
Work
1. Work is said to be done when a force produces motion.
2. The product of force and displacement of the body in the direction of force.
3. Scalar quantity
4. S.I. unit= Joule (N-m)
𝑾 = 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 × 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝑾 = 𝑭𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
Energy
1. Capacity of doing work
2. Scalar Quantity
3. S.I. unit= Joule
4. Energy developed in a body due to work done is called mechanical energy
Mechanical energy is of two types:
a. Potential energy
b. Kinetic energy
Potential Energy
• Energy of a body due to change in its shape and size
𝑷. 𝑬. = 𝒎𝒈𝒉
It is of two types:
• Elastic Potential Energy
• Gravitational Potential Energy
• Elastic P.E. is due to change in its shape and size.
• Gravitational P.E. is due to the position above the ground.
Kinetic Energy
Energy of a body due to its motion
𝟏
𝑲. 𝑬. = 𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝟐
Relation between Momentum and K.E.

𝒑𝟐
𝑲. 𝑬. =
𝟐𝒎
Principle of conservation of energy
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Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. It can only be transformed from one form to another.
Examples of transformation of energy:
Hydropower plant
P.E. → K.E. → Electrical energy
Solar cell
Solar energy → Electric energy
Thermal Power plant
Chemical energy → Heat energy →K.E. → Electrical energy
Dynamo
Mechanical energy → electrical energy
Power
• Rate of doing work
• S.I. unit= Watt (J/s)
𝑾 𝑬
𝑷= =
𝒕 𝒕
• Scalar Quantity
• Different units of Power
• 1 KW= 1000W
• 1 H.P.= 746 W

• 1 M.W.= 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑾
Electrical energy
𝑬=𝑷×𝒕
• Commercial unit of E.E.= kWh

• 𝟏𝒌𝑾𝒉 = 𝟑. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑱

• S.I. unit= Joule

PYQ
• What is represented by the product of force with displacement in the direction of force? --> Work
• ……. is the external agency applied on a body to change its state of rest or uniform motion. --> Force
• Which of the following is a characteristic of conservative force? --> Work done by it is completely
recoverable.
• Which law of Newton provides a quantitative definition of force? --> Second law of motion
• The rate of doing work is called: --> power
• Which of the following physical quantities has the same unit as that of work? = Energy
• One Astronomical unit and one parsec are units of .......? = Length
• The S.I. unit of work = Joule
• The inertia of an object is measured by its __. --> mass
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Class – 4
Gravitation
Gravitation

• The force with which two objects attract each other.

• Vector quantity.
Gravitational Force of earth
• The force with which earth pulls the object towards itself.
• Also known as gravity.
• Universal law of Gravitation
• Every body in the universe attracts every other body with a force which is directly proportional to the
product of the masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
𝑭∝𝑮
𝒓𝟐
• Where G is universal gravitational constant and
• G=𝟔. 𝟔𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 𝑵𝒎𝟐 /𝒌𝒈𝟐

Acceleration due to gravity (g)

• The uniform acceleration produced in a freely falling body due to gravitational force of earth.
• Independent of shape, size and mass of the body.
• Value of g on moon is 1/6th of that on earth.
• The value of g changes from place to place.
𝑮𝑴
𝒈= 𝟐
𝑹
Where, M= mass of earth
R= radius of earth
So, g comes out to be= 9.8 m/𝒔𝟐 or 10 m/𝒔𝟐

Variation in the value of g

𝟏
Since g depends on R as, 𝒈∝
𝑹𝟐
So,
• Value of g decreases with height or depth from earth’s surface.
• g is maximum at poles.
• g is minimum at equator.
• g decreases due to rotation of earth.
• g decreases if angular speed of earth increases and reverse is also true.
• If angular speed of earth becomes 17 times its present value, body at equator will become weightless.

Weight of a body in a lift

1. If lift is stationary or moving with uniform speed (either upward or downward),

𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 = 𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒆 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
2. If lift is going up with acceleration, 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 > 𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒆 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
3. If lift is going down with acceleration, 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 < 𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒆 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
4. If the lift breaks down, body falls freely and the weight of body becomes 0 and the condition is called
weightlessness.
5. While going down, if the acceleration of lift is more than acceleration due to gravity then body will go in
contact with the ceiling of lift.

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Kepler’s law of planetary motion

1. All planets move around the sun in elliptical orbits with the sun being at one of the focus.
2. The line joining planet to the sun (radii) sweeps out equal area in equal interval of time.
3. The square of the time period is proportional to the cube of its semi major axis.
𝑻𝟐 ∝ 𝒓𝟑
Effects of Kepler’s laws

• Speed of a planet is maximum when it is at perigee and minimum when it is at apogee.

• Speed of a planet increases when the planet is closer to the sun and decreases when the planet is far
away from the sun.
Satellite
Natural or artificial bodies revolving around a planet under its gravitational attraction.
𝑨𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒆 = 𝑰𝑵𝑺𝑨𝑻 − 𝑰𝑩
𝑵𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒆 = 𝑴𝒐𝒐𝒏
Orbital Speed of a satellite

• Independent of the mass.

• Depends on the radius of the orbit or height of satellite from the surface of earth.
• Greater the radius of orbit, lesser will be the orbital speed.
• Orbital speed of satellite revolving near the earth= 7.9 km/s
• Orbital velocity of a satellite
𝑽𝒐 = √𝒈𝑹
Period of revolution of a satellite

• Time taken by a satellite to complete one revolution in its orbit.

𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒎𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒕
𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 =
𝒐𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅
• It also depends on the height of satellite from the surface of earth. Greater the height, more will be the
period of revolution.
• Independent of mass
• Period of revolution of a satellite revolving near the surface of earth is 1 hour 24 minute.

Geo-Stationary Satellite

• If satellite revolves in equatorial plane in the direction of earth’s rotation i.e. west to east
• Time period of such satellite = time period of earth’s rotation (24 hours)
• Such satellites appear stationary relative to the earth.
• Revolves around a height of 36000 km.
• The orbit of such satellites is called parking orbit.

Escape Velocity

• Minimum velocity with which a body should be projected from the surface of earth so as it goes out of
gravitational field of earth and never return to earth.
• Independent of mass, shape and size of body and its direction of projection.
• Also known as second cosmic velocity.
• Escape velocity of earth= 11.2 km/s
• Escape velocity of moon= 2.4 km/s
• Escape velocity is given by,
𝑽𝒆 = √𝟐𝒈𝑹
• If orbital velocity of a satellite is increased to √𝟐 times (or by 41%) the satellite will leave the orbit and
escape.

