Science and Society

Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

An impactful philosopher, statesman, scientist, and author, he advocated Empiricism. He advocated for experimental methods and observation.
He emphasised inductive reasoning. He developed an effective critique of Aristotelianism and challenged traditional authority. Scientific
Methodology is the most significant among his contributions. Bacon emphasized experimentation and data collection. He classified sciences
and categorized knowledge into three areas: history, poetry, and philosophy. His ideas Influenced the Enlightenment thinkers and shaped
modern scientific inquiry and methodology. His contributions to the development of modern philosophy are invaluable.

Notable Works:

• "The Advancement of Learning" (1605)

• "Novum Organum" (1620)
• "The History of the Reign of King Henry VII" (1622)

Pseudo-Science

Pseudo-science refers to claims, theories, or practices that mimic scientific methods and language, lack empirical evidence or rigorous testing
or contradict established scientific knowledge. The characteristics of Pseudo sciences include Unfalsifiable claims (claims that cannot be
proven or disproven), lack of peer review, reliance on anecdotes or testimonials, ignoring or dismissing contradictory evidence and sensational
or misleading claims.

Examples of pseudo sciences

Astrology (claiming star positions influence personality)

Homeopathy (claiming highly diluted substances have medicinal effects)
Anti-vaccination theories
Climate change denial
Creationism/Intelligent Design (opposing evolution)
UFOlogy (study of unidentified flying objects without empirical evidence)
Graphology (claiming handwriting analysis reveals personality)
Cryptozoology (search for mythical creatures without evidence)
Distinguishing pseudo-science from science can be done applying certain scientific methods. Firstly, check whether the Scientific methods
are followed (Testing hypotheses, empirical evidence, peer review), secondly, See whether there is open-mindedness, ie., considering
alternative explanations, and, thirdly, Skepticism, which means Questioning claims and evaluating evidences. Evaluating evidences, checking
sources, considering alternative explanations, being skeptical and seek expert consensus are critical thinking skills that help identify pseudo-
science.

Consequences of pseudo-science include misinformation and confusion, wasted resources, harm to individuals (e.g., anti-vaccination), and
undermining trust in science.

The Concept of Zero

The concept of zero, represented by the symbol "0," is a fundamental innovation in mathematics, with far-reaching implications. It originated
in ancient India around 500 CE in Brahmagupta's "Brahmasphuta Siddhanta". Middle East and Europe adopted it later and zero spread through
trade and cultural exchanges in the 8th-12th centuries. During Renaissance and Enlightenment, zero's significance was fully realized and it
drove scientific and mathematical progress.

Zero enabled the development of the decimal system and allowed efficient representation of numbers. It facilitated the concept of addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division. Zero introduced the idea of negative numbers, expanding mathematical possibilities. It fostered
abstract thinking. Zero paved the way for algebra, calculus, and advanced mathematical concepts.
Zero enabled precise calculations in mechanics, optics, and electromagnetism. It is essential for binary code and programming languages. In
economics, it underlies financial concepts, such as interest rates and accounting. It also influenced symbolism, philosophy, art and literature.

The French Academy of Science (Académie des Sciences)

Founded in 1666, the purpose of The French Academy of Science was to promote scientific research, advance knowledge, and advise the
French government on scientific matters. It was established by Louis XIV, with advice from Jean-Baptiste Colbert. It was initially consisted
of 15 members, including notable scientists like Pierre-Simon Laplace and Antoine Lavoisier. It played a crucial role in the Scientific
Revolution, fostering collaboration among scientists. The Academy published the first scientific journal, "Mémoires de l'Académie des
Sciences" (1666-1793). Its notable members were 1. Pierre-Simon Laplace (mathematics, astronomy), 2. Antoine Lavoisier (chemistry), 3.
André-Marie Ampère (physics), 4. Augustin-Louis Cauchy (mathematics), 5. Louis Pasteur (biology), 6. Henri Poincaré (mathematics,
physics), 7. Marie Curie (physics, chemistry), and, 8. Claude Shannon (mathematics, electrical engineering)

The notable contributions of the Academy includes standardization of scientific units and measurements, development of the metric system,
advances in mathematics, discoveries in physics (electricity, magnetism), contributions to astronomy (orbital mechanics), Progress in
chemistry (atomic theory) and, innovations in biology (vaccination, microbiology). The Academy shaped modern scientific inquiry and
collaboration. It fostered groundbreaking discoveries and innovations and inspired similar scientific institutions worldwide.

