GREENBAUM, S. & R. QUIRK (1990). A Student's Grammar of the English Language.

126 Pronouns
London: Longman.

7
8 eight 8th eighth
9 nine 9th ninth Adjectives and adverbs
10 ten 10th tenth
I 1 eleven 11th eleventh
12 twelve 12th twelfth
13 thirteen 13th thirt«nth
14 fourteen 14th fourteenth
Adjectives
15 fifteen 15th fifteenth
16 sixteen 16th sixteenth
11 seventeen 17th seventeenth Characteristics of the adjective
18 eighteen 18th eighteenth
7.1 Four features are commonly considered to be characteristic of adjectives:
19 ninet«n 19th nineteenth
(a) They can freely occur in ATTRIBUTIVE function, ie they can premodify
20 twenty 20th twentieth
21 twenty-one
a noun, appearing between the determiner (including zero article) and
21 st twenty-first
22 twenty-two 22nd twenty-second
the head of a noun phrase:
23 twenty-three 23rd twenty-third an ugly painting, the round table, dirty linen
24 twenty-four (etc) 24th twenty-fourth (ete)
30 thirty 30th thirtieth (b) They can freely occur in PREDICATIVE function, ie they can function as
40 forty 40th fortieth subject complement, as in [I]. or as object complement, as in [2]. eg:
50 fifty 50th fiftieth
60 sixty 60th sixtieth
The painting is ugly, [1 J
10 seventy 70th seventieth He thought the painting ugly. [2J
80 eighty 80th eightieth
(c) They can be prernodified by the intensifier very, eg:
90 ninety 90th ninetieth
100 a/one hundred 100th hundredth The children are very happy.
120 a/one hundred and twenty 120th hundred and twentieth
1 ,000 a/one thousand I ,OOOth thousandth
(d) They can take COMPARATIVE and SUPERLATIVE forms. The comparison
1,500 a/one thousand five hundred l.500th thousand five hundredth may be by means of inflections (-er and -est), as in [3-41, or by the
2,000 two thousand (etc) 2,OOOth two thousandth (etc) addition of the premodifiers more and most (,periphrastic cornpari·
100,000 a/one hundred thousand 100,OOOth hundred thousandth son'), as in [5-6J:
[ ,000,000 a/one million I ,OOO,OOOth millionth
1,000,000,000 alone billion I ,OOO,OOO,OOOth billionth
The children are happier now. [3J
They are the happiest people I know. [4J
Bibliographical note
These students are more ime/Jigent. [5J
They are the most beautlful paintings I have ever seen. [6J
On pronouns in general, sce Boli nger (1979); Jackendoff (1968); Stevcnson and
Vitkovitch (1986), Not all words that are traditionally regarded as adjectives possess all
On central pronouns, sce Helke (1979); JlIcobsson (1968); Sahll (1987); these four features. The last two features generally coincide for a
Scppanen (1980); Thavenius ( 1 983); on reciprocal pronouns, see Kjellmer (1982); particular word and depend on a semantic feature, gradability. The
on indefinite pronouns, scc Sahlin ( 1 979): on numerals. see Hurford (1975). adjective atomic in atomic scientist, for example, is not gradable and we
therefore do not find ·)'ery atomic or -more atomic. Gradability cuts
across word classes. Many adverbs are gradable, and since they also take
premodification by I'ery and comparison, these two features do not
distinguish adjectives from adverbs.
The abilily to function attributively and the ability to function
predicativeiy are central features of adjectives. Adjectives like happy and
infinite, which have both these features, are Iherefore CENTRAL adjectives.
Those like utter that can be only attributive and those like afraid that can
be only predicative are PERIPHERAL adjectives.
 130 Adlectlve• •nd .dverb. AdJective. 131

NOTE Some suffixes are found only, or typically, with adjectives, eg:
Ted will { ;�::� } pay for his mistake.
-able:comfortable -al: seasonal
-Jul: playful -ic: scientific [b) When we require adverbs corresponding to -Iy adjectives such asfriendly, lit-ely,
-ish: greyish -less: useless and masterly. we normally use an adjective construction, thereby avoiding the
-ous: dangerous Ay: dirty double suffix -lily:
However, many common adjectives have no identifying rorm. eg: good, hot, /iule, She received us in afriendly way (NOT: ·She received usfriendlily.)
),oung. fat .
Adjectives and adverbs beginning with a-
7.3 Some words beginning with a- are adjectives and can be used predicatively
The adjective and other word classes
with both be and other copular verbs, but the a-adverbs can be used only

{
Adjective and adverb homomorphs with be. The distinction differentiates adjectives from adverbs.
7.2 Normally there is a regular difference of form between an adjective and a
corresponding adverb in that the adverb is distinguished by its -iy suffix. In
asleep" } [ dJcctlves
" "
a )
} [adverbs)
. hWIgrY.
a rapid car, rapid is an adjective; in He drove rapidly, rapidly is an adverb. The patIent was
abroad.