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PYQ

• Which of the following is one of the main causes of tides? --> Gravitational pull of the Sun and the Moon
• Who among the following was the first to conclude that in vacuum all objects fall with the same
acceleration g and reach the ground at the same time? --> Galileo Galilei

Class – 5
Pressure
Pressure

• Force acting per unit area of a surface.

𝑭
𝑷=
𝑨
• S.I. unit= Pascal, Pa (also equivalent to N/𝒎𝟐 )
• Scalar quantity

Applications:

• Bags and suitcases are provided with broad handles.

• Railway tracks are laid on large sized wooden sleepers.

Atmospheric Pressure

• The pressure which is exerted by a mercury column of 76cm length at 𝟎℃ at 45° latitude at the sea-
level.
• Equal to weight of 76cm column of mercury of cross sectional area 1 𝒄𝒎𝟐 .
• S.I. unit= bar.
• 𝟏 𝒂𝒕𝒎 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟏 𝒃𝒂𝒓
• 𝟏 𝒃𝒂𝒓 = 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝑵/𝒎𝟐
• 𝟏 𝒂𝒕𝒎 = 𝟕𝟔𝟎 𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒓
• Measured by barometer

Barometer predictions

• Sudden fall in barometer reading = Storm

• Slow fall in barometer reading= Rain
• Slow rise in the barometer reading= clear weather

Variation in Atmospheric pressure

Decreases with increasing altitude. This is why:

• It is difficult to cook on mountains.
• The fountain pen of a passenger leaks in aeroplane at height.

Pressure of liquid

• Force exerted on unit area of wall or base of container by the molecules of liquid.
• Given by 𝒑 = 𝒉𝒅𝒈
where, h= depth below the surface of liquid.
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d= density of liquid
g= acceleration due to gravity
• If the liquid is static then at the same horizontal level the pressure is same in all directions.
Pascal’s law
1. If gravitational attraction is negligible in equilibrium condition, pressure is same at all points in all
liquid.
2. If an external pressure is applied to an exclosed fluid, it is transmitted undiminished to every direction.
Eg: Hydraulic lift/press/ brake

Effects of melting point and boiling point

1. The M.P. of substances which expands on fusion increases with increase in pressure. Eg: wax
2. The M.P. of substances which contracts on fusion decreases with increase in pressure. Eg: ice
3. Boiling point of all the substances increases with increase in pressure.

Class – 6
Floatation
Floatation

Buoyant force
• The upward force acting on an object immersed in a liquid .
• It is also known as upthrust force or buoyancy
• Equal to the weight of liquid displaced by the body.
• Acts at the center of gravity of displaced liquid.
• First studied by Archimedes.
• Depends on the volume of the object immersed and the density of the liquid.

Archimedes’ Principle

When an object is wholly or partially immersed in a liquid, it experiences a buoyant force which is equal
to the weight of the liquid displaced by the object.”
Due to this, there is apparent loss in the weight of the body.

Applications of Archimedes principle

• The hydrometers used for determining the density of liquid

are based on this principle.
• The lactometers used for determining the purity of milk are
based in this principle.
• This principle is used for designing submarines and ships.

Principle of floatation

• An object will float in a liquid if the weight of the object is equal to

the weight of the liquid displaced by it.
• If weight of object= weight of displaced liquid then
Buoyant force on object= weight of object

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When does an object float or sink in a liquid

• An object will sink if the density of object > density of liquid

• An object will float if density of object ≤ density of liquid and in this case:
• Center of gravity of body and center of gravity of liquid displaced should be in same vertical line
• Body remains in neutral equilibrium.

Center of buoyancy
The center of gravity of the liquid displaced by a body
Meta centre
When a floating body is slightly tilted from equilibrium position, centre of buoyancy shifts and the point
at which vertical line passing through the new position of center of buoyancy meets with the initial line
is called meta center.
Yellow dot = center of gravity
Green dot = center of buoyancy
Black dot = new center of buoyancy
Purple colour = meta center

Conditions for stable equilibrium of floating body

• Meta center must always be higher than the center gravity of the body.
• The line joining the center of gravity of body and center of floatation should be vertical.
Density
• Mass per unit volume
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
• S.I. unit= kg/𝒎𝟑

• C.G.S. unit= g/𝒄𝒎𝟑

• Helps in determining the purity of a substance

• Max density of water is at 4℃ i.e. 1000 kg/𝒎𝟑 or 1 g/𝒄𝒎𝟑

Relative density
• Ratio of density of a substance to density of water
𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝒓𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒕 𝟒℃
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• Unitless quantity
• Measured by Hygrometer
• Indicates the heaviness of a substance as compared to water
Facts
• It is easier to swim in sea water than river water because its density is more than that of river water.
𝟏
• When ice floats in water, its 𝟏𝟎
𝒕𝒉 part remains outside the water.

• If ice floating in water in a vessel melts, level of water in the water does not change.

Class – 7
Surface Tension
Cohesive force
• Force of attraction between the molecules of the same substance
• Maximum in solids. That’s why they have a fixed shape.
• Negligible in gases
Adhesive force
Force of attraction between the molecules of different substances.
Surface tension
• Property by which liquid has the tendency to have a minimum surface area as if it were under tension
like a stretched elastic membrane.
• Liquid drop is spherical due to surface tension as sphere as the minimum surface area for a given
volume.
• Measured by the normal force acting per unit length of either side of an imaginary line drawn on the
free surface of liquid and tangential to the free surface.
𝑭
𝑻=
𝒍
• Work done in increasing the surface area of a liquid by unity under isothermal condition is also called
surface tension.
• S.I. unit= N/m which is equivalent to J/m2
• Decreases with increase in temperature and becomes 0 at the critical temperature.
Critical temperature
The temperature indicates the conditions under which two phases of matter can co-exist.
Capillary tube
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A tube having very narrow and uniform bore.
Capillarity
• Liquid ascending or descending in the capillary tube is capillarity.
• The height of capillarity depends on the radius of the capillary tube.
• Depends on the nature of liquid and solid both.
• Capillarity is more in a narrow tube and less in a wide tube.
• Liquid which wets the wall of the tube ascends in the tube and the
meniscus is concave and the angle of contact is minimum.
• Liquid that does not wet the walls of the tube descends in the tube
and the meniscus is convex and the angle of contact is maximum.
• When a glass capillary tube is dipped in water, water rises in the tube.
• When a glass capillary tube is dipped in mercury, mercury descends
into the tube.
Examples of capillary action
• Blotting paper soaks ink.
• Oil in the wick of lamp rises.
• Root hairs of plants draw water from the soil.
• To prevent loss of water, the soil is loosened and split into pieces by farmers.
• If a capillary tube is dipped in water in an artificial satellite, the water rises up to the other ends of the
tube because of its 0 apparent weight.
• Action of towel on our body.
• Melted wax rises up to the wick.
• Action of ballpen
Facts:
• If a clean and dry needle is kept slowly on the surface of water, it floats on water due to surface tension.
• Addition of detergent or soap decrease the surface tension of water and increases its cleansing ability.
• Bubbles of soap are big because soap decreases the surface tension.
• When kerosene is sprinkled on water, its surface tension decreases and the larva of mosquito die due to
sinking.
• Warm soup is tasty because at high temp. its surface tension is low and soup spreads on all parts of the
tongue.
• On dissolving salt in water, its surface tension increases.
PYQ
• Force of attraction between molecules of the same substance is called ______ . --> cohesive force

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Class – 8
Viscosity
Viscous force
Force which opposes the relative motion between different layers of liquid or gases
Viscosity
• Property of a liquid by which it opposes the relative motion between its different layers.
• Property of liquids and gases both.
• Viscosity of a liquid is due to the cohesive forces between its molecules.
• Viscosity of a gas is due to diffusion of its molecules from one layer to another.
• Viscosity in gases is less than that in liquids.
• No viscosity in solids.
• 0 viscosity in ideal fluid.
• Viscosity of liquids decreases with increase in temperature.
• Viscosity of gases increases with increase in temperature.
• Measured by the coefficient of viscosity of fluid, 𝜼
• S.I. unit= Pascal second (Pas or Ns/m2)
• C.G.S. unit= poise or Poiseuille (P)
Terminal Velocity
a. When a body falls in a viscous medium, its velocity first increases and then becomes constant. This
constant velocity is terminal velocity.
b. Weight of body= sum of viscous forces and force of buoyancy
c. Net force on body is 0.
d. Terminal velocity of a spherical body is proportional to square of radius of velocity.
Streamline flow
• If velocity of all fluid particles reaching a particular point is
same at all time.
• Each particle follows the same path.
Critical velocity
• Maximum velocity up to which fluid motion is streamline.
• If velocity < critical velocity, flow is streamline and rate of flow depends on viscosity of fluid.
• If velocity > critical velocity, flow is turbulent and rate of flow depends on the density of fluid. That’s
why on eruption of volcano, lava coming out of it flows very swiftly although it is very dense having
large viscosity.

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Bernoulli’s theorem
• In case of streamline flow of incompressible and non-viscous fluid (ideal fluid) through a tube, total
energy per unit volume of fluid is same at all points.
• Venturimeter is the device which works on Bernoulli’s theorem and is used to measure rate of flow of
fluid
PYQ’s
• What is the name of the instrument used for measuring the speed and rate of flow of a fluid that is
flowing in a pipe? --> Venturimeter

Class – 9
Elasticity
Elasticity
Property of a material of a body by which body opposes any change caused due to the external force
and acquires original shape and size after removal of deforming force.
Elastic limit
Maximum value of deforming force up to which material shows elastic property and above which the
material loses its elastic property.
Stress, 𝝈
Restoring force per unit area set up inside the body subjected to the deforming force
Strain, 𝝐
• Relative change in dimension or shape of a body which is subjected to stress.
Hooke’s law
• Under elastic limit, stress is proportional to strain
𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 ∝ 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝑬=
𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
• 𝑬 = elastic constant or modulus of elasticity and its value is different for different material.

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Class - 10
Simple Harmonic Motion
Periodic motion
a) Motion which repeats itself after regular intervals.
b) Also known as harmonic motion.
Oscillatory motion
• If a particle repeats its motion after a regular time interval
about a fixed point.
• Also known as vibratory motion.
• It is a constrained periodic motion between precisely fixed limits.
Simple Harmonic Motion
• If a particle repeats its motion about a fixed point after a regular time interval in such a way that
at any moment the acceleration of the particle is directly proportional to its displacement from
the fixed point at the moment and is always directed towards the fixed point then the motion is
referred to as SHM.
• Fixed point = mean point or equilibrium point
Simple Pendulum
a. A point mass is suspended from a fixed support with the help
of massless and inextensible string.
b. It undergoes SHM.
c. Time period is given by,

𝒍
𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅√
𝒈

Class – 11
Wave
Wave
• Disturbance which propagates energy from one place to another without the transport of matter.
It is of two types:
❖ Mechanical waves
❖ Non-Mechanical waves

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Mechanical waves
• Which require material medium(solid, liquid or gas) for their propagation
• Also known as elastic waves.
It is of two types:
❖ Longitudinal waves
❖ Transverse waves
Longitudinal Waves
• The particles of medium vibrate in the direction of propagation of wave.
Eg: waves on springs, sound waves in air
Transverse waves
• The particles of medium vibrate perpendicular in the direction of propagation of wave.
Eg: waves on strings under tension, waves on surface of water

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Non-Mechanical Waves
• Also known as electromagnetic (EM) waves.
• Do not require a material medium to propagate.
Eg: Light, Heat
• All the electromagnetic wave consists of photon.

• Wavelength range of electromagnetic wave= 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟒 𝒎 𝒕𝒐 𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝒎

• Electromagnetic waves of wavelength range 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎 𝒕𝒐 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝒎 are called microwaves.

Properties of electromagnetic waves
• Neutral (uncharged)
• Propagate as transverse waves
• Propagate with velocity of light
• Contains energy and momentum.
• Concept was introduced by Maxwell.
Waves that are not electromagnetic
Cathode rays, Canal rays, alpha rays, beta rays, sound waves, ultrasonic waves
Wave Motion
Process of propagation of a disturbance produced by a factor is called wave motion.
Phase of vibration
Physical Quantity that expresses the position as well as the direction of motion of the particle at that
instant with respect to the equilibrium or mean position.
Amplitude
• Maximum displacement of the vibrating particle on either side from the equilibrium position.
Wavelength
• Distance between any two nearest particle of the medium, vibrating in the same phase.
• Denoted by 𝝀 (lambda).
• In transverse wave, distance between two consecutive
crests or troughs.
• In longitudinal wave, distance between two consecutive
compressions or rarefactions.
Relation between wavelength, frequency and velocity of wave
velocity of wave= frequency ×wavelength
𝒗 = 𝒏𝝀
Path difference

• The difference in the path traversed by two waves.