Creationism

Creationism is the belief that the universe, Earth, and life were created by a supernatural being or force, often identified as God. This
perspective contradicts scientific evidence supporting evolution and natural processes. Types of Creationism

The key tenets of creationism include belief in divine creation of the universe and life, rejection of evolution as the primary explanation for
life's diversity, and emphasis on biblical or other religious accounts of creation. Creationism faces the following criticisms:

1. Lack of empirical evidence supporting creationism.

2. Contradiction with established scientific theories (evolution, cosmology).

3. Failure to provide a testable, falsifiable framework.

On the other hand, science puts forward Evolution (supported by fossil records, genetics, and comparative anatomy), Cosmology (evidence
from cosmic microwave background radiation, galaxy formation) and Geology (evidence from rock layers, plate tectonics) to explain the
origin. Creationism is a religious perspective that conflicts with scientific evidence and theories. While creationism has cultural and historical
significance, it is not considered a scientifically valid explanation for the origins of the universe and life.

Survival of the Fittest,

The term was used in the fifth edition (1869) of On the Origin of Species by British naturalist Charles Darwin. It suggested that organisms
best adjusted to their environment are the most successful in surviving and reproducing. Darwin borrowed the term from English sociologist
and philosopher Herbert Spencer, who first used it in his 1864 book Principles of Biology. Spencer came up with the phrase only after reading
Darwin’s work.

Empiricism

Empiricism is the view that all concepts originate in experience. All empirical concepts are about or applicable to things that can be
experienced. All rationally acceptable beliefs or propositions are justifiable or knowable only through experience. The term empiricism is
derived from the ancient Greek word empeiria, “experience.”

Concepts can be “a posteriori” or “a posteriori”. Concepts are “a priori” (“from the former”) if they can be applied independently of experience.
They are “a posteriori” (Latin: “from the latter”) if they can be applied only on the basis of experience. Beliefs or propositions are said to be
a posteriori if they are knowable only on the basis of experience and a priori if they are knowable independently of experience. Thus,
empiricism is the view that all concepts, or all rationally acceptable beliefs or propositions, are a posteriori rather than a priori.
The first two definitions of empiricism typically involve an implicit theory of meaning, according to

Empiricism stresses experience and often opposes the claims of authority, intuition, imaginative conjecture, and abstract, theoretical, or
systematic reasoning as sources of reliable belief. It is opposed to rationalism.

Indigenous Knowledge

Indigenous knowledge (IK) refers to the traditional knowledge, beliefs, practices, and innovations of Indigenous peoples, passed down through
generations. It often manifests in the form of holistic and interconnected understanding of nature. IK is Spiritually and culturally significant.
It is developed through observation, experimentation, and experience. IK is often oral and not written. It has community-based and collective
ownership. Examples of IK are 1. Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK): understanding of ecosystems and natural resources, 2. Traditional
Medicine: plant-based remedies and healing practices, 3. Agricultural Knowledge: crop management, soil conservation, 4. Cultural
Knowledge: stories, songs, dances, art and 5. Spiritual Knowledge: beliefs, rituals, ceremonies.

IK is important for it helps conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, climate change adaptation and mitigation, community resilience
and self-determination and cultural preservation and revitalization. Colonialism and its cultural suppression caused the extinction of much IK.
It is also subjected to exploitation. There are language and cultural barriers to the spread of IK. Urbanization and cultural assimilation also
pause challenges to preservation of IK.

UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) recognizes Indigenous peoples' rights to their knowledge, languages, and
cultural heritage. It emphasizes self-determination and free, prior, and informed consent. Indigenous knowledge is a valuable resource for
sustainable development, climate change adaptation, and cultural preservation. Recognizing and respecting Indigenous knowledge requires
addressing historical injustices and promoting self-determination.

Critique of Capitalism of Capitalism by Einstein

According to Einstein, capitalism causes Economic Anarchy. He argues that capitalism creates economic chaos, leading to unpredictable
markets and crises. Secondly, it causes Exploitation. He contends that capitalism exploits workers, concentrating wealth among the elite.
Thirdly, capitalism widens inequality. Einstein notes that capitalism perpetuates significant wealth disparities, undermining social cohesion.
Fourthly, according to Einstein, capitalism can increase unemployment. He argues that capitalism's emphasis on profit over people results in
unnecessary unemployment. Fifthly, Einstein criticises that capitalism fuels nationalism, leading to war and imperialism.

According to Einstein, there are certain flaws in Capitalist Logic. Einstein questions the notion of private property, arguing it contradicts social
welfare. He argues the profit motive prioritizes individual gain over collective well-being. Einstein sees competition as a destructive force,
leading to waste and inefficiency. He found socialism as an effective alternative:

Induction

Induction is a means of reasoning from a part to a whole, from particulars to generals, from the past to the future, or from the observed to the
unobserved. There are several major kinds of inductive reasoning, including causal inference, categorical inference, and analogical inference.

In a causal inference, one reasons to the conclusion that something is, or is likely to be, the cause of something else. For example, from the
fact that one hears the sound of piano music, one may infer that someone is (or was) playing a piano. But although this conclusion may be
likely, it is not certain, since the sounds could have been produced by an electronic synthesizer.

Induction is from particular to general and deduction is vice-versa.

Natural Selection
Natural selection is the process that results in the adaptation of an organism to its environment by means of selectively reproducing changes
in its genotype, or genetic constitution. In natural selection, those variations in the genotype that increase an organism’s chances of survival
and procreation are preserved and multiplied from generation to generation at the expense of less advantageous variations. Evolution often
occurs as a consequence of this process. Natural selection may arise from differences in survival, in fertility, in rate of development, in mating
success, or in any other aspect of the life cycle. All such differences result in natural selection to the extent that they affect the number of
progeny an organism leaves.

Contribution of the Chinese to Science in Europe

Europe owes a significant debt to Chinese science. Chinese innovations and discoveries have had a profound impact on Western scientific
development.

Key Chinese Contributions:

• Papermaking (105 CE): Invented by Cai Lun, paper production spread to Europe via the Silk Road.
• Gunpowder (9th century): Chinese alchemists discovered gunpowder, which revolutionized warfare.
• Printing (765 CE): Moveable type printing, pioneered by Bi Sheng, facilitated mass production of books.
• Compass (206 BCE): Chinese navigators developed the magnetic compass.
• Porcelain (Han Dynasty): Chinese ceramic techniques influenced European pottery.
• Silk production (Han Dynasty): Sericulture spread to Europe via the Silk Road.
• Advanced metallurgy (Han Dynasty): Chinese steel production techniques were adopted in Europe.
• Medicine: Chinese medical knowledge, such as acupuncture, influenced European medicine.
• Astronomy: Chinese astronomical observations and instruments (e.g., armillary sphere) reached Europe.

The Chinese achievements in science got transmitted to Europe through the Silk Route, the Arab merchants and scholars, the writings of
Marco Polo and through Jesuit Missionaries.

• Silk Road (2nd century BCE - 15th century CE): Trade and cultural exchange facilitated the transfer of knowledge.
• Arab merchants and scholars (8th-13th centuries): Islamic Golden Age scholars translated Chinese texts into Arabic.
• Marco Polo (13th century): His travels introduced Europeans to Chinese innovations.
• Jesuit missionaries (16th-18th centuries): They transmitted Chinese scientific knowledge to Europe.

Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and Voltaire are some of the European scientists influenced by Chinese
discoveries. The Chinese influence was also instrumental in sparking the Scientific Revolution (16th-17th centuries) in Europe. It also
influenced the shaping of the European Enlightenment thought and contributed to the Industrial Revolution.

The Arab contributions to Mathematics

The Arab contributions to mathematics are immense and far-reaching, spanning over five centuries (8th-13th centuries). Arab mathematicians
made significant advancements, building upon Greek and Indian knowledge.

