Experience Seamless Full Ebook Downloads for Every Genre at textbookfull.

com

Controlled Release of Pesticides for Sustainable

Agriculture Rakhimol K. R.

https://textbookfull.com/product/controlled-release-of-
pesticides-for-sustainable-agriculture-rakhimol-k-r/

OR CLICK BUTTON

DOWNLOAD NOW

Explore and download more ebook at https://textbookfull.com

 Recommended digital products (PDF, EPUB, MOBI) that
you can download immediately if you are interested.

Applications of Encapsulation and Controlled Release 1st

Edition Munmaya K. Mishra (Editor)

https://textbookfull.com/product/applications-of-encapsulation-and-
controlled-release-1st-edition-munmaya-k-mishra-editor/

textboxfull.com

In Silico Approach for Sustainable Agriculture Devendra K.

Choudhary

https://textbookfull.com/product/in-silico-approach-for-sustainable-
agriculture-devendra-k-choudhary/

textboxfull.com

Inorganic controlled release technology : materials and

concepts for advanced drug formulation 1st Edition Xiang
Zhang Ph.D.
https://textbookfull.com/product/inorganic-controlled-release-
technology-materials-and-concepts-for-advanced-drug-formulation-1st-
edition-xiang-zhang-ph-d/
textboxfull.com

Plant Microbe Interaction An Approach to Sustainable

Agriculture 1st Edition Devendra K. Choudhary

https://textbookfull.com/product/plant-microbe-interaction-an-
approach-to-sustainable-agriculture-1st-edition-devendra-k-choudhary/

textboxfull.com
Ecological and Practical Applications for Sustainable
Agriculture Kuldeep Bauddh

https://textbookfull.com/product/ecological-and-practical-
applications-for-sustainable-agriculture-kuldeep-bauddh/

textboxfull.com

Encapsulation and controlled release technologies in food

systems Second Edition Dr Jamileh M. Lakkis

https://textbookfull.com/product/encapsulation-and-controlled-release-
technologies-in-food-systems-second-edition-dr-jamileh-m-lakkis/

textboxfull.com

Organic Farming for Sustainable Agriculture 1st Edition

Dilip Nandwani (Eds.)

https://textbookfull.com/product/organic-farming-for-sustainable-
agriculture-1st-edition-dilip-nandwani-eds/

textboxfull.com

Agroforestry For Sustainable Agriculture 1st Edition María

Rosa Mosquera-Losada

https://textbookfull.com/product/agroforestry-for-sustainable-
agriculture-1st-edition-maria-rosa-mosquera-losada/

textboxfull.com

Geospatial Technologies for Agriculture Case Studies from

India K. V. Raju

https://textbookfull.com/product/geospatial-technologies-for-
agriculture-case-studies-from-india-k-v-raju/

textboxfull.com
Rakhimol K. R. · Sabu Thomas ·
Tatiana Volova · Jayachandran K.
Editors

Controlled
Release of
Pesticides for
Sustainable
Agriculture
Controlled Release of Pesticides for Sustainable
Agriculture
Rakhimol K. R. Sabu Thomas
• •

Tatiana Volova Jayachandran K.

•

Editors

Controlled Release
of Pesticides for Sustainable
Agriculture

123
Editors
Rakhimol K. R. Sabu Thomas
International and Inter University Centre School of Chemical Sciences
for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology Mahatma Gandhi University
Mahatma Gandhi University Kottayam, Kerala, India
Kottayam, Kerala, India
Jayachandran K.
Tatiana Volova School of Biosciences
Institute of Biophysics SB RAS Mahatma Gandhi University
Siberian Federal University Kottayam, Kerala, India
Krasnoyarsk, Russia

ISBN 978-3-030-23395-2 ISBN 978-3-030-23396-9 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-23396-9
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained
herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard
to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface

The rapidly increasing demand for food presents a major challenge to the scientific
community. More efficient developments in agricultural and industrial sector are
needed to face this issue. Novel techniques which result in high-quality products
with high yield and reduced adverse effects are required. In ancient times, a major
problem which scientists faced was the inefficiency of the pest control agents due to
the inability of these products to reach the target and deliver optimum quantity
within a short span of time. Mostly, the conventional mode of pesticide application
resulted in wastage of 80% of applied pesticides through leaching, degradation, and
evaporation. This intern resulted in reduced performance and environment pollu-
tion. This led the scientists to think about delivering chemicals to the target in a
controlled manner. With the use of novel technologies such as nanotechnology and
polymer technology, scientists could develop controlled release pesticides.
In this book, we discuss different aspects of controlled release pesticides.
Chapter 1 of this book gives a general introduction about the conventional pesticide
application and its adverse effects on health and environment. Chapter 2 discusses
the methods for pesticide analysis and their role in the agriculture fields. Chapter 3
deals with the chemical nature and toxicology behind different chemical pesticides
and insecticides of today’s use. In Chap. 4, we give an overview of controlled
release pesticides and their bioengineering aspects for the sustainable crop pro-
duction. In Chap. 5, we explain different methods for synthesizing controlled
release pesticides.
Types of slow and controlled release pesticides and their characteristics are
discussed in Chap. 6. Types of pesticides based on different parameters and their
physical as well as chemical characteristics are included in this chapter.
Nanotechnology has played a major role in the field of controlled release tech-
nology. Nanotechnological aspects in pest control are included in Chap. 7. To
release pesticides in a controlled manner, encapsulation in a porous carrier is
needed. Polymers play a major role as pesticide carrier. Polymer technology for
pesticide release is incorporated in Chap. 8. To detect the release of pesticides from

v
vi Preface

carriers, novel sensors were developed by many scientists. Chapter 9 provides a

detailed data on fabrication and working of such sensors. Chapters 10 and 11 are
dealing with controlled release of herbicides and plant hormones to tune the crop
production.

Kottayam, India Rakhimol K. R.

Kottayam, India Sabu Thomas
Krasnoyarsk, Russia Tatiana Volova
Kottayam, India Jayachandran K.
Contents

1 Conventional Methods of Pesticide Application in Agricultural

Field and Fate of the Pesticides in the Environment
and Human Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
V. Dhananjayan, S. Jayakumar and B. Ravichandran
2 Methods for Determination of Pesticides and Fate of Pesticides
in the Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Angel G. Polanco Rodríguez and Jesús Alfredo Araujo León
3 Chemistry and Toxicology Behind Insecticides and Herbicides . . . . 59
S. Sousa, M. L. Maia, L. Correira-Sá, V. C. Fernandes,
C. Delerue-Matos, C. Calhau and V. F. Domingues
4 Controlled Release Pesticides as a Route to Sustainable Crop
Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Maya Rajan, Vinaya Chandran, S. Shahena and Linu Mathew
5 Manufacturing of Slow- and Controlled-Release Pesticides . . . . . . . 127
V. R. Remya, Jesiya Susan George and Sabu Thomas
6 Characteristics and Types of Slow/Controlled Release
of Pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Ayilalath Ashitha and Jyothis Mathew
7 Advanced Controlled Nanopesticide Delivery Systems
for Managing Insect Pests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
R. K. Saini, S. Patel, J. Bajpai and A. K. Bajpai
8 Polymer Formulations for Pesticide Release . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Abhilasha Mishra, Rajesh K. Saini and A. K. Bajpai

vii
viii Contents

9 Molecularly Imprinted Sensors for Detecting Controlled

Release of Pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Fatma Yılmaz, Nilay Bereli, Ali Derazshamshir, Duygu Çimen,
Semra Akgönüllü, Yeşeren Saylan, Aykut Arif Topçu
and Adil Denizli
10 Controlled Release Herbicides and Allelopathy as Sustainable
Alternatives in Crop Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
S. Shahena, Maya Rajan, Vinaya Chandran and Linu Mathew
11 Controlled Release of Plant Hormones for Modifying
Crop Yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Vinaya Chandran, S. Shahena, Maya Rajan and Linu Mathew
Chapter 1
Conventional Methods of Pesticide
Application in Agricultural Field
and Fate of the Pesticides
in the Environment and Human Health

V. Dhananjayan, S. Jayakumar and B. Ravichandran

Abstract The increasing growth of world population required raising overall food
production. In order to meet the requirement, food supply factors of increasing
yields, expanding agricultural area and increasing the productivity of crop and
animal agricultural are necessary. As a consequence, application of pesticide for
protection of crop involves wide variety of chemicals with various applicable
techniques. The pesticides are very commonly used in agriculture sector with
several methods of applications in recent years. However, in developing countries,
the conventional method of application of pesticide is the major practice. The
knowledge and awareness of application play a major role in fate of pesticides in
the environment and human health. Several studies have reported the handling
practices and subsequent exposure of farmers to pesticides and pesticide accumu-
lation. In addition to the preparation and application of pesticides, there are several
important problems related to pesticide use that should be understood by every
applicator. Generally, in the conventional way, application of pesticides did not
include any regular inspections for safety procedure and follow-up inspections of
problem areas. Some of the methods, however, may result in problems such as over
application, not reaching the pest habitat while using a minimum amount of pes-
ticide, and depositing unsafe residues. Proper techniques of application not only aid
in effectiveness but also ensure workers’ safety, public protection and protection of
the environment. Although newer pesticides are capable of degrading fast, the
adverse impact of these chemicals with already existing persistent pesticides on
environment including humans is reported in recent years. The application of
pesticide is not merely the operation of sprayer or duster. It has to be coupled with a
thorough knowledge of the pest problem. The application techniques ideally should

V. Dhananjayan (&)
B. Ravichandran

Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology Division, ICMR—Regional Occupational Health Centre
(Southern), NIOH, ICMR Complex, Bangalore 562110, India
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Jayakumar
Department of Zoology and Wildlife Biology, A.V.C. College (Autonomous),
Mannampandal, Mayiladuthurai 609305, Tamil Nadu, India

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 1

Rakhimol K. R. et al. (eds.), Controlled Release of Pesticides
for Sustainable Agriculture, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-23396-9_1
2 V. Dhananjayan et al.

be target oriented so that safety to the non-targets and the environment is ensured.
Therefore, environmentally responsive controlled release of pesticide through
advance technologies is needed and recommended. This chapter deals with the
different types of pesticide application, their distribution and occurrence in the
environment and human health-related issues.

