List of Figures and Tables

Table 1.1 Some approaches to quality over the years. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Figure 1.1 Example of a process flowchart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Figure 1.2 Relationships between systems, processes, subprocesses, and steps. . . . . . 17
Figure 1.3 A feedback loop. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Figure 1.4 Categories of inputs to a process step. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Figure 1.5 Traditional quality cost curves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Figure 1.6 Modern quality cost curves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Table 1.2 Risk analysis table. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Figure 1.7 A format for SWOT analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Figure 2.1 TPS house. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Figure 2.2 7S adaptation (Hirano). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Figure 2.3 A sea of inventory often hides unresolved problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Figure 2.4 C-shaped manufacturing cell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Figure 2.5 Common symbols used in value stream mapping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Figure 2.6 Value stream map example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Table 3.1 Design objectives and outputs traceability matrix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Figure 3.1 Simple risk matrix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Figure 3.2 Sample DFMEA headers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Figure 3.3 Sample PFMEA headers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Figure 3.4 FMEA flowchart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Figure 3.5 FMEA flowchart in line with common FMEA form. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Table 3.2 Steps in performing a design or process FMEA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Table 3.3 Possible severity evaluation criteria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Table 3.4 Possible occurrence evaluation criteria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Table 3.5 Possible detection evaluation criteria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
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Figure 3.6 Example of RPN calculations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Figure 3.7 Example of FMEA reporting and RPN chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Figure 3.8 A typical risk action plan Gantt chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Figure 3.9 A typical top-level management review report for FMEA progress. . . . . . . 69
Figure 3.10 An example of a partially filled-in FMEA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Figure 3.11 This example of a tree diagram is a fault tree (used to study defects
and failures). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

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Figure 3.12 Common types of FMEA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Figure 4.1 Process diagram/model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Table 4.1 Tips for benchmarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Figure 4.2 Basic SIPOC diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Figure 5.1 Example of a QFD matrix for an animal trap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Figure 5.2 Map to the entries of the QFD matrix illustrated in Figure 5.1. . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Figure 5.3 Sequence of QFD matrices for product, part, and process planning. . . . . . . 90
Figure 5.4 Example of a completed QFD matrix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Figure 5.5 QFD stage flow and relationships. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Figure 5.6 QFD input–output requirements matrix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Table 5.1 QFD value characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Figure 6.1 Risk assessment assignment matrix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Figure 7.1 Example of an activity network diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Figure 7.2 Example of an affinity diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Figure 7.3 Example of a cause-and-effect diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Figure 7.4 Example of a check sheet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Figure 7.5 High-level flowchart for an order-filling process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Figure 7.6 Detailed flowchart for the order-filling process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Figure 7.7 Example of force-field analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Figure 7.8 Gantt chart example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Figure 7.9 Graphical representation of question responses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Figure 7.10 Example interrelationship digraph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Figure 7.11 Example matrix diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Figure 7.12 PDCA cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Figure 7.13 Prioritization matrix example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Figure 7.14 Example process decision program chart (PDPC). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Figure 7.15 PERT/critical path chart example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Figure 7.16 SIPOC diagram with requirements capture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Figure 7.17 This example of a tree diagram is a fault tree (used to study defects
and failures). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Table 9.1 Common negative team dynamics and potential countermeasures. . . . . . . 136
Figure 9.1 Typical large Six Sigma organization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Figure 9.2 Typical small Six Sigma organization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
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Table 9.2 Typical Six Sigma roles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

Figure 9.3 Multivoting ranked approach example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Figure 9.4 Multivoting weighted approach example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Figure 10.1 Symbols commonly used in flowcharts and process maps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Figure 10.2 Basic flowchart for warranty product replacement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Figure 10.3 Cross-functional or swim lane flowchart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Figure 10.4 Empty cause-and-effect diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

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Figure 10.5 Cause-and-effect diagram after a few steps of a brainstorming session. . . . 161
Figure 10.6 Pareto chart of final assembly inspection defect codes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Figure 10.7 Pareto chart of final assembly inspection defect codes (weighted). . . . . . . . 164
Figure 10.8 Example of a Pareto chart of a too-detailed defect summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Figure 10.9 Example of a measles chart (pictorial check sheet). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Figure 10.10 Relationship matrix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Figure 11.1 Venn diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Figure 11.2 Mutually exclusive events. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Figure 11.3 Various populations and sampling distributions of the mean for
selected sample sizes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Table 11.1 Descriptive versus analytical statistics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Table 11.2 Sample versus population notations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Table 12.1 Formula, mean, and variance of certain distributions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Figure 12.1 Binomial distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Figure 12.2 Binomial distribution using Microsoft Excel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Figure 12.3 Poisson distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Figure 12.4 Poisson distribution using Microsoft Excel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Figure 12.5 Normal distribution curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Figure 12.6 Normal probability density function and cumulative density
function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Figure 12.7 Chi-square distribution example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Figure 12.8 F-distribution with varying degrees of freedom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Table 13.1 Measurement scales. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Table 13.2 Coding–decoding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Figure 13.1 Example of a check sheet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Figure 13.2 Example of a data set as illustrated by a frequency distribution,
individual plot, histogram, and probability plot. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Figure 13.3 Cumulative frequency distribution in table and graph form. . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Table 13.3 Comparison of various graphical methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Figure 13.4 Histogram and stem-and-leaf plot comparison. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Figure 13.5 Box plot. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Figure 13.6 Example box plot. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Figure 13.7 Box plots versus dot plots. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Table 13.4 Example of yield data from three periods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
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Figure 13.8 Box plot by period. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

Figure 13.9 Run chart analysis (using statistical software). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Figure 13.10 Scatter diagrams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Table 13.5 Mold process data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Figure 13.11 Examples of scatter diagrams (variables versus effects). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Figure 13.12 Correlation between variables and effects (using statistical software). . . . . 211
Figure 13.13 Example scatter plots—exercise versus weight loss. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

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Figure 13.14 Normal probability plot. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

Figure 13.15 Example of Weibull plot. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Figure 14.1 Gage repeatability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Figure 14.2 Gage reproducibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Figure 14.3 Gage R&R data collection sheet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Figure 14.4 Gage R&R data collection sheet with data entered and calculations
completed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Figure 14.5 Gage repeatability and reproducibility report. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Figure 14.6 Gage repeatability and reproducibility report with calculations. . . . . . . . . . 224
Figure 14.7 Example gage repeatability and reproducibility analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Figure 14.8 GR&R report using statistical software. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Figure 14.9 Sources of measurement variation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Figure 14.10 Observed versus actual capability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Figure 14.11 GR&R sample selection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Table 14.1 GR&R random Excel sheet example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Table 14.2 Measurement test data for linearity and bias. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Figure 14.12 Linearity and bias analysis using statistical software. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Figure 14.13 Minitab orthogonal regression example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Figure 14.14 Attribute agreement analysis using statistical software. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Figure 15.1 Control limit versus specification limit grid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
–
Figure 15.2 Example of X and R control chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Figure 15.3 Process capability report for shaft machining. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Figure 15.4 Types of sampling for SPC data collection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Figure 15.5 Process capability scenarios. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Figure 15.6 Process performance indices Pp, Ppk, and Cpm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Figure 15.7 Process performance 1.5-sigma shift. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Figure 15.8 Short-term versus long-term performance with 1.5-sigma shift. . . . . . . . . . . 251
Table 16.1 Types of variation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Figure 16.1 Variation within samples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Figure 16.2 Excessive variability (part is tapered). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Figure 16.3 Less variability (center is thicker). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Figure 16.4 Variability shift over time (part is getting larger). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Figure 16.5 Stainless steel casting with critical inner diameter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
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Figure 16.6 Sectional views of stainless steel casting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258

Figure 16.7 Data collection sheet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Table 16.2 Measurement data from five parts produced during one shift. . . . . . . . . . . 259
Figure 16.8 Graph of data from Table 16.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Figure 16.9 Part-to-part variation (graph of data from Table 16.2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Table 16.3 Data from five parts produced during one shift using precision
castings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Figure 16.10 Graph of data from Table 16.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

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 xx List of Figures and Tables

Figure 16.11 Graph of data from Table 16.3 with orientation measurement
numbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Table 16.4 Data from five parts after pressure-washing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Table 16.5 Examples of dependent and independent variables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Figure 16.12 The four types of correlation in scatter plots. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Table 16.6 Data table for correlation calculation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Figure 16.13 CORREL function in Excel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Table 16.7 Least squares example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Figure 16.14 Regression dialog box. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Figure 16.15 Regression data analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Figure 16.16 Simple regression results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Figure 16.17 A schematic showing variation in y as a function of x. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Table 17.1 Error matrix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Figure 17.1 One-tail test: (a) right-tailed test and (b) left-tailed test.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Figure 17.2 Two-tail test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Figure 17.3 Power curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Figure 17.4 Excel’s FINV function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Figure 17.5 Setting up a one-way ANOVA in Excel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Figure 17.6 The ANOVA: Single Factor dialog box. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Figure 17.7 Final results of one-way ANOVA in Excel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Figure 17.8 Expected versus observed chart (Minitab output). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Figure 17.9 Excel’s CHINV function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Figure 18.1 Main effects graphs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Table 18.1 A 23 full factorial design using + and – format. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Table 18.2 A 23 full factorial design showing interaction columns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Table 18.3 Half fraction of 23 (also called a 23–1 design). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Table 18.4 Half fraction of 23 design with interaction columns filled in. . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Table 18.5 Latin square design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Figure 18.2 Graph of temperature and moisture content. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Table 18.6 A 22 full factorial completely randomized experiment with results. . . . . . . 330
Table 18.7 A 22 full factorial completely randomized experiment with main and
interaction effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Table 18.8 ANOVA outcomes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Figure 19.1 Comparative analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Copyright © 2014. Quality Press. All rights reserved.

Figure 19.2 Cause-and-effect relational matrix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346

Figure 19.3 Root cause tree example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Figure 20.1 Project framework. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Figure 20.2 Lean Six Sigma objectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Figure 20.3 Poka-yoke example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Figure 21.1 Average shifting, variation stable. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Figure 21.2 Average stable, variation changing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379

Roderick, A. Munro, et al. The Certified Six Sigma Green Belt Handbook, Quality Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central,
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 List of Figures and Tables xxi

Figure 21.3 Average shifting, variation changing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379

Figure 21.4 Average stable, variation stable. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Figure 21.5 An operating characteristic (OC) curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
–
Figure 21.6 X and R control chart example with data plotted. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Figure 21.7 Rational subgrouping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Figure 21.8 Rational subgrouping with randomness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
–
Figure 21.9 Measurement data entered in an X and R control chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
–
Figure 21.10 Completed X and R control chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
–
Figure 21.11 Example of an X and s control chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Figure 21.12 Example of an individuals and moving range control chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
Figure 21.13 Example of a median control chart with associated range gage. . . . . . . . . . . 396
Figure 21.14 Example of a p-chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
Figure 21.15 Example of an np-chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Figure 21.16 Example of a u-chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Figure 21.17 Example of a c-chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Figure 21.18 One point more than 3σ from the centerline (either side) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Figure 21.19 Nine points in a row on the same side of the centerline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Figure 21.20 Six points in a row all increasing or decreasing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Figure 21.21 Fourteen points in a row alternating up and down. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Figure 21.22 Two out of three points more than 2σ from the centerline (same side). . . . . 407
Figure 21.23 Four out of five points more than 1σ from the centerline (same side). . . . . . 408
Figure 21.24 Fifteen points in a row within 1σ of the centerline (either side). . . . . . . . . . . 408
Figure 21.25 Eight points in a row more than 1σ from the centerline (either side). . . . . . 408
Figure 21.26 Points beyond the control limits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Figure 21.27 Seven points in a row on one side of the average. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Figure 21.28 Seven points in a row that are consistently increasing or consistently
decreasing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Figure 21.29 Over 90 percent of plotted points are in the middle third of the
control limit region (for 25 or more subgroups). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
Figure 21.30 Fewer than 40 percent of the plotted points are in the middle third of
the control limit region (for 25 or more subgroups). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
Figure 21.31 Obvious nonrandom patterns such as cycles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
Figure 22.1 A sample control plan template. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Figure 22.2 An example control plan—first page. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
Copyright © 2014. Quality Press. All rights reserved.

Figure 22.3 An example control plan—second page. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417

Table 22.1 Process FMEA and control plan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Figure 23.1 The house of lean. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
Table 23.1 Lean Six Sigma tools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435

Roderick, A. Munro, et al. The Certified Six Sigma Green Belt Handbook, Quality Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central,
http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/tritonia-ebooks/detail.action?docID=5302460.
Created from tritonia-ebooks on 2024-11-17 12:02:26.