UNIT 1 NATURE OF PHYSICAL WORLD AND MEASUREMENT

“Education is not the learning of facts, but the training of the mind to think” – Albert Einstein

In this unit, the student is exposed to

• excitement generated by the discoveries in Physics

• an understanding of physical quantities of importance

• different system of units

• an understanding of errors and corrections in physics measurements

• the importance of significant figures

• usage of dimensions to check the homogeneity of physical quantities

1.1 SCIENCE—INTRODUCTION things is biological science (Botany, Zoology

etc.).
The word ‘science’ has its root in the Latin
verb scientia, meaning “to know”. In Tamil Curiosity-driven observation of natural
language, it is ‘ ’ (Ariviyal) happenings was the origin of science. The
meaning ‘knowing the truth’. The human word ‘science’ was coined only in the 19th
mind is always curious to know and century. Natural philosophy was the earlier
understand different phenomena like the name given to science, when ancient
bright celestial objects in nature, cyclic civilization knew and practised astronomy,
changes in the seasons, occurrence of chemistry, human physiology and
rainbow, etc. The inquisitive mind looks for agriculture. Oral communication was the
meaningful patterns and relations in such mode of conveying knowledge when writing
phenomena. Today’s modern science and systems were not yet developed. One of the
technology is an offshoot of the oldest forerunners of
understanding of nature. Science is the scientific advancements, from astronomy to
systematic organization of knowledge medicine, were the Egyptians. Scientific and
gained through observation, mathematical excellence in India dates back
experimentation and logical reasoning. The to prehistoric human activity in the Indus
knowledge of science dealing with non- Valley Civilization (3300 – 1300 BC(BCE).
living things is physical science (Physics and
Chemistry), and that dealing with living

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According to part IV Article 51A (h) of Indian The process of finding the answers to these
Constitution “It shall be the duty of every queries is scientific investigation. The basic
citizen of India to develop scientific temper, phenomenon of heat is discussed in unit 8
humanism and spirit of inquiry and reform’’.
Do you know?
This is the aim of our Science Education.
The name Physics was introduced by Aristotle in
the year 350 BC

1.1.1 The Scientific Method

The scientific method is a step-by-step 1.2 PHYSICS - INTRODUCTION

approach in studying natural phenomena
and establishing laws which govern these The word ‘physics’ is derived from the
phenomena. Any scientific method involves Greek word “Fusis”, meaning nature. The
the following general features. study of nature and natural phenomena is
dealt within physics. Hence physics is
(i) Systematic observation
considered as the most basic of all sciences.
(ii) Controlled experimentation
Unification and Reductionism are the two
(iii) Qualitative and quantitative reasoning approaches in studying physics. Attempting
to explain diverse physical phenomena with
(iv) Mathematical modeling a few concepts and laws is unification. For
(v) Prediction and verification or example, Newton’s universal law of
falsification of theories gravitation (in unit 6) explains the
motion of freely falling bodies towards
Example the Earth, motion of planets around the
Sun, motion of the Moon around the Earth,
Consider a metallic rod being heated. When
thus unifying the fundamental forces of
one end of the rod is heated, heat is felt at
nature.
the other end. The following questions can
be asked on this observation An attempt to explain a macroscopic
system in terms of its microscopic
a) What happens within the rod when it is
constituents is reductionism. For example,
heated?
thermodynamics (unit 8) was developed to
b) How does the heat reach the other end? explain macroscopic properties like
temperature, entropy, etc., of bulk systems.
c) Is this effect true for all materials? The above properties have been
d) If heat flows through the material, is it interpreted in terms of the molecular
possible to visualize heat? constituents (microscopic) of the bulk

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system by kinetic theory (unit 9) and movement of the stars and other celestial
statistical mechanics. bodies. They could determine the time to
sow and reap by watching the sky. Thus,
Branches of Physics
astronomy and mathematics were the first
Physics as a fundamental science helps to disciplines to be developed. The
uncover the laws of nature. The language of chronological development of various
its expression is mathematics. In ancient branches of physics is presented in
times, humans lived with nature – their Appendix A1.1. The various branches of
lifestyles were integrated with nature. They physics are schematically shown in
could understand the signals from the figure 1.1. The essential focus of different
areas is given in Table 1.1.

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Some of the fundamental concepts of basic to express the impact of physical principles
areas of physics are discussed in higher and their governing laws. The impact of
secondary first year physics books volume 1 forces acting on objects in terms of the
and 2. Mechanics is covered in unit 1 to 6. fundamental laws of motion of Newton are
Unit 1 gives an idea of the development of very systematically covered in unit 3. Work
physics along with discussion on basic and energy which are the basic parameters
elements such as measurement, units etc. of investigation of the mechanical world are
Unit 2 gives the basic mathematics needed presented in unit 4. Unit 5 deals with the

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mechanics of rigid bodies (in contrast, physics before fabrication. Thus,
objects are viewed as point objects in units experiments and theory work hand in hand
3 and 4). The basics of gravitation and its complimenting one another. Physics has a
consequences are discussed in unit 6. Older huge scope as it covers a tremendous range
branches of physics such as different of magnitude of various physical quantities
properties of matter are discussed in unit 7. (length, mass, time, energy etc). It deals
The impact of heat and investigations of its with systems of very large magnitude as in
consequences are covered in units 8 and 9. astronomical phenomena as well as those
Important features of oscillations and wave with very small magnitude involving
motion are covered in units 10 and 11. electrons and protons.

Scope and Excitement of Physics  Range of time scales: astronomical

scales to microscopic scales, 1018s
Discoveries in physics are of two types;
to 10−22s.
accidental discoveries and well-analysed
 Range of masses: from heavenly
research outcome in the laboratory based
bodies to electron, 1055 kg (mass of
on intuitive thinking and prediction. For
known observable universe) to
example, magnetism was accidentally
10−31 kg (mass of an electron) [the
observed but the reason for this strange
actual mass of an electron is
behavior of magnets was later analysed
9.11×10–31 kg].
theoretically. This analysis revealed the
underlying phenomena of magnetism. With The study of physics is not only educative
this knowledge, artificial magnets were but also exciting in many ways. „
prepared in the laboratories. Theoretical
predictions are the most important  A small number of basic concepts
contribution of physics to the developments and laws can explain diverse
in technology and medicine. For example, physical phenomena. „
the famous equation of Albert Einstein,  The most interesting part is the
E=mc2 was a theoretical prediction in 1905 designing of useful devices based on
and experimentally proved in 1932 by the physical laws.
Cockcroft and Walton. Theoretical For example i) use of robotics ii) journey to
predictions aided with recent simulation Moon and to nearby planets with controls
and computation procedures are widely from the ground iii) technological advances
used to identify the most suited materials in health sciences etc. „
for robust applications. The pharmaceutical
industry uses this technique very effectively  Carrying out new challenging
to design new drugs. Biocompatible experiments to unfold the secrets of
materials for organ replacement are nature and in verifying or falsifying
predicted using quantum prescriptions of the existing theories. „