Keywords Pesticide application
Fate of pesticides
Health effects

1.1 Introduction

Agriculture is the most important enterprise and it is the major key to economic
development in many developed countries. The agriculture remains traditional and
labour intensive; little or no external inputs are used. Pest management practice
under these conditions is a built-in process in the overall crop production system
rather than a separate well-defined activity [1]. The most important concern asso-
ciated with agricultural production is the problem of pests (weeds and insects). An
important step for raising productivity and increasing the gross output of agricul-
tural products is the elimination of losses of the harvest due to pests, plant diseases
and weeds. The farmers use pesticides to control weeds, microbes, insects, rodents
and other higher organisms to protect their crops and preserve food materials [2–4].
In the initial stages of agricultural practice, the cultivation together with crop and
animal husbandry was largely eco-friendly, although the yields were not as high as
of the present day. During 1874, the German chemist Othmar Zeidler had first
synthesized dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) compound, but failed to realize
its value as an insecticide. Similarly, a series of chemical pesticides were synthe-
sized to protect crop plants against insect pests. While the immediate benefits of
these pesticides were indeed quite impressive, their long-term harmful effects on
environment and non-target organisms came to be understood only after much
damage to ecosystems had already been done. After the description of Carson [5]
on deleterious effects of DDT and other chlorinated pesticides in her book on
‘Silent Spring’, there has been a growing campaign against the use of chemical
pesticides in agriculture. As an alternative to the organochlorine pesticides (OCPs),
organophosphates (OPs) and carbamate pesticides are largely used in agriculture
field. The introduction of these synthetic insecticides—organophosphate (OP) in
the 1960s, carbamates in 1970s and pyrethroids in 1980s—and herbicides and
fungicides in the 1970s–1980s contributed greatly to pest control and agricultural
output. Ideally, a pesticide must be lethal to the targeted pests, but not to non-target
species, including man. Unfortunately, this is not the case, so the controversy of use
and abuse of pesticides has surfaced. The rampant use of these chemicals, under the
adage, “if little is good, a lot more will be better” has played havoc with humans
and other life forms.
During the past three decades or so, a significant amount of Integrated Pest
Management (IPM) or IPM-related research has been conducted in many parts of
1 Conventional Methods of Pesticide Application in Agricultural … 3

the world including in the developing countries [4, 6]. However, the use of
chemical pesticides continue for a long time in small quantities, particularly in
highly populated developing countries like India and China [7]. Agriculture in the
twenty-first century faces multiple challenges: it has to produce more food and fibre
to feed a growing population with a smaller rural labour forces and more feedstocks
for a potentially huge bio-energy market, contribute to overall development in many
agriculture-dependent developing countries, adopt more efficient and sustainable
production methods and adapt to climate changes [8]. There is limited scope for
significantly expanding agricultural land after constraints and trade-offs are con-
sidered. The incorporation of new lands into production is likely to come with
important social and ecological constraints and costs. Therefore, the initiation of
exploitative agriculture without a proper understanding of the various consequences
of every change introduced into traditional agriculture, and without first building up
a proper scientific and training base to sustain, it may only lead us, in the long run,
into an era of agricultural disaster rather than one of agricultural prosperity.
The conventional methods of pesticide applications are the major practice in
developing countries. Persistence and accumulation nature of pesticides on various
stages of food chain and environment affects human. Humans are exposed to
pesticides through occupational or environmental exposure. The occupational
exposures occur among rural workers, greenhouse workers, workers in pesticide
manufacturing [2]. The group that receive the greatest exposure are those who
involved in mixing, loading, transporting and applying pesticides. Furthermore, the
lack of training and equipment to safely handle pesticides increases the health risk
[9]. Gangemi et al. [10] summarized the most recent findings on the association
between occupational pesticide exposure and the development of chronic diseases.
As regards to environmental exposure, this mainly affects the general population
through the consumption of polluted food and drinking contaminated water or using
pesticides in the home or living close to sprayed fields. Thus, risk assessment and
prevention from pesticide exposure are not a simple process, particularly when we
consider several limitations, such as differences in the time and the levels of
exposure, the class of pesticides (chemical structure and toxicity), mixtures or
cocktails used, and the geographical and climate features of the areas where pes-
ticides are applied. For these reasons, it has been suggested that pesticide safety
should be tested before and after marketing, in order to evaluate whether the
estimated or predicted individual exposure on a given task is suitable [11].
Pesticide applicators utilize many methods in the application of pesticides. Most
of these methods have been developed as the result of years of studying the most
effective methods. Some of the methods, however, may result in problems such as
over application, not reaching the pest habitat while using a minimum amount of
pesticide, and depositing unsafe residues. Proper techniques of application not only
aid in effectiveness but also ensure workers’ safety, public protection and protection
of the environment [2–4, 12]. Competence in pest control includes basic knowledge
of pests and pest problems, the ability to choose the right pesticides and equip-
ments, and knowledge of proper methods of application. The proper technique of
application probably plays a greater part in achieving the target job. Therefore, the
4 V. Dhananjayan et al.

present chapter was aimed at exploring the existing conventional method of pes-
ticide application and the consequence of pesticide in man and environment. A brief
continuation of the types of equipment and techniques of application used in
agriculture practices, maintenance of equipment, knowledge of pesticide applicator,
fate of pesticides in the environment, health of effects associated with pesticides and
various modern techniques in controlled release of pesticides in agriculture field are
presented in the following section.

1.2 Importance of Pesticide Application

Agriculture was developed to produce crops and livestock for human consumption.
As the human population increases, the amount of food produced is very important.
Unfortunately, there are other organisms out there that want to consume the crops
that are meant for humans. It is estimated that nearly 37% of all crops produced in
the USA each year are destroyed by agricultural pests, which results in an economic
loss of around $122 billion a year. Due to this high loss in food production,
pesticides are often used to combat the problem. There are many different types of
pesticides on the market today, but the most common are herbicides and insecti-
cides, which kill or manage unwanted plants and insects. The damage caused by
agricultural pests is a global problem, and over the past half-century, the amount of
pesticides used have increased severalfold. Over the years, the widespread use of
pesticides had several benefits and also have caused damage to the environ-
ment and human health [12–15]. The benefits of pesticides include increased food
production, increased profits for farmers and the prevention of diseases. Although
pests consume or harm a large portion of agricultural crops, without the use of
pesticides, it is likely that they would consume a higher percentage. Due to the use
of pesticides, it is possible to combat pests and produce larger quantities of food. By
producing more crops, farmers are also able to increase profits by having more
produce to sell. Pesticides also increase farm profits by helping the farmer save
money on labour costs. Usage of pesticides reduces the amount of time required to
manually remove weeds and pests from fields. In addition to saving crops and
livestock, pesticides also have direct benefits to human health. It is estimated that
since 1945, the use of pesticides has prevented the deaths of around seven million
people by killing pests that carry or transmit diseases. Malaria is transmitted by
infected mosquitoes, known as deadly diseases to human that have decreased in
prevalence due to the use of pesticides. Other diseases were also minimized due to
the use of pesticides include the bubonic plague transmitted by both fleas and body
lice [13]. Similary several diseases are being curtailed by application of pesticides.
1 Conventional Methods of Pesticide Application in Agricultural … 5

1.2.1 Benefits of Pesticides

The primary benefits are the consequences of the pesticides’ effects—the direct
gains expected from their use. For example, the effect of killing caterpillars feeding
on the crop brings the primary benefit of higher yields and better quality. The main
effects result in primary benefits ranging from protection of recreational turf to
saved human lives. The secondary benefits are the less immediate or less obvious
benefits that result from the primary benefits. They may be subtle, less intuitively
obvious or of longer term. It follows that for secondary benefits it is therefore more
difficult to establish cause and effect, but nevertheless they can be powerful justi-
fications for pesticide use. For example, the higher cabbage yield might bring
additional revenue that could be put towards children’s education or medical care,
leading to a healthier, better educated population. There are various secondary
benefits identified, ranging from fitter people to conserved biodiversity.

1.2.2 Improving Productivity

Tremendous benefits have been derived from the use of pesticides in forestry,
public health and the domestic sphere—and, of course, in agriculture, a sector upon
which the countries like Indian economy is largely dependent. Food grain pro-
duction stood at a mere 50 million tons in 1948–49, had increased almost fourfold
to 198 million tons by the end of 1996–97 from an estimated 169 million hectares
of permanently cropped land. This result has been achieved by the use of high-yield
varieties of seeds, advanced irrigation technologies and agricultural chemicals
(Employment Information: Indian Labour Statistics, 1994). Similarly, outputs and
productivity have increased dramatically in most countries, for example wheat
yields in the UK and corn yields in the USA. Increases in productivity have been
due to several factors including use of fertilizers, better varieties and use of
machineries. These pesticide are used to control various pests and diseaes carriers,
such as mosquitoes, ticks, rats and mice [16]. Therefore, pesticides have been an
integral part of the process by reducing losses from the weeds, diseases and insect
pests that can markedly reduce the amount of harvestable produce. There are many
different types of pesticides; each is meant to be effective against specific pests.
Some examples are given in Table 1.1.
6 V. Dhananjayan et al.

Table 1.1 Type of pesticides used and its target function

S. no. Pesticide Target species/function
1 Acaricide Mites, ticks
2 Algaecide Algae
3 Anticoagulant Rodents
4 Attractant Attracts insects or birds
5 Avicide Birds
6 Bactericide Bacteria
7 Defoliant Plant leaves
8 Desiccant Disrupts water balance in arthropods
9 Fungicide Fungi
10 Growth regulator Regulates insect and plant growth
11 Herbicide Weeds
12 Insecticide Insects
13 Miticide Mites
14 Molluscicide Snails, slugs
15 Nematicide Nematodes
16 Piscicide Fish
17 Predacide Vertebrate predators
18 Repellent Repels vertebrates or arthropods
19 Rodenticide Rodents
20 Silvicide Woody vegetation

1.3 Types of Application

Pesticide application plays an important role in pest management. Proper technique

of application of pesticide and the equipment used for applying pesticide are vital to
the success of pest control operations. The application of pesticide is not merely the
operation of sprayer or duster. It has to be coupled with a thorough knowledge of
the pest problem [2, 4, 17]. The use of pesticides involves not only of knowledge
on application equipment, but also of pest management as well. The main purpose
of pesticide application technique is to cover the target with maximum efficiency
and minimum efforts to keep the pest under control as well as minimum contam-
ination of non-targets. All pesticides are poisonous substances, and they can cause
harm to all living things. Therefore, their use must be very judicious. The appli-
cation techniques ideally should be target oriented so that safety to the non-targets
and the environment is ensured. Therefore, proper selection of application equipment,
knowledge of pest behaviour and proper dispersal methods are vital [15, 17–19].
The complete knowledge of pest problem is important to define the target, i.e.
location of the pest (on foliage, under the leaves, at root zone, etc.). The most
susceptible stage of the pest for control measures will help to decide the time of
application. The requirement of coverage and spray droplet size depends upon the
1 Conventional Methods of Pesticide Application in Agricultural … 7

mobility and size of the pest. The mode of action of pesticide, its relative toxicity
and other physicochemical properties help to decide the handling precautions,
agitation requirement, etc. Further, the complete knowledge of the equipment is
necessary to develop desired skill of operation, to select and, to estimate the number
and type of equipment needed to treat the crop in minimum time and to optimize
use of the equipment.
The objective of the application of pesticide is to keep the pest under check. The
pest population has to be kept suppressed to minimum biological activities to avoid
economic loss of crop yields. Thorough killing of pest or eradication of pest is
neither practical nor necessary. The objective of pesticide application besides
keeping the pest population under check should also be to avoid pollution and
damage to the non-targets. The success of pest control operations by pesticide
application greatly depends on the following factors:
1. Quality of pesticide.
2. Timing of application.
3. Quality of application and coverage.
Different types of pesticides are used for controlling various pests. For example,
insecticides are applied against insect pests, fungicides against crop diseases, her-
bicides against weeds, etc., in order to protect the crop losses. But it is essential that
besides choosing an appropriate pesticide for application it has to be a quality
product, i.e. proper quantity of pesticide active ingredient (a.i) must ensure that the
quantity is maintained in production and marketing of pesticide formulations. The
application of pesticide is very successful when applied at the most susceptible
stage of the pest. If the timing of pesticide application is carefully considered and
followed, the results will be good and economy. Therefore, for large area treatment,
careful selection of equipment becomes necessary so that within the available time
the area could be treated. Even though good quality pesticide is used, an optimum
timing for the application of pesticide is also adopted; unless the pesticide is applied
properly, it will not yield good results. Therefore, the quality of application of
pesticides is very important in pest control operations. The following points can be
ensured during pest control operation.
1. Proper dosage should be applied evenly.
2. The toxicant should reach the target.
3. Proper droplet size.
4. Proper density of droplet on the target.
The dosage recommendation is generally indicated for acre or hectare, e.g. kg/ha
or L/ha or g ai/ha. It should be properly understood, and the exact quantities of the
formulated pesticide should be applied.
Pesticides are dispersed by different methods like spraying, dusting, etc. For
spraying of pesticides, different types of nozzles such as hydraulic, air blast, cen-
trifugal and heat energy type are used. Water is a common carrier of pesticides, but
air or oils or soap solutions are also used as carriers. Selection of proper droplet is
8 V. Dhananjayan et al.