Key Contributions:

• Preservation and Transmission: Arabs preserved and translated Greek mathematical texts, such as Euclid's "Elements" and
Archimedes' works, into Arabic.
• Algebra: Developed by Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi (780-850 CE), algebra introduced variables, equations, and algebraic
methods.
• Decimal System: Arabs adopted and refined the Indian decimal system, introducing the concept of zero.
• Geometry: Made significant contributions to geometry, including trigonometry and spherical geometry.
• Number Theory: Developed number theory, including divisibility, prime numbers, and congruences.
Al-Khwarizmi (780-850 CE), father of algebra and author of "Kitab al-mukhtasar fi hisab al-jabr wa'l-muqabala" (The Compendious Book
on Calculation by Completion and Balancing), Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (980-1037 CE) who made significant contributions to mathematics,
philosophy, and medicine, Ibn Yunus (950-1009 CE), the renowned astronomer and mathematician who calculated pi accurately, Al-Kindi
(801-873 CE) who wrote extensively on mathematics, astronomy, and philosophy, and Ibn al-Haytham (965-1040 CE), mathematician and
physicist who made significant contributions to optics and geometry, are some of the influential Arab Mathematicians.

Arab mathematical knowledge was transmitted to Europe through translations, trade, and cultural exchange. It influenced Renaissance
Mathematicians such as Fibonacci, Viète, and Descartes. Arab contributions laid the foundation for modern mathematics, including calculus,
probability, and statistics. The Arab legacy to modern science include

• Arabic Numerals: The decimal system and Arabic numerals (0-9) are used globally,
• Mathematical Terminology: Many mathematical terms, such as "algebra" and "algorithm," originate from Arabic, and
• Inspiration to Future Generations: Arab mathematicians' works inspired future generations of mathematicians and scientists.

The Arab contributions to mathematics demonstrate the significance of cultural exchange and the global nature of scientific progress.

Is Science being the Only Way of Knowing?

While science provides a powerful tool for understanding the natural world, it is not the only way of knowing. Recognizing the value of
diverse knowledge systems and approaches can foster a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of human experience.

Advantages of Science as a way of knowing: Science relies on empirical evidence, observation, and experimentation, providing a systematic
and rigorous approach to understanding the world. Scientific methods aim to minimize bias and subjective interpretation. Science has
successfully predicted and explained numerous phenomena. Scientific principles and laws apply universally, regardless of cultural or personal
perspectives.

However, science is not the only way of knowing. There are certain limitations to scientific method. Science can't address questions of value,
morality, or metaphysics. There are other forms of knowledge like philosophy, history, art, and spirituality provide unique insights into human
experience. Contextual knowledge is also important. Local, traditional, and indigenous knowledge systems offer valuable perspectives.
Personal experience also form an important way of knowing. Intuition, emotions, and personal experiences can provide meaningful
understanding.

Some Alternative ways of knowing:

• Philosophy: Explores fundamental questions about existence, reality, and knowledge.

• History: Provides context and understanding of human cultures and events.
• Art and literature: Offer insights into human emotions, experiences, and perspectives.
• Spirituality and faith: Address questions of meaning, purpose, and transcendence.
• Indigenous knowledge: Incorporates traditional practices, myths, and stories.

It is beneficial to Integrate scientific method with other complementary methods. Here are some ways for doing it.

• Interdisciplinary approaches: Combine scientific and non-scientific methods for comprehensive understanding.
• Contextualization: Recognize the limitations and strengths of different knowledge systems.
• Pluralism: Acknowledge multiple ways of knowing, valuing diversity and complexity.

Karl Popper, Thomas Kuhn, Paul Feyerabend, Michel Foucault, and Clifford Geertz are some of the important thinkers who contributed in
this regard.

Women Representation in Scientific Research

Women are underrepresented in scientific research. But, there is progress in recent decades. Globally, women account for 28.4% of researchers
worldwide (UNESCO, 2020).

Barriers to women participation in science research:

• Stereotypes and bias.

• Limited access to education and training.
• Career interruptions (e.g., childcare).
• Lack of role models and mentorship.
• Unequal pay and promotion opportunities.

Certain initiatives are necessary to address this underrepresentation. Firstly, STEM education programs for girls shall be promoted. Secondly,
mentorship and networking initiatives shall be implemented for this end. Thirdly, diversity and inclusion policies shall be adopted for the
realisation of these ends. Fourthly, research funding targeting women scientists shall be increased. Fifthly, awareness campaigns also will help.

Even though women are under-represented, they have made significant contributions to research in science. Marie Curie (physicist and
chemist), Rosalind Franklin (biophysicist), Jane Goodall (primatologist), Sally Ride (astronaut and physicist) and Mae Jemison (astronaut and
engineer) are some notable women in this field.

Science and Colonialism

Science played a complex and multifaceted role in colonialism and the Third World. Science facilitated colonial exploitation of natural
resources. Scientifically advanced European societies used scientific knowledge to reinforce Western dominance of the Afro-Asian countries.
With their influence and domination, Indigenous knowledge systems were marginalized. The Colonizers used their scientific knowledge for
resource exploitation and extraction. Scientific discoveries enabled colonial powers to extract resources from the colonies which left them
later under-developed to be termed the ‘Third World Countries’.

Impact on the Third World:

• Economic dependency: Colonized countries became dependent on Western technology.

• Environmental degradation: Unregulated resource extraction harmed local ecosystems.
• Cultural loss: Traditional practices and knowledge were erased.
• Health disparities: Colonial medicine often prioritized Western interests.

The botanical gardens facilitating plant exploitation, geological surveys enabling resource extraction, Anthropology and ethnography
reinforcing racist stereotypes and Medical research prioritizing Western interests are some of the examples for the use of science for colonial
interests. Intellectual property rights disputes, biopiracy and patenting of traditional knowledge, climate change and environmental justice,
and global health disparities and access to medicine are some of the current challenges that the Third World Countries face.

Indigenous knowledge revitalization,local scientific innovation (e.g., India's atomic program), anti-colonial movements (e.g., Mahatma
Gandhi), and international cooperation (e.g., Non-Aligned Movement) are examples of resistance and decolonization. Frantz Fanon
(philosopher and psychiatrist), Vandana Shiva (environmental activist), Claude Alvares (scientist and critic of Western science), and Kwame
Nkrumah (Pan-Africanist leader) are some of the important activists in this field.

Recognizing historical injustices, promotion of indigenous knowledge systems, fostering global scientific cooperation and addressing ongoing
disparities and inequalities are required for reconciling science and colonialism.
The Development of Scientific Temper in Kerala Society

The development of scientific temper in Kerala society can be traced through various historical and cultural factors. There are certain early
roots to the scientific temper of the Kerala society.

• Ayurveda and traditional medicine: Kerala's ancient medical traditions emphasized observation, experimentation, and rational
inquiry.
• Astronomy and mathematics: Kerala's astronomers, such as Madhava of Sangamagrama (c. 1350-1425), made significant
contributions to astronomy and mathematics.
• Trade and cultural exchange: Kerala's strategic location on the spice route facilitated exchange with Arab, Chinese, and European
traders, introducing new scientific ideas.

In the modern Era (18th-20th centuries), British colonial rule: Introduced Western education, including science and technology. The Christian
missionaries established schools and colleges and promoted modern education. Social reform movement leaders like Sree Narayana Guru
(1856-1928) and Chattampi Swamikal (1853-1924) emphasized education, rationality, and social reform. This paved the very base of the
modern scientific temper in Kerala.

During the post-Independence (1947 onwards) period, Kerala's socialist and communist movements encouraged scientific thinking and critical
inquiry. Kerala's high literacy rates (94%+) facilitated widespread science education in the state and that also contributed to the scientific
temper of the Kerala society. Initiatives like the Kerala Science Congress (1965) and science centers promoted public engagement with science.
Kerala Shasthra Sahitya Parishath was a left-wing organization committed to the propagation of scientific temper in Kerala society. They
educated children with songs and stories and published numerous works that spread scientific temper. Also, they conducted workshops and
seminars for the same end. All these have contributed to the advancement of scientific temper in Kerala.

Kerala's thriving IT industry drives innovation and scientific application is a recent development that lead Kerala society to scientific temper.
Institutions like the Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Biotechnology (RGCB) advance research and development. Environmental movements, climate
change, conservation, and sustainability foster scientific awareness in Kerala.

Some of the key figures that contributed to the growth of scientific temper in Kerala society include

• Madhava of Sangamagrama (c. 1350-1425): Astronomer and mathematician.

• Sree Narayana Guru (1856-1928): Social reformer and advocate for education.
• C. V. Raman (1888-1970): Physicist and Nobel laureate, born in Kerala.
• M. S. Swaminathan (1925-present): Agricultural scientist and geneticist.

Still, Kerala faces certain issues and challenges in the development of scientific temper in Kerala. Balancing tradition and modernity is very
much a challenge in Kerala. Addressing scientific literacy and critical thinking is also not easy in Kerala. Fostering innovation and
entrepreneurship is a dying need of the hour in Kerala. Kerala has advanced much in the path of promoting inclusive and equitable science
education, still there is a lot to go.

Kerala's scientific temper has evolved through a rich cultural and historical context, shaping its unique blend of traditional knowledge and
modern scientific inquiry.

Developments in Astronomy in Europe During Scientific Revolution

The Scientific Revolution in Europe (16th-17th centuries) witnessed significant developments in astronomy, transforming our understanding
of the universe. Key Figures who contributed in this regard were

• Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543): Proposed the heliocentric model.

• Tycho Brahe (1546-1601): Made precise astronomical observations.
• Johannes Kepler (1571-1630): Discovered planetary laws.
• Galileo Galilei (1564-1642): Observed the heavens with his telescope.
 • Isaac Newton (1643-1727): Formulated laws of motion and universal gravitation.

Major Developments of Scientific Revolution in the field of Astronomy:

• Heliocentric Model (Copernicus, 1543): Replaced geocentric model with Sun-centered universe.
• Telescope (Galileo, 1608): Allowed for direct observation of celestial bodies.
• Planetary Laws (Kepler, 1609-1619): Described planetary orbits and motion.
• Laws of Motion (Newton, 1687): Explained planetary motion and universal gravitation.
• Astronomical Observatories (16th-17th centuries): Established in Europe for systematic observations.

Copernicus' "De revolutionibus orbium coelestium" (1543), Tycho Brahe's "De nova stella" (1573), Kepler's "Astronomia nova" (1609),
Galileo's "Sidereus Nuncius" (1610), and Newton's "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica" (1687) are some of the influential works
that contributed in this regard. These works and developments challenged Aristotelian views and geocentrism. They established scientific
method and empirical research. They could also foster a new understanding of the universe and humanity's place. They inspired philosophical
and theological debates. The developments of the period laid foundation for modern astronomy. They inspired Enlightenment thinkers and
shaped Western scientific tradition. They continue to influence contemporary astronomy and space exploration.

Ancient Indian Contributions to Mathematics

Ancient Indians made significant contributions to mathematics. They shaped the development of various mathematical concepts.

Key Contributions:

• Zero and Decimal System: Indians invented the concept of zero and developed the decimal system.
• Number Theory: Contributions to number theory, including divisibility, primality, and congruences.
• Algebra: Developed algebraic methods, including solving linear and quadratic equations.
• Geometry: Contributed to geometry, particularly in the fields of trigonometry and mensuration.
• Arithmetic: Developed arithmetic operations, including addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.

Influential Mathematicians of Ancient India

• Aryabhata (476 CE): Made significant contributions to number theory, algebra, and geometry.
• Brahmagupta (598 CE): Developed the concept of zero and wrote extensively on number theory.
• Bhaskara (1114 CE): Contributed to algebra, geometry, and arithmetic.
• Madhava (1350 CE): Developed the concept of pi and contributed to trigonometry.
• Mahavira (850 CE): Wrote extensively on arithmetic, algebra, and geometry.

Important Mathematical Texts form Ancient India:

• Aryabhatiya (Aryabhata)
• Brahmasphuta Siddhanta (Brahmagupta)
• Bijaganita (Bhaskara)
• Yuktibhasa (Madhava)
• Ganita Sara Sangraha (Mahavira)

Indian mathematics influenced World Mathematics in several ways. Arabic Numerals were originally Indian contribution. Indian numerals
were adopted by Arab mathematicians and spread to Europe. Indian mathematical concepts influenced Islamic scholars as well. Indian
mathematics influenced European mathematicians, such as Fibonacci too. Indian contributions laid the foundation for modern mathematics.

Sulva Sutras, the ancient Indian texts on geometry and mensuration, Kuttaka, the ancient Indian method for solving linear equations, Vedic
Mathematics, the ancient Indian mathematical techniques, and Jyotisha, the ancient Indian astronomy and mathematics are some of the major
concepts ancient India contributed to Mathematics.