FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS FOR FLOW ANALYSIS

We covered methods of analysis of nonflowing fluids in the previous

chapter. In this chapter, we develop the fundamental concepts of flow
analysis, including the way to describe fluid flow, natural laws that govern
fluid flow, different approaches to formulating mathematical models of
fluid flow, and methods that engineers use to solve flow problems.

The Fundamental Laws

Experience have shown that all fluid motion analysis must be consistent
with the following fundamental laws of nature.

The law of conservation of mass: Mass can be neither created nor

destroyed. It can only be transported or stored.

Newton’s three laws of motion:

A mass remains in a state of equilibrium, that is, at rest or moving at
constant velocity, unless acted on by an unbalanced force.

The rate of change of linear momentum of mass is equal to the net

force acting on the mass.

Any force action has a force reaction equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction.

The first law of thermodynamics (law of conservation of energy) Energy,

like mass, can be neither created nor destroyed. Energy can be
transported, changed in form, or stored.

The second law of thermodynamics: The entropy of the universe must

increase or, in the ideal case, remain constant in all natural processes.

The state of postulate (law of property relations): The various properties

of a fluid are related. If a certain minimum number (usually two) of fluid’s
properties are specified, the remainder of the properties can be
determined.
3 Flow Analysis 1 1
NOTE: These fundamental laws apply to all flows. They do not depend on
the nature of the fluid, the geometry of the boundaries, or anything else. As
far as we know, they have always been true and will continue to be true
unless they are suspended by the creator of the universe. Hence, we can
firmly base the analysis of all flows on these laws.

Constitutive Relations

In addition to these universal laws, several less fundamental laws, such as

Newton’s law of viscosity, Fourier’s law of conduction, are needed to solve
flow problems. These laws are true for some fluids.

Mathematical Formulation

The fundamental laws are the basis of our understanding of fluid motion.
However, besides understanding, an engineer needs to know quantitatively
the velocity, and the pressure to calculate the effects of the fluid on surfaces
that it contacts, such as force exerted by the fluid on a surface, pressure
drop in a pipe flow, etc.

To obtain predictive capability, the fundamental laws must be expressed

mathematically, and they must be solved to predict velocity or pressure.

To formulate the fundamental laws, we choose both a point of view and a

mathematical method.

- System versus Control Volume (Lagrangian vs Eulerian point of view)

- Differential versus integral formulation

3 Flow Analysis 1 2
System versus Control Volume

We may apply the fundamental laws to either a system or a control

volume.

System : A specific fluid mass selected for analysis.

Control Volume: A specific region of space selected for analysis.

System and control volume may be either infinitesimally small or finite.

The system point of view is related to a Lagrangian description of flow. Its

advantages is that all the fundamental laws may be expressed directly in
terms of a specific collection of mass.

Control volume point of view is related to an Eulerian description of flow.

Its advantage is that control volumes are easier to use for problem
solution.

Thus we use the system point of view to formulate the fundamental laws,
but use the control volume point of view to apply them to problems.
Fortunately, we can formally connect the two points of view by purely
mathematical relationships.

3 Flow Analysis 1 3
Differential versus Integral Formulation

We must now consider the level of detail of the resulting flow analysis. We
must choose between a detailed point by point description and a global or
lumped description.

When a point by point (local) description is desired, fundamental laws are

applied to an infinitesimal control volume. The result will be a set of
differential equations with the fluid velocity and pressure as dependent
variables and the location (x, y, z) and time as independent variables.
Solution of these differential equations, together with boundary conditions,
will be two functions V(x, y, z, t), and P(x, y, z, t) that can tell us the velocity
and pressure at every point.

When global information such as flow rate, force and temperature change
between inlet and outlet is desired, the fundamental laws are applied to a
finite control volume. The result will be a set of integral equations.

3 Flow Analysis 1 4
 BASIC EQUATIONS FOR A SYSTEM
Conservation of Mass
dM
System
dt system
 0 where M sys 
mass
 dm   d
 sys
( sys )

d
 d  0
dt  sys
Newton’s Second Law

 dP      d 
F P : linear momentum P   Vdm   Vd  F   Vd
dt sys mass  sys
dt  sys
( sys )

The First Law of Thermodynamics

dE d
Q  W  dE in the rate form Q  W 
dt sys
 Q  W 
dt  ed
 sys
The total energy of the system is given by
v2
Esys   edm   ed where e  u   gz
mass  sys
2
( sys )

The Second Law of Thermodynamics

If an amount of heat is transferred to a system at temperature T, the
second law of thermodynamics states that the change in entropy dS of
the system is given by
Q dS 1  d 1 
dS  
dt sys
on the rate basis Q  s d  Q
T dt sys T T

Total entropy of the system is S sys   sdm   sd

mass 
( sys) ( sys)
Angular Momentum Principle

 dH      
T
dt
H : angular momentum H  V )dm 
(
mass
r  V ) d
(
 sys
r
sys
 d  
( sys )

T  (
dt  sys
r  V ) d
3 Flow Analysis 1 5
 RELATION OF SYSTEM DERIVATIVES TO THE CONTROL VOLUME
FORMULATION

The above equations involve the time derivative of an extensive

property of the system (mass, momentum, energy, entropy). All the
above equations can be expressed in terms of a general intensive
property . Thus,

N sys  dm  d

mass 
( sys) ( sys)

Comparing this with the above equations, we see that when

N=M then =1  N=E then =e

N= P then = V N=S then =s

Consider a system and control volume whose boundaries coincide at t0.

dN
Objective: To relate the to the time variations of this property
dt system

(N) associated with the control volume.

From the definition of a derivative,

dN N s t  t  N s t
 lim 0 0
(1)
dt system
t  0 t
At t+t, the system occupies regions II and III, at t0, the system and the
control volume coincide, we can write
3 Flow Analysis 1 6
 Ns t0  NC t0  d (2)
C

Ns t0  t  NII  NIII t0  t  NC  NI  NIII t0  t

     
N s t 0  t    d    d    d (3)
C  t 0  t  I  t 0  t  III  t 0  t

Substituting these expressions şnto the definition of the system derivative

       
  d   d    d    d
dN  C  t 0  t  I  t 0  t  III  t 0  t C t0
  lim
dt system t 0 t
or
       
 d   d   d    d 
dN  C  t 0  t C t0  III  t 0  t I  t 0  t
  lim  lim  lim (4)
dt  system    
t 0 t   t 0 t  t  0 t 
      
1 2 3
Term 1 in Eq. 4 simplifies to
   
 d   d
C  t 0  t C t0 
lim  d (5)
t  0 t t
 
 d
 III  t 0  t N III t 0  t
lim  lim
t  0 t t  0 t

To evaluate NIII)to+t, let us look at an enlarged view of a typical subregion of

region III.

  
N III t 0  t   d   
 III  t 0  t   N 
III t 0  t     l cos dA
 
 III
CS  t 0  t
d  l cos dA 
3 Flow Analysis 1 7
 Note: The angle  will always be less than p/2 over the entire area of the
control surface bounding region III.

In the above expression, l is the distance travelled by a particle on the

system surface during the time interval t along the streamline that
existed at t0.

 
 d
 III  t 0  t l
lim  lim   cos dA
t  0 t t  0
CS III
t
l  
Note: lim V and dA  dA
t  0 t

Hence
 
 d
 III  t 0  t  
lim   V cos  dA (6)
t  0 t CS III

The term 3 in Eq. 4 simplifies to

 
 d
I  t 0  t N I t 0  t
 lim  lim
t  0 t t  0 t

To evaluate N I t0 t , look at an enlarged view of a typical subregion

ŞEKİL VAR

d  l ( cos )dA
 
 d CSl cos dA
I  t0 t
 lim   lim I
t 0 t t 0 t (7)
l  
  lim   cos dA    V cos  dA
t 0
CS I
t CS I

3 Flow Analysis 1 8
 Substituting Eqs. (5),(6) and (7) into (4)

dN      
  d   V cos dA   V cos dA
dt sys t C CS III CS I

CS  CSI  CSIII

Hence we can write,

dN    
dt  sys t C 
   d   V cos  dA
CS

   
Recognizing that V cos dA  V  dA
dN    
dt  sys t C   dA
   d   V
CS

It is important to recall that in deriving the above equation, the limiting

process (taking the limit as t0) ensured that the relation is valid at
the instant when the system and control volume coincide.

dN 
 : the total rate of change of any arbitrary extensive property of the
dt  sys system.


t C
d : the time rate of change of the arbitrary extensive property N
within the control volume
 
CSV  dA : the net rate of flux of the extensive property N through the
control surface.

Evaluating the scalar product

3 Flow Analysis 1 9
 BASIC EQUATIONS FOR A CONTROL VOLUME
Basic equations for a control volume are obtained by combining the basic
equations for a system and Reynolds transport theorem.

EQUATION OF CONSERVATION OF MASS (Continuity Equation)

Combining the law of conservation of mass with the transport theorem

yields one of the most useful equations in all fluid mechanics: the continuity
equation. Recall that conservation of mass states simply that the mass of a
system is constant,
dM 
  0,
dt  sys
M sys   d
S YS

The system and control volume formulation of the conservation of mass are
related by Reynolds transport theorem. Setting, N=M then =1, we obtain
dM    
dt  sys t C CS  dA  0
  d  V

  

t C
d  
CS
V  dA  0 Continuity equation for a finite control volume



t C
d rate of change of mass within the control volume
 
 V  dA net rate of flux through the control surface
CS


NOTE: V is the velocity measured relative to the control surface. The
 
sign of the dot product V  dA depends on the direction of velocity
   
vector V , relative to the area vector dA . V  dA is positive where flow is
out through the control surface, negative where flow is in through the
control surface, and zero where flow is tangent to surface.

3 Flow Analysis 1 10
Special Cases

1. Incompressible Flow
For incompressible flow,  = constant
  
t C
 d    V  dA  0
CS
 
  
    V  dA  0 V  dA  0
t CS
CS

  constant 

  0  
t   constant 
 
 V  dA iscontrol
called the volume flow rate of flow over a section of the
surface.

2. Steady Flow

0
t the continuity equation becomes,
Hence

 
 V  dA  0
CS
[flow could be compressible]

3. Uniform Flow

The velocity is constant across the entire area at a section when density is
also constant at a section, then at section n
   
 V  dA   nVn  An    nVn An
An

3 Flow Analysis 1 11
Example:
A constant density fluid flows in the converging, two-dimensional channel
shown in the figure. The width perpendicular to the paper is quite large
compared to the channel height. The velocity in the z-direction is zero. The
channel half height Y and the fluid velocity in x-direction are given by
y0
Y
1 x
l

x   y  
2

u  u 0 1   1    
 l    Y  

where u0=1.0 m/s

Show that the flow field satisfies the continuity equation.

Solution:

To be completed in class

3 Flow Analysis 1 12
Example:
Water is being added to a storage tank at the rate of 2000 lt/min. At the
same time, water flows through a 5 cm inside diameter pipe with an
average velocity of 18 m/s. The storage tank has an inside diameter of 300
cm. Find the rate at which the water level rises or falls.

flow rate 2000 lt/min.

storage tank diameter 300 cm
discharge pipe diameter 5 cm
discharge velocity 18 m/s

Solution:

To be completed in class

3 Flow Analysis 1 13
3 Flow Analysis 1 14
MOMENTUM EQUATION FOR AN INERTIAL CONTROL VOLUME

In this section, we will develop mathematical formulation of Newton’s

Second Law for an inertial control volume.

Inertial control volume is the control volume that is not accelerating

relative to a stationary frame of reference.

Recall that Newton’s second law for a system moving relative to an inertial
coordinate system was
  
 dP  P   Vd linear momentum
F)  
dt  sys  sys
F = total resultant force
Using the relation between the system and control volume formulations
(Reynolds Transport theorem)
dN    
dt  sys t C CS  dA
   d   V

and setting N=P and  = V , we obtain


dP      
    V  dA
dt  sys t C
V d  V
CS


dP 

Note: 
 F
dt  sys
on sys

Since, in deriving the expression for relation between the system and
control volume formulation (Reynolds Transport theorem), the system and
control volume are considered coincide at to for the limiting case as t goes
to zero, we can write

F 
on sys

F 
on control volume
Hence, we can write,

t C
F V  d    V V  dA MOMETUM EQUATION
CS

3 Flow Analysis 1 15
 Total force acting on control volume is equal to sum of surface and body forces, i.e.

F  FS  FB

       
Vd   VV  dA
t C
F  FS  FB  MOMETUM EQUATION
CS

This equation states that the sum of all forces (surface and body forces)
acting on a nonaccelerating control volume is equal to the sum of the rate
of the change of momentum inside the control volume and the net rate of
efflux of momentum through the control surface.
 
FS    p dA surface force due to pressure
A
 
FB    g d
C
body force due to gravity

Sometimes surface force Fs may also include shear force.

The momentum equation is a vector equation. From this vector equation,

a scalar component in each direction can be written, i.e.
  
t C
Fx  FS x  FBx  ud   uV  dA
CS

  
t C
Fy  FS y  FB y  vd   vV  dA
CS

  
t C
Fz  FS  FB 
z z
wd   wV  dA
CS

The momentum equation is usually used to calculate force interactions

between a moving fluid and solid objects in contact with it.

3 Flow Analysis 1 16
Example:
Water from a stationary nozzle strikes a flat plate as shown. The velocity of the water
leaving the nozzle is 15 m/sec. The nozzle exit cross-sectional area is 0.01 m2.
Assuming the water is directed normal to the plate; determine the horizontal force
on the support.
Plate

Nozzle

Horizontal force acting on support in x-dir, Kx = ?

Solution

Assumptions:
- Steady flow
- Incompressible flow
- Uniform flow at each section where flow crosses the CV surface

Since the force interaction between the fluid and the solid object is the
point of interest, we have to use momentum equation.

We must choose a suitable control volume. A number of possible choices

are,

Note: Regardless of our choice of control volume, the result

should be the same.

3 Flow Analysis 1 17
I. Use CI

Momentum equation in x-direction

  
t C CS  dA
Fx  FS x  FBx  ud  uV

0
Steady flow

FBx = 0, no body force in x-direction

NOTE: Left and right faces of the

control volume are equal.
FS x  pA A  pA A  Rx
pressure force pressure force force of the sup port Rx is the force exerted by the
onleft face on right face on CV ( assumed positive )
support (hand) on the control
volume
FS x  Rx

 
    At 1 , V  dA   V1dA , since
Rx   uV  dA   uV  dA
CS A1
direction of area is 180 apart from
the velocity.
Rx   u V1dA
A1 For top and bottom surfaces, u=0

Rx  u1 V1 A1 {properties are uniform over A1}

m  kg  m
Rx  15   999  3   15    0.01m
 sec  m   sec 

Rx  2.25 kN
{Rx is the force acting on the control volume and it
acts opposite to positive direction}

Force acting on the support K x   Rx  2.25  kN 

3 Flow Analysis 1 18
II. Use C II

No body force acts on this control volume in

x-direction. Momentum equation in x-
direction becomes
 
FS x   uV  dA
CS
 
FS x  p A A  Rx   uV  dA   u V1dA   2.25 kN 
A1 A1

p A A  Rx  2.25 kN 
Rx   p A A  2.25 kN 
and
K x   Rx  p A A  2.25 kN 

To determine the net force on the plate, we need to take into account
pressure (atmospheric) force on the right face of the plate.

Fnet  K x  p A A
Fnet  p A A  2.25  p A A
Fnet  2.25kN

3 Flow Analysis 1 19
Example: A metal container, which has a height of 0.6 m and an inside cross-
sectional area of 0.1 m2, is placed on a scale. Water flows into the tank at a
velocity of 6 m/s through an opening at the top with a cross-sectional area of
0.01 m2, flows out the openings on the side walls with equal cross-sectional
areas. Under steady flow conditions, the height of the water in the tank is 0.5
m. The pressure is atmospheric across all openings, and the container weighs
50 N when it is empty. If the frictional effects are negligible then determine
the reading on the scale.

AT = 0.1 m2
V1 = 6 m/s
A1 = 0.01 m2
A2 = A 3
h = 0.5 m

Ky = ?

Solution

To be completed in class

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3 Flow Analysis 1 21
Example: A shallow circular dish has a sharp-edged orifice at its center. A
water jet of speed V strikes the dish concentrically. If the jet issuing from
the orifice and from the surface of the dish also has speed V, evaluate
the external force needed to hold the dish in place for V = 5 m/s, D=100
mm and d=20 mm.

Solution

To be completed in class

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3 Flow Analysis 1 23
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Example: A vertical, circular cross-sectional jet of air strikes a
conical deflector as indicated in the figure. A vertical anchoring
force of 0.1 N is required to hold the deflector in place.
Determine the mass (kg) of the deflector. The magnitude of
velocity of the air remains constant. (Munson, 5.38)

3 Flow Analysis 1 25