• Denoted by ∆𝒙
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Phase difference

• The time interval by which a wave leads by or lags by another wave.

• Denoted by ∆∅

Class – 12
Sound Waves
Sound Waves
• Longitudinal mechanical wave.
Divided into three main categories:
❖ Audible or Sound waves
❖ Infrasonic waves
❖ Ultrasonic waves
Audible range
• Between 20Hz-20,000 Hz
• Sensitive to human ear.
Infrasonic waves
• Less than 20Hz.
Ultrasonic waves
• More than 20,000Hz
• Human ear cannot detect these waves.
• Dogs, Cats, Bats, Mosquito can detect these waves

Characteristics of sound wave

There are 3 characteristics of sound wave:
• Loudness
• Pitch
• Quality
Loudness
• Measure of the sound energy reaching the
ear per second.
• Depends on the amplitude of sound wave.
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• Measured in Decibel (dB), Phon.
• The maximum hearing limit is 95dB.
• Directly proportional to the square of amplitude
Pitch
• Depends on frequency of vibration.
• Distinguishes between a sharp (shrill) sound from
a grave (dull or flat) sound
Quality
• Distinguishes between sounds produced by two sources having same intensity and pitch.
• Also known as Timbre
• Depends on the shape of sound wave produced by it, mixture of frequencies present in it.
Relation between Loudness and Intensity of sound:
𝑳𝒐𝒖𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 ∝ 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝑰
Echo
• Repetition of sound waves caused by the reflection of sound waves.
• To hear a distinct echo, the time interval between the original and the reflected sound must be atleast
0.1s
• To hear an echo, the minimum distance between the observer and reflector should be atleast 17m
(16.6m)
Interference of sound
• Modification or redistribution of energy at a point due to
superposition of two or more sound waves of same frequency.
• If two waves meet at a point in same phase, intensity of
sound is maximum at that point and such interference is called
constructive interference.
• If two waves meet at a point in opposite phase, intensity of sound
at that point is minimum and such type of interference is called
destructive interference.
Stationary waves
When two progressive waves of same type (both
longitudinal or both transverse) having the same
amplitude and same time period/ frequency/wavelength
travelling with same speed along the same straight line in opposite directions, superimpose, a new set
of waves are formed which are called stationary waves or standing waves.

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Diffraction of sound
Wavelength of sound is of the order 1m. If an obstacle of that
range appears in the path of sound, sound deviates at the edge
of obstacle and propagates forward. This is known as Diffraction
of sound.
Diffraction
Supersonic speed
Faster than the speed of sound.
Hypersonic speed
Speed which is much greater than the speed of sound.
Subsonic speed
Less than the speed of sound.

Class – 13A
Heat and Temperature
Heat
• Form of energy which flows from one body to the other due to difference in temperature between the
bodies.
• Depends upon the mass of the body.
Temperature
• Degree of hotness or coldness of a body
• Instrument: Thermometer
• S.I. unit= Kelvin
• Other units= Fahrenheit (°𝐹), Celsius (°𝐶)
Relationships between different units of temperature
𝟗
𝑭= 𝑪 + 𝟑𝟐
𝟓
𝑲 = °𝑪 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑

• - 40° is the temperature which is same in both Fahrenheit and Celsius scale.
Absolute temperature
• Absolute temperature is temperature measured using the Kelvin scale where zero is absolute zero.
• The zero point is the temperature at which particles of matter have their minimum motion and can
become no colder (minimum energy).
Specific Heat Capacity

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• Heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of substance through 1°
• S.I. unit= J/kg-K (Joule/kilogram-kelvin)
Transmission of heat
• Transmission of heat from one place to another.
It can be done in three modes:
❖ Conduction
❖ Convection
❖ Radiation
Conduction
• Heat is transferred by the successive vibrations of the particles of the medium.
• Happens in solids.
Convection
• Heat is transferred by actual movement of particles from one place to another and due to this a current
is set up which is called convectional current.
• Happens in liquids and gases
Radiation
• Heat takes place with the speed of light without affecting the intervening medium.

Class – 13B
Change Of States
Change of states
It can be done by:
• changing temperature
• changing pressure
Triple point
The temperature at which all the three states of matter co-exist.
Fusion
• Also known as melting
• Changing of solid state to liquid state
• Takes place at a fixed temperature known as melting point.
Freezing
• Changing of liquid to solid
• Takes place at a fixed temperature known as freezing point.
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• Melting point= Freezing point
Melting point

• Melting point changes with change in pressure.

• MP of substances which contracts during melting decreases with increase in pressure.

• MP of substances which expands during melting increases with increase in pressure.

• With the addition of impurity such as salt in ice, its melting point decreases.
Vaporisation

• Changing from a liquid state to vapour state.

Takes place by two methods:

• Evaporation
• Boiling or Ebullition
Evaporation

• Process of Vaporisation which takes place only from the exposed surface of liquid and that at all
temperatures.

• It causes cooling.

• Water in earthen pot gets cooled in summer.

Boiling

• Process of vaporisation which takes place at a fixed temperature.

• Occurs in the whole part of liquid.

• Temperature at which boiling takes place is called boiling point.

Condensation

• Change from vapour state to liquid state.

• Increases with increase in pressure.

• Increases with addition of impurity.

Latent Heat

• Also known as heat of transformation.

• Heat required to change the state of unit mass of a substance.

• S.I. unit= Joule/Kilogram

It is of two types:

• Latent heat of fusion

• Latent heat of vaporisation
Latent heat of fusion

• Heat energy required to convert unit mass from solid to liquid state at its melting point.
Latent heat of vaporisation

• Heat energy required to convert unit mass of liquid to vapour state at its boiling point.

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Sublimation

• Conversion of solid directly into vapour.

• Takes place when boiling point is less than melting point.

Eg: camphor, naphthalene, anthracene, iodine etc.
Heat Frost

• Reverse process of sublimation.

• Direct conversion of vapour into solid.