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  Probing and understanding the Physics being a fundamental science has
science behind natural phenomena played a vital role in the development of all
like the eclipse, and why one feels other sciences. A few examples:
the heat when there is a fire? (or)
1. Physics in relation to Chemistry:
What causes the wind, etc.
In physics, we study the structure of atom,
In today’s world of technological
radioactivity, X-ray diffraction etc. Such
advancement, the building block of all
studies have enabled researchers in
engineering and technical education is
chemistry to arrange elements in the
physics which is explained with the help of
periodic table on the basis of their atomic
the mathematical tools.
numbers. This has further helped to know
1.3 PHYSICS IN RELATION TO TECHNOLOGY the nature of valency, chemical bonding
AND SOCIETY and to understand the complex chemical
structures. Inter-disciplinary branches like
Technology is the application of the Physical chemistry and Quantum chemistry
principles of physics for practical purposes. play important roles here.
The application of knowledge for practical
purposes in various fields to invent and 2. Physics in relation to biology:
produce useful products or to solve
Biological studies are impossible without a
problems is known as technology. Thus,
microscope designed using physics
physics and technology can both together
principles. The invention of the electron
impact our society directly or indirectly. For
microscope has made it possible to see
example,
even the structure of a cell. X-ray and
i. Basic laws of electricity and magnetism neutron diffraction techniques have helped
led to the discovery of wireless us to understand the structure of nucleic
communication technology which has acids, which help to control vital life
shrunk the world with effective processes. X-rays are used for diagnostic
communication over large distances. purposes. Radio-isotopes are used in
radiotherapy for the cure of cancer and
ii. The launching of satellite into space other diseases. In recent years, biological
has revolutionized the concept of processes are being studied from the
communication. physics point of view.
iii. Microelectronics, lasers, computers, 3. Physics in relation to mathematics:
superconductivity and nuclear energy have Physics is a quantitative science. It is most
comprehensively changed the thinking and closely related to mathematics as a tool for
living style of human beings. its development.

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4. Physics in relation to astronomy: science with moderate and appropriate use
Astronomical telescopes are used to study of technology is the need of this century.
the motion of planets and other heavenly
The scope and opportunities for higher
bodies in the sky. Radio telescopes have
education in physics and various fellowships
enabled the astronomers to observe distant
offered is given in the beginning of the
points of the universe. Studies of the
book.
universe are done using physical principles.

5. Physics in relation to geology: 1.4 MEASUREMENT

Diffraction techniques help to study the “When you can measure what you are
crystal structure of various rocks. speaking about and can express it in
Radioactivity is used to estimate the age of numbers, you know something about it; but
rocks, fossils and the age of the Earth. when you cannot express it in numbers,
your knowledge is of a meager and
6. Physics in relation to oceanography: unsatisfactory kind” - Lord Kelvin

Oceanographers seek to understand the The comparison of any physical quantity

physical and chemical processes of the with its standard unit is known as
oceans. They measure parameters such as measurement.
temperature, salinity, current speed, gas
fluxes, chemical components. Measurement is the basis of all scientific
studies and experimentation. It plays an
7. Physics in relation to psychology: important role in our daily life. Physics is a
quantitative science and physicists always
All psychological interactions can be derived
deal with numbers which are the
from a physical process. The movements of
measurement of physical quantities.
neurotransmitters are governed by the
physical properties of diffusion and 1.4.1 Definition of Physical Quantity
molecular motion. The functioning of our
brain is related to our underlying Quantities that can be measured, and in
waveparticle dualism. terms of which, laws of physics are
described are called physical quantities.
Nature teaches true science with physics Examples are length, mass, time, force,
as an efficient tool. Science and technology energy, etc.
should be used in a balanced manner so
that they do not become weapons to 1.4.2 Types of Physical Quantities
destroy nature which taught us science. Physical quantities are classified into two
Global warming and other negative impacts types. They are fundamental and derived
of technology need to be checked. Safe quantities.

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Fundamental or base quantities are 1.4.4 Different types of Measurement
quantities which cannot be expressed in Systems
terms of any other physical quantities.
A complete set of units which is used to
These are length, mass, time, electric
measure all kinds of fundamental and
current, temperature, luminous intensity
derived quantities is called a system of
and amount of substance.
units. Here are the common system of units
Quantities that can be expressed in terms of used in mechanics:
fundamental quantities are called derived
(a) the f.p.s. system is the British
quantities. For example, area, volume,
Engineering system of units, which uses
velocity, acceleration, force, etc.
foot, pound and second as the three basic
1.4.3 Definition of Unit and its Types units for measuring length, mass and time
respectively.
The process of measurement is basically a
process of comparison. To measure a (b) The c.g.s system is the Gaussian system,
quantity, we always compare it with which uses centimeter, gram and second as
some reference standard. For example, the three basic units for measuring length,
when we state that a rope is 10 meter long, mass and time respectively.
it is to say that it is 10 times as long as an
(c) The m.k.s system is based on metre,
object whose length is defined as 1 metre.
kilogram and second as the three basic
Such a standard is known as the unit of the
units for measuring length, mass and time
quantity. Here 1 metre is the unit of the
respectively.
quantity ‘length’.