{
However, there are some words that have the same form, without the -Iy tIfere.
asleep" }
suffix, in adjective and adverb functions, eg:
" "
Bill has a fast car. [adjective] I [adJectlves)
abroad. }
. fungrY .
Bill drove fast. [adverb1 The patIent seemed •

Norma arrived in the late afternoon. {adjective] • I [adverbs]

t lere.
Norma arrived late in the afternoon. [adverb]
Another difference is that a-adjectives refer to temporary states and
Sometimes there is also an -Iy adverb form but with a different meaning: cannot be part of the predication after verbs of motion; a-adverbs, on the
Have you seen her lately? ('recently'] other hand, denote direction after such verbs.

And sometimes there are two forms: one may be used as either adjective or Jcan went
{ .asleep/.alert. {adjectives]
adverb and the other is an adverb with an -Iy suffix: abroad/away. [adverbs]

Take a deep breath. [adjective] Common a-adjectives include ablaze, afloat. afraid. alert, alone,

ep" (esp informal) }

ashamed. asleep. aware, awake.
Breathe {dlleep
e
, Iy. [ad verb)
NOTE la] Alert and aloofarc rreely used attributively. Most other a-adjectives can occur
attributively only when they are modified: a somewhat afraid soldier, the fast­
Finally, there are some words in -Iy that can function both as adjectives asleep children. a really (lliw: student (,lively').
and as adverbs, eg: [b) Some a-adjectives freely take premodification by I'ery and comparison. eg: l'ery
I caught an early train. [adjective] afraid, more alert. Others do so marginally, eg: asleep and awake.
We finished early today. [adverb] Adjecth'es and nouns
That was a kindly gesture. [adjective]
7.4 Nouns commonly function as premodifiers of other nouns (cf 17.35):
Will you kindly refrain from smoking? [adverb]
the bus station, a business friend, student grants
They include a set of words denoting time, eg: daily. hourly, monthly,
weekly. However, they do not share other characteristics of most adjectives:
(a) There is no corresponding predicative function:
NOTE la] Where there is variation. some people prerer the -Il' rorm ror the adverb
runction. particularly in rormal style. The adjective rorm cannot precede the verb: the bus station - ·The station is bus.

Ted will pay {�;:�/Y } for his mistake. (b) They cannot be modified by �'ery:
·a very bus station
 AdJective. 133
132 AdJ.ctlve. and adverb.

(c) They cannot take comparison: Note however the change of premodifier in: I'er), much an Englishman- I'er),
English: and the use ofthc indefinite article (a sure sign of noun status) in afool and
*a busser station an Englishman,
Ib] Some noun forms can function both attributively and predicatively, in which
Furthermore, nouns have other features which distinguish them from case wecan perhaps regard them as adjectives. They denote style or material from
adjectives; for example anicle contrast (the bus/a bus), number contrast which things are made:
(olle bus/two buses), genitive inflection (the student 's essays), premodifica­
tion by an adjective (the young student ). that concrete floor - That floor is concrete.
The basically nominal character of a premodifying noun, such as Worcester porcelain ,.... This porcelain is Worcester.
those apple pies - Those pies are apple. (informal)
garden in garden tools, is shown by its correspondence to a prepositional
phrase with the noun as complement: tools/or the garden. Compare also: Adjectives and participles
the city council - the council /or the city 7.S There are many adjectives that have the same suffixes as participles in ·ing
a stolle wall - a wall (made) oJstolle or wed (including other forms corresponding to wed, c/3.2, 3.91). These arc
August weather - weather (usual) in August PARTICIPtAl ADJECTIVES:

Such a correspondence is not available for attributive adjectives: PREDICATIVE USE AITRIBUTIVE USE

His views were very surprising. ...... his surprising views

a long poem a thick wall The man seemed very offended. ...... the offended man
the urban council hot weather
They include forms in wed that have no corresponding verbs:
Some items can be both adjectives and nouns. For example, criminal is
an adjective in that it can be used both attributively (a criminal al/ack ) and The results were unexpected. ...... the unexpected results
predicatively ( The al/ack seemed criminal to us). On the other hand, Her children must be downhearted. - her downhearted children
criminal has been converted into a noun in The criminalpleadedguilty and All his friends are ta/ented. - his ta/ellled friends
They are vio/em criminals. Here are other examples of conversion from His lung is diseased. ...... his diseased lung
adjective to noun: When there are no corresponding verbs (*to unexpect, *to dolt'llheart, *to
ADJECTIVF.5 NOUNS ra/ell!, *10 disease), the forms are obviously not participles.
an annual custom She is hoping to publish an annual When there is a corresponding verb, attributively used ·ed forms
for children. usually have a passive meaning, eg:
a black student There was only one black in my class. 10S1 property ...... property that has been 10.1'/
a classic book You won't find many classics in our
library. NOTE [a] In some cases the -ed participle is not interpreted as passive, The passive
intellectual interests She considers herself an intellectual. interpretation is excluded if the corresponding verb can be used only
a noble family The king greeted his nobles. intransitively:
a natural skier He's a natura/ for the job.
the escaped prisoner ('the prisoner who has escaped']
a six-year-old boy Our six-year-o!d is at school. the departed guests ['the guests who have departed')

