Internet of things

EC600OE:FUNDAMENTALSOFINTERNETOFTHINGS

B.Tech.ECEIIIYearIISemester L T P C
3 0 0 3
CourseObjectives:Theobjectivesof thecourseareto:
1. understandtheconceptsofInternetofThingsandabletobuildIoTapplications
2. LearntheprogramminganduseofArduinoandRaspberryPiboards.
3. Knownaboutdata handlingand analyticsinSDN.

CourseOutcomes:Uponcompletingthiscourse, thestudentwillbeableto

1. Knownbasicprotocolsinsensornetworks.
2. ProgramandconfigureArduinoboardsforvariousdesigns.
3. Pythonprogramming andinterfacingforRaspberryPi.
4. DesignIoT applicationsindifferent domains.

UNIT–I
IntroductiontoInternet of Things, Characteristicsof
IoT,PhysicaldesignofIoT,FunctionalblocksofIoT,Sensing,Actuation,Basicsof
Networking,CommunicationProtocols,SensorNetworks.

UNIT-II
Machine-to-Machine Communications,Difference between IoT and M2M,
Interoperability inIoT,IntroductiontoArduinoProgramming,
IntegrationofSensorsandActuatorswithArduino,

UNIT–III
Introduction to Python programming, Introduction to Raspberry Pi, Interfacing
Raspberry Pi with basicperipherals,Implementation ofIoTwithRaspberryPi

UNIT-IV
Implementation of IoT with Raspberry Pi, Introduction to Software defined Network
(SDN), SDN forIoT,Data Handling and Analytics,

UNIT-V
Cloud Computing, Sensor-Cloud, Smart Cities and Smart Homes, Connected
Vehicles, Smart Grid,IndustrialIoT,CaseStudy:Agriculture,Healthcare,Activity
Monitoring

TEXTBOOKS:

1. "The Internet 'of Things: Enabling Technologies, Platforms, and Use Cases",
by Pethuru RajandAnupama C.Raman (CRC Press)
2. “Make sensors”: Terokarvinen, kemo, karvinen and villeyvaltokari, 1st
edition, maker media,2014.
3. "Internet ofThings:AHands-onApproach",byArshdeepBahgaandVijayMadisetti

REFERENCEBOOKS:

1. VijayMadisetti,ArshdeepBahga, “InternetofThings:AHands-OnApproach”
2. WaltenegusDargie,ChristianPoellabauer,"FundamentalsofWirelessSensor
Networks:TheoryandPractice"
3. BeginningSensornetworks withArduinoandRaspberryPi–CharlesBell,Apress, 2013
Unit 1
Introduction to IoT:
• Internet of things(IoT) comprises things that have unique identities
and are connected to the internet.
• While many existing devices, such as networked computers or 4G
enabled mobile phones, already have some form of unique identities and
are also connected to the internet, the focus on IoT is in the configuration,
control and networking via the internet of devices or “things” that are
traditionally not associated with the internet.
• The scope of IoT is not limited to just connecting things to the
Internet. IoT also allows these things to communicate and exchange data
while executing meaningful applications towards a common user or
machine goal.
Applications of IoT:

1) Home
2) Cities
3) Environment
4) Energy
5) Retail
6) Logistics
7) Agriculture
8) Industry
9) Health &LifeStyle

Definition and characteristics of IoT:

A Dynamic global network infrastructure with self configuring capabilities
based on standard and interoperable communication protocols where
physical and virtual “things” have identities, physical attributes, and
virtual personalities and use intelligent interfaces, and are seamlessly
integrated into information network , often communicate data associated
with users and their environments.
Characteristics:
• Dynamic and self adapting
• Self –configuring
• Interoperable communication protocols
• Unique identity
• Integrated into Information Network
Physical Design of IoT :
• The "Things" in IoT usually refers to IoT devices which have unique
identities and can perform remote sensing, actuating and monitoring
capabilities.
• IoT devices can:
• Exchange data with other connected devices and applications
(directly or indirectly), or
• Collect data from other devices and process the data locally or
• Send the data to centralized servers or cloud-based
application back-ends for processing the data,
• Perform some tasks locally and other tasks within the IoT
infrastructure, based on temporal and space constraints
Generic block diagram of an IoT Device
• An IoT device may consist of several interfaces for connections to other
devices, both wired and wireless.
• I/O interfaces for sensors
• Interfaces for Internet connectivity
• Memory and storage interfaces
• Audio/video interfaces.

• HDMI: High definition multimedia Interface.

• 3.5mm: Audio Jack which headphone adapter.
• RCA: Radio corporation of America.
• UART: Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter.
• SPI: Serial Peripheral Interface.
• I2C: Inter integrated circuit
• CAN: Controller Area Network used for Micro-controllers and devices
to communicate.
• SD: Secure digital (memory card)
• MMC: multimedia card
• SDIO: Secure digital Input Output
• GPU: Graphics processing unit.
• DDR: Double data rate
IoT Protocols:
a) Link Layer : Protocols determine how data is physically sent over
the network‘s physical layer or medium. Local network connect to which
host is attached. Hosts on the same link exchange data packets over the
link layer using link layer protocols. Link layer determines how packets are
coded and signalled by the h/w device over the medium to which the host
is attached.
Protocols:
 802.3-Ethernet: IEEE802.3 is collection of wired Ethernet standards for
the link layer. Eg: 802.3 uses co-axial cable; 802.3i uses copper twisted
pair connection; 802.3j uses fiber optic connection; 802.3ae uses Ethernet
overfiber.
 802.11-WiFi: IEEE802.11 is a collection of wireless LAN(WLAN)
communication standards including extensive description of link layer. Eg:
802.11a operates in 5GHz band, 802.11b and 802.11g operates in 2.4GHz
band, 802.11n operates in 2.4/5GHz band, 802.11ac operates in 5GHz
band, 802.11ad operates in 60Ghzband.
 802.16 - WiMax: IEEE802.16 is a collection of wireless broadband
standards including exclusive description of link layer. WiMax provide data
rates from 1.5 Mb/s to 1Gb/s.
 802.15.4-LR-WPAN: IEEE802.15.4 is a collection of standards for low rate
wireless personal area network(LR-WPAN). Basis for high level
communication protocols such as ZigBee. Provides data rate from 40kb/s
to250kb/s.
 2G/3G/4G-Mobile Communication: Data rates from 9.6kb/s(2G) to up
to100Mb/s(4G). B)
b) Network/Internet Layer:
Responsible for sending IP datagrams from source n/w to destination n/w.
Performs the host addressing and packet routing. Datagrams contains
source and destinationaddress.
Protocols:
 IPv4: Internet Protocol version4 is used to identify the devices on a n/w
using a hierarchical addressing scheme. 32 bit address. Allows total of
2*32addresses.
 IPv6: Internet Protocol version6 uses 128 bit address scheme and allows
2*128 addresses.
 6LOWPAN:
(IPv6overLowpowerWirelessPersonalAreaNetwork)operatesin2.4 GHz
frequency range and data transfer 250 kb/s.
C) Transport Layer:
Provides end-to-end message transfer capability independent of the
underlying n/w. Set up on connection with ACK as in TCP and without ACK
as in UDP. Provides functions such as error control, segmentation, flow
control and congestion control.
Protocols:
 TCP: Transmission Control Protocol used by web browsers(alongwith
HTTP and HTTPS), email(along with SMTP, FTP). Connection oriented and
stateless protocol. IP Protocol deals with sending packets, TCP ensures
reliable transmission of protocols in
order. Avoids n/w congestion and congestioncollapse.
 UDP: User Datagram Protocol is connectionless protocol. Useful in
time sensitive
applications, very small data units to exchange. Transaction oriented and
stateless
protocol. Does not provide guaranteeddelivery.
D) Application Layer: Defines how the applications interface with lower
layer protocols to
send data over the n/w. Enables process-to-process communication
usingports.
Protocols:
 HTTP: Hyper Text Transfer Protocol that forms foundation of WWW.
Follow requestresponse model Statelessprotocol.
 CoAP: Constrained Application Protocol for machine-to-
machine(M2M) applications with constrained devices, constrained
environment and constrained n/w. Uses client-server architecture.
 WebSocket: allows full duplex communication over a single
socketconnection.
 MQTT: Message Queue Telemetry Transport is light weight
messaging protocol based on publish-subscribe model. Uses client server
architecture. Well suited for constrained environment.
 XMPP: Extensible Message and Presence Protocol for real time
communication and streaming XML data between network entities.
Support client-server and server-server communication.
 DDS: Data Distribution Service is data centric middleware standards
for device-to-device or machine-to-machine communication. Uses publish-
subscribemodel.
 AMQP: Advanced Message Queuing Protocol is open application
layer protocol for business messaging. Supports both point-to-point and
publish-subscribemodel.

LOGICAL DESIGN of IoT

Refers to an abstract represent of entities and processes without going

into the low level specifies of implementation.
1) IoT Functional Blocks 2) IoT Communication Models 3) IoT Comm.
APIs

1) IoT Functional Blocks:

 Provide the system the capabilities for identification, sensing, actuation,
communication andmanagement
 Device: An IoT system comprises of devices that provide sensing,
actuation, monitoring and controlfunctions.
 Communication: handles the communicationfor IoTsystem.
 Services: for device monitoring, device control services, data
publishing services and services for devicediscovery.
 Management: Provides various functions to govern the IoTsystem.
 Security: Secures IoT system and priority functions such as
authentication,authorization, message and context integrity and
datasecurity.
 Application: IoT application provide an interface that the users can
use to control and monitor various aspects of IoTsystem.

2) IoT Communication Models:

A) Request-Response B) Publish-Subscribe C)Push-Pull D) ExclusivePair

A) Request-Response
Request-Response is a communication model in which the client sends
requests to the server and the server responds to the requests. When the
server receives a request, it decides how to respond, fetches the data,
retrieves resource representations, prepares the response, and then
sends the response to the client.
B) Publish-Subscribe communication model:
a. Publish-Subscribe is a communication model that involves
publishers, brokers and consumers.
b. Publishers are the source of data. Publishers send the data to
the topics which are managed by the broker. Publishers are
not aware of the consumers.
c. Consumers subscribe to the topics which are managed by the
broker.
d. When the broker receives data for a topic from the publisher,
it sends the data to all the subscribed consumers
C) Push-Pull communication model:
a. Push-Pull is a communication model in which the data
producers push the data to queues and the consumers pull
the data from the queues. Producers do not need to be
aware of the consumers.
b. Queues help in decoupling the messaging between the
producers and consumers.
c. Queues also act as a buffer which helps in situations when
there is a mismatch between the rate at which the producers
push data and the rate at which the consumers pull.

D) Exclusive Pair communication model:

a. Exclusive Pair is a bidirectional, fully duplex communication
model that uses a persistent connection between the client
and server.
b. Once the connection is setup it remains open until the client
sends a request to close the connection.
c. Client and server can send messages to each other after
connection setup.
3)IoT Communication APIs: a) REST based communication
APIs(Request-Response BasedModel)
b) WebSocket based Communication APIs(Exclusive PairBasedModel)

Request-Response model used by REST:

RESTful webservice is a collection of resources which are represented by

URIs. RESTful web API has a base URI(e.g: http://example.com/api/tasks/).
The clients and requests to these URIs using the methods defined by the
HTTP protocol(e.g: GET, PUT, POST or DELETE). A RESTful web service can
support various internet media types.
b) WebSocket Based Communication APIs: WebSocket APIs allow bi-
directional, full duplex communication between clients and servers.
WebSocket APIs follow the exclusive pair communicationmodel.

Sensing:

• Generally speaking, a sensor is a device that is able to detect

changes in an environment. By itself, a sensor is useless, but when
we use it in an electronic system, it plays a key role. A sensor is able
to measure a physical phenomenon (like temperature, pressure, and
so on) and transform it into an electric signal. These three features
should be at the base of a good sensor:
• It should be sensitive to the phenomenon that it measures
• It should not be sensitive to other physical phenomena
• It should not modify the measured phenomenon during the
measurement process
• There is a wide range of sensors we can exploit to measure almost
all the physical properties around us. A few common sensors that
are widely adopted in everyday life include thermometers, pressure
sensors, light sensors, accelerometers, gyroscopes, motion sensors,
gas sensors and many more.

A sensor can be described using several properties, the most

 important being:
• Range: The maximum and minimum values of the phenomenon
that the sensor can measure.
• Sensitivity: The minimum change of the measured parameter that
causes a detectable change in output signal.
• Resolution: The minimum change in the phenomenon that the
sensor can detect.
Sensor Classification:
Sensors can be grouped using several criteria:
Passive or Active: Passive sensors do not require an external power
source to monitor an environment, while Active sensors require such a
source in order to work.A passive sensor is one which just ‘listens’ to what
is happening.
Examples include:
 A light sensor which detects if a light is shining on it.
 An infra-red sensor which detects the temperature of an object.

An active sensor is one which transmits a signal into the environment and
then measures the response that comes back.
One example is an ultrasonic system:
 A pulse of ultrasound is emitted.
 If an object is in the way, the pulse is reflected back.
 The sensor detects it.
 The time taken between emission and detection gives an indication
of the distance of the object.

Another classification is based on the method used to detect and measure

the property (mechanical, chemical, etc.).
Analog and Digital: Analog sensors produce an analog, or continuous,
signal while digital sensors produce a discrete signal.
There are different types of sensors that produce continuous analog
output signal and these sensors are analog sensors. This continuous
output signal produced by the analog sensors is proportional to the
measurand. Generally, There are various types of analog sensors;
practical examples of various types of analog sensors are as follows:
accelerometers, pressure sensors, light sensors, sound sensors,
temperature sensors, and so on.
Unlike analog sensor, Digital Sensor produce discrete values (0 and 1’s).
Discrete values often called digital or binary signals in digital
communication.
Electronic sensors or electrochemical sensors in which data conversion
and data transmission take place digitally are digital sensors. These digital
sensors are replacing analog sensors as they are capable of overcoming
the drawbacks of analog sensors. The digital sensor consists of majorly
three components such as senor, cable, and transmitter. But, In digital
sensors, the signal measured directly converted into digital signal output
inside the digital sensor itself. So, this digital signal transmitted through
cable digitally. There are different types of digital sensors that overcome
the disadvantages of analog sensors.
Then, scaler sensors basically measure scalar variables which can
measure only thechanges in the magnitude whereas, the vector senses
not only the magnitude, but also thedirection. So, scalar sensor example
would be temperature sensor is an example of scalarsensor because you
know irrespective of which orientation you put, the sensortemperature
sensor or in which direction you are taking it, it is going to give you
themagnitude value. Only the changes in the magnitude of the
temperature, on the contrarywe have the vector sensor. For example, the
camera sensor or the accelerometer sensorwhose values are dependent
on the orientation on the direction and so on direction inwhich the sensor
is being put and the weight is measuring.Scalar sensors measure only the
magnitude physical quantities, such as temperaturecolour, pressure,
strain etcetera. These are scalar quantities and measurement of
thechange of magnitude is sufficient to convey the information.
On the other hand, vector sensors produce output signal of the voltage
which is generallyproportional to the magnitude as well as the direction
and orientation of the quantity thatis being measured. So, physical
quantities such as the sound, image, velocity,acceleration orientation,
these are all vector quantities and their measurement is not
justdependent on the magnitude, but also on the direction. So, for
example, accelerometersensor, they give outputs in three dimensions x, y
and z coordinate axis.

Some of the types of sensors:

1)Temperature Sensors
• Temperature sensors measure the amount of heat energy in a
source, allowing them to detect temperature changes and convert
these changes to data. Machinery used in manufacturing often
requires environmental and device temperatures to be at specific
levels. Similarly, within agriculture, soil temperature is a key factor
for crop growth.
 2) Humidity Sensors
• These types of sensors measure the amount of water vapor in the
atmosphere of air or other gases. Humidity sensors are commonly
found in heating, vents and air conditioning (HVAC) systems in both
industrial and residential domains. They can be found in many other
areas including hospitals, and meteorology stations to report and
predict weather.

3). Pressure Sensors

• A pressure sensor senses changes in gases and liquids. When the
pressure changes, the sensor detects these changes, and
communicates them to connected systems. Common use cases
include leak testing which can be a result of decay. Pressure sensors
are also useful in the manufacturing of water systems as it is easy
to detect fluctuations or drops in pressure.
4. Proximity Sensors
• Proximity sensors are used for non-contact detection of objects near
the sensor. These types of sensors often emit electromagnetic fields
or beams of radiation such as infrared. Proximity sensors have some
interesting use cases. In retail, a proximity sensor can detect the
motion between a customer and a product in which he or she is
interested. The user can be notified of any discounts or special
offers of products located near the sensor. Proximity sensors are
also used in the parking lots of malls, stadiums and airports to
indicate parking availability. They can also be used on the assembly
lines of chemical, food and many other types of industries.

5. Level Sensors
• Level sensors are used to detect the level of substances including
liquids, powders and granular materials. Many industries including
oil manufacturing, water treatment and beverage and food
manufacturing factories use level sensors. Waste management
systems provide a common use case as level sensors can detect the
level of waste in a garbage can or dumpster.
 6. Accelerometers
• Accelerometers detect an object’s acceleration i.e. the rate of
change of the object’s velocity with respect to time. Accelerometers
can also detect changes to gravity. Use cases for accelerometers
include smart pedometers and monitoring driving fleets. They can
also be used as anti-theft protection alerting the system if an object
that should be stationary is moved.

7. Gyroscope
• Gyroscope sensors measure the angular rate or velocity, often
defined as a measurement of speed and rotation around an axis.
Use cases include automotive, such as car navigation and electronic
stability control (anti-skid) systems. Additional use cases include
motion sensing for video games, and camera-shake detection
systems.
8. Gas Sensors
• These types of sensors monitor and detect changes in air quality,
including the presence of toxic, combustible or hazardous gasses.
Industries using gas sensors include mining, oil and gas, chemical
research and manufacturing. A common consumer use case is the
familiar carbon dioxide detectors used in many homes.

9. Infrared Sensors
• These types of sensors sense characteristics in their surroundings
by either emitting or detecting infrared radiation. They can also
measure the heat emitted by objects. Infrared sensors are used in a
variety of different IoT projects including healthcare as they simplify
the monitoring of blood flow and blood pressure.
• Televisions use infrared sensors to interpret the signals sent from a
remote control. Another interesting application is that of art
historians using infrared sensors to see hidden layers in paintings to
help determine whether a work of art is original or fake or has been
altered by a restoration process.

10. Optical Sensors

Optical sensors convert rays of light into electrical signals. There are
many applications and use cases for optical sensors. In the auto industry,
vehicles use optical sensors to recognize signs, obstacles, and other
things that a driver would notice when driving or parking. Optical sensors
play a big role in the development of driverless cars. Optical sensors are
very common in smart phones. For example, ambient light sensors can
extend battery life. Optical sensors are also used in the biomedical field
including breath analysis and heart-rate monitors.

Actuators:
• An IoT device is made up of a Physical object (“thing”) + Controller
(“brain”) + Sensors + Actuators + Networks (Internet). An actuator
is a machine component or system that moves or controls the
mechanism or the system. Sensors in the device sense the
environment, then control signals are generated for the actuators
according to the actions needed to perform.
• A servo motor is an example of an actuator. They are linear or
rotatory actuators, can move to a given specified angular or linear
position. We can use servo motors for IoT applications and make the
motor rotate to 90 degrees, 180 degrees, etc., as per our need.
• The following diagram shows what actuators do; the controller
directs the actuator based on the sensor data to do the work.

• The control system acts upon an environment through the actuator.

It requires a source of energy and a control signal. When it receives
a control signal, it converts the source of energy to a mechanical
operation. On this basis, on which form of energy it uses, it has
different types given below.
Types of Actuators:
Hydraulic Actuators –
A hydraulic actuator uses hydraulic power to perform a mechanical
operation. They are actuated by a cylinder or fluid motor. The
mechanical motion is converted to rotary, linear, or oscillatory
motion, according to the need of the IoT device. Example-
construction equipment uses hydraulic actuators because hydraulic
actuators can generate a large amount of force.So, this name
suggests, these hydraulic actuators consist of a cylinder or fluid
motor thatuses hydraulic power to facilitate mechanical operation.
The mechanical motion isconverted to linear rotary or oscillatory
motion.Basically when some fluid passes through, then you know
that motion isconverted to some linear motion or some oscillatory
motion or rotary motion and sinceliquids are nearly impossible to
compress, most of the hydraulic actuators basically
exertconsiderable force which is the reason why liquid based
actuators are typically used and these are quite popular because of
this particular reason.

Pneumatic Actuators –
A pneumatic actuator uses energy formed by vacuum or
compressed air at high pressure to convert into either linear or
rotary motion. Example- Used in robotics, use sensors that work like
human fingers by using compressed air.Pneumatic actuator,
pneumatic means air based.A pneumatic actuator basically converts
the energy formed by vacuum or compressed airat high pressure
into either linear or rotatory motion.Pneumatic actuatorsbasically
exert a lot of force and for example, the pneumatic brakes can be
veryresponsive to small changes in pressure that are applied by the
driver.
 Pneumatic brakes are quite common in different devices like trucks
etc. They usepneumatic brakes. So, hydraulic brakes are more
common in cars, in truckspneumatic brakes are quite common. The
advantage of pneumatic brakes, is that they are very responsive to
smallchanges.

Electrical Actuators –
An electric actuator uses electrical energy, is usually actuated by a motor
that converts electrical energy into mechanical torque. An example of an
electric actuator is a solenoid based electric bell. An electric actuator is
generally powered by amotor that converts electrical energy into
mechanical torque. So, this electrical energy isused to actuate the
equipment, such as the solenoid valve which control the flow of waterin
pipes in response to electrical signals.

Thermal /Magnetic Actuators –

 • Actuators are simply devices used to transform energy into motion.
A thermal actuator is a type of non-electric motor made of
components such as a piston and a thermal sensitive material
capable of producing linear motion in response to temperature
changes.

• Magnetic Actuators: Magnetic Actuators use magnetic effects to

generate forces which impact on the motion of a part in the
actuator.

Mechanical Actuators –
• A mechanical actuator executes movement by converting rotary
motion into linear motion. It involves pulleys, chains, gears, rails,
and other devices to operate.
Basics of Networking in IoT:

Now, when we talk about IoT, if we think about IoT, what we have? We
have thesedifferent things which are fitted.These are basically physical
objects are fitted withdifferent sensors and these sensors basically sense
different physical phenomena that areoccurring around
them.Thesesensors fitted things, sensors actuators and different other
emirate devices, theseare one component of the IoT, but these become
different nodes in the network, these arethe individual nodes in the
network. These nodes they have tocommunicate with one another and the
information that is sensed by one of these sensorsfitted to these nodes,
this information from the sensor and the other sensors, these aretaken
and are sent to the other sensor nodes, the destination nodes.
First this information has to flow through the local network and then, if the
intended destination is outside this local network, then it is sent through
the internet. Typically, if we are talking about an IoT which is basically
internet based IoT, thenit is going to flow through the internet or some
other wide area network andfinally, it is going to arrive at the intended
destination node and may be there can besome at that point analytic
engine which is running on somebackend serverand from theseanalytics,
they can run on these servers decisions about actuation could be
made.Sofrom sensors to actuators through the local area network, the
internetinvolving backend services analytics which includessomehigh end
processing at different servers and different complex algorithms,
execution ofdifferent algorithms which are based on may be machine
learning neural networks and soon and so forth.
Basically an IoT is a very complex system involving sensors,
actuators,
networks, local area, wide area internet and different servers, different
algorithms,machine learning and so on, all executing together to make
the system function as onesingle entity. So, going back we have in this
local network as you are saying then wehave the internet, we have the
backend services and finally, the applications that havebeen served.So,
what we have we are these different physical objects which are fitted with
different sensors. Thesethings could be telephones, lightning systems,
could be cameras, could be different otherscanner, sensors like the
temperature sensor and so on and these things are able tocommunicate
with one another with the help of wireless technologies like
Zigbee,Bluetooth, WiFi and so on. So, as you can see that this wireless
basically helps thesedifferent devices to talk to one another and this
information from these deviceswillgo through a local network and from a
local network, they will go through the internet tothe backend services
involving different server’sprocessors and so on and so forth. For running
different analytics and then based on that, different devices can be
actuated you know may be a pump.
 So, above is a figure which shows that we have different sensors,
processors and Phone. It refitted to each of these devices or the sensor
nodes or the sensor motes or theIoT motes as you may want to call them.
So, these motes, they talk to one another, butthese different sensor
nodes, they are basically within the jurisdiction or the domain ofthe
gateway. So, the gateway is basically tasked to assign different locally
uniqueaddresses to these different nodes, to these different IoT nodes and
the gateway basicallytakes care of the local addressing within that
particular local area network.

