sustainability

Article
Modeling, Simulation, and Experimental Validation of a Novel
MPPT for Hybrid Renewable Sources Integrated with UPQC:
An Application of Jellyfish Search Optimizer
Ahmed Hussain Elmetwaly 1 , Ramy Adel Younis 1 , Abdelazeem Abdallah Abdelsalam 2 ,
Ahmed Ibrahim Omar 1, * , Mohamed Metwally Mahmoud 3 , Faisal Alsaif 4 , Adel El-Shahat 5, *
and Mohamed Attya Saad 1

1 The Higher Institute of Engineering at El-Shorouk City, El-Shorouk Academy, Cairo 11837, Egypt
2 Electrical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Suez Canal University, Ismailia 41522, Egypt
3 Electrical Engineering Department, Faculty of Energy Engineering, Aswan University, Aswan 81528, Egypt
4 Department of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering, King Saud University, Riyadh 11421, Saudi Arabia
5 Energy Technology Program, School of Engineering Technology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
* Correspondence: [email protected] (A.I.O.); [email protected] (A.E.-S.)

Abstract: Changes in climatic circumstances, as well as intermittency, which has a significant impact
on the overall energy system output from renewable energy sources (RESs), require the develop-
ment of control strategies for extracting the maximum power available from RESs. To accomplish
this task, several techniques have been developed. An efficient maximum power point tracking
(MPPT) technique should be utilized to guarantee that both wind-generation and PV-generation
systems provide their full advantages. In this paper, a new MPPT approach with jellyfish search
optimization (JSO) is developed; in addition, a unified power-quality conditioner (UPQC) is utilized
to enhance the performance of the microgrid (MG) and to solve the power-quality issues for the
sensitive load. The MG, which includes a photovoltaic (PV), a wind turbine, and a fuel cell battery, is
Citation: Elmetwaly, A.H.; Younis, examined and modeled for uniform and nonuniform wind speed and solar irradiance. A comparison
R.A.; Abdelsalam, A.A.; Omar, A.I.; between the developed algorithm and different maximum power tracking algorithms is presented.
Mahmoud, M.M.; Alsaif, F.; El-Shahat, Additionally, four case studies are carried out to verify the effectiveness of the introduced UPQC
A.; Saad, M.A. Modeling, Simulation, in enhancing power-quality problems. The research outcome shows high performance from the
and Experimental Validation of a developed algorithm when assessed with additional algorithms. MATLAB/Simulink software is
Novel MPPT for Hybrid Renewable
utilized for the simulation of the wind, PV, and FC control systems. However, experiment valida-
Sources Integrated with UPQC: An
tion tests are given under the same condition of PV irradiation to validate the simulation results.
Application of Jellyfish Search
The experimental validation is executed by utilizing the PV module simulation model, threefold,
Optimizer. Sustainability 2023, 15,
23 V/2A CO3208-1A with solar altitude emulator CO3208-1B board, and the results are compared to
5209. https://doi.org/10.3390/
su15065209
the simulation results.

Academic Editor: Elena Lucchi Keywords: MPPT; renewable energy sources (RESs); fuel cell; jellyfish search optimization; unified
Received: 17 February 2023 power-quality conditioner
Revised: 6 March 2023
Accepted: 11 March 2023
Published: 15 March 2023
1. Introduction
The emergence of global warming and limits on the availability of fossil fuels have
encouraged countries to pursue formidable green energy technology initiatives [1,2]. The
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
use of renewable energy sources (RESs) has a plethora of environmental benefits. In
This article is an open access article
accordance with the International Renewable Energy Agency [3,4], it is expected that by
distributed under the terms and
2030, 36% of the world’s total energy consumption will be fulfilled by RESs such as solar,
conditions of the Creative Commons wind, tidal, wave, and geothermal sources. Of these RESs, solar and wind systems are
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// currently considered to be the most promising, thanks to their decreased generating costs
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ while being capable of maximum power point tracking (MPPT). This enables them to adapt
4.0/). to fluctuations in both solar intensity and wind velocity [5].

Sustainability 2023, 15, 5209. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15065209 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2023, 15, 5209 2 of 30

Although the erratic nature of wind speed, solar irradiation, and temperature dictates
the amount of energy that can be extracted from RES, these sources cannot continuously
meet varying demand conditions [6,7]. To ensure dependable and communal operation,
various renewable energy systems must be integrated, known as a hybrid power system
(HPS), along with an energy storage system (ESS) [8–10]. An alternative to an intermittent
RES is a combination of a hybrid RES (HRES) with a long-term storage technology such
as an electrolytic hydrogen fuel cell (FC) [11]. However, owing to the slow operations of
fuel management, the FC is unable to handle transient mitigation and thus requires an
additional storage buffer for power balancing [12], creating a need for both short-term and
long-term storage solutions. Battery banks commonly used in hybrid ESSs (HESSs) offer
high round-trip size, quick recharging/discharging abilities, and adequate load fluctuations
even at the high penetration levels of ESSs [13,14].
On the other hand, the HRES with an HESS is in vital need to keep its output power
near its maximum power point [15] during the nonlinearity behavior of both wind speed
(v) and solar cell irradiation (G) and temperature (T) with the connected load. For solar
cells, the MPP fluctuates with temperature and irradiance because of the unique features of
the solar cell manufacturing materials. The employment of an MPPT controller is essential
to maintain the operating point of the photovoltaic (PV) system within or close to its
MPP. Recent years have seen MPPT controllers extensively reported on in publications,
highlighting their relevance and usability [16,17].
Even though there are various MPPT techniques, numerous studies have classified
the relevant papers. The most challenging factor of solar energy is its dynamic nature,
which renders it capable of generating variable voltage and power levels, depending
on several environmental circumstances. In particular, the main parameters influencing
these outcomes are wind speed, shading, and solar insolation’s angle. As a result of these
aspects combined, there is no assurance that maximum power output can be achieved
for every electrical load [18]. To ensure the most efficient usage of PV systems, MPPT
technologies must be used with the appropriate controllers. The MPPT techniques of
many varieties are deployed to maximize the power of PV modules. Nonetheless, the
effectiveness of the technique depends on its ability to track under rapidly changing weather
circumstances. These techniques are categorized on the basis of their tracking nature under
various conditions. All classified techniques [19–22] are discussed and categorized into
the following four categories: conventional, intelligent, optimization, and hybrid-based
MPPTs, as depicted in Figure 1.
For the conventional MPPT, the techniques are perturbed and observe (P and O),
improved P and O, adaptive reference voltage (ARV), ripple correlation control (RCC), the
lookup table method, open-circuit voltage (OCV), short-circuit current (SCC), incremental
conductance (InC), and hill climbing (HC). Thanks to the algorithm’s simplicity, these
techniques are simple to implement [23]. Because the PV modules will produce only
one GMPP under uniform irradiation, they are most effective under these circumstances.
However, the loss of power is caused by these algorithms’ quick fluctuations around the
MPP. Additionally, by ignoring the impact of partial-shade situations in these traditional
techniques, the true MPP cannot be tracked [24].
Fuzzy logic control (FLC), artificial neural networks (ANNs), sliding mode control
(SMC), the Fibonacci series-based MPPT, and Gauss–Newton-method-based MPPT are
examples of intelligent techniques. These strategies for very accurate, dynamic, weather-
changing situations. Their tracking efficiency and tracking speeds seem to be high [23–26].
These techniques also struggle with massive data processing for the system’s prior training
and extremely sophisticated control circuits. FLC is a striking method that may be used
with MPPT without the need for system expertise. Although an ANN is a quicker tracking
method, it requires a significant quantity of data (for training) to improve tracking accuracy.
Temperature and dynamic irradiation are the inputs, and they are both stored as data sets.
SMC is a sophisticated technology, but implementation is simpler with better tracking
speeds compared with the traditional P and O technique [11]. Fibonacci and Gauss–Newton
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 31

tracking method, it requires a significant quantity of data (for training) to improve track-
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5209 3 of 30
ing accuracy. Temperature and dynamic irradiation are the inputs, and they are both
stored as data sets. SMC is a sophisticated technology, but implementation is simpler with
better tracking speeds compared with the traditional P and O technique [11]. Fibonacci
are
andtwo techniques that
Gauss–Newton are are
twogaining popularity
techniques that arebecause
gainingof their ability
popularity to track
because of the MPP
their by
ability
updating the search range in real time.
to track the MPP by updating the search range in real time.

Figure 1.
Figure 1. Basic
Basic classification
classification of
of tracking
tracking techniques.
techniques.

The optimization-based
optimization-based techniques of cuckoo
cuckoo search,
search, particle
particle swarm
swarm optimization
optimization
(PSO), gray
(PSO), graywolf
wolfoptimization
optimization(GWO),
(GWO),antantcolony
colony optimization
optimization (ACO),
(ACO), artificial
artificial beebee col-
colony
ony (abc),
(abc), and hierarchical
and hierarchical pigeon-inspired
pigeon-inspired optimization
optimization (HPIO)(HPIO) arecapable
are all all capable of finding
of finding the
the MPP
MPP in dynamic
in dynamic environments
environments [27–29].
[27–29]. PSO
PSO offersananefficient
offers efficienttracking
trackingalgorithm
algorithm with
with
fewer steady-state
steady-state oscillations,
oscillations,making
makingimplementation
implementation simpler
simplerthanks
thanksto its
to low-cost mi-
its low-cost
crocontrollers. GWO
microcontrollers. GWO can successfully
can track
successfully trackthe
theoptimal
optimalworking
workingpoints
pointsat ataa faster
faster rate,
mimicking the behavior of a wolf hunting for prey. Cuckoo search is an algorithm inspired
by the nature of brood parasitism, which implements Lévy flight to find the best MPP. ACO
and ABC employ evolutionary algorithms to track GMPP without the need for temperature
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5209 4 of 30

and irradiation sensors. HPIO-MPPT is especially useful under partial-shading conditions,

offering a good success rate at locating GMPP and great tracking speed, and it works well
on complex perovskite solar cells (PSCs) with multiple clusters and load variations [29].
In hybrid-based MPPT approaches [30,31], intelligent or optimum MPPTs are com-
bined with traditional MPPTs. The most effective integration of intelligence and optimiza-
tion is also present in some hybrid techniques. In the context of MPPT, two stages of
tracking are employed. In the initial stage, a rough estimation of the MPP is conducted
via traditional methods such as mathematical models, simulations, and lookup tables
on the power–voltage (P–V) characteristic. This is followed by the nuanced finetuning
of the MPP by utilizing more-complex algorithms in the second stage. This step is all
about getting the set point as near to the MPP as possible. Second, by using sophisticated
procedures, the set point is adjusted to reach the real MPP. In order to improve tracking
effectiveness and reduce hardware computation complexity, hybrid MPPT approaches
have been taken [30,31].
The unified power-quality conditioner (UPQC) topology has been widely studied for
its capability to improve power quality. In [32], a discrete nonlinear stabilizer for UPQC
in power networks with limited inertia and in an islanded operating state was proposed
thanks to the numerous stability issues present in comparison with larger grids. This
approach was effective in addressing reliability problems and also improving the power-
quality (PQ) profile of MGs. To mitigate current and voltage harmonics, caused by source
and load fluctuations, a hierarchical controller was proposed in [33], composed of the
primary controller, a harmonics block, and a setting-point control strategy employed by the
primary control module to stabilize power fluxes while suppressing harmonic distortion.
Moreover, another study indicated that integrating UPQC with multimicrogrid systems
could reduce various types of current and voltage harmonics, as reported in [34].
This paper presents the tracking of MPP for the proposed hybrid system, to determine
the best operating point of PV, wind, and FC in the existence of changing environmental
circumstances. Several approaches are based on preclassified techniques; classical and
intelligent optimization is developed. A comparative study between the conventional
and newly intelligent optimization technique, called jellyfish search optimization (JSO),
is presented. On the other side, a unique UPQC that is utilized to improve PQ issues is
presented. Four cases are illustrated, including voltage sag, voltage swell, three-phase
fault, and harmonic analysis, to show the effectiveness of the presented UPQC. Finally,
the presented system is experimentally validated on a threefold 23 V/2A CO3208-1A PV
module simulation model with a solar altitude emulator CO3208-1B board. The results of
the tests aim to demonstrate the effectiveness of the suggested technique according to speed,
accuracy, and the energy produced. The contributions of this work can be summarized
as follows:
1. It presents an MPPT for a hybrid system of PV, wind, and FC during different opera-
tion circumstances.
2. It utilizes conventional and intelligent optimization approaches for estimating MPPT.
3. It employs UPQC for mitigating PQ problems.
4. It experimentally validates the simulation results.
The paper is organized as follows: Section 2 introduces the hybrid energy system,
including the modeling of PV, wind, and FC. Section 3 discusses in detail the implemented
control strategies. Section 4 offers the simulation findings. Section 5 presents the experi-
mental setup validations. Finally, the conclusions are presented in Section 6.

2. Hybrid Energy System

The growth developments in power electronics play significant roles in the improve-
ment of the use of RESs. A system consisting of (a PV, a wind turbine, and an FC battery) is
illustrated in Figure 2. A DC/DC converter is incorporated into the system, in which its
output is directly linked to a DC-link. With the help of the DC/DC converter and a special
controller, maximum power can be easily tracked. In this work, a boost DC/DC converter
 2. Hybrid Energy System
The growth developments in power electronics play significant roles in the improve-
ment of the use of RESs. A system consisting of (a PV, a wind turbine, and an FC battery)
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5209 is illustrated in Figure 2. A DC/DC converter is incorporated into the system, in which 5 of 30its
output is directly linked to a DC-link. With the help of the DC/DC converter and a special
controller, maximum power can be easily tracked. In this work, a boost DC/DC converter
is employed
is employed because
becauseof ofits
itsstability
stabilityand
andfast
fastresponse.
response.The TheDC-generated
DC-generatedpowerpower is is linked
linked
to the grid by using a three-phase inverter by means of a transformer (T1).
to the grid by using a three-phase inverter by means of a transformer (T1). The presented The presented
batteries are
batteries are used
used toto submit
submit aa load
load with
with energy
energy for
for aa certain
certain time
time in
incase
caseof
ofaagrid
gridfault.
fault.A
proposed controller, based on jellyfish search optimizations, is utilized for
A proposed controller, based on jellyfish search optimizations, is utilized for extracting extracting the
maximum
the maximum power
powerfrom thethe
from entire scheme.
entire scheme.Table 1 presents
Table 1 presents the electrical
the equipment’s
electrical equipment’sas-
sociated details
associated detailsand
andparameters.
parameters.

Figure 2.
Figure 2. Configuration
Configurationof
ofthe
thehybrid
hybridenergy
energysystem.
system.

Table1.1.Factors
Table Factorsof
ofthe
theelectrical
electricalequipment.
equipment.

Equipment
Equipment Position
Position Values
Values
Transformer (T1)
Transformer (T1) Between Vgg and
Between V andVVpcc
pcc 1.6/12 kV,1010MVA
1.6/12 kV, MVA
FC
FC V
Vb 625 V and 120 kW
625 V and 120 kW
Battery storage Vb 625 V and 5000 Ah
Battery storage V b 625 V and 5000 Ah
PV Vb 625 V and 1 MVA
WindPVturbine V
Vbb 625
1.6 kVVand
and0.51MVA
MVA
Wind turbine Vb 1.6kV,
Linear: 1.6 kV675and
kW,0.5and
MVA386 kVar
AC loads Vpcc
Nonlinear: 1.6 kV, 135 kW, and 75 kVar
DC loads Vb 1.6 kV and 185 kW
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 31

Linear: 1.6 kV, 675 kW, and 386 kVar

AC loads Vpcc
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5209 Nonlinear: 1.6 kV, 135 kW, and 75 6kVar
of 30
DC loads Vb 1.6 kV and 185 kW

2.1. Modeling of PV System

The PV
The PV arrays
arrayscan
canbe beformed
formedbybysolarsolarcells;
cells; a solar
a solar cellcell
is aissemiconductor
a semiconductorp–np–n junc-
junction.
tion. Once
Once sunlight
sunlight hits
hits the PVthe PVit cell,
cell, it generates
generates electricelectric
power.power.
The I–VThe I–V characteristic
characteristic of
of the PV
the PV
can can be determined
be determined by the following:
by the following:
 𝐴𝐾𝑇   𝑛 𝐼 −𝐼 +𝑛 𝐼 𝑛
Vpv =𝑉 n= 𝑛AKT lnln n p Isc − I pv + n p I0 − ns
− 𝑛 𝐼I pv𝑅Rs (1)
(1)
s
q 𝑞 𝑛 𝐼
n p I0 np
The power provided by the PV array to a DC bus can be expressed in terms of the PV
The power provided by the PV array to a DC bus can be expressed in terms of the
array’s current (IPV), voltage (VPV), the number of cells linked in series and in parallel
PV array’s current (Ipv ), voltage (Vpv ), the number of cells linked in series and in parallel
(ns and np, respectively), the series resistance of each cell (Rs), the electron charge (q; 1.6e-
(ns and np , respectively), the series resistance of each cell (Rs ), the electron charge (q; 1.6e-19
19 C), the light-produced current (IPC), the current of reverse saturation (I0), junction ma-
C), the light-produced current (IPC), the current of reverse saturation (I0 ), junction material
terial factor
factor A, Boltzmann
A, Boltzmann constantconstant
K (1.38eK−(1.38e −23and
23 J/K), J/K), and temperature
temperature (T)—all(T)—all according
according to [11].
to [11]. The expression is then given
The expression is then given as follows: as follows:
𝑃 =𝐼 ×𝑉 (2)
Ppv = I pv × Vpv (2)
Equations (1) and (2) are used to determine the characteristic of the PV scheme during
Equations
diverse (1) and
irradiance (2) are used to
circumstances. determine
Figure the characteristic
3 shows of theofPV
the characteristic scheme
a PV schemeduring
for
diverse irradiance
nonlinearity and itscircumstances.
dependence on Figure 3 shows the
solar irradiation. I-Vcharacteristic
curve shows aofvariable
a PV scheme for
irradiance
nonlinearity
level startingand
fromits 0.25,
dependence on1 solar
0.5, 0.75, kW/m irradiation.
2 with short I–V curvecurrent
circuit shows a400 variable
A with irradiance
an open
level 2 with short circuit current 400 A with
circuitstarting
voltagefrom
325 V 0.25,
the 0.5,
red 0.75, 1 in
circles kW/m
the figure an open
illustrates the Isc, MPP, and Voc.. However,
circuit
the P-Vvoltage 325 V the red circles
curve demonstrates in the for
knee points figure illustrates
different the Isc ,levels
irradiance MPP, that
and showing
Voc . However,
a rel-
the P–V curve demonstrates knee points for different irradiance
evant MPPs. Each curve has an MPPT at which the PV array gives the MPP. levels that showing a
relevant MPPs. Each curve has an MPPT at which the PV array gives the MPP.

(a) (b)
Figure 3. Characteristics at 25 °C: (a) I–V characteristic and (b) P–V characteristic.
Figure 3. Characteristics at 25 ◦ C: (a) I–V characteristic and (b) P–V characteristic.

2.2. Modeling of the Wind System

Thewind
The windturbine
turbine(WT)
(WT) mechanical
mechanical output
output power
power can can be calculated
be calculated by utilizing
by utilizing Equa-
Equation (3):
tion (3):
1 3
P = ρAC1 pV (3)
𝑃 =2 𝜌𝐴𝐶 𝑉 (3)
2
3 the swept area through the rotor
where
where ρ,𝜌,A,
A,V, andCCpp denote
V,and denote the
the air
airdensity
density(kg/m
(kg/m3),), the swept area through the rotor
blades, the air speed (m/s), and the power coefficient, respectively [11]. The WT can
blades, the air speed (m/s), and the power coefficient, respectively [11]. The WT can nor-
normally be characterized by its Cp –λ curve, where the λ denotes the tip-speed ratio. This
mally be characterized by its Cp– λ curve, where the λ denotes the tip-speed ratio. This
can be determined by
can be determined by
ωm R
λ= (4)
𝜔
V 𝑅
λ= (4)
where R and ωm are the turbine radius and the 𝑉 mechanical angular speed, respectively.
Figure 4 illustrates the WT output power versus the rotation speed. It can be observed that
for every angular speed, there is only one optimal λopt that yields the maximum power.
 where R and 𝜔 are the turbine radius and the mechanical angular speed, respective
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5209 Figure 4 illustrates the WT output power versus the rotation speed. It can be7 observed
of 30 th
for every angular speed, there is only one optimal λopt that yields the maximum power

Figure
Figure4.
4. WT powercharacteristics.
WT power characteristics.

2.3. Modeling of FC System

2.3. Modeling of FC System
An FC is an environmentally friendly device that works through electrochemical
Anconverting
means, FC is anthe environmentally
chemical energy offriendly
an oxidant device thatsource
and a fuel worksintothrough electrochemi
electrical power.
means, converting
This process producesthe chemical
water and heat energy
as its soleofbyproducts,
an oxidant and itaa fuel
making sourceoption
sustainable into electri
in comparison
power. to otherproduces
This process energy sources.
water There
and heatare numerous
as its soletypes of fuel cells
byproducts, available
making it a susta
for usage, depending on practicality and application, such as alkaline, proton
able option in comparison to other energy sources. There are numerous types of fuel ce exchange
membrane FC (PEMFC), direct methanol, and molten carbonate.
available for usage, depending on practicality and application, such as alkaline, prot
Because of the high performance of the PEMFC, it becomes the most popular type used
exchange membrane
in residential FC (PEMFC),
and vehicular direct
applications. methanol,
Figure anda molten
5 represents schematiccarbonate.
diagram of the
Because
operating of the high
mechanism of theperformance
PEMFC. The cell ofisthe PEMFC,
based on two it becomes
chemical thespecifically
effects, most popular ty
used in residential
hydrogen and
oxidation at thevehicular
anode and applications.
oxygen reduction Figure
at the5cathode
represents a schematic
[11]. These reactionsdiagram
canoperating
the be represented by the following:
mechanism of the PEMFC. The cell is based on two chemical effects, spec
ically hydrogen oxidation at the anode and oxygen reduction at the cathode [11]. The
H2 −−−→ 2H + + 2e− (5)
reactions can be represented by the following:
1 −
O2 + 2H + +
𝐻 2e→ 2𝐻−−−→+ H2𝑒2O (6)
2
1
The overall hydrogen PEMFC reaction is as follows:
𝑂 + 2𝐻 + 2𝑒 → 𝐻𝑂
1 2
H2 + O2 −−−→ H2 O + Electrical energy + Heat (7)
2 PEMFC reaction is as follows:
The overall hydrogen
The output voltage of each1cell can be expressed as follows:
𝐻 + 𝑂 → 𝐻 𝑂 + 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 + 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
2 Enernst − Vact − V
Vf c = ohmic − Vcon (8)
The output voltage of each cell can be expressed as follows:
where Enernst is the open-circuit voltage, Vact is the voltage lost through the anode and
𝑉 =loss
cathode, Vohmic is the ohmic voltage 𝐸 by the−resistant
𝑉 −𝑉 − 𝑉through the exchange
of protons
membrane, and Vcon is the concentration voltage loss from the transport of hydrogen
where 𝐸
and oxygen. is the open-circuit voltage, 𝑉 is the voltage lost through the anode a
The 𝑉
cathode, is theofohmic
performance voltage
the PEMFC loss by the by
is determined resistant of protons
its output through
characteristics, the exchan
which
membrane, and 𝑉 is the concentration voltage loss from the transport of hydrogen a
are nonlinear and are dependent on multiple parameters. These parameters are the cell
temperature, oxygen partial pressure, hydrogen partial pressure, and membrane water
oxygen.
content. The output of PEMFC is affected by changes in any of these parameters because of
their direct effect on the electrical potential across the FC membrane. Figure 6 illustrates
the V–I and P–I characteristics of a 120 kW PEM fuel cell.
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 31
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5209 8 of 30

Figure 5. PEMFC fuel-cell-operating principles.

The performance of the PEMFC is determined by its output characteristics, which are
nonlinear and are dependent on multiple parameters. These parameters are the cell tem-
perature, oxygen partial pressure, hydrogen partial pressure, and membrane water con-
tent. The output of PEMFC is affected by changes in any of these parameters because of
their direct effect on the electrical potential across the FC membrane. Figure 6 illustrates
the V–I and P–I characteristics of a 120 kW PEM fuel cell.
Figure
Figure5.5.PEMFC
PEMFC fuel-cell-operating principles.
fuel-cell-operating principles.

The performance of the PEMFC is determined by its output characteristics, which are
nonlinear and are dependent on multiple parameters. These parameters are the cell tem-
perature, oxygen partial pressure, hydrogen partial pressure, and membrane water con-
tent. The output of PEMFC is affected by changes in any of these parameters because of
their direct effect on the electrical potential across the FC membrane. Figure 6 illustrates
the V–I and P–I characteristics of a 120 kW PEM fuel cell.

(a) (b)
Figure 6. PEMFC characteristics: (a) V–I and (b) P–I characteristics.
Figure 6. PEMFC characteristics: (a) V–I and (b) P–I characteristics.

2.4.Modeling
2.4. Modelingofofthe
theDC/DC
DC/DCConverter
Converter
ThePV,
The PV,WT,WT,and
andFC
FCsubsystems
subsystemshave
havebeen
beenlinked
linkedtotoaaDC
DCbus
busthrough
throughaauniversal
universal
DC/DC boost
DC/DC boost converter.
converter. The
The Simulink
Simulink model
model ofof the
the overall
overall system
system is
is shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 7.
7.
The
Thegain
gainofofthose
thoseDC/DC
DC/DC converters
converters can
can be
be obtained
obtainedas asfollows:
follows:

(a) Vdc𝑉 = 1 1 (b) (9)

= 1−𝐷 (9)
Vin𝑉 1 − D
Figure 6. PEMFC characteristics: (a) V–I and (b) P–I characteristics.
where D, Vin, and Vdc denote the duty cycle, the converter input voltage, and the converter
where D, Vin , and Vdc denote the duty cycle, the converter input voltage, and the converter
output voltage that appear on the DC bus, respectively [11].
output
2.4. voltage
Modeling of that appear Converter
the DC/DC on the DC bus, respectively [11].
The PV, WT, and FC subsystems have been linked to a DC bus through a universal
DC/DC boost converter. The Simulink model of the overall system is shown in Figure 7.
The gain of those DC/DC converters can be obtained as follows:
𝑉 1
= (9)
𝑉 1−𝐷
where D, Vin, and Vdc denote the duty cycle, the converter input voltage, and the converter
output voltage that appear on the DC bus, respectively [11].
Sustainability 2023,15,
2023,
Sustainability 15,5209
x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 30
9 of 31

(a)

(b)

Figure 7. Cont.
 Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 31
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5209 10 of 30

(c)

(d)
Figure 7.
Figure 7. Simulink
Simulinkmodel
modelofofthe
theproposed
proposedscheme: (a)(a)
scheme: wind turbine,
wind (b) PV
turbine, (b) system, (c) PEMFC
PV system, with with
(c) PEMFC
electrolyzer, (d) battery system.
electrolyzer, (d) battery system.
3. Control
3. Control Strategies
Strategies
3.1. MPPT
MPPT Techniques
TechniquesofofRES
RES
In order
orderto
tooptimize
optimizethe
thepower
power output
outputfrom
fromtechnologies such
technologies as the
such as PV, WT,WT,
the PV, and and
FC FC
energy conversion
energy conversionsystems,
systems,five
fivetechniques
techniques have
have been developed.
been Though
developed. Thougheacheach
of these
of these
methods comes
methods comeswith
withits
itsown
ownunique
unique benefits, each
benefits, also
each comes
also with
comes respective
with drawbacks.
respective drawbacks.
A. Perturb and observe (P and O) technique
A. Perturb and observe (P and O) technique
The P and O method is a popular iterative method used for MPPT. The P and O al-
Theruns
gorithm P and
by O method is aaltering
systematically populartheiterative
referencemethod used for
signal, either MPPT. The
incrementally orPdet-
and O
algorithm
rimentally, with each iteration and then comparing the power produced against that of or
runs by systematically altering the reference signal, either incrementally
detrimentally, with each iteration and then comparing the power produced against that of
the previous one. If an increase in power is generated through these alterations, then this
change in the signal direction is maintained until power begins to decrease. Although this
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5209 11 of 30
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 31

approach
the previousmay
one.prove successful
If an increase in some
in power instances,
is generated a common
through problem emerges,
these alterations, then this where at
change
MPP, in measured
the the signal direction
output ispower
maintained
startsuntil power begins
to oscillate to decrease.
around maximum, Although this in further
resulting
approach
losses may prove successful in some instances, a common problem emerges, where at
[19].
MPP, the measured output power starts to oscillate around maximum, resulting in further
B.
lossesIncremental
[19]. conductance technique (inc. cond.)
The inc. cond.
B. Incremental technique
conductance involves
technique thecond.)
(inc. exploitation of the slope of the power properties
to monitor
The inc.and audit
cond. the tracking
technique involves of
theMPP. As perofthis
exploitation the technique, the slope
slope of the power of the power
proper-
characteristic needs
ties to monitor and tothe
audit betracking
zero at of
MPP
MPP.while
As perbeing positivethe
this technique, if the output
slope power is lower
of the power
characteristic
than MPP and needs to be zero
negative at MPP[21].
otherwise while being positive if the output power is lower
than MPP and negative otherwise [21].
C. Differential evolution technique
C. Differential evolution technique
DEisisan
DE anevolutionary
evolutionary stochastic
stochastic population-based
population-based technique
technique for continuous
for continuous function function
optimization [35].The
optimization [35]. The general
general steps
steps of anofevolutionary
an evolutionary algorithm
algorithm are shownareinshown in Figure 8.
Figure 8.

Figure 8. The general procedure of an evolutionary algorithm.

Figure 8. The general procedure of an evolutionary algorithm.
D. Antlion optimization technique
D. Antlion optimization technique
The antlion optimizer (ALO) is an innovative swarm-intelligence approach that was
The antlion
first presented optimizer
in [36]. (ALO) is an
By mathematically innovative
modeling swarm-intelligence
the interactions between antsapproach
and ant- that was
first
lionspresented
in nature, itin [36].
takes By mathematically
a novel approach to finding modeling
solutionsthe interactions
to various types ofbetween
optimi- ants and
antlions in nature,
zation problems. it takes
The ALO a novel
simulates approach
five steps: to finding
ants hunting, solutionswalking,
ants randomly to various
ants types of
constructing traps,
optimization ants framing
problems. The ALO deceptions,
simulates ants catching
five steps: prey, and ants reconstructing
ants hunting, ants randomly walking,
traps.constructing
ants These behaviors of antlions
traps, are mathematically
ants framing deceptions, antsmodeled in [36].
catching prey, and ants reconstructing
E. Bio-inspired
traps. jellyfishof
These behaviors search optimization
antlions are mathematically modeled in [36].
Jellyfish search optimization (JSO) is a metaheuristic algorithm inspired by the be-
E. Bio-inspired jellyfish search optimization
havior of jellyfish in their search for food [37]. The main aspects of the jellyfish’s move-
mentJellyfish search
include its optimization
particles within the (JSO)
swarmisand a metaheuristic algorithm
its drifting with inspired
ocean currents, by the behav-
which
leads to bloom generation [38].
ior of jellyfish in their search for food [37]. The main aspects of the jellyfish’s movement
includeTheits
JSOparticles
implementation
within strategy
the swarm begins
and with
its random
driftinginitialization
with oceandispersing
currents, solu-
which leads to
tions across an area
bloom generation [38]. specified for the issue at hand. After being evaluated, the solutions
are arranged according to fitness value, where the best is chosen as a plentiful supply of
The JSO implementation strategy begins with random initialization dispersing solu-
food. Afterward, each jellyfish’s motion is updated either toward progress within the
tions across an area specified for the issue at hand. After being evaluated, the solutions are
swarm or by following ocean flow on the basis of the time-control component.
arranged according
This happens to fitness
because value,
they are where
attracted the best
by ocean is chosen
currents thanks astoa their
plentiful supply of food.
high nutri-
Afterward, each jellyfish’s motion is updated either toward progress
tive values. The vector-averaging approach is employed to regulate the current direction within the swarm or
by following ocean flow on the basis of the time-control component.
in order to draw them nearer (drift) toward jellyfish with better outer positions [38]. This
drift This
can behappens becausecharacterized
mathematically they are attracted by ocean currents thanks to their high nutritive
as follows:
values. The vector-averaging approach 𝑑𝑟𝚤𝑓𝑡⃗ =is employed
∑ 𝑑𝑟𝚤𝑓𝑡 ⃗ to regulate the current direction in
order to draw them nearer (drift) toward 1jellyfish with better outer positions [38]. (10) This drift
𝑑𝑟𝚤𝑓𝑡⃗ = 𝑑𝑟𝚤𝑓𝑡 ⃗
can be mathematically characterized as 𝑁 follows:

−−−→ −−−→
dri f t = N1 ∑ dri f tk
−−−→ −−−→
dri f t = N1 ∑ dri f tk
(10)
= N1 ∑( x ∗ − ac xk )
= x ∗ − ac ∑Nxk
= x ∗ − ac µ0
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5209 12 of 30

where x ∗ represents the jellyfish with the best current location in the population; N repre-
sents the total number of jellyfish; ac represents the attraction parameter; and µ0 represents
the mean position of the JSO. Let
DF = ac × µ0 (11)
In this case, DF (the difference factor) expresses the divergence between the current
foremost location of the jellyfish under examination and the swarm’s mean position. The
author of [39] hypothesized that there was a patterned spatial allocation in all dimensions
for jellyfish, presenting the chance of all jellyfish placements. According to this division,
every jellyfish spot has a difference up to ± βσ. Furthermore, β symbolizes the cognitive
distribution coefficient, regarded as 3, depending on the analysis provided in [34], while σ
presents the standard variance for this pigeonholed sharing and can be calculated by using
Equation (12) around the core position of the swarm:

DF = β × randα (0, 1) × σ (12)

σ = randα (0, 1) × µ0 (13)

As a result, drift may be mathematically described as follows:

−−−→
dri f t = x ∗ − β × randα (0, 1) × µ0 (14)

As a result, the new location of each jellyfish can be determined as follows:

−−−→
xk (t + 1) = xk + rand(0, 1) × dri f t (15)

where xk (t) denotes the kth jellyfish’s location at time t. In the algorithm, time, t, is identical
to the iteration.
A swarm is a big group of jellyfish in the water. Jellyfish movement in a swarm is
classified as aggressive (Type B) or passive (Type A). During the creation of the swarm,
jellyfish display Type A (passive) motility. According to Equation (16), in this form of
movement, the jellyfish travel about their place and then renew the place of each jellyfish.
Ultimately, the jellyfish mimic the Type B effort.

xk (t + 1) = xk (t) + Υ × rand(0, 1) × (UB − LB) (16)

where Υ denotes the motion constant, which refers to the length of motion around the
jellyfish’s location and can be taken as (0.1), as determined by the author’s statistical
investigation in [35]. The bottom and upper borders of the search zone are denoted by LB
and UB, respectively.
Type B motion involves randomly selecting a jellyfish (m) and then drawing a vector
from the jellyfish of interest (k) and a randomly chosen jellyfish (m) to identify its path. The
path of migration is determined by the food resources available at the jellyfish’s current site
(m). If the amount of current food at position m is greater than at position k, then the latter
will follow toward it; however, if there is less food present at position m than at position k,
then the kth jellyfish will move away from it.

−−−−−→
 
xm (t) − xk (t); f f ( xk (t)) ≥ f f xm (t))
direction = (17)
xk (t) − xm (t); f f ( xk (t)) < f f xm (t))

where f f represents the fitness function

−−→ −−−−−→
step = rand (0, 1) × direction (18)

because
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5209 13 of 30

−−→
step = xk (t + 1) − xk (t) (19)
−−−→
xk (t + 1) = Step + xk (t) (20)
The sort of motion performed by jellyfish is determined by a temporal control sys-
tem [39]. The time component governs both motions, namely the movement of jellyfish
within the swarm (Types A and B) and that toward the ocean flow.
To govern movement selection, the time-control process employs a threshold fac-
tor, (ko) and a time-control function, (C f (t)), which randomly fluctuates from 0 to 1.
Equation (21) is the mathematical formulation of the time-control component:

t
C f ( t ) = (1 − ) × ((2 × rand(0, 1)) − 1 (21)
imax

At the initial stage, TypeA motionis more popular than Type B motion thanks to a
time-controlled pseudocode ( 1 − C f (t) ), which is employed to simulate the behavior of
 
a jellyfish inside a swarm. Specifically, if 1 − C f (t) is less than random (0, 1), then Type
 
A motion is exhibited; otherwise, if 1 − C f (t) is greater than random (0, 1), then Type B
 
motion is exhibited. This is because the amount of 1 − C f (t) over time climbs from zero
toward one and thus increases the chances of an organism’s executing Type A movement.
Nonetheless, as time passes, it can be seen that the more popular motion switches from
Type A to Type B thanks to the aforementioned time discrepancy. All this information is
depicted in Figure 9, which shows a flowchart for the JSO technique.

3.2. The Proposed UPQC Topology

The detailed design of the proposed UPQC structure is shown in Figure 10. The
UPQC is a full-bridge converter scheme consisting of two half-bridge bidirectional voltage-
sourced converters (VSCs). One side contains a shunt active power filter (APF) to increase
compensation for any harmonics or reactive currents. The other side has a series dynamic
voltage restorer (DVR) connected to the other part of the converter.
The regulated current source (iG ) must provide a clean sinusoidal wave that is in
synchronism with the grid voltage (vG ). To achieve this result, the APF introduces a related
and harmonic current (i P ) to counterbalance the distorted currents supplied by the electrical
loads (iO ). This can be summarized by the following relationship:

i G (t) = i P (t) + io (t) (22)

The mathematical equations for grid voltage and current are as follows:
√
vG (t) = 2VG sin ωt (23)
√
iG (t) = 2IG sin ωt (24)
where ω denotes the angular frequency of the grid.
Between the vG and the load voltage (vo ), the DVR can act as a controlled voltage
source (v A ). The voltage relations are as follows:

vo (t) = v G (t) + v A (t) (25)

Sustainability
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14

Figure 9.
Figure Flowchart of
9. Flowchart of the
the JSO
JSO technique.
technique.
 The voltage output from the DVR converter is indicated via an input reference signal,
which can be adapted to control the load voltage applied. To minimize any fluctuations
in output between the nominal and actual values in the grid, a series-connected DVR
should be employed. This sort of system ensures that dynamic voltage variations, voltage
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5209 15 of 30
sags, and flashing are quickly identified and mitigated to prevent any undesirable
changes in power delivery.

Figure 10. The proposed UPQC.

Figure 10. The proposed UPQC.

The voltage output from the DVR converter is indicated via an input reference signal,
which can be adapted to control the load voltage applied. To minimize any fluctuations in
output between the nominal and actual values in the grid, a series-connected DVR should
be employed. This sort of system ensures that dynamic voltage variations, voltage sags,
and flashing are quickly identified and mitigated to prevent any undesirable changes in
power delivery.
The DC-link voltage controller is essential in keeping a consistent amplitude for the
vO . Differently stated, the DVR must be built with a DC/AC voltage source. Aiming to
adjust the input and output power exchange, these two AC supplies are interconnected by
using a DC-link controller. The APF-VSC is therefore employed for adapting the harmonic
current out of the load. The same DC link provides energy to the DVR, thus enabling
overall system stability when it reaches a steady state, i.e., a constant value of voltage.
Therefore, equal values, pG and pO , for the input and output powers can be calculated
as follows:
p G ( t ) = p1 ( t ) − p2 ( t ) + p o ( t ) (26)
In summary, the system comprises three controllers, as shown in Figure 2. The
controllers perform the following functions:
1. The output voltage controller maintains a constant amplitude sinusoidal output
voltage and quickly responds to transients such as grid voltage fluctuations.
2. The input current controller maintains the sinusoidal and in-phase grid current.
3. The DC-link voltage controller maintains the DC-link voltage between two VSCs,
ensuring an optimal balance between input power and output power.

3.2.1. Control Method of APF

The active power filter (APF) controller block diagram of the TL-UPQC is illustrated
in Figure 11.
In the shunt APF, both the voltage and current controllers are present, which can be
implemented by using either digital signal processors (DSP) or analog hardware. In this
study, the latter method was adopted. The outer voltage control loop uses a PI controller
to regulate the DC-link voltage, which acts as a reference for the inner loop. The inner
control loop utilizes a hysteresis controller (specifically PLL) to generate the input current
 G 1 2 o

In summary, the system comprises three controllers, as shown in Figure 2. The con-
trollers perform the following functions:
1. The output voltage controller maintains a constant amplitude sinusoidal output volt-
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5209 age and quickly responds to transients such as grid voltage fluctuations. 16 of 30
2. The input current controller maintains the sinusoidal and in-phase grid current.
3. The DC-link voltage controller maintains the DC-link voltage between two VSCs, en-
suring an itoptimal
by comparing with a balance
referencebetween input power
signal produced andouter
by the output power.
loop and the phase-locked
loop. When ignoring the load current (iO ), the system functions as a fundamental power
3.2.1. Control Method of APF
factor correction (PFC). If a source is connected to the DC link, the grid current will equal
The active
the inductor powerA
current. filter (APF) current
reference controller blockisdiagram
signal of thepreset
created with TL-UPQC is and
upper illustrated
lower
in Figure
limits 11. the inductor current on the basis of using the reference and lower bands.
to guide

Figure 11.
Figure 11. The
The APF
APF control
control circuit
circuit for
for the
the TL-UPQC
TL-UPQC [40].
[40].

In the the
Once shunt APF, both
inductor the voltage
current and current
has reached controllers
its lowest band, are
the present,
hysteresis which can be
controller
implemented
switches by using either
the operating modesdigital
of thesignal
switch.processors
This turns (DSP)
S1 or
on analog
while Shardware.
2 is off to In this
allow
study,
the the latter
inductor method
current was adopted.
sufficient Thecharging.
time to start outer voltage control loop
The following uses a PI
switching controller
criteria will
to employed:
be regulate the DC-link voltage, which acts as a reference for the inner loop. The inner
control loop utilizes a hysteresis controller (specifically ∆I p PLL) to generate the input current
i P (t) ≤ i∗P (t) − (27)
by comparing it with a reference signal produced by2 the outer loop and the phase-locked
loop. When
where ignoring the
∆I p represents the load current
hysteresis (𝑖 ), the
region system
in the functions
inductor as aand
current fundamental
i∗P (t) denotespower
the
factor correction (PFC).
reference inductor current. If a source is connected to the DC link, the grid current will equal
the inductor
When the current. A current
inductor reference current
reaches thesignal
upperisband,
createdthewith presetwill
controller upper act and lower
to modify
limits to guide the inductor current on the basis of using the reference and
the operating modes of the switches. This turns S1 off while S2 is on to allow the discharge lower bands .
of theOnce the inductor
inductor current. Ascurrent hasthereached
a result, switchingits criteria
lowest will
band,
be the hysteresis controller
as follows:
switches the operating modes of the switch. This turns S1 on while S2 is off to allow the
inductor current sufficient time to istart charging.
∗ ∆I pfollowing switching criteria will be
The
P (t) ≥ i P (t) + (28)
employed: 2
In Figure 4, the source of the TL-UPQC system is connected in parallel with the grid
current, and the inductor current is identical. This enables the production of a grid current
reference signal that can be used by the APF circuit. If the load current remains constant,
the reference signal will be compared to the actual grid current. Equations (27) and (28) can
be rewritten as follows:
Criteria of switching S1 = on and S2 = off

∆Ig
iG (t) ≤ i∗G (t) − (29)
2
Criteria of switching S1 = off and S2 = on

∆Ig
iG (t) ≥ i∗G (t) + (30)
2
where ∆Ig determines whether the hysteresis ripple band of the inductor current exists and
i∗G (t) is reference grid current.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5209 17 of 30

3.2.2. Control Method of DVR

As depicted in Figure 10, it is similar to the commonly used half-bridge voltage source
inverter (HBVSI). The voltage and the current of passive components are predicted by
using the switching trajectory. Subsequently, the inverter is provided with the appropriate
switching decisions (gate signals) at the right time. These predictions guarantee a very fast
dynamic response to any external disturbance.
Equation (25) fills in the gap between the source and load voltages by using the
inverter’s output. The switching criteria for the simple HBVSI topology can be determined
as follows:
Criteria of switching, where S3 = on and S4 = off
" #
kA 2
v A (t) − v A,min − vDC iC (t) ≤ 0 (31)
2 − v A (t)

and iC (t) ≤ 0 (32)

Criteria of switching, where S3 = off and S4 = on
" #
kA 2
v A (t) − v A,max + vDC iC (t) ≥ 0 (33)
2 + v A ( t )

and iC (t) ≥ 0 (34)

where k A denotes a constant value, namely

LA
kA = (35)
2C A

v A,min and v A,max are the min. and max. boundaries of the reference signal, respectively:

v A,min = v∗A (t) − ∆V (36)

v A,max = v∗A (t) + ∆V (37)

where ∆V stands for the hysteresis voltage ripple.
The control objective of the UPQC’s DVR is to maintain a constant amplitude for the
output voltage. Consequently, it is feasible to modify the reference signal related to the
output voltage, as per Equation (25):

v∗A (t) = vO
∗
(t) − vG (t) (38)

where vO∗ (t ) is the reference load voltage.

The new switching criterion will be the following, substituting (25) and (37) into
(31)–(34) to cancel all the terms related to v A (t):
Criteria of switching, where S3 = on and S4 = off
" #
kA 2
vO (t) − vO,min − vDC iC (t) ≤ 0 (39)
2 − v O + v G

and iC (t) ≤ 0 (40)

Criteria of switching, where S3 = off and S4 = on
" #
kA 2
vO (t) − vO,max + vDC iC (t) ≥ 0 (41)
2 + vO − v G

and iC (t) ≥ 0 (42)

Sustainability 2023, 15, 5209 18 of 30

∗
vO,min = vO (t) − ∆V (43)
∗
vO,min = vO (t) + ∆V (44)
To maintain the required RMS value, the amplitude of vO ∗ ( t ) is regulated, similarly

to the grid’s frequency and voltage. The PLL generates the load reference voltage vO ∗

from the sinusoidal input voltage vG . The gate signals for the switches are determined by
the switching criteria from Equations (38)–(41). Switching actions are given by utilizing
feedback signals from the UPQC power circuit while checking the switching criterion
inequalities. The reference voltage amplitude is externally assigned as the output, making
it possible to generate high voltage quality at the load.

4. Simulation Results
Simulations of the hybrid scheme that is proposed have been implemented and carried
out by making use of MATLAB/Simulink, which are depicted in Figure 2. Three case
studies have been utilized to execute those simulations.

4.1. Reliability and Feasibility of the MPPT Technique during Changes in Climate Conditions
The
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW proposed system is monitored for its MPP under varying irradiance and19wind- of 31
speed conditions by using the JSO technique. This method enables quantitative analyses
that can rapidly identify the optimal parameters under any given set of environmental
conditions. By capturing various input variables in a statistical model, JSO takes an efficient
The values of irradiation change as [1 → 0.5 → 1 → 0.75] (kW/m2) in a time interval
approach to understanding how changes in irradiance and wind speed affect the overall
of [0 →
MPP, → 4 → 6]
as 2depicted in seconds for Ultimately,
Figure 12. PSCs. The output voltage
this informs and power of the
decision-making PV system
processes for
remained at MPPs under irradiance
system design and operating protocols.variations, as illustrated in Figure 12b,c.

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure 12.
Figure 12. PV
PV characteristics:
characteristics: (a)
(a) PV
PV irradiation,
irradiation, (b)
(b) PV
PV voltage,
voltage, (c)
(c) PV
PV power.
power.

The values of wind speed vary as [10 → 12 → 9 → 11] m/s in the time interval of [0
→ 2 → 4 → 6] seconds, as illustrated in Figure 13a. The output powers and the voltages of
the WT system have remained at MPPs during wind-speed changes, as depicted in Figure
13b and Figure 13c, respectively.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5209 19 of 30

(c)
The values of irradiation change as [1 − → 0.5 −→1− → 0.75] (kW/m2 ) in a time interval
Figure 12. PV characteristics: (a) PV irradiation, (b) PV voltage, (c) PV power.
of [0 −
→2− →4− → 6] seconds for PSCs. The output voltage and power of the PV system
remained at MPPs under irradiance variations, as illustrated in Figure 12b,c.
The values of wind speed vary as [10 → 12 → 9 → 11] m/s in the time interval of [0
The values of wind speed vary as [10 − → 12 − →9− → 11] m/s in the time interval
→ 2 → 4 → 6] seconds, as illustrated in Figure 13a. The output powers and the voltages of
of [0 −
→2− →4− → 6] seconds, as illustrated in Figure 13a. The output powers and the
the WT system have remained at MPPs during wind-speed changes, as depicted in Figure
voltages of the WT system have remained at MPPs during wind-speed changes, as depicted
13b and Figure 13c, respectively.
in Figure 13b and Figure 13c, respectively.

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15, xx FOR
FOR PEER
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31

(a) (b)

(c)
(c)
Figure 13.
Figure 13. Wind
Wind turbine
turbine characteristics:
characteristics: (a)
(a) wind
wind speed,
speed, (b)
(b) wind
wind voltage,
voltage, (c)
(c) wind
wind power.
power.
Figure 13. Wind turbine characteristics: (a) wind speed, (b) wind voltage, (c) wind power.

Theoutput
The
The outputvoltage
output voltageand
voltage andthe
and thepower
the powerof
power ofthe
of theFC
the FCscheme
FC schemeare
scheme aredepicted
are depictedin
depicted inFigure
in Figure14a
Figure 14aand
14a and
and
Figure
Figure 14b,
14b, respectively.
respectively.
Figure 14b, respectively.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure 14.
Figure 14. FC
FC characteristics:
characteristics: (a)
(a) FC
FC voltage,
voltage, (b)
(b) FC
FC power.
power.
Figure 14. FC characteristics: (a) FC voltage, (b) FC power.

4.2. Dynamic
4.2. Dynamic Response
Response of
of the
the Proposed
Proposed Scheme
Scheme
Dynamic response
Dynamic response of
of the
the scheme
scheme under
under variations
variations ofof irradiance,
irradiance, wind
wind speed,
speed, loads
loads
and grid
and grid faults
faults are
are analyzed.
analyzed. ToTo show
show the
the reliability
reliability of
of the
the entire
entire system
system all
all powers
powers in-
in-
cluding grid
cluding grid power
power and
and battery
battery power
power were
were plotted
plotted inin Figure
Figure 15.
15.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5209 (a) (b) 20 of 30
Figure 14. FC characteristics: (a) FC voltage, (b) FC power.

4.2. Dynamic
4.2. Response of
Dynamic Response of the
the Proposed
Proposed Scheme
Scheme
Dynamic response
Dynamic responseofofthe
thescheme
scheme under
under variations
variations of irradiance,
of irradiance, wind
wind speed,
speed, loadsloads
and
and grid faults are analyzed. To show the reliability of the entire system all powers
grid faults are analyzed. To show the reliability of the entire system all powers including in-
cluding grid power and battery power were plotted
grid power and battery power were plotted in Figure 15. in Figure 15.

Figure 15.
Figure 15. System
System power.
power.

To study
To study the
the system,
system, we
we cut
cut some
some samples and briefly explain the results. The first,
second, and
second, and third
thirdsamples
samplesare
areinintime
timeintervals
intervals from
from 3 to
3 to 4 s,4 from
seconds,
4 to 5from 4 to
s, and 5 seconds,
from 5 to 6 s,
and from 5 to
respectively. 6 seconds, respectively.
(A) First
(A) First sample
sample during
during the
the time
time interval
interval from
from 33 to
to 44 seconds
s
From Table 2 and Figure 16, it is seen that the system is integrated into the grid and
that the total generated power exceeds the needed power for DC loads, so the battery is
still in a charging state and the overneeded power is supplied to the grid.

Table 2. System powers (kW) during the time interval from 3 to 4 s.

Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 31

System Powers (kW)

t (s) PV Wind FC Load Battery Grid
From Table 2 and Figure 16, it is seen that the system is integrated into the grid and
48 105.3 120.3
that the
[3,4]total generated power exceeds the needed power 250for DC loads,
0 so the battery
10 is
still in a charging state and the273.6
overneeded power is supplied to the grid.

Figure
Figure 16.
16. System
System powers
powers for
for the
the first
first sample
sample during
during the
the time
time interval
interval from
from 33 to
to 44 s.
seconds.

Table 2. System
(B) Second powersduring
sample (kW) during the interval
the time time interval
fromfrom
4 to35tos 4 seconds.
From Table 3 and Figure 17, it is noticed
SystemthatPowers
the system
(kW)is integrated into the grid and
thatt the
(s) total generated
PV power
Wind is belowFC the neededLoad
power for DC loads, so the battery
Battery Grid is
still in a charging
48 state and the
105.3 needed power
120.3 is supplied from the grid to DC loads.
[3,4] 250 0 10
273.6

(B) Second sample during the time interval from 4 to 5 seconds

From Table 3 and Figure 17, it is noticed that the system is integrated into the grid
and that the total generated power is below the needed power for DC loads, so the battery
 Figure 16. System powers for the first sample during the time interval from 3 to 4 seconds.

Table 2. System powers (kW) during the time interval from 3 to 4 seconds.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5209 21 of 30
System Powers (kW)
t (s) PV Wind FC Load Battery Grid
48 105.3 120.3
[3,4]
Table 3. System powers (kW) during the time interval from250
4 to 5 s. 0 10
273.6
System Powers (kW)
(B) Second sample during the time interval from 4 to 5 seconds
t (s) PV Wind FC Load Battery Grid
From Table 3 and Figure 17, it is noticed that the system is integrated into the grid
100.6 23.1 120.3
and that
[4,5] the total generated power is below the needed power
250 for DC loads,
0 so the−battery
21
244
is still in a charging state and the needed power is supplied from the grid to DC loads.

Figure
Figure 17.
17. System
System powers
powers for
for the
the second
second sample
sample during
during the
the time
time interval from 44 to
interval from to 55 s.
seconds.

Table 3. System
(C) Third powers
sample (kW)the
during during
timethe time interval
interval from 5from
to 64sto 5 seconds.
From Table 4 and Figure 18, it is seen thatPowers
System the grid(kW)
is disconnected from the system
owing
t (s) to a gridPV
fault and that
Windthe total generated
FC power
Load is below the needed power
Battery for DC
Grid
loads, so the battery
100.6 mode changed
23.1 to the discharge
120.3 mode and the load-shedding control
[4,5]
disconnected the uncritical loads. 250 0 −21
244
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of 31
Table 4. System powers (kW) during the time interval from 5 to 6 s.
(C) Third sample during the time interval from 5 to 6 seconds
System Powers (kW)
From Table 4 and Figure 18, it is seen that the grid is disconnected from the system
t (s) PV Wind FC Load Battery Grid
owing to a grid fault and that the total generated power is below the needed power for
100.6 23.1 120.3
DC loads,
[5,6] so the battery mode changed to the discharge mode
240 and the10load-shedding0 con-
trol disconnected the uncritical244
loads.

Figure
Figure 18.
18. System
System powers
powers for
for the
the third
third sample
sample during
during the
the time
time interval
interval from
from 55 to
to 66 seconds.
s.

Table 4. System powers

(D) Comparative (kW) during the time interval from 5 to 6 seconds.
study
Tables 5–7 show the efficiencies ofSystem
the different
Powersalgorithms
(kW) under various environ-
mental
t (s) conditions
PV for PV, wind,
Wind and FC, FC
respectively. A brief comparison
Load Battery of theGrid
various
100.6 23.1 120.3
[5,6] 240 10 0
244

(D) Comparative study

Sustainability 2023, 15, 5209 22 of 30

aforementioned MPPT techniques has been made. Table 8 shows the comparison by tak-
ing into consideration five important common factors: algorithm complexity, memory
requirement, convergence speed, performance under fast environmental changes, and
algorithm efficiency.

Table 5. Efficiencies of various MPPT techniques for PV.

MP (kW) P and O Inc. Cond. DE ALO Proposed JSO

Irradiance
from Power Power Power Power Power
(kW/m2 ) Eff. Eff. Eff. Eff. Eff.
Figure 3 (kW) (kW) (kW) (kW) (kW)
1 100.7 100.1 99.4 100.5 99.8 100.5 99.8 100.6 99.9 100.65 99.9
0.75 74.2 73.7 99.4 74 99.7 74 99.7 74.1 99.8 74.2 99.8
0.5 48.1 47.8 99.3 47.9 99.5 47.8 99.3 48 99.7 48.1 99.9

Table 6. Efficiencies of various MPPT techniques for wind.

Wind MP (kW) P and O Inc. Cond. DE ALO Proposed JSO

Speed from Power Power Power Power Power
(m/s) Figure 4 Eff. Eff. Eff. Eff. Eff.
(kW) (kW) (kW) (kW) (kW)
12 105.4 104.8 99.4 105 99.6 104.8 99.4 105.3 99.9 105.4 99.9
11 68.4 67.8 99.1 67.9 99.2 67.8 99.1 68.1 99.5 68.2 99.6
10 44.4 43.9 98.8 44 99 44 99 44.1 99.4 44.3 99.8
9 23.2 22.8 98.4 22.8 98.9 23 99.1 23.1 99.4 23.1 99.4

Table 7. Efficiencies of various MPPT techniques for FC.

MP from P and O Inc. Cond. DE ALO Proposed JSO

Figure 6 Power Eff. Power Eff. Power Eff. Power Eff. Power Eff.
120.4 120.2 99.8 120.2 99.8 120.2 99.8 120.3 99.9 120.3 99.9

Table 8. Comparison of the various MPPT techniques.

Algorithm Memory Convergence Response to

Algorithm Energy Source
Complexity Requirement Speed Climate Changes
PV Less Less Less Less
P and O Wind Less Less Moderate Moderate
FC Less Less Less Less
PV Less Less Less Less
Inc. Cond. Wind Less Less Moderate Moderate
FC Less Less Less Less
PV High High High High
DE Wind High High High High
FC High High High High
PV High High High High
ALO Wind High High High High
FC High High High High
PV High High High High
Proposed JSO Wind High High High High
FC High High High High

4.3. UPQC Case Studies

This section explores the applications of UPQC to demonstrate its robustness when
confronted with different scenarios. Four case studies are studied, analyzing their impact
on UPQC performance in presence of voltage sag, voltage swell, three-phase fault, and
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5209 23 of 30

harmonic analysis. The parameters used for each study, along with their specific data
values, will be discussed in further detail in Table 9.

Table 9. System parameters.

Specifications Values
Nominal AC- and DC-link voltages 400 V, 50 Hz
LP 10 mH
LA 3.4 mH
CA 14.1 µF
CD 1500 µF

(A) Case I: Voltage sag

An overload happens between 0.21 and 0.31 s, causing the grid voltage to signifi-
cantly fall, to 50% of its original magnitude. The UPQC promptly sees this sag mode
and brings sufficient voltage to provide a steady and sinusoidal voltage. Ultimately,
the DC link restores the energy that was pumped into the parallel converter. Figure 19
illustrates how power is consequently balanced across the grid for the subsequent
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 24 of 31
compensation of the vO and the injection of the required output voltage for three-phase
in red-yellow-blue colors.

Figure 19. Voltage

Figure Voltage sag
sagcondition:
condition:(a)
(a)voltage
voltageduring
duringsag, (b)(b)
sag, voltage after
voltage enhancement,
after andand
enhancement, (c) volt-
(c)
age injection
voltage in volts.
injection in volts.

(B) Case II: Voltage swell

In this condition, owing to the turning off of a large number of loads, a swell mode
happens. This swell state was intended to be used during the testing from 0.21 to 0.31 s,
and the grid voltage is raised to 150% of its RMS value. The UPQC immediately detects
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5209 24 of 30

(B) Case II: Voltage swell

In this condition, owing to the turning off of a large number of loads, a swell mode
happens. This swell state was intended to be used during the testing from 0.21 to 0.31 s,
and the grid voltage is raised to 150% of its RMS value. The UPQC immediately detects
this swell case and attracts the required output voltage magnitude in order to stay steady
and sinusoidal. The injection of power carried out by the parallel converter was efficiently
reinstated through the DC link. Figure 20 displays the profile with respect to grid voltage
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 25 of 31
postcompensation, followed by the vO profile and then the demanded voltage injection for
three-phase in red-yellow-blue colors.

Figure 20. Voltage swell condition: (a) voltage during a swell, (b) voltage after enhancement, and
Figure 20. Voltage swell condition: (a) voltage during a swell, (b) voltage after enhancement, and (c)
(c) voltage injection in volts.
voltage injection in volts.
(C) Case
(C) Case III:
III: Three-phase
Three-phase fault
fault
At time t = 0.2 s, a three-phase fault was induced at the main bus of the MG. This is
At time
depicted t = 0.221,
in Figure s, awhich
three-phase faultvoltage
shows the was induced
during at
thethe main
fault andbus of the
after MG. itThis
clearing for
is depicted in Figure 21, which shows the voltage during the fault and after clearing
three-phase in red-yellow-blue colors. The fault was released at t = 0.3 s, allowing for mit- it
for three-phase in red-yellow-blue colors. The fault was released at t = 0.3 s, allowing
igation measures to take effect and restore the electrical system to its original status. for
mitigation measures to take effect and restore the electrical system to its original status.
Sustainability
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2023,15,5209
x xFOR
15, FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 2526of
26 30
ofof3131

Figure
Figure 21. Three-phase fault condition: (a) voltage during the fault, (b) voltage after enhancement,
Figure 21.21. Three-phase
Three-phase fault
fault condition:
condition: (a)(a) voltage
voltage during
during the
the fault,
fault, (b)(b) voltage
voltage after
after enhancement,
enhancement,
and
and(c) voltage
(c) voltageinjection
injectionininvolts.
volts.
and (c) voltage injection in volts.

(D)
(D) Case
(D)Case
CaseIV: IV: Analysis
IV:Analysis
Analysisofofofharmonic
harmonic
harmonic distortion
distortion
distortion
Total
Total harmonic
harmonic distortion
distortion (THD)
(THD) is an essential factor when assessing the voltage or
Total harmonic distortion (THD) is is
anan essential
essential factor
factor when
when assessing
assessing the the voltage
voltage oror
current
current signals
signals of the distortion of the harmonic. Figure 22a,b illustrates the evaluated
current signals ofof
thethe distortion
distortion of of
thethe harmonic.Figure
harmonic. Figure 22a,b
22a,b illustrates
illustrates the the evaluated
evaluated
𝑇𝐻𝐷
𝑇𝐻𝐷
THD ofofthe
of the
the voltage
voltage
voltage before
before
before and
and
and after
after
after using
using
using aaaUPQC
UPQC
UPQC for
forforchecking
checking
checking its
itsitsefficacy,
efficacy,
efficacy, respectively.
respectively.
respectively.
v

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure 22.𝑇𝐻𝐷
Figure22. 𝑇𝐻𝐷 values: (a)𝑇𝐻𝐷
values:(a) 𝑇𝐻𝐷 before
beforecompensation
compensationand (b)𝑇𝐻𝐷
and(b) 𝑇𝐻𝐷 after
afterusing
usingaaUPQC.
UPQC.
Figure 22. THDv values: (a) THDv before compensation and (b) THDv after using a UPQC.

5.5.5.
Experimental
Experimental
Experimental Setup
Setup
Setup
In
InIn order
order
order to
to toevaluate
evaluate
evaluate the
thetheusefulness
ofofthe
usefulness
usefulness ofthe
thesuggested
suggested
suggested technique
technique
technique in in aareal-time
ainreal-time
real-time setting,
setting,
setting, a
aaset
set of ofofexperiments
setexperiments
experiments was
waswas conducted
conducted
conducted only
only on on
only PVonPV
PVsystems
systems
systems with
with the the
with theJSO
JSO JSOalgorithm.
algorithm.
algorithm. As
Asshown
As shown shown
in
ininFigure
Figure23,23,the
theCO3208-1B
CO3208-1Bboard
boardwas
wasimplemented
implementedtotoconduct
conductbothbothopen-circuit
open-circuitvoltage
voltage
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5209 26 of 30
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 27 of 31

Figure 23, the CO3208-1B board was implemented to conduct both open-circuit voltage tests
testsshort-circuit
and and short-circuit
currentcurrent
tests intests
orderinto
order to determine
determine the I–Vthe
andI–V and
P–V P–V characteristics
output output charac-
teristics for an adjustable load resistor of 1 kohm with a maximum power capability
for an adjustable load resistor of 1 kohm with a maximum power capability of 500 W of 500
on
W on the CO3208-1J
the CO3208-1J module. module.

Figure23.
Figure 23.Experimental
Experimentalsetup
setupbench
benchfor
forthe
thesolar
solaremulator:
emulator:1—dimmer
1—dimmer for
forthe
thealtitude
altitudeemulator;
emulator;
2—polycrystalline solar emulator CO3208-1B; 3—solar module simulation CO3208-1A; 4—selector
2—polycrystalline solar emulator CO3208-1B; 3—solar module simulation CO3208-1A; 4—selector
switch for varying the irradiance from 200 W/m2 to 400 W/m2, to 600 W/m2, to 800 W/m2, and to 1000
switch2 for varying the irradiance from 200 W/m2 to 400 W/m2 , to 600 W/m2 , to 800 W/m2 , and to
W/m ; 5—1 A-bypass diode; 6—DC ammeter and voltmeter for each module of the simulator; 7—
2 ; 5—1 A-bypass diode; 6—DC ammeter and voltmeter for each module of the simulator;
1000
ACCUW/m 12 V-7 Ah battery; 8—1 kohm DC variable load; 9:12 V-LED lamp and halogen lamp; 10—
7—ACCU
Lucas–Nulle 12 V-7 Ah multimeter;
digital battery; 8—1 kohm DC variable
11—personal load;
computer; 9:12 V-LED lamp
12—oscilloscope; and halogen
13—threefold 23lamp;
V/2A
10—Lucas–Nulle digital multimeter;
modules; 14—charger controller. 11—personal computer; 12—oscilloscope; 13—threefold 23
V/2A modules; 14—charger controller.
Figure 24 illustrates the I–V characteristic curve during the open-circuit and short-
Figure
circuit test 24 illustrates
of the the I–V characteristic
solar emulator curvethe
that is used with during the DC
variable open-circuit
load andandthe short-
corre-
circuit test of the solar emulator that is used with the variable DC load and the
sponding P–V curve. The experimental results for all the following results, the I-V and P- correspond-
ing P–V curve.
V curves showThethe experimental
current label results
and powerfor all the following
labels results,
at the Y-axis and the
theI-V and P-V
voltage labelcurves
at the
show the
X-axis. current label and power labels at the Y-axis and the voltage label at the X-axis.
The MPP is verified by using the JSO when the irradiance suddenly descends from
the full irradiation at 1000 W/m2 to 800 W/m2 , 600 W/m2 , 400 W/m2 , and 200 W/m2 , as
illustrated in Figure 25. The impact of the irradiation and the corresponding I–V and
P–V curve while applying the JSO technique shows that different MPPs refer to the
variable irradiance.
When a sudden change in the irradiance is implemented by using the simulator
selector as shown in Figure 26, a decay in the SC current and a decrease in the corresponding
produced power has occurred. The JSO determines the optimum values of MPP under the
PSC, showing its global peak and local peak on the P–V curve.
S/VA,

S/VA,
100
2.0 120 2.0

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80 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 100 28 of 31
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5209 27 of 30
1.5 1.5

80
60
120 2.5 2.5
S/VA, P/W, Q/Var

I/A

S/VA, P/W, Q/Var

I/A
140
1.0 60 1.0

40 100
2.0 120 2.0
40

0.5 0.5
80 100
20
20
1.5 1.5

80
60
0 0.0 0 0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
U/V U/V
1.0 60 1.0

40
(a) 40
(b)
0.5 Figure 24. The characteristic curve of the
0.5 solar emulator: (a) I–V characteristics and (b) P–V cha
20
teristics. 20

0 0.0 The MPP is verified by using the JSO when the irradiance suddenly descends f
0 0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
U/V
the full irradiation at 1000 W/m2 to 800 W/m2, 600 W/m2, 400 W/m2, and 200 W/m2
U/V

illustrated
(a) in Figure 25. The impact of the irradiation (b)and the corresponding I–V and P
curve while applying the JSO technique shows that different MPPs refer to the vari
Figure24.
Figure 24.The
Thecharacteristic
characteristic curve
curve of solar
of the the solar emulator:
emulator: (a) I–V(a) I–V characteristics
characteristics andcharacteristics.
and (b) P–V (b) P–V charac-
irradiance.
teristics.

The MPP is verified by using the JSO when the irradiance suddenly descends from
the full irradiation at 1000 W/m2 to 800 W/m2, 600 W/m2, 400 W/m2, and 200 W/m2, as
illustrated in Figure 25. The impact of the irradiation and the corresponding I–V and P–V
curve while applying the JSO technique shows that different MPPs refer to the variable
irradiance.

Figure 25.The
Figure 25. TheI–V
I–V and
and P–VP–V characteristics
characteristics of different
of different irradiance
irradiance levels,
levels, where where
its MPP its MPP is obta
is obtained
by
by using JSO.
using JSO.

Figure 25. The I–V and P–V characteristics of different irradiance levels, where its MPP is obtained
by using JSO.
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 29 of 31

When a sudden change in the irradiance is implemented by using the simulator se-
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5209
lector as shown in Figure 26, a decay in the SC current and a decrease in the corresponding
28 of 30
produced power has occurred. The JSO determines the optimum values of MPP under the
PSC, showing its global peak and local peak on the P–V curve.

Figure 26. The I–V and P–V characteristics with global peak and local peak of JSO.
Figure 26. The I–V and P–V characteristics with global peak and local peak of JSO.

6. Conclusions
This paper
This paperpresents
presentsseveral
severalmetaheuristic
metaheuristic MPPT
MPPT controller
controller techniques
techniques of extracting
of extracting the
the MPP
MPP for theforHRES;
the HRES; the proposed
the proposed HRESHRES
is based is on
based on PV/wind/FC
PV/wind/FC and a battery
and a battery as an
as an energy
energy storage
storage system. system.
BecauseBecause of its nonlinear
of its nonlinear nature, thenature,
HRES theis HRES
affectedis affected
by changes by changes
in wind
speed
in windand solarand
speed irradiation, resultingresulting
solar irradiation, in a distinctive MPP. A comprehensive
in a distinctive comparison
MPP. A comprehensive com-of
popular
parison ofconventional and optimization-based
popular conventional MPPT techniques
and optimization-based MPPTfor wind andfor
techniques solar power
wind and
systems
solar poweris provided.
systems is They are intended
provided. They areto track the MPP
intended in reducing
to track the MPP the impacts the
in reducing of PSC
im-
and wind-speed fluctuations. Each technique is evaluated for its
pacts of PSC and wind-speed fluctuations. Each technique is evaluated for its algorithm algorithm complexity,
memory
complexity, requirements, convergence convergence
memory requirements, speed, response to climatic
speed, response change, and efficiency.
to climatic change, and
P and O, inc. cond., and other approaches are the most utilized conventional MPPT
efficiency.
procedures.
P and O,Ininc.general,
cond.,each
and hasothera reasonable
approachesconvergence
are the most speed,
utilizeda conventional
tiny oscillation at a
MPPT
steady
procedures. In general, each has a reasonable convergence speed, a tiny oscillation atina
state, and good tracking, even when subjected to PSC or a quick fluctuation
irradiance
steady state, with less
and complexity.
good tracking,Ineven addition,
when the suggested
subjected optimized
to PSC MPPT
or a quick techniques,
fluctuation in
namely DE, ALO, and JSO, have several benefits over the conventional
irradiance with less complexity. In addition, the suggested optimized MPPT techniques, approaches, such
as no power
namely DE, ALO,oscillations
and JSO,around the MPP,
have several no sensors
benefits over therequired, and source
conventional characteris-
approaches, such
tic independence. ALO and JSO in particular are more adaptable
as no power oscillations around the MPP, no sensors required, and source characteristic to meet PV MPPT
under PSCs with
independence. ALObetter
andefficiency and can are
JSO in particular track the MPP
more even to
adaptable under
meetquickly
PV MPPT changing
under
environmental circumstances.
PSCs with better efficiency and can track the MPP even under quickly changing environ-
mentalConversely, the UPQC was deployed in order to improve the PQ of an MG. Four
circumstances.
case studies were
Conversely, the conducted
UPQC was in order to ascertain
deployed in orderthe power and
to improve theefficacy
PQ of anofMG.
the presented
Four case
UPQC. The results affirmed its value in protecting MG
studies were conducted in order to ascertain the power and efficacy of the voltage stability. To guarantee
presented
the
UPQC.dependability
The resultsofaffirmed
the devised system
its value and confirm
in protecting MG thevoltage
validity of the simulated
stability. To guaranteeresults,
the
experiments were undertaken under contrasting patterned solar conditions.
dependability of the devised system and confirm the validity of the simulated results,
experiments were undertaken under contrasting patterned solar conditions.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.H.E. and R.A.Y.; methodology, A.A.A.; software, A.I.O.;
validation, M.M.M. and F.A.; formal analysis, M.A.S.; investigation, A.H.E.; resources, R.A.Y.; data
curation, A.I.O.; writing—original draft preparation, M.M.M.; writing—review and editing, F.A.;
supervision, A.E.-S.; project administration, F.A.; funding acquisition, A.E.-S. All authors have read
and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5209 29 of 30

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement: Data are available on request from the authors.
Acknowledgments: This work was supported by the Researchers Supporting Project number
(RSPD2023R646), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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