NOTE [Ill] Like adjectives, nouns can function as subject complement after copular verbs, But even in other instances, the participle relates to the intransitive use of the verb;
in particular after be: thus the passive interpretation is impossible in:
That man is afoo/. a grOlI'n boy {'a boy who has grown (up)']
The noise you heard was thunder.
It is unli kely in:
She became a IIIIfSe.
thefaded curtains ('the curtains which have faded'.]
Some nouns can also be used within the subjeclcomplement after seem (esp BrE):
the retired manager ('the manager who has retired')
Hc seems afool. l=foolish]
Predicative use occurs only with some of these participial adjectives:
Your remark seems (complete) nonsense to me. [= nOllsensica/]
My stay there seemed sheer bliss. (= blissful] The curtains arefaded lThe curtains have faded')
His friend seems very much all Englishnuln. [ = very English] Her father is now retired.
 134 AdjectJves and .dve"'" Adjecti¥.. 135

Her son is grown. (dubious in BrE. but full-grown or grown-up is fully For the -ed form in this example, the participle interpretation focuses on
acceptable) the process, while the adjective interpretation focuses on the state
The guests arc departed. (archaic) resulting from the process. For the -ing form the difference is perhaps
[b) Sometimes there is a corresponding verb, but it has a different meaning. We can
clearer. In the sentence John is insulting, with no object present, the
therefore have ambiguous sentences where the ambiguity depends on whether the participle interpretation is implausible because the verb is normally
word is a participle or a participial adje<.:live: transitive.
{AOJEcnVE: She is (very) calculating (but her husband is frank). NOTE [a) Generally, -ed participle rorms accepting very can retain I'er)' when they
PARTICiPlE: She is calculating (our salaries). [' . . . so don'{ disturb her cooccur with a b),-phrasecontaining a nonpcrsonal noun phrase that expresses the

{ADJECflVE:
while she is doing the arithmetic'.) notion of cause or reason:
They were (very) relieved (to find her at home).
PARTICIPLE: They were reliel'ed (by the next group of sentries). I'm I'ery disturbed by your attitude.
We were I'ery pleased by his behaviour.
7.6 Orten the difference between the adjective and the participle is not c1ear­
cul (cl 17.30ff). The verbal force of the participle is explicit for the -ing [b]The participle sometimes reaches full adjective status when it is compounded
form when a direct object is present. Hence, the following -ing forms are with another elemenl:
participles that constitute a verb phrase with the preceding auxiliary: It is breaking my heart. - It is (very) heart-breaking.
Her views were alarming her audience. [cJLike participle adjectives,-ing and -ed participles can be attributive. as the following
You are frightening the children. examples show:
They are insulting us. her crying children a married couple
Similarly, the verbal force is explicit for the -ed form when a by-agent a winning team his published work
phrase with a personal agent is present, indicating the correspondence to boiling water the captured prisoner
the active form of the sentence: Some verbs have different participle forms for verbal and adjectival use:

I
The man was offended by the policeman. You have drunk too much. - drunk(en) driving/driver
He is appreciated by his students. Have you shaved? - a clean-shal'en young man
She was misunderstood by her parents. The shirt has shrunk. "'" a shrunken shirt
I

I,
For both participle forms. premodification by the intensifier very is an Note the pronunciation Ildl of the ending -ed in some adjectives. eg: belOl'ed
explicit indication that the forms have achieved adjective status: Ibl·IAVld/. Other examples:

I
crooked dogged jagged learned
Her views were very alarming.
naked ragged wicked Il'retched
You are very frightening.
The man was very offended. Thc suffix of aged is pronounced as a separate syllable lid! when the word is
predicative or is attributive or a personal noun (The man is aged; an aged mall
We might therefore expect that the presence of very together with an ·old'). but not. for example. in all aged wine or a man agedfifty.
explicit indicator of verbal force would produce an unacceptable sentence.
This is certainly so for the -ing participle form: Syntactic functions of adjectives
·His views were very alarming his audience. Attributive and predicative
However, with the -edparticiple, there appears to be divided usage, with 7.7 Adjectives are attributive when they premodify the head of a noun phrase
increasing acceptance of the cooccurence of I'ery with a by-agent phrase ( 1 7.29):
containing a personal agent:
a small garden popular ballads
Tfhe man was very offended by the policeman.
They are predicative when they function as subject complement or object
In the absence of any explicit indicator, the status of the participle form is complement (cf 10.5):
indeterminate:
He seems careless. (C,)
The man was offended. I find him careless. (Co)
 136 AdJective. and adverb.
AdJectlv.. 137