an important consideration. The shape, size and surface of the target vary greatly.
For spraying against flying insects, the hydraulic nozzles will not be effective.
Hence fine size spray particles are needed to remain airborne for longer time.
However, for weed control operation, usually the requirement is drift-free appli-
cation or coarse spray droplets. An adequate number of spray droplets should be
deposited necessarily. For fungicide application, the number of droplets deposited
per unit area should be more, and maybe for translocated herbicide application, it
can be less in number. It may need fewer numbers of droplets to be deposited in
case of highly mobile (crawling) insect pests. The pesticides are formulated in
liquid form, dust powder or granule forms such that it makes possible to apply small
quantities of pesticides over large area. Some of the pesticides are applied as low as
few grams a.i. per hectare. Therefore, the adoption of proper application technique
is vital for uniform depositing of pesticide.

1.4 Equipments Used for Applications

1.4.1 Spraying Techniques

The liquid formulations of pesticide are either diluted (with water, oil) or directly
applied in small drops to the crop by different types of sprayers [20]. Usually, the
formulations and wettable powder are diluted suitably with water which is a
common carrier of pesticides. In some cases, however, oil is used as diluent or
carrier of pesticides. The important factors for spray volume consideration are
depends upon the spray type and coverage, total target area, size of spray droplet
and number of spray droplets. It is obvious that if the spray droplets are in coarse
size, then the spray volume required will be larger than the small size spray dro-
plets. Also if the thorough coverage (e.g. both the sides of leaves) is necessary, then
the spray volume requirement has to be more.
On the basis of the volume of spray mix, the technique of spraying is classified as:
1. High-volume spraying (300–500 L/ha).
2. Low-volume spraying (50–150 L/ha).
3. Ultra-low-volume spraying (<5 L/ha).
The range of volume of spray mix in each of the above case is arbitrary. Usually,
for field crop spraying, the spray volume ranges are taken as guide. There is distinct
advantage in the case of lower volume application over the high-volume applica-
tion. The higher the volume to be applied, the more the time, the more the labour
and the more the cost of application due to labour cost. However, the lower volume
applications are concentrated spraying of pesticide which should also be considered
properly.
1 Conventional Methods of Pesticide Application in Agricultural … 9

1.4.2 Dusters

Dust formulations are pesticides in which the active ingredient is mixed with a
substance which is usually light in weight (talc or clay). However, heavier weighted
carriers are also essential for the proper distribution in certain situations. Many
lightweight dusts are not acceptable in many areas since they may be a hazard to the
applicator or vicinity in which the application is made [17, 21, 22]. Ultimate drift of
dispersed dust must be of considerable concern to the applicator. Precautionary
measures in the use of dust equipment consist of the following:
• Because dusts are usually exerted under some degrees of pressure, all working
parts of the equipment should be carefully examined.
• All literature provided by the manufacturer should be carefully read.
• Goggles and respirators should be included in the safety equipment.
• The operator should be acquainted with operations and limitations of each piece
of equipment.
• Complete removal of dust remaining in the hopper and any extensions of the
duster should be accomplished after the completion of job.

1.4.2.1 Hand-Operated Dusters

Getz Applicator A simple device in which a spring is surrounded by a rubber

sleeve sealed at one end by a filler plug and the other by a small release tube.
Contracting the two ends compresses the spring and releases a limited quantity of
dust through the tube orifice. Releasing the grip on the spring forces the sleeve to
resume its original position. The capacity of this device is very small (six ounces),
and usually, it is only used for crack and crevice treatment. It is one of the most
versatile equipment used for all field crops. Small void areas can be expertly treated
with this device [17].
Flexible Bulb This is similar to the Getz applicator but does not depend upon a spring
to re-establish its flexibility. Instead, by the nature of its construction, it resumes its
original shape and upon compressing releases dust through a small orifice. Depending
upon the weight of the dust used, it may hold slightly more than the Getz applicator. Its
uses are identical as for the Getz applicator. It is highly applicable for any powdered
insecticides and being used effectively in home gardens [17].
Plunger Tube Dusters It is simple in construction and consists of a dust chamber,
a cylinder with a piston or plunger, a rod and a handle. Retraction of the plunger
allows air and dust to mix in the cylinder and upon depression of the cylinder,
repeats the above process. This device is suitable for crack, crevice or void
applications. Its capacity is usually greater than both of the previously mentioned
dusters. It is highly useful for small-scale use in kitchen garden and in
household (TNAU Aagritech Portal, http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/index.html).
10 V. Dhananjayan et al.

Hand Crank Dusters These dusters have a hopper for the dust which varies in
capacity from 1 to 10 lb. At the bottom of the hopper is an orifice which is
adjustable in size and which allows the dust to fall into an airstream created by fins
attached to a shaft. The shaft in turn is attached to a crank which is driven by hand
power. A tube of varying length leads from the hopper to the final area of dis-
persion. This unit is typically used exteriorly or occasionally under the sub-areas of
a house (TNAU Aagritech Portal, http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/index.html).
Foot Pump Dusters This is really a duplicate of the plunger-type duster, but in the
place of the fixed release tube a hose is substituted and a place to set the operator’s
foot is provided. The plunger propels the dust through the tube, usually into a
rodent burrow. In most cases, this style of duster is used in exterior areas (TNAU
Aagritech Portal, http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/index.html).
Power Dusters As their name implies, the following equipment either uses electric
motors, gasoline engines or compressed air as the power to run the mechanism which
propels the dust. Where the hand-type units are usually for small applications, power
dusters are obviously used where large quantities of dust are to be dispersed. In the
structural pest control industry, this type of duster is usually restricted for use in large
enclosed areas such as attics or sub-areas. However, where necessary and practical,
exterior application is in order. Drift hazard and time of application are definite limiting
factors in their use (TNAU Aagritech Portal, http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/index.html).
Electric Motor-powered Dusters This equipment, as indicated by the name, uses
an electric motor which powers the propeller that creates the air to force the dust
through an applicator tube. The hoppers for these dusters usually hold from 5 to
15 lb. One of the distinct limiting factors is the necessity for the availability of
electricity which, in some instances, could limit the application area [17].
Gasoline Motor-powered Dusters The most common example of this is the
knapsack or backpack duster. However, there are also wheel-mounted units for
large-scale applications. In this type of duster, gasoline-operated engines accom-
plish the same effect as outlined above for the electric motor. Particularly, with the
knapsack or backpack, there is an extremely large area of mobility because the
power unit is self-sustaining. Also, many of these units can be used with minor
changes for both dust and liquid applications. The hopper in the case of a dust
applicator has a capacity of 5–25 lb [17].
Air Pressure Dusters This type of duster is a modification of the fire extinguisher
so as to enable the air pressure built up within the tank to expel dust through a hose.
Its limitations are that the quantity of dust is small (1–2 lb) and additional equip-
ment must accompany the unit to build up air pressure. A truck-mounted air
compressor or gasoline facilities could also be used. Once the unit has been filled
with dust and pressured with air, it is self-sustained until either the dust or the air is
dissipated. Except for the above limitations, it is a very flexible piece of equipment
for the treatment of cracks, voids, sub-areas and attics (TNAU Aagritech Portal,
http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/index.html).
1 Conventional Methods of Pesticide Application in Agricultural … 11

Bellows Duster It has a pair of bellows made of leather, rubber or plastic. The
bellows can work with a handle just like a Blacksmith does. The dust is placed
either in the bellows or in a separate container made of wood, metal or plastic
attached to one end of the bellows. The air current that is created runs through the
container and drives the dust out through an opening.
Hand Rotary Duster They are also called crank dusters and fan-type dusters.
They may be shoulder mounted, back or belly mounted. Basically, a rotary duster
consists of a blower complete with gearbox and a hopper with a capacity of about
4–5 kg of dust. The duster is operated by rotating a crank, and the motion is
transmitted through the gear to the blower. The air current produced by the blower
draws the dust from the hopper and discharges out through the delivery tube which
may have one or two nozzles. It is used for dusting field crops, vegetables and small
trees and bushes in orchards. The efficiency of these dusters is 1–1.5 ha/
day (TNAU Aagritech Portal, http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/index.html).

1.4.3 Sprayers

There are many ways to classify equipment in this category. The present system is
based on the method by which the pressure is originated to force the liquid from any
designated holding container [20–22].

1.4.3.1 Hand-Operated Sprayers

Flit Gun This is probably one of the oldest types of sprayers used in the industry.
Its basic principle of operation is that a plunger is situated above a small supply
container. As the plunger is compressed, air is diverted through a small hole sit-
uated above a syphon tube from the supply container. When the air passes
through the tube and siphons, the pesticide liquid from the tank reaches the nozzle
tip. Because of tremendous advancements in equipment, this type of sprayer is
seldom used today in pest control operation.
Small Hydraulic Sprayer This sprayer is the adaptation of the equipment that
used in service stations to spray oil in a pin stream to springs and other lubricated
parts of an automobile. It consists of a small supply container, rarely exceeding a
quart. Inserted into this container is a tube enclosed plunger which is connected to a
hand-pulled trigger. By exerting pressure on the trigger, the plunger forces liquid
through a tube to an adjustable nozzle. The nozzle can be adjusted from a pinpoint
sprayer to cone shape. Either oil base or stable emulsions can be used in this
equipment. More often than not, this sprayer is used to apply a residual insecticide
rather than a knock-down formulation. One distinct disadvantage is the small
capacity of this applicator. This type of application has few uses for spraying the
yard and sub-area (TNAU Aagritech Portal, http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/index.html).
12 V. Dhananjayan et al.