Service oriented architecture :

 Now, let us look at the service orientation,
theserviceorientedarchitecture of IoT. So, inthe IoT we have these
different layers, the sensing layer, the networklayer, the service layer and
the interface layer.
So, we have four different layers and as the name suggests, sensing layer
basically takescare of sensing through different RFID tags sensors, RFID
readers and so forth and then, dataare sensed and are acquired and so on
are sent to the next layer higher up which is thenetwork layer. The
network layer basically serves sensor networks, social networks and
different other networks like Internet WLAN, Wireless Sensor
networks(WSN) and data bases internet. Then, we have the service layer
which deals mostly with theservice delivery such as service, division
service, integration service, repository service,business logic and so on.
So, all these different things involved with theoffering of the services to
support the business functions.A service repository is a catalogue in which
you can see what services are available on a network. Instead of keeping
track of services manually, you can register the services in a service
repository. To find out what services are available on the network you
query the service repository. This can be done via a standardized
interface, meaning computerized clients can do this. It does not have to
be done by a human.Service Bus allows you to group operations against
multiple messaging entities within the scope of a single transaction. A
message entity can be a queue, topic, or subscription.Service Integration
and Management (SIAM) is an approach to managing multiple suppliers of
services (business services as well as information technology services)
and integrating them to provide a single business-facing IT organization. It
aims at seamlessly integrating interdependent services from various
internal and external service providers into end-to-end services in order to
meet business requirements.
Then, we have the interface layer, we have the application frontend, we
have a contractinterface and application APIS.The application frontend of
a software program or website is everything with which the user interacts.
From a user standpoint, the frontend is synonymous with the user
interface. From a developer standpoint, it is the interface design and the
programming that makes the interface function.

Complexity of Networks:
 The consideration that has to be taken into account whilebuilding
the IoT systems the complexity of the networks. If the number of
nodes in the network increases, then in the solution thesystem is
going to be sustainable or whether it can be scaled up or not, then
wehave interference among the different devices. This is very much
vital in any network.
 Interference is a crucial issue and particularly IoT networks involve
lot of large numberof typically densely deployed nodes and these
nodes as you know typically wirelesspower by wifi or bluetooth or
zigbee and so on.So, interference between these different
communication between these different nodesthat at the
corresponding radios and so on is possible. So, how do you handle
it?Network management, involving computation management,
involving communicationmanagement, involving service
management and infrastructure management and so on.
 Addressing Issues is incredibly highnumber of nodes each of which
will produce content that should be retrievable by any authorized
user. This requires effective addressing policies IPv4 protocol may
already reached its limit.IPv6addressing has been
proposedforlow-powerwireless communicationnodes within the
6LoWPAcontext IPv6 addresses areexpressedbymeansof128bits
which is addresses,
enoughtoidentifyobjectsworthtobeaddressed.

So, network management as a whole then heterogeneity in the

networks. Heterogeneity in terms of the device’s standards the protocols,
the algorithms and so on. So, how do you handle because IoT devices
unlike traditional internet, IoT networks come in different, you know come
from different vendors, different devices coming from different vendors,
different devices using different algorithms, these different protocols
being used and so on. So, all these basically invite dealing with the issue
of heterogeneity and lot of heterogeneity is involved. How heterogeneity
is taken care of and protocol organization and standardization within the
network, how the different protocols can be standardized, so that a device
running one protocol can talk to another device and so on.

IoT Protocols/Communication protocols:

A) Link Layer:
Protocols determine how data is physically sent over the network‘s
physical layer or medium. Local network connect to which host is
attached. Hosts on the same link exchange data packets over the link
layer using link layer protocols. Link layer determines how packets are
coded and signalled by the h/w device over the medium to which the host
is attached.
Protocols:
 802.3-Ethernet: IEEE802.3 is collection of wired Ethernet standards for
the link layer. Eg: 802.3 uses co-axial cable; 802.3i uses copper twisted
pair connection; 802.3j uses fiber optic connection; 802.3ae uses Ethernet
overfiber.
 802.11-WiFi: IEEE802.11 is a collection of wireless LAN(WLAN)
communication standards including extensive description of link layer. Eg:
802.11a operates in 5GHz band, 802.11b and 802.11g operates in 2.4GHz
band, 802.11n operates in 2.4/5GHz band, 802.11ac operates in 5GHz
band, 802.11ad operates in 60Ghzband.
 802.16 - WiMAX: IEEE802.16 is a collection of wireless broadband
standards including exclusive description of link layer. WiMAX provide
data rates from 1.5 Mb/s to 1Gb/s.
 802.15.4-LR-WPAN: IEEE802.15.4 is a collection of standards for low-rate
wireless personal area network (LR-WPAN). Basis for high level
communication protocols such as ZigBee. Provides data rate from 40kb/s
to250kb/s. So, this particular standard is helpful inenvironments which are
noise prone and have lot of interferences and in a presence ofnoise and
interference, this particular standard can help in improving the reliability
of thenetwork.
 2G/3G/4G-Mobile Communication: Data rates from 9.6kb/s(2G) to up
to100Mb/s(4G). B)
b) Network/Internet Layer:
Responsible for sending IP datagrams from source n/w to destination n/w.
Performs the host addressing and packet routing. Datagrams contains
source and destinationaddress.
Protocols:
 IPv4: Internet protocol version 4 (IPV4) is the most deployed Internet
protocol that is used to identify the devices on a network using
hierarchical addressing scheme. 32bit address. Allows total of
2*32addresses.
 IPv6: Internet Protocol version6 uses 128bit address scheme and allows
2*128addresses.
 6LOWPAN:(IPv6over Low power Wireless Personal Area Network)
operates in 2.4 GHz frequency range and data transfer 250 kb/s.it allows
for the smallest devices and each of these devices having
limitedprocessing ability to transmit information wirelessly over the
internet protocol.So, we have low power small devices limited processing
capability as is typical of IoTsystems and wireless communication being
present. So, it basically helps in establishingconnectivity in this kind of
networks.
C) Transport Layer:
Provides end-to-end message transfer capability independent of the
underlying n/w. Set up on connection with ACK as in TCP and without ACK
as in UDP. Provides functions such as error control, segmentation, flow
control and congestion control.
Protocols:
 TCP: Transmission Control Protocol used by web browsers(alongwith
HTTP and HTTPS), email(along with SMTP, FTP). Connection oriented and
stateless protocol. IP Protocol deals with sending packets, TCP ensures
reliable transmission of protocols in
order. Avoids n/w congestion and congestioncollapse.
 UDP: User Datagram Protocol is connectionless protocol. Useful in
time sensitiveapplications, very small data units to exchange. Transaction
oriented and stateless protocol. Does not provide guaranteed delivery.
D) Application Layer: Defines how the applications interface with lower
layer protocols to send data over the n/w. Enables process-to-process
communication usingports.
Protocols:
 HTTP: Hyper Text Transfer Protocol that forms foundation of WWW.
Follow requestresponse model Statelessprotocol.HTTP follows a request –
response model where a client sends request to a server using the HTTP
commands. An HTTP can be a browser or an application running on the
client.
 CoAP: Constrained Application Protocol for machine-to-
machine(M2M) applications with constrained devices, constrained
environment and constrained network. Uses client-server architecture.This
protocol is particularly used for web transfer and by web transfer very
similar to the HTTP, but web transfer in the context of constrained
networks resource, constrained networks with nodes which are
constrained with respect to different resources, such as limited energy or
power supply, limited computational resources, limited communication
resource, limited bandwidth environment and so on.

 WebSocket: Allows full duplex communication over a single

socketconnection. They allow bi-directional between clients and servers.
WebSocket follow the exclusive pair communicational model. WebSocket
communication begins with a connection setup request sent.WebSocket
communication presents a suitable protocol for the IoT environment
where bundles of data are transmitted continuously within multiple
devices. A WebSocket makes server and device communication easy. A
server needs a WebSocket library to be installed and we need to have the
WebSocket client and web browser installed on the client or device that
supports WebSocket.
 MQTT: Message Queue Telemetry Transport is light weight
messaging protocol based on publish-subscribe model. Uses client server
architecture. Well suited for constrained environment.So, in MQTT there
are three concepts that are involved. The first we are going to go through
is the concept of a message broker the concept of a message broker that
basically serves like a broker which takes control of publishing of the
messages and subscription of the messages. So, publish subscribe is
basically controlled by the message broker. The data are sent to the
clients by the message broker, this data are distributed by the message
broker to the clients who have subscribed to the services.
 XMPP: Extensible Message and Presence Protocol for real time
communication and streaming XML data between network entities.
Support client-server and server-server communication.So, it is a message
oriented middleware that is based on XML, whereas XML is particularly
used for unstructured data. XMPP is useful for real time exchange of
structured data and it is an open standard protocol.XMPP uses a client
server architecture, it uses a decentralized model meaning that there is
no server that is involved in the message transfer and it provides facilities
for discovery of messages which are residing locally or globally across the
network and the availability information of these services.some of these
highlights of the XMPP protocol, it is based on the concept of
decentralization where there is no central server and then, you know
everybody can run the XMPP server theoretically and it is based on open
standard. So, there is no involvement of royalties or granting permissions
to implement the XMPP specifications, different security features that the
standard ones, such as authentication, encryption,
 DDS: Data Distribution Service is data centric middleware standards
for device-to-device or machine-to-machine communication. Uses publish-
subscribe model.Designed and summarized by Object Management Group
(OMG), Data Distribution Service (DDS) is a competent IoT protocol for
scalable, real-time M2M communication. This protocol leverages
multicasting techniques in the transmission of data and high-quality QoS
in the small memory footprint devices and to applications. It employs
Data-Centric Public-Subscribe (DCPS) layer to directly communicate the
information from publishers to subscribers and deliver reliable, scalable
performance in embedded systems.
 AMQP: Advanced Message Queuing Protocol is open application
layer protocol for business messaging. Supports both point-to-point and
publish-subscribe model.So, this standard basically helps define how mists
are going to be passed from businesses, business applications or
organizations. So, in other words, a particular business is comprised of
different systems and different processes, business processes. So, a
business can be conceived as a collection of different systems and
business processes. So, this particular standard helps in communicating
between these systems connecting rather connecting between these
different systems and the business processes of that particular business.

Sensor Network:
Sensornetwork is a very important technology that is used for building IoT.
Sensors,transducers, actuators these are all very important things for
realization of IoT systems.But, when we talk about sensors when we talk
about actuators, these are the things thatwe have already gone through
in one of the previous topics. So, these are stand-alonedevices that we
talk about, but if we can have these sensors connect with one an
anotherwe can derive important information continuously, in real time
remotely, from a largerterrain.So, in sensor networks what we have? In
sensor networks we have individual sensors,which are embedded in
something known as sensor devices or sensor nodes. So, thesenodes or
devices they haveone of their components which is the sensor, and they
have other components as well.So, these components taken together they
comprise that particular node or the devicewhich can help them to
communicate. And one device communicates with anotherdevice, that
device communicates with another device, the third device with a fourth,
fourth with the first and so on. We can expand the sensing by having
them communicate with one another.So, what we have are different types
of topologies. We can have all sorts of topologiesthat we have already
heard of in networks being implemented in the case of sensornetworks as
well we can use a star topology. We can use a mesh topology we can have
amesh of we can have a mesh of sensor nodes that are all put together.
Let us look at the different basics of sensor networks. So, in a sensor
network we havesensor nodes. Every sensor node has a sensing unit. The
sensing unit basically senses.Senses what? Senses the particular physical
phenomena that it is supposed to sense. Atemperature sensor would be
sensing the temperature fluctuations. A humidity sensorwill be sensing
the humidity fluctuations. A camera sensor would be sensing; that
means,taking the images of what is around you know what is happening
around it.A vibration sensor will be sensing the vibration. A light sensor
will be looking at will besensing the illumination conditions and so on. But
each of them is sensing locally and,every other node that is deployed they
are all doing their own tasks separatelyindividually. And now, in a sensor
network we all have to we have to put them alltogether; we have to put
them all together how it is possible to put them together? Wehave to just
have some kind of radio connectivity between these different devices.
Thesedevices mean their sensor nodes and, this is how we build up a
sensor network. Andwhat is the main motivation of building a sensor
network? To have greater coverage ofsensing and, continuously we can
monitor in real time we can monitor remotely we canmonitor what is
going on in a particular terrain, without actually having somebodyhumanly
sitting and monitoring that particular region or space.
This is how the entire sensor network concept functions. So, what
we have is multihop communication. So, let us consider a stationary
sensor network. Stationary meanswhat? Stationary means that, the node
all these nodes, when they are deployed, they willmaintain the position at
subsequent instants of time after deployment. So, they will allmaintain
their own respective positions. And they will not move they are all
stationarythe nodes are all stationary. So, this is an example of a
stationary sensor network. Mobilesensor network on the contrary, have
the sensors and the sensor nodes that move around.For example, the
sensors that are fitted to a car, to an airplane, to a truck to, a bus andso
on. These become mobile sensors mobile sensor nodes because, they are
fitted todevices which move with time. So, they become you know
together when you connectthem in this manner, what you get is a mobile
sensor network.

So, if we look at in a sensor network, what we have? In a sensor

network we havedifferent units.WSN have different unitsthe first thing
that is required is to have some kind of sensing unit. Then we havesome
kind of a processing unit. Third is we need some kind of communication to
takeplace between these different nodes and communication unit which
include transceiver. Then we have different other units such as, the
analog digitalconverter, we have the power unit, we have, power unit will
do what? Are in it includesthings such as battery and so on, which is going
to power these devices. So, these are thedifferent units. And then we have
other optional units optional units such as the locationfinding systems for
example, GPS etc.

So, this is how a sensor node looks likethey have a processor,a

communicationunit,analog digital converter, we have a power unit, a
sensing unit, a processing unit, it is already given and so on and so forth.
This ishow a sensor node looks like. So, if you recall in one of the previous
topicwhen wetalked about sensors, we also talked about the different
types of sensors. We have to develop something like a sensor board. So,
thisbecomes a sensor board or a sensor node or a sensor device.This
sensor board is the hardware which has different components.
In our agricultural field we have sensor nodes thatare deployed and
these are all solar powered.The power unit basically has asolar energy
through the solar panel and powers the rest of the components of the
node.The sensor nodes are multifunctional.So, they can be used for
different purposes. In fact,the sensor board can change different sensors
and you can use the sensorboard with the different components of it,
typically you know it will work for serving different types ofapplications.So,
the number of sensor nodes that are used depends on the application
type. The sensornodes they have short communication range, may be
powered by zigbee. A zigbee hasvery short communication range. So, this
short communication range means that thesensed information by a
particular node can be sent only up to couple of meters or tens
ofmeters.And after that what? Finally, it has to be sent to the sink node.
So, after thatwhat? After that within that communication range of let us
say thirty meters if it iszigbee up to above thirty meters then we need to
have another node which again has torelay that information that has been
received from this particular node.This is how we have this multi hop
communication taking place between these differentnodes in the network.
Multi hop, multi hop means what? A particular node has to send
something to a remote destination, but it is not within the direct
communication range ofit.
Constraints On Sensor Networks:
 Small size maybe less than cubic cm.
 Must consume extremely low power.
 Operate in an unattended manner in highly dense area.
 Should have low production cost and be dispensable.
 Be autonomous.
 Be adaptive to the environment.

Applications:
 Temperature measurement
 Humidity measurement
 Lightening condition
 Soil makeup
 Air pressure
 Noise level
 Vibration
 Unit 2

M2M Communication
Machine-to-machine communication, or M2M, is exactly as it sounds: two
machines “communicating,” or exchanging data, without human
interfacing or interaction. This includes serial connection, powerline
connection (PLC), or wireless communications in the industrial Internet of
Things (IoT). Switching over to wireless has made M2M communication
much easier and enabled more applications to be connected.In general,
when someone says M2M communication, they often are referring to
cellular communication for embedded devices. Examples of M2M
communication in this case would be vending machines sending out
inventory information or ATM machines getting authorization to dispense
cash.As businesses have realized the value of M2M, it has taken on a new
name: The Internet of Things (IoT). IoT and M2M have similar promises: to
fundamentally change the way the world operates. Just like IoT, M2M
allows virtually any sensor to communicate, which opens up the possibility
of systems monitoring themselves and automatically responding to
changes in the environment, with a much reduced need for human
involvement. M2M and IoT are almost synonymous—the exception is IoT
(the newer term) typically refers to wireless communications, whereas
M2M can refer to any two machines—wired or wireless—communicating
with one another.
Traditionally, M2M focused on “industrial telematics,” which is a
fancy way of explaining data transfer for some commercial benefit. But
many original uses of M2M still stand today, like smart meters. Wireless
M2M has been dominated by cellular since it came out in the mid-2000’s
with 2G cell networks. Because of this, the cellular market has tried to
brand M2M as an inherently cellular thing by offering M2M data plans. But
cellular M2M is only one subsection of the market, and it shouldn’t be
thought of as a cellular-only area.
How M2M Works
As previously stated, machine-to-machine communication makes the
Internet of Things possible. According to Forbes, M2M is among the
fastest-growing types of connected device technologies in the market
right now, largely because M2M technologies can connect millions of
devices within a single network. The range of connected devices includes
anything from vending machines to medical equipment to vehicles to
buildings. Virtually anything that houses sensor or control technology can
be connected to some sort of wireless network.
This sounds complex, but the driving thought behind the idea is quite
simple. Essentially, M2M networks are very similar to LAN or WAN
networks, but are exclusively used to allow machines, sensors, and
controls, to communicate. These devices feed information they collect
back to other devices in the network. This process allows a human (or an
intelligent control unit) to assess what is going on across the whole
network and issue appropriate instructions to member devices.
M2M Applications
The possibilities in the realm of M2M can be seen in four major use cases,
which we’ve detailed below:
1. MANUFACTURING
Every manufacturing environment—whether it’s food processing or
general product manufacturing—relies on technology to ensure costs are
managed properly and processes are executed efficiently. Automating
manufacturing processes within such a fast-paced environment is
expected to improve processes even more. In the manufacturing world,
this could involve highly automated equipment maintenance and safety
procedures.
For example, M2M tools allow business owners to be alerted on their
smartphones when an important piece of equipment needs servicing, so
they can address issues as quickly as they arise. Sophisticated networks
of sensors connected to the Internet could even order replacement parts
automatically.
2. HOME APPLIANCES
IoT already affects home appliance connectivity through platforms like
Nest. However, M2M is expected to take home-based IoT to the next level.
Manufacturers like LG and Samsung are already slowly unveiling smart
home appliances to help ensure a higher quality of life for occupants.
For example, an M2M-capable washing machine could send alerts to the
owners’ smart devices once it finishes washing or drying, and a smart
refrigerator could automatically order groceries from Amazon once its
inventory is depleted. There are many more examples of home
automation that can potentially improve quality of life for residents,
including systems that allow members of the household to remotely
control HVAC systems using their mobile devices. In situations where a
homeowner decides to leave work early, he or she could contact the home
heating system before leaving work to make sure the temperature at
home will be comfortable upon arrival.
3. HEALTHCARE DEVICE MANAGEMENT
One of the biggest opportunities for M2M technology is in the realm of
health care. With M2M technology, hospitals can automate processes to
ensure the highest levels of treatment. Using devices that can react faster
than a human healthcare professional in an emergency situation make
this possible. For instance, when a patient’s vital signs drop below normal,
an M2M-connected life support device could automatically administer
oxygen and additional care until a healthcare professional arrives on the
scene. M2M also allows patients to be monitored in their own homes
instead of in hospitals or care centers.
For example, devices that track a frail or elderly person’s normal
movement can detect when he or she has had a fall and alert a healthcare
worker to the situation.
4. SMART UTILITY MANAGEMENT
In the new age of energy efficiency, automation will quickly become the
new normal. As energy companies look for new ways to automate the
metering process, M2M comes to the rescue, helping energy companies
automatically gather energy consumption data, so they can accurately bill
customers. Smart meters can track how much energy a household or
business uses and automatically alert the energy company, which
supplants sending out an employee to read the meter or requiring the
customer to provide a reading. This is even more important as utilities
move toward more dynamic pricing models, charging consumers more for
energy usage during peak times.A few key analysts predict that soon,
every object or device will need to be able to connect to the cloud. This is
a bold but seemingly accurate statement. As more consumers, users, and
business owners demand deeper connectivity, technology will need to be
continuallyequipped to meet the needs and challenges of tomorrow. This
will empower a wide range of highly automated processes, from
equipment repairs and firmware upgrades to system diagnostics, data
retrieval, and analysis. Information will be delivered to users, engineers,
data scientists, and key decision-makers in real time, and it will eliminate
the need for guesswork.

There are different M2M applications, environment monitoring, civil

protection and publicsafety, supply chain management, energy and utility
distribution as in smart grid, smart gridseparately common.we have
intelligent transportation systems, healthcare,automation of buildings,
military applications, agriculture, home networks all these aredifferent
applications of M2M.
M2M features:
 Large number of nodes or devices
 Low cost
 Energy efficient
  Small traffic per device/machine
 M2M communication free from human intervention

General Architecture of M2M Systems:

 M2M device connects to the network domain via direct connectivity
or M2M gateway. In the first case, the M2M device connects to the
network domain via the access network, which performs the
procedures such as registration, authentication, authorization,
management, and provisioning with the network domain. In the
second case, the M2M device connects to the M2M gateway using
the M2M area network.
 M2M area network provides connectivity between M2M devices and
M2M gateways.
 M2M gateway acts as a proxy between M2M devices and the
network domain. As an example, an M2M gateway can run an
application that collects and treats various information (e.g.,
contextual parameters) from sensors and meters.
 M2M communication network provides connection between the M2M
gateways/devices and the M2M servers. Usually it contains two
parts: the access network and the Internet.
 M2M server works as a middleware layer to pass data through
various application services.

Difference Between IoT and M2M:

M2M, or machine-to-machine, is a direct communication between devices
using wired or wireless communication channels. M2M refers to the
interaction of two or more devices/machines that are connected to each
other. These devices capture data and share with other connected
devices, creating an intelligent network of things or systems. Devices
could be sensors, actuators, embedded systems or other connected
elements.

M2M technology could be present in our homes, offices, shopping malls

and other places. Controlling electrical appliances like bulbs and fans
using RF or Bluetooth from your smartphone is a simple example of M2M
applications at home. Here, the electrical appliance and your smartphone
are the two machines interacting with each other.
The Internet of Things (IoT) is the network of physical devices embedded
with sensors, software and electronics, enabling these devices to
communicate with each other and exchange data over a computer
network. The things in the IoT refer to hardware devices uniquely
identifiable through a network platform within the Internet infrastructure.

Some more differences like:

Communication Protocols:
• M2M and IoT can differ in how the communication between the
machines ordevices happens.
• M2M uses either proprietary or non-IP based communication protocols
for
communication within the M2M area networks. IoT uses IP bases
communication protococls.