Adjectives are subject complement not only to noun phrases, but also to [b] In several institutionalized expressions (mostly in official designations), Ihe
finite clauses and nonfinite clauses: adjective is postpositive, eg: the presidenl elecl, heir apparenl, allorney general.
nOlary public. body politic, proofpositil'e.
That you need a car is obvious.
[cl Adjectives ending in -able and -ible can be post positive, as well as attributive,
Whether she will resign is uncertain. when they are modified by another adjective in the superlative degree or by certain
To complain may be dangerous. other modifiers: lhe best use possible, lhe grealeSI insult imaginable. lhe only aClor
Playing chess can be enjoyable. suilable; the adjective phrase is then discontin uous (cflhebes( possible use and 7.9).
Some can be postpositive without this constraint, eg: lhe stars "isible, rhers
Adjectives can also be object complement to clauses:
} .
lIavigable. These convey the implication that what they are denoting has only a
. { what he did temporary application. Thus, lhe Slars visible refers to stars that are visible at a
I consider . foolish. time specified or implied. while lhe visible Slars more aptly rerers to a category or
lak'109 such nsk s
stars that can (at appropriate times) be secn.
NOTE The adjC(.;tive functioning as object complement oflen eltpresscs the result of the Postposition is usual for absem, presen/, concerned. and involl'ed when they
process denoted by the verb: designate temporary as opposed 10 permanent attributes:

He pulled his belt lighl. The soldiers preJell/ were his supporters.
II1
He pushed the window open. 121 [d] Appoillled. desired, required, followed, paSl, and preen/ing can also be
He writes his letters large. (3) postpositive as well as attributive, eg: a/ the lime appoilllet/, in years paSI.
The result can be stated for each sentence by using the verb be: Adjectives wilh complementation
His belt is liglll. 1 1 ,) 7.9 Adjectives with complementation normally cannot have attributive
The window is open. 12,) position but require post position. Compare:
His letters are large. (30)
a suitable actor BUT NOT: ·a suitable for Ihe part actor
Postpositive
The complementation can be a prepositional phrase or a lo-infinitive
7.8 Adjectives can sometimes be postpositive, ie they can immediately follow clause:
the noun or pronoun they modify. We may thus have three positions of
adjectives: I know an actor suitable for the part. (I]
They have a house larger than yours. (2]
PREDICATIVE: This information is useful. [ IJ The boys easiest 10 leach were in my class. (3]
AITRIBUTIVE: useful information [2J Students brlll'e enough to attempl the course deserve to succeed. [4]
PQSTPQSITIVE: something useful [3J
If the adjective is alone or merely premodified by an intensifier,
A postpositive adjective can usually be regarded as a reduced relative postposition is not normally allowed:
clause:
·They have a house (much) larger.
something Ihm is useful [3 a) ·The soldiers (rather) limid approached their officer.
Compound indefinite pronouns and adverbs ending In -body, -one. However, if the noun phrase is generic and indefinite, wc can postpone
-Ihing, -where can be modified only postpositively: coordinated adjectives, or adjectives with some clause element added,
though such constructions are formal and rather infrequent:
Anyone (who is) intelligent can do it.
I want to try on something (that is) larger. Soldiers limid or cowardly don't fight well. [5J
We're not going anywhere ,·ery exciting. A man usually hOliest will sometimes cheat. [6J
Of course, adjectives that can occur only attributively (cf 7 . 1 7ff) are The more usual constructions are premodification or a relative clause:
excluded: Timid or cowardly soldiers . . . (Sa]
·something (which is) main ·somebody (who is) mere A man who is usually honest . . . (6a)
The adjective phrase can be discontinuous (cf7.8 Note [c)): the adjective
NOTE [aJ Postposition is obligatory for proper in the meaning 'as strictly defined', eg: the is attributive and its complementation is in postposition. Thus, equivalent
CilY of London proper. to sentences [2) and [3]:
 138 AdJective. and adverbs
, AdJective. 139

They have a larger house Ihall yours. (2al The emotionally disturbed and the physically and memally
The easiest boys to teach were in my class. (3al handicapped need the aid of society. [4]
The �'ery wise avoid such temptations. [5]
NOTE (al An adjective modified by enough, loo, or so can be separated from its The young ill spiril enjoy life. [6]
complementation if the modified adjective is placed before the indefinite (or zero) The old who resisl change are brushed aside. (7]
article of the noun phrase:
She is brme enough a student 10 allempl lhe course. [7] NOTE fal Modification of the adjective is usually restrictive, eg (5): 'he I'ery I\·ise. Inflected
It was 100 boring a book 10 read. [8] comparison forms of the adjective are also possible (rhe wiser). Comparative
They are so difficull people 10 please. [9] inflection and adverb modification are indications of the adjective status of these
noun-phrase heads, while modification by adjectives (as in rhe IlUngr)' poor) is
But with enough and 100, this construction seems to be possible only if the adjective more typical of nouns, and modification by relative clauses is normally an
phrase is part of the subject complement or object complement: indication of noun status.
• Brm'e enough a student to altempl the course deserves to succeed. (7b) [b] The definite determiner is normally the generic definite article Ihe. Note,
however, the use of the possessive determiner in:
With so, the construction is also possible if the adjective phrase is part of the
subject: We will nurse your sick. clothe your naked, and feed your hungry.