An arbitrarily chosen standard of Do you know?

measurement of a quantity, which is The cgs, mks and SI are metric or decimal
accepted internationally is called unit of the system of units. The fps system is not a
quantity. metric system.
The units in which the fundamental
1.4.5 SI unit System
quantities are measured are called
fundamental or base units and the units of The system of units used by scientists and
measurement of all other physical engineers around the world is commonly
quantities, which can be obtained by a called the metric system but, since 1960, it
suitable multiplication or division of powers has been known officially as the
of fundamental units, are called derived International System, or SI (the
units. abbreviation for its French name, Système
International). The SI with a standard
scheme of symbols, units and abbreviations,

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were developed and recommended by the 1. This system makes use of only one
General Conference on Weights and unit for one physical quantity, which
Measures in 1971 for international usage in means a rational system of units.
scientific, technical, industrial and
commercial work. The advantages of the SI
system are,

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2. In this system, all the derived units 3. It is a metric system which means
can be easily obtained from basic that multiples and submultiples can
and supplementary units, which be expressed as powers of 10.
means it is a coherent system of
In SI, there are seven fundamental units as
units
given in Table 1.2

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Note: world in which both objects and distances
are small-sized.
radian
The Radian (rad): One radian is the angle
radian subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc
equal in length to the radius of the circle.
Also, 1° (degree of arc) = 60′ (minute of arc) and The Steradian (sr): One steradian is the
1′ (minute of arc) = 60″ (seconds of arc) solid angle subtended at the centre of a
sphere, by that surface of the sphere, which
is equal in area, to the square of radius of
Relations between radian, degree and the sphere
minutes:
Distances ranging from 10−5 m to 102 m
1° = π 180 rad = 1.744 × 10-2 rad
can be measured by direct methods.
For example, a metre scale can be used to
measure the distance from 10−3 m to 1 m,
vernier calipers up to 10−4 m, a screw
gauge up to 10−5 m and so on. The atomic
and astronomical distances cannot be
measured by any of the above mentioned
direct methods. Hence, to measure the very
1.5 MEASUREMENT OF BASIC QUANTITIES small and the very large distances, indirect
methods have to be devised and used. In
1.5.1 Measurement of length
Table 1.4, a list of powers of 10 (both
The concept of length in physics is related positive and negative powers) is given.
to the concept of distance in everyday life. Prefixes for each power are also mentioned.
Length is defined as the distance between These prefixes are used along with units of
any two points in space. The SI unit of length, and of mass.
length is metre. The objects of our interest
Do you know?
vary widely in sizes. For example, large
objects like the galaxy, stars, Sun, Earth, The supplementary quantities of plane and
Moon etc., and their distances constitute a solid angle were converted into Derived
macrocosm. It refers to a large world, quantities in 1995 (GCWM)
in which both objects and distances are
large. On the contrary, objects like
molecules, atoms, proton, neutron,
electron, bacteria etc., and their distances
constitute microcosm, which means a small

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Page | 12
1. Measurement of small distances: or

screw gauge and vernier caliper height h = x tan

Screw gauge : The screw gauge is an Knowing the distance x, the height h can be
instrument used for measuring accurately determined.
the dimensions of objects up to a maximum
of about 50 mm. The principle of the
instrument is the magnification of linear
motion using the circular motion of a screw.
The least count of the screw gauge is
0.01 mm

Vernier caliper: A vernier caliper is a

versatile instrument for measuring the
dimensions of an object namely diameter of
a hole, or a depth of a hole. The least count Range and order of lengths of various
of the vernier caliper is 0.01 cm objects are listed in Table 1.5

2. Measurement of large distances EXAMPLE 1.1

For measuring larger distances such as the From a point on the ground, the top of a
height of a tree, distance of the Moon or a tree is seen to have an angle of elevation
planet from the Earth, some special 60°. The distance between the tree and a
methods are adopted. Triangulation point is 50 m. Calculate the height of the
method, parallax method and radar method tree?
are used to determine very large distances.
Solution: Angle θ = 60°
Triangulation method for the height of an
The distance between the tree and a point x
accessible object
= 50 m
Let AB = h be the height of the tree or
Height of the tree (h) = ?
tower to be measured. Let C be the point of
observation at distance x from B. Place a For triangulation method tan θ =
range finder at C and measure the angle of
elevation, ∠ACB = θ as shown in Figure 1.3. h = x tan θ

From right angled triangle ABC, = 50 × tan 60° = 50 × 1.732

h = 86.6 m

The height of the tree is 86.6 m.

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Parallax method Knowing b and θ, x can be calculated which
is approximately the distance of the object
Very large distances, such as the distance of
from the observer.
a planet or a star from the Earth can be
measured by the parallax method. Parallax If the object is the Moon or any near by
is the name given to the apparent change in star, then the angle θ will be too small due
the position of an object with respect to the to the large astronomical distance and the
background, when the object is seen from place of observation. In this case, the two
two different positions. The distance points of observation should be sufficiently
between the two positions (i.e., points of spaced on the surface of the Earth.
observation) is called the basis (b). Consider
any object at the location O (Figure 1.4)

Let L and R represent the positions of the

left and right eyes of the observer
respectively.

The object (O) is viewed with the left eye (L)

keeping the right eye closed and the same
object (O) is viewed with the right eye (R)
keeping the left eye closed.

In Figure 1.4, LO and RO are the lines

drawn from the positions of the left and Determination of distance of Moon from Earth
right eyes to the object. These two lines
make an angle θ at O. This angle θ is called In Figure 1.5, C is the centre of the Earth. A
the angle of parallax. and B are two diametrically opposite places
on the surface of the Earth. From A and B,
OL and OR are considered as the radii (x) of the parallaxes θ1 and θ2 respectively of
a circle. For astronomical calculation, the Moon M with respect to some distant star
distance LR = b (basis) can be treated as an are determined with the help of an
arc of this circle, then astronomical telescope. Thus, the total
OL = OR = x parallax of the Moon subtended on Earth
∠AMB = θ1 + θ2 = θ.
as LR = b
If θ is measured in radians, then
θ=
θ= ; AM≈MC (AM is approximately
equal to MC)

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θ= or MC = ; Knowing the values of From the Figure 1.5, AB is the diameter of
AB and θ, we can calculate the distance MC the Earth (b)= 2 × 6.4 × 106 m Distance of
of Moon from the Earth. the Moon from the Earth x = ?

x= .

x = 3.83 × 108 m
RADAR method

The word RADAR stands for radio detection

and ranging. A radar can be used to
measure accurately the distance of a nearby
planet such as Mars. In this method, radio
waves are sent from transmitters which,
after reflection from the planet, are
detected by the receiver. By measuring, the
time interval (t) between the instants the
radio waves are sent and received, the
distance of the planet can be determined as

Speed = distance travelled / time taken

EXAMPLE 1.2
(Speed is explained in unit 2)
The Moon subtends an angle of 1° 55′ at the
Distance(d) = Speed of radio waves ×
base line equal to the diameter of
the Earth. What is the distance of the time taken
Moon from the Earth? (Radius of the Earth
is 6.4 × 106 m) d=
Solution where v is the speed of the radio wave. As
angle θ = 1° 55′= 115′ the time taken (t) is for the distance
covered during the forward and backward
=(115 × 60)˝ × (4.85 × 10-6) rad path of the radio waves, it is divided by 2 to
get the actual distance of the object. This
=3.34 × 10-2 rad
method can also be used to determine the
since 1˝ = 4.85 × 10-6 rad height, at which an aeroplane flies from the
ground.
Radius of the Earth = 6.4 × 106 m

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EXAMPLE 1.3

A RADAR signal is beamed towards a planet

and its echo is received 7 minutes later. If
the distance between the planet and the
Earth is 6.3 × 1010 m. Calculate the speed
of the signal?