• Stream produces more severe burns than water at same temperature because internal energy of steam
is more than that of water at same temperature.
Relative Humidity

• Ratio of amount of water vapour present in a given volume of atmosphere to the amount of water
vapour required to saturate the same volume at same temperature.

• Measured by Hygrometer

• Decreases with increase in temperature.

• For dew formation, the relative humidity must be 100%

Facts:
1. Fourth state of matter= Plasma
a. Stars and sun glow because of plasma in them.
b. Mixture of electrons and ions
2. Fifth state of matter= Bose-Einstein condensate
a. Achieved by cooling a gas of extremely low density at super low temperature.

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Class – 13C
Thermodynamics
First law of thermodynamics
Heat energy given to a system is used in following two ways:
• Increasing the temperature and hence internal energy of the system.
• In doing work by the system.
∆𝑸 = ∆𝑼 + ∆𝑾
Where, ∆Q=heat energy given to the system
∆U=increase in the internal energy of the system
∆W=work done by the system
• Internal energy may be kinetic or potential.
• It is equivalent to law of conservation of energy.
Isothermal Process
• If changes take place in the system in such a way that temperature of the system remains constant
throughout the change.
Adiabatic Process
• If changes take place in the system in such a way that there is no exchange in the heat energy between
the system and the surroundings.
• If CO2 is suddenly expanded, it is changed into dry ice.
Second law of thermodynamics
• Kelvin’s statement= Whole of the heat can never be converted into work.
• Celsius statement= Heat by itself cannot flow from a body at a lower temperature to a body at a higher
temperature.
Heat Engine
• Converts heat engine into mechanical energy by a cyclic process.
Consists of three parts:
❖ Source (a hot body)
❖ Sink (a cold body)
❖ A working substance
It is of two types:
❖ Internal combustion engine
❖ External combustion engine
Internal combustion engine
• Heat is produced in the engine.

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Example: Otto engine or petrol engine, Diesel engine
External Combustion engine
• Heat is produced outside the engine.
Example: Steam engine
Reversible Heat engine or Carnot heat engine
• Ideal heat engine which is free from all imperfections of practical irreversible engine.
• Efficiency is given by,
𝑻𝟐
𝜼=𝟏−
𝑻𝟏
Where, T1= temperature of source
T2= temperature of sink
Carnot theorem

• All the reversible or Carnot heat engines have the same efficiency independent of nature of working
substance.

• No heat engine operating between two given temperatures will have more efficiency than a reversible
heat engine operating between the same two temperatures.
Refrigerator or Heat Pump

• Apparatus that transfers heat energy from a cold to a hot body at the expanse of energy supplied by
external agent.

• Working substance is called refrigerant.

• In actual refrigerator, refrigerant= 𝑪𝑭𝟐 𝑪𝒍𝟐 or Freon

Facts:
In an isolated system, there is no transfer of energy and mass between system and surroundings.
PYQ’s
• The difference in temperature between two bodies is 30 degree centigrade. What is the difference in
degree Fahrenheit? --> 54
• 30˚Celcius = ______ Kelvin (approximately)--> 303
• As per thermodynamics, …… system cannot exchange both energy and mass with its surroundings=
Isolated
• Heat, in ______, is a type of energy transfer from a warmer substance to a colder one.--> thermodynamics
• Which of the following is the fifth state of matter? = Bose-Einstein condensate.

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Class – 14A
Light and Reflection
Light
• Form of energy.
• Electromagnetic transverse waves.
• Lie between ultra-violet and infra-red region.

• Wavelength= 3900Å to 7800Å

Nature of light
• Modern theory of light is known as quantum theory of light.
• Light has dual nature- wave nature and particle nature.
• Wave nature explains refraction, reflection, interference, diffraction etc.
• Particle nature explains photoelectric effect, Compton effect.
Quantum theory or Particle theory
• Proposed by Einstein
• Light is regarded as a packet or bundle of energy called photon.
• Energy of a photon is given by, 𝑬 = 𝒉𝝂 where h is Planck’s constant.
Facts:

• Speed of light in air or vacuum= 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎/𝒔

• Speed of light was first measured by Roemer.
• Light takes 8 minutes 19 seconds to reach from sun to earth.
• Light reflected from moon takes 1.28 seconds to reach the earth.
Luminous bodies
• Emit light by themselves.
Example: Sun, stars etc.
Non-Luminous bodies
• Which do not emit their own light.
• Reflect the light falling on them.
Example: Moon, Table, chair etc.
Classification of materials
• Transparent
• Translucent
• Opaque

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Transparent object
• Which allow most of the incident light to pass through them.
Example: glass, water etc.
Translucent object
• Which allow a part of the incident light to pass through them.
Example: oiled paper
Opaque substance
• Which do not allow the incident light to pass through them.
Example: Mirror, Metal etc.
Shadow
• Dark region on the screen when an opaque substance is placed in the path of light.
• Forms due to rectilinear motion of light.
Umbra
• Region in which no light reaches.
• Region of complete darkness.
Penumbra
• Region in which partial light reaches.
Example: colour of body or star.

Reflection of light
• The bouncing back of light rays after striking a surface
• It happens in the same medium.

Laws of reflection of light

• The incident ray, the normal and the reflected ray at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane.
• The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence.
∠𝒊 = ∠𝒓
Real image
• Image formed when light rays actual meet is called real image.
• Real images are always inverted.
Example: Image formed on the cinema screen.
• These can be obtained on screen.
Virtual image
• Image formed when light rays appear to meet.
• These are always erect.
Example: Image formed in a plane mirror.
• These cannot be obtained on screen.
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Reflection from a plane mirror
• Image if virtual, erect, laterally inverted.
• Size of image= size of object
• Image is formed at the same distance from the mirror as the object is in front of the mirror.
• If an object moves towards or away from a plane mirror with speed 𝒗, the image moves towards or
away with a speed 𝟐𝒗 relative to the object.
• If an object is rotated by an angle 𝜽, keeping the incident ray fixed, the reflected ray is rotated by an
angle 2𝜽.
• To see his full image in a plane mirror, a person requires a mirror of at least half his height.
• If two plane mirrors are inclined to each other at an angle 𝜽, the number of images (𝒏) of a point object
is determined as follows:
𝟑𝟔𝟎 𝟑𝟔𝟎
• If 𝜽
is even integer, then 𝒏 = 𝜽
− 𝟏
𝟑𝟔𝟎
• If is odd integer then,
𝜽
𝟑𝟔𝟎
• 𝒏= 𝜽
− 𝟏, if the object is symmetrically placed.
𝟑𝟔𝟎
• 𝒏= , if the object is asymmetrically placed.
𝜽
𝟑𝟔𝟎
• If 𝜽
is a fraction, then n is equal to integral part.