A man so difficull } 10 please must be hard to work with.

. It is the duty of the Government to care for our poor, our unemployed.
The adjectives can function without a determiner if they are conjoined (cf5.20):
I cuIl a man
So diffi

[bJ Exceptionally, certain short prepositional phrases may also premodify an He is acceptable to bOlh (Ihe) old and (the) young.
adjective in attributive position: Also in some of-constructions:
a by no means irresponsible action The number of jobless is rising.
-an action (which is) by no means irresponsible
Type (b): th, Dutch
Adje<:tiYes as heads of noun phrases 7.12 Some adjectives denoting nationalities (cJ 5.33J) can be noun·phrase
7.10 Adjectives can function as heads of noun phrases, which (like all noun heads:
phrases) can be subject of the sentence, complement, object, and
The industriolls DUlch are admired by their neighbours.
prepositional complement. Adjectives as noun-phrase heads, unlike
You French alld we Brilish ought to be allies.
nOuns, do not inflect for number or for the genitive case and they usually
require a definite determiner. As with type (a) in 7. 1 1 . these noun phrases normally have generic
Adjectives are typically used as heads ornoun phrases to rerer to certain rererence and take plural concord. The adjectives in question are
rairly well-established classes of persons: eg: the brave, Ihe weak, Ihe restricted to words ending in -(i)sh (eg: British, Spanish, Welsh), ·cll (eg:
maladjusted, Ihe elderly, rhe underprivileged. Dutch, French), -ese (eg: Chinese, Japanese), and the adjective Swiss.
There are three types of adjectives runctioning as noun-phrase heads,
and these are exemplified in the rollowing sentences: NOTE These adjectives can in turn Ix modified by adjectives, which are normally
(a) The innoeem are often deceived by the unscrupulous. (7. 1 1 ) non restrictive:
(b) The induSlrious Dutch are admired by their neighbours. (7. 12) the indusrrious Dutch ('the Dutch, who are industrious']
(c) She admires the mystical. (7. 1 3 )
Postmodifying prepositional phrases and relative clauses can be either restrictive
Type (a): the innocent or nonrestrictive (cf 17.3):
7.11 Adjectives which can premodify personal nouns (the young people) can be
The Irish (who /il'e) in America retain sentimental links with Ireland.
noun-phrase heads (the young) with plural and generic reference denoting
The DUlch. for many of whom speaking English is second nalure, have
classes, categories, or types of people. The adjective can itself be produced many of the greatest grammarians of the English language.
premodified [3-5] or postmodified [6-7];
Type (c): 'he mystical
The poor are causing the nation's leaders great concern. [I] 7.13 Some adjectives can function as noun-phrase heads with abstract
There i s a lack o f communication between the young and the old. [2] rererence. They include, in particular, superlatives, in which case we can
The extremely old need a great deal of attention. [3] sometimes insert a general noun like thing in its abstract sense:
 AdJective. 141

The latest (thing/news) is that he is going to run for re-election. the letter'), but it normally does so specifically in relation to the
performance of an action.
Unlike types (a) and (b), type (c) adjectives functioning as noun-phrase
heads take singular concord: NOTE The implied subject of the clause can be the whole of the supcrordinate clause:

t
They ventured into the unknown, which was . . . Sfrange. it was she who initiated divorce proceedings.
The best is yet to come. Most imporfam, his report offered prospects ofa great profit.
More remarkable still, he is in charge of the project.
Type (c) is restricted chiefly to certain fixed expressions. Thus. for
Here too it is possible to substitute an adverb for the adjective with little or no

I
example, the supernatural, lhe exotic, the unreal are more likely to occur
than the lovely, the foreign, the exciting, with abstract, generic reference. difference in meaning (cJ content disjuncts in 8.42):
Slralfgely, it was she who initiated divorce proceedings.
NOTE la] Some of these adjcctives can be modified by adverbs:
Contingent verbless clauses
The very be.H is yet to come. •
One type of verbless clause, which is often introduced by a subordinator,

I
7.IS
He went from the extremely sublime to the extremely rit/ieu/ous.
expresses the circumstance or condition under which what is said in the
IbJ There are some set expressions in which an adjective wilh abstract reference is superordinate clause applies:
the complement of a preposition:
( Whether) righl or wrong, he always comes off worst in an argument
He lefl Jor good. He enjoyed it 10 the Jull. because of his inability to speak cogently.
in pllb/k/pril'ate/secrel from bad 10 worse Whenjit. the Labrador is an excellent retriever.
in shorl out oJ fhe ordinary
I/ wel, these shoes should never be placed too close to the heal.
on fhe sly in common
The contingent clause can also refer to the object of the superordinate
Verbless clauses
clause. in which case it usually appears in final position:
7.14 Adjectives can function as the sole realization of a verbless clause (c/ 14.6,
1 5.34/) or as the head of an adjective phrase realizing the clause: You must eat it when fresh.