Solution

The distance of the planet from the Earth

d = 6.3 × 1010 m

Time t = 7 minutes = 7 × 60 s.

the speed of signal v = ?

v=
Do you know?

Why is the cylinder used in defining

kilogram made up of platinum-iridium
alloy?

This is because the platinum-iridium alloy is

least affected by environment and time.

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 1.5.2 Measurement of mass

Mass is a property of matter. It does not

depend on temperature, pressure and
location of the body in space.

Mass of a body is defined as the quantity of

matter contained in a body. The SI unit of
mass is kilogram (kg).

The masses of objects which we shall study

in this course vary over a wide range. These
may vary from a tiny mass of electron
(9.11×10−31kg) to the huge mass of the
known universe (=1055 kg). The order of
masses of various objects is shown in Table
1.6.

Ordinarily, the mass of an object is

determined in kilograms using a common
balance like the one used in a grocery shop.
For measuring larger masses like hat of
planets, stars etc., we make use of
gravitational methods. For measurement of
small masses of atomic/subatomic particles
etc., we make use of a mass spectrograph.

Some of the weighing balances

commonly used are common balance,
spring balance, electronic balance, etc.
Chandrasekhar Limit (CSL) is the largest
practical unit of mass. 1 CSL = 1.4 times the
mass of the Sun

The smallest practical unit of time is Shake.

1 Shake = 10−8 s

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 developed later are electric oscillators,
electronic oscillators, solar clock, quartz
crystal clock, atomic clock, decay of
elementary particles, radioactive dating etc.
The order of time intervals are tabulated in
Table 1.7.

1.5.3 Measurement of Time intervals

“Time flows uniformly forward”

- Sir Issac Newton Do you know?

In India, the National Physical Laboratory

“Time is what a clock reads”
(New Delhi) has the responsibility of
- Albert Einstein maintenance and improvement of physical
standards of length, mass, time, etc.

A clock is used to measure the time

interval. An atomic standard of time, is
based on the periodic vibration produced in
a Cesium atom. Some of the clocks

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1.6 THEORY OF ERRORS measurements, two different terms,
accuracy and precision are used and need
The foundation of all experimental science
to be distinguished at this stage. Accuracy
and technology is measurement. The result
refers to how far we are from the true
obtained from any measurement will
value, and precision refers to how well we
contain some uncertainty. Such an
measure.
uncertainty is termed error. Any calculation
made using the measured values will also
have an error. It is not possible to make
exact measurements in an experiment. In

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1.6.1 Accuracy and Precision 10.1o C, 10.1o C, 10.1o C. However, if the
real temperature inside the refrigerator
Let us say, you know your true height is
is 9o C, we say that the thermometer is not
exactly 5′9″. You first measure your height
accurate (it is almost one degree off
with a yardstick and get the value 5′0″. Your
the true value), but since all the measured
measurement is hence not accurate. Now
values are close to 10o C, hence it
you measure your height with a laser
is precise.
yardstick and get 5′9″ as the value. Now
your measurement is accurate. The true A visual example:
value is also called theoretical value. The
Target shooting is an example which
level of accuracy required for each
explains the difference between accuracy
application varies greatly. Highly accurate
and precision. In Figure 1.9 (a), the shots
data can be very difficult to produce and
are focused so as to reach the bull’s eye
compile. For example, if you consistently
(midpoint), but the arrows have reached
measure your height as 5′0″ with a yard
only around this point. Hence the shots are
stick, your measurements are precise. The
not accurate and also not precise.
level of precision required for different
applications vary to a great extent. In Figure 1.9 (b), all the shots are close to
Engineering projects such as road and utility each other but not at the central point.
construction require very precise Hence the shots are said to be precise but
information measured to the millimeter or not accurate. In Figure 1.9 (c), the shots are
one-tenth of an inch. closer and also at the central point. Hence
the shots are both precise and accurate.
If a measurement is precise, that does not
necessarily mean that it is accurate.
However, if the measurement is
consistently accurate, it is also precise.

For example, if the temperature outside a

building is 40o C as measured by a weather
thermometer and if the real outside
temperature is 40o C, the thermometer is
accurate. If the thermometer consistently
registers this exact temperature in a row,
the thermometer is precise.

Consider another example. Let the

temperature of a refrigerator repeatedly
measured by a thermometer be given as
10.4o C, 10.2o C, 10.3o C, 10.1o C, 10.2o C,

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A numerical example 2) Imperfections in experimental
technique or procedure
The true value of a certain length is nearly
5.678 cm. In one experiment, using a These errors arise due to the
measuring instrument of resolution 0.1 cm, limitations in the experimental
the measured value is found to be 5.5 cm. arrangement. As an example, while
In another experiment using a measuring performing experiments with a calorimeter,
instrument of greater resolution, say 0.01 if there is no proper insulation, there will be
cm, the length is found to be 5.38 cm. We radiation losses. This results in errors and to
find that the first measurement is more overcome these, necessary correction has
accurate as it is closer to the true value, but to be applied.
it has lesser precision. On the contrary, the
3) Personal errors
second measurement is less accurate, but it
is more precise. These errors are due to individuals
performing the experiment, may be due to
1.6.2 Errors in Measurement
incorrect initial setting up of the experiment
The uncertainty in a measurement is called or carelessness of the individual making the
an error. Random error, systematic error observation due to improper precautions.
and gross error are the three possible errors
4) Errors due to external causes
i) Systematic errors
The change in the external conditions
Systematic errors are reproducible during an experiment can cause error in
inaccuracies that are consistently in the measurement. For example, changes in
same direction. These occur often due to a temperature, humidity, or pressure during
problem that persists throughout the measurements may affect the result of the
experiment. Systematic errors can be measurement.
classified as follows
5) Least count error
1) Instrumental errors
Least count is the smallest value that can be
When an instrument is not calibrated measured by the measuring instrument,
properly at the time of manufacture, and the error due to this measurement is
instrumental errors may arise. If a least count error. The instrument’s
measurement is made with a meter scale resolution hence is the cause of this error.
whose end is worn out, the result obtained Least count error can be reduced by using a
will have errors. These errors can be high precision instrument for the
corrected by choosing the instrument measurement.
carefully.
ii) Random errors

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Random errors may arise due to random
and unpredictable variations in
experimental conditions like pressure,
temperature, voltage supply etc. Errors may
also be due to personal errors by the
observer who performs the experiment.
Random errors are sometimes called
“chance error”. When different readings
are obtained by a person every time he
repeats the experiment, personal error
occurs. For example, consider the case of
the thickness of a wire measured using a
screw gauge. The readings taken may be
different for different trials. In this case, a
large number of measurements are made
and then the arithmetic mean is taken.

If n number of trial readings are taken in an iii) Gross Error

experiment, and the readings are a1 , a2 , a3,
…………………. an . The arithmetic mean is The error caused due to the shear
carelessness of an observer is called gross
(1.1) error.

or For example

(i) Reading an instrument without

∑ (1.2)
setting it properly.
Usually this arithmetic mean is taken as the (ii) Taking observations in a wrong
best possible true value of the quantity manner without bothering about
the sources of errors and the
Certain procedures to be followed to precautions.
minimize experimental errors, along with (iii) Recording wrong observations.
examples are shown in Table 1.8. (iv) Using wrong values of the
observations in calculations.

These errors can be minimized only

when an observer is careful and
mentally alert.

Page | 22
 1.6.3 Error Analysis If am is the true value and ∆am is the mean
absolute error then the magnitude of the
i) Absolute Error The magnitude of
quantity may lie between am + ∆am and
difference between the true value and the
measured value of a quantity is called am - ∆am
absolute error. If a1 , a2 , a3 , ……….an are the
iii) Relative error
measured values of any quantity ‘a’ in an
experiment performed n times, then the The ratio of the mean absolute error to the
arithmetic mean of these values is called mean value is called relative error. This is
the true value (am) of the quantity. also called as fractional error. Thus

Relative error
or
=
∑
Relative error expresses how large the
absolute error is compared to the total size
of the object measured. For example, a
The absolute error in measured values is
driver’s speedometer shows that his car is
given by
travelling at 60 km h−1 when it is actually
|∆a1 |= |am – a1 | moving at 62 km h−1. Then absolute error
of speedometer is 62-60 km h−1 = 2 km h−1
|∆a2 |= |am – a2 | Relative error of the measurement is 2 km
h−1 / 62 km h−1 = 0.032.
………………
iv) Percentage error
………………
The relative error expressed as a
|∆an |= |am – an | percentage is called percentage error

ii) Mean Absolute error Percentage error ×100%

The arithmetic mean of absolute errors in
A percentage error very close to zero means
all the measurements is called the mean
one is close to the targeted value, which is
absolute error.
good and acceptable. It is always necessary
| | | | | | | | to understand whether error is due to
impression of equipment used or a mistake
or ∑| | in the experimentation.

Page | 23
EXAMPLE 1.4 (iii) Relative error:

In a series of successive measurements in = = = 0.0419

an experiment, the readings of the period
of oscillation of a simple pendulum were 0.04
found to be 2.63s, 2.56 s, 2.42s, 2.71s
and2.80s. Calculate (i) the mean value of (v) Percentage error in T = 0.04 × 100% = 4%
the period of oscillation (ii) the absolute
(vi) Time period of simple pendulum T =
error in each measurement (iii) the mean
(2.62 ± 0.11)s
absolute error (iv) the relative error (v) the
percentage error. Express the result in 1.6.4 Propagation of errors
proper form.
A number of measured quantities may be
Solution involved in the final calculation of an
experiment. Different types of instruments
might have been used for taking readings.
Then we may have to look at the errors in
measuring various quantities, collectively.
The error in the final result depends on

(i) The errors in the individual

measurements
( ounded off to nd
decimal place) (ii) On the nature of mathematical
operations performed to get the final result.
(ii) Absolute error |ΔT| = |Tm - t|
So we should know the rules to combine
| | | | the errors. The various possibilities of the
| | | | propagation or combination of errors in
| | | | different mathematical operations are
| | | |
discussed below:
| | | |
(i) Error in the sum of two quantities
| |
(ii)
Let ∆A and ∆B be the absolute errors in the
two quantities A and B respectively. Then
Δ =
Measured value of A = A ± ∆A

Δ = 0.108s = 0.11s (Rounded off Measured value of B = B ± ∆B

to 2nd decimal place) Consider the sum, Z = A + B

Page | 24
The error ∆Z in Z is then given by The error ∆Z in Z is then given by
Z ± ∆Z = (A ± ∆A) – (B ± ∆B)
Z ± ∆Z = (A ± ∆A) + (B ± ∆B)
= (A − B) ± ∆A ± ∆B
= (A + B) ± (∆A + ∆B)
= Z ± ∆A ± ∆B
= Z ± (∆A + ∆B)
(or) ∆Z = ∆A + ∆B………………(1.4)
(Or) ∆Z = ∆A + ∆B ……………….(1.3)
The maximum error in difference of two
The maximum possible error in the sum of
quantities is equal to the sum of the absolute
two quantities is equal to the sum of the
errors in the individual quantities.
absolute errors in the individual quantities
EXAMPLE 1.6
EXAMPLE 1.5
The temperatures of two bodies measured
Two resistances 1 = (100 ± 3) Ω, 2 =
by a thermometer are t1 = (20 + 0.5)°C, t2 =
(150 ± 2) Ω, are connected in series. What is
(50 ± 0.5)°C. Calculate the temperature
their equivalent resistance?
difference and the error therein.
Solution
Solution
= 100±3Ω = 150±2Ω
t1 = (20 ± 0.5)°C t2= (50 ± 0.5)°C
Equivalent resistance R = ? temperature difference t=?

Equivalent resistance R = t = t 2 - t1= (50 ± 0.5) - (20 ± 0.5)°C

(Using equation1.4)
= (100 ± 3) + (150 ± 2)
= (50 – 20) ± (0.5=0.5)
= (100 + 150) ± (3 + 2)
t = (30 ± 1)°C
R = (250 ± 5) Ω
(iii) Error in the product of two quantities
(ii) Error in the difference of two quantities
Let ∆A and ∆B be the absolute errors in the
Let ∆A and ∆B be the absolute errors in the
two quantities A, and B, respectively.
two quantities, A and B, respectively. Then,
Consider the product
Measured value of A = A ± ∆A
Z = AB
Measured value of B = B ± ∆B
The error ∆Z in Z is given by
Consider the difference, Z = A – B
Z ± ∆Z = (A ± ∆A) (B ± ∆B)

= (AB) ± (A ∆B) ± (B ∆A) ± (∆A . ∆B)

Page | 25
Dividing L.H.S by Z and R.H.S by AB, we get, ( )

= (0.0175+0.0588) × 19.4

As ∆A /A, ∆B / B are both small quantities, their = 1.48 = 1.5

product term can be neglected. The Area with error limit

maximum fractional error is A = (19.4±1.5) cm2

( ) (1.5) (iv) Error in the division or quotient of two

quantities

Let ∆A and ∆B be the absolute errors in

The maximum fractional error in the
the two quantities A and B respectively.
product of two quantities is equal to the
sum of the fractional errors in the individual Consider the quotient, Z =
quantities.
The error ∆Z in Z is given by
[Alternative method is given in
Appendix A1.2]

EXAMPLE 1.7

The length and breadth of a rectangle are

(5.7 ± 0.1 ) cm and (3.4 ± 0.2 ) cm
respectively. Calculate the area of the
rectangle with error limits.

Solutions

Length l = (5.7 ± 0.1 ) cm

Breadth b =(3.4 ± 0.2 ) cm

Area A with error limit = A ± DA = ?

Area A = l × b = 5.7 × 3.4 = 19.38 = 19.4 cm2

( )
As the terms ∆A/A and ∆B/B are small,
their product term can be neglected.

Page | 26
The maximum fractional error in Z is given (v) Error in the power of a quantity

by ( ) (1.6) Consider the nth power of A, Z = An

The maximum fractional error in the The error ∆Z in Z is given by

quotient of two quantities is equal to the
sum of their individual fractional errors.

(Alternative method is given in Appendix

A1.2)

EXAMPLE 1.8
We get
The voltage across a wire is (100 ± 5) V and neglecting remaining terms,
the current passing through it is (10±0.2) A.
Dividing both sides by Z
Find the resistance of the wire.

Solution

Voltage V = (100±5)V Current I = (10±0.2) A

Resistance R = ?

Then resistance is given by Ohm’s law,

The fractional error in the nth power of a
quantity is n times the fractional error in
R=
that quantity.

General rule:

If , Then, maximum fractional

error in Z is given by

The percentage error in Z is given by

Page | 27
EXAMPLE 1.9 communicate both measurement
(quantitative) and also the precision of the
A physical quantity x is given . If instrument used. Therefore, significant
the percentage errors of measurement in a, number or significant digit is 3. It is defined
b, c and d are 4%, 2%, 3% and 1% as the number of meaningful digits which
respectively, then calculate the percentage contain numbers that are known reliably
error in the calculation of x. (NEET 2013) and first uncertain number.

Solution Examples: The significant figure for the digit

121.23 is 5, significant figure for the digit
Given 1.2 is 2, significant figure for the digit 0.123
is 3, significant digit for 0.1230 is 4,
The percentage error in x is given by significant digit for 0.0123 is 3, significant
digit for 1230 is 3, significant digit for 1230
(with decimal) is 4 and significant digit for
20000000 is 1 (because 20000000=2 × 107
has only one significant digit, that is, 2).

In physical measurement, if the length of

an object is l = 1230 m, then significant digit
for l is 4.

The rules for counting significant figures

The percentage error is x = 17.5% are given in Table 1.9.

1.7 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES EXAMPLE 1.10

1.7.1 Definition and Rules of Significant State the number of significant figures in
Figures the following

Suppose we ask three students to measure i) 60080 ii) 400 iii) 0.007 iv) 5213.0
24
the length of a stick using metre scale (the v) 2.65 × 10 m vi) 0.0006032
least count for metre scale is 1 mm or 0.1 Solution: i) four ii) one iii) one iv) five
cm). So, the result of the measurement v) three vi) four
(length of stick) can be any of the following,
7.20 cm or 7.22 cm or 7.23 cm. Note that all
the three students measured first two digits
correctly (with confidence) but last digit
varies from person to person. So, the
number of meaningful digits is 3 which

Page | 28
Page | 29
1.7.2 Rounding Off 2. 12.637 – 2.42 = 10.217

Calculators are widely used now-a-days to Here the least number of significant digits
do calculations. The result given by a after the decimal is two. Hence the result
calculator has too many figures. In no case will be 10.22
should the result have more significant
(ii) Multiplication and Division
figures than the figures involved in the data
used for calculation. The result of In multiplication or division, the final
calculation with numbers containing more result should retain as many significant
than one uncertain digit should be rounded figures as there are in the original number
off. The rules for rounding off are shown in with smallest number of significant figures.
Table 1.10.
Example:
EXAMPLE 1.11
1. 1.21 × 36.72 = 44.4312 = 44.4
Round off the following numbers as
indicated i) 18.35 up to 3 digits ii) 19.45 up Here the least number of significant
to 3 digits iii) 101.55 × 106 up to 4 digits digits in the measured values is three.
iv) 248337 up to digits 3 digits v) 12.653 Hence the result when rounded off to three
up to 3 digits significant digits is 44.4

Solution 2. 36.72 ÷ 1.2 = 30.6 = 31

i) 18.4 ii) 19.4 Iii) 101.6 × 106 Here the least number of significant
iv) 248000 v) 12.7 digits in the measured values is two. Hence
the result when rounded off to significant
1.7.3 Arithmetical Operations with digit becomes 31.
Significant Figures
1.8 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
(i) Addition and subtraction
1.8.1 Dimension of Physical Quantities
In addition and subtraction, the final
result should retain as many decimal places In mechanics, we deal with the physical
as there are in the number with the quantities like mass, time, length, velocity,
smallest number of decimal places. acceleration, etc. which can be expressed in
terms of three independent base quantities
Example: such as M, L and T. So, the dimension of a
physical quantity can be defined as ‘any
1. 3.1 + 1.780 + 2.046 = 6.926
physical quantity which is expressed in
Here the least number of significant digits terms of base quantities whose exponent
after the decimal is one. Hence the result (power) represents the dimension of the
will be 6.9. physical quantity’. The notation used to
Page | 30
denote the dimension of a physical quantity Acceleration is velocity per time. Linear
is [(physical quantity within square momentum or Momentum,
bracket)]. For an example, [length] means
dimension of length, [area] means
dimension of area, etc. The dimension of
length can be expressed in terms of base
quantities as This is true for any kind of force. There are
only four types of forces that exist in nature
[length] = M0 LT0 = L
viz strong force, electromagnetic force,
Similarly, [area] = M0 L2 T0 = L2 weak force and gravitational force. Further,
frictional force, centripetal force,
Similarly, [volume] = M0 L3 T0 = L3
centrifugal force, all have the dimension
Note that in all the cases, the base quantity MLT−2.
L is same but exponent(power) are
different, which means dimensions are
different. For a pure number, exponent of
base quantity is zero. For example, consider
the number 2, which has no dimension and Angular momentum is the moment of linear
can be expressed as momentum (discussed in unit 5).

⇒ [2] = M0 L0 T0 (dimensionless)
Work done,
Let us write down the dimensions of a few
more physical quantities.

Speed, s = ⇒ = LT−1 Kinetic energy,

Velocity, → ⇒ →

Note that speed is a scalar quantity and

velocity is a vector quantity (scalar and Since, number 1 2 is dimensionless, the
vector will be discussed in Unit 2) but both dimension of kinetic energy,
of them have the same dimensional formula.

Similarly, to get the dimension of potential

Acceleration, →
energy, let us consider the gravitational
potential energy,
⇒ *→+

Page | 31
where, m is the mass of the particle, g is the of atom implies the size of the atom. So,
acceleration due to gravity and h is the simply writing dimension is meaningless.
height from the ground level. Hence, Hence, the meaning should be taken with
the context we write. 2. All the
trigonometric functions like sinθ, cosθ etc.
Thus, for any kind of energy (such as for are dimensionless (θ is dimensionless),
internal energy, total energy etc.), the exponential function ex and logarithm
dimension is function ln x are dimensionless (x must be
dimensionless). Suppose we expand a
function in series expansion (finite or
infinite) which contain terms like, xo , x1 , x2
The moment of force is known as torque, , . . . . then x must be dimensionless
quantity.

( ead the symbol τ as tau – Greek 1.8.2 Dimensional Quantities,

alphabet). Note that the dimension of Dimensionless Quantities, Principle of
torque and dimension of energy are Homogeneity
identical but they are different physical
quantities. Further one of them is a scalar On the basis of dimension, we can classify
(energy) and another one is a vector quantities into four categories.
(torque). This means that the dimensionally (1) Dimensional variables
same physical quantities need not be the
same physical quantities. Physical quantities, which possess
dimensions and have variable values are
Note: called dimensional variables.
1. We may come across dimensions in Examples are length, velocity, and
different situations in physics, so we often acceleration etc.
confuse with the term ‘dimension’. For
instance, we come across terms like (2) Dimensionless variables
‘dimension of energy’, ‘motion in one
Physical quantities which have no
dimension’ and ‘dimension of atom’. It
dimensions, but have variable values are
should be kept in mind that dimension of
called dimensionless variables.
physical quantity means expressing physical
quantity in terms of exponent of the base Examples are specific gravity, strain,
quantity. Motion in one dimension, two refractive index etc.
dimensions and three dimensions implies
that it gives dimension of space. Dimension

Page | 32
Page | 33
(3) Dimensional Constant (i) To convert a physical quantity from one
system of units to another
Physical quantities which possess
dimensions and have constant values are This is based on the fact that the product of
called dimensional constants. the numerical values (n) and its
corresponding unit (u) is a constant. i.e, n
Examples are Gravitational constant,
[u] = constant (or) n1 [u1 ] = n2 [u2 ].
Planck’s constant etc.
Consider a physical quantity which has
(4) Dimensionless Constant dimension ‘a’ in mass, ‘b’ in length and ‘c’ in
time. If the fundamental units in one
Quantities which have constant values and system are M1 , L1 and T1 and the other
also have no dimensions are called system are M2 , L2 and T2 respectively, then
dimensionless constants. we can write, n1 [M1 a L1 b T1 c ] = n2 [M2 a L2 b
T2 c ]
Examples are π, e (Euler’s number),
numbers etc. We have thus converted the numerical
value of physical quantity from one system
Principle of homogeneity of dimensions
of units into the other system.
The principle of homogeneity of dimensions
EXAMPLE 1.12
states that the dimensions of all the terms
in a physical expression should be the same. Convert 76 cm of mercury pressure into
For example, in the physical expression Nm−2 using the method of dimensions.
v2 = u2 + 2as, the dimensions of v2 , u2 and
2as are the same and equal to [L2 T−2]. Solution

1.8.3 Application and Limitations of the In cgs system 76 cm of mercury pressure =

Method of Dimensional Analysis. 76 × 13.6 × 980 dyne cm−2

This method is used to The dimensional formula of pressure P is

(i) Convert a physical quantity from one [ML−1T−2]
system of units to another.
(ii) Check the dimensional correctness of a
given physical equation.
(iii) Establish relations among various
physical quantities.

Page | 34
 (ii) To check the dimensional correctness of
a given physical equation

Let us take the equation of motion v = u + at

EXAMPLE 1.13 Apply dimensional formula on both sides
[LT−1] = [LT−1] + [LT−2] [T]
If the value of universal gravitational
constant in SI is 6.6x10−11 Nm2 kg−2, then
find its value in CGS System?
(Quantities of same dimension only
Solution
can be added)
Let GSI be the gravitational constant in the
We see that the dimensions of both sides
SI system and Gcgs in the cgs system. Then
are same. Hence the equation is
dimensionally correct.

EXAMPLE 1.14

Check the correctness of the equation

mgh using dimensional analysis
method

Solution

Dimensional formula for

The dimensional formula for G is M-1L3T-2

Dimensional formula for

Both sides are dimensionally the same,

hence the equations mgh is
dimensionally correct.

Page | 35
(iii) To establish the relation among Comparing the powers of M, L and T on
various physical quantities both sides, a=0, b+c=0, -2c=1

If the physical quantity Q depends upon the Solving for a,b and c a = 0, b = 1/2, and
quantities Q1 , Q2 and Q3 ie. Q is c = −1/2
proportional to Q1 , Q2 and Q3. Then,
From the above equation T = km0l1/2g-1/2

where k is a dimensionless constant. When

Experimentally k = 2π, hence
the dimensional formula of Q, Q1 , Q2 and
Q3 are substituted, then according to the
principle of homogeneity, the powers of M, T = 2π√ ⁄
L, T are made equal on both sides of the
equation. From this, we get the values of a, Limitations of Dimensional analysis
b, c 1. This method gives no information about
EXAMPLE 1.15 the dimensionless constants in the formula
like 1, 2, ……..π, e (Euler number), etc.
Obtain an expression for the time period T
of a simple pendulum. The time period T 2. This method cannot decide whether the
depends on (i) mass ‘m’ of the bob (ii) given quantity is a vector or a scalar.
length ‘l’ of the pendulum and 3. This method is not suitable to derive
(iii) acceleration due to gravity g at the relations involving trigonometric,
place where the pendulum is suspended. exponential and logarithmic functions.
(Constant k = 2π) i.e
4. It cannot be applied to an equation
Solution involving more than three physical
quantities.

5. It can only check on whether a physical

relation is dimensionally correct but not the
Here k is the dimensionless constant.
correctness of the relation.
Rewriting the above equation with
dimensions For example using dimensional analysis,
s = ut + at2 is dimensionally correct
whereas the correct relation is
s = ut + at2 .

Page | 36
S UMM A R Y significant figures as the quantity
with the smallest number of
 Physics is an experimental science in
significant figures.
which measurements made must be
expressed in units„
 Dimensional analysis is used to
 All physical quantities have a
perform quick check on the validity
magnitude (size) and a unit.
of equations. Whenever the
 The SI unit of length, mass, time, quantities are added, subtracted or
temperature, electric current, equated, they must have the same
amount of substance and luminous dimension. A dimensionally correct
intensity are metre, kilogram, equation may not be a true
second, kelvin, ampere, mole and equation but every true equation is
candela respectively. necessarily dimensionally correct.
 Units of all mechanical, electrical,
magnetic and thermal quantities
are derived in terms of these base
units.
 Screw gauge, Vernier caliper
methods are available for the
measurement of length in the case
of small distances.
 Parallax, RADAR methods are
available for the measurement of
length in the case of long distances.
 The uncertainty in a measurement
is called error. The accuracy of a
measurement is a measure of how
close the measured value is to the
true value of the quantity. Every
accurate measurement is precise
but every precise measurement
need not be accurate.
 When two or more quantities are
added or subtracted, the result can
be as precise as the least of the
individual precisions. When the
quantities are multiplied or divided,
the result has the same number of

Page | 37
Page | 38
I. Multiple Choice Questions 8. Which of the following pairs of physical
quantities have same dimension?
1. One of the combinations from the
fundamental physical constants is . The a) force and power b) torque and energy
c) torque and power d) force and torque
unit of this expression is
9. The dimensional formula of Planck's
a) kg2 b) m 3 c) s -1 d) m 2. constant h is [JEE Main, NEET]
If the error in the measurement of radius is a) [ML2 T-1 ] b) [ML2 T-3] c) [MLT-1 ]
2%, then the error in the determination of d) [ML3 T-3]
volume of the sphere will be
10. The velocity of a particle v at an instant t
a) 8% b) 2% c) 4% d) 6% 2
is given by v = at+ bt . The dimensions of
3. If the length and time period of an b is
oscillating pendulum have errors of 1% and
a) [L] b) [LT-1] c) [LT-2 ] d) [LT-3]
3% respectively then the error in
measurement of acceleration due to gravity 11. The dimensional formula for
is gravitational constant G is

a) 4% b) 5% c) 6% d) 7% 4. a) [ML3 T-2 ] b) [M-1L3 T-2] c) [M-1L-3T-2 ]

d) [ML-3T2 ]
The length of a body is measured as 3.51 m,
if the accuracy is 0.01m, then the 12. The density of a material in CGS system
percentage error in the measurement is of units is 4 g cm-3 . In a system of units in
which unit of length is 10 cm and unit of
a) 351% b) 1% c) 0.28% d) 0.035%
mass is 100 g, then the value of density of
5. Which of the following has the highest material will be
number of significant figures?
a) 0.04 b) 0.4 c) 40 d) 400
2 24
a) 0.007 m b) 2.64x10 kg
13. If the force is proportional to square of
c) 0.0006032 m2 d) 6.3200 J
velocity, then the dimension of
6. If π = 3.14, then the value of π2 is proportionality constant is [JEE2000]

a) 9.8596 b) 9.860 c) 9.86 d) 9.9 a) [MLT0 ] b) [MLT-1] c) [ML-2T]

d) [ML-1T0 ]
7. Round of the following number 19.95
-1/2
into three significant figures. 14. The dimension of is [Main
AIPMT 2011]
a) 19.9 b) 20.0 c) 20.1 d) 19.5
(a) length (b) time (c) velocity (d) force

Page | 39
15. Planck’s constant (h), speed of light in III. Long Answer Questions
vacuum (c) and Newton’s gravitational
1. i) Explain the use of screw gauge and
constant (G) are taken as three
vernier caliper in measuring smaller
fundamental constants. Which of the
distances.
following combinations of these has the
dimension of length? [NEET 2016 (phase II)] ii) Write a note on triangulation method
(a) (b) and radar method to measure larger
distances.

2. Explain in detail the various types of

(c) √ (d) √
errors.

3. What do you mean by propagation of

errors? Explain the propagation of errors in
Answers: addition and multiplication.

1) a 2) d 3) d 4) c 5) d 6) c 4. Write short notes on the following.

7) b 8) b 9) a 10) d 11) b 12) a) Unit b) Rounding - off
c 13) d 14) c 15) a c) Dimensionless quantities

5. Explain the principle of homogeneity of

dimensions. Give example.
II. Short Answer Questions
IV. Exercises
1. Briefly explain the types of physical
quantities. 1. In a submarine equipped with sonar, the
time delay between the generation of a
2. How will you measure the diameter of
pulse and its echo after reflection from an
the Moon using parallax method?
enemy submarine is observed to be 80 s. If
3. Write the rules for determining the speed of sound in water is 1460 ms-1 .
significant figures. What is the distance of enemy submarine?
Ans: (58.40 km)
4. What are the limitations of dimensional
analysis? 2. The radius of the circle is 3.12 m.
Calculate the area of the circle with regard
5. Define precision and accuracy. Explain to significant figures. Ans: (30.6 m2 )
with one example.
3. Assuming that the frequency γ of a
vibrating string may depend upon i) applied
force (F) ii) length (l) iii) mass per unit

Page | 40
length (m), prove that √ using
dimensional analysis. (related to JIPMER
2001)

4. Jupiter is at a distance of 824.7 million km

from the Earth. Its angular diameter is
measured to be 35.72˝. Calculate the
diameter of Jupiter. Ans: (1.428 × 105 km)

5. The measurement value of length of a

simple pendulum is 20 cm known with 2
mm accuracy. The time for 50 oscillations
was measured to be 40 s within 1 s
resolution. Calculate the percentage
accuracy in the determination of
acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ from the
above measurement. Ans: (6%)

Page | 41
Page | 42