Reflection from spherical mirror

Spherical mirrors are of two types:
• Concave mirror
• Convex mirror
Concave mirror forms both real and virtual images.
Convex mirror forms only virtual images.
Image formation by concave mirror:

Pole= ध्रव
ु

Center of curvature, C= वक्रता केंद्र

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Image formation by convex mirror:

Uses of concave mirror:

• As a shaving glass.
• As a reflector for the headlights of a vehicle, search lights.
• In ophthalmoscope to examine eye, ear, nose by doctors.
• In solar cookers.
Uses of convex mirror:
• As a rear view mirror in vehicle as it provides a wide field of view and the image is always erect.
• In sodium reflector light
Mirror Formula
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝒇 𝒗 𝒖
Where, 𝒇= focal length of mirror
𝒗= image distance
𝒖= object distance

Class – 14B
Refraction Of Light
Refraction of light
• Change in the direction of light when it passes from one medium to another obliquely.
• It happens because speed of light is different in different medium.

Optical medium
• Medium through which light passes.
It is of two types:
• Optical rarer medium= speed of light is more
• Optical denser medium= speed of light is less.
Facts:
• When light goes from rarer medium to denser medium, it bends towards the normal.

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• When light goes from denser medium to rarer medium, it goes away from the normal.
• If a ray falls normally on surface of glass, there is no bending of light ray and it goes straight.
Laws of refraction
• The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane.
Snell’s law:
The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is a constant.
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊
𝒏 𝒐𝒓 𝝁𝟏𝟐 =
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓
This n or 𝝁𝟏𝟐 is called refractive index of second medium with respect to first.

It is of two types:
❑ Absolute refractive index
❑ Relative refractive index.
Effects of refraction
• Bending of a stick partially immersed in water.
• Twinkling of stars
• Oval shape of sun in the morning and evening.
• An object placed under water appears to be raised.
• A pool of water appears to be less deep than it actually is.
• Advance sunrise and delayed sunset.
Relative refractive index
• When light goes from one medium (other than air or vacuum) to another medium (other than air or
vacuum)
Absolute refractive index
• When light goes from air or vacuum to another medium.
Critical angle
• The angle of incidence in a denser medium for which the angle of refraction in the rarer medium is 90,
is called critical angle.
Total internal reflection
• When light goes from denser medium to rarer medium, and the angle of incidence is more than critical
angle then the light instead of refraction is totally reflected back in the denser medium. This is known
as TIR.
Conditions for TIR
• Light should travel from denser medium to rarer medium.
• The angle of incidence in denser medium must be greater than the critical angle for that medium.
Illustrations of TIR
• Sparkling of diamond.
• Mirage
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• Shining of air bubble in water
Lens
Lenses are of two types:
❑ Convex lens
❑ Concave lens
• Convex lens is also known as converging lens
• Concave lens is also known as diverging lens
Refraction through convex lens

Refraction through a concave lens

Power of lens
• Measure of degree of divergence or convergence of light rays.
• Reciprocal of focal length in metres.
𝟏
𝑷=
𝒇(𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒆)
• S.I. unit= Dioptre (D)
• Power of convex lens is always positive and that for concave lens is always negative.
• If a number of lenses are placed in close contact then the resultant power is the sum of the individual
power of the lenses.

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Class – 14C
Human Eye
Dispersion of light
• Splitting of white light on passing through a transparent
medium like a glass prism.
• The pattern is known as spectrum of light.
• Occurs because angle of refraction (and velocities) of light
of different colours is different on passing through the prism.
• Deviation is maximum for violet colour and minimum for red colour.
• It is because violet colour has the shortest wavelength and thus minimum velocity.
Rainbow
• Arch of seven colours formed in the sky produced by dispersion of sun’s light by raindrops in the sky.
• It is always formed in the direction opposite to that of the sun.
It is of two types:
• Primary rainbow
• Secondary rainbow
• Secondary rainbow is less intense than the primary rainbow.
Conditions for rainbow formation
• Raindrops or drizzling
• Sun rays
Primary colours
• Spectral colours like blue, green and red are called primary colours because all the colours can be
produced by these colours.
• Blue+ Red+ Green= White
Secondary colours
• Colour produced by mixing any two primary colours
• There are three secondary colours yellow, magenta and cyan
• When three secondary colours are mixed, white colour is produced.
Complementary colours
• Two colours when mix together produce a white light are called complementary colours.
• In coloured television, three primary colours are used.
Colour of bodies
• Colour of a body is the colour of light which it reflects or transmits.
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• Black absorbs all the light incident over it.
• A red rose appears red in white or red light but in blue or green light, it appears black.
Scattering of light
• When light rays fall on small bodies such as dust particles, water particles (larger than wavelength of
light), it gets scattered or reflected in different directions and light will appear white.
• Scattering is maximum for violet colour and minimum for red colour.
• Blue colour of sky is due to scattering of light.
• Sun appears red at sunrise and sunset
Polarisation of light
• Proves that light is a transverse wave.
• Restricts the vibration of light in a particular direction in a
plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation of wave.
Human Eye
• Consists of a convex lens.
• Lens forms real and inverted image of the object on retina.
• Two kinds of vision cells: rods and cones.
• Cones respond to colours
• Rods respond to the intensity of light.
• Least distance of distinct vision is 25 cm.
Defects of human eye
Myopia
• Also known as shortsightedness or nearsightedness.
• Can see nearby objects but can’t see distant objects clearly.
Causes
• Elongation of eyeball.
• Decreased focal length.
Remedy

• Concave lens (diverging)

Hypermetropia
• Also known as farsightedness or longsightedness.
• Can see distant objects but can’t see nearby objects clearly.
Causes
• Shortening of eyeball
• Increased focal length.