The man, quietly aSSerlil'e, spoke to the assembled workers. NOTE The clause can also refer to the whole of the supcrordinatec\ause (which would be
Unhappy with the resull, she returned to work. 1 realized in the subordinate clause by the pro-form it). In such cases the
Glad 10 accept. the boy nodded his agreement. subordinator cannot be omitted:
Anxious/or a quick decision, the chairman called for a vote.
Whl'lI (it is) necessary, he can be taken 10 the doctor.
Long and Illltidy, his hair played in the breeze. You must come as SOOIl as (it is) possible.
The clause is mobile:
Exclamatory adjective clauses
The chairman called for a vote, anxious/or a quick decision. 7.16 Adjectives can be exclamations, with or without an initial It'h-element:
Its implied subject is usually the subject of the sentence ('The chairman is Excel/elll! (How) wonder/ulf (How) good of you.'
anxious for a vote'). However, if the clause contains additional clause
constituents. it can be related to a noun phrase other than the subject: Such clauses need not be dependent on any previous linguistic context. but
may be a comment on some object or activity in the situational context.
She glanced with disgust at the cat, now quiel ill her daughter'S lap.
Sometimes the adjective phrase can be replaced by an adverb phrase Syntactic aubelassltlcRtlon ot adjectives
with little change of meaning:
Attributive only
Ralher nervous, the man opened the letter. 7.17 In general, adjectives that are restricted to attributive position, or that
Rather nervously, the man opened the letter. occur predominantly in attributive position, do not characterize the
In this function, the adverb phrase is like the adjective phrase in referring referent of the noun directly. For example, old can be either a central
to an attribute of the subject ('The man, who was rather nervous, opened adjective or an adjective restricted to attributive position. In that old man
 142 Adlectlv•• and adverbs
AdJKtlv.. 143

(the opposite of that young man), old is a central adjective, and can thus lotal nonsense 7- *The nonsense was total.
also be predicative: That man is old. On the other hand, in the usual sense lotal destruction ..... The destruction was tOlal.
of an old/riend of mine ['a friend of old, a long·standing friend'}. old is
restricted to attributive position and cannot be related to Myfriend is old. Further examples of adjectives as amplifiers that arc attributive only:
In this case, old is the opposite of new (,recently acquired']. The person uller folly the ahsolute limit
referred to is not being identified as old; it is his friendship that is old. a close friend a complele stranger
When adjectives characterize the referent of the noun directly (that old an extreme enemy his enrire salary
mall. Myfriend;s old) they are termed INHERENT, when they do not (an old a great supporter a perfect stranger
friend o/mine) they are tenned NONINHERENT (cJ 7.25). a strong opponent total irresponsibility

NOTE A few adjectives with strongly emotive value are restricted to attributive position. (c) DOWNTONERS have a lowering effect, usually scaling downwards
though the scope of the adjective clearly extends to the person referred to by the from an assumed norm. They are relatively few (eg: slight in a slight effort,
noun, eg: you poor man, my dear lady. lhm wrelched woman. feeble in a feeblejoke) and can be ignored for our present purpose, since
they arc generally central adjectives.
Intensifying adjectives I
7.18 Some adjectives have a heightening effect on the noun they modify, or the Restrictive adjectives
reverse, a lowering effect. A t least three semantic subclasses of intensifying 7.19 Restrictive adjectives restrict the reference of the noun exclusively,
adjectives can be distinguished: particularly, or chiefly. Ex:amples, within noun phrases, include:
(a) emphasizers a certain person his chief excuse
(b) amplifiers the principal objection the exacr answer
(c) downtoners the same student the sole argument
(a) EMPHASIZERS have a general heightening effect and are generally the only occasion the specific point
attributive only, eg: a particular child the very man

a true scholar plain nonsense Again. some of these have homonyms. For example, certain in a certain
a clear failure the simple truth person is a restrictive (equivalent to 'a particular person'), while in a
pure ['sheer'] fabrication an outrighl lie certain willner it is an intensifier (equivalent to 'a sure winner').
a real ['undoubted'] hero sheer arrogance
a cerlain winner a sure sIgn NOTE Notice the use of very as a restrictive adjective:

(b) AMPLIFIERS scale upwards from an assumed norm, and arc central You are the l'ery man I want.
adjectives if they are inherent and denote a high or extreme degree: Adjectives related 10 adverbs
a complele victory- The victory was complete. 7,20 Some noninherent adjectives that are only attributive can be related to
great destruction - The destruction was greal. adverbs, even though they are not intensifying or restrictive. They include:

On the other hand, when they are noninherent, amplifiers are attributive my former friend ['formerly my friend']
only: an old friend ['a friend of old']
past students ['students in the past']
a comp/ere fool f *The fool is complete. a possihle friend ['possibly a friend']
afirm friend f *The friend isfirm . the present king ('the king at present']
Complere refers to the completeness of the folly. andfirm to the firmness of an oC('Qsional visitor ['occasionally a visitor']
the friendship (in which sense it is asterisked here). Some adjectives require implications additional to the adverbial:
In addition, amplifiers are only attributive when they are used as
emphasizers, conveying principally emphasis rather than degree. For the late president ['the person who was formerly the president (but is
example, 10101 in total nonsense is an emphasizer, while in tolal destfllction now dead)']
it is an amplifier and has a literal application ("the destruction of If the adjectives premodify agentive nouns, the laller also suggest a
everything'). Hence the contrast: relationship to an associated verb:
r
144 AdJectlve••nd edverbs
Adjec:tf..... 145

a big eater ["someone who eats a loC) He is a/raid to do it. ['He fears 10 do it.']
a clever liar ['someone who lies cleverly'] They are/ond o/ her ['They like her.']
.

a hard worker ['someone who works hard'] That is lantamount to an ultimatum. {'That amounts to an
a hea l'Y smoker ['someone who smokes heavily'] ultimatum.']
a sound sleeper ['someone who sleeps soundly']
NOTE laJ Sick is the exception among the 'health' adjectives in that its attributive use is
NOTE The noun can be inanimate: very common:
rapid calculations " calculations made rapidly') the sick woman (, The woman is sick.')
occasional showers rshowers occurring occasionally')
a fasl car ('a car that can go fast') [bl Some of the adjectives that are restricted to predicative posItIon have
a/as! road ('a road on which onc can drive fast') homonyms that can occur both predicatively and attributively, cg:

Adjectives related to nouns the conscious patient-The patient is conscious. (= 'awake')

7.21 Some denominal adjectives (ie adjectives derived from nouns) are Cl: He is CO"SciOIlS of his faults. (= 'aware'l
restricted to attributive position:
an atomic scientist ['a scientist specializing in the theory of atoms'] Semantic subclasslflcatlon 01 adjeclives
a criminal court ("a court dealing with crime']
Stative/dynamic
a crimina/ lawyer ('a lawyer specializing in cases of crime']
a polar bear ('a bear living near the pole'] 7.23 Adjectives are characteristically stative. Many adjectives, however, can be
a medical school ('a school for students of medicine'] seen as dynamic. In particular, most adjectives that are susceptible to
musical comedy ['a comedy accompanied by music'] subjective measurement arc capable of being dynamic. Stative and
a tidal wave ['a wave produced by the tide'] dynamic adjectives differ syntactically in a number of ways. For example,
a stative adjective such as rail cannot be used with the progressive aspect
Predicative only or with the imperative:
7.22 Adjectives that are restricted, or virtually restricted, to predicative
position are most like verbs and adverbs. They tend to refer to a (possibly *He's being rail. *Be tall.
temporary) condition rather than a characteristic. Perhaps the most On the other hand. we can usc /unny as a dynamic adjective:
common are those referring to the health (or lack of health) of an animate
being: I didn't realize he was beingfiml1J'. Her story was very fill/ny.

He felt ill/poorly (both esp BrE)/well//aillt/wllwdl. Adjectives that can be used dynamically include brD l'e, calm, cheerfitl,
conceited, cruel, /oolish, friendly, JimllY, good, greedy, helpful, jealolls,
However, many people use such adjectives as attributives too, for naughty, noisy, tidy.
example:
Gradable/nongradablc
A well person need see a doctor only for a periodic checkup.
7.24 Most adjectives are gradable. Gradability is manifested through
A large group of adjectives that are restricted to predicative position comparison:
comprises adjectives which can take complementation (,[ 16.38ff):
tall - tal ler - tallest
able (to + infinitive) fond (of) beautiful -more beautiful -most beautiful
a/raid([ilat, of, about ) glad ([hat, 10)
answerable (to) happy ([ha[, to, with, about ) It is also manifested through modification by intensifiers:
averse (to,/rom) luath (10) )'ery tall so beautiful extremely useful
aware (0/) subject ([0)
conscious (that, 0/) tan[amoum (10) Gradability applies to adverbs as well as adjectives (c/7.39ff).
All dynamic and most stative adjectives (eg: rail, old) are gradabJe;
Some of these adjectives must lake complementation (eg: subject to and some stative adjectives are not, principally denominal adjectives like
tantamounl to), and many normally do. atomic (scientist) and hydrochloric (acid), and adjectives denoting proven­
Many of these adjectives closely resemble verbs semantically: ance, eg: British.
 140 Adlectlves and adverbs Adverbs 147

