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Fluid Mechanics in Channel, Pipe and
Aerodynamic Design Geometries 1
 ...To our Family

Depy
Andreas
Nikos
Giannis
Lilian

…as without their support none of this would have ever been possible for us
 Engineering, Energy and Architecture Set
coordinated by
Lazaros E. Mavromatidis

Volume 2

Fluid Mechanics in Channel,

Pipe and Aerodynamic
Design Geometries 1

Christina G. Georgantopoulou
George A. Georgantopoulos
First published 2018 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as
permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced,
stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers,
or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the
CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the
undermentioned address:

ISTE Ltd John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

27-37 St George’s Road 111 River Street
London SW19 4EU Hoboken, NJ 07030
UK USA

www.iste.co.uk www.wiley.com

© ISTE Ltd 2018

The rights of Christina G. Georgantopoulou and George A. Georgantopoulos to be identified as the
authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents
Act 1988.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018932715

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-1-78630-139-0
 Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi

Chapter 1. Fundamental Principles in Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2. Incompressible and compressible fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3. Fluid properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3.1. Density ( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.2. Specific weight (γ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.3. Relative density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.4. Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3.5. Compressibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3.6. Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3.7. Specific volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.4. Surface tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.5. Surface tension applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.6. Capillarity effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.7. Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.8. Vapor pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.9. Cavitation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.10. Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.11. Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.12. Problems with solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.13. Problems to be solved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Chapter 2. Hydrostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
vi Fluid Mechanics 1

2.2. Basic law of hydrostatic pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

2.3. Law of communicating vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.4. Forces applied by fluids on flat surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.4.1. Forces applied on the horizontal bottom of a vessel . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.4.2. Forces applied on the flat side walls of a vessel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.5. Forces applied by fluids on curved surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.6. Archimedes’ principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.7. Consequences of Archimedes’ principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.7.1. Fully immersed body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.7.2. Partially immersed (floating) body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.8. Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.9. Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.10. Problems with solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.11. Problems to be solved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

Chapter 3. Aerostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.2. General characteristics of gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.3. Pressure applied by air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.3.1. Pressure caused by the motion of gas molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.3.2. Pressure caused by the weight of gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.4. Buoyancy: Archimedes’ principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.4.1. Apparent weight of a body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.5. Hot air balloons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.6. Lifting force of a hot air balloon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.7. Basic aerostatic law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.8. Gas pressure variations: the Boyle–Mariotte law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.8.1. The Boyle–Mariotte law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.9. Changes in gas density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.10. The atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.10.1. International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.11. Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.12. Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.13. Problems with solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.14. Problems to be solved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

Chapter 4. Fluid Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

4.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.2. Flow field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.3. Fluid velocity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.4. Fluid’s acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.4.1. Steady and unsteady flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
 Contents vii

4.4.2. Compressible and incompressible flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

4.4.3. Subsonic and supersonic flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.5. Streamlines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.6. Mass conservation (continuity equation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.7. Continuity equation for flow in pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.8. Energy conservation for incompressible flows
(Bernoulli equation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.9. Applications of the Bernoulli law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.9.1. Venturi tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.9.2. Ρitot tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
4.10. Euler equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.11. Navier–Stokes equations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
4.12. Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
4.13. Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
4.14. Problems with solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
4.15. Problems to be solved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

Chapter 5. Flow in Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

5.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
5.2. Physical quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
5.3. Laminar and turbulent flows in pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
5.3.1. Reynolds number in pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
5.3.2. Average velocity and velocity distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
5.3.3. Shear stress in a horizontal cylindrical pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
5.3.4. Pressure drop in a horizontal cylindrical pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
5.3.5. Pressure drop in a horizontal non-cylindrical pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
5.3.6. Shear stress τ0 and friction coefficient f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5.3.7. Pressure drop and friction coefficient relationship
for a horizontal pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5.4. Basic equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
5.4.1. Continuity equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
5.4.2. Energy equation (Bernoulli equation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
5.5. Friction coefficient of a laminar flow of real fluid in a
horizontal cylindrical pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
5.5.1. Inlet conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
5.6. Turbulent flow in pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
5.6.1. Turbulent flow in smooth pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
5.6.2. Turbulent flow in pipes with roughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
5.6.3. The Moody diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
5.6.4. Calculation of relative roughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
5.6.5. Empirical expressions for the friction coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
5.6.6. Minor local losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
viii Fluid Mechanics 1

5.6.7. K values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

5.6.8. Valves and other devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
5.6.9. Total losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
5.6.10. Solution of flow problems in pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
5.7. Categories of pipes’ flow problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
5.7.1. A’ category flow problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
5.7.2. B’ category flow problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
5.7.3. C’ category flow problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
5.8. Pipes’ flow problems: numerical work examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
5.8.1. Α’ category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
5.8.2. Β’ category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
5.8.3. C’ category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
5.9. Energy and hydraulic grade lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
5.10. Incompressible, viscid flow in connected pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
5.10.1. Simple pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
5.10.2. Pipes connected in a row . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
5.10.3. Parallel connection of pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
5.10.4. Mixed pipe connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
5.10.5. Pipe branches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
5.11. Simple applications of pipeline networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
5.11.1. Simple pipeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
5.11.2. Pipes in a row . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
5.11.3. Pipes in parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
5.11.4. Mixed pipe network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
5.11.5. Problem of the three tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
5.12. Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
5.13. Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
5.14. Problems with solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
5.15. Problems to be solved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350

Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359

Appendix 1. Symbols and Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361

Appendix 2. Tables and Diagrams of Natural Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367

Appendix 3. Symbols and Basic Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385

Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387

Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
 Preface

This book presents an extended and detailed analysis of both the flow
phenomena in closed and open channels and the flows around solid bodies. It
comprises two volumes. This book is a specialized resource for those students,
engineers and researchers who want to focus on the industrial applications of flows
and study the fascinating world of internal and external flow phenomena.

We have both had extensive experience in teaching, studying and researching

fluids since the completion of our respective PhD theses. We felt that it was time to
write about the practical and analytical aspects of flow applications, all of which can
be applied in industrial flows, to support researchers, engineering students and
industrial engineers in the field of fluids in order to optimize their work in “flows”.

For the first author, the “fluids direction” began in the early stages of her PhD
thesis study in Computational Fluid Dynamics in 1998 at the National Technical
University of Athens. The second author’s knowledge of the fluids’ path is very
extensive, obtained from more than 45 years of studies and work involved in his
PhD thesis and further research work at the University of Patras, as well as through
his position as Professor of Aerodynamics at the Hellenic Air Force Academy,
spanning more than 35 years.

We have both gained substantial experience in Fluid Mechanics research through

numerous publications, presentations at international conferences, academic
textbook authoring, teaching through international experiences and collaborations.
However, we felt that more should be offered to the Fluid Mechanics community,
and hence this book.

Although we both have experience in writing for academic textbooks, this is our
first publication that caters to international students, researchers and engineers,
considering the industrial phenomena that are met in international industries and we
x Fluid Mechanics 1

have tried to present most of the applications in flows inside or around bodies. This
book is based on books written previously by us on Fluid Mechanics and on
Aerodynamics, but for the first time our work focuses on the practical aspects of
industrial internal and external flows.

Christina, the first author, offers this textbook to the Bahrain polytechnic
engineering students and all the industrial delegates who have worked with her in
“flows” for many years. She also wishes to express her appreciation for her
colleagues, namely Payal Modi, for the thousands of hours of constructive
discussions and collaborations in fluids aspects, to Lazaros E. Mavromatidis for his
support during the publishing procedure, to her father George who has been her
mentor for all these years and to Stephanie Sutton and Amerissa Kapela for their
continuing support with the quality of the academic English language. Additionally,
George, the second author, wishes to share his more than 40 years of experience in
fluids with the fluids community around the world and support them in their “flows”
work as best he can.

We both have a special sentimental feeling for this book in that we are extremely
proud that we have been able to write, publish and offer it to you, hoping that it will
really support you in your fluids journey. We have both worked on fluids with a
passion not only for our students, but also to honor our colleagues around the world.
We are equally happy to say that the Fluid Mechanics community has been served
by the same family for more than 40 years. We hope that we will be physically and
mentally healthy to continue to serve our students and support our colleagues in the
fluids aspects in the future.

We hope that you will enjoy this book and be engaged with the fascinating world
of flows.

Christina G. GEORGANTOPOULOU
George A. GEORGANTOPOULOS
February 2018
 Introduction

I.1. Introduction

Fluid Mechanics consist of two main categories. The first one refers to
the quantitative and qualitative analysis and study of fluids in motion, the velocity or
acceleration as well as the forces exerted by nature. The second category analyzes
the physical forces that are developed on solid–fluid interfaces, where the solids
represent the containers. The first category can be called Theoretical Fluid
Mechanics, while the second one is called Applied Fluid Mechanics.

This book primarily presents the aspects and problems of internal and external
flows, including certain fundamental principles of fluids.

To develop an extended study of Applied Fluid Mechanics problems,

mathematical modeling and analysis is considered necessary. On the other hand, the
empirical or experimental investigation of fluid phenomena only provides us with
certain measurements and information about individual cases, and it is often difficult
to generalize our conclusions. Hence, the appropriate way to study fluid flows is to
investigate the related phenomena with a combined analytical–computational and
experimental approach in order to improve step by step the proposed fluid theories
or solutions.

Industrial engineers have raised various issues related to the main assumption
that all fluids are considered to be ideal. In order to overcome these issues, every
technological problem is considered to be an individual one, resulting in a lack of
theoretical background. Year after year, a huge gap has been created between
theoretical and practical hydrodynamics researchers, which exists even today. This
book bridges this gap between various industrial flows, and an attempt has been
xii Fluid Mechanics 1

made to present a common strategy. The flows inside pipes or channels as well as
the flows around bodies are considered to be real life applications, setting the
appropriate theoretical background simultaneously.

I.2. Fluid Mechanics sections

The Fluid Mechanics study comprises fluid motion and fluid balance. During the
last decades, it has evolved in two major directions. Theoretical Fluid Mechanics
includes the mathematical exploitation of fluid phenomena, and Technical Fluid
Mechanics includes the applications of mechanical engineering, aeronautics,
shipbuilding and meteorology. Technical Fluid Mechanics is considered an applied
science, and hence it is often referred to as Applied Fluid Mechanics, which includes
the possible solutions of fluid problems and the explanation of natural phenomena.
Moreover, it aims to produce numerical predictions or experimental validation for
direct practical applications.

Classic Fluid Mechanics can be derived from various areas according to the
mechanical condition or fluid properties. The categories presented in Table I.1 are
based on the motion of fluids as well as on compressibility, where the density varies
according to the fluid condition.

Fluid mechanics Fluids at rest Fluids in motion

Hydrodynamics (ρ=ct) Hydrostatics Hydrodynamics
Aeromechanics (ρ≠ct) Aerostatics Aerodynamics

Table I.1. Fluid Mechanics categories

I.3. Systems of units

I.3.1. Definitions and general considerations

Units are fundamental for physics, especially for all the applied sciences
such as mechanical engineering. The number without units means absolutely
nothing for Fluid Mechanics, as it represents a natural quantity such as pressure,
velocity or force.

Historically, various systems of units have been developed according to the

theoretical principle demands or to practical applications. In most countries (not
including the USA), the metric system is the official system of measurement, which
 Introduction xiii

is accepted by both scientists and engineers. The International System of Units (SI)
was defined and established at the 11th General Conference on Weights and
Measures, where more than 36 countries accepted it to be the most complete and
appropriate one, including the USA. Since then, the USA has made huge progress in
introducing SI units to engineering. For example, many NASA laboratories use SI
units for their technical research results, and the AIAA (American Institute of
Aeronautics and Astronautics) also supports the SI in its research papers.

Therefore, students who want to study engineering have to know both unit
systems. The following table presents the corresponding basic units in both systems
based on the theory that all the derived units at the metric system can be produced
by the base ones.

Base quantity SI BS
Length Meter (m) Foot (ft)
Time Second (s) Second (sec)
Mass Kilogram (kg) Pounds of mass (lbm) or slug
Temperature Celsius (°C) Fahrenheit (°F)
Absolute temperature Kelvin (K) Rankine (R)

Table I.2. Base units in SI and BS (British system)

As we have just mentioned, the derived units can be produced by the base units
following the nature of interrelationships or the basic formulas with the need for
adding any conversion factor, as in the following, using Newton’s law:

F = m ×α
[I.1]
(1 newton) = (1 kilogram)(1 meter/second 2 )

Thus, we further confirm the definition of Newton as the force that is required to
accelerate a mass of 1 kg at a rate of 1 m/s2. Similarly, the ideal gas constant for air
(R=287 J⁄(kg·K) can also be expressed in the following way:

J N⋅m kg ⋅ m m m2
R = 1716 = 287 ⋅ = 287 2 ⋅ = 287 2 [I.2]
(kg)(K) (kg)(K) s (kg)(K) (s ) ⋅ (K)
xiv Fluid Mechanics 1

The BS is also a consistent system, and the same procedure can be followed for
the derived quantities:

F = m⋅a [I.3]
2
(1 pound) = (1 slug) (1 foot/second )

ft ⋅ lb ft 2
R = 1716 = 1716 2 [I.4]
(slug)(R) (s )(R)

However, more systems of units are not consistent; therefore, it is necessary to

use a factor in order to produce the required conversion as shown below. These
systems have been used in the past by engineers but have often not been convenient
to be applied:

F = (1 gc ) × m × a
[I.5]

g c = 32.2 (lb m ) ⋅ (ft) (s 2 ) ⋅ (lb f )

F = (1 g c ) m×a
[I.6]
↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
lbf (1 32.2) lb m ft s 2

The various temperature units are of high importance. We often denote absolute
temperature by T, where the minimum temperature value can be zero. Kelvin (K)
and Rankine (R) are the absolute temperature units, where 0 R = 0 K indicates the
temperature at which all the molecular motion theoretically stop. In addition, the
relationships among the temperature units are:

0°F = 460 R [I.7]

0°C = 237k = 32°F [I.8]

It is worth mentioning that the temperature T in the ideal gas equation of state
(equation [I.9]) is absolute:

p = ρ RT
[I.9]

where ‫ ݌‬is the pressure, ߩ is the density of gas and the other symbols are defined as
above.
 Introduction xv

I.3.2. Definitions and fundamental units in fluids

Natural quantity Units Symbol

Force Newton N = kg m/s2
Energy Joule J=Nm
Power Watt W = J/s

Table I.3. Units of common quantities in physics and fluids

10−6 micro μ
−3
10 milli m
103 kilo k
6
10 mega M

Table I.4. Common metric prefix in SI

Length l
1 in 25.4 mm
1 ft 0.3048 m
1 yd 0.9144 m
1 mile 1.6093 km
Area S
1 in2 645.16 mm2
1 fr2 0.0929 m2
2
1 yd 0.8361 m2
1 mile2 2.590 km2
1 acre 4046.9 m2
Volume v
1 in3 16387 mm3
1 ft3 0.02832 m3
1 UK gal 0.004546 m3
1 US gal 0.003785 m3

Table I.5. Length, area and volume conversion factors

xvi Fluid Mechanics 1

Mass m
1 kg 103 g
1 oz 28.352 g
1 lb 453.592 g
1 cwt 50.802 kg
1 ton (UK) 1016.06 kg
Density ρ
1 lb/ft3 16.019 kg/m3
1 lb/UK gal 99.776 kg/m3
1 lb/US gal 119.83 kg/m3
Force F
1 dyne 10−5 N
1 poundal 0.1383 N
1 lb-f 4.4482 N
1 kg-f 9.8067 N
1 ton-f 9.9640 kN
Viscosity μ
1 poise (1 g/cm sec, 1 dyn sec cm2) 0.1 N sec/m2
1 lb/ft sec (1 poundal sec/ft2) 1.4882 N sec/m2
1 lb/ft hr (1 poundal hr/ft2) 0.4134 mN sec m2
Pressure p
1 bar (105 dynes/cm2) 105 N/m2
1 atm (1 kg-f/cm2) 98.0665 kN/m2
1 atm (standard) 101.325 kN/m2
2
1 psi (1 lb-f/in ) 6.8948 kN/m2
1 psf (1 lb-f/fn2) 47.880 N/m2

Table I.6. Conversion factor mass, density, force, viscosity and pressure

Energy E
1 erg 10−7 J
1 ft poundal 0.04214 J
1 ft lb-f 1.3558 J
1 cal (international table) 4.1868 J
 Introduction xvii

1 Btu 1055.06 J
1 hph 2.6845 MJ
1 kwh 3.6 MJ
Power P
1 erg/sec 10−7 W
1 hp (British) 745.70 W
1 hp (metric) 735.40 W
1 ft lb-f/sec 1.3558 W
1 Btu/hr 0.2931 W
Surface tension σ
1 dyne/cm (1 erg/cm2) 10−3 J/m2
Moment of inertia M
1 lb.ft2 0.04214 kg m2
Momentum J
1 lb-fit/sec 0.1383 kg.m/sec
Specific temperature c
1 Btu/lb°F (1 cal/g.°C) 4.1868 kJ/kg.°C
Heat transfer coefficient h
1 Btu/h.ft2.°F 5.6783 W/m2.K
Thermal conductivity K
1 Btu/h.ft.°F 1.7307 W/m.K
Water (18°C and air properties (STP))
Water Air
3 3
Density (kg/m ) 10 1.3
Viscosity (N sec/m2) 10–3 1.7 × 10–5
Specific heat (KJ/kg.K) 4 1
Thermal Conductivity (W/m.K) 0.6 0.024

Table I.7. Other conversion factors

 1

Fundamental Principles in Fluids

1.1. Introduction

The most important characteristics of fluids are distinguished under shear

conditions. As we have already mentioned, every fluid is incapable of maintaining
its static balance under shear stress conditions.

As a matter of fact, many objects, even solids, show fluid properties if

high-grade shear stresses are developed. In addition, some real fluids show a
viscosity that is so high under certain conditions that they behave more like solids
than fluids. However, the definition that has been given is adequate for fluids
despite the occurrence of some extreme cases. In general, fluids are comprised of
liquids and gases.

Figure 1.1 shows the shear stresses in both solids and fluids. A tangential force F
is applied to the upper surface of each object, thereby developing shear stresses
(F⁄S). When the shear stresses are applied to a solid body, deformation is developed,
which is depicted by its change in shape and the angle da.

τ = F/S
S
F

da

Figure 1.1. Shear stresses in solids and fluids

Fluid Mechanics in Channel, Pipe and Aerodynamic Design Geometries 1, First Edition.
Christina G. Georgantopoulou and George A. Georgantopoulos.
© ISTE Ltd 2018. Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
2 Fluid Mechanics 1

However, if the same stresses are applied to fluids, deformation will not be
permanent. Deformation is developed only during the stress application. If some
objects sometimes behave like solids and other times like fluids, according to the
size of the applied stresses, then they are called plastics, for example the paraffin.
This type of material is deformed like solids if the shear stresses are less than a
certain value , and flows like fluids if the stresses are < . The official name of
this type of material is Bingham plastic.

1.2. Incompressible and compressible fluids

According to the variation in physical properties, fluids can be classified as

incompressible or compressible. Under certain conditions of static balance, some
fluids show minimum density variation even at high pressure values. This type of
fluid is called incompressible.

Consequently, incompressible fluids are fluids with constant density

regardless of the applied pressure value. However, this definition is theoretical
or can be considered as an assumption, as real fluids are not able to maintain
their density totally constant under various pressure conditions. The density
always shows a certain variation even if it is limited. If the variation is close to
zero, then we can assume the fluids to be incompressible and neglect the
aforementioned variation. For gases, this can be assumed only if the temperature is
also constant.

Most liquids can be assumed to be incompressible. The study of incompressible

fluids under static balance conditions is called hydrostatics. If the density of
fluids cannot be considered as constant, then these fluids are called
compressible. Although most liquids can be assumed to be incompressible, the
parameter that determines the distinction between incompressible and
compressible in air flows is the Mach number (M). If < 0.4, the air flow can be
considered to be incompressible, while if > 0.4, the flow is considered to be
compressible.

1.3. Fluid properties

The main characteristics of fluids are called fluid properties. As these

characteristics may vary according to the space or time, we will define these as
characteristics of a fluid particle. Their definition will be presented on a point within
a fluid or within a flow field.
 Fundamental Principles in Fluids 3

1.3.1. Density ( )

Fluid density ( ) is defined as the mass dm of a fluid particle per volume

unit. Consequently, if we want to define the density of the fluid in a point P of a
flow field, we may write the following expression:

dm
ρ ( P ) = lim . [1.1]
dv → 0 dv

The SI unit of density is kg/m3. Density depends on both the location of point P
and the time:

ρ = ρ ( x, y, z, t ). [1.2]

It can also be varied according to the pressure and temperature of the fluid.

If the density of a fluid remains constant regardless of the other property’s

variation, then the fluid is called incompressible. In the case of liquids, we may
assume that their density remains constant even after high pressure or temperature
variation. This assumption cannot be made for gases, and hence they are called
compressible fluids. The density of most gases is proportional to the pressure and
irreversibly proportional to the temperature.

1.0000 Maximum density at 4ºC

0.9996

0.9992 Water
Density (g/cm3)

0.9988

0.9984

0.9174

Ice
0.9170
–4 0 4 8 12 16 20
Temperature (ºC)

Figure 1.2. Density of water variation according to the temperature

4 Fluid Mechanics 1

As the density is defined per volume unit, the temperature and pressure are the
main conditions for its variation. In addition, the volume of the fluid and
consequently the density are affected by the possible dissolved substances.

Temperature variation affects fluid density. As the temperature is increased, the

volume of the body is increased (expansion) and consequently the density has lower
values. There is an exception in the case of water at the temperature range of
0°C–4°C: the density is decreased when the temperature is increased in this range of
values, and thus it reaches a minimum value (Figure 1.2).

T ρ T ρ T ρ T ρ
(°C) (kg/m3) (°C) (kg/m3) (°C) (kg/m3) (°C) (kg/m3)
0 999,839 7 999,901 30 995,647 65 980,502
1 999,898 8 999,848 35 994,032 70 977,771
2 999,940 9 999,781 40 992,215 75 974.850
3 999,964 10 999,699 45 990,213 80 971,799
4 999,972 15 999,099 50 988,037 85 968,621
5 999,964 20 999,204 55 985,696 90 965,321
6 999,940 25 997,045 60 983,200 100 958,365

Table 1.1. Density of pure water according to various T values

The expansion is more intense in gases than in liquids. For instance, the
expansion coefficient of oil is four times lower than air’s coefficient, and the water
expansion coefficient is 17 times higher (Table 1.1). Consequently, if the
temperature is increased from 20 to 30°C under constant pressure, the volume of the
air will be increased by 3.3%, the volume of the oil by 0.9% and the volume of the
water by approximately 0.2%. Table 1.1 presents the density of pure water for T
ranging from 0 to 100°C. As can be easily seen, the maximum density is achieved
at 4°C.

In the case of gases under conditions far below the dew point, the density as well
as its variation in relation to the T and p can be calculated using the following state
equation for gases (equation [1.4]):

m
p ⋅ v = n ⋅ Rw ⋅ T = ⋅ Rw ⋅ T 
mr

 p = ρ ⋅ R ⋅T [1.3]
 Fundamental Principles in Fluids 5

p
ρ= [1.4]
R ⋅T

where p is the pressure, T is the absolute temperature and R is the gas constant.

The gas constant R can be defined as the ratio of the universal gas constant over
the molar mass of the gas:

Rw
R= [1.5]
mr

where Rw = 8,314 J /(mole ⋅ K) = 8,314 J(Kmole ⋅ K).

In the case of air as a fluid that comprises two main components (21% oxygen
and 79% nitrogen), the molar mass is:

mr = 32 ⋅ 0.21 + 28 ⋅ 0.79 = 29 g / mole = 29 kg / Kmole [1.6]

and then R = 287.1/ kgK .

The pressure also significantly affects the density of fluids. If the temperature
remains constant, a double value of pressure implies a double value of density.
Concerning gas vapor, the relationship between pressure and density remains the
same. For example, if the temperature of a vapor quantity is equal to 150°C (423 K)
and the pressure to 1 bar (100 kPa), the density will be = 0.590 kg/m (if the
state equation is applied, the results would be = 0.512 kg/m ). If the pressure is
doubled, the density will be increased by 77%.

Unlike gases, the effect of pressure on the density of liquids is minimum. Hence,
in most of the practical or technical applications in liquids, we assume that the
density is constant despite possible pressure variation. As already mentioned, if the
density remains constant when the pressure varies, the fluids are called
incompressible, whereas these are called compressible if the density also varies. In
fact, compressible fluids are gases, as liquids are assumed to be incompressible.

The dissolved substance in a mixture increases the fluids’ density. When a solid
substance is dissolved in a solvent, the mass is increased without any corresponding
increase in the volume. This occurs due to the chemical relationship between the
liquid and the dissolved substance, which can be explained by the dissolution theory
and mechanism.
6 Fluid Mechanics 1

% 0°C 10°C 25°C 40°C 60°C 80°C 100°C

1 1,007.5 1,007.1 1,004.1 999.1 990.0 978.5 965.1
2 1,015.1 1,014.4 1,011.1 1,005.9 996.7 985.2 971.9
4 1,030.4 1,029.2 1,025.3 1,019.8 1,010.3 998.8 985.5
8 1,061.2 1,059.1 1,054.1 1,048.0 1,038.1 1,026.4 1,013.4
12 1,092.4 1,083.5 1,083.6 1,077.0 1,066.7 1,054.9 1,042.0
16 1,124.2 1,120.6 1,114.0 1,106.9 1,096.2 1,084.2 1,071.3
20 1,156.6 1,152.5 1,145.3 1,137.7 1,126.8 1,114.6 1,101.7
24 1,190.0 1,185.6 1,177.8 1,169.7 1,158.4 1,146.3 1,133.1
26 1,207.1 1,202.5 1,194.4 1,186.1 1,174.7 1,162.6 1,149.2

Table 1.2. Sea water density

This phenomenon receives great importance in the case of water. Natural water
contains many dissolved solid substances such as salts. Therefore, the density of the
natural water is slightly higher than the one presented in Table 1.1. For the
temperature range of 0–20°C, the density of natural water is equal to 1,000 kg/m3.
Sea water, which contains high concentrations of sodium chloride, has a higher
density range (1,025–1,028 kg/m3). Table 1.2 presents the density of sea water
analytically according to both the temperature and the concentration.

If we mix two liquids with densities and , the density value of the mixture
will be between these two values, depending on the mixture ratio. The mass of the
solution will be = + , while the volume ≤ + . If we assume that
≅ + , we are able to estimate the solution’s density. However, the precise
density estimation can be retrieved by the rating table or graphs.

The measurement of density can be achieved by specific instruments, which will

be studied in the next chapter.

1.3.2. Specific weight (γ)

Specific weight (γ) is defined as the weight per volume unit:

dw
γ = [1.7]
dv

where w is the weight of the body and v is the volume.

 Fundamental Principles in Fluids 7

As can be easily seen according to the w and ρ definition, the specific weight can
be calculated as follows:

γ = ρ⋅g [1.8]

where ρ is the density of the fluid and g is the acceleration of gravity.

The SI unit of specific weight is N/m3.

Table 1.3 presents the density and specific weights for various fluids at 20℃,
= 101.3 KPa, = 9.807 m/s .

Fluid ρ (kg/m3) γ (KN/m3) Fluid ρ (kg/m3) γ (KN/m3)

Water (pure) 998.2 9.79 Pentane 630 5.71
Natural water 1,000 9.81 Hexane 659 6.46
Sea water 1,025 10.05 Heptane 684 6.71
Ether 708 6.94 Octane 703 6.89
Alcohol 789 7.74 Decane 730 7.16
Aceton 792 7.77 Hexadecane 774 7.59
Benzene 879 8.62 Petrol 700–750 6.86–7.36
Aniline 1,022 10.0 Kerosene 780–820 7.65–8.04
Chloroform 1,489 14.6 Diesel 810–860 7.94–8.43
Carbon tetrachloride 1,590 15.6 Crude oil 900–1,000 8.83–9.81
Sulfuric acid 1,834 28.0 Mineral oil 880–940 8.63–9.22
Mercury 13,550 133.0 Olive oil 910–920 8.92–9.02

Table 1.3. Density and specific weight of various fluids

1.3.3. Relative density

Sometimes, especially in relation to industrial applications, the relative density

(RD) or specific gravity (SG) is used instead of density. RD is a dimensionless
quantity, which expresses the relationship between the densities of two fluids where
the second one is chosen as a reference material:

ρ
RD = [1.9]
ρf
8 Fluid Mechanics 1

where is the density of the fluid and is the density of the reference material at a
certain temperature. For liquids, the reference material is water and is often equal
to 1,000 kg/m at 4°C. In the case of gases, the corresponding reference density is
the density of the air for T = 293 K and = 101.3 KPa, which is = 1.205 kg/
m . As the relative density is a dimensionless quantity, it is advantageous for most
engineers, who thus prefer it to the density or specific weight. In Figure 1.3, various
relative densities of liquid mixtures are depicted.

1.9

H2SO4
1.8

1.7
Hbr
1.6

HNO3
1.5

1.4
H3PO4
Relative density

NaOH
K2CO3
1.3
Sugar
MgCl2
1.2 HCI
H2O2

1.1
NH4CI N2H4

1.0

0.9
NH3 C2H5OH

0.8

0.7
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
w/w%

Figure 1.3. Relative densities of liquid mixtures

 Fundamental Principles in Fluids 9

For non-homogeneous fluids, as some types of mixtures, the density definition

differs. The concentration in this case is not steady, and mass motion is produced
among various fluids’ points regardless of the fluidity. This process which is called
diffusion will be continued until a homogeneous mixture is formed. The
concentration and density are connected according to their definition. Concentration
A of a mixture component is defined as the mass per volume unit. The mass
concentration or the partial density is often used. The mixture density is equal to
the sum of the mass concentration of the components:

ρ = ρα + ρβ + ... + ρn = Σρn [1.10]

where are the densities of the n mixture components.

According to the data given, the mixture density can also be calculated
as follows:

m ρ1n1 + ρ 2 n2 + ... + ρi ni
ρ= = [1.11]
v n1 + n2 + ... + ni

where the symbols are defined as above.

Special density calculation is applied for the atmospheric air case, which
is a mixture of oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide and noble gases containing
water vapor simultaneously. The vapor precedence is not constant and depends on
the pressure and temperature conditions. In these cases, the density of the air is
given by:

pa
ρ0 = ρ l − 0,337ϕ [1.12]
p

where ρ is the density of the dry air, φ is the relative humidity, p is the pressure and
is the saturation pressure of water.

According to API gravity standards, the relative density of a fluid is defined as

the ratio of the fluid density to the density of water in 60℉. Moreover, according to
American Petroleum Institute standards, this ratio can be calculated based on the
value of API gravity (API) as follows:

141.5
RD (60) = . [1.13]
131.5 + API
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
utensils behind my back, whilst we were sitting and eating together,
and carried them to the ships. They said afterwards that the Shilluks
must have left these things lying in their houses for us to take them.
On this excuse, I remembered what the Bedouins (Beduàn, sing.
Bedaùi) did, when Mohammed Ali forbade them to take tribute from
the pilgrims travelling to Jerusalem and Mecca; they forced the
pilgrims to drop upon the ground as much money as they thought
sufficient, and then, pretending to find it after the caravan had
passed, took possession of it.
Besides some pretty platted mats, we found here larger and more
beautiful clay vessels, in the form of the Burma, than in Sennaar.
They were extraordinarily light, and of a black colour, for the slimy
clay there, piled up in strata, and kneaded together into balls, as
thick as the fist, displayed a dark colour, and must undergo an
excessive cleansing before being used for that purpose. As there are
no stones here, between which meal can be ground, they make use
of a murhàka of clay, a plate three or four fingers thick, blunted at the
four corners, having a rough, solid crust, and on which they grind
their corn off hand with an artificial stone. In the land of Sudan they
use for a murhàka a block of granite, presenting above a flat surface,
so that the corn poured on it, by handfuls, rolls off neither to the right
nor to the left. A female slave kneeling triturates the corn to a meal,
with an oval stone, which she holds in both hands. From the sloping
position of the granite block, this meal runs off, and is received in a
piece of leather or cloth, laid under this simple mill. I saw a Murhàka
of this form in the Museum at Berlin. These last-mentioned stones
are found on the Island of Rügen, and have a hole in the middle,
owing to the continual rubbing, exactly as we see in Inner Africa.
This grinding is a very troublesome process, and the arms of the
poor creatures condemned to it acquire an unusual form.
As bread is the mainstay in these lands, in the form of flat cakes,
often as fine and thin as wafers, a slave can only make meal for
eight persons, if she works from morning to evening; and this is even
taken as a standard. Besides that murhàka of clay, which is mixed
with slime and roots, although the pure blue clay lies at a small
depth, I saw also large broken mortars in the earth, made of the very
same materials. In order to repair these, they make a hole in the
ground, smearing the inside with clayey thick slime, and light a fire in
it, when the mortars become as smooth and dark as if they were
made of cast iron. A pestle of hard wood is used to prepare an oil
from the simsin and garrua (ricinus).
We also found a large net used for the chase, with bells, made of
the fruit of the doum-palm, which is similar to that of the cocoa-tree.
They spread this net around the gazelles and antelopes, who, on
touching the meshes (made of the inner bark of trees) are frightened
at the clattering of the bells, and rush along it to the hostile ambush,
where they are killed with javelins. They have also another method
of seizing the gazelles and taking them alive. They know the foot-
prints of these animals, and what food, in the way of shrubs, is most
pleasing to them. Here the huntsmen lay under the dense foliage of
brushwood, large traps, which are covered round about to their
centre with small lanceolate flat bamboo plants, in such a manner
that an opening remains in the middle, where the points concentrate,
and this gives way on anything stepping on it, so that the animal is
caught by his leg in this prickly plate, and thereby being hindered
from escaping, is easily taken.
We found also some well-baked and polished pots, filled with
tobacco, the before-named rice of the Shilluks, and other seeds of
grasses. The strip of shore whereon we found ourselves was narrow,
and a few days previously had been deserted by the water; the lower
part of the tokuls not having suffered from it, because, even at high
water, there is but little current.
All up the country are grass swamps, with sunt-trees, and
between them some huts, which could not have been then inhabited.
Boats, with people in them, rowed here and there in the grass, to
watch us. On the right shore we remark five villages—the largest
might contain 200 houses. The bank of the river here is gently
elevated to about 10 feet, as is the case nearly always in the
direction of villages a little distant. Some of our soldiers, native
Shilluks, who were like slaves among the troops, have been sent out
to treat with the people.
The Sultan or Bando of the Shilluks, in the preceding year, on the
arrival of the first expedition, fearing a hostile invasion, collected
here several thousand men. On that occasion the Turks remained
two or three days, in order to come to terms with him; and he
presented them with cattle and sheep. We expect, therefore, now,
the arrival of the Bando, to whom a present of a red upper garment,
red cap (tarbùsh, in Turkish, fessi), and glass beads, has been sent.
A heavy boat, or rather a periagua, hollowed out from the trunk of a
tree, lies here. Thibaut, in his spiritual humour, wanted, or pretended
to want, dry wood, and ordered his servants to hew to pieces this
boat, which, perhaps, had been made half a year; but the sunt-wood
having become black from being in the water, was as strong as iron,
and defied all the efforts of the hatchet. A canoe of this kind is called
sürtuk.
7th December.—We have not yet seen the king of this great
nation, which may amount to 2,000,000 people, according to
Suliman Kashef’s declaration, if it be true, that there are large gohrs
fed by the Nile in the interior, whereon the villages lie equally as
crowded as here on the main stream, who has not made his
appearance. He dwells, however, only two or three hours’ distance
from the river; and we hear throughout the night the large war-drums
(Nogàra) beating in our neighbourhood—a proof that they mistrust
us. I am also persuaded that if Suliman Kashef had once got the
dreaded Bando of the Shilluks on board, he would have certainly
sailed away with him. I read this in his countenance when he
received the intelligence that the Bando would not appear. Willingly
as I would have seen this negro king, yet I rejoiced at his not coming
for this shameful treachery to be practised upon him. Besides, he
had also no cause to welcome the Muslims, these sworn enemies of
his people; for, shortly before our departure for the white stream, he
had sent three ambassadors to Khartùm, to place himself on a
friendly footing with the Turks, and thus to check the marauding
expeditions of his Arab neighbours, in which Kurshid Basha and
Suliman Kashef had played a principal part. These three Shilluks,
who were masters of the Arabic language, were treated in the divan
with the usual contempt, as “Abit,” and were handed over to the
Sheikh el Beled of Khartùm, to be entertained as common men. This
Sheikh, who, receiving no pay, and having to bear the burden of
everything, performs the duties of his office more from fear than for
the honour, regaled these imperial messengers so magnificently that
they came to us Franks, and begged some girsh (piasters) for bread
and merissa. To procure them a better reception in the divàn, I
represented to Abdalla Effèndi that he would by such treatment draw
upon him the anger of the Basha, who was absent in Taka. He really
would have presented them on the next day with dresses of honour,
but they went away by stealth on the same evening. Now, I heard
privately, through my servants, from our messengers to the Shilluks,
that the Bando accepted, indeed, the garments, but abused the
donors, and said that he would receive and welcome his equals,
such as Mohammed Ali, and not his slaves.
I had not seen the baobàb-tree, which, as I learned in
conversation, was in the neighbourhood of our landing-place. This
gigantic tree, attaining a circumference of 60—nay, even of 120 feet,
as one is said to be, near Fàzogl, is called in the land of Sudàn
Homera, and its fruit Gungulés. So also the date-tree is called
Naghel, and its fruit Tammer, or Bellàgh.
Half an hour before sunrise this morning, we left the prodigious
sunt-trees, which had yesterday afforded us such excellent shade.
With a fresh north wind we sail S.W. by W., and make four miles.
The idea of enticing the king of the Shilluks by a new experiment,
was abandoned. On the level surface of the right side of the river we
observe ten pastoral villages, appearing to be surrounded with
enclosures (Seriba), as a protection against wild beasts. No villages
containing tokuls are seen; these are found further up the country, in
the Gallas, as our Dinkas tell me. In the land of the Shilluks twenty-
one villages shew themselves within an hour and a half. We pass by
twelve villages in an hour. On the contrary, we see only four in the
land of the Dinkas, on the opposite side. Eight o’clock, W.S.W., five
miles. The villages of the Shilluks are in a line, close to one another,
and form many pretty groups between the trees, whilst the huts of
the Dinkas cover monotonously the flat shore, upon which few or no
trees rise. I counted again, up to ten o’clock, fifteen villages, the last
of which was distinguished by its picturesque position and large
trees. Three baobàbs stand before the hut, which extend in two
groups upon a gently curved neck of land, with their small cupola
roofs. One of these trees is dead; the second a ruin; the third, as well
as a fourth, in the upper part of the village, is in a living-dead state,
for it has only a few leaves. This is the already known African giant-
tree (Adansonia digitata).
One of the things especially giving a beautiful effect to the
landscape, besides the doum-palms, protruding over the mimosas, is
the aspiring slender Dhelleb-palm. It has a stem like that of the date-
tree, which swells somewhat in the middle, and decreases towards
the top. In the inlets, from whence these picturesque necks of land
project into the stream, I perceived, to the left side of the shore,
villages in all directions, forming a magnificent whole, whilst the right
shore was bare, and at this time had only two villages to shew. The
river forms its grass-islands, as before, and the villages unfortunately
retreat to the old line of the shore from east to south; whilst we, with
a brisk north wind, sail W.S.W. six miles. Half an hour beyond, the
villages, green, marshy meadow-land, up to the old shore, appearing
to denote the forest, to which the Nile approaches in an extensive
curve, and forms near us, on the right, a grassy river pasture. I
should like to see a map, accurately marking these creeks,
subordinate arms, and natural canals, extending into the country,
with the proximity and distance of the villages from the shore.
Whilst we approach the forest on the left bank, we observe
several crocodiles before us, who are not alarmed at the rustling of
our ships through the water. At half-past ten I stand on deck, and
count again seventeen new villages of the Shilluks. It is very certain
that the bay before alluded to spreads to nearly an hour’s breadth in
the left shore. At eleven o’clock I see, on this side, an unlimited
thriving grass plain, extending on a level with the water, at the most
distant point of which a city is seen, said to be about three hours
distant. The verdure shews that the river overflows the whole
country; therefore it may be possible for individual families, during
the inundation, to remain in the tokuls, lying close to the river,
because they are always somewhat elevated, and the water can
spread itself over a place of such a nature, but cannot ascend to any
height.
On every side rise dhellèb-palms, but most of the villages are
without them, and generally without trees at all. It seems
inconceivable that none should be planted, for their shade is so
extremely grateful in this climate. The natives always take the
nearest trees, for the building materials of their tokuls, and never
reflect that they may be sorry for this when the sun ascends the
horizon. In their most pressing necessities they only provide for the
moment, and therefore may not be inclined to plant for the future, or
for their children. Immediately after eleven o’clock we sail close to
the right shore, where two villages lie on yellow bare elevated
downs; they are distinguished from those of the Shilluks by pointed
roofs and a slovenly construction. Near the upper miserable Dinka
city, where the lower walls of the tokuls are not even plastered, nine
dhellèb-palms are found; eight stand together, and afford a beautiful
sight. Four of these bear fruit; the others are male trees. The
horizon, towards the left shore is covered with sixteen villages, and
again we have a beautiful group of dhellèb-palms, mimosas, and
baobàbs. The dhellèb, as far as it was known to the Ethiopians of
Meroë, might have given the form to the pillars swelling in the
middle; otherwise such columns appear to be contrary to nature; but
we also find the same form in the Ambak.
About twelve o’clock we see, on the right side of the river, six
ostriches walking about. This sight Suliman Kashef cannot
withstand. We go ashore therefore, but the ostriches do not seem to
trust us strangers: they stride up the country, and run away, directly
the first shot sounds in their ears. The shore here gently rises from
ten to twelve feet; and the hill, which might once have counted many
huts where now only a few cabins are seen, rose some six feet
higher. Behind it, the whole surface of the earth falls away, and the
Nile is seen at a distance flowing near other Dinka villages, and
ending in a narrow channel, deep in the land. A number of potsherds
lay around; and those small heights I had taken at a distance for ant-
hills, as these had often come before me in the Taka country, were
hills of ashes. The Dinkas, who here chiefly lead a pastoral life,
make on these hills their fires, and raking away the warm ashes, and
collecting them in a circular form, lie down and sleep upon them, on
account of the damp nights, for they go naked like the Shilluks. The
cattle also are tied to stakes, in a circle around these hills of ashes.
Now I could explain the livid colour of the people; for no religious
custom enjoins the strewing of ashes on the body; and washing is
not one of their practices, as is only too plainly remarked by the
slaves coming from thence.
Opposite to us lay seven villages of the Shilluks. We had seen, at
an earlier period, several of those Sürtuks (boats) erected within the
shade of trees, in the country of the Shilluks; but here they are of an
unusual length, and seem to be made of the dhellàb-palm. In the
afternoon, level land abounded on all sides. We again approached
the left shore. The stream flows in a picturesque semicircle before a
beautiful pasture-ground, upon which are found doum and dhellèb-
palms, mimosas, and other trees, forming a strong contrast to the
blue sky. Between them eight villages are scattered, at which several
people have collected under the protecting shade of two baobàbs,
and gaze at us with astonishment. The Haba, or forest, either loses
itself here, or extends beyond the horizon. Opposite, only one
village, containing tokuls, with more pointed roofs, lies upon the arid
ground; and a small river there seems to flow into the great stream, if
it be not itself an arm of the river, having a considerable fall. We sail
S.W., and make three miles whilst the river has the rapidity of one
mile. On the right shore merely a doum-palm rises here and there
from the immeasurable plain, whose low grey circumference,
untouched by water, can scarcely be seen on account of the
distance. At three o’clock five villages, in a low country, rich in palms;
on the right shore, in front, only one village is to be seen, and the
horizon before us is closed by nine villages. About four o’clock
S.S.W.; on the left all flat to the forest, which again approaches
nearer in an extensive sweep, but consists only of bad trees and
underwood.
It is five o’clock, and we sail S.W. to the mouth of a river coming
from Habesh, and on that account called Bahr el Makada. We halt,
and Selim Capitan and our engineers ascertain the latitude, in order
to determine the mouth of this river, which may be here five hundred
paces broad. It has six fathoms in depth, and two miles in rapidity;
whilst the Nile has only three fathoms in depth, and half a mile in
velocity. It is said to come from the east, but that remains to be
proved on our return voyage. The Arabic name of the river is Sobàt,
though we hear it called also Sibàt and Subàt. Downs rise before
and on it, from whence we perceive, at the setting sun, eleven
villages between doum-palms, on the right shore of the White
Stream, which, dividing here far and wide into several arms, raises a
doubt which we shall choose to-morrow. The river Sobàt forms the
limits of the country of the Dinkas.
The nation of the Nuèhrs begins on its left shore, and dwells up
the Nile from hence—the Shilluks still continuing on the left shore.
We learn from our negroes that the Sobàt is called Tah by the
Dinkas, who give the name of Kir to the white stream, and Tilfi by the
Shilluks dwelling opposite. It disembogues itself under 9° 11′ north
latitude. When I returned to the vessel from my excursion, at sunset,
I had an attack of fever, which is very inconvenient for me here on
the white river. We chose our anchorage far from the shore, in a kind
of lake; therefore the fires or torches of the Shilluks in the grass,
flickering here and there, might keep the crew awake, but could not
frighten them. The continual drumming must indeed have destroyed
the illusion of the Shilluks, that they could swim to us, or surprise us
with their canoes whilst we were sleeping.
 CHAPTER VI.
ANT-HILLS. — TRIBE OF THE NUÈHRS. — THE JENGÄHS. — KAWASS OR
SERJEANT MÁRIAN FROM MOUNT HABILA. — DESCRIPTION OF HIM. —
TOKULS OF THE JENGÄHS. — FIRST APPEARANCE OF GAZELLES. —
THE RIVER N’JIN-N’JIN. — WORSHIP OF TREES. — THE GALLAS OR
STEPPES. — BLACK COLOUR OF THE RIVER. — NEW SPECIES OF
PLANTS. — THE BITTERN AND IBIS. —“BAUDA” OR GNATS: THEIR
DREADFUL STING. — LIEUT. ABD-ELLIÀB’S CRUELTY TO HIS FEMALE
SLAVE. — THE TOKRURI OR PILGRIM. — CURIOUS SUPERSTITION WITH
REGARD TO THESE MEN. — MOUNTAIN CHAIN OF NUBA. — PAPYRUS
ANTIQUUS OR GIGANTIC RUSH. — GAZELLE RIVER. — DEAD FISH. —
DIFFERENT SPECIES OF SNAKES. — ARABIC SONGS AND FESTIVITY ON
BOARD. — JENGÄHS SUPPOSED TO BE WORSHIPPERS OF THE MOON:
THEIR MANNER OF TATOOING. — STRIFE BETWEEN THE SOLDIERS AND
SAILORS. — ANTIPATHY OF THE FRENCH ENGINEERS TO EACH OTHER.
— LOCUSTS. — TORMENT OF THE GNATS: THEIR VARIOUS SPECIES. —
BARBARITY OF THE TURKS ON THE FORMER EXPEDITION. —
MARVELLOUS STORIES OF THE ARABS. — HATRED OF THE NATIVES TO
THE TURKS.

8th December.—At day-break we proceed towards S.W. with

north-west wind; three miles. At nine o’clock N.N.W. We see from the
deck sixteen villages on the left shore; on the right, close to the
border of the river, a number of little hills, overgrown with sward, and
therefore, perhaps, formerly strongholds of ants, like those
characteristic hills of ashes, which would seem to denote an ancient
pastoral station. Further inland are distinguished, on the ancient old
shore, up to which all is bare, two large villages. The stately palms
also on the right, appear now to lose themselves in the extensive
plain. We go N.W., and make five miles.
About ten o’clock, I surveyed on the right twenty-one villages, in
the country of the Shilluks, on a green plain, in which, with the
exception of some palms, there were no trees, and which took up the
whole horizon from W. to N.E. Ou the left hand, the neighbouring
right shore was nearly bare. Whilst we sail to N.W., two mountains,
the one in front appearing to be covered with wood, rise in the S.W.,
at a distance of three or four hours.
At half-past eleven o’clock, we go on shore to the left, in the
country of the Nuèhrs, to take in wood for ten or fourteen days, as it
is said that there are merely reeds further up. No sunt presented
itself here, but stunted geïlids and miserable ebony, which, however,
cannot be cut, owing to its hardness. On the left shore here, are the
boundaries of the Shilluks, and the Jengähs follow. An extensive
green meadow, with neither trees nor houses on it, separates these
two tribes.
The Kawass (serjeant) on board our vessel, gives me much
welcome information on the condition of this people. He is called
Màrian, from Mount Habila, and is the son of the murdered Mak, or
King of all the mountains of Nuba, a hundred and eighty in number,
according to him, and subject formerly to his father, who was slain by
the Turks. He was made a slave, and was obliged, as being such, to
change his name from Uadassa to that of Marian. He is of middle
height, has a regular black countenance, with vertical streaks on the
temples; on the forehead he is tattooed, and has ten holes at the
edge of each ear, from which the Turks have taken his gold rings. He
is a sensible and modest man; has been in the service thirteen
years, and understands it, but has not been able to gain promotion,
because he is entirely forgotten, and has no one to make the
necessary intercession for him: his young son, however, was
preserved at the time, and Marian’s uncle, who pays tribute to the
Turks, has appointed him his deputy. Marian perceives that his tribe
cannot do anything, even with the greatest bravery, against fire-
arms, and therefore does not wish to acquire his freedom again by
deserting. Besides this man, there are two Dinkas, a Shillkaui, and a
Jengäh, on board, though hitherto I have found it impossible to learn
the slightest thing from them about the manners and customs of their
country, because they consider that such information would be
treachery to their countrymen.
 At one o’clock, we got again under weigh towards S.W., and kept
more to the left side of the river. About half-past two o’clock, we saw
the first tokuls of the Jengähs, which are far more slovenly built than
those of the Shilluks; they stand a quarter of an hour distant from the
shore, near a single dhellèb palm: we landed near them. A sürtuk lay
there, forty feet long, with vertical sides and pointed ends; the stern
of the boat, although made of hard timber, is closed diagonally by a
piece of wood: it appeared to be hewn out of the trunk of a dhellèb
palm. A beautiful kind of mimosa, with thick foliage and yellowish red
flowers, like floss silk, struck me especially. The blue clay soil was
full of foot-prints of river buffaloes, several of whom shewed
themselves yesterday evening, and blew their sackbuts stoutly.
We saw also this morning, for the first time, two giraffes, called,
however, Saràff, and said to be very abundant here. As there was
nothing to be gained, and no people shewed themselves, we left the
place. Soon afterwards we saw a village on the same side, with
some dhellèb and doum palms; near it a river, running from N.W. by
W., flows into the white stream, which, however, was taken for an
arm of the latter. I subsequently ascertained from our Jengäh Bachit,
that the name of this little river is N’jin-N’jin, and goes far in his
country towards W. He called the white stream Kih, and afterwards
Kidi. The sounds in their language are really inarticulate, and they
can hardly pronounce an Arabic word so sharply as our characters
require.
Up to five o’clock, we had on the right shore, before which a
green margin lies in the water, thirty-four villages of the Nuèhrs, each
containing from twenty to a hundred and more tokuls. Only a few of
these enjoy the shade of trees. I believe it to be certain, that where
Nature has once planted propitiously a shoot, and this shoot, by its
growth, has triumphed over the voracity of beasts, and the
wantonness of man, or stood beyond the reach of their necessities,
the tree may easily become an object of veneration to people living
in a state of nature, owing to the shade it affords to meetings in the
open air.
 We sail continually N.W., with slight deviations to one side or the
other. We advance three miles, an arm of the Nile scarcely 200
paces broad. There is said to be a larger arm on the left side, as
appears also to be the case on the right, where we saw a man take
his little canoe on his head, and carry it to the houses near at hand.
The right shore has here no habitations of the Nuèhrs; beyond the
river’s edge, and also behind the houses the Galla, or Steppe, is
visible. The before-named mountains on the right shore, the larger
one of which is almost covered with masses of rock, appearing at a
distance like large trees, and behind which three smaller curly heads
follow, have vanished towards the south. We sail N.W. by W., and
another considerable mountain appears on the flat grassy scene
towards N.W., whilst we anchor, at sunset, in the middle of the river.
Our Bakhi (who was taken prisoner from Bakhara, and was
previously called Denn) did not know the name of the hilly ridge lying
in the mountainous country of the Jengähs. The N’jin-N’jin, however,
which he also calls Kih, meaning the same as river, or water, is said
to flow past the foot of high mountains. I was told that when the reed-
grass, standing from three to six feet above the water, and becoming
very dry from the sun, soon after the inundation has run off, although
the roots may be still under water, is ignited, a young and tender
grass springs forth, of which cattle are said to be very fond.
The white stream here, and indeed since yesterday, might be
really called the Black River. The latter colour arises partly from the
Thin, that heavy clayey morass with which the bed of the river is
covered, instead of floating sandy particles; and partly also from the
dark kind of moss, that we see among the reeds, continuing to the
bottom of the river, for the current (amounting here to less than half a
mile), is not able to keep its course clear. This long marshy lake, of
some two hours in breadth, discloses a new world of plants, in
various high grasses and bog-shrubs. The swarms of little birds
seem to find their nourishment in the ripening seeds. I remarked two
bitterns, having the greatest resemblance to our water-hens—silver-
grey, with a white wing: and also the black Ibis. The small detached
islands, linked together by marsh-plants, floated only very slowly,
although the contrary wind had quite subsided.
9th December.—The latitude, yesterday evening, was 9° 4′. The
river, or Kih N’jin-N’jin, would therefore disembogue itself between 9°
12′ and 9° 4′. Our Gohr, as it pleased them to call the arm of the Nile,
which we navigated yesterday evening, and which was scarcely fifty
paces broad, has increased this morning to 100 and 150 paces in
breadth, ever according to the caprice of the reed-grass,
predominant here, and impudently intruding itself, for the stream has
scarcely anything to do with it. A very strong dew hung on the grass
in large pearly drops, very refreshing to the eye at sunrise. The
thermometer shewed 20° heat. The distant shore of this marshy lake
was denoted by isolated trees and a few small villages. We were
obliged to take again to the oars, as on yesterday evening, and went
N.W.
A dreadful pest has made its appearance in these lakes. “Baùda”
is the horrible name, and means nothing else than gnats, which,
when a calm sets in, make the people, and especially the half-naked
sailors, nearly mad. On the right side of the Nile we perceive no
human habitations. The nation of the Nuèhrs is said, thus far, to
dwell more towards the interior, on the left shore of the Sobàt, and
may therefore keep at a distance these frightful swarms of gnats,
that torment man and beast. On the left bank we saw, at an hour’s
distance beyond the reed-lake, eleven small villages; yet the nation
of the Jenjähs is said to be very numerous, and to inhabit the shores
of their N’jin-N’jin in populous villages, situated on inaccessible
mountains. At nine o’clock we sailed, with a tolerably favourable east
wind, W. by S., and made three miles, whilst the rapidity of the
current might have been about a mile. Clouds had collected in the
sky, and we feared rain, to which the Egyptian inhabitants of the Nile
are so sensitive.
At eleven o’clock the S.E. wind set in, when we went due N.W.
The river, which has, up to this place, a breadth of from four to five
hundred paces, widens again to about an hour’s breadth. A marshy
swamp, however, soon again intrudes: its pointed angle springs from
the right shore, so that the latter can be only an hour distant, even to
the trees over the green grass-land, whilst the left shore, on the
contrary, has retreated this hour and a half into an immeasurable
bay, the limits of which cannot be reached by the eye, even from the
mast. That we should not remark any villages in the vicinity of this
marshy land, is naturally to be expected.
The right shore becomes wooded, and we see, everywhere,
rising pillars of smoke, said to be signals, as the natives can discern
our vessels from thence. At 1 o’clock, the right shore, on the
foreground of which groups of ambaks rise, is about two hours’
distant. We noticed numerous morass birds collected on this wide
plain. This marsh-tree, towards the left side of the shore, appears to
delude us in the same manner, since it assumes the form of groups
of trees, belonging, at other times, to firm ground. A new morass-
plant, rising to a great height, with large corollas, similar to a tuft of
reeds, elevates, here and there, its long bare stalks. Its external
appearance indicates it, even from afar, to be the papyrus
antiquorum.
We go W.S.W., and a little before two o’clock W.N.W. One of the
vessels chose another road to the left of us, and is separated an
hour’s distance from us by the grass. About two o’clock, every tree
(being the sign of firm ground) on the left also vanishes, and we see,
therefore, nothing but the sky and grass sea, surrounded or
intersected by the arms of the Nile. We sail N.W. with two miles and
a half rapidity of current, and probably in the larger central arm,
although it is scarcely four hundred paces broad. We conjecture that
the main stream is to the right side of the shore, from whence the
vessel before mentioned has returned, fearing to lose us altogether
from the horizon.
My servants had given some durra to the female slave of our first
lieutenant, Abd-Elliab, to prepare merissa from, of which drink the
rest of the crew partook. The Paradise-Stormer,—formerly, according
to his own confession, a staunch toper,—had no sooner learned that
his slave had set to make this liquor, than he ordered this
unfortunate creature, who was kneeling just before the murhàka, and
grinding the corn, so that the perspiration was pouring off in streams
from the bared upper part of her body, to remain quiet where she
was: whereupon she crossed her arms over her naked breast. At the
very same moment he drew forth the kurbàsh from under his
angereb, and swinging it backwards and forwards, brought it down
with fearful violence upon her back. As he did not attend to my call
from the cabin, but struck so furiously that her skin broke and blood
poured down in streams, I jumped out and pulled him backwards by
his angereb, so that his legs flew in the air. However, he sprang up
again immediately, bounded to the side of the ship, and shouted,
with a menacing countenance, “Effendi,” instead of calling me
“Kawagi,” which is the usual title for a Frank and a merchant. I had
scarcely, however, returned to my cabin, ere he seized his slave
again to throw her overboard. I immediately caught up my double-
barrel, stood in the doorway, and called out “Ana oedrup” (I’ll fire),
whereupon he let her go, and said, with a pallid countenance, that
she was his property and he could do as he liked with her. He at last
suppressed his anger, when I explained to him that his own head as
well as all his Harim, belonged to the Basha. Subsequently he
ventured to complain of me to the commandant, who, knowing his
malignant and hypocritical character, removed him to the little
sandal, to the great delight of the whole crew. On our return to
Khartùm he was cringing enough to want to kiss my hand and ask
my pardon, (although he had become a captain in the Basha’s
guard), because the Basha distinguished me.
A few days previously I had had an opportunity of gaining the
affection and confidence of our black soldiers. One of them, a Tokruri
or pilgrim from Darfùr had, in a quarrel with an Arab, drawn his knife
and wounded him. He jumped overboard to drown himself, for he
could not swim, and was just on the point of perishing when he
drifted to our ship, where Feïzulla-Capitan no sooner perceived him
than he sprang down from behind the helm and saved him, with the
assistance of others. He was taken up and appeared nearly dead,
and on intelligence being conveyed from the other vessels that he
had murdered a Muslim, some of our people wished to throw him
again immediately into the water. This, however, being prevented,
they thought of making an attempt to resuscitate him, by standing
him up on his head. I had him laid horizontally upon his side, and
began to rub him with an old ferda belonging to one of my servants.
For the moment no one would assist me, as he was an “Abit,” until I
threatened the Captain that he should be made to pay the Basha for
the loss of his soldiers. After repeated rubbing, the tokruri gave some
signs of life, and they raised him half up, whilst his head still hung
down. One of the sailors, who as a faki, pretended to be a sort of
awakener of the dead, seized him from behind, under the arms, lifted
him up a little, and let him, when he was brought into a sitting
posture, fall thrice violently on his hinder end, whilst he repeated
passages from the Koràn, and shouted in his ears, whereupon the
tokruri answered with a similar prayer. Superstition goes so far here,
that it is asserted such a pilgrim may be completely and thoroughly
drowned, and yet retain the power of floating to any shore he
pleases, and stand there alive again.
On the right we noticed N.W. by W., at a great distance, a
considerable chain of mountains, to all appearance, over the
invisible left shore. According to Selim-Capitan’s declaration this
must be called Tickem. The crew even think that it is either the Tekeli
or the Tira, which, however, is impossible, as we have long ago left
them behind in the North. Both mountains are well known by our
Kawass Màrian, and belong indeed to the mountain chain of Nuba.
This mountain, however, is called, according to Màrian, Morre, and
its high rocks are inhabited by a valiant, pagan, Negro race; they lie
beyond the Nuba chain, and far isolated from it. Màrian had more
than once travelled through the country, and had also been into
these parts, when Sultan Fadl fled to them from Kordofàn, on the
invasion of the Turks. Half-past three o’clock, W.N.W. Still in the
grass-sea. We halted at sun-set, where the arm of the Nile goes
from E. to W. The far distant and scarcely visible mountain lies now
to the N. of us, and appears to be nearly twenty hours’ distant; this
agrees with Màrian’s statement. Neither land nor tree to be seen,
even from the mast; but back on the right shore, large clouds of
smoke, which we have seen in many places throughout the day, and
which I rather take to be signal-fires, than kindled for the purpose of
driving away the gnats that first make their appearance towards
evening.
10th December.—A dead calm throughout the night. Gnats!!! No
use creeping under the bedclothes, where the heat threatens to stifle
me, compelled as I am, by their penetrating sting, to keep my clothes
on. Leave only a hole to breathe at; in they rush, on the lips, into the
nostrils and ears, and should one yawn, they squeeze themselves
into the throat, and tickle us to coughing, causing us to suffer real
torture, for with every respiration again a fresh swarm enters. They
find their way to the most sensitive parts, creeping in like ants at
every aperture. My bed was covered in the morning with thousands
of these little tormenting spirits—compared with which the Egyptian
plague is nothing—which I had crushed to death with the weight of
my body, by continually rolling about.
As I had forgotten to take with me from Khartùm a mosquito-net,
or gauze bed-curtains, for which I had no use there on account of the
heat, to keep off these tormentors, there was nothing for it but
submission. Neither had I thought of leather gloves, unbearable in
the hot climate here, but which would have been at this moment of
essential advantage, for I was not only obliged to have a servant
before me at supper-time, waving a large fan, made of ostrich-
feathers, under my nose, so that it was necessary to watch the time
for seizing and conveying the food to my mouth, but I could not even
smoke my pipe in peace, though keeping my hands wrapt in my
woollen Burnus, for the gnats not only stung through it, but even
crept up under it from the ground. The blacks and coloured men
were equally ill-treated by these hungry and impudent guests; and all
night long might be heard the word “Bauda,” furious abuse against
them, and flappings of ferdas to keep them off; but in spite of this,
the face and body were as if bestudded, and swollen up with boils.
The Baudas resemble our long-legged gnats, although their
proboscis, with which they bore through a triple fold of strong linen,
appears to me longer. Their head is blue; the back dun-coloured,
and their legs are covered with white specks, like small pearls.
Another kind has shorter and stronger legs, a thicker body, of a
brown-colour, with a red head and iris-hued posteriors.
The crew are quite wearied from sleepless nights, and rowing
must be given up if the calm continues, although we find ourselves in
a canal whose water propels us so little that we do not cast anchor.
Here I got a specimen of the gigantic rush (papyrus antiquus) before
mentioned. The stalk is prismatic, somewhat rounded, however, on
one side; it runs in a conical form, to the length of from ten to twelve
feet, and bears on the top a corolla like a tuft of reeds, the ray-
formed edges of which branch out, and are more than a span long:
the greatest thickness of the stem is one inch and a half, and never
less than half an inch thick, and under the green rind there is a
strong pith. Subsequently, however, I saw this papyrus, which our
Arabs were not acquainted with, from fifteen to twenty feet long, and
two inches thick, so that the longer reeds on the top shot forth from
their little clusters of flowers and seeds, five to six new spikes, the
length of a span. The Ambak was known to the old Egyptians; there
is no doubt, therefore, that it, as well as this rush, was split, glued to
one another, and used for a writing material, because it afforded the
advantage of a greater extent of surface.
We row again a little, and wait till ten o’clock for Hüssein Aga’s
clumsy kaiàss, although a slight N.E. wind has set in. We then sail
N.W. and make two miles and a half. At three o’clock we go W.S.W.
slowly into the great lake, wherein the Gazelle river (Bahr el Gasáll)
disembogues itself. This river is said to flow here from the country of
the Magrabis (Berbers), as some soldiers affirmed, who had served
under Mustapha Bey, and pretended to have pressed forward to its
shores. Touching this lake and the river, the name of which we could
not learn, for its borders are entirely covered with reeds, and
therefore cannot be inhabited, the declaration of the soldiers was
only a confirmation of what Mustapha Bey told me in Khartùm. On
account of the dead calm, we halt on the right reedy shore of the
stream, in the lake itself, beyond which we do not yet distinguish
land, any more than to the left. Over a yellowish tract, there, which
the water may have left, like an island, green grass and the
ascending smoke, announcing human life, shew themselves again
and denote a firm shore. The lake may be from eighteen to twenty
sea miles square.
In the evening, the smoke appeared like long-extended peculiar
fireworks, rising equally high; and there was no doubt that this was
ignited high grass, a sight which, from Sennaar to this place, was no
longer new to me. The Gazelle river glimmered far beyond, the
grasses impeding its mouth; and I distinguished plainly, from the
elevated poop, that it emptied itself into two arms, S.W. by W. and
S.W., forming a delta, obtuse at the top. My servant, who was at the
mast-head, confirmed me in the opinion of this more extensive
direction, by stretching out his arm to that region.
Dead fish, of the species called garmùt (Heterobranchus,
bidorsalis Geoff.), real monsters in size, had already previously
floated towards us; they were said to have been harpooned by the
inhabitants of the shore, as very probably was the case. Our angling,
however, procured us few or no fish. It was not so much the north
wind, as the abundance of food brought by the inundation, that kept
them away from our bait.
We had already seen and caught several snakes, and twice I saw
how this reptile let itself be carried by the stream, coiling itself up and
holding its head above water. Here a small blackish snake appeared,
before which we threw a piece of wood, when it became irritated,
and drove repeatedly against our vessel, although we thrust at it with
poles. The first-named were mostly those I had already seen and
made a collection of in Taka—the Naja Haje (Coluber Haje Hasslq.)
Vipera Cerastes Daud, Python Subae, &c. The large snakes were
generally called Assala, and the small ones sometimes Hannesh and
Debib, and sometimes Dabàhn. It is only the viper that has the name
of Haigi among these people as its peculiar one. We had seen here
and there in these marshes serpents which might be described as
equal in bulk to a moderate tree. I had in Taka heard a similar
comparison from Sheikhs whose word could be relied on; and also
that the snakes were of such a size that they could easily carry a
man from his angereb, and swallow him very comfortably.
I remarked in the reeds many ant-hills, such as are seen in Taka;
they were eight to ten feet high, but whether inhabited or not I cannot
say. If they were so, their height might be explained by the
supposition that the insects sought to protect themselves in their
upper cells from the high water; that is, if the Nile did not formerly
make another bend here, so as not to overflow this marsh-land.
Besides, I had already had the opportunity of observing these
termites and their ingenious strongholds, whereby I convinced
myself that they are not very much afraid of the water; but, on the
contrary, they descend deep into the earth, to fetch up damp soil, in
order to give a smooth surface to the apparent labyrinth of their cells,
which, in the lower part of their habitations, are as thick as one’s fist.
These little whitish insects are also themselves full of water, and
burst as soon as they are touched. These ants are called arda. They
will perforate in one night, from the bottom to the top, a trunk filled
with clothes, if it is not placed upon a stone; for they dread daylight,
and are afraid to climb up stones on the earth.
Owing to the ants, we, towards evening, left the shore, and
anchored in the middle of the lake, which has a greater breadth in
the direction of the west, and where only a few ants shewed
themselves, and these, from the weight of the blood they had sucked
in, were not able to fly away from the reeds, and had stuck to the
ship. We remarked also a great number of glowworms among the
reeds. Suliman Kashef sent me the sandal, and I repaired with
Feïzulla Capitan to him.
Every one was overjoyed at escaping from the gnats. The sailors
swam here and there, but desisted from this vocation when
crocodiles appeared in our neighbourhood. There was mad shouting
and singing, and the Hippopotami appeared indignant at this noise,
for they bellowed in opposition on all sides. Suliman Kashef ordered
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