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Remedy
• Convex lens (converging)
Presbyopia
• Generally found in elderly persons.
• Also known as old age hypermetropia.
• Due to stiffening of ciliary muscles, eye loses much of its power of accommodation and cannot see
nearby as well as distant objects clearly.
• Person uses bifocal lenses.
Astigmatism
• Arises due to difference in the radius of curvature of
cornea in different planes.
• A point in one plane appear in focus while in another
plane, are out of focus.
• Cylindrical lens is used for correction.
Simple microscope
• A convex lens of small focal length.
• Object appears enlarged and placed within the focus of the lens.
• Magnifying power is given by,
𝟐𝟓
𝑴=𝟏+
𝒇
Compound microscope
• Consists of two convex lenses coaxially fitted in a hollow tube.
• Lens facing the object is called objective and lens towards the eye is called eye piece.
• Aperture of objective is smaller than that of eye piece.
Electron microscope
• Uses the beam of accelerated electrons as a source of illumination.
• It has a higher resolving power.
Telescope
• Used to view distant objects.
• Divided as astronomical telescope, terrestrial telescope and Galilean telescope.
• Astronomical telescope consists two convex lens in a hollow tube.
• Objective has a larger aperture and larger focal length.
• Terrestrial telescope has one additional convex lens in between objective and eye piece.
• Galilean telescope consists of two lenses, objective is convex and eye piece is concave.
Movie/Film/ Slide Projector
• Projects magnified image on a screen.
• Object is placed between F and 2F of a projection lens so that its real, inverted, magnified image is
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Class – 15
Static Electricity
Coulomb’s law
The force of attraction or repulsion between two points charges at rest is directly proportional to the
product of the magnitudes of charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them.
Electric potential
• Work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to that point.
• S.I. unit = Volt
• Scalar quantity.
Potential Difference
• Work done in bringing a unit positive charge from one point to another.
• S.I. unit = volt
• Scalar quantity.
𝑾
𝑽=
𝑸
Electric current
• Rate of flow of charge or the charge flowing per unit time interval.
• Direction of current is the direction of positive charge.
• S.I. unit = Ampere (A)
• Scalar quantity.
𝑸
𝑰=
𝒕
Resistance
• Property by which a conductor opposes the flow of electric current flowing through it.
• S.I. unit = ohm (Ω)
• Directly proportional to the length of the conductor.
• Inversely proportional to the area of cross-section of the conductor.
Ohm's law
• On keeping the physical conditions constant, electric current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across its ends.
𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹
Where, 𝑹 is the constant and is known as resistance of the conductor.

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Combination of resistance
Resistances can be connected in:
❑ Series combination
❑ Parallel combination
In series combination,
𝑹 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝑹𝒏
In Parallel combination,
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + + ⋯+
𝑹 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝒏
Electric Power
• Rate at which electrical energy is consumed in a circuit.

𝑷 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹

𝑽𝟐
𝑷=
𝑹
𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰
• S.I. unit = Watt (W)
Kilowatt hour
• Electrical energy consumed in the circuit at the rate of 1KW (1000J/s) for 1 hour.
• 1kWh= 3.6×106 J
• Also known as unit or board of trade unit.
Ammeter
• Used to measure electric current.
• Connected in series in a circuit.
• Resistance of ideal ammeter is 0.
Voltmeter
• Device used to measure potential difference between two points in a circuit.
• Connected in parallel in a circuit.
• Resistance of ideal voltmeter is infinite.
Electromagnetic Induction
• The production of electricity from magnetism is called EMI.
Electric motor
• Device which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.

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Class – 16
Magnetism
Magnetic Field
Region in space around a magnet where the magnet has its magnetic effect.
Magnetic lines of force
• Closed curves
• Outside the magnet, direction is from North to South and inside the
magnet, direction is from South to North.
• Two magnetic field lines can never intersect each other.
• If the lines of force are crowded, the field is strong.
Facts:
• Soft iron core loses all its magnetism after current is switched off.
• Steel does not lose all its magnetism after current is switched off and becomes a permanent magnet.

Class – 17
Atomic And Nuclear Physics
Atom
• Smallest part of the matter which takes part in a chemical reaction.
• Consists of three fundamental particles:
electrons, protons and neutrons.
• Protons and Neutrons are present in the central core of atom called
nucleus.
• Electrons revolve around the nucleus.
• In an atom, electrons and protons are equal in number and have equal and opposite charge. Hence atom
is neutral.
Fundamental particles

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Radioactivity
• Sending out of harmful radiation when atomic nuclei breakup spontaneously.
• Discovered by Henry Becquerel for which he received Nobel prize of Physics jointly with Madam Curie
and Pierre Curie.
Nucleus

• Nucleus is represented by Z𝑿𝑨

where, Z= atomic number= protons
A= atomic mass or mass number= protons + neutrons
Number of neutrons, N= A-Z
Nuclear fission
• A heavy nucleus splits into two nuclei of nearly equal mass.
• Energy released is called nuclear energy.
• First demonstrated by Strassmann and O.Hahn.
Uncontrolled chain reaction
• Also known as explosive chain reaction.
• Proceeds very quickly and a huge amount of energy is released.

• Atom bomb is based on nuclear fission and use 𝑼𝟐𝟑𝟓 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑷𝒖𝟐𝟑𝟗
Controlled chain reaction
• Proceeds slowly without any explosion.
• Energy released can be controlled and only one of the neutrons produced will be able to cause further
fission.
Nuclear reactor or Atomic Pile

• Fuel= 𝑼𝟐𝟑𝟓 or 𝑼𝟐𝟑𝟗

• Moderator= decreases the energy of neutrons. Water and graphite are used.
• Control rod= Rods of cadmium or boron, absorb excess neutrons
• Coolant= Heavy water (𝑫𝟐 𝑶 or Deuterium is an isotope of hydrogen)
Nuclear Fusion
• Two or more light nuclei combine together to form a heavier nucleus, tremendous energy is released.
• Energy released by sun and other stars is by nuclear fusion.

• For the nuclear fusion, a temperature of the order of 𝟏𝟎𝟖 K is required.

• Hydrogen bomb is based on nuclear fusion.
Mass Energy relation
• Established by Einstein.
• Based on special theory of relativity.
• Mass can be converted into energy and vice-versa.

𝑬 = 𝒎𝒄𝟐
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Class – 18
Electronics
Electronics
Branch of physics concerned with the behavior and movement of electrons.
Electron Emission
• In metals, electrons from the outermost orbit of atom become free at room temperature but they cannot
leave the surface of metals.
• For free electron to leave the metal surface, external energy is required which can be achieved by
following methods:
Thermionic Emission
• By heating the metal
Photo-electric emission
• By illuminating the metal surface with light of suitable frequency.
• The electrons emitted are called photo electrons.

Secondary emission
• Highly energetic electron beam is incident on a metal surface.
• The electron so emitted are called secondary electron.
Field or cold emission
• A strong electric field is applied across the metal surface.
Diode valve
• Consists of two electrodes.
• When heated cathode emits electrons.
• The electrons emitted from the cathode are collected in the
evacuated space around it which is called space charge.
• Diode valve acts as rectifier which converts alternating voltage
or current into direct voltage or current.

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Triode valve
• Consists of anode-cathode pair and one more electrode called control grid.
• Can be used as an amplifier, oscillator, transmitter and detector.
Semi-conductor
• Whose electrical conductivity is in between insulator and conductor.
Examples: Germanium, silicon etc.
These are of two types:
Intrinsic semiconductor
• Semiconductor in an extremely pure form.
Extrinsic semiconductor
• A measured and small amount of chemical impurity is added to intrinsic semi-conductor.
• Also known as doped semiconductor.
It is of two types:
𝒏-type semiconductor
• Electrons are major charge carriers.
• Made by doping a pure semiconductor with pentavalent impurity like Arsenic, Antimony and
Phosphorus.
𝒑-type semiconductor
• Holes are majority charge carriers.
• Made by doping a pure semiconductor with trivalent impurity like Gallium, Boron and Aluminium.
Doping
• Adding of chemical impurity to a pure semiconductor.
Donor
• Pentavalent impurities are called donor.
Acceptor
• Trivalent impurities are called acceptor.
• The electrical conductivity of a semiconductor increases with increase in temperature.
Nanotechnology
• Study of science on atomic, molecular or supramolecular scale, in other words study of science on a
small scale.

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Class – 19
Fundamental Forces In Nature
Fundamental Forces Of Nature
❑ Gravitational force
❑ Weak nuclear force
❑ Electromagnetic force
❑ Strong nuclear force
Gravitational forces
• Weakest forces
• Infinite range.
Weak nuclear force
• Second weakest
• Short range (10-18m)
Electromagnetic force
• Stronger
• Infinite range
Strong nuclear force
• Strongest forces
• Short range (10-15m)
Facts:
• Strong nuclear forces are that force which binds the protons and neutrons in the nuclei of the atom
together.

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Physics – Miscellaneous Part Important For Exams
Important things to remember:
• Scientific instruments and their uses
• Important Inventions in Physics (Invention, inventor, country)
• Important Discoveries in Physics
• SI Units of Physical Quantities

Scientific instruments and their uses

Instrument Use
Altimeter Measures altitudes (used in aircraft)
Ammeter Measures strength of electric current
Anemometer Measures force and velocity of wind and directions
Barometer Measures atmospheric Pressure
Chronometer Determines longitude of a vessel at sea.
Commutator To change/ reverse the direction of electric current; Also used to convert AC
into DC
Cyclotron A charged particle accelerator which can accelerate charged particle to high
energies
Dynamo Converts mechanical energy into electrical energy
Endoscope To examine internal parts of the body
Galvanometer Measures electric current
Hydrometer Measures the relative density of liquids
Hygrometer Measures level of humidity
Lactometer Measures the relative density of milk to determine purity
Manometer Measures the pressure of gases
Microphone Converts sound waves into electrical vibrations
Microscope To obtain a magnified view of small objects
Ohmmeter To measure electrical resistance in ohms
Periscope To view objects above sea level (used in submarines)
Pyrometer Measures very high temperature
Sphygmometer Measures blood pressure
Stethoscope Used by doctors to hear and analyze heart and lung sounds
Telescope To view distant objects in space
Thermometer Measures Temperature
Thermostat Regulates temperature at a particular point
Venturimeter To measure the rate of flow of liquids
Viscometer Measures the viscosity of liquid
Voltmeter To measure electric potential difference between two points

Important Inventions in Physics (Invention, inventor, country)

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Invention Inventor Country
Aero plane Wright brothers USA
Barometer E. Torricelli Italy
Battery Alessandro Volta Italy
Bicycle K. Macmillan Scotland
Calculating machine Pascal France
Centigrade scale A. Celsius France
Cinematograph Thomas Alva Edison USA
Computer Charles Babbage Britain
Diesel engine Rudolf Diesel Germany
Dynamite Alfred Nobel Sweden
Dynamo Michael Faraday England
Electric lamp Thomas Alva Edison USA
Evolution(theory) Charles Darwin England
Mobile Phone Martin cooper USA
Motorcycle Edward Butler England
Penicillin Alexander Fleming Scotland
Printing Press J. Gutenberg Germany
Radium Marie and Pierre Curie France
Radio G. Marconi England
Safety lamp Sir Humphrey Davy England
Steam engine (condenser) James Watt Scotland
Telephone Alexander Graham Bell USA
X-ray Wilhelm Roentgen Germany

Important Discoveries in Physics

Discovery Scientist
Laws of motion Newton
Law of electrostatic attraction Coulomb
Atom John Dalton
Law of Electric resistance G.S.Ohm
Law of floatation Archimedes
Electromagnetic Induction Michael Faraday
Dynamite Alfred Nobel
Periodic table Mendeleev
X-Rays Roentgen
Radioactivity Henry Becquerel
Electron J.J. Thomson
Radium Madam Curie
Quantum theory Max Plank
Wireless Telegram Marconi
Photo electric effect Albert Einstein
Principle of Relativity Albert Einstein

S.I Units of Physical Quantities

Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram Kg
Time Second s
Work and Energy Joule J
TelegramElectric Current
(Previous year papers PDFs
Ampere
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A
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Temperature Kelvin K
Intensity of flame Candela cd
Angle Radian rad
Solid angle Steradian sr
Force Newton N
Area Square meter m2
Volume Cubic meter M3
Speed Meter per second ms-1
Angle Velocity Radian per second rad s-1
Frequency Hertz Hz
Moment of inertia Kilogram square meter Kgm2
Momentum Kilogram meter per second Kg ms-1
Impulse Newton second Ns
Angular Momentum Kilogram square meter per Kgm2s-1
second
Pressure Pascal Pa
Power Watt W
Surface tension Newton per meter Nm-1
Viscosity Newton second per square m. N.s.m-2
Electric charge Coulomb C
Potential Difference Volt V
Electric Resistance Ohm Ω
Electrical Capacity Farad F
Magnetic Flux Weber Wb
Wave length Angstrom A°
Astronomical distance Light year ly

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