Inherent/noninherent I + IV your present annual turnover

7.25 Most adjectives are inherent. For example, the inherent adjective in a 1 1 + 111 a /unny red hat
wooden cross applies to the referent of the object directly: a wooden cross 1 1 + IV an enormous tidal wave
is also a wooden object. On the other hand, in a wooden actor the adjective 1 + 1 1 + IV cerlain rich American producers
is non inherent: a wooden actor is not (presumably) a wooden man. Some
other examples:
INHERENT NONINHERENT

afirm handshake a firm friend Adverbs

a perfect alibi a perfect stranger
a certain result a certain winner Characterlltlcs of the adverb
a true report a true scholar
7,27 There are two types of syntactic functions that characterize the traditional
NOTE Modification or a noun by means or a noninherent adjective can be seen as an adverbs, but an adverb need have only one of these:
extension or the basie sense or the noun. Thus a firm friend is 'u rriend whose (a) clause element adverbial (c/7.31):
rriendship is firm', and (l perfect .stranger is 'a stranger who is perrectly strange'.
He quite forgot about it.
Ordering of adjectives in premodlflcatlon (b) premodifier of adjective and adverb (7.32f):

{happl�l·y marne. d.
7.26 When two or more adjectives cooccur in attributive position, the order of happ
They are quite
the adjectives is to a large extent determined by their semantic properties.
The principles for the order of items in premodification are discussed in
The most conspicuous example of an adverb that functions only as a
17.41. Here we will only mention the major positional ranges of adjectives
modifier of adjectives and adverbs, and not as a clause element, is I'ery.
in premodifying position.
(For I'ery as an adjective, c/7. 1 9 Note.)
In the premodification structure of the noun phrase, adje�tives are
Morphologically, we can distinguish three types of adverb, of which
placed between the determiners and the head of the noun phrase (c/ 1 7.2).
two are closed classes (simple and compound), and one is an open class
We distinguish four zones:
(derivational):
(I) PRECENTRAL
(a) SIMPLE adverbs, eg: just, only, well. Many simple adverbs denote
Here, after the determiners, is where peripheral, nongradablc adjectives
position and direction, eg: back, down, near, oul, under.
are placed, in particular the intensifying adjectives, (c/ 7. 18) eg: certain,
(b) COMPOUND adverbs, eg: somehow, somewhere, there/ore.
definite, sheer, complete, slight.
(c) DERIVATIONAL adverbs. The majority of derivational adverbs have the
(11) CENTRAL
suffix: ·Iy, by means of which new adverbs are created from adjectives
This zone is the place of the central adjectives, (c/ 7. l ) eg: hungry, ugly,
(including participial adjectives): odd -- oddly; interesting - illlerest·
funny, stupid, silent, rich, empty.
illgly. Other, less common, derivational suffixes are:
(Ill) POSTCENTRAL
This zone includes participles, eg: retired, sleeping, and colour adjectives, ·wise: clockwise ·ways: sideways
eg: red, pink. ·ward (s): northward(s) ·style: cowboy·style
(IV) PREH£AD ·/ashioll: schoolboy· fashion
This zone includes the 'least adjectival and the most nominal' items, such
as denominal adjectives (c/ 7.21) denoting nationality, ethnic back· The adverb and other words classes
ground, eg: Austrian, Midwestern, and denominal adjectives with the
Conjunct adverb and conjunction
meaning 'consisting of', 'involving', 'relating to', eg: experimemal,
statistical, political, statutory. In the prehead zone we also find nouns in 7.28 A few adverbs functioning as conjuncts (c/8.43.ff), such as so and yet.
attributive position (c/ further 17.35). resemble coordinators both in being connectives and in having certain
On the basis of this classification, we can expect the following order: syntactic features. In particular. these adverbs cannot be transposed with
their clause in front of the preceding clause. Thus, the order of the
1 + 11 certain important people following two clauses (with the conjunct adverb so in the second clause) is
I + III the same restricted income fixed:
 148 Adjectives and adverbs Adverbs 149

We paid him a very large sum. So he kept quiet about what Examplcs of subjuncts:
he saw. [I]
We haven't yet finished.
I f we reverse the order of the clauses, the relationship between the two Would you kindly wait for me.
clauses is changed, and so must now refer to some preceding clause:
By contrast, disjuncts and conjuncts have a more peripheral relation in
So he kcpt quiet about what he saw. We paid him a very the sentencc. Semantically, DlSJUNCTS (cf S.40) express an evaluation of
large sum. [2] what is being said either with respect to the form of the communication or
However, the conjunct adverbs differ from coordinators in that they can to its meaning. We identify disjuncts with the speaker's authority for, or
be preceded by a coordinator: comment on, the accompanying clause:

We paid him a very large sum, and so he kept quiet about Frankly, I'm tired.
what he saw. [ I a] Fortunately, no one complaincd.
They are probably at home.
Reaction signal and initiator She wisely didn't attempt to apologize.
7.29 Certain other items must be positioned initially. They are important CONJUNCTS (cf 8.43) express the speaker's assessment of the relation
because of their high frequcncy in spoken English. Some are restricted to between two linguistic units, