VLSI Design

AAT – II
1.Discover the various forms of pull-ups with circuit
diagram and characteristics?
Pull-up Resistors
Pull-up resistors are essential components in digital circuits,
ensuring a defined logic level at an input pin when it's not
actively driven. This prevents the input from floating, which
can lead to unpredictable behavior.

Types of Pull-up Resistors:

Passive Pull-up: A simple resistor connects the input
pin to the power supply voltage (Vdd). When there's
no active input, the resistor pulls the voltage high.
Active Pull-up: A transistor, typically a MOSFET, is
used to actively pull the input high. This provides
faster switching speeds and can be more power-
efficient.
Factors Affecting Pull-up Resistor Selection:
 Input Leakage Current: A higher resistance value can
be used for low-leakage inputs to minimize power
consumption.
Noise Immunity: A lower resistance value can
improve noise immunity by providing a stronger pull-
up signal.
Switching Speed: A lower resistance value can
reduce the rise time of the input signal, improving
switching speed.
Power Consumption: Higher resistance values
consume less power but may compromise
performance.
2.Elaborate the effect of substrate bias voltage on
threshold voltage for n-MOSFET enhancement transistor.
In an n-MOSFET, the threshold voltage (Vt) is the minimum
gate-to-source voltage required to turn the transistor on.
The substrate bias voltage (Vsb) significantly influences Vt:
Increasing Vsb: As Vsb increases, the depletion region
around the channel widens, making it harder for the gate
voltage to induce an inversion layer. This results in a higher
Vt, requiring a larger gate voltage to turn the transistor on.
Decreasing Vsb: Decreasing Vsb narrows the depletion
region, making it easier to form an inversion layer. This
leads to a lower Vt, allowing the transistor to turn on with a
smaller gate voltage.
The effect of Vsb on Vt is crucial in circuit design, as it can
be used to adjust the transistor's characteristics and
optimize circuit performance.

3.List design rules for wires, n-diffusion, p-diffusion and

metals.
Design rules are a set of guidelines that must be followed
during the layout design of integrated circuits to ensure
proper functionality and manufacturability. These rules
specify minimum dimensions, spacing, and overlap
requirements for different layers, such as metal, polysilicon,
and diffusion.
Key Design Rules:
Minimum Feature Size: Defines the smallest
allowable width and spacing for different layers.
Spacing Rules: Specifies the minimum distance
between features on the same layer to prevent short
circuits.
Overlap Rules: Defines the minimum overlap
required between different layers to ensure proper
electrical connections.
Contact Size and Spacing: Specifies the minimum size
and spacing for contacts between different layers.
Via Size and Spacing: Defines the minimum size and
spacing for vias, which connect different metal layers.
Adhering to design rules is essential to achieve high-quality,
reliable, and manufacturable integrated circuits.
4.Describe the effect of scaling on channel resistance and
maximum operating frequency, Power dissipation per
gate.

Scaling refers to the process of reducing the physical

dimensions of transistors. As devices are scaled down,
several key characteristics are affected:
 Channel Resistance Decreases: Reducing the channel
length and width lowers the resistance, leading to
improved device performance and higher switching
speeds.
 Maximum Operating Frequency Increases: Smaller
devices can switch faster, allowing for higher operating
frequencies.
 Power Dissipation per Gate Decreases: Scaling reduces
the capacitance of the gate, lowering the power
consumption.
 Short-Channel Effects: As devices are scaled down,
short-channel effects become more pronounced, which
can degrade device performance and increase leakage
current.
 Quantum Mechanical Effects: At very small dimensions,
quantum mechanical effects can become significant,
affecting device behavior.
Scaling has been a major driver of the semiconductor
industry, enabling the development of increasingly
powerful and energy-efficient devices. However, as devices
approach the limits of scaling, new challenges and
innovative solutions are required to continue the trend of
miniaturization.
6.Explain various reliability issues in CMOS VLSI using
bathtub curve.

The bathtub curve is widely used in reliability engineering

to represent the failure rate of CMOS VLSI circuits over
time. It consists of three phases: infant mortality, constant
failure rate, and wear-out phase. Each phase highlights
specific reliability issues, as explained below:
1. Infant Mortality Phase (Early Life)
 Failure Characteristics: High initial failure rate due to
manufacturing defects, design flaws, or material
inconsistencies.
 Reliability Issues:
 o Process Variations: Deviations during fabrication can
cause early failures.
o Defective Transistors: Issues like improper doping or
gate oxide thickness variations.
 Mitigation: Burn-in testing is performed to detect and
eliminate defective components.
2. Constant Failure Rate Phase (Useful Life)
 Failure Characteristics: Stable, low failure rate during
normal operation. Failures are random and typically
due to external environmental factors.
 Reliability Issues:
o Soft Errors: Caused by cosmic rays or radiation, leading
to transient faults in memory or logic circuits.
o Electromagnetic Interference (EMI): External noise can
disrupt normal circuit operations.
 Mitigation: Error correction codes (ECC), shielding, and
robust designs.
3. Wear-Out Phase (End of Life)
 Failure Characteristics: Gradual increase in failure rate
as components degrade over time.
 Reliability Issues:
o Hot Carrier Injection (HCI): High-energy carriers
degrade transistor performance.
o Negative Bias Temperature Instability (NBTI): Causes
threshold voltage shifts in PMOS transistors.
o Time-Dependent Dielectric Breakdown (TDDB):
Gradual degradation of the gate oxide layer.
o Electromigration: Metal interconnects degrade due to
high current densities.
  Mitigation: Use of improved materials and design
rules to delay wear-out effects.
Summary of the Bathtub Curve:
1. Y-axis: Failure rate.
2. X-axis: Time.
3. Shape: High failure rates initially (infant mortality),
low and constant during useful life, and high again
during the wear-out phase.
Practical Importance in CMOS VLSI:
Ensuring reliability in CMOS VLSI design involves addressing
issues across all phases of the bathtub curve through
testing, robust design practices, and using fault-tolerant
techniques.

7.Outline 4-bit synchronous Up-Counter with T Flip-Flops.

 T Flip-Flop:
o A fundamental building block in digital circuits.
o Toggles its output on the rising edge of the clock pulse if
the T input is 1.
o Remains unchanged if T is 0.
Design Steps:
1. Determine the Number of Flip-Flops:
o For a 4-bit counter, we need 4 flip-flops (FA, FB, FC, and
FD) to represent the 4 bits of the count.
2. Derive the Excitation Table:
o Create a table showing the present state (Q), next state
(Q+), and required T input for each flip-flop.
o Analyze the desired counting sequence (0000, 0001, 0010,
... 1111) to determine the T inputs.
3. Implement the Logic Circuit:
o Use AND gates to generate the required T inputs based on
the present state values.
o Connect the T inputs to the corresponding T flip-flops.
o Connect the clock signal to the clock input of all flip-flops.
Circuit Diagram:
4bit synchronous up counter using T flipflops
Explanation:
1. Flip-Flop A (LSB):
o T_A = 1 (always toggles on every clock pulse)
2. Flip-Flop B:
o T_B = Q_A (toggles only when Q_A is 1)
3. Flip-Flop C:
o T_C = Q_A AND Q_B (toggles only when both Q_A and
Q_B are 1)
4. Flip-Flop D (MSB):
o T_D = Q_A AND Q_B AND Q_C (toggles only when Q_A,
Q_B, and Q_C are all 1)
Operation:
1. Initial State:
o All flip-flops are reset to 0 (0000).
2. Clock Pulse 1:
o Only Flip-Flop A toggles, resulting in 0001.
3. Clock Pulse 2:
o Flip-Flops A and B toggle, resulting in 0010.
4. Subsequent Clock Pulses:
o The counter continues to increment, following the binary
sequence up to 1111.
o After 1111, the counter rolls over to 0000 on the next
clock pulse.
Key Points:
 Synchronous Operation: All flip-flops change state
simultaneously on the rising edge of the clock pulse.
 T Flip-Flop Simplicity: The T flip-flop's simple input
requirement makes it suitable for this design.
 Modular Design: The circuit can be easily extended to
more bits by adding more flip-flops and logic gates.
 Timing Considerations: Proper timing analysis is crucial to
ensure correct operation at high clock frequencies.
8.Compare 4 x 4 barrel shifter with normal shifter and
explain the operation.

Feature 4x4 Barrel Shifter Normal Shifter

Definition A digital circuit that A simple circuit
shifts data cyclically that shifts data
or logically in a left or right by
single clock cycle. one bit per clock
cycle.
Operation Shifts the input data Performs shifting
by a specified sequentially,
number of positions typically one bit
in a single cycle. per cycle.
Complexity More complex, uses Simpler, often
multiplexers and uses shift
combinational logic registers for serial
for parallel shifting. shifting.
Speed High-speed Slower, especially
operation due to for large shifts,
parallel architecture. due to serial
 nature.
Hardware Requires more logic Requires fewer
Requirements gates and gates and is
multiplexers for simpler in design.
parallel processing.
Flexibility Can perform left, Typically supports
right, logical, and only left and right
circular shifts. shifts.
Example Use High-performance Simple microcontrollers,
Cases processors, digital low-speed data
signal processing manipulation.
(DSP).
Operation of a 4x4 Barrel Shifter
A 4x4 barrel shifter can shift a 4-bit input (D[3:0]) by 0, 1, 2,
or 3 positions to the left or right. It achieves this through a
combination of multiplexers to select the desired output
based on the shift amount.
Block Diagram Explanation
1. Inputs:
o Data Lines: D[3:0] (4-bit data input).
o Control Lines: S[1:0] (2-bit control input to
specify the shift amount).
2. Outputs:
o Q[3:0] (4-bit output after shifting).
3. Logic:
o For each bit, a multiplexer selects the
appropriate input bit based on the shift
amount specified by S[1:0].
o Shifting left or right depends on control logic
for circular or logical operations.
o
 9.Define EX-NOR gate can be tested for S-A-T faults.
An EX-NOR gate (Exclusive-NOR) is a digital logic gate
that outputs 1 if both inputs are equal (either 00 or
11). The truth table is:

(A ⊙ B)
Input A Input B Output

0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

Stuck-at Faults (S-A-T): These are faults where a circuit

node is stuck at a constant 0 (S-A-0) or 1 (S-A-1),
irrespective of input.
Testing EX-NOR Gate for S-A-T Faults:
1. S-A-0 at Output: Apply (A = 1, B = 1) or (A = 0,
B = 0); if output remains 0, it indicates an S-A-0
fault.
2. S-A-1 at Output: Apply (A = 0, B = 1) or (A = 1,
B = 0); if output remains 1, it indicates an S-A-1
fault.
3. Input Faults:
o For A S-A-0: Test (A = 1, B = 0); if output
is 1 instead of 0, the fault exists.
o For B S-A-0: Test (A = 0, B = 1) similarly.
Properly designed test patterns ensure the gate's
correctness and fault isolation.

10. Implement 2 bit comparator using PROM, Draw the

truth table and implementation diagrams.
2-Bit Comparator Using PROM
A 2-bit comparator compares two 2-bit binary numbers, A
= (A1, A0) and B = (B1, B0), and outputs:
 GT (A > B)
 LT (A < B)
 EQ (A = B)

A A B B G L E
1 0 1 0 T T Q
0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 1 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 0 1
Implementation Using PROM:
A PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory) stores the
truth table outputs as a look-up table (LUT). Each address
corresponds to (A1, A0, B1, B0) inputs, and the stored value
determines (GT, LT, EQ) outputs.
Diagram for PROM Implementation:
 Inputs: A1, A0, B1, B0 (4 bits)
 Outputs: GT, LT, EQ (3 bits)
 PROM:
o Address lines: 4 (for 16 combinations)
o Data lines: 3 (to store outputs)
[Insert Logic Circuit Diagram here, with PROM connecting 4
inputs to 3 outputs.]
The PROM simplifies the comparator by reducing it to
memory-based lookups, ensuring fast and reliable
performance.