Machines in M2M vs Things in IoT:

• The "Things" in IoT refers to physical objects that have unique identifiers
andcan sense and communicate with their external environment (and
userapplications) or their internal physical states.
• M2M systems, in contrast to IoT, typically have homogeneous machine
typeswithin an M2M area network.
Hardware vs Software Emphasis:
• While the emphasis of M2M is more on hardware with embedded
modules, the
emphasis of IoT is more on software.
Data Collection & Analysis:
• M2M data is collected in point solutions and often in on-premises
storage
infrastructure.
• In contrast to M2M, the data in IoT is collected in the cloud (can be
public, private orhybrid cloud).
Applications:
• M2M data is collected in point solutions and can be accessed by
onpremisesapplications such as diagnosis applications, service
management applications, and on- premises enterprise applications.
• IoT data is collected in the cloud and can be accessed by cloud
applications such asanalytics applications, enterprise applications, remote
diagnosis and managementapplications, etc
Interoperability in Internet of Things:
Internet of things uses different types of devices. These devices are made
by different vendors following different specifications; there is no one
standard for IOT. So, consequently what happens is for different things the
different IoT devices are made by different vendors following different
specifications. Again these different devices by different vendors they
follow different protocols not necessarily that they all follow the same
protocol. Even the kind of users their user profiles these can also be
different. So, there is so much of diversity that is inherent to these
systems IoT systems and that is why it is very important to address this
particular issue.
In internet of things one of the core problems or issues that has been
studied quite extensively is heterogeneity of devices, protocols, user
groups and many other heterogeneity aspects in from different other
angles. So, this has been studied quite extensively. And one of the
requirements to handle this heterogeneity issue is basically to have some
kind of Interoperability between these different heterogeneous aspects.
Interoperability means that one particular device is following a particular
protocol; another device follows another protocol. So, how do they talk to
each other, this is one aspect. Similarly, at different physical levels,
different specifications, different devices how do they talk to each other,
they all have been made in different ways because there is no one
standard that has been followed in developing these systems. So, when
you want to build a singular IoT system comprising of all these different
heterogeneous objects, devices, protocols, standards etcyou need to have
some kind of handshaking. And that handshaking is where these protocols
have been devised which can be some kind of a middleman a middleware
rather which can help these two different diverse groups to be able to talk
to each other.
So, whenwe talk about IoT we are talking about large scale networks.
Large scale networks requiringthe use of large number of different devices
millions and billions of devices, these devices aredistributed all across in
the internet or all across in the world. And what is required is to havesome
kind of cooperation between the different devices, some kind of
coordinationmechanism to be enforced between these different devices to
be able to talk to each other. So,this is one issue.Second issue is that the
devices they all have been designed withdifferent specifications
heterogeneous in all respects in the physical device level, in theprotocol
level, user level, so in all different aspects. So, heterogeneous IoT devices
and theirsubnets is a challenge that has to be worked on in the context of
internet of things. Anothervery typical concern that is specific of IoT is the
device configuration. Typically these IoTdevices their configuration
isunknown all across. The different configurationmodes for IoT devices
come from unknown owners and inherently thatbrings in lot of complexity
and that has to be handled. Another very interesting complexity ishow do
you handle differences in semantics. So, different processinglogics are
applied to the same IoT network devices or applications by different
developers,different user groups and so on. So, how do you handle these
differences this conflict in thesemantics.
Interoperability is a characteristic of a product or system whoseinterfaces
are completely understood to work with other products or systems
present or futurein either implementation or access without any
restrictions.So, that there is exchange of data, exchange of services and
tothe user it should the interoperability has to be handled in such a
manner that to the user, theuser should feel that he or she is getting
access to the services of the IoT system in a seamlessmanner. The user
should not have to get into how these are implemented what is
thetranslation that is going so on and so forth.Heterogeneity - different
communication protocols ZigBee following IEEE802.15.4. Bluetooth
following 802.15.1, GPRS, 6LowPAN, Wi-Fi whichfollows 802.11 standard.
So, all these different types of standards all different types
ofcommunication protocols handshaking with each other, communicating
with each other.Different wired communication protocols such as 802.3
and 802.1 talking to each other that isrequired because otherwise we
cannot have this seamless you know anytime, anywhere, anydevice
connectivity that is not going to be possible. So, so much of heterogeneity
is going tobe there all across.Then different programming languages are
used in different computing systems for example,JavaScript in one, Java in
another, C, C++, Visual Basic, PHP, python, so many
differentprogramming languages platforms of different kinds are used.
Again there are differenthardware platforms as well not just programming
platforms in the hardware platforms such ascrossbow based products
talking to national instrument products talking to Cisco productsand so on.
So, all these hardware platforms can also be varying they you know
different typesof heterogeneous hardware platforms. So, interoperability
is very much required in this kindof backdrop.
Syntactic Interoperability:
Syntactic interoperability for device interaction the interoperability
betweendevices and device user in terms of message formats is what is
the concern of this type ofinteroperability. The message format from a
device to a user is understandable for the user’scomputer. On the other
hand the message format from the user to the device is executable bythe
device.middleware technology is sort of like a software middlewarebridge,
which dynamically maps the physical devices with the different domains
and basedon the map the devices can be discovered and controlled
remotely. Then we have the crosscontext syntactic interoperability, which
concerns collaborative concept exchange and usingXML syntax.
Semantic interoperability
Semantic interoperability for device interaction; and here we are talking
about thesemantics and the exchange of the semantics. So, the messages
that are sentbetween these different devices whether they are understood
by the respective party if notthere has to be some middleware in between
which has to make it happen. So, the device canunderstand the meaning
of users instructions that is sent from the user to the device, similarlythe
user can understand the meaning of devices response sent from the
device.
Let us say that even before we start with the device interoperability, let us
say that we haveyou know two devices: device A and device B. And in our
example let us assume that A andB as such do not follow the same
specific same protocol, they did not have the samespecifications at the
physical layer or you know the other layers. So, no common protocol
isavailable across all these different layers. So, how do they communicate
how do theycommunicate. So, this is the problem of device
interoperability. So, how do theycommunicate.So, let us assume initially
that we have some kind of a middleware some kind of amiddleware, which
will understand the language of A and the language of B. So, it
willunderstand the language of A as well as the language of B. So, this will
help this one to beable to translate what A is saying A wants to send, he
wants to communicate, and similarlywhat B is say. So, this sort of
approach not only can be used for device interoperability, butalso other
forms of interoperability as well. So, this one basically becomes a
translationdevice translation unit. So, if we are talking about two different
protocols we can call it as aprotocol translation unit - PTU. So, this
protocol translation unit will translate the protocolsseparate protocols or
the languages that are followed by both, ok. So, this is an approach
thatcan be adopted and can be extended for similar other situations as
well.
So, we talked about in device interoperability we talked about some kind
of a universalmiddleware bridge (UMB) which solves seamless
interoperability problems caused by heterogeneityof several kinds of
home network middleware. So, this bridge is basically it is a
middlewarethat creates a virtual map among the physical devices of all
middleware home networks. And it creates a compatibility among
thesemiddleware home networks. So, it is basically some middleware-
based solution thismiddleware will act as an agent for this kind of
translation or handshaking between twodifferent heterogeneous devices

Introduction to Arduino:
We have seen that there are different types of sensors, different types of
sensing possible, differenttypes of actuators that principles behind
different types of sensing, different types ofactuation. We have seen that
there are different types of networks that are possible for use foradoption
for use in IoT, different types of communication devices standards can
also be usedfor communicating in internet of things.So, having understood
those how can we use these concepts for building a real internet ofthings
may be in a smart phone scenario at home to improve some of the you
know dailytasks that we do at home. Or in a smart homes smart cities
scenario like in a smart hospitalsmart you know smart transportation
connected vehicles and so on. So, of are all these weneed to take help of
different IoT devices. And one of the very popular once is Arduino.
Arduino is a simple and robust development board. It’s oneof the simplest
options available for making the electronics worldprogrammable, and it’s
extremely reliable as well.First, we’ll show you how to install the Arduino
development environment(often called IDE, or integrated development
environment) on yourcomputer. After that, you’ll plug in a USB cable and
upload your firstprogram (called a sketch in Arduino parlance). There’s
only one programyou install on the Arduino—the sketch that you’re
running. Aside fromthat, there’s nothing else to maintain because, unlike
with Raspberry Pi,Arduino has no operating system.
First of all the main reasons is it is an opensource programmable board
with a built in microcontroller and the software IDE. And thissoftware IDE
will help you change the behaviour of the microcontroller according to
yourneeds. So, it accepts Analog as well as digital signals which can be
given as inputs and it willgive outputs which are mainly digital. So, no
extra hardware is required to load a programinto the controller board. So,
for the people who have work with 8051 seriesmicrocontrollers, 8085
microprocessors, they must have remembered that you needed anextra
programmer to actually program the processor board and they are well
lots ofinterfacing ICs and all those things are not required with the Arduino
base systems.

Arduino UNO
One of the most popular Arduino boards out there is the Arduino Uno.
While it wasnot actually the first board to be released, it remains to be the
most actively used andmost widely documented on the market.
Types of Arduino boards:
 Arduino boards based on ATMEGA328 microcontroller.
 Arduino boards based on ATMEGA32u4 microcontroller.
 Arduino boards based on ATMEGA2560 microcontroller.
 Arduino boards based on AT91SAM3X8E microcontroller.

Features of Arduino UNO:

 The operating voltage is 5V.
 The recommended input voltage will range from 7v to 12V.
 The input voltage ranges from 6v to 20V.
 Digital input/output pins are 14.
 Analog i/p pins are 6.
 DC Current for each input/output pin is 40 mA.
 Flash Memory is 32 KB.

Power Supply
The Arduino Uno power supply can be done with the help of a USB cable
or an external power supply. The external power supplies mainly include
AC to DC adapter otherwise a battery. The adapter can be connected to
the Arduino Uno by plugging into the power jack of the Arduino board.
Similarly, the battery leads can be connected to the Vin pin and the GND
pin of the POWER connector. The suggested voltage range will be 7 volts
to 12 volts.
Input & Output
The 14 digital pins on the Arduino Uno can be used as input & output with
the help of the functions like pinMode(), digitalWrite(), & Digital Read().
Pin 2 & Pin 3 (External Interrupts):
External pins can be connected to activate an interrupt over a low value,
change in value.
Pins 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, & 11 (PWM):
This pin gives 8-bit PWM o/p by the function of analogWrite().
SPI Pins (Pin-10 (SS), Pin-11 (MOSI), Pin-12 (MISO), Pin-13 (SCK):
These pins maintain SPI-communication, even though offered by the
fundamental hardware, is not presently included within the Arduino
language.

Pin-13(LED):
The inbuilt LED can be connected to pin-13 (digital pin). As the HIGH-value
pin, the light emitting diode is activated, whenever the pin is LOW.
Pin-4 (SDA) & Pin-5 (SCL) (I2C):
It supports TWI-communication with the help of the Wire library.
TX and RX LEDs
On your board, you will find two labels: TX (transmit) and RX (receive).
They appear in two places on the Arduino UNO board. First, at the digital
pins 0 and 1, to indicate the pins responsible for serial communication.
Second, the TX and RX led (13). The TX led flashes with different speed
while sending the serial data. The speed of flashing depends on the baud
rate used by the board. RX flashes during the receiving process.
Digital I/O
The Arduino UNO board has 14 digital I/O pins (15) (of which 6 provide
PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) output. These pins can be configured to
work as input digital pins to read logic values (0 or 1) or as digital output
pins to drivedifferent modules like LEDs, relays, etc. The pins labelled “~”
can be used to generate PWM.
AREF
AREF stands for Analog Reference. It is sometimes, used to set an
external reference voltage (between 0 and 5 Volts) as the upper limit for
the analog input pins.
Reset Pin: This pin is used for reset (RST) the microcontroller.
Memory:
The memory of this Atmega328 Arduino microcontroller includes flash
memory-32 KB for storing code, SRAM-2 KB EEPROM-1 KB.
Communication:
The Arduino Uno ATmega328 offers UART TTL-serial communication, and
it is accessible on digital pins like TX (1) and RX (0). The software of an
Arduino has a serial monitor that permits easy data. There are two LEDs
on the board like RX & TX which will blink whenever data is being
broadcasted through the USB.
Arduino Reset
You can reset your Arduino board, i.e., start your program from the
beginning. You can reset the UNO board in two ways. First, by using the
reset button on the board. Second, you can connect an external reset
button to the Arduino pin labelled RESET.

Pin description:
How To Program Arduino
Once the circuit has been created on the breadboard, you’ll need to
upload theprogram (known as a sketch) to the Arduino. The sketch is a set
of instructions thattells the board what functions it needs to perform. An
Arduino board can only holdand perform one sketch at a time. The
software used to create Arduino sketches iscalled the IDE which stands for
Integrated Development Environment.
Every Arduino sketch has two main parts to the program:
void setup() – Sets things up that have to be done once and then don’t
happen again.
void loop() – Contains the instructions that get repeated over and over
until the boardis turned off.
Operators:
Logical operators evaluate either one or two relational or logical
statements. There are 3 logical operators in Arduino IDE:

LOGICAL OPERATOR OPERATOR SYMBOL EXAMPLE

OR || a || b
AND && a && b
NOT ! !a

Arduino control statements include:

 If statement
 Else statement
 Else if statement
 For statement
 While statement
 Do while statement
 Switch case
 Continue

IF statement:
IF statement is basically the simplest form conditional control statements,
it is a conditional statement. An “if statement” code evaluates a unique
condition, and executes a series of instructions or just an instruction if the
condition is true.
ELSE STATEMENT
Most time, an IF statement is immediately followed by an ELSE statement,
the ELSE statement tells the alternate instruction that should be executed
when the IF statement is false.
ELSE IF STATEMENT
“Else if statement” is used when we want to check for three different
conditions. It includes an IF statement, ELSE IF statement and ELSE
statement all in same.
For statement:
For statement is also a conditional statement for Arduino control structure
used for repetitive operation. As the name implies, it is used to carry out a
repetitive operation for a true condition.
While Statement
A while statement is just like an “if statement”except it continues to
repeat block of code (a block of code is what is within the curly braces) as
long as the condition is true.
Do While Statement
A do while statement is like the else if statement but works in the same
manner as the while loop, except that the condition is tested at the end of
the loop, hence, the do statement will always run at least once.
Switch Case Statement
There comes a time in a design, when we wish to have an action taking
with respect to a specific result, in a wide range of results.Take for
example, let’s say you are trying to monitor the level of water in a tank
using an ultrasonic sensor, you wish to turn on an LED various levels of
the water in the tank.Let’s say we are looking at 10 levels. In our arduino
code, we would have a variable that records the distance of the water
from the ultrasonic sensor, with this distance; we can pick the levels we
want.
Loop Statements:
while loop
while loops will loop continuously, and infinitely, until the expression
inside the parenthesis, () becomes false. Something must change the
tested variable, or the while loop will never exit.
do…while loop

The do…while loop is similar to the while loop. In the while loop, the loop-
continuation condition is tested at the beginning of the loop before
performed the body of the loop.
for loop
A for loop executes statements a predetermined number of times. The
control expression for the loop is initialized, tested and manipulated
entirely within the for loop parentheses.

Nested Loop
This allows you to use one loop inside another loop. The following
example illustrates the concept.
Infinite loop
It is the loop having no terminating condition, so the loop becomes
infinite.

Arduino Program
An Arduino program starts by executing the code inside the
setup()function once. After that, the code inside loop() is repeated forever
(oruntil you disconnect the power).
Blinking an LED
The LED blinking sketch is the first program that you should run to test
whether your Arduino board is working and is configured correctly. It is
also usually the very first programming exercise someone does when
learning toprogram a microcontroller. A light-emitting diode (LED) is a
small electronic component that’s a bit like a light bulb, but is more
efficient and requires lower voltages to operate

Example of led blinking:

const int LED = 13; // LED connected to digital pin 13
void setup()
{
pinMode(LED, OUTPUT); // sets the digitalpin as output
}
void loop()
{
digitalWrite(LED, HIGH); // turns the LED on
delay(1000); // waits for a second
digitalWrite(LED, LOW); // turns the LED off
delay(1000); // waits for a second
}
Program explanation:
 Turns pin 13 into an output (just once at the beginning)
 Enters a loop
 Switches on the LED connected to pin 13
 Waits for a second
 Switches off the LED connected to pin 13
 Waits for a second
 Goes back to beginning of the loop.
Example : Turn on LED while the button is pressed
const int LED = 13; // the pin for the LED
const int BUTTON = 7; // the input pin where the pushbutton is connected
int val = 0; // val will be used to store the state
// of the input pin
void setup() {
pinMode(LED, OUTPUT); // tell Arduino LED is an output
pinMode(BUTTON, INPUT); // and BUTTON is an input
}
void loop(){
val = digitalRead(BUTTON); // read input value and store it
// check whether the input is HIGH (button pressed)
if (val == HIGH) {
digitalWrite(LED, HIGH); // turn LED ON
} else {
digitalWrite(LED, LOW);
}
}
Now go test this code. You’ll find that the light changes so rapidly that you
can’t reliably set it on or off with a button press.Let’s look at the
interesting parts of the code: state is a variable that stores either 0 or 1 to
remember whether the LED is on or off. After the button is released, we
initialise it to 0 (LED off).
Later, we read the current state of the button, and if it’s pressed (val ==
HIGH), we change state from 0 to 1, or vice versa. We do this using a
small trick, as state can be only either 1 or 0. The trick I use involves a
small mathematical expression based on the idea that 1 – 0 is 1 and 1 – 1
is 0:state = 1 – state. The line may not make much sense in mathematics,
but it does in programming. The symbol = means “assign the result of
what’s after me to the variable name before me”—in this case, the new
value of state is assigned the value of 1 minus the old value of state.
Example : Fade an LED in and out like on a sleeping Apple
computer

const int LED = 13; // the pin for the LED

int i = 0; // We’ll use this to count up and down
void setup()
{
pinMode(LED, OUTPUT); // tell Arduino LED is an output
}
void loop()
{
for (i = 0; i< 255; i++)
{ // loop from 0 to 254 (fade in)
analogWrite(LED, i); // set the LED brightness
delay(10); // Wait 10ms because analogWrite is instantaneous and
we wouldnot see any change
}
for (i = 255; i> 0; i--)
{ // loop from 255 to 1 (fade out)
analogWrite(LED, i); // set the LED brightness
delay(10); // Wait 10ms
}
}
Use a Light Sensor Instead of the Pushbutton:
Arduino is able to detect whether there is a voltage applied to one of its
pins and report it through the digitalRead() function. This kind of either/or
response is fine in a lot of applications, but the light sensor that we just
used is able to tell us not just whether there is light, but also how much
light there is. This is the difference between an on/off sensor (which tells
us whether something is there) and an analogue sensor, whose value
continuously changes. In order to read this type of sensor, we need a
different type of pin.In the lower-right part of the Arduino board, you’ll see
six pins marked “Analog In”; these are special pins that can tell us not
only whether there is a voltage applied to them, but if so, also its value.
By using the analogRead() function, we can read the voltage applied to
one of the pins. This function returns a number between 0 and 1023,
which represents voltages between 0 and 5 volts. For example, if there is
a voltage of 2.5 V applied to pin number 0, analogRead(0) returns 512.

Blink LED at a rate specified by the // value of the analogue input

int ldrpin =A0// light sensor used is LDR
int LED = 13; // the pin for the LED
int val = 0; // variable used to store the valuecoming from the sensor
void setup()
{
pinMode(LED, OUTPUT); // LED is as an OUTPUT
// Note: Analogue pins are automatically set as inputs
}
void loop()
{
val = analogRead(0); // read the value from the sensor
digitalWrite(LED, HIGH); // turn the LED on
delay(val); // stop the program forsome time
digitalWrite(LED, LOW); // turn the LED off
delay(val); // stop the program forsome time
}

Traffic lights code:

Start by defining variables so that you can address the lights by name
rather than a number.
// variables
int GREEN = 2;
int YELLOW = 3;
int RED = 4;
// basic functions
let’s add the setup function, where you'll configure the red, yellow and
green LEDs to be outputs. Since you have created variables to represent
the pin numbers, you can now refer to the pins by name instead:
void setup()
{
pinMode(GREEN, OUTPUT);
pinMode(YELLOW, OUTPUT);
pinMode(RED, OUTPUT);
}
void loop()
{
green_light();
delay(5000);
yellow_light();
delay(2000);
red_light();
delay(5000);
}
void green_light()
{
digitalWrite(GREEN, HIGH);
digitalWrite(YELLOW, LOW);
digitalWrite(RED, LOW);
}

void yellow_light()
{
digitalWrite(GREEN, LOW);
digitalWrite(YELLOW, HIGH);
digitalWrite(RED, LOW);
}

void red_light()
{
digitalWrite(GREEN, LOW);
digitalWrite(YELLOW, LOW);
digitalWrite(RED, HIGH);
}
Circuit diagram:
Integration of Sensors and Actuators with Arduino
So, first of all as we have already learned by now; sensors are basic
electronic elements theyconvert physical quantities or measurements into
electrical signals and more or less sensors can beclassified into either
analog or digital sensors.

Types of Sensors
Some commonly used sensors:
 Temperature
 Humidity
 Compass
 Light
 Sound
 Accelerometer

Sensor Interface with Arduino:

Digital Humidity and Temperature Sensor (DHT)
 PIN 1-3.3V-5V Power supply
 PIN 2- Data
 PIN 3-Null
 PIN 4- Ground
DHT Sensor Library
Arduino supports a special library for the DHT11 and DHT22 sensors.
Provides function to read the temperature and humidity values from the
data pin
dht.readHumidity()
dht.readTemperature()

TMP36 Temperature Sensor Example:

We'll use analog input 0 to read Temperature Data
const int temperaturePin = 3;
void setup()
{
Serial.begin(9600);
}
void loop()
{
float voltage, degreesC, degreesF;
voltage = getVoltage(temperaturePin);
// Now we'll convert the voltage to degrees Celsius.
// This formula comes from the temperature sensor datasheet:
degreesC = (voltage - 0.5) * 100.0;

// Send data from the Arduino to the serial monitor window

Serial.print("voltage: ");
Serial.print(voltage);
Serial.print(" deg C: ");
Serial.println(degreesC);
delay(1000); // repeat once per second (change as you wish!)
}

Light Sensor:
In this example we will use a light sensor to measure the light intensity of
the room.If it's dark, we will turn on the light (LED). If it's bright, we'll turn
off the light (LED). A light sensor / photocell is a sensor used to detect
light.The resistance decreases with increasing light intensity (stronger
light).
Program:
int photocellPin = 2;
int ledPin = 13;
int photocellReading;
const float limit = 100;
void setup(void)
{
Serial.begin(9600); //baud rate of data is 9600bps
pinMode(ledPin, OUTPUT);
}
void loop()
{
photocellReading = analogRead(photocellPin);
Serial.print("Analog reading = ");
Serial.println(photocellReading);
if (photocellReading< limit)
{
digitalWrite(ledPin, HIGH);
}
else
{
digitalWrite(ledPin, LOW);
}
Delay(1000)
}
Actuators:
So we will learn how to integrate this motors and make it
performaccording to our requirements.So, actuators are basically
mechanical or electromechanical devices. They convertenergy or signals
into motion. And mainly use to provide controlled motion to
othercomponents of various mechanical structures or devices.So, basic
working principle is, in the servo motor you have various mechanical
structureslike gears and screws and ball bearings, which are interfaced
with a small motor overhere, and this produces very control motion, but is
able to perform much more efficientlythen this motor alone would have
been able to. So, like generally for servers the toprequirements are high
as compared to normal dc motors.
Servo motors are great devices that can turn to a specified
position.Usually, we have a servo arm that can turn 180 degrees. Using
the Arduino, we can tell a servo to go to a specified position and it will go
there.A servo motor has everything built in: a motor, a feedback circuit,
and most important, a motor driver. It just needs one power line, one
ground, and one control pin.
Program for servo motors:
//Include the Servo library
#include <Servo.h>
// Declare the Servo pin
int servoPin = 3;
// Create a servo object
Servo Servo1;
void setup() {
// We need to attach the servo to the used pin number
Servo1.attach(servoPin);
}
void loop(){
// Make servo go to 0 degrees
Servo1.write(0);
delay(1000);
// Make servo go to 90 degrees
Servo1.write(90);
delay(1000);
// Make servo go to 180 degrees
Servo1.write(180);
delay(1000);
}
Circuit diagram:

How to Use an Arduino with Linear Actuators:

Arduino is a specific open-source community\company\project in one,
which specializes in microcontrollers, specifically the building and
programming of them. Arduino also offers simple kits made for easy
assembly. Arduino controllers are small controllers of microchips and
boards which allow for remote control of certain pieces of equipment.
These microcontrollers are both digital and analog, meaning they can be
used for a wide variety of equipment, regardless of whether or not the
equipment is digital or analog itself. These microcontrollers can be used
with linear actuators, as a means of controlling them.
As for coding your Arduino microcontroller, we have included a simple
sweep program that shows how to extend and retract a linear actuator at
full speed.

//Define pin numbers for Single Board

int ENABLE1 = 8;
int FWD1 = 11;
int REV1 = 3;

int Speed;
void setup()
{
// initialize the digital pins as an output.
pinMode(ENABLE1, OUTPUT);
pinMode(FWD1, OUTPUT);
pinMode(REV1, OUTPUT);
}
void loop()
{
Speed = 255; //set a speed between 0-255
Forward();
delay(5000); //5 second delay
Stop();
delay(1000);
Reverse();
delay(5000);
Stop();
delay(1000);
}
void Forward()
{
digitalWrite(ENABLE1, HIGH);
analogWrite(REV, 0);
analogWrite(FWD, Speed);
}
void Reverse()
{
digitalWrite(ENABLE1, HIGH);
analogWrite(FWD, 0);
analogWrite(REV, Speed);
}
void Stop()
{
digitalWrite(ENABLE1, LOW);
analogWrite(FWD1, 0);
analogWrite(REV1, 0);
}
 Unit -3

Introduction to Python programming:

What is Python?
Python is a high-level scripting language which can be used for a wide
varietyof text processing, system administration and internet-related
tasks. Unlikemany similar languages, it’s core language is very small and
easy to master, while allowing the addition of modules to perform a
virtually limitlessvariety of tasks. Python is a true object-oriented
language, and is availableon a wide variety of platforms. There’s even a
python interpreter writtenentirely in Java, further enhancing python’s
position as an excellent solutionfor internet-based problems.Python was
developed in the early 1990’s by Guido van Rossum, thenat CWI in
Amsterdam, and currently at CNRI in Virginia. In some ways,python grew
out of a project to design a computer language which would beeasy for
beginners to learn, yet would be powerful enough for even
advancedusers. This heritage is reflected in python’s small, clean syntax
and the thoroughness of the implementation of ideas like object-
orientedprogramming,without eliminating the ability to program in a more
traditional style. Sopython is an excellent choice as a first programming
language without sacrificing the power and advanced capabilities that
users will eventually need.
The very Basics of Python
There are a few features of python which are different than other
programming languages, and which should be mentioned early on so that
subsequentexamples don’t seem confusing. Python statements do not
need to end with a special character – thepython interpreter knows that
you are done with an individual statementby the presence of a newline,
which will be generated when you press the“Return” key of your
keyboard. If a statement spans more than one line, thesafest course of
action is to use a backslash (\) at the end of the line to letpython know
that you are going to continue the statement on the next line;you can
continue using backslashes on additional continuation lines. Python
provides you with a certain level of freedom when composing aprogram,
but there are some rules which must always be obeyed. One ofthese
rules, which some people find very surprising, is that python uses
indentation (that is, the amount of white space before the statement
itself) toindicate the presence of loops, instead of using delimiters like
curly braces({}) or keywords (like “begin” and “end”) as in many other
languages. Theamount of indentation you use is not important, but it must
be consistentwithin a given depth of a loop, and statements which are not
indented mustbegin in the first column.

Python Features:
1. Easy-to-learn − Python has few keywords, simple structure, and a
clearly defined syntax. This allows a student to pick up the language
quickly.
2. Easy-to-read − Python code is more clearly defined and visible to the
eyes.
3. Easy-to-maintain − Python's source code is fairly easy-to-maintain.
4. A broad standard library − Python's bulk of the library is very
portable and cross-platform compatible on UNIX, Windows, and Macintosh.
5. Interactive Mode − Python has support for an interactive mode which
allows interactive testing and debugging of snippets of code.
6.Portable − Python can run on a wide variety of hardware platforms and
has the same interface on all platforms.
7. Extendable − You can add low-level modules to the Python
interpreter. These modules enable programmers to add to or customize
their tools to be more efficient.
8. Databases − Python provides interfaces to all major commercial
databases.
9. GUI Programming − Python supports GUI applications that can be
created and ported to many system calls, libraries and windows systems,
such as Windows MFC, Macintosh, and the X Window system of Unix.
10. Scalable − Python provides a better structure and support for large
programs than shell scripting

Basic Principles of Python

Python has many features that usually are found only in languages
whichare much more complex to learn and use. These features were
designed intopython from its very first beginnings, rather than being
accumulated intoan end result, as is the case with many other scripting
languages. If you’renew to programming, even the basic descriptions
which follow may seemintimidating. But don’t worry – all of these ideas
will be made clearer inthe chapters which follow. The idea of presenting
these concepts now is tomake you aware of how python works, and the
general philosophy behindpython programming. If some of the concepts
that are introduced here seemabstract or overly complex, just try to get a
general feel for the idea, and thedetails will be fleshed out later
1) Basic Core Language
Python is designed so that there really isn’t that much to learn in the
basiclanguage. For example, there is only one basic structure for
conditional programming (if/else/elif), two looping commands (while and
for), and aconsistent method of handling errors (try/except) which apply
to all pythonprograms. This doesn’t mean that the language is not flexible
and powerful,however. It simply means that you’re not confronted with an
overwhelmingchoice of options at every turn, which can make
programming a much simplertask.
2) Modules
Python relies on modules, that is, self-contained programs which define
avariety of functions and data types, that you can call in order to do tasks
beyond the scope of the basic core language by using the import
command. Forexample, the core distribution of python contains modules
for processing files,accessing your computer’s operating system and the
internet, writing CGI(Common Gateway Interface)scripts which handle
communicating with pages displayed in web browsers,string handling and
many other tasks.
3) Object Oriented Programming
Python is a true object-oriented language. The term “object oriented”
hasbecome quite a popular buzzword; such high profile languages as C++
andJava are both object oriented by design. Many other languages add
someobject-oriented capabilities, but were not designed to be object
oriented fromthe ground up as python was. Why is this feature important?
Object oriented program allows you to focus on the data you’re interested
in, whetherit’s employee information, the results of a scientific experiment
or survey,setlists for your favorite band, the contents of your CD
collection, information entered by an internet user into a search form or
shopping cart, andto develop methods to deal efficiently with your data. A
basic concept ofobject oriented programming is encapsulation, the ability
to define an objectthat contains your data and all the information a
program needs to operateon that data. In this way, when you call a
function (known as a method inobject-oriented lingo), you don’t need to
specify a lot of details about yourdata, because your data object “knows”
all about itself. In addition, objectscan inherit from other objects, so if you
or someone else has designed an object that’s very close to one you’re
interested in, you only have to constructthose methods which differ from
the existing object, allowing you to save alot of work.Another nice feature
of object oriented programs is operator overloading.What this means is
that the same operator can have different meaningswhen used with
different types of data. For example, in python, when you’redealing with
numbers, the plus sign (+) has its usual obvious meaning ofaddition. But
when you’re dealing with strings, the plus sign means to jointhe two
strings together. In addition to being able to use overloading forbuilt-in
types (like numbers and strings), python also allows you to definewhat
operators mean for the data types you create yourself.
Python uses the object model abstraction for data storage. Any construct
that contains
any type of value is an object. Although Python is classified as an "object-
orientedprogramming (OOP) language," OOP is not required to create
perfectly working Python applications. You can certainly write a useful
Python script without the use of classes and instances. However, Python's
object syntax and architecture encourage or "provoke" this type of
behavior. Let us now take a closer look at what a Python object is.
All Python objects have the following three characteristics: an identity, a
type, and a value.
IDENTITY--Unique identifier that differentiates an object from all others.
Any object's identifier can be obtained using the id() built-in function (BIF).
This value is as close as you will get to a "memory address" in Python
(probably much to the relief of some of you). Even better is that you
rarely, if ever, access this value, much less care what it is at all.
TYPE--An object's type indicates what kind of values an object can hold,
what operations can be applied to such objects, and what behavioral rules
these objects are subject to. You can use the type() BIF to reveal the type
of a Python object. Since types are also objects in Python (did we mention
that Python was object-oriented?), type() actually returns an object to you
rather than a simple literal.
VALUE--Data item that is represented by an object.
4) Exception Handling
Regardless how carefully you write your programs, when you start
usingthem in a variety of situations, errors are bound to occur. Python
providesa consistent method of handling errors, a topic often referred to
as exceptionhandling. When you’re performing an operation that might
result in anerror, you can surround it with a try loop, and provide an
except clause totell python what to do when a particular error arises.
While this is a fairlyadvanced concept, usually found in more complex
languages, you can startusing it in even your earliest python programs.
As a simple example, consider dividing two numbers. If the divisor iszero,
most programs (python included) will stop running, leaving the userback
at a system shell prompt, or with nothing at all. Here’s a little
pythonprogram that illustrates this concept; assume we’ve saved it to a
file called
div.py:
#!/usr/local/bin/python
x=7
y=0
print x/y
print "Now we’re done!"
When we run this program, we don’t get to the line which prints the
message,
because the division by zero is a “fatal” error:
% div.py
Traceback (innermost last):
File "div.py", line 5, in ?
print x/y
ZeroDivisionError: integer division or modulo
While the message may look a little complicated, the main point to
noticeis that the last line of the message tells us the name of the
exception thatoccured. This allows us to construct an except clause to
handle the problem:
x=7
y=0
try:
print x/y
except ZeroDivisionError:
print "Oops - I can’t divide by zero, sorry!"
print "Now we’re done!"
Now when we run the program, it behaves a little more nicely:
% div.py
Oops - I can’t divide by zero, sorry!
Now we’re done!
Since each exception in python has a name, it’s very easy to modify
yourprogram to handle errors whenever they’re discovered. And of
course, if youcan think ahead, you can construct try/except clauses to
catch errors beforethey happen.
Data typesin python:
Standard Types
 Numbers (separate subtypes; three are integer types)
o Integer
 Boolean
 Long integer
o Floating point real number
o Complex number
 String
 List
 Tuple
 Dictionary

 Types of Numeric Data

Python supports four types of numeric objects: integers, long integers,
floating point numbers, and complex numbers. In general, python will not
automatically convert numbers from one type to another, although it
providesa complete set of functions to allow you to explicitly do these
conversions.
To enter numeric data inside an interactive python session or in a
script,simply set the value of a variable to the desired number. To specify
a floatingpoint number, either include a decimal point somewhere in the
number, or useexponential notation, for example 1e3 or 1E3 to represent
1000 (1 times 10to the third power). Note that when using exponential
notation, numbersare always stored as floating point, even if there is no
decimal point.Long integers can be entered by following an ordinary
integer with theletter “L”, either lowercase (e.g. 27l) or uppercase (e.g.
27L). (Since alowercase “l” looks so much like the number “1”, you may
want to get in thehabit of using uppercase “L”s in this context.) In python,
long integers areactually what are sometimes called “arbitrary precision”
integers, since theycan have as many digits as you have the patience to
type into the computer.On most computers, ordinary integers have a
range from about -2 billionto +2 billion. Trying to use an integer larger
than this value results in anOverflowError.
>>> x = 2000000000
>>> x = x + x / 2
Traceback (innermost last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
OverflowError: integer addition
You’ll never see such an error when using a long integer:
>>> x = 2000000000L
>>> x = x + x / 2
>>> x
3000000000L

Working with numbers in python:

#integer
>>>a=5
>>>type(a)
<type ’int’>

#floating point
>>>b=2.5
>>>type(b)
<type ’float’>
#Long
>>>x=988848989897L
>>>type(x)
<type ’long’>
#complex
>>>y=2+5j
>>>y
(2+5j)
>>>type(y)
<type ’complex’>
>>>y.real
2
>>>y.imag
5
#addition
>>>c=a+b
>>>c
7.5
>>>type(b)
<type ’float’>

#subtraction
>>>d=a-b
>>>d
17.5
>>>type(d)
<type ’float’>

 String Constants
Strings are a collection of characters which are stored together to
representarbitrary text inside a python program. You can create a string
constantinside a python program by surrounding text with either single
quotes (’),double quotes ("), or a collection of three of either types of
quotes (’’’ or"""). In the first two cases, the opening and closing quotes
must appear onthe same line in your program; when you use triple
quotes, your text canspan as many lines as you like. The choice of which
quote symbol to use isup to you – both single and double quotes have the
same meaning in python.Here are a few examples of how to create a
string constant and assign itsvalue to a variable:
name = ’Phil’
value = "$7.00"
helptext = """You can create long strings of text
spanning several lines by using triple quotes at
the beginning and end of the text"""
When the variable helptext is printed it would display as three lines, with
the line breaks at the samepoints as in the triple-quoted text.Using a
single backslash as a continuation character is an alternativeto using
triple quoted strings when you are constructing a string constant.Thus,
the following two expressions are equivalent, but most
programmersprefer the convenience of not having to use backslashes
which is offered bytriple quotes.
Threelines = ’First\
Second\
Third’
Threelines = ’’’First
Second
Third’’’

Working with string :

#create string
>>>s= “Hello World!”
>>>type(s)
<type ‘str’>
#string concatenation
>>>t= “this is sample program.”
>>>r= s+t
>>>r
‘Hello World! This is sample program.’
#get length of string
>>>len (s)
12
#print string
>>>print s
Hello World!

List Data
Lists provide a general mechanism for storing a collection of objects
indexedby a number in python. The elements of the list are arbitrary —
they can benumbers, strings, functions, user-defined objects or even other
lists, makingcomplex data structures very simple to express in python.
You can input alist to the python interpreter by surrounding a comma
separated list of theobjects you want in the list with square brackets ([ ])
Thus, a simple list ofnumbers can be created as follows:
>>>mylist = [1,7,9, 13, 22, 31]
Python ignores spaces between the entries of a list. If you need to
spanmultiple lines with a list entry, you can simply hit the return key after
anycomma in the list:
>>>newlist = [7, 9, 12, 15,
... 17,19,103]
Note that the python interpreter changes its prompt when it recognizes
acontinuation line, and that no indentation is necessary to continue a line
likethis. Inside a script, your input can also be broken up after commas in
asimilar fashion. To create an empty list, use square brackets with no
elementsin between them ([]).The elements of a list need not be of the
same type. The following listcontains numeric, string and list data, along
with a function:
>>>mixlist = [7,’dog’,’tree’,[1,5,2,7],abs].
Working with lists:
>>>fruits=[‘apple’, ‘orange’ , ‘banana’, ‘mango’]
>>>type(fruits)
<type ‘list’>
>>>len(fruits)
4
>>>fruits[1]
‘orange’
>>>fruits [1:]
[‘orange’, ‘banana’ ,’mango’]
#appending an item to list
>>>fruits.append(‘pear’)
>>>fruits
[‘apple’, ‘orange’ , ‘banana’, ‘mango’, ‘pear’]
#Removing an item from list
>>>fruits.remove(‘mango’)
>>>fruits
[‘apple’, ‘orange’ , ‘banana’, ‘pear’]
#Inserting an item to list
>>>fruits.insert (1,‘mango’)
>>>fruits
[‘apple’, ‘mango’, ‘orange’, ‘banana’, ‘pear’]
#combining lists
>>>vegetables=[‘potato’, ‘carrot’, ‘onion’]
>>>vegetables
>>>eatables=fruits+vegatables
>>>[‘apple’, ‘mango’, ‘orange’, ‘banana’, ‘pear’, ‘ potato’, ‘carrot’, ‘onion’
]

Tuple Objects
Tuples are very much like lists, except for one important difference.
Whilelists are mutable, tuples, like strings, are not. This means that, once
a tupleis created, its elements can’t be modified in place. Knowing that a
tuple isimmutable, python can be more efficient in manipulating tuples
than lists,whose contents can change at any time, so when you know you
won’t needto change the elements within a sequence, it may be more
efficient to use atuple instead of a list. In addition, there are a number of
situations (argumentpassing and string formatting for example) where
tuples are required.Tuples are created in a similar fashion to lists, except
that there is noneed for square brackets surrounding the value. When the
python interpreter displays a tuple, it always surrounds it with
parentheses; you can useparentheses when inputting a tuple, but it’s not
necessary unless the tuple ispart of an expression. This creates a slight
syntactic problem when creatinga tuple with either zero or one element;
python will not know you’re creatinga tuple. For an empty (zero-element)
tuple, a pair of empty parentheseis (())can be used. But surrounding the
value with parentheses is not enough inthe case of a tuple with exactly
one element, since parentheses are used forgrouping in arithmetic
expression. To specify a tuple with only one elementin an assignment
statement, simply follow the element with a comma, arithmetic
expressions, you need to surround it with parentheses, and followthe
element with a comma before the closing parenthesis.
Working with Tuple:
>>>fruits=(‘apple’, ‘orange’ , ‘banana’, ‘mango’)
>>>type(fruits)
<type ‘tuple’>
>>>len(fruits)
4
>>>fruits[0]
‘apple’
>>>fruits [:3]
(‘apple’, ‘orange’, ‘banana’)

Dictionaries
Dictionaries (sometimes refered to as associative arrays or hashes) are
verysimilar to lists in that they can contain arbitrary objects and can be
nestedto any desired depth, but, instead of being indexed by integers,
they can beindexed by any immutable object, such as strings or tuples.
Since humans canmore easily associate information with strings than with
arbitrary numbers,dictionaries are an especially convenient way to keep
track of informationwithin a program.As a simple example of a dictionary,
consider a phonebook. We couldstore phone numbers as tuples inside a
list, with the first tuple element beingthe name of the person and the
second tuple element being the phone number:
>>>phonelist = [(’Fred’,’555-1231’),(’Andy’,’555-1195’),(’Sue’,’555-
2193’)]
However, to find, say, Sue’s phone number, we’d have to search each
elementof the list to find the tuple with Sue as the first element in order to
find thenumber we wanted. With a dictionary, we can use the person’s
name as theindex to the array. In this case, the index is usually refered to
as a key. Thismakes it very easy to find the information we’re looking for:
>>>phonedict = {’Fred’:’555-1231’,’Andy’:’555-1195’,’Sue’:’555-2193’}
>>>phonedict[’Sue’]
’555-2193’
As the above example illustrates, we can initialize a dictionary with a
comma-separated list of key/value pairs, separated by colons, and
surrounded bycurly braces. An empty dictionary can be expressed by a
set of empty curlybraces ({}).

Working with dictionaries:

>>>student={‘name’:’Mary’, ‘id’: ‘4033’, ‘year’: ‘3’}

>>>student
>>>type (student)
<type ‘dict’>
#get length of dictionary
>>>len(student)
3
# Get value of key in dictionary
>>>student [‘name’]
‘Mary’
# Get all key in dictionary
>>>student.keys()
[ ‘name’, ‘id’, ‘year’]

Python if...else Statement

Every value in Python has a datatype. Since everything is an object in
Python programming, data types are actually classes and variables are
instance (object) of these classes. Decision making is required when we
want to execute a code only if a certain condition is satisfied.
The ifelse statement is used in Python for decision making.
Syntax
if test expression
Body of ifelse:
Body of else
The if statement evaluates test expression and will execute body of if only
when test condition is True.
If the condition is False, body of else is executed.
Python if...else Statement flow chart:

Example of if...else
# Program checks if the number is positive or negative
# And displays an appropriate message
num = 3
# Try these two variations as well.
# num = -5
# num = 0
if num>= 0:
print("Positive or Zero")
else:
print("Negative number")
In the above example, when num is equal to 3, the test expression is true
and body of if is executed and body of else is skipped.
If num is equal to -5, the test expression is false and body of else is
executed and body of if is skipped.
If num is equal to 0, the test expression is true and body of if is executed
and body of else is skipped

Python if Statement
Syntax
if test expression:
statement(s)
Here, the program evaluates the test expression and will execute
statement(s) only if the text expression is True.If the text expression is
False, the statement(s) is not executed. In Python, the body of the if
statement is indicated by the indentation. Body starts with an indentation
and the first unindented line marks the end. Python interprets non-zero
values as True. None and 0 are interpreted as False.
Python if Statement Flowchart:

Example: Python if Statement

# If the number is positive, we print an appropriate message
num = 3
if num> 0:
print(num, "is a positive number.")
print("This is always printed.")
num = -1
if num>0:
print(num, "is a positive number.")
print("This is also always printed.")
When you run the program, the output willbe:
3 is a positivenumber
This is alwaysprinted
This is also always printed.
In the above example, num> 0 is the test expression. The body of if is
executed only if this evaluates to True.When variable num is equal to 3,
test expression is true and body inside body of if is executed. If
variablenum is equal to -1, test expression is false and body inside body of
if is skipped. The print() statement falls outside of the if block
(unindented). Hence, it is executed regardless of the testexpression.

Python if...elif...else Statement

Syntax
if test expression:
Body of if
elif test expression:
Body of elif
else:
Body of else
The elif is short for else if. It allows us to check for multiple expressions. If
the condition
for if is False, it checks the condition of the next elif block and so on. If all
the conditions are False, body of else is executed. Only one block among
the several if...elif...else blocks is executed according to the condition. The
if block can have only one else block. But it can have multiple elifblocks.

Flowchart of if...elif...else
Example of if...elif...else
# In this program,
# we check if the number is positive or
# negative or zero and
# display an appropriate message
num = 3.4# Try these two variations as well:
# num = 0
# num = -4.5
if num> 0:
print("Positive number")
elifnum == 0:
print("Zero")
else:
print("Negative number")
When variable num is positive, Positive number is printed.
If num is equal to 0, Zero is printed.
If num is negative, Negative number is printed.
Python Nested if statements
We can have a if...elif...else statement inside another if...elif...else
statement. This is called nesting in computer programming. Any number
of these statements can be nested inside one another. Indentation is the
only way to figure out the level of nesting. This can get confusing, so must
be avoided if we can.
Python Nested if Example
# In this program, we input a number
# check if the number is positive or negative or zero anddisplay an
appropriate message. This time we use nested if

num = float(input("Enter a number: "))

if num>= 0:
if num == 0:
print("Zero")
else:
print("Positive number")
else:
print("Negative number")
Output 1
Enter a number: 5
Positive number
Output 2
Enter a number: -1
Negative number
Output 3
Enter a number: 0
Zero
Python for Loop
The for loop in Python is used to iterate over a sequence (list, tuple,
string) or other iterable objects. Iterating over a sequence is called
traversal.
Syntax of for Loop
for val in sequence:
Body of for
Here, val is the variable that takes the value of the item inside the
sequence on each iteration. Loop continues until we reach the last item in
the sequence. The body of for loop is separated from the rest of the code
using indentation.
Flowchart of for Loop

Syntax
# Program to find the sum of all numbers stored in a list
# List of numbers
numbers = [6, 5, 3, 8, 4, 2, 5, 4, 11]
# variable to store the sum
sum = 0
# iterate over the list
for val in numbers:
sum = sum+val
# Output: The sum is 48
print("The sum is", sum)
when you run the program, the output will be:
The sum is 48

Introduction to raspberry pi

The Raspberry Pi is a remarkable device: a fully functional computer in a

tiny and low-cost package. Whether you’re looking for a device you can
use to browse theweb or play games, are interested in learning how to
write your own programs, or arelooking to create your own circuits and
physical devices, the Raspberry Pi – and its amazingcommunity – will
support you every step of the way.The Raspberry Pi is known as a single-
board computer, which means exactly what it soundslike: it’s a computer,
just like a desktop, laptop, or smartphone, but built on a single
printedcircuit board. Like most single-board computers, the Raspberry Pi
is small – roughly the samefootprint as a credit card – but that doesn’t
mean it’s not powerful: a Raspberry Pi can doanything a bigger and more
power-hungry computer can do, though not necessarily as quickly.The
Raspberry Pi family was born from a desire to encourage more hands-on
computereducation around the world. Its creators, who joined together to
form the non-profit RaspberryPi Foundation, had little idea that it would
prove so popular: the few thousand built in 2012 totest the waters were
immediately sold out, and millions have been shipped all over the worldin
the years since. These boards have found their ways into homes,
classrooms, offices, datacentres, factories, and even self-piloting boats
and spacefaring balloons.Various models of Raspberry Pi have been
released since the original Model B, eachbringing either improved
specifications or features specific to a particular use-case. TheRaspberry
Pi Zero family, for example, is a tiny version of the full-size Raspberry Pi
whichdrops a few features – in particular the multiple USB ports and wired
network port – in favourof a significantly smaller layout and lowered
power needs.
 Figure:1 raspberry pi

While it may look likethere’s a lot packed into thetiny board, the
RaspberryPi isvery simple to understand –starting with its components,the
inner workings that makethe device tick.This includes the central
processing unit (CPU), commonly thought ofas the ‘brain’ of a computer,
and the graphics processing unit (GPU), which handles the visualside of
things.A brain is no good without memory, however, and on the underside
of the Raspberry Pi you’llfind exactly that: another chip, which looks like a
small, black, plastic square. Thisis the Pi’s random access memory (RAM).
When you’re working on the Pi, it’s the RAM thatholds what you’re doing;
only when you save your work will it be written to the microSD
card.Together, these components form the Pi’s volatile and non-volatile
memories: the volatile RAMloses its contents whenever the Pi is powered
off, while the non-volatile microSD card keepsits contents.Turning the
board over again you’ll find another metal lid to the upper-right, this
onefeaturing an etched Raspberry Pi logo (Figure, overleaf). This covers
the radio, thecomponent which gives the Raspberry Pi the ability to
communicate with devices wirelessly.The radio itself acts as two main
components, in fact: a WiFi radio, for connecting to computernetworks;
and a Bluetooth radio, for connecting to peripherals like mice and for
sending data toor receiving data from nearby smart devices like sensors
or smartphones.Another black, plastic-covered chip can be seen to the
bottom edge of the board, just behindthe middle set of USB ports. This is
the network and USB controller, and is responsible forrunning the Ethernet
port and the four USB ports. A final black chip, much smaller than the
rest,can be found a little bit above the micro USB power connector to the
upper-left of the board(Figure 1); this is known as a power management
integrated circuit (PMIC), and handles turningthe power that comes in
from the micro USB port into the power the Pi needs to run.

Figure:2 raspberry pi -block diagram

Features of Raspberry Pi:

 Raspberry Pi is a low-cost mini-computer with the physical size of
acredit card.
• Raspberry Pi runs various flavors of Linux and can perform almost
alltasks that a normal desktop computer can do.
• Raspberry Pi also allows interfacing sensors and actuators throughthe
general purpose I/O pins.
• Since Raspberry Pi runs Linux operating system, it supports Python"out
of the box".

The Raspberry Pi’s ports

The Raspberry Pi has a range of ports, starting with four Universal Serial
Bus (USB) ports(Figure 2) to the middle and right-hand side of the bottom
edge. These ports let you connectany USB-compatible peripheral, from
keyboards and mice to digital cameras and flash drives,to the Pi. Speaking
technically, these are known as USB 2.0 ports, which means they are
basedon version two of the Universal Serial Bus standard.

To the left of the USB ports is an Ethernet port, also known as a network
port (Figure above).You can use this port to connect the Raspberry Pi to a
wired computer network using a cablewith what is known as an RJ45
connector on its end. If you look closely at the Ethernet port,you’ll see two
light-emitting diodes (LEDs) at the bottom; these are status LEDs, and let
youknow that the connection is working.Just above the Ethernet port, on
the left-hand edge of the Raspberry Pi, is a 3.5 mmaudio-visual (AV) jack
(Figure 2). This is also known as the headphone jack, and it can be usedfor
that exact purpose – though you’ll get better sound connecting it to
amplified speakers ratherthan headphones. It has a hidden, extra feature,
though: as well as audio, the 3.5 mm AV jackcarries a video signal which
can be connected to TVs, projectors, and other displays.
High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI) port:
It is the same type of connector you’ll find on a gamesconsole, set-top
box, and TV. The multimedia part of its name tells you that it carries
bothaudio and video signals, while high-definition tells you that you can
expect excellent quality.You’ll use this to connect the Raspberry Pi to your
display device, whether that’s a computermonitor, TV, or projector.
Micro USB power port: which you’ll use to connectthe Raspberry Pi to a
power source. The micro USB port is a common sight on
smartphones,tablets, and other portable devices. So you could use a
standard mobile charger to power thePi, but for best results you should
use the official Raspberry Pi USB Power Supply.
Raspberry Pi’s peripherals
A Raspberry Pi by itself can’t do very much, just the same as a desktop
computer on its ownis little more than a door-stop. To work, the Raspberry
Pi needs peripherals: at the minimum,you’ll need a microSD card for
storage; a monitor or TV so you can see what you’re doing; akeyboard and
mouse to tell the Pi what to do; and a 5 volt (5 V) micro USB power supply
ratedat 2.5 amps (2.5 A) or better. With those, you’ve got yourself a fully
functional computer.
USB power supply: A power supply ratedat 2.5 amps (2.5A) or 12.5
watts (12.5W)and with a micro USB connector. TheOfficial Raspberry Pi
Power Supply is therecommended choice, as it can cope withthe quickly
switching power demands ofthe Raspberry Pi.

Raspberry Pi General purpose Input/Output(GPIO)

The GPIO pins on the Raspberry Pi are divided into the following
groups:
Power: Pins that are labeled 5.0v supply 5 volts of power and those
labeled 3V3 supply 3.3 volts of power. There are two 5V pins and two 3V3
pins.
GND: These are the ground pins. There are eight ground pins.
Input/Output pins: These are the pins labelled with the # sign, for
example, #17, #27, #22, etc. These pins can be used for input or output.
UART: The Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter allows your
Raspberry Pi to be connected to serial peripherals. The UART pins are
labelled TXD and RXD.
SPI: The Serial Peripheral Interface is a synchronous serial communication
interface specification used for short distance communication, primarily in
embedded systems. The SPI pins are labeled MOSI, MISO, SCLK, CE0, and
CE1.
 MISO(Master In Slave Out): Master line for sending data to the
master.
 MOSI(MasterOut Slave In): Slave line for sending data to the
Peripherals.
 SCK( Serial Clock): Clock generated by master to synchronize data
transmission.
 CE0( chip Enable 0): to enable or disable devices.
 CE1( chip Enable 1): to enable or disable devices.

ID EEPROM: Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory is a

user-modifiable read-only memory that can be erased and written to
repeatedly through the application of higher than normal electrical
voltage. The two EEPROM pins on the Raspberry Pi (EED and EEC) are also
secondary I2C ports that primarily facilitate the identification of Pi Plates
(e.g., Raspberry Pi Shields/Add-On Boards) that are directly attached to
the Raspberry Pi.SPI(Serial peripheral interface)
I2C (Inter Integrated chip)
The I2C interface pins on raspberry pi allow you to connect hardware
modules. I2C interface allow synchronous data transfer with two pins -
SDA( data line) and SCL(clock line).
Serial
The serial interface on Raspberry Pi has receive (Rx) and Transmit (Tx)
pins for communication with serial periperals.
Interfacing Raspberry Pi with basic peripherals:
In this section you will learn how to get started with developing python
programs on Raspberry Pi. Raspberry Pi runs Linux and supports Python
out of box. Therefore, you can run any python program which runs on
normal computer. However, it is the general purpose input/output
pins(GPIO) on Raspberry Pi that makes it useful for IoT. We can interface
Raspberry Pi with sensors and actuators with GPIO pins and SPI, I2C and
serial interfaces.

Controlling LED with Raspberry Pi

Let us start with basic example of controlling an LED from Raspberry Pi. In
this example the LED is connected to GPIO pin 18. We can connect LED to
other GPIO pin as well.
The program uses the RPi.GPIO module to control the GPIO on Raspberry
Pi. In this program we set pin 18 direction to output and then True/False
alternatively after a delay of one second.
To begin, we import the GPIO package that we will need so that we can
communicate with the GPIO pins.We also import the time package, so
we’re able to put the script to sleep for when we need to.We then set the
GPIO mode to GPIO.BOARD/GPIO.BCM, and this means all the numbering
we use in this script will refer to the physical numbering of the pins.
Program:
import RPi.GPIO as GPIO # Import Raspberry Pi GPIO library
from time import sleep# Import the sleep function from the time module
GPIO.setmode(GPIO.BCM/BOARD) # Use physical pin numbering
GPIO.setup(18, GPIO.OUT) # Set pin 18 to be an output pin
while True: # Run forever
GPIO.output(18, GPIO.HIGH) # Turn on
sleep(1) # Sleep for 1 second
GPIO.output(18, GPIO.LOW) # Turn off
sleep(1) # Sleep for 1 second

Interfacing an LED and Switch with Raspberry Pi

In this example the LED is connected to GPIO pin 18 and the switch is
connected to pin 13. In the infinite while loop the value of pin 13 is
checked and the state of LED is toggled if the switch is pressed. This
example shows how to get input from GPIO pins and process the input and
take some actions.

Program

import RPi.GPIO as GPIO

import time
GPIO.setmode(GPIO.BCM)
GPIO.setup(13,GPIO.IN) #button
GPIO.setup(18,GPIO.OUT) #led
while True:
if (GPIO.input(13)):
print("on")
GPIO.output(18, GPIO.HIGH)
while False:
if (GPIO.input(13)):
print(“off”)
GPIO.output(18, GPIO.LOW)

Interfacing Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) in Raspberry Pi:

This is code for interfacing LDR in Raspberry Pi. First of all, we have to
import the Light Sensor code for LDR from the GPIOZERO library. Assign
GPIO pin to variable LDR and also pass the GPIO pin number as an
argument to the LightSensor method. While loop print’s value of LDR.
Program:
from gpiozero import LightSensor
LDR = LightSensor (4) # light sensor given to pin 4
while True:
print(ldr.value)
Python program for switching LED based on LDR readings:
Since we only have one input/output pin, we only need to set one variable.
Set this variable to the number of the pin you have acting as the
input/output pin.Next, we have a function called rc_time that requires one
parameter, which is the pin number to the circuit. In this function, we
initialize a variable called count, and we will return this value once the pin
goes to high.We then set our pin to act as an output and then set it to low.
Next, we have the script sleep for 10ms.After this, we then set the pin to
become an input, and then we enter a while loop. We stay in this loop
until the pin goes to high, this is when the capacitor charges to about
3/4.Once the pin goes high, we return the count value to the main
function. You can use this value to turn on and off an LED, activate
something else, or log the data and keep statistics on any variance in
light.

Program:

import RPi.GPIO as GPIO

import time import sleep
def rc_time (pin_to_circuit):
count = 0
#Output on the pin for
GPIO.setup(pin_to_circuit, GPIO.OUT)
GPIO.output(pin_to_circuit, GPIO.LOW)
sleep(1)
#Change the pin back to input
GPIO.setup(pin_to_circuit, GPIO.IN)
#Count until the pin goes high
while (GPIO.input(pin_to_circuit) == GPIO.LOW):
count += 1
return count
Implementation of IoT with Raspberry Pi

Why it is important for IoT:

The Internet of Things (IoT) is a scenario in which objects, animals or
people are provided with single identifiers and the capability to
automatically transfer and the capability to automatically transfer data
more to a network without requiring human-to-human or human-to-
computer communication. IoT has evolved from the meeting of wireless
technologies, micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) and the
internet.The Raspberry Pi is a popular choice when developing IoT
products. It offers a complete Linux server with a tiny platform at an
incredibly low price. Actually, the Raspberry Pi is so well-known to IoT that
the company has featured several Internet of Things projects on their site.
Here you will find projects and community support for a range of IoT
activities. Take for example, the World’s First Cloud Texting Enabled
Espresso Machine – powered by Raspberry Pi.Partnered with the Zipwhip
cloud texting application, the Raspberry Pi connects to an espresso
machine and allows people to text a message to it that automatically
turns it on and starts brewing beverages. Raspberry Pi can be plugged
into a TV, computer monitor, and it uses a standard keyboard and mouse.
It is user-friendly as it can be handled by all the age groups. It does
everything you would expect a desktop computer to do like word-
processing, browsing the internet spreadsheets, playing games to playing
high definition videos. It is used in many applications like in a wide array
of digital maker projects, music machines, parent detectors to the
weather station and tweeting birdhouses with infrared cameras.All models
feature on a Broadcom system on a chip (SOC), which includes chip
graphics processing unit GPU(a Video Core IV), an ARM-compatible and
CPU. The CPU speed ranges from 700 MHz to 1.2 GHz for the Pi 3 and
onboard memory range from 256 MB to 1 GB RAM. An operating system is
stored in the secured digital SD cards and program memory in either the
MicroSDHC or SDHC sizes. Most boards have one to four USB slots,
composite video output, HDMI and a 3.5 mm phone jack for audio. Some
models have WiFi and Bluetooth.

Python program for using PIR sensor:

Connecting to a Sensor to Detect Motion
To demonstrate how to use the GPIO to connect to an external sensor,
we'll now use a PIR motion sensor to detect motion. For this, I used the

Parallax PIR Motion Sensor (see fig). The PIR Sensor detects motion by
measuring changes in the infrared (heat) levels emitted by surrounding
objects of up to three meters.
The Parallax Motion sensor has three pins (see Figure ):

GND: The Ground pin. Connect this pin to the GND on the GPIO.
VCC: The voltage pin. Connect this pin to one of the 5V pins on the GPIO.
OUT: The output pin. Connect this to one of the Input/Output pins on the
GPIO.

import RPi.GPIO as GPIO #1

import time #2
pirsensor = 4 #3
GPIO.setmode(GPIO.BCM) #4
GPIO.setup(pirsensor, GPIO.IN) #5

previous_state = False #6
current_state = False
while True: #7
time.sleep(0.1) #8
previous_state = current_state #9
current_state = GPIO.input(pirsensor) #10
if current_state != previous_state: #11
if current_state: #12
print("Motion not Detected!") #13

#1: The latest version of Raspbian includes the RPI.GPIO Python library
pre-installed, so you can simply import that into your Python code. The
RPI.GPIO is a library that allows your Python application to easily access
the GPIO pins on your Raspberry Pi. The as keyword in Python allows you
to refer to the RPI.GPIO library using the shorter name of GPIO.
#2: The application is going to insert some delays in the execution, so you
need to import the time module.
#3: You declare a variable named pirsensor to indicate the pin number for
which the Output pin on the PIR sensor is connected to the GPIO pin. In
this example, it's GPIO pin #4.
#4: There are two ways to refer to the pins on the GPIO: either by physical
pin numbers (starting from pin 1 to 40 on the Raspberry Pi 2/3), or
Broadcom GPIO numbers (BCM). Using BCM is very useful with a ribbon
cable (such as the Adafruit T-Cobbler Plus) to connect the Raspberry Pi to
the breadboard. The BCM numbers refer to the labels printed on the T-
Cobbler Plus (see Figure 8). For this example, we're using the BCM
numbering scheme. That means that when we say we're getting the input
from pin 4, we're referring to the pin printed as #4 on the T-Cobbler Plus.
#5: Initialize the pin represented by the variable pinsensor as an input
pin. Also, we use a pull-down resistor (GPIO.PUD_DOWN) for this pin.
#6: There are two variables to keep track of the state of the sensor.
#7: We use an infinite loop to check the state of the sensor repeatedly.
#8: Inserts a slight delay of 1 second to the execution of the program
#9: Save the current state of the sensor.
#10: The GPIO.input() function reads the value of the GPIO pin (#4 in this
case). When motion is detected, it returns a value of true.
#11: Compare the previous state and the current state to see if the
motion sensor has a change in state. If there's a change, it means that
either the sensor has just detected motion (when the state changes from
false to true), or that the sensor is resetting itself (when the state changes
from true to false) a few seconds after motion has been detected.
#12: If the current state is true, it means that motion has been detected.
#13: Print out the string “Motion Detected!”

DHT11 Temperature and Humidity Sensor and the Raspberry Pi

The DHT11 requires a specific protocol to be applied to the data pin. In
order to save time trying to implement this yourself it’s far easier to use
the Adafruit DHT library.The library deals with the data that needs to be
exchanged with the sensor but it is sensitive to timing issues. The Pi’s
operating system may get in the way while performing other tasks so to
compensate for this the library requests a number of readings from the
device until it gets one that is valid.
program:
import RPi.GPIO as GPIO
import Adafruit_DHT

# Set sensor type : Options are DHT11,DHT22 or AM2302

sensor=Adafruit_DHT.DHT11
gpio=17
# Use read_retry method. This will retry up to 15 times to get a sensor
reading (waiting 2 seconds between each retry).
humidity, temperature = Adafruit_DHT.read_retry(sensor, gpio)

# Reading the DHT11 is very sensitive to timings and occasionally the Pi

might fail to get a valid reading. So check if readings are valid.

if humidity is not None and temperature is not None:

 print('Temp={0:0.1f}*C
Humidity={1:0.1f}
%'.format(temperature,
humidity))
else:
print('Failed to get reading. Try again!')

The DHT11 is probably best suited for

projects where rapid data readings are not required and the environment
is not expected to see sudden changes in temperature or humidity. A
weather station would be an idea project but a central heating controller
may require something different.

Motors programming:
Import RPi.GPIO as GPIO
from gpiozero import Motor
motor1 = Motor(4, 14) #to make it easier to see which pin is which,
you can use Motor(forward=4, backward=14) .
motor2 = Motor(17, 27) # forward=17, backward =27
motor1.forward()
motor2.forward()
motor1.backward()
motor2.backward()
while True: #The Motor class also allows you to reverse themotor’s
direction.
sleep(5)
motor1.reverse()
motor2.reverse()
motor1.stop() # Now stop the motors
motor2.stop()

Buzzer program:
from gpiozero import Button,Lights, buzzer.
buzzer = Buzzer(15)
while True:
lights.on()
buzzer.on()
button.wait_for_press()
lights.off()
buzzer.off()
button.wait_for_release()

Traffic lights program:

from gpiozero import, Button, TrafficLights
from time import sleep
while True:
lights.green.on()
sleep(1)
lights.orange.on()
sleep(1)
lights.red.on()
sleep(1)
lights.off()
Add a wait_for_press so that pressing the button initiates the
sequence:
Try adding the button for a pedestrian crossing. The button should move
the lights to red (not immediately), and give the pedestrians time to cross
before moving back to green until the button is pressed again.
Program:
while True:
button.wait_for_press()
lights.green.on()
sleep(1)
lights.amber.on()
sleep(1)
lights.red.on()
sleep(1)
lights.off()

Unit-4

Implementation of IoT using Raspberry pi

Smart_Health:
The Internet of things is the inter-connection of devices, apps,sensors and
network connectivity that enhances these entitiesto gather and exchange
data. The distinguishing characteristicof Internet of Things in the
healthcare system is the constantmonitoring a patient through checking
various parameters andalso infers a good result from the history of such
constantmonitoring. Many such devices equipped with medicalsensors are
present in the ICUs now-a-days. There could beinstances where the doctor
couldn’t be alerted in time whenthere is an emergency, despite of 24
hours of monitoring. Alsothere might be hurdles in sharing the data and
informationwith the specialist doctors and the concerned family
membersand relatives.
The most tremendous use of IoT is in healthcare management which
provides health and environment condition tracking facilities. IoT is
nothing but linking computers to the internet utilizing sensors and
networks [9, 10]. These connected components can be used on devices
for health monitoring. The used sensors then forward the information to
distant locations like M2M, which are machinery for computers, machines
for people, handheld devices, or smartphones. It is a simple, energy-
efficient, much smarter, scalable, and interoperable way of tracking and
optimizing care to any health problem. Nowadays, modern systems are
providing a flexible interface, assistant devices, and mental health
management to lead a smart life for the human being.The major hardware
components which are used here are pulse sensor, temperature sensor,
BP sensor, ECG sensor, and raspberry pi. The data were collected from
sensors and sent it to raspberry pi for processing and again transmitted it
to IoT network.
Smart Home automation
IOT is transforming the way devices operate at home. Using IOT several
home devices are automated and they can interact among themselves
and with humans. Sensors are often used for automation in home
appliances. Some home automation IOT projects for engineering students
are automation using hand gestures, smart garage door, facial recognition
door, smart alarm clock and automated blinds.Home automation lets you
manage your household—e.g. lights, heating and cooling,security
systems, locks, etc.—via connected devices, eliminating the need for
manualcontrols. Tasks are performed in real time based on sensory data,
pre-set schedulesor a prompt from your device. For homeowners, it
means less worry, and a safe andconvenient lifestyle.As a basic example,
your lights could turn on whenever someone enters the room(sensory
data) or at a specific time of day (pre-set schedule). In either case, you
didn’tneed to flip the light switch. The system intelligently knew what to
do based on settingsyou configured, and executed accordingly.System
triggers and settings for home automation are typicallymanaged within an
online portal that’s accessible via yourdesktop or mobile devices. This
gives you remote control ofyour home, at anytime and from anywhere. All
that’s requiredis an Internet connection, and the infrastructure—
sensors,cameras, connected devices, etc.—in place to perform.

Smart car Navigation:

As with all stages of technology, motor vehicles take up an important
place in our lives and but also in smart car internet of things too. Motor
cars, for example, and their effects on our lives. Generally, almost most
fossil fuels were used and humans were more involved in evolution in
terms of savings and terms of the ecoregion, which depending on the
level of technology. New level cars reduce accident risks to zero and
provide comfort in terms of safe driving are among the priority targets for
car users.
What will be the benefits of smart car technology? For example, vehicles
connected with the IoT system will report to the user the condition of the
car, such as the amount of gasoline, general maintenance, road map, etc.
This will result in significant savings and efficiency in terms of time and
many more things.With the smart car applications, the car will heat the
engine by running itself before the user leaves the house, and will also be
able to set a special tracking distance for the vehicle user in constant
communication with other vehicles to reduce the risk of accidents while
cruising. Some of the most successful companies using this technology
today for beneficial cruising such as Mercedes, Google, Toyota, and BMW,
and they are making revolutionary progress in history. Google, in
particular, has developed driverless vehicles with special technology.
With the vehicle tracking system, the location information received from
GPS satellites, which is usually via units or units put into the vehicles, is
transmitted to the main centre via GSM/GPRS via sensors on the vehicle
and providing the users a continuous exchange of information over the
internet.The information that comes to the centre is compiled with the
software on the device and processed and recorded in the database. Car
owners can monitor their vehicles from any point with internet access by
creating a special user name and password for them and have access to
detailed information about their vehicles and their fleets.
Industrial IoT
Automation has been extensively used in all the industries to reduce the
manual errors in the production process. Using IOT devices, industries will
be able to control and monitor various equipment, machinery, processes
and other applications with less or no human intervention. Automation
helps in reducing the errors and improving the efficiency of production.
Thus, many industries are trying to adapt IOT system into their
operations. Some industries also offer IOT training to their employees to
get knowledge on how to handle IOT systems and devices. Some of the
industrial automation IOT projects for final year students are vehicle
simulation, smart parking system, smart building project, biometrics and
smart security model.IOT can help to perform any desired action like
controlling a device or monitoring from a remote location. This technology
makes equipment and machinery more digitized and connected. This
technology is preferred even by the government to achieve better energy
efficiency, a cleaner city and higher productivity.
Smart city IoT applications:
Aim to ensure that citizens live in maximum comfort and resource
consumption is made wisely. It aims to reduce and ultimately eliminate
traffic density, air pollution, polluted water resources, garbage and waste
problems, population agglomeration, and crime rates.
In short, the goal of smart city IoT applications is basically to put an end to
all problems that endanger human safety, health and well-being. Smart
cities that solve the traffic problem with smart traffic lights or end the
dirty water problem with clean water projects get very efficient results.

Smart Farming IoT Applications:

To understand smart farming IoT applications, first, let’s define the
concept of smart farming. Combining many advanced technologies and
using them in agriculture is called smart farming. Smart farming and
smart agriculture use modern informatics methods in agriculture and aim
to increase productivity. Smart agriculture makes the life of both
producers and farmers is much easier.IoT applications in agriculture,
control of agricultural areas can be done remotely. This saves time for
everyone working in the agricultural sector. The simultaneous operation of
agricultural machinery is one of the factors that save time and speed.
The use of IoT based applications in agriculture is also an action aimed at
protecting the environment. With the spread of smart farming practices all
over the world, it is aimed to prevent problems such as water scarcity and
drought in time.It is aimed to reduce the chemical products used in
agriculture and thus to produce healthier products. Thus, the cost of such
chemical products will be eliminated and savings will be provided.IoT
based applications in agriculture, which ensure that each natural resource
is used only in the required amount, aim to avoid waste.

Smart Grids IoT Applications:

It is aimed to establish mutual electronic communication between the
supplier and the consumer through smart grids. Smart grids IoT and its
applications work intertwined with each other. Smart grids IoT applications
are encountered in many fields especially in the energy systems. It is
aimed to add smart meters and monitoring systems to the electricity
networks and thus to monitor a more reliable, quality and safe process.

Wearables IoT Applications:

Wearable IoT applications are mainly used in the health and fitness
sectors. The wearable devices manufactured with IoT technology, it is
possible to make measurements of people’s body, disease follow-up and
many other measurements at any time. The number of wearables IoT
applications that are causing serious and positive changes especially in
the health sector is increasing day by day.
Software Defined Networking for IoT
Now let us understand some basic networking devices and their working :
Hub: Forwards the packet to every device that is connected to its
network. It does not have an intelligence purpose. It is part of the physical
layer (layer 1) of the OSI model.
Switch: Used to receive the data and transfer them to the destination.
The switch has an intelligence purpose. It forwards the packets based on
the destination address. It is a part of data link layer (layer 2).
Router: Forwards the packet between the same or different network. It is
a network layer device (layer 3). A router uses IP address.
Now let us see the various networking planes present in general :
Data Plane: Data plane is used to transfer the data between the devices.
It deals with the entire processes involved in forwarding the packets from
source to destination. It is also referred to as forwarding plane , user plane
and carrier plane .
Control Plane: As the name suggests, it controls the movement of data.
It deals with functions and processes that help determine the best path to
transfer the data. Routing protocols are used in this plane to discover the
devices on the network and understand network topology.

Management Plane: Its prime function is to control, monitor and

manage the devices, and carry the administrative traffic. Protocols such
as SNMP can be used for such operations.
What Is Software Defined Network (SDN Technology)?
SDN work mainly on the Control and data plane (it separates both the
planes). It employs the virtualization techniques in the networking
space.SDN technology uses a smart controller to manage and monitor
traffic through various Routers and switch combinations and further make
the use of the dynamic routing of traffic efficiently.SDN architecture is
built using a combination of software and hardware that separates the
SDN control plane and the SDN data plane of the network.
Features that Define SDN
1. Abstract the Hardware: No dependence on physicalinfrastructure.
Software API.Use network resource without worrying aboutwhere it is
physically located, how much it is, how it isorganized.
2. Programmable: Shift away from static manual operation tofully
configurable and dynamic
3. Centralized Control of Policies.
4.Should be able to control and managethousands of devices with one
command.
5. Should be able to change behaviour on the fly.
6.Automation: To lower OpEx minimize manual involvement
 Troubleshooting
 Reduce downtime
 Policy enforcement
 Provisioning/Re-provisioning/Segmentation of resources
 Add new workloads, sites, devices, and resources.
7. Visibility: Monitor resources, connectivity
8. Performance: Optimize network device utilization
 Traffic engineering/Bandwidth management
 Capacity optimization
 Load balancing
 High utilization
 Fast failure handling.

What Is The Software Defined Network (SDN) Architecture ?

As stated earlier, SDN basically work to make the control and data plane
separate and well segregated in true sense. Let us now look at its various
layers:
Infrastructure Layer: It consists of network devices. This layer will be
the physical layer.

Control Layer: Network Intelligence resides in the control layer. Control

plane has the control logic for managing the network. In SDN, Controller is
the brain of the network. It is the separate hardware that is hidden by
Hardware abstraction layer(HAL). Flow entries of multiple devices will be
manipulated by the controller.
Let us take one example, consider a bus carrying passengers in it. Here
the passenger in the bus works like physical/data plane. Moreover, the
controller who controls the bus (driver of the bus) works like the control
plane or SDN controller.
In SDN, we have a central controller for the control plane. In the above
diagram, you can see the SDN controller, which is responsible for the
control plane.In SDN, switches have a data plane and no control plane.
The SDN controller feeds the switches’ data plane with information from
its control plane.SDN basically employs a centralized controller, a single
device does the configuration of the entire network. This controller has
the full access and observation of everything that is happening in our
network.
Northbound interface (NBI)
Southbound interface (SBI)

Southbound Interface:
To program the data plane, the SDN controller has to communicate with
our network devices. This action is done through the southbound
interface, which is a software interface, often an Application Programming
Interface (API).
Northbound Interface:
The northbound interface is utilized to access the SDN controller. It allows
the administrator to access the SDN to configure it or to retrieve
information from it.
SDN focuses on the following key areas:
 Separation of data plane from the control plane.
 Centralization of the control plane.
  Standardized interfaces between the device and controller.
 Programmability of control plane by external applications.

SDN allows the user to treat all the devices equally by hiding the vendor
or device specifics of the data layer, thus representing the entire data
plane as a virtual abstract layer.SDN provides the flexibility to view the
entire data plane infrastructure as a virtual resource that can be
configured and controlled by an upper layer control plane. In an SDN
architecture, the network appears as one logical device to the
applications.
The control plane defines the controls and intelligence required by the
data plane. The data layer hardware devices are now free from their
individual control layers and can act as a collective resource.Centralizing
the control plane allows to inspect the state of the data layer and make
adjustments dynamically to respond to new demands and changing
conditions.The control layer provides a global view of all the network-wide
resources, representing all the network devices as one virtual logical
network.Control and Data layers are generally referred to as North and
Southbound interfaces. As you know, Southbound interfaces from the
controller communicate with lower-level hardware infrastructure and
northbound interfaces communicate with business
applications.Programming the control plane allows different parts of the
network to communicate absolutely and gives a network flexible adoption
control.
What Is OpenFlow Concept In SDN Network ? (Protocols Used In
Software Defined Network Technology)
OpenFlow is the protocol that allows the SDN controllers to communicate
with the forwarding plane of network devices. It is considered one of the
first software-defined networking (SDN) standards. An SDN Controller is
the “brain” of the SDN network.
Any device that wants to communicate to an SDN Controller must support
OpenFlow protocol. Through the OpenFlow, the SDN Controller pushes
down changes to the switch or router flow-table allowing network
administrators to segment traffic, control flows for optimal performance,
and start testing new configurations and applications.
Only one protocol is available for rule placement that is Open Flow
protocol. The match fields the protocol uses is :
 Source IP
 Destination IP
 Source port
 Priority
The amount of time that the flow rule has to be kept is given by :
Hard Timeout:
 All the rules are deleted during this time in the switch
 This can be used to reset the switch

Soft Timeout:
 If no flow is received associated with a rule for particular time then
the rule is deleted.
 This is used to empty the rule space by deleting an unused rule.

Benefits of OpenFlow Protocol in any SDN Network

Programmability:
 Programmability enables innovation/differentiation.
 Accelerate new features and services introduction.
Centralized Intelligence:
 Simplify provisioning.
 Optimize performance.
Abstraction:
 Decoupling of Hardware and Software,
 Control plane and forwarding
 Physical and logical configuration.

Controller Placement:
 Controllers specify the flow rule based on the application specific
requirements.
 The controllers must be able to handle all incoming requests from
the switches.
 Rule should be placed without incurring much delay.
 Typically, a controller can handle 200 request in a second.
 The controllers are logically connected to the switches in one Hop -
distance.
 If we have a very small number of controllers for a large network,
the network might be congested with control packets.

So, typically a controller can handle roughly about 2 hundred requests

in a second and that isapplicable for only the single threaded applications
thing.
So, the controllers which are implementing similar thread, but currently
multi threadedapplications in controllers are also possible. The controllers
are logically connected to theswitches in a one-hop distance it is just a
logical connection. So, the controller from theswitch the switch thinks that
the controller is away just a hop distance from it just one hopfrom it, but
actually it is not so; actually you know physically when we are talking
about thecontroller and the switch can be multiple hops away and
typically they are multiple hopsaway.
Control mechanism:
1. Distributed
2.Centralized
In the distributed the control divisions can be taken in adistributed
manner. For example, each sub network is controlled by a different
controller.And in the centralized mechanism the control decisions are
taken in a centralized manner. Forexample, a network is controlled by a
single controller. If the controller is down so, in such a case it is a
centralized control and dividing into different sub networks arehaving a
controller corresponding to it will be distributed solution there is also a
concept ofbackup controller. So, if the primary controller is down then the
backup controller takes over.So, backup controller has a replica of the
main controller and if the main controller is downthe backup controller
controls the network to have uninterrupted network managementanother
very important thing is true in SDN one can have enhanced level of
security in the networking.

SDN for IoT:

SDN is useful to manage and control IoT network
* Wireless sensor nodes (WSN) and network can be controlled using
SDN-based applications.
* Network performance can be improved significantly using SDN-
based approaches over the traditional approaches.
Benefits of Integrating SDN :
 Intelligence routing decisions can be deployed using SDN
 Simplification of information collection, analysis and decision
making
 Visibility of network resources - network management is simplified
based on user, device and application - specific requirements
 Intelligent traffic pattern analysis and coordinated decision
SDN for IoT Architecture:

Challenges
 Real-time programming of sensor nodes
 Vendor-specific architecture
 Resource constrained - heavy computation cannot be performed
 Limited memory - cannot insert too many control programs

Opportunities
 Can we program the sensor nodes in real-time?
 Can we change the forwarding path in real-time?
 Can we integrate different sensor nodes in a WSN?

Sensor OpenFlow
→ Value-centric data forwarding
  Forward the sensed data if exceeds a certain value.
→ ID-centric data forwarding
 Forward the sensed data based on the ID of the source node.
Sensor management
 Multiple sensors can be implemented in a single sensor board.
 Sensors can be used depending on application-specific
requirements.
→ Delay management
 Delay for sensing can be changed dynamically in real-time.
→ Active-Sleep Management
 States of active and sleep mode can be changed dynamically.

Soft-WSN
Topology Management
- Node-specific management - forwarding logic of a particular sensor
can be modified
- Network-specific management
 Forward all traffic of a node in the network.
 Drop all traffic of a node in the network.

Rule Placement challenges:

 Typical users are mobile users with the dynamic network.
 It requires continues in rule placement is required.
 How to support such heterogenous devices in such a single
platform.

SDN for Mobile Networks for IoT(SDIoT):

So, basically you know what happened at that last point, what it says
the last challenge whatit says is different types of heterogeneous devices
having different configurations supportingdifferent you know vendor
specific solutions and protocols and so on exist in a realisticmobile based
IoTnetwork. So, how to support such heterogeneous devices in a
singleplatform? So, these are the challenges that have to be worked upon
in order to deal with therule placement issue.So, there are different
approaches or different solutions that have been proposed for it.
So, Mobi-Flow basically gives amobility aware flow, flow rule
placement for mobile based IoT solutions, mobile place basedIoT systems.
So, let us look at these three scenarios over here. So, here we have
differentnodes S1 M1 connected to this particular access point. M2 and P1
connecting to anotheraccess point and their corresponding flow tables are
shown here, the corresponding flowstables corresponding to this
particular access point and this particular access point of the basestation,
the corresponding flow table is given over here. It is very easy to
understand this part.Now, let us say that the nodes M1 and P1 have
interchanged their positions. Let usassume a very simple scenario, where
M1 and P1 have interchanged their positions and thecurrent situation
looks like this. So, essentially you know what should happen is, we
willhave something like this. Theanother flow rule has to be added in the
flow tablecorresponding to this particular access point and the base
station in this particular manner, butat the same time we also know that
flow table spaces are very limited.So, we cannot simply have these flow
tables grow with the addition of these flow rules. So,you know what
essentially has to be done is the scenario like this. So, how can we do it,
thisis what Mobi-Flow talks about.

So, Mobi-Flow gives a proactive rule placement scheme depending

on theusers movement inthe network and when we talk about such a
scheme, you know what is very important to havesome kind of prediction
of the location of the end users at the next time instant give you thedata
of how the user was moving till a particular time instant.And then, placing
the flow rules at the access points which can be associated to the
usersbased on the predicted locations, location prediction, this is done in
Mobi-Flow usingsomething known as the Order-K Markov Predictor which
basically takes the last kth location instances to predict the next location
and the flow rule placement which basically isa linear programming-based
solution that is used to select which access point is going to bethe optimal
one.So, what we have is with respect to message overhead and energy
consumption, Mobi-Flowperforms better compared to the conventional
network, conventional solution and this is quiteevident from these two
plots. So, control message overhead and energy consumption can
beminimized significantly using Mobi-Flow compared to the conventional
rule placementschemes.
So, next we have to take care of how to perform rule placement at
the backbone network. So,the existing rule placement schemes for wired
networks can be used over here because mostof the backbone networks
are have a topology and the structure. The overall architecture issimilar to
that which exists for wired networks.So, we can use the existing rule
placement schemes for wired networks over here as well forthe backbone
network of IoT and the load balancing is an important issue due to the
dynamicnature of the IoT network. So, dynamic resource allocation can
also be integrated.
Software-Defined Networking for Data Handling:
So, another very important thing that we have to remember in this
particular context is theData Center Networking. So, there are two types
of flows that occur in Data CenterNetworks. So, Data Center Networks
basically you know here we are talking aboutimplementation of data
center networks with the help of SDN.So, typically two different solutions
of adoption of SDN are in data center networks. So, herewe have typically
two types of flows that are observed. One is the Mice-Flow which
arebasically you know small flows and the other one is Elephant-Flow
which is basically youknow large scale flows where big volumes of data
are coming, big sized data are coming andso on and small flows, Mice-
Flows where small sized data are coming. So, here what issuggested is for
the Mice-Flow wildcard rules can be placed to deal with these flows,
thewildcard rules and for the Elephant-Flows what is required is to have
exact match of therules.
So, we need to classify the flows before inserting the flow rules at
the switches to adequatelyforward them in the network. So, if it is an
elephant flow, you know we have to have exactmatch. If it is a Mice-Flow,
we will go for a wildcard match. Anomaly detection can also beperformed
in IoT network using SDN or open flow.So, here you know it is required to
monitor the network through open flow to detect anyanomaly in the
network which can be done by monitoring each flow in the network. It is
alsopossible to collect different port statistics at the different switches and
thereby from thesestatistics, you know anomaly detection techniques can
be implemented and differentanomalies can be found out.

What is Data?
The quantities, characters, or symbols on which operations are performed
by a computer, which may be stored and transmitted in the form of
electrical signals and recorded on magnetic, optical, or mechanical
recording media.
What is Big Data?
Big Data is a collection of data that is huge in volume, yet growing
exponentially with time. It is a data with so large size and complexity that
none of traditional data management tools can store it or process it
efficiently. Big data is also a data but with huge size.
Types Of Big Data
Following are the types of Big Data:
Structured
Unstructured
Semi-structured
Structured:
Any data that can be stored, accessed and processed in the form of fixed
format is termed as a 'structured' data. Over the period of time, talent in
computer science has achieved greater success in developing techniques
for working with such kind of data (where the format is well known in
advance) and also deriving value out of it. However, nowadays, we are
foreseeing issues when a size of such data grows to a huge extent, typical
sizes are being in the rage of multiple zettabytes.10 21 bytes equal to 1
zettabyte or one billion terabytes forms a zettabyte.
Examples Of Structured Data
An 'Employee' table in a database is an example of Structured Data.
Unstructured:
Any data with unknown form or the structure is classified as unstructured
data. In addition to the size being huge, un-structured data poses multiple
challenges in terms of its processing for deriving value out of it. A typical
example of unstructured data is a heterogeneous data source containing a
combination of simple text files, images, videos etc. Now day
organizations have wealth of data available with them but unfortunately,
they don't know how to derive value out of it since this data is in its raw
form or unstructured format.
Examples Of Un-structured Data
The output returned by 'Google Search'.
Semi-structured
Semi-structured data can contain both the forms of data. We can see
semi-structured data as a structured in form but it is actually not defined
with e.g. a table definition in relational DBMS. Example of semi-structured
data is a data represented in an XML file.
Examples Of Semi-structured Data
Personal data stored in an XML file-
Characteristics Of Big Data:
Big data can be described by the following characteristics:

Volume
Variety
Velocity
Variability
(i) Volume – The name Big Data itself is related to a size which is
enormous. Size of data plays a very crucial role in determining value out
of data. Also, whether a particular data can actually be considered as a
Big Data or not, is dependent upon the volume of data. Hence, 'Volume' is
one characteristic which needs to be considered while dealing with Big
Data.
(ii) Variety – The next aspect of Big Data is its variety.
Variety refers to heterogeneous sources and the nature of data, both
structured and unstructured. During earlier days, spreadsheets and
databases were the only sources of data considered by most of the
applications. Nowadays, data in the form of emails, photos, videos,
monitoring devices, PDFs, audio, etc. are also being considered in the
analysis applications. This variety of unstructured data poses certain
issues for storage, mining and analysing data.
(iii) Velocity – The term 'velocity' refers to the speed of generation of data.
How fast the data is generated and processed to meet the demands,
determines real potential in the data.
Big Data Velocity deals with the speed at which data flows in from sources
like business processes, application logs, networks, and social media sites,
sensors, Mobile devices, etc. The flow of data is massive and continuous.
(iv) Variability – This refers to the inconsistency which can be shown by
the data at times, thus hampering the process of being able to handle and
manage the data effectively.

Data handling at Data centres:

 Storing, organizing and managing data.
 Estimates and provides necessary processing capacity.
 Provides sufficient network infrastructure
 Effectively manages power consumption.
 Replicates data to keep backup.
 Helps business personal to analyze data.
  Discovers problems in business operations.

Data storage strategies

The data can be stored on the premises, somewhere on the cloud, or
based on a strategy that’s a hybrid of these two. The important
considerations in deciding the right data-storage strategy are volume of
data, the connectivity to the network, and power availability.

For example, aircrafts have intermittent connectivity to the base stations,

so they need on-premise storage mechanisms for critical data. Similarly, a
device that’s prone to power outages will require on-premise non-volatile
storage to recover the critical data when power is back or the device is
recovered manually (like flight recorders).On the other hand, devices like
temperature sensors having continuous connectivity and power may relay
everything to the cloud and need no on-premise storage at all.
Another thing to consider is that data is destined for different purposes.
Data that is intended for archival purposes rather than real-time analytics
can be stored using different approaches that complement the analytics
approach that will be adopted. Data access needs to be fast and support
querying for discrete real-time data analytics.
There’s also an emerging trend of “edge computing” to offload pre-
processing of data on-premise before actually pushing it to the cloud.

Data storage technologies

Data storage technologies that you use for data stored temporarily at the
edge while it is being processed on devices and gateways will need to be
physically robust (to withstand the often harsh operating environments in
which devices are installed), but also fast and reliable so that pre-
processing of data can be performed quickly and accurately before data is
sent upstream.
For real-time analytics like applications, storage technologies adopted
should support concurrent reads and writes, be highly available, and
include indexes that can be configured to optimize data access and query
performance.
High volume archival data can be stored on cloud storage that may be
slower to access but it has the advantage of being lower cost and elastic
so it will scale as the volume of data increases. Access to large file format
data like video is usually sequential, so this data might be stored using
object storage (such as OpenStack Object Storage known as Swift), or
written directly to a distributed file system like Hadoop HDFS or IBM GPFS.
Data warehouse tools like Apache Hive can assist with managing reading,
writing, and accessing data that is stored on distributed storage.
Data storage technologies that are often adopted for IoT event data
include NoSQL databases and time series databases.
NoSQL databases are a popular choice for IoT data used for analytics
because they support high throughput and low latency, and their schema-
less approach is flexible, allowing new types of data to be added
dynamically. Open source NoSQL databases used for IoT data include
Couchbase, Apache Cassandra, Apache CouchDB, MongoDB and Apache
HBase, which is the NoSQL database for Hadoop. Hosted NoSQL cloud
storage solutions include IBM’s Cloudant database and AWS DynamoDB.
Time series databases can be relational or based on a NoSQL approach.
They are designed specifically for indexing and querying time-based data,
which is ideal for most IoT sensor data, which is temporal in nature. Time
series databases used for IoT data include InfluxDB, OpenTSB, Riak,
Prometheus and Graphite.

WHAT IS DATA ANALYTICS?

Data Analytics is the science (and art!) of applying statistical techniques
tolarge data sets to obtain actionable insights for making smart
decisions.It is the process to uncover hidden patterns, unknown
correlations, trendsand any other useful business information.
Analysing data
IoT data needs to be analysed in order to make it useful, but
manually processing the flood of data produced by IoT devices is not
practical. So, most IoT solutions rely on automated analytics. Analytics
tools are applied to the telemetry data to generate descriptive reports, to
present data through dashboards and data visualizations, and to trigger
alerts and actions.
There are many different open-source analytics frameworks or IoT
platforms that can be used to provide IoT data processing and analytics to
your IoT solutions. Analytics can be performed in real-time as the data is
received or through batch processing of historical data. Analytics
approaches include distributed analytics, real-time analytics,edge
analytics and machine learning.

Distributed analytics
Distributed analytics is necessary in IoT systems to analyse data at
scale, particularly when dealing with historical data that is too vast to be
stored or processed by a single node. Data can be spread across multiple
databases; for example, device data might be bucketed into databases for
each device per time period, such as hourly, daily, or monthly, like the
IBM Watson IoT Historian Service that connects to Cloudant NoSQL
database that stores the IoT data. Analytics may involve aggregating
results which are distributed across multiple geographical locations. You’ll
want to adopt a storage driver or analytics framework that bridges
distributed storage and compute infrastructure to allow seamless querying
across distributed databases.Of particular note for processing of
distributed data are the ecosystem of frameworks arising from the
Hadoop community. Apache Hadoop is a batch processing framework that
uses a MapReduce engine to process distributed data. Hadoop is very
mature and was one of the first open-source frameworks to take off for big
data analytics. There’s also Apache Spark, which was started later with an
intention to improve on some of the weak points of Hadoop.Hadoop and
Spark are ideal for historical IoT data analytics for batch-processing where
time sensitivity is not an issue, such as performing analysis over a
complete set of data and producing a result at a later time.
Real-time analytics
Analytics for high-volume IoT data streams is often performed in real-time,
particularly if the stream includes time-sensitive data, where batch
processing of data would produce results too late to be useful or any other
application where latency is a concern.
Real-time analytics are also ideal for time series data, because unlike
batch processing, real-time analytics tools usually support controlling the
window of time analysis, and calculating rolling metrics, for example, to
track hourly averages over time rather than calculating a single average
across an entire dataset.
Frameworks that are designed for real-time stream analytics include
Apache Storm and Apache Samza (usually used with Kafka and Hadoop
YARN). Hybrid engines that can be used for either stream or batch
analytics include Apache Apex, Apache Spark, and Apache Flink. Apache
Kafka acts as an ingestion layer that can sit over the top of an engine like
Spark, Storm or Hadoop. For a guide to selecting between these open
source frameworks, read Choosing the right platform for high-
performance, cost-effective stream processing applications.
Edge analytics
IoT analytics is not usually applied to raw device data. The data is
pre-processed to filter out duplicates or to re-order, aggregate or
normalize the data prior to analysis. This processing typically occurs at
the point of acquisition, on the IoT devices themselves or on gateway
devices that aggregate the data, to determine which data needs to be
sent upstream.
Analytics applied at the edges of the network, as close as possible
to the devices generating the data is known as edge analytics. Linux
Foundation’s EdgeX Foundry, an open source IoT edge computing
framework, also supports edge analytics.
 Edge analytics is low-latency and reduces bandwidth requirements
because not as much data needs to be transmitted from the device.
However, constrained devices have limited processing capacity, so most
IoT solutions use a hybrid approach involving edge analytics and
upstream analytics.
Machine learning
Using traditional mathematical statistical models for analytics
provides value as they can be used to track goals, create reports and
insights, predict trends, and create simulations that are used to predict
and optimize for specific outcomes. For example, you can predict the
outcome of applying a specific action, predict the time to failure for a
given piece of equipment, or optimize the configuration of an IoT system
in terms of cost or performance.
However, the value of statistical analytics models diminishes when
applied to dynamic data that contains many variables that change over
time, when you don’t know what factors to look for, or what variables to
change to achieve a desired outcome like reducing cost or improving
efficiency. In these cases, instead of using a statistical model, machine
learning algorithms that learn from the data can be applied.
Machine learning can be applied to historic or real-time data.
Machine learning techniques can be used to identify patterns, identify key
variables and relationships between them to automatically create and
refine analytics models, and then use those model for simulations or to
produce decisions. Machine learning approaches have the advantage over
static statistical analytics models that as new data comes in, the models
can be improved over time, which leads to improved results.The state of
the art Machine learning techniques mostly come in the domain of Deep
learning using neural networks (Convolutional Neural Networks, Long
Short Term Memory networks). Emerging and promising areas of research
include Active learning, Multi modal and Multi-Task learning, and
Transformer-based language models. That being said, the traditional
machine learning methods like Regression, Support Vector Machines, and
Decision trees can still prove to be effective in a lot of applications.
 Unit -5

Cloud Computing

Introduction to Cloud Computing

Cloud Computing is the delivery of computing services such as
servers, storage, databases, networking, software, analytics, intelligence,
and more, over the Cloud (Internet).Cloud Computing provides an
alternative to the on-premises datacentre. With an on-premises
datacentre, we have to manage everything, such as purchasing and
installing hardware, virtualization, installing the operating system, and
any other required applications, setting up the network, configuring the
firewall, and setting up storage for data. After doing all the set-up, we
become responsible for maintaining it through its entire lifecycle.
But if we choose Cloud Computing, a cloud vendor is responsible for
the hardware purchase and maintenance. They also provide a wide
variety of software and platform as a service. We can take any required
services on rent. The cloud computing services will be charged based on
usage.The cloud environment provides an easily accessible online portal
that makes handy for the user to manage the compute, storage, network,
and application resources.
Cloud computing means that instead of all the computer hardware
and software you're using sitting on your desktop, or somewhere inside
your company's network, it's provided for you as a service by another
company and accessed over the Internet, usually in a completely
seamless way. Exactly where the hardware and software is located and
how it all works doesn't matter to you, the user—it's just somewhere up in
the nebulous "cloud" that the Internet represents.Cloud computing is
named as such because the information being accessed is found remotely
in the cloud or a virtual space. Companies that provide cloud services
enable users to store files and applications on remote servers and then
access all the data via the Internet. This means the user is not required to
be in a specific place to gain access to it, allowing the user to work
remotely.
Types of Cloud Services
Regardless of the kind of service, cloud computing services provide users
with a series of functions including:
 Email
 Storage, backup, and data retrieval
 Creating and testing apps
 Analyzing data
 Audio and video streaming
 Delivering software on demand
Cloud computing is still a fairly new service but is being used by a number
of different organizations from big corporations to small businesses, non-
profits to government agencies, and even individual consumers.

Advantages of cloud computing

Cost: It reduces the huge capital costs of buying hardware and software.
Speed: Resources can be accessed in minutes, typically within a few
clicks.
Scalability: We can increase or decrease the requirement of resources
according to the business requirements.
Productivity: While using cloud computing, we put less operational effort.
We do not need to apply patching, as well as no need to maintain
hardware and software. So, in this way, the IT team can be more
productive and focus on achieving business goals.
Reliability: Backup and recovery of data are less expensive and very fast
for business continuity.
Security: Many cloud vendors offer a broad set of policies, technologies,
and controls that strengthen our data security.

Types of Cloud Computing:

Public Cloud: The cloud resources that are owned and operated by a third-
party cloud service provider are termed as public clouds. It delivers
computing resources such as servers, software, and storage over the
internet
Private Cloud: The cloud computing resources that are exclusively used
inside a single business or organization are termed as a private cloud. A
private cloud may physically be located on the company’s on-site
datacentre or hosted by a third-party service provider.
Hybrid Cloud: It is the combination of public and private clouds, which is
bounded together by technology that allows data applications to be
shared between them. Hybrid cloud provides flexibility and more
deployment options to the business.

Cloud Computing Architecture:

Cloud computing architecture is divided into the following two parts -
 Front End
 Back End
The below diagram shows the architecture of cloud computing -
 Front-end corresponds to the client-side of cloud computing. This
component is all about interfaces, applications and network those allow
accessibility for a cloud system. The thing that has to be clear in this
aspect is that not all the entire computing systems will work as a single
interface.
Whereas back-end corresponds to the resources utilized by cloud
computing servers. This component mainly deals with servers, security
scenarios, virtualizing, data storage and many others. Also, back-end
holds the responsibility to reduce traffic congestion mechanisms, and
protocols that establish communication. Here, the operating system is
termed as the bare metal server which is prominent with the name
“hypervisor” where it utilizes well-defined protocols that allow for
concurrent operation of numerous guest virtual servers. Hypervisor acts
as a communication interface between its containers and for the
connected world.
Apart from these, cloud-based delivery and cloud services network
are also considered as cloud computing architecture. Delivery of cloud
services can be done either publicly or privately through the internet. In a
few cases, enterprises make use of both scenarios to deliver their
services.
Components of Cloud Computing Architecture
There are the following components of cloud computing architecture “
1. Client Infrastructure:
Client Infrastructure is a Front-end component. It provides GUI (Graphical
User Interface) to interact with the cloud.
2. Application:
The application may be any software or platform that a client wants to
access.
3. Service:
A Cloud Services manages that which type of service you access
according to the client’s requirement.
4. Runtime Cloud
Runtime Cloud provides the execution and runtime environment to the
virtual machines.
5. Storage:
Storage is one of the most important components of cloud computing. It
provides a huge amount of storage capacity in the cloud to store and
manage data.
6. Infrastructure:
It provides services on the host level, application level, and network level.
Cloud infrastructure includes hardware and software components such as
servers, storage, network devices, virtualization software, and other
storage resources that are needed to support the cloud computing model.
7. Management:
Management is used to manage components such as application, service,
runtime cloud, storage, infrastructure, and other security issues in the
backend and establish coordination between them.
8. Security:
Security is an in-built back end component of cloud computing. It
implements a security mechanism in the back end.
9. Internet:
The Internet is medium through which front end and back end can interact
and communicate with each other.
Types of Cloud Services:
Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS): In IaaS, we can rent IT
infrastructures like servers and virtual machines (VMs), storage, networks,
operating systems from a cloud service vendor. We can create VM running
Windows or Linux and install anything we want on it. Using IaaS, we don’t
need to care about the hardware or virtualization software, but other than
that, we do have to manage everything else. Using IaaS, we get maximum
flexibility, but still, we need to put more effort into maintenance.
Platform as a Service (PaaS): This service provides an on-demand
environment for developing, testing, delivering, and managing software
applications. The developer is responsible for the application, and the
PaaS vendor provides the ability to deploy and run it. Using PaaS, the
flexibility gets reduce, but the management of the environment is taken
care of by the cloud vendors.
Software as a Service (SaaS): It provides a centrally hosted and
managed software services to the end-users. It delivers software over the
internet, on-demand, and typically on a subscription basis. E.g., Microsoft
One Drive, Dropbox, WordPress, Office 365, and Amazon Kindle. SaaS is
used to minimize the operational cost to the maximum extent.

How are IoT and Cloud Computing Related?

The IoT and Cloud Computing complement one another, often being
branded together when discussing technical services and working
together to provide an overall better IoT service. However, there are
crucial differences between them, making each of them an effective
technical solution separately and together.
Cloud Computing in IoT works as part of a collaboration and is used
to store IoT data. The Cloud is a centralised server containing computer
resources that can be accessed whenever required. Cloud Computing is
an easy travel method for the large data packages generated by the IoT
through the Internet. Big Data can also help in this process. Combined, IoT
and Cloud Computing allow systems to be automated in a cost-effective
way that supports real-time control and data monitoring.
The Benefits of Using Big Data, IoT and the Cloud:
So why are Big Data, IoT and the Cloud such a good partnership? Well,
there are numerous benefits for utilising both of these services by
combining them, with a few of the main benefits outlined below:
Scalability for device data:
Cloud-based solutions can be scaled vertically and horizontally to meet
the needs of Big Data hosting and analytics. For example, you can
increase a server’s capacity with more applications, or expand your
hardware resources when necessary. The Cloud enables the expansion of
Big Data and data analytics.
Scalable infrastructure capacity:
Big Data and Cloud Data can be used in conjunction to store large
amounts of data and provides scalable processing and improved real-time
analysis of data. The lack of physical infrastructure needed to get Big
Data, IoT and the Cloud up and running together reduces costs and means
you can focus on the improved analytical capacity rather than worry about
maintenance and support.
Increased efficiency in daily tasks:
IoT and Big Data generate a large amount of data, which the Cloud
provides the pathway for the data to travel.
Quicker use and distribution of Apps worldwide:
You can access Big Data remotely and easily from anywhere in the world
to still carry out actions on devices when using the Cloud, allowing for
better collaboration.

Sensor Cloud:
The advancement and application of wireless sensor networks
become an invincible trend into the various industrial, environmental, and
commercial fields. A typical sensor network may consist of a number of
sensor nodes acting upon together to monitor a region and fetch data
about the surroundings. A WSN contains spatially distributed self-
regulated sensors that can cooperatively monitor the environmental
conditions, like sound, temperature, pressure, motion, vibration, pollution,
and so forth. Each node in a sensor network is loaded with a radio
transceiver or some other wireless communication device, a small
microcontroller, and an energy source most often cells/battery. The nodes
of sensor network have cooperative capabilities, which are usually
deployed in a random manner. These sensor nodes basically consist of
three parts: sensing, processing, and communicating. Some of the most
common sensor devices deployed in sensor network as sensor nodes are
camera sensor, accelerometer sensor, thermal sensor, microphone
sensor, and so forth.
 Currently, WSNs are being utilized in several areas like healthcare,
defence such as military target tracking and surveillance, government and
environmental services like natural disaster relief, hazardous environment
exploration, and seismic sensing, and so forth. These sensors may provide
various useful data when they are closely attached to each of their
respective applications and services directly. However, sensor networks
have to face many issues and challenges regarding their communications
(like short communication range, security and privacy, reliability, mobility,
etc.) and resources (like power considerations, storage capacity,
processing capabilities, bandwidth availability, etc.). Besides, WSN has its
own resource and design constraints. Design constraints are application
specific and dependent on monitored environment. Based on the
monitored environment, network size in WSN varies. For monitoring a
small area, fewer nodes are required to form a network whereas the
coverage of a very large area requires a huge number of sensor nodes.
For monitoring large environment, there is limited communication
between nodes due to obstructions into the environment, which in turn
affects the overall network topology (or connectivity). All these limitations
on sensor networks would probably impede the service performance and
quality. In the midst of these issues, the emergence of cloud computing is
seen as a remedy.
A Sensor-Cloud collects and processes information from several
sensor networks, enables information sharing on big scale, and
collaborates with the applications on cloud among users. It integrates
several networks with a number of sensing applications and cloud
computing platform by allowing applications to be cross-disciplinary that
may span over multiple organizations. Sensor-Cloud enables users to
easily gather, access, process, visualize, analyse, store, share, and search
for a large number of sensor data from several types of applications and
by using the computational IT and storage resources of the cloud.
In a sensor network, the sensors are utilized by their specific
application for a special purpose, and this application handles both the
sensor data and the sensor itself such that other applications cannot use
this. This makes wastage of valuable sensor resources that may be
effectively utilized when integrating with other application's infrastructure.
To realize this scenario, Sensor-Cloud infrastructure is used that enables
the sensors to be utilized on an IT infrastructure by virtualizing the
physical sensor on a cloud computing platform. These virtualized sensors
on a cloud computing platform are dynamic in nature and hence facilitate
automatic provisioning of its services as and when required by users.
Furthermore, users need not to worry about the physical locations of
multiple physical sensors and the gapping between physical sensors;
instead, they can supervise these virtual sensors using some standard
functions.
 Within the Sensor-Cloud infrastructure, to obtain QoS, the virtual
sensors are monitored regularly so users can destroy their virtual sensors
when they becomes meaningless. A user interface is provisioned by this
Sensor-Cloud infrastructure for administering, that is, for controlling or
monitoring the virtual sensors, provisioning and destroying virtual
sensors, registering and deleting of physical sensors, and for admitting
the deleting users. For example, in a health monitoring environment, a
patient may use a wearable computing system (that may include
wearable accelerometer sensors, proximity sensors, temperature sensors,
etc.) like Life Shirt and Smart Shirt or may use a handheld device loaded
with sensors, and consequently the data captured by the sensors may be
made accessible to the doctors. But out of these computing systems,
active continuous monitoring is most demanding, and it involves the
patient wearing monitoring devices to obtain pervasive coverage without
being inputted or intervened.
Sensor Network Architecture:
Sensor Network Architecture is used in Wireless Sensor Network (WSN). It
can be used in various places like schools, hospitals, buildings, roads, etc
for various applications like disaster management, security management,
crisis management, etc.

There are 2 types of architecture used in WSN: Layered Network

Architecture, and Clustered Architecture. These are explained as following
below.

1. Layered Network Architecture:

Layered Network Architecture makes use of a few hundred sensor nodes
and a single powerful base station. Network nodes are organized into
concentric Layers.
It consists of 5 layers and three cross layers.
The 5 layers are:
1. Application Layer
2. Transport Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Data Link Layer
5. Physical Layer
The advantage of using Layered Network Architecture is that each node
participates only in short-distance, low power transmissions to nodes of
the neighbouring nodes because of which power consumption is less as
compared to other Sensor Network Architecture. It is scalable and has a
higher fault tolerance.
2. Clustered Network Architecture:
In Clustered Network Architecture, Sensor Nodes autonomously clubs into
groups called clusters. It is based on the Leach Protocol which makes use
of clusters. Leach Protocol stands for “Low Energy Adaptive Clustering
Hierarchy”.
Properties of Leach Protocol:
 It is a 2-tier hierarchy clustering architecture.
 It is a distributed algorithm for organizing the sensor nodes into
groups called clusters.
 The cluster head nodes in each of the autonomously formed clusters
create the Time-division multiple access (TDMA) schedules.
 It makes use of the concept called Data Fusion which makes it
energy efficient.

Advantages of Sensor-Cloud
Cloud computing is very encouraging solution for Sensor-Cloud
infrastructure due to several reasons like the agility, reliability, portability,
real-time, flexibility, and so forth. Structural health and environment-
based monitoring contains highly sensitive data and applications of these
types cannot be handled by normal data tools available in terms of data
scalability, performance, programmability, or accessibility. So a better
infrastructure is needed that may contain tools to cope with these highly
sensitive applications in real time. In the following, we describe the
several advantages and benefits of Sensor-Cloud infrastructure that may
be the cause of its glory, and these are as follows.
 Analysis: The integration of huge accumulated sensor data from
several sensor networks and the cloud computing model make it
attractive for various kinds of analyses required by users through
provisioning of the scalable processing power.
 Scalability: Sensor-Cloud enables the earlier sensor networks to
scale on very large size because of the large routing architecture of
cloud. It means that as the need for resources increases,
organizations can scale or add the extra services from cloud
computing vendors without having to invest heavily for these
additional hardware resources.
 Collaboration: Sensor-Cloud enables the huge sensor data to be
shared by different groups of consumers through collaboration of
 various physical sensor networks. It eases the collaboration among
several users and applications for huge data sharing on the cloud.
 Free Provisioning of Increased Data storage and Processing Power : It
providesfree data storage and organizations may put their data
rather than putting onto private computer systems without hassle. It
provides enormous processing facility and storage resources to
handle data of large-scale applications.
 Dynamic Provisioning of Services: Users of Sensor-Cloud can access
their relevant information from wherever they want and whenever
they need rather than being stick to their desks.
 Automation: Automation played a vital role in provisioning of
Sensor-Cloud computing services. Automation of services improved
the delivery time to a great extent.
 Flexibility: Sensor-Cloud provides more flexibility to its users than
the past computing methods. It provides flexibility to use random
applications in any number of times and allows sharing of sensor
resources under flexible usage environment.
 Agility of Services: Sensor-Cloud provides agile services and the
users can provision the expensive technological infrastructure
resources with less cost. The integration of wireless sensor networks
with cloud allows the high-speed processing of data using immense
processing capability of cloud.

 Resource Optimization: Sensor-Cloud infrastructure enables the

resource optimization by allowing the sharing of resources for
several number of applications. The integration of sensors with
cloud enables gradual reduction of resource cost and achieves
higher gains of services. With Sensor-Cloud, both the small and
midsized organizations can benefit from an enormous resource
infrastructure without having to involve and administer it directly.
Smart Cities:

The urbanization process has greatly improved people’s standard of

living, providing water supplies and sewerage systems, residential and
office buildings, education and health services and convenient
transportation. The concentration of educated people in cities helps to
improve the industrial structure and promote production efficiency.
However, urbanization also creates new challenges and problems. As a
representative developing country, the economic advantages of Indian
cities are being offset by the perennial urban curses of overcrowding, air
and water pollution, environmental degradation, contagious diseases and
crime; the urban issues of reducing air pollution and providing clean
water, safe neighborhoods and efficient infrastructure desperately need to
be addressed.
All these challenges and problems force citizens, governments and
stakeholders to pay attention to the environment and sustainable
development of cities, and to try to find a set of technical solutions to
reduce these urban problems. The Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) revolution has offered people the opportunity to reduce
the scale of and/or solve urbanization issues. During the past 10 years,
city systems have become more digital and information-based, and there
has been a fundamental change in the living environment of citizens and
the governing mode of cities. The economy, culture, transport,
entertainment and all other aspects of cities have become closely
combined with ICT, and the Internet has become a major part of citizens’
daily lives. The abundant accomplishments of digitizing a city’s
information not only introduce daily convenience to the population, but
also establish an infrastructure and conglomeration of data as a basis for
further evolution of modern cities. Over the last 10 years, innovative
information technologies such as cloud computing, ‘big data’, data
vitalization, the ‘Internet of Things’ and mobile computing have become
widely adopted in a variety of different areas. Cloud computing enables,
developers to provide internet services without the need for a large
capital outlay on hardware for deployment or the staff to operate it. The
amount of information published and processed both on- and offline has
given rise to an information explosion, and a new field dedicated to
dealing with it—big data—which has spawned the need for new, more
scalable, techniques to derive answers from huge sets of data. The
emergence of the Internet of Things makes it possible to access remote
sensor data and to control the physical world from a distance, meaning
that cities can effectively sense and manage essential elements such as
the water supply, building operations, and road and transport networks.
Data vitalization proposes a new paradigm for large-scale dataset analysis
and offers ubiquitous data support for top-level applications for smart
cities. With the help of mobile computing, users can access and process
information anywhere, and anytime, on all aspects of life. The
urbanization, growth and associated problems of modern cities, coupled
with the rapid development of new ICT, has enabled us to first envisage
the ‘smart cities’ concept, and now to begin to build smart cities, which is
seen as the future form for cities. Figure 1 shows how a smart city is
formed. Smart city includes smart business, smart living, smart education,
smart community, smart government, smart infrastructure, smart utility,
smart mobility and smart environment.
 The new Internet of Things (IoT) applications are enabling Smart City
initiatives worldwide. It provides the ability to remotely monitor, manage
and control devices, and to create new insights and actionable information
from massive streams of real-time data. The main features of a smart city
include a high degree of information technology integration and a
comprehensive application of information resources. The essential
components of urban development for a smart city should include smart
technology, smart industry, smart services, smart management and smart
life. The Internet of Things is about installing sensors (RFID, IR, GPS, laser
scanners, etc.) for everything, and connecting them to the internet
through specific protocols for information exchange and communications,
in order to achieve intelligent recognition, location, tracking, monitoring
and management. With the technical support from IoT, smart city need to
have three features of being instrumented, interconnected and intelligent.
Only then a Smart City can be formed by integrating all these intelligent
features at its advanced stage of IOT development. The explosive growth
of Smart City and Internet of Things applications creates many scientific
and engineering challenges that call for ingenious research efforts from
both academia and industry, especially for the development of efficient,
scalable, and reliable Smart City based on IoT. New protocols,
architectures, and services are in dire needs to respond for these
challenges. The goal of the special issue is to bring together scholars,
professors, researchers, engineers and administrators resorting to the
state-of-the-art technologies and ideas to significantly improve the field of
Smart City based on IoT.
So, when we talked about smart cities; what is it. So, in addition to
the regularinfrastructure that is there in any city for example, the urban
infrastructure consisting ofoffice buildings residential areas hospitals
schools transportation police and so on youalso need something in
addition to make the cities smart. So, what is this in addition letus talk
about. So, smart means what smart means that it is in terms of the
services thatare given to the respective stake holders of these cities. So,
citizens are able to do thingsin a better manner in an improved manner
then usual and how is that made possible thatis made possible with the
help of nothing, but the ICT technologies information andcommunication
technologies which also includes electronics embedded
electronicsdifferent other advanced topologies in electrical in a electrical
sciences and so on. So,computers electronics put together can make
these cities smart.So, definitely will have to take help of sensors ,sensor
networks sensor networksthen actuators then the different other
communication technologies RFID, NFC,ZWAVE and so and so forth.

Modern urban spaces are hotbeds of new ideas and world-shaking

innovations. As for urban adoption of connected tech: all things
considered, it really makes practical sense. Densely populated areas
stand to gain the most from improved surroundings, and depending on
the city, they might already come equipped with the fundamental IT
infrastructures, which makes the further adaption easier. Meanwhile, the
IoT might also offer some solutions to ease the huge burden that the
urban explosion has meant for the existing infrastructures.

Connected City
A common definition for a smart city is using ICT to make a city
(administration, education, transportation, etc.) more intelligent and
efficient. The definitions and concepts of smart cities are still emerging,
and there is currently no clear and consistent definition of a smart city
among the different stakeholders. In order to implement and assess smart
cities in practice, a deeper understanding of the ‘smart city’ still needs to
be defined. Many countries and cities have launched their own smart city
projects to resolve urbanization issues and challenges. The USA was one
of the first countries to launch a smart city project with a high compliment
of smarter planet notions from President Barack Obama. In particular, for
developing countries, the speed of urbanization is considerably faster and,
as a consequence, the infrastructure problems faced are much greater. In
2014, India declared an intention to build more than 100 smart cities, with
high-technology communication capabilities, throughout the country. ICT
plays an important role in smart city construction. Top-level architecture
research plays a considerable role in guiding technology development in
every domain of a smart city and improving research into resource
configuration. Now let’s extrapolate the potential use cases to an entire
city in which we have many objects that are capable of capturing
information and interacting with other objects. The street lamp can now
not only communicate with the devices that are closest but with other
objects that are connected to the Internet and process this information to
make decisions, for example, about the intensity of the light that is the
most appropriate. The objects can also send information about what is
happening in their environment or process different information. If the
information from the street lamp is processed alongside with information
from a nearby traffic light, we can start talking about the IoT use cases in
the smart city environment.
When it comes to smart cities and the management of public space,
the scope of possibilities, that IoT offers, is infinite. In other words, the IoT
comes with considerable possibilities and room for manoeuvre within the
field of smart cities. It is one of the aspects that we will touch in the
Master’s in Global Smart City Manager. IoT is a technology that is already
there, that has been developed for a long time, but whose implantation in
the public space will prevail in the years to come.
 And depending on the way we approach our smart city project or
the implementation of this technology in public space, smart city projects
will be developed in one way, or another, they will be able to achieve
common objectives in one way or another.

Possible IoT Use Cases for Smart Cities

 Smart parking
An IoT solution will permit monitoring the availability of parking spots in
the city. With the GPS data from drivers’ smartphones (or road-surface
sensors in the ground), smart parking solutions let the user know when
the closest parking spot becomes free to find a parking spot faster and
easier instead of blindly driving around.

 Smart roads and smart traffic congestion management

Different IoT solutions will permit to monitor vehicle and pedestrian levels
to optimize driving and walking routes. The use of different types of
sensors, as well as GPS data from drivers’ smartphones will help to
determine the number, location and the speed of vehicles. Thanks to a
cloud management platform which connects various traffic lights, the city
will be able to monitor green light timings and automatically alter the
lights based on the current traffic situation to prevent congestion. Better
control of traffic congestion will also help to improve air quality.
 Smart public transport
With thehelp of IoT sensors, we can obtain data to learn about the
patterns of how citizens use public transport. Smart public transport
solutions can combine multiple sources, such as ticket sales and traffic
information. The users could also use an app to contact the authorities in
case they spot incidents or suspicious activities.
 Smart street lighting
IoT-based smart cities allow better maintenance and control of street
lamps. Equipping streetlights with sensors and connecting them to a cloud
management solution makes them more straightforward and cost-
effective. With this system, the city can adapt the lighting schedule to the
lighting zone and weather conditions.
 Smart waste management
Waste-collecting is another service that could be optimized with an IoT-
enabled solution by tracking waste levels, as well as providing route
optimization and operational analytics.

Advantages of a Smart City

Smart cities can be described as cities capable of using information
technology to create efficiencies and create sustainability, and improve
the quality of life of it’s residents. A smart city is basically a living entity,
capable of extraordinary adaptations that we once thought were not
possible. This post will be discussing smart cities, including what makes a
smart city, it’s benefits, it’s effects on the environment, and what
negative effects, if any it might have on it’s citizens and the world as a
whole.

The benefits of smart cities

 Efficient distribution of resources
Smart cities have an overall better organization and infrastructure. All the
sectors are involved in a complex interplay that simplifies everyday life for
people who live and work in the city. The cameras at the bus stops can
identify how many people are waiting to board; the sensors on the
approaching bus know how many people ride the bus at any given point in
time, and how many people are currently on the bus.The combination of
the information from the bus stop and the bus then leads to the city’s
response. There can then be redistribution of people and buses if it
appears that the current course of events will not be efficient.
 Seamless communication
Communications between the various systems and sensors in a smart city
is very important. In fact, without them the smart city cannot efficiently
redistribute resources and make citizens’ lives better. However, smart
cities bring about a different, equally efficient communication–the
communication between the citizens and the government of the particular
city.
In prior times, policies and programs were made based on what the
government perceived to be needed by the city. This often led to massive
oversights and the omission of key policies altogether. In a smart city, the
policy makers have all they could ever need to make informed decisions.
The information gathered all across the city provide an invaluable line of
communication between the needs of the city, and the people who can
address those needs.
 Speed of implementation
Still on governments and policies, every country with a democracy can
testify to the fact that it takes quite a while for policies, or any sort of new
development to get implemented. This is partly due to bureaucracy and
the multiple levels of government, and also partly due to the human
factor. Smart cities overcome these problems very easily. Because the
points that need improvements have already been identified, the
implementation becomes easier. All the automation, analytics, and
sensors contribute to making it easier for most of the changes to be
implemented remotely, creating a seamless flow of change from
conception to execution.

Smart Home:

The Internet of Things (IoT) is a system that allows devices to be

connected andremotely monitored across the Internet. In the last years,
the IoT concept has had a strongevolution, being currently used in various
domains such as smart homes, telemedicine,industrial environments, etc.
Wireless sensor network technologies integrated into theIoT enable a
global interconnection of smart devices with advanced functionalities.
Awireless home automation network, composed of sensors and actuators
that share resourcesand are interconnected to each other, is the key
technology to making intelligent homes.
A “smart home” is a part of the IoT paradigm and aims to integrate
home automation.Allowing objects and devices in a home to be connected
to the Internet enables users toremotely monitor and control them. These
include light switches that can be turnedon and off by using a smartphone
or by voice command, thermostats that will adjust theindoor temperatures
and generate reports about energy usage, or smart irrigation systemsthat
will start at a specific time of a day, on a custom monthly schedule, and
thus willcontrol water waste. Smart home solutions have become very
popular in the last years.Figure 1 shows an example of a smart home that
uses different IoT-connected utilities.
 One of the greatest advantages of home automation systems is
their easy managementand control using different devices, including
smartphones, laptops and desktops, tablets,smart watches, or voice
assistants. Home automation systems offer a series of benefits; theyadd
safety through appliance and lighting control, secure the home through
automateddoor locks, increase awareness through security cameras,
increase convenience throughtemperature adjustment, save precious
time, give control, and save money.
Several home automation systems involved with IoT have been proposed
by academic researchers in the literature in the last decade. In wireless-
based home automation systems, different technologies have been used,
each of them with their pros and cons. For example, Bluetooth-based
automation is low cost, fast, and easy to be installed, but it is limited to
short distances. GSM and ZigBee are widely used wireless technologies as
well. GSM provides long-range communication at the cost of a mobile plan
of the service provider that operates in the area. Zigbee is a wireless
mesh network standard that is designed to be low-cost and with low
power consumption, targeted at battery-powered devices in wireless
control and monitoring applications. However, it has a low data speed, low
transmission, as well as low network stability, and has a high maintenance
cost. The advantages of Wi-Fi technology over ZigBee or Z-Wave are
related to price, complexity (meaning simplicity), and accessibility. First,
Wi-Fi-enabled smart devices are usually cheap. In addition, it is easier to
find do-it-yourself devices that use Wi-Fi, resulting a less expensive
option. Second, Wi-Fi is already a necessity and it is in most homes, so it
is easier to buy devices that are already Wi-Fi-enabled. Finally, Wi-Fi is
characterized by simplicity, meaning that a user must connect only a
minimal number of devices for a home automation setup. Since it is very
common, the investment on extra hardware is avoided; a user only needs
the basic setup for a home automation system. However, Wi-Fi is not
designed to create mesh networks, it consumes ten times more energy
than similar devices using ZigBee, Z-Wave, or Bluetooth for example, and
many Wi-Fi routers can only allow up to thirty devices connected at once.
As compared to Ethernet, Wi-Fi brings several advantages, including the
easy connection and access of multiple devices, the expandability (adding
new devices without the hassle of additional wiring), lower cost, or single
access point requirement.
The basic architecture enables measuring home conditions, process
instrumented data, utilizing microcontroller-enabled sensors for
measuring home conditions and actuators for monitoring home embedded
devices.The popularity and penetration of the smart home concept is
growing in a good pace, as it became part of the modernization and
reduction of cost trends. This is achieved by embedding the capability to
maintain a centralized event log, execute machine learning processes to
provide main cost elements, saving recommendations and other useful
reports.
Smart home services
 Measuring home conditions
A typical smart home is equipped with a set of sensors for measuring
home conditions, such as: temperature, humidity, light and proximity.
Each sensor is dedicated to capture one or more measurement.
Temperature and humidity may be measured by one sensor, other
sensors calculate the light ratio for a given area and the distance from it
to each object exposed to it. All sensors allow storing the data and
visualizing it so that the user can view it anywhere and anytime. To do so,
it includes a signal processer, a communication interface and a host on a
cloud infrastructure.
 Managing home appliances
Creates the cloud service for managing home appliances which will be
hosted on a cloud infrastructure. The managing service allows the user,
controlling the outputs of smart actuators associated with home
appliances, such as such as lamps and fans. Smart actuators are devices,
such as valves and switches, which perform actions such as turning things
on or off or adjusting an operational system. Actuators provides a variety
of functionalities, such as on/off valve service, positioning to percentage
open, modulating to control changes on flow conditions, emergency
shutdown (ESD). To activate an actuator, a digital write command is
issued to the actuator.

 Controlling home access

Home access technologies are commonly used for public access doors. A
common system uses a database with the identification attributes of
authorized people. When a person is approaching the access control
system, the person’s identification attributes are collected instantly and
compared tothe database. If it matches the database data, the access is
allowed, otherwise, the access is denied. For a wide distributed institute,
we may employ cloud services for centrally collecting persons’ data and
processing it. Some use magnetic or proximity identification cards, other
use face recognition systems, finger print and RFID.
In an example implementation, an RFID card and an RFID reader
have been used. Every authorized person has an RFID card. The person
scanned the card via RFID reader located near the door. The scanned ID
has been sent via the internet to the cloud system. The system posted the
ID to the controlling service which compares the scanned ID against the
authorized IDs in the database.

The main components

To enable all of the above described activities and data management, the
system is composed of the following components, as described in Figure
1.
 Sensors to collect internal and external home data and measure
home conditions. These sensors are connected to the home itself
and to the attached-to-home devices. These sensors are not internet
of things sensors, which are attached to home appliances. The
sensors’ data is collected and continually transferred via the local
network, to the smart home server.
 Processors for performing local and integrated actions. It may also
be connected to the cloud for applications requiring extended
resources. Thesensors’ data is then processed by the local server
processes.
 A collection of software components wrapped as APIs, allowing
external applications execute it, given it follows the pre-defined
parameters format. Such an API can process sensors data or
manage necessary actions.
 Actuators to provision and execute commands in the server or other
control devices. It translates the required activity to the command
syntax; the device can execute. During processing the received
sensors’ data, the task checks if any rule became true. In such case
the system may launch a command to the proper device processor.
  Database to store the processed data collected from the sensors
[and cloud services]. It will also be used for data analysis, data
presentation and visualization. The processed data is saved in the
attached database for future use.

 Cloud computing and its contribution to IoT and smart home: Cloud
computing is a shared pool of computing resources ready to provide
a variety of computing services in different levels, from basic
infrastructure to most sophisticated application services, easily
allocated and released with minimal efforts or service provider
interaction. In practice, it manages computing, storage, and
communication resources that are shared by multiple users in a
virtualized and isolated environment. IoT and smart home can
benefit from the wide resources and functionalities of cloud to
compensate its limitation in storage, processing, communication,
support in pick demand, backup and recovery. For example, cloud
can support IoT service management and fulfillment and execute
complementary applications using the data produced by it. Smart
home can be condensed and focus just on the basic and critical
functions and so minimize the local home resources and rely on the
cloud capabilities and resources. Smart home and IoT will focus on
data collection, basic processing, and transmission to the cloud for
further processing. To cope with security challenges, cloud may be
private for highly secured data and public for the rest.

IoT challenges for Smart City and Smart Home:

  Infrastructure
Smart Cities utilize sensor technology to gather and analyze information
in an effort to improve the quality of life for residents. Sensors collect data
on everything from rush hour stats to crime rates to overall air
quality.Complicated and costly infrastructure is involved in installing and
maintaining these sensors. How will they be powered? Will it involve hard-
wiring, solar energy, or battery operation? Or, in case of power failure,
perhaps a combination of all three?Funding for new infrastructure projects
is limited and approval processes can take years. Installing new sensors
and other improvements cause temporary – though still frustrating –
problems for people living in these cities.
 Security and Hackers
As IoT and sensor technology use expands, so does the threat level to
security. This begs the question…is technology really considered “smart”
if hackers can break into it and shut down an entire city? Recent
discussion involving cyber-terror threats to vulnerable and outdated
power grids has everyone a bit more concerned and skeptical about
technology and security. Smart Cities are investing more money and
resources into security, while tech companies are creating solutions with
new built-in mechanisms to protect against hacking and cyber-crimes.
 Privacy Concerns
In any major city, there’s a balance between quality of life and invasion of
privacy. While everyone wants to enjoy a more convenient, peaceful, and
healthy environment, nobody wants to feel like they are constantly being
monitored by “Big Brother.”
Cameras installed on every street corner may help deter crime, but
they can also install fear and paranoia in law-abiding citizens. Another
valid concern is the amount of data being collected from all the smart
sensors residents come into contact with each day.
 Educating & Engaging the Community
For a Smart City to truly exist and thrive, it needs “smart” citizens who
are engaged and actively taking advantage of new technologies. With any
new city-wide tech project, part of the implementation process must
involve educating the community on its benefits. This can be done
through a series of in-person town hall-style meetings and email
campaigns with voter registration, as well as an online education platform
that keeps citizens engaged and up-to-date.When a community feels like
it’s playing a part in the overall decisions that affect daily life, and is being
communicated to in a clear and thoughtful manner, it’s more apt to use
the technology and encourage others to use it as well. This is key to a
Smart City’s success.
Connected vehicles:
Connected vehicle technology can change our transportation system as
we knowit by enabling safe, interoperable networked wireless
communications amongvehicles, the infrastructure, and passengers’
personal communications devices.Connected vehicle technology will
enable cars, trucks, buses, and other vehicles to“talk” to each other with
in-vehicle or aftermarket devices that continuously shareimportant safety
and mobility information. Connected vehicles can also use
wirelesscommunication to “talk” to traffic signals, work zones, toll booths,
school zones, andother typesof infrastructure.
Different communications technologies (satellite, cellular,dedicated
shortrange communications) may be utilizeddepending on the
performance requirements of the connectedvehicle applications. Cars,
trucks, buses, and other vehicles can“talk” to each other with in-vehicle or
aftermarket devices thatcontinuously share important safety and mobility
information.Connected vehicles can also use wireless communication
to“talk” to traffic signals, work zones, toll booths, school zones,and other
types of infrastructure. The vehicle informationcommunicated does not
identify the driver or vehicle, andtechnical controls have been put in place
to help prevent vehicletracking and tampering with the system.The vision
for connected vehicle technologies is to transformsurface transportation
systems to create a future where:
• Highway crashes and their tragic consequences aresignificantly reduced
• Traffic managers have data to accurately assesstransportation system
performance and actively managethe system in real time, for optimal
performance
• Travelers have continual access to accurate travel timeinformation
about mode choice and route options, and thepotential environmental
impacts of their choices
• Vehicles can talk to traffic signals to eliminate unnecessarystops and
help drivers operate vehicles for optimalfuel efficiency.

Challenges:
 Security
 Privacy
 Scalability
 Reliability
 Quality of service
 Lack of Global Standards
What is Vehicle to Everything (V2X)?
Vehicle to Everything (V2X) is a vehicular communication system that
supports the transfer of information from a vehicle to moving parts of the
traffic system that may affect the vehicle. The main purpose of V2X
technology is to improve road safety, energy savings, and traffic efficiency
on the roads.

How Vehicle to Everything (V2X) Works

In a V2X communication system, the information travels from the vehicle
sensors and other sources through high-bandwidth, high-reliability links,
allowing it to communicate with other cars, infrastructure such as parking
spaces and traffic lights, and smartphone-tossing pedestrians.By sharing
information, such as speed, with other entities around the vehicle, the
technology improves the driver’s awareness of potential dangers and
helps reduce the severity of injuries, road accident fatalities, and collision
with other vehicles.The technology also enhances traffic efficiency by
warning drivers of upcoming traffic, suggesting alternative routes to avoid
traffic and identifying available parking spaces.
Components of V2X Technology
The key components of V2X technology include V2V (vehicle-to-vehicle)
and V2I (vehicle-to-infrastructure). V2V allows vehicles to communicate
with other vehicles on the road, while V2I allows vehicles to communicate
with external entities, such as traffic lights, parking spaces, cyclists, and
pedestrians. The technologies help improve road safety, reduce fuel
consumption, and enhance the experience between drivers and other
road users, such as cyclists and pedestrians. When V2X systems are
integrated into traditional vehicles, drivers can receive important
information about the weather patterns, nearby accidents, road
conditions, road works warning, emergency vehicle approaching, and
activities of other drivers using the same road. Autonomous vehicles
equipped with V2X systems may provide more information to the existing
navigation system of the vehicle. The systems also make it possible for
autonomous vehicles to scan the surrounding environment and make
immediate decisions based on the information received.

Smart Grid:
What is the Smart Grid?
The “grid” is the electrical network serving every resident, business and
infrastructure service in a city. The “smart grid” is the next generation of
those energy systems, which have been updated with communications
technology and connectivity to drive smarter resource use.
The technologies that make today’s IoT-enabled energy grid “smart”
include wireless devices such as sensors, radio modules, gateways and
routers. These devices provide the sophisticated connectivity and
communications that empower consumers to make better energy usage
decisions, allow cities to save electricity and expense, and enables power
authorities to more quickly restore power after a blackout.
The Smart Grid is critical to building a secure, clean, and more efficient
future, according to the International Energy Agency (IEA). The Smart Grid
is part of an IoT framework, which can be used to remotely monitor and
manage everything from lighting, traffic signs, traffic congestion, parking
spaces, road warnings, and early detection of things like power influxes as
the result of earthquakes and extreme weather. The Smart Grid does this
through a network of transmission lines, smart meters, distribution
automation, substations, transformers, sensors, software and more that
are distributed to businesses and homes across the city.
Smart Grid technologies all contribute to efficient IoT energy management
solutions that are currently lacking in the existing framework. What makes
the IoT Smart Grid better is two-way communication between connected
devices and hardware that can sense and respond to user demands.
These technologies mean that a Smart Grid is more resilient and less
costly than the current power infrastructure.
The main advantages identified in this document are:
 Energy savings through reducing consumption
One of the advantages of smart grids is that they can tell us the
consumption at an energy meter at any time, so users are better informed
of their real consumption. Moreover, with better consumption monitoring,
contracted power can be adjusted to meet the real need of each
consumer. These two factors result in users reducing their consumption
and tailoring their contracted power to their real needs.
 Better customer service and more accurate bills
Another key advantage offered by tele-management systems is that bills
are more accurate. They always reflect the real consumption of each
month instead of estimates, reducing the cost of the old system of manual
energy meter readings. In addition to being able to access information
about the installation remotely, problems become easier to diagnose and
solutions can therefore be implemented faster, improving customer
service.Nowadays customers have to notify companies for them to take
action. But with remote management the system itself automatically
reports all incidents to the electric company so it can respond faster to
users.
 Reduced balancing cost
Smart Grids can collect much more data than the manual energy meter
reading system. This permits the use of data analysis techniques and the
preparation of highly realistic consumption forecasts as many more
variables are taken into account.Utilities can then better tailor their
production to consumption (balances) and reduce energy surpluses.
 Reduction of carbon emissions
All the benefits above involve reducing consumption, which entails a
reduction in CO2 emissions.We can thus say that Smart Grids lead to a
more sustainable future. All this will directly contribute to the future
integration of electric vehicle charging systems on the mains. The
deployment of renewable energy systems is also made easier as utilities
gain greater control of their grids.
 Smart Grid Enables Renewable Energy Generation
Traditional energy grids are designed to transmit electricity from a large,
centralized power station to a wide network of homes and businesses in
the area. At this stage, the electric grid is not designed to accept inputs
from homes and businesses that are generating power via solar panels or
windmills. A smart grid is designed to accept power from renewable
resources.Crucially, the smart grid in conjunction with wirelessly enabled
smart meters can keep track of how much energy a net-positive
establishment is generating and reimburse them accordingly. The smart
grid also allows for monitoring of solar panels and equipment as well.We
mentioned earlier that a smart grid can mitigate the effects of a disaster
such as a terrorist attack or natural disaster on a power station, a feat
that’s possible due to decentralized energy generation. Under the
traditional model, a small number of power plants powered a city. This left
these services vulnerable to threats that would result in widespread
blackouts and energy shortages. With a decentralized model, even if the
centralized power plant is taken offline, multiple alternative sources,
including wind and solar, can supplant the resources in the grid. This
decentralized system is much harder to take offline and can provide a
robustness that’s not possible when one plant is powering an entire city.
Smart Grid for the Future
Smart grid technology can be expressed in a single sentence: a new
electric grid with two-way communication. For the first time, businesses
and consumers can get real time billing information while utility
companies can better meet the needs of their customers as they react to
demand spikes and fix or manage blackouts and other challenges. Smart
grid is resilient, efficient and green which is good for the consumer, the
utility company and the environment. Wireless technology will replace
thousands of miles of cable that would have been needed to advance the
smart grid to where it is today.
Challenges:
 High Investment
 Cyber attacks

Industrial IoT:
The Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT), which is considered as the
main future IoT-application area, is defined bythe Industrial Internet
Consortium asmachines, computers and people enabling intelligent
industrial operationsusing advanced data analytics for transformational
business outcomes” (“Industrial Internet Consortium,” 2017).Generally,
IIoT is one basis of Industry 4.0 and the digital transformation. The IIoT is
the connection between IT(information technology) and OT (operational
technology). IIoT is the most important segment in IoT, much morethan
consumer applications. The Industrial Internet of Things is related to the
Industry 4.0: all IoTapplications in Industry 4.0 are forms of IIoT but not all
IIoT use cases are about the industries which are categorizedas Industry
4.0. Typical use cases of theIndustrial Internet of Things include intelligent
machine applications, industrial control applications, factory flooruse
cases, condition monitoring, use cases in agriculture or smart grid
applications. It is important to know that the IIoT is not just about
savingcosts and optimizing efficiency though. Companies also have the
possibility to realize important transformationsand can find new
opportunities, e.g., entirely new business models in Industry 4.0.

According to TechTarget, IIoT can be formally defined as “the use of smart

sensors and actuators to enhance manufacturing and industrial processes.
Also known as the industrial internet or Industry 4.0, IIoT leverages the
power of smart machines and real-time analytics to take advantage of the
data that dumb machines have produced in industrial settings for years.”
Industrial IoT capabilities require widespread digitization of manufacturing
operations. Organizations must include four primary pillars to be
considered a fully IIoT-enabled operation:
 Smart machines equipped with sensors and software that can track
and log data.
 Robust cloud computer systems that can store and process the
data.
 Advanced data analytics systems that make sense of and leverage
data collected from systems, informing manufacturing
improvements and operations.
 Valued employees, who put these insights to work and ensure
proper manufacturing function.

Benefits of IIoT
These are 5 of the biggest benefits of adopting a fully connected IIoT
manufacturing operation.
Increase efficiency
The biggest benefit of IIoT is that it gives manufacturers the ability to
automate, and therefore optimize their operating efficiency. Robotics and
automated machinery can work more efficiently and accurately, boosting
productivity and helping manufacturers streamline their functions.
Additionally, physical machinery can be connected to software via sensors
that monitor performance on a constant basis. This enables
manufacturers to have better insights into the operational performance of
individual pieces of equipment as well as entire fleets.
IIoT-enabled data systems empower manufacturers to improve operating
efficiencies by:
 Bypassing manual tasks and functions and implementing
automated, digital ones
 Making data-driven decisions regarding all manufacturing functions
 Monitoring performance from anywhere – on the manufacturing floor
or from thousands of miles away

Reduce Errors
Industrial IoT empowers manufacturers to digitize nearly every part of
their business. By reducing manual process and entries, manufacturers
are able to reduce the biggest risk associated with manual labor – human
error.
This goes beyond just operational and manufacturing errors. IIoT solutions
also can reduce the risk of cyber and data breaches caused by human
error. A Cyber Security Trend report cited people as the biggest cause of
cyber security breaches, with human error being the culprit 37% of the
time. AI and machine learning-enabled programs and machinery can do
much of the required computing themselves, eliminating the potential for
someone to make a simple mistake, and put the manufacturer’s data at
risk.

Predictive Maintenance
Nothing negatively impacts a manufacturing operation more than
machine downtime. When maintenance in the manufacturing world is
reactive rather than proactive, manufacturers are stuck trying to identify
what the issue is, how it can be repaired, and what it will cost. With
predictive maintenance powered by industrial IoT solutions, all of those
issues are alleviated.
When machinery performance and function is monitored consistently,
manufacturers can create a baseline. This baseline and the corresponding
data empowers companies with the information they need to see any
issue before it occurs. They can then schedule maintenance prior to
downtime, which benefits them in that they:

 Have the parts required for the job

 Know the cost of the project beforehand, and can budget for it
 Move production to another area of the facility, so the product
quotas are unaffected
 Ensure that machinery is operating at maximum efficiency

Improve Safety
All of the data and sensors required of a fully functioning IIoT
manufacturing operation are also helping to bolster workplace safety.
“Smart manufacturing” is turning into “smart security” when all of the IIoT
sensors work together to monitor workplace and employee safety.
Integrated safety systems are protecting workers on the floor, on the line,
and in distribution. If an accident occurs, everyone in the facility can be
alerted, operations can cease, and company leadership can intervene and
make sure the accident and incident is resolved. This incident can also
generate valuable data that can help prevent a repeat occurrence in the
future.
A newer option some manufacturers are utilizing is the use of wearable
technology among their employees. Wearables have been part of IoT
since its infancy, and it are just now being utilized in industrial IoT
operations.
Wearables help leadership keep tabs on things like employee posture and
the surrounding noise levels, and they can then improve work conditions
and potentially improve performance. They can also alert employees
when they aren’t following proper workplace safety procedures, so they
can correct their actions and stay safe on the job.

Reduce Costs
Knowledge is power, and the knowledge provided to manufacturers via
IIoT solutions is giving them the tools they need to reduce costs and
generate more revenue. Data-driven insights into operations, production,
marketing, sales, and more can steer businesses in a profitable direction.
All of the aforementioned benefits of IIoT – predictive maintenance, fewer
errors, improved quality control, and maximized efficiencies – will all boost
profits for a manufacturer. Industrial IoT also offers arguably the most
valuable tool for leaders of a manufacturing company – insights from
anywhere, anytime.
Remote monitoring of manufacturing operations is now possible 365 days
a year, 24/7, from anywhere in the world. This 360-degree view into the
entire manufacturing process, and the follow-up service provided to
customers in their buying journey, is an invaluable asset.

CASE STUDY: