Prolog

A Gentle Introduction
 An Example
„ “Prolog” is all about programming in logic.

„ Socrates is a man.
„ All men are mortal.
„ Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
Facts, rules, and queries
„ Fact: Socrates is a man.
„ man(socrates).
„ Rule: All men are mortal.
„ mortal(X) :- man(X).
„ Query: Is Socrates mortal?
„ mortal(socrates).
Running Prolog I
„ Create your "database" (program) in
any editor.
„ Save it as text only, with a .P extension
„ Here's the complete "program":
man(socrates).
mortal(X) :- man(X).
Running Prolog II
„ Prolog is completely interactive.
„ Begin by invoking the Prolog
interpreter.
„ Then load your program.
„ Then, ask your question at the prompt:
„ ? mortal(socrates).
„ Prolog responds:
„ Yes
Syntax 1: Structures or Terms
„ Example structures:
– sunshine
– man(socrates)
– path(garden, south, sundial)
„ <structure> ::= <name>| <name> (
<arguments> )
„ <arguments> ::= <argument> |
<argument> , <arguments>
Syntax II: Base Clauses
„ Base clauses are like simple facts.
„ Example base clauses:

„ loves(john, mary).
„ loves(mary, bill).

„ <base clause> ::= <structure> .

Syntax III: Nonbase Clauses
„ Non-base clauses are like rules.

„ Example non-base clauses:

„ mortal(X) :- man(X).
„ mortal(X) :- woman(X)
„ happy(X) :- healthy(X), wealthy(X), wise(X).

„ <nonbase clause> ::= <structure> :- <structures>.

„ <structures> ::= <structure> | <structures> ,

<structure>
Syntax IV: Predicates
„ A predicate is a collection of clauses with the same
functor and arity.

„ loves(john, mary).
„ loves(mary, bill).
„ loves(chuck, X) :- female(X), rich(X).

„ <predicate> ::= <clause> | <predicate> <clause>

„ <clause> ::= <base clause> | <nonbase clause>

Syntax V: Programs
„ A program is a collection of predicates.
„ Predicates can be in any order.
„ Predicates are used in the order in
which they occur.
Syntax VI: Assorted details
„ Variables begin with a capital letter or an underscore:

„ X, Socrates, _result

„ Atomic symbols do not begin with a capital letter:

„ x, socrates

„ Other atomic symbols must be enclosed in single

quotes:
„ ‘Socrates’
„ ‘C:/My Documents/examples.P’
Syntax VII: Assorted details
„ In a quoted atom, a single quote must be
quoted or backslashed: 'Can''t, or won\'t?'
„ /* Comments are like this */
„ Prolog allows some infix operators, such as :-
(turnstile) and , (comma). These are syntactic
sugar for the functors ':-' and ','.
„ These are equivalent:
„ ':-'(mortal(X), man(X)).
„ mortal(X) :- man(X).
Backtracking
„ loves(chuck, X) :- female(X), rich(X).
„ female(jane).
„ female(mary).
„ rich(mary).

Now, suppose we ask: ? loves(chuck, X).

„ female(X) = female(jane), X = jane.

„ rich(jane) fails.
„ female(X) = female(mary), X = mary.
„ rich(mary) succeeds.
Additional answers
female(jane).
female(mary).
female(susan).

?- female(X).
X = jane ;
X = mary
Yes
Readings
„ loves(chuck, X) :- female(X), rich(X).
„ Declarative reading: Chuck loves X if X
is female and rich.
„ Approximate procedural reading: To
find an X that Chuck loves, first find a
female X, then check that X is rich.
„ Declarative readings are almost always
preferred.
Non-monotonicity
Prolog’s facts and rules can be changed
at anytime.

assert(man(plato)).
assert((loves(chuck,X) :- female(X), rich(X))).

retract(man(plato)).
retract((loves(chuck,X) :- female(X), rich(X))).
Common problems
„ Capitalization is extremely important!
„ No space between a functor and its
argument list:
man(socrates), not man (socrates).
„ Don’t forget the period! (But you can
put it on the next line.)
A Simple Prolog Model
„ Imagine prolog as a system which has a database composed of
two components:

„ FACTS - statements about true relations which hold between

particular objects in the world. For example:
„ parent(adam,able): adam is a parent of able
„ parent(eve,able): eve is a parent of able
„ male(adam): adam is male.

„ RULES - statements about true relations which hold between

objects in the world which contain generalizations, expressed
through the use of variables. For example, the rule
„ father(X,Y) :- parent(X,Y), male(X). might express: for any X and
any Y, X is the father of Y if X is a parent of Y and X is male.
Nomenclature and Syntax
„ A prolog rule is called a clause.
„ A clause has a head, a neck and a body:

father(X,Y) :- parent(X,Y) , male(X) .

head neck body

„ The head is a rule's conclusion.

„ The body is a rule's premise or condition.

Note:
„ read :- as IF
„ read , as AND
„ a . marks the end of input
Prolog Database
parent(adam,able)
parent(adam,cain) Facts comprising the
“extensional database”
male(adam)
…
father(X,Y) :- parent(X,Y),
Rules comprising the
male(X). “intensional database”
sibling(X,Y) :- ...
 Extensional vs. Intensional
parent(adam,able)
„ The terms extensional and intensional parent(adam,cain)
are borrowed from the language male(adam)
philosophers use for epistemology. …
„ Extension refers to whatever extends,
i.e., “is quantifiable in space as well as in father(X,Y) :- parent(X,Y),
time”. male(X).
„ Intension is an antonym of extension, sibling(X,Y) :- ...
referring to “that class of existence which
may be quantifiable in time but not in
space.” Facts comprising the
“extensional database”
„ NOT intentional with a “t”, which has to
do with “will, volition, desire, plan, …” Rules comprising the
For KBs and DBs we use “intensional database”
„ • extensional to refer to that which is
explicitly represented (e.g., a fact), and
„ • intensional to refer to that which is
represented abstractly, e.g., by a rule of
inference.
A Simple Prolog Session
| ?- assert(parent(adam,able)).
Yes

| ?- assert(parent(eve,able)).
Yes

| ?- assert(male(adam)).
Yes

| ?- parent(adam,able).
Yes
How to Satisfy a Goal
Here is an informal description of how Prolog satisfies a goal (like
father(adam,X)). Suppose the goal is G:
„ Conjunction: if G = P,Q then first satisfy P, carry any variable
bindings forward to Q, and then satisfy Q.

„ Disjunction: if G = P;Q then satisfy P. If that fails, then try to satisfy

Q.

„ Negation: if G = not(P) then try to satisfy P. If this succeeds, then fail

and if it fails, then succeed.

„ Simple goal: if G is a simple goal, then:

„ look for a fact in the DB that unifies with G.
„ look for a rule whose conclusion unifies with G and try to satisfy its body.
Note
„ Two basic conditions are true, which always succeeds, and fail, which
always fails.
„ A comma (,) represents conjunction (and) and a semi-colon represents
disjunction (or), as in:
„ grandParent(X,Y) :- grandFather(X,Y); grandMother(X,Y).

„ There’s no real distinction between rules and facts, which are just rules
whose bodies are the trivial condition true. These are equivalent:
„ parent(adam,cain)
„ parent(adam,cain) :- true.

„ Goals can be posed with any combination of variables and constants:

„ parent(cain,able) - Is Cain Able's parent?
„ parent(cain,X) - Who is a child of Cain?
„ parent(X,cain) - Who is Cain a child of?
„ parent(X,Y) - What two people have a parent/child relationship?
Terms
„ The term is the basic data structure in Prolog.
„ The term is to Prolog what the s-expression is
to Lisp.
„ A term is either:
„ a constant - e.g.
„ john , 13, 3.1415, +, 'a constant'
„ – a variable - e.g.
„ X, Var, _, _foo
„ – a compound term - e.g.
„ part(arm,body)
„ part(arm(john),body(john))
Compound Terms
„ A compound term can be thought of as a
relation between one or more terms:
part_of(finger,hand) and is written as:
„ The relation name (called the principle functor)
which must be a constant.
„ An open parenthesis
„ The arguments - one or more terms separated by
commas.
„ A closing parenthesis.
„ The number of arguments of a compound
term is called its arity.
Map Coloring Example

XSB Demo of the Example