Compressed Air Sprayers This is probably the most commonly used sprayer in
our industry. It is composed of a tank (usually holding from one-half to 3 gal of
liquid), a pump to compress air and a discharge hose with a valve to control the
discharge through a nozzle. An airtight tank, preferably stainless steel, is filled
approximately to three-fourths of its capacity with a pesticide, and its operation is
relatively simple. The remaining space is utilized for the compressed air to be
generated by the hand-powered plunger-type cylinder within the tank. A check
valve is located at the bottom of the cylinder to allow the air to enter the tank but
closes to prevent the liquid from entering the cylinder. A tube within the tank is
located so that its source originates near the bottom of the tank but closes to prevent
the liquid from entering the cylinder. Somewhere prior to the nozzle is a
hand-controlled shut-off valve. There is usually a pressure valve where the pipe
emerges from the tank and the hose connection. The sprayer should not be used
with pressure exceeding 50 psi nor less than 25 psi. The nozzle can be either a
multi-purpose type (pin stream to fan or hollow cone) or a fixed pattern. This type
of application is usually confined to inside work and sometimes outside in monthly
service calls. Most likely the greatest use of this type of application is in cockroach
clean-out calls (TNAU Aagritech Portal, http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/index.html).

1.4.3.2 Electric or Gasoline-Operated Sprayers

Powered Spraying For the most part, power spray usually refers to the typical 50–
100 gal spray rigs owned by most structural pest control firms. Most will have some
form of agitation, either jet agitation or blades mounted inside the tank. When
spraying either a yard or sub-area, a moderately low pressure with a relatively high
volume will aid in a safe even distribution. Where grass or weeds are thick, it may be
necessary to adjust the pressure upwards to be sure and drive the pesticide down into
the soil or turf. However, the spray pattern should be kept coarse to ensure wetness.
Low pressure, high volume is particularly valuable when spraying a dry, dusty
sub-area. High pressure tends to ball up the top layer of dust or soft soil and move it
around in a sweeping motion, without ever getting the soaking action that is desir-
able. Needless to say, some servicemen will use higher pressure to speed up a job.
A conscientious applicator will move about with a low-pressure, high-volume type of
application and reach all areas. This power can be transmitted to the pump by belts
and pulleys, chains and sprockets, power take-off assemblies or direct drive. In all
cases, the liquid is ejected by the action of a pump through hoses or wands and finally
through a nozzle or groups of nozzles. In this industry, the most commonly used type
of pumps is the centrifugal, gear and piston pumps. The selection of a sprayer must
obviously be governed by the magnitude of the job. Various types of formulations
also play an important part in deciding the tank, pump, hose, regulator or nozzle to be
used. The following section indicates the various ramifications of this selection by
pointing out the various components of some of the systems now in use (TNAU
Aagritech Portal, http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/index.html).
1 Conventional Methods of Pesticide Application in Agricultural … 13

Tanks They should be of a capacity commensurate with the job. This seems, in most
cases, to be of the 50–100 gal capacity. There are tanks available as large as 500 gal.
The tank should be of stainless steel, aluminium, fibreglass, plastic or steel which is
coated interiorly with a protective lining or is galvanized. The filling opening should
be large, equipped with a strainer and be of a size large enough to enable easy access
for repair of the lining or any mechanical device within the tank. A secure hatch
should cover the filling opening to avoid spillage of the formulation while in use. In
order for the tank to be adaptable to all types of formulations, it should have a
mechanical agitator or a properly placed return of the overflow from the regulator.
A drain should be located at the lowest point of the tank and, preferably, should be
easily accessible. The inlet to the pump should be of adequate capacity to supply the
needs of the pump. An exterior plastic or glass liquid level gauge should be available
to check the actual or remaining quantity of pesticide in the tank. All of the newer
tanks and liners have been developed to overcome the serious problem of corrosion.
Pumps A pump is the most important part of the spraying system. It is imperative
that it is chosen to satisfy the widest range of applications unless its use is for a
single purpose. In most instances, the pump comes as an integral part of a complete
unit in which the engineering requirements have been satisfied. In other words, it
has been specifically designed and manufactured by a company in this field. As one
can imagine, there are many styles of pumps, some specifically for high gallonage
delivery with little pressure, while others are styled for both small and large
delivered quantities and high pressure. The most common types of pumps are
discussed in the following section.
1. Piston Pump: It is one of the most common pumps in existence, which has the
ability to produce large volumes at high pressure—for example, 55 gal per
minute at 800 psi. However, it can also be regulated to deliver 2 gal per minute
at 150 psi. The only feature which makes this type of pump undesirable is its
pulsating action on hoses and regulators which causes them to wear at a rate
faster than that with other types of pumps.
2. Centrifugal Pumps: It is one among the best pumps noted for its ability to
deliver high volumes of liquid at low pressure. These are constructed to handle
corrosive and abrasive materials.
3. Roller Pumps: This is a popular pump in the industry because of its wide
variety of uses. It has either nylon or rubber rollers and can produce a wide
range of volumes and pressures.
4. Internal and External Gear Pumps: These are the high-pressure pumps which
produce limited volumes. Although all pumps diminish in efficiency from wear,
this is more critical in this specific model.
5. Diaphragm Pump: It is one of the low-volume pumps and the main restriction
is related to using a material which will not affect the material of the diaphragm.
6. Flexible Impeder Pump: It is a pump restricted to low pressure and limited volume.
7. Vane Pump: This pump requires materials which afford some lubricating
properties.
14 V. Dhananjayan et al.

Hoses The object of any hose is to convey a liquid from the power source to the
target. The material of which hoses are made varies considerably. Originally, most
hoses were constructed of natural rubber, but today, synthetic rubber, plastic or
sometimes both are commonly used. As with so many other aspects of equipment in
this industry, it is important to know what is expected of the hose relative to
performance.
Nozzles There are many types of nozzles, of which the primary concern is that the
specific type provides the pattern desired. Generally, the pattern is confined to a
solid/pin stream, to a fan or to a hollow/solid cone nozzle. Many of the above
combinations are available in adjustable brass, but can also be made of stainless
steel, aluminium and sometimes wearable parts of plastic. Except for nozzles used
on small equipment, the gallonage delivered by a specific nozzle, regardless of
design, should be clearly known by the applicator. The capacity of the pump, the
pressure on the liquid, the friction loss and size of the hose, and the size of the
orifice in the nozzle will govern the ultimate gallonage delivered from the nozzle.
Strainers These are screens made of various materials, preferably stainless steel,
which usually are 50 mesh or coarser. They are located at the filling opening,
suction line to the pump and the nozzle tip. Their presence is to prevent any foreign
substance access to the spraying system. Routine cleanings are imperative not only
for the sprayers to function properly, but also extremely important if the calibrated
delivery system is functioning accurately.
Valves There are many types of valves with some being extremely sophisticated.
Their purpose is to shut off the flow of the liquid. Consequently, they are strate-
gically located to be most effective in the advent of an emergency or in the normal
function of the shutting off of the supply of liquid pesticides.
Pressure Regulators As the name implies, this unit controls the pressure of the
liquid being delivered to the nozzle. As with many other parts, there are numerous
types of regulators. Spring tension which is controlled by a hand-adjusted screw
mechanism exerts pressure on the liquid as it flows through the regulator on its way
to the nozzle. They can be operated from zero pressure to as high as 800 psi. The
indicator/gauge for pressure is located adjacent to or is a component part of the
regulator and, as indicated, records the pressure as pounds per square inch. In
addition to establishing the pressure, a provision exists for the excess or overflow to
bypass the regulator and return to the tank. In many sprayers, this return line is
located near the bottom of the tank and can be either the primary or secondary
measure in the agitation of the spray material in the tank.
Agitators This is a means by which the contents of a spray tank are mixed and
agitated. The object is to keep the pesticide in continuous suspension so that it
results in an even distribution of the material. In some formulations (wettable
powders), mechanical is the only type of agitation that maintains suspension. In this
method, a set of paddles is attached to a horizontally located shaft at the lower
portion of the tank. Exteriorly, the shaft is connected to the power source. Bypass
1 Conventional Methods of Pesticide Application in Agricultural … 15

agitators are a frequently used method of agitation. This technique utilizes the
overflow from the regulator to stir the contents of a tank.
Gas Generating Sprayers There are essentially two types of gas generated
sprayers, floating piston type and the very common aerosol spray-cans. In the
former, a cylinder with a floating piston having nitrogen gas is in one end of the
cylinder and the pesticide, which is pumped under pressure of 300–1000 lb/in.2, at
the opposite end. This compresses the piston against the nitrogen and forces the
insecticide through a high-pressure hose into a very fine orifice nozzle. Although it
can be used independently for a limited time, it depends upon a pump situated
reasonably close to the job for reloading. Aerosol can dispersal of pesticides,
although not new, has been very popular both with the public and with pest control
operators. Their range in capacity, from 6 oz to 30 gal, has made them very pop-
ular. The small sizes have push type release nozzles, while those with a capacity of
5 lb and up have a mechanical shut-off nozzle. They also come particularly in the
sizes of less than 5 lb, in disposable type containers. Their construction is very
simple, consisting of a container in which designated amounts of pesticides and
freon are placed. As long as the temperature in the vicinity of the area, the material
to be dispersed, is warm, the freon will propel the pesticide out of the orifice.

Farmworker applying liquid insecticide using hand-operated backpack sprayer

(photo by S. Jayakumar)
16 V. Dhananjayan et al.

Farmworker applying liquid insecticide using power-operated sprayer (photo by

S. Jayakumar)

Farmworker applying liquid insecticide using backpack sprayer with round nozzle
(photo by S. Jayakumar)
1 Conventional Methods of Pesticide Application in Agricultural … 17

Farmer applying granular pesticide without using personal protective equipment

(PPE) (photo by S. Jayakumar)

Granular Application As the name implies, the applicator used to apply granular
formulations of pesticides in field. Essentially, these are small hopper-type units
with an orifice for the material to drop onto the crank-operated spinning disc which
throws the material over a 15- to 20-foot swath. Also, the same equipment is
available in gasoline or power take-off drives which employ the same above
principle only on a larger scale. Granules are ready for immediate application.
Granular applicators, except in the case of weed control, are rarely used in pest
control process (TNAU Aagritech Portal, http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/index.html).
Brush Application Brush application quite often is recommended on the label for
use in areas where a wet application is desired; however, care is to be exercised in
preventing the movement of a pesticide to non-target areas. This technique is
usually confined to application along baseboards, window sills and door thresholds.
Fumigant Injection The only fumigant injection method which might be used by
a structural pesticide applicator, other than those described in the section on
fumigation, is local spot injection for control of dry wood termites and wood boring
beetles. This technique utilizes a small hand-held CO2 pressurized application with
a nozzle designed to penetrate into either the small emergence holes created by the
insects or specially drilled holes which open into the galleries.
Spot Treatment Spot treatment is an application to limited areas on which insects
are likely to occur, but which will not be in contact with food or utensils and will
not ordinarily be in contact with workers. These areas may occur on floors, walls
18 V. Dhananjayan et al.

and bases or outsides of equipment. For this purpose, a ‘spot’ shall not exceed two
square feet.
Crack and Crevice Treatment Crack and crevice treatment is the application of
small amounts of insecticides into cracks and crevices in which insects hide or
through which they may enter into a building. Such small openings commonly
occur in expansion joints, between different elements of construction, and between
equipment and floors. These openings may lead to voids such as hollow walls,
equipment legs and bases, conduits, motor housings or switch boxes.
Ultra-Low-Volume Application (ULV) Ultra-low-volume application is the
spraying of undiluted pesticides in small volume, usually at rates of 1/2 gal per acre
or even less. This term when used in structural applications has a somewhat dif-
ferent meaning. It is sometimes referred to as ultra-low dosage (ULD). The prin-
ciple of ULV application is the dispensing of a low volume of insecticides over
relatively larger areas. This technique is accomplished by breaking the insecticides
down into tiny particles prior to applications.
Soil Injection This technique employs a long hollow, pointed probe connected to a
spray rig and a shut-off valve at the top of the injector. It is mostly used in placing
termiticides deep into the soil around exterior foundation.
Sub-Slab Injection This technique is used for treating soil beneath slabs for the
control of subterranean termites. It is one of the most useful tools developed for
termite control. The sub-slab injector can be adapted to both 1/2 and 3/4-in holes
drilled in slab. The inability to know exactly the direction of the flow beneath the
slab is considered as the disadvantage of this technique. The application method
depends on the nature and habits of the target pests, characteristics of the target sites
and properties of the pesticide formulations. One must consider the suitability of the
application equipment, cost and efficiency of alternative methods.
Wiper Applicator It could be used to wipe a non-selective herbicide to selectively
kill individual weeds. The wiper’s wetness must be less than dripping and handled
carefully to avoid accidentally treating desired plants.

1.5 Maintenance of Equipment

Plant protection machines in general are not well maintained regularly either in
godowns/depots where they are stored or in the field where they are used. Life of a
machine depends entirely on its care and maintenance. Even though machines are
made with high standards of skill and workmanship, they can easily be ruined due
to improper care and maintenance. Good and constant performance from machines
can be obtained only when they are used and serviced periodically. The purpose of
1 Conventional Methods of Pesticide Application in Agricultural … 19

maintaining a machine is for increasing the useful life of the machine and to be
available in working order whenever put to use. The maintenance of a machine
involves proper care, operation, servicing, repair and keeping it in good working
order.

1.5.1 Maintenance

Normal maintenance jobs include cleaning the equipments and applying necessary
lubricating oils and greases to the rubbing and moving parts. If this normal
maintenance is neglected, the machine gets rusted and moving parts wear out
quickly resulting in loss of efficiency, frequent replacement of spare parts and
finally uneconomical working. Besides the normal maintenance as above, special
care has to be taken for maintaining the plant protection equipments. The pesticide
formulations are chemically aggressive on metals/other materials. The cleaning and
washing of the chemical tanks, discharge lines, nozzles, etc., are to be done reg-
ularly after the day’s spraying work is completed; otherwise the residues of
chemicals used for spraying act on the parts and cause corrosion and deterioration
of materials. If this aspect of thorough cleaning is not done on the plant protection
machine, even though it is made of high standard materials, it will not serve its
normal life and would lead to premature condemnation.

1.5.2 Maintenance of Hand-Operated Equipments

1. Cleaning the chemical tanks, hoses, valves and nozzles, etc., and flushing suf-
ficiently to avoid pesticide residue which is corrosive.
2. Cleaning the machine equally well from outside also as it is contaminated due to
leakage and spilling of pesticides.
3. Lubricating suitably the pump parts like piston, cylinder, valves and other
rotating, sliding, moving parts.
4. Storage of machine in dry place duly protected from sun and rain.

1.5.3 Maintenance of Power-Operated Equipments

All the above maintenance jobs apply to power equipments also. But the engines
have to be taken care of specially. All engines need fuel, air and proper system of
ignition. Thus, in petrol engine, clean petrol, clean air and healthy ignition (spark
plug and magnets) are essential. Besides those, the engine also needs perfect
lubrication. In two-stroke petrol engine, care must be taken to mix lubricating oil
20 V. Dhananjayan et al.

and petrol in exact ratio as recommended by engine manufacturer. Similarly, in

four-stroke petrol engine, the lubricating oil should be kept in sufficient quantity by
observing the level gauge. The air cleaner should be cleaned occasionally. The
spark plugs should be also cleaned, carbon removed and proper electrode gap
should be maintained. The two-stroke petrol engines used in low-volume spraying
should invariably be in good order; otherwise, the pesticide spraying will not be
efficient. Sufficient care should be taken at the depots to clean, oil and check
equipment periodically when they are stored, whenever machines are sent out to
work, and when returned from fieldwork. This minimum care to inspect the
equipment, clean and flush and keep it duly oiled, would go a long way in
improving the availability of good working sprayers and dusters and also pro-
longing their useful life [21].

1.5.4 Repairs and Replacements

The plant protection equipment is often found requiring frequent repairs and
replacements in nature. Hand-operated equipment generally needs minor repairs
such as replacement of plunger washers, springs and nozzle, and these repairs could
as well be attended by the operators themselves with little training and experience.
It is essential to supply them the necessary spare parts and tools well in time for
repairing. In the case of power-operated sprayers, the engine repairs are classified
into minor and major respires.
1. Minor Repairs: Spark plug cleaning and adjustment, air cleaner, carburettor
cleaning, fuel cock and lines cleaning and starter repairs are considered as minor
retirements; it can be attended by the operators themselves with little experience
and training.
2. Major Repairs: These repairs include replacement of parts like piston, rings,
liners, crankshaft, bearings, valves, etc. These repairs have to be carried out
systematically in well-equipped workshops by the competent and trained
mechanics. Untrained personnel should not be allowed to handle such major
repairs.

1.5.5 Suggestions on Maintenance

To improve the maintenance of sprayers and dusters, the following suggestions are
made:
1. Plant protection equipment manufacturers, their dealers, state agricultural
engineering workshops and extension officers need better coordination and
cooperation to reduce the number of sick equipment.
1 Conventional Methods of Pesticide Application in Agricultural … 21

2. The field operating staff needs to be given the orientation training on proper
maintenance, repairs, operations and calibration of equipment on periodic basis.
3. An adequate number of mechanics and supervisory staffs have to be posted for
checking the maintenance and effectiveness of equipment.
4. A district-wise service station could be established, which certainly facilitates
the users to repair their power-operated equipment within their zone.

1.5.6 Safety Systems

Pesticide Containment Pad If one often stores, handles, mixes and loads pesti-
cides, or cleans equipment at the same location, one must have to install a pesticide
containment pad (as per EPA to determine when a containment pad is required).
These pads are designed to contain spills, leaks, overflows and wastewater for reuse
by the applicator or for disposal by a commercial waste management contractor.
They make it easier to clean up spills and help to prevent environmental
contamination.
Impervious Containment Pad Generally, the containment pad must be made of
impermeable material. It should be concave or have curbs and berms/walls high
enough to hold the largest amount of spill, leak or equipment wash water likely to
occur at the site. It must also have a system to remove and recover spilled, leaked or
released material by either an automatic pump system or a manually operated
pump. Smaller, portable pads and lightweight trays made of heavy-duty plastic may
be used when mixing and loading at the application site.

1.5.7 Sprayer Components

Tank A tank is necessary to contain the spray mix. Choose one made of, or coated
with, a material that does not corrode and that can be cleaned easily. Cleaning
prevents accumulations of corrosion and dirt that clog screens and nozzles,
increasing wear on the equipment. Large tanks require an opening in the bottom to
aid in cleaning and draining. A large top opening is useful for filling, cleaning and
inspecting the tank. The opening must have a watertight cover to prevent spills.
A tank agitation system/device is useful for most sprayable formulations, especially
for wettable powders or dry flowables. Constant mixing of a pesticide and liquid
carrier produces a uniform spray mixture (suspension) and results in an even
application of the chemical.
Exposure to sunlight and corrosive chemicals can shorten the life of polyethylene
tanks.
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
had eaten well but not wisely, had his wheel as well as himself to
navigate and was frequently heard regretting the fact that he had
yielded to the blandishments of the others and fetched it along! More
than once the party came to a pause while Joe, leading, gingerly
sought the direction of the erratic wagon road. The fog began to
depress them and affected even Tolly’s good-nature. Twilight
deepened the gloom and called for an increase of caution, and Joe
had just finished an admonition to keep well toward the mountain
side of the road when the accident happened.
There was a sharp exclamation of dismay and then a crashing of
the bushes and low, stunted trees and silence. “What’s that?” called
Joe startledly. “Anyone hurt?”
“Someone went over!” cried Hal. “Terry, I think!”
“I’m here! Tolly?”
“Here! I think it was Phil. O Phil!” There was no answer. They
called again, creeping cautiously to the unguarded edge of the road.
“I heard someone stumble,” gasped Hal, “and then something that
sounded like ‘Gee!’ and then——”
“We’ve got to go down there,” said Joe. “I wish we had a flashlight.
Who’s got matches?”
They found him presently, thirty feet below, lodged against a small
boulder that projected from the steep face of the cliff. They could get
no reply to their anxious appeals, and when, by the light of many
matches that burned dimly in the heavy mist, they found the back of
his head wet with blood the explanation confronted them. Tolly went
quite to pieces and babbled incoherently, but the others, to their
credit, kept their heads in spite of their horror and fear. It was a hard
task to get him back to the road, but they did it at last, and then an
attempt was made to use the bicycle as an ambulance. But two trials
showed the impossibility of that, for the road was never meant for
bicycle traffic. To search for poles to make a litter of was out of the
question, for the trees were small, wind-twisted things and the gloom
was too deep for searching further. In the end it was Terry’s plan that
was adopted. The others were to carry Phil between them as best
they might and he would take the bicycle and get to Pearson as fast
as he could and bring the doctor back.
Terry is not likely to forget that ride down the side of Bald Mountain
even if he lives far beyond the allotted age of man. Once started
there was no actual stopping, since he discovered to his dismay that
Tolly’s wheel had no coaster brake. All he could do was hold back to
the best of his ability, try to keep away from the outer edge of the
road and trust to luck. Fortunately the fog thinned almost at once and
the road was dimly visible ahead. But rocks and ruts were not visible,
at least not in time for avoidance, and more than a dozen times
Terry’s heart jumped into his throat as he felt the wheel bound aside
perilously near the edge. After a minute or two the descent became
more gradual and the roadbed better and he threw discretion to the
winds and went tearing, bounding down, clinging to handlebars and
saddle on a mad coast. In spite of his danger, or perhaps because of
it, there was an exhilaration that made him forget for a moment or
two the purpose of his errand. But then a vision of Phil’s white face
under the dim light of flickering matches returned to him and he
shuddered and would have gone faster yet had that been possible.
Then the mountain road straightened out, the fog was gone, the wind
ceased roaring past his ears and making his eyes water and lights
shone faintly through the late twilight ahead. Short of the village he
found his pedals again and, save that his cap had left him far back,
presented a fairly reputable appearance as he brought up before the
gate of the little white house on which he had noted in the afternoon
a doctor’s sign. Fortunately the physician, a middle-aged and rather
stodgy man, was at home, and fortunately too his small automobile
was standing in the lane beside the house, its little engine chugging
merrily, and in less than four minutes Terry had leaned Tolly’s bicycle
against the white picket fence and was rattling and jouncing away
into the early darkness with Doctor Strang. Presently the little car
was panting against the increasing grade but still going well, dodging
stones and obstacles, and before it was forced to acknowledge
defeat Joe, Hal and Tolly came into sight through the darkness with
Phil on their shoulders.
 Then, with Phil on the back seat of the car and the boys hanging
on wherever they could, the automobile was somehow turned and
sent racing down the road again. Terry helped carry the still
unconscious boy into the doctor’s office and then stood by while an
examination was made. There was one long sigh of relief from all
when the verdict was given. Phil had had a pretty hard blow on the
base of the brain, producing unconsciousness, explained Doctor
Strang, but there appeared to be no fracture of the skull, and it was
likely that a few days in bed would bring him around where he could
try more fool stunts like walking off the side of a mountain! After that
the doctor got efficiently busy and ten minutes later Phil, conscious
again, but pretty well bruised and not inclined to talk, was back in the
car and they set off for Maple Park. It was nearly nine when they
reached school and long after midnight before sleep came to either
Terry or Joe.
Phil was a sick looking boy when Terry came in to see him for a
minute the next afternoon in the infirmary, but he spoke hopefully of
being all right by Thursday and Terry went off to the field presently
with no premonition of what awaited him there. Lacon’s list of entries
had arrived and Mr. Cramer and Steve Cooper, the latter captain of
the Track Team and Maple Park’s all-around athlete, had looked it
over and gone into executive session. Lacon had six nominees for
the mile run against Maple Park’s three. Of course she might not
start them all when the time came, but if she did Maple Park was due
for a hard time. Six against three, with all the possibilities of pace-
making, pocketing and general team-work, was too great an odds,
and coach and captain did some tall thinking. If Hyde was able to run
they might chance it, but if he wasn’t they would have only Gordon
and Pillon; two entries against six!
“I don’t like it,” said Mr. Cramer. “It doesn’t look good, Cap.
Whether Hyde enters or doesn’t it’s safe to say that he won’t be
much use to us. I’m for filling up with two or three men to make it
look like a race, anyway. We can count on Gordon copping first or
second place, but we need more points than that. That Lacon bunch
can kill off Pillon easily. Look here, let’s start a couple of half-milers.
They can’t do any harm and they may worry Lacon a bit. If Howland
makes the pace half-way through it may upset Lacon’s calculations
and let us edge in for third place. Howland and Green and—I wonder
about young Wendell, Cap. The boy’s got a lot of grit and he will try
anything you can show him. And I’m not so sure he isn’t meant for a
miler, anyway. At least he might give those red-and-gray fellows a
tussle. Sound fair?”
Cooper thought it did, and that’s why, when the day’s workouts
were over three surprised half-milers were trying to get used to the
knowledge that just three days later they were to “kill themselves” in
two laps of a mile run. Neither Howland nor Green showed much
enthusiasm at the prospect. There would be perhaps thirty minutes
between the races, but Howland didn’t think that he would have
much appetite for the mile after running the half, no matter how
much rest he got between whiles. And Green spoke to much the
same effect. Of the three only Terry was pleased. Terry was more
than pleased. He was supremely delighted. He didn’t imagine for a
moment that he would secure first place, or second, or third, but he
had a sort of sneaking idea that fourth place might not be beyond the
possibilities, and when he recalled that rash boast to Walt Gordon he
realized that one point might save him from utter disgrace. He had
often wondered why on earth he had ever issued such a crazy
challenge as that! He had as much chance of winning more points
than Walt as—as he had of flying!
There was easy work on Tuesday and none at all on Wednesday,
save that certain of the team were sent on a walk into the country in
the afternoon. Terry was among them. So was Walt Gordon, still
haughty and contemptuous. Hyde was not. It was known now that
Phil had been dropped. He was still in bed and still plastered and
bandaged. Maple Park wasn’t thinking any too well of her chances of
winning the Meet just then. Terry was no longer down for the four-
forty. In something under three weeks he had developed from a
quarter-miler into a distance runner, which was, to use Tolly’s phrase,
“going some!” As the day of the Meet drew near Terry began to
experience a mild form of stage-fright, and there were moments
when he almost, if not quite, wished that he had been less ambitious
and had only the four-forty to win or fail in.
 Thursday dawned with a drizzling rain. Before noon the sun came
out hotly, but the track was sodden and slow and the jumping-pits
little better than mud-holes. Lacon arrived, colorful and noisy, at
twelve and by two o’clock the athletic field was a busy scene. The
small grand-stand was crowded and spectators to the number of
nearly a thousand lined the rope outside the track. A tent which flew
the cardinal-and-gray of Lacon Academy had been set up as a
dressing place for the visitors and about it lolled or strolled a fine-
looking band of invaders. The trials in the 100-yards dash opened
the event, while pole-vaulters and jumpers began their leisurely
competitions.
Maple Park showed up badly in the first events. Hal Merrill won
her only first in the sprints and got a second place in the high
hurdles. In the low hurdles he failed to qualify, getting a poor start
and not being able to make it up. The quarter-mile went to Lacon
and she took eight of the eleven points. In the field events, however,
the home team was showing up unexpectedly well and, when the
half-mile was called, the adversaries were running close as to
scores. That half-mile proved to be a pretty run. In spite of rumor,
Lacon was not so strong as feared, and Howland finished a good
eight yards ahead of the next runner, a Lacon youth. Terry got third
place, to everyone’s surprise, beating out a red-and-gray boy in the
final twenty yards. Terry got more applause from his schoolmates
than Howland, I think, and walked back to the gymnasium breathless
but delighted. At last, he told himself, he had really succeeded in
something, and even if winning third place and thereby adding two
points to Maple Park’s score wasn’t anything to gloat over it was
highly satisfactory to him!
With all events save the mile run, the hammer throw and the pole
vault decided it was still anyone’s victory. Maple Park had 51 points
and Lacon 48. Then, while the milers were limbering up in front of
the grand-stand, word came of the hammer-throw and Lacon had
taken six of the eleven points and was now but two points behind.
She had already secured a first in the pole-vault and it was a
question what of the remaining places she would capture. It very
suddenly dawned on the spectators that the Meet hinged on the last
event and that the victory would likely go to the team winning the
majority of points in the mile run!
Perhaps it was as well for Terry’s peace of mind that he didn’t
know that, for he was feeling rather out of his element and extremely
doubtful as to the part he was to play. His instructions had been to
get up with Howland and Green and force the running as long as he
could, taking the lead from Howland, in case that runner secured it,
and making the pace a hot one to at least the end of the second lap.
But they had placed him in the second row of starters and well
toward the outer edge of the track and he foresaw difficulties in
making his way to the front. Gordon was almost directly ahead and
Pillon was second man from the pole in the first rank, with Howland
rubbing elbows with him. Then the word came to get set and an
instant later they were off, crowding in toward the board, jostling and
scurrying. But that didn’t last long. In a moment or two all had found
their places, a long-legged Lacon runner named Shores setting the
pace. At the turn Pillon went past Shores and Howland passed
Pillon. Terry was in fifth place, with Green just ahead. Walt Gordon
was seventh man and Mullins, the Lacon hope, was ninth. Once
around the turn Howland caused a ripple of surprise by drawing
ahead at a killing pace. Shores accepted the challenge and the
leaders generally moved faster, but neither Gordon nor Mullins
altered their speed a mite. Terry moved into fourth place and the field
began to string out. Howland kept the lead to the end of the lap and
then weakened, and Terry, remembering instructions, strove to get to
the front. But Green was at his toes and a Lacon runner had him
effectually pocketed as they went into the turn. Consequently it was
Green who became pace-maker, and a hard pace he set. One by
one the tail-enders fell farther and farther away and the contestants
formed into two groups. At the half distance the order was Green,
Shores, Pillon, Terry, an unknown Lacon runner, Gordon and Mullins.
Well back trailed Howland and three Lacon men.
Green was soon finished as a pace-maker and in the back-stretch
Shores was again in front. As Green dropped back to Terry he
gasped: “Get up there, Wendell!” And Terry tried, but the Lacon
unknown moved even and held him at every attempt, and then came
the turn and Terry gave it up. The race was telling on him now and
his legs were getting heavy and his lungs hot. Into the homestretch
they went, the crowd shouting wildly. As they sped past the mark the
brazen gong clanged, announcing the beginning of the last lap, and
at that instant Mullins dug his spikes and edged himself forward.
Past his team-mate he went, past Terry, past Pillon, and took his
place close behind Shores. From behind him Terry heard the Lacon
supporters shout their triumph. He wondered where Walt was. Every
instant he expected to see the blue-and-white runner edge past him.
But they made the turn and straightened out and still Gordon held
back. Terry grew frightened then. Shores and Mullins were gaining.
Pillon came back steadily as Terry dug harder and sought to
overtake the leaders. The unknown Lacon man—his name later
turned out to have been Geary, but at the time Terry had to hate him
without being able to put a name to him—crept up and past. Terry’s
fleeting glimpse of him showed him a runner nearly “all in” but
making a desperate effort. Terry took courage and set his pace by
the unknown’s. And just then the sound from across the oval took on
a new note and something appeared at Terry’s shoulder and slowly
moved into sight and Terry, to his great relief, saw that the something
was Walt Gordon.
It was only when Walt had put a half-dozen yards between them
and leaned to the turn that Terry realized with sudden alarm that Walt
was in little better condition than the unknown who, just in front of
Terry, was wavering badly, his head sagging. Shores yielded the lead
to Mullins half-way around the turn and an instant later Terry passed
the unknown. He was running now with only a firm determination to
finish. It would have been the greatest joy in life to have staggered
aside and dropped full-length on the blurred expanse of sod at his
feet. He wasn’t even thinking of points or places. He only wanted to
finish what he had started, and he prayed silently and incoherently to
be allowed to keep his feet past that distant white mark.
Down at the finish were straining eyes and taut nerves, for the
pole-vault was over and Lacon had won first place and fourth and
the score now stood 61 to 60 in favor of Maple Park. As the runners
made the turn Maple Park’s supporters read defeat. Showing the
pace, but still looking strong, came Mullins with a good five yard lead
over Gordon, who was a scant yard ahead of Shores. Four or five
paces behind them was Pillon, about ready to quit, and Terry,
scarcely less willing. The unknown had disappeared. If Gordon had
looked better Maple Park would have found reason to hope, but he
was already slipping. For once his well-known ability to sprint at the
finish was lacking. Terry, looking across the last corner, saw Walt’s
head fall back. Walt recovered the next instant, but Terry understood.
Pillon, too, was giving up. There was nothing to it now but Lacon,
and maybe the Meet would go to the Cardinal-and-White! Terry’s
distorted face writhed with a scowl. If only he had somehow kept
himself fresher! If only he could cut down that distance! They were in
the homestretch now and the finish was in sight. There wasn’t time,
even if he had the strength and lungs.
Pillon was no longer in sight to Terry now: only Shores, wobbling
on his long, spindly legs, Walt, losing at every stride, and Mullins,
ready to drop but still fighting. Still fighting! Why, two could play at
that game! After all, thought Terry, he was still there and his legs
were still working under him and his breath was still coming! Perhaps
if he tried desperately—— There might be time——.
Somehow he reached Shores, ran even with him for an instant
and passed him. Then Walt came back to him, slowly but surely. He
was running in a dream now, a dream filled with a great noise that
seemed to come from very far away, a dream that was a nightmare
of leaden limbs and aching lungs and tired body. He felt no triumph
when he pulled up to Walt, no exultation when he went past him. He
hardly knew that he had done so. His wavering gaze was fixed on
the one last form between him and the nearing goal. He knew now
that he could never overtake it, but he kept on, doggedly, fighting
against exhaustion at every stride. The great noise was louder in his
ears but meant nothing to him. A little distance away down that
interminable gray path other forms were stretched from rim to rim.
When he got there he would be through. That would be wonderful!
Something tried to get in his way and he weakly put out a hand as
though to push it aside, but some saving sense, or it may have been
utter weakness, prevented, and he let it fall again. He scraped slowly
past the obstacle, slowly because the obstacle appeared to be going
his way and hung at his elbow for what seemed long minutes, and
staggered on. Once his feet got sort of confused and he nearly fell,
but he saved himself. He had forgotten Mullins now, everything save
his desire to reach that goal, to finish what he had attempted, to
come through! And suddenly he was struggling weakly against arms
that tried to hold him back, panting, swaying.
“Let me alone!” he gasped. “Let me—finish!”
“You have finished, Terry!” said a voice that was very far away.
“You’ve won, you crazy kid!”

So that’s how Terry “came through” and how Maple Park School
discovered a new miler. Also how the Blue-and-White won the Dual
Meet from Lacon, for Walt Gordon staggered over in fourth place,
making the final figures 67 to 65. Walt was never quite the same
after that, for his self-esteem had had a pretty severe blow, and as a
result he was much more likeable. He must have been, else he and
Terry would never have roomed together the next year.
 SPOOKS

D aniel Webster Jones, Jr., had solemnly pronounced anathema,

malediction and imprecation upon Talbot Cummings. He had put
his whole heart and soul into it and concentrated until his head felt
funny. That had been yesterday afternoon, just after dinner, and now,
more than twenty-four hours later, there was Cummings stalking
untroubledly along the sloppy walk in the direction of the library, for
all the world as if Jonesie’s passionate utterances had been
benedictions and blessings. Gee, it was enough to make a fellow
doubt the efficacy of condemnation! Jonesie flattened his somewhat
button-like nose against the pane in order to watch his enemy’s
ascent of the library steps. It was February, and such things as steps
and walks were treacherous surfaces of glaring ice under pools of
water. But Cummings never even faltered, and Jonesie’s radiant
vision of his enemy prostrate with a number of broken limbs and all
sorts of mysterious internal injuries, to say nothing of outward
contusions, lacerations and abrasions, faded into thin air. A prey to
keen disappointment, his painfully oblique gaze unwavering, Jonesie
watched Cummings disappear and the big oak door closed behind
him.
Disconsolately he sank back on the window-seat, rearranged his
feet on “Sparrow” Bowles’ treasured crimson silk cushion and again
took up his book. But although it was one of Kingston’s corkingest
sea-yarns, to-day it failed to hold Jonesie’s attention, and presently it
was face-down on that young gentleman’s stomach while his
thoughts pursued the hated Cummings.
Cummings, you must know, had dealt a frightful blow at Jonesie’s
dignity. Cummings might call it a joke, but its victim viewed it rather
as a dastardly attempt to disgrace him. It had started with a perfectly
excusable confusion of words on Jonesie’s part; and if blame lay
anywhere save on Cummings it lay on the English language, which
contained words that looked alike and meant differently.
 Cummings, who roomed next door, had dropped in to borrow an
eraser, and while Jonesie, who didn’t possess such a thing, was
obligingly rummaging through the cherished treasures of the absent
room-mate, Cummings’s reptilian eye had fallen on a composition on
which his host had been engaged and which he had left on the table.
Jonesie had next heard a choking sound from the visitor and had
then witnessed his hurried departure, composition in hand.
Surprised, Jonesie had made outcry. Then, suspicious, nay, chilled
with dire apprehension, he had given chase. But a moment of delay
had been his undoing. Below on the steps, where, since it was a
mild, thawing day, most of the inhabitants of the dormitory were
awaiting two o’clock recitations, Cummings was already reading
aloud Jonesie’s epochal essay. “‘The ancient Greeks,’” gurgled the
traitorous Cummings, “‘had a law forbidding a man to have more
than one wife.’” The reader’s voice broke, and Jonesie felt that the
tears were near his eyes. “‘This they called monotony!’”
“Well, what’s wrong with it?” Jonesie had demanded indignantly,
striving to recover the paper. And that, somehow, had increased the
hilarity. After that it was no use pretending that he had discovered
the mistake and was in the act of remedying it when Cummings had
entered, no use declaring, as a final desperate resort, that he had
purposely written it that way for fun. No one believed him, no one
even listened to him. Everyone just laughed and laughed! For a
minute Jonesie had laughed, too, but he couldn’t keep it up. And
Cummings had waved the beastly paper out of his reach and gurgled
“‘This they called monotony’” over and over, until Jonesie’s temper
had fled and he had kicked at Cummings’s shins and promised to
get even if it took him a million years! He had said other things, too,
which we won’t set down here. And his tormentor had simply
laughed and choked and gurgled, and fought him off weakly until,
after awhile, a lucky grab had secured the torn and wrinkled paper
and Jonesie had fled back to his room with it. Since then life had
been a horrible nightmare. His appearance in class rooms had been
the signal for idiotic grins and whisperings. The demure smiles of the
instructors showed to what far distances the story had spread.
Dining hall was a torture chamber. “What was that law the ancient
Greeks had, Jonesie?” came to him across the table, or “Guess I’ll
try the apple sauce, Billy, just to vary the monotony.”
As I have said, the month was February, and February at prep
school corresponds to August in the larger world. It’s the “silly
season.” The weather is too utterly “punk” for outdoor life. Detestable
thaws ruin sledding, skating and skiing. It is still too early for Spring
sports. Even mid-year examinations are things of the past. Gray
skies, frequent rains, rotten ice, slush and mud: that’s February.
Studying wearies, reading palls, one tires of everything. Room-mates
who have lived together in harmony for months throw hair-brushes at
each other and don’t speak for days at a time. It is, in brief, a deadly
dull, wearisome season, a season in which the healthy boy
welcomes anything that promises to enliven his pallid existence,
when mischief finds its innings and when the weakest, sorriest joke
is hailed as roaring farce. At almost any other time the jest on
Jonesie would have been laughed at good-naturedly and forgotten
the next day, but now it was a thing to be treasured and acclaimed,
nourished and perpetuated. Jonesie knew that until baseball practice
started, or—or one of the school dormitories burned to the ground or
something equally interesting happened, he would not hear the end
of that putrid joke, and that if he had ever been uncertain of the
correct meaning of the word monotony that uncertainty was gone!
Disturbed by such knowledge, he stirred fretfully and the book fell
to the floor and lay there unheeded while his thoughts engaged the
subject of curses. He had always understood that a curse if properly
formulated and delivered with earnestness and solemnity invariably
did the business. Only just before Christmas Recess he had read a
corking story in which a quite ordinary curse had worked wonders.
He tried to find flaws in the maledictions he had cast on Cummings
but couldn’t. As he recalled them they were perfectly regular,
standard curses, and he didn’t see why nothing had happened. Of
course, it might be that curses didn’t act right off quick. Or it might be
—and Jonesie gave a mental jump at the thought—that it was
necessary to sort of help the curse along. Maybe it wasn’t enough to
just launch it: maybe you were supposed to get behind and shove! In
other words, if he wanted ill-fortune in its most dreaded form to
overwhelm the obnoxious Cummings perhaps he had better set his
mind at work and sort of—sort of think of something! Not a bad idea
at all! Besides, hadn’t he most earnestly promised Cummings to get
even with him? He had. Therefor——.
Jonesie knit his troubled brow and half closed his innocent gray-
blue eyes and gave himself to the problem. There was no use in
attempting physical punishment, for Cummings was seventeen and
Jonesie fourteen, and Cummings was tall and broad and mighty and
Jonesie was only what his age warranted. No, what was needed,
what was demanded was a revenge that would hold Cummings up to
public ridicule as Jonesie had been held up and keep him
suspended until the world tired of laughing. But just how——.
The door of the adjoining room banged shut and Jonesie knew
that Cummings had returned from the library. A second bang
proclaimed books deposited on the table. He hoped Cummings had
failed to get what he wanted. One usually did at the school library.
He heard his hated neighbor draw his chair to the window and heard
it creak under its load. If only, thought Jonesie, it would give way
instead of always threatening to! Eying the door between the rooms
that hid the enemy from sight, Jonesie contemplated a fresh curse;
something with more “pep” than yesterday’s; less academic and
more in the vernacular. But that would necessitate arising, and he
was very comfortable, and he decided to give the original curse
another twenty-four hours to deliver the goods; meanwhile, of
course, aiding and abetting said curse to the best of his ability so
soon as his cogitations should suggest——.
The cogitations ceased and Jonesie, his gaze still on the
communicating door, slid noiselessly from the window-seat and
tiptoed across the room until he stood in front of it. Then, thrusting
hands into pockets to aid thought, he began a slow, close and
minute study of it. It was quite an ordinary door, placed there when
the dormitory was built in order, presumably, that the two rooms
might be thrown together and used as study and sleeping apartment.
But Randall’s didn’t believe in too great luxury, and you drew only
one room and, if economical, shared it with another fellow. Talbot
Cummings didn’t share his, which to Jonesie was most satisfactory.
Jonesie whistled under his breath as his eager eyes became
acquainted with every niche and angle and knot and bit of hardware
before him. Of course the door was locked, and the key was
doubtless in safe keeping at the office, but besides being locked it
was secured by a bolt on each side; and some secretive former
occupant of Jonesie’s room had plugged up the keyhole with red
sealing-wax. When it did open it swung into the adjoining room, and,
as the hinges were on the inward side of the door, Jonesie was
denied contemplation of them. He was also denied contemplation of
the knob for the excellent reason that it was not there. He recalled
having detached it but couldn’t remember for what purpose. Not that
it mattered, however, for what is a knob between enemies?
At intervals Jonesie retired to the window-seat and scowled over
his problem. At intervals he arose hopefully and stared anew at the
door. Beyond it, unsuspecting of the malign influences at work,
Cummings read on in peace. The brief afternoon darkened to
twilight. Across the yard pale lemon-yellow pin-points of flame
struggled above the entrances. Below the door a thin line of radiance
indicated that Cummings had lighted up. But in Jonesie’s room
darkness crept from the shadowed corners until only the window
remained visible, a grayish oblong in the encompassing gloom. And
presently the eerie silence was shattered by the sound of a sinister
chuckle.
Daniel Webster Jones, Jr., arose phenomenally early the next
morning and at eight o’clock, having attended chapel and eaten a
hearty, if hurried breakfast, might have been seen entering the
popular hardware emporium of Bliss & Benedict. At four minutes to
nine, after a return journey through unfrequented streets and alleys
and an entrance to the building by way of the furnace room door, he
turned the key in the lock of Number 14 and unburdened himself of
numerous packages which he thereupon secreted where they would
be safe from the prying eyes of the chamber-maid. After which he
seized on certain books and hurried to a nine o’clock recitation.
It cannot be truthfully said that he was a shining success in
classrooms that morning, although he managed somehow to “fake”
through. His fresh, cherubic countenance shone with the light of a
high resolve and for the first time in two days he faced the world with
fearless eyes. Whispered jibes fell from him harmlessly. Instructors,
noting his innocence and nobility, viewed him with a suspicion born
of experience.
At ten-thirty Jonesie had a free half-hour. Returning to his
dormitory he glanced across to the second floor of Manning and was
filled with gratitude. For there, in the school infirmary, “Sparrow”
Bowles was interned with mumps. Three days ago Jonesie had
deeply resented his room-mate’s good fortune, charging the Fates
with inexcusable favoritism, but to-day he had no fault to find. Envy
and all uncharitableness had departed from him. Indeed, instead of
begrudging “Sparrow” his luck, he sincerely hoped that the malady
would continue for at least a week longer!
I now offer to your attention Talbot Cummings. Cummings was an
Upper Middler, a large, somewhat ungainly youth of seventeen
addicted to bookishness and boils. But in spite of much reading he
was not a learned nor brilliant youth, and in spite of the boils he had
little of Job’s patience. He thought rather well of himself, however,
and prided himself on a delicate wit which was really rather more
blatant than delicate. In spite of the fact that he avoided all forms of
athletics and abhorred physical exertion, he was well-built and, when
free from gauze and surgeon’s plaster, was rather comely. Upper
class fellows viewed him tolerantly and lower class boys pretended
an admiration they didn’t feel because he had an uncanny ability for
finding their weak spots and holding them up to ridicule. As has been
said, Cummings lived alone. In the matter of furnishings he affected
artistic simplicity, leaning toward fumed oak and brown leather. His
study—he liked to call it study rather than room—was supposed to
express individuality. The table was never littered. There was a very
good-looking drop-light with a near-Tiffany shade, three or four
soberly-clad books, an always-immaculate blotting-pad and a large
bronze ink-well which, as he invariably wrote with a fountain-pen,
was more ornamental than necessary. So much for the table. The
dresser, instead of being the repository for numerous photographs
and miscellaneous toilet articles, held a pair of silver-backed military
brushes, a silver shoe-horn and one large photograph in a silver
frame. The bookcase was always orderly. The window-seat adhered
to the color scheme of brown and tan, the tan necessitated by the
wall paper, which was not of his choosing. The cushions were of
brown ooze leather or craftsman’s canvas. If I have seemed to dwell
overlong on the room and its furnishings it is for a reason presently
to be perceived.
At a few minutes after twelve that day Cummings threw open the
door of his study and paused amazed. Nothing was where it should
have been. The lovely near-Tiffany shade rested precariously atop a
pile of pillows in the middle of the floor. The drop-light dangled over
the edge of the table. The volumes in the bookcase leaned tipsily
outward at various angles. The silver-framed photograph smiled
blithely from the top of the radiator. And so it went. Everything was
elaborately misplaced. Cummings viewed and swallowed hard,
doubled his fists and hammered at the portal of Daniel Webster
Jones, Jr. There was no reply and the door proved to be locked.
Bitterly, Cummings vowed that so his own door should be hereafter!
It took him a long time to restore order and he narrowly escaped
being late for dinner.
He failed to encounter Jonesie until four o’clock. Then they met in
a pool of water in front of Whipple and Cummings spoke his mind to
an amazed and uncomprehending audience. Cummings offered to
accommodate Jonesie in a number of ways, to wit: to break his head
for him, to kick him across the yard, to make his nose even stubbier
than it was and to report him to faculty. Jonesie closed with none of
the offers. Instead he viewed the irate Cummings with surprise and
heard him patiently, and in the end Cummings was assailed by
doubts, although he didn’t allow the fact to be known. Surely such an
innocent countenance and demeanor could not hide guile! Fearing
that he might apologize to Jonesie if he remained longer, he tore
himself away, muttering a last unconvincing threat.
Cummings slept that night, as always, with his door locked and a
chair-back tilted under the knob. (Once in his first year at Randall’s
there had been a midnight visitation attended by unpleasant and
degrading ceremonies.) In the morning he awoke to find that the
pillows had moved from the window-seat to the foot of the bed,
doubtless accounting for a certain half-sensed discomfort. Also that
his clothing, left neatly arranged over a chair, now lay scattered over
the floor. He arose in a murderous mood and tried the door. It was
securely locked, the key was in place and there was the guardian
chair just as he had left it. He cast unjustly suspicious looks at the
eleven-inch transom. It was closed as usual, nor could it be opened
from without in any case. He went to the window. Below was a sheer
twelve feet of straight brick wall. From his casement to the casement
on either side the distance was a good three yards. Then and not
until then his gaze fell on the communicating door and he said “Ha”
triumphantly and seized the knob. It came forth in his hands and he
staggered half across the room. When he had recovered himself he
said “Huh!” But further investigations left him still puzzled, for the
stout bolt on his own side of the door was shot into its socket and
secured. Cummings went to breakfast in a detached frame of mind
that caused him to walk into Mr. Mundy, the Hall Master, in the
corridor, and, later, to say “yes” when he meant to say “no.” As a
result of the latter mistake “Puffin” Welch seized on his second roll
and devoured it before Cummings awoke to the situation.
Thus, then, began the amazing series of depredatory visitations
that befell Talbot Cummings; or, rather, his study, for so long as he
was on hand nothing befell. All one morning he remained
uncomfortably concealed beneath the bed, thereby cutting four
recitations and being obliged to invent an unconvincing attack of
toothache. And while he lay there, inhaling dust, he heard Jonesie
arrive gayly next door, remain for a half-hour of song and depart
lightsomely. It was while he was describing that toothache to the
Principal that vandalism again occurred. When he returned, far from
happy, he found that, in spite of locked door and window, his near-
Tiffany shade sat on the rug surmounted by “Travels in Arctic Lands”
and the bronze ink-well, the latter, fortunately, empty. The silver-
framed photograph lay on its face and the contents of the lower
dresser drawer, or most of them, were lying about the floor.
Cummings dropped into a chair, grabbed his neatly-arranged hair in
both hands and raged.
 Like most persons who appreciate a joke on another, Cummings
hated ridicule when directed against himself. It was principally for
this reason that for three days he kept the matter quiet. A lesser
reason was that he didn’t like to believe that anyone was smarter
than Talbot Cummings and that he thought he could eventually
outwit the perpetrator of the dastardly deeds. His suspicions had
long since returned irrevocably to Jonesie. He recalled the incident
of the composition and Jonesie’s threats to get even. But there was
no use charging that youth again with the crime until he had proof,
and proof was not forthcoming. At first he suspected Jonesie of
having a duplicate key to the corridor door, but reflection told him
that all the duplicate keys in the world wouldn’t allow Jonesie or
anyone else to enter the room and retire without disturbing the key
that was on the inside or the chair that was under the knob. And after
he had added a specially large and heavy bolt he was still more
certain that the vandal did not come in that way. Neither did he enter
by the window. He proved that by locking it and finding it still locked
after the bed-clothes had transferred themselves to the window-seat.
Nor was it possible that Jonesie came in by the communicating door,
for there was the undisturbed bolt, a key-hole filled with sealing-wax
and a piece of paper still reposing between door and frame, just
where Cummings had craftily placed it. Cummings spent so much
time trying to solve the mystery that studies suffered and he was
spoken to harshly more than once. The thing even began to affect
his appetite, and at last, when seven separate times he had found
his study turned topsy-turvy, he offered an armistice.
“Come in!” called Jonesie.
Entered Cummings, smiling knowingly, and seated himself with a
fine nonchalance. Jonesie, looking up from Latin, eyed him with
disfavor.
“What you grinning about?” he demanded coldly.
Cummings winked and leered. “You win,” he announced cheerfully,
and managed a deprecatory laugh. Jonesie frowned darkly.
“Win what?”
 “You know. I don’t know how you do it—That is, I’m not certain, but
I have an idea. Anyhow, it’s clever, Jonesie. You had me guessing at
first, all right. But I guess we’re quits now, eh?”
“Would you mind giving me a hint? I’ve got Latin and math to get
and there isn’t much time for conundrums, Cummings. If it’s one of
the ‘What’s-the-difference-between’ kind, I never could guess those.”
“Oh, don’t keep it up. I tell you I give in, don’t I? What more do you
want?”
“Say, what are you gabbing about, anyway?” inquired Jonesie
crossly. “If you’ve got something on your mind come out with it.”
“You know plaguey well what I’m talking about,” replied
Cummings, losing his temper. “I came in here ready to call quits. If
you won’t have it, all right. Then I’ll go to Faculty. A joke’s a joke, but
you don’t need to keep it up forever!”
“Of course not; that’s what they call monotony,” Jonesie agreed
blandly. Cummings scowled.
“You think you’re smart, don’t you? Well, you won’t when you get
hauled up at the Office.”
“What for?”
“What for! For—for making a beastly pig-pen of my study! For
upsetting my things! You know what for!”
“Not again?” exclaimed Jonesie in shocked tones.
“Half a dozen times! More! I’m sick of it. A joke’s a joke——”
“You said that before,” said the other, sweetly. “Now look here,
Cummings: you blamed me two or three days ago for ‘pieing’ your
room. I stood for that, but I’m not going to have you keep it up all
——”
“Then you quit——”
“—The year. If—if you annoy me any more with—with your unjust
accusations I’ll go straight to Faculty. It—it’s getting monotonous.”
 Cummings’s jaw fell and for a moment speech deserted him. At
last: “You’ll go to Faculty! Ha, ha! Why, you—you little button-nosed
——”
“Never mind my nose. At least I keep it out of other fellows’ affairs!
I don’t——”
“You keep it out of my study then! Just once more——”
“Don’t be an ass, Cummings,” begged Jonesie. “How could I get
into your old study if the door’s locked? Use your bean.”
“I don’t know how you do it! I wish I did! But you do it! I’m sick of it.
And you’ll break something first thing you know! I—I ought to knock
the stuffing out of you, Jonesie, that’s what I ought to do. I’ve stood
mor’n most fellows would stand.”
“Try it and see what happens, old dear.”
“Oh, yes, you’d run to Faculty with it!”
“Like a shot,” agreed Jonesie.
“All right, two can do that. It’ll be probation for you just as soon
——”
“That doesn’t frighten me. When a fellow’s conscience is clear
——”
“Yah!” Cummings made for the door. “We’ll see! Just wait!”
“Right-o! But, I say, Cummings. If you want to know what I think, I
think it’s spooks!”
Cummings slammed the door behind him and Jonesie looking past
the green-shaded drop-light, fixed his gaze on a recently acquired
article of adornment, a large, brightly-colored calendar, which hung
on the knobless door, and winked gravely.
“Funny about Cummings’s spooks, isn’t it?” observed Jonesie later
to Turner, of the Lower Middle.
“Haven’t heard,” replied Turner eagerly. “What is it?”
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

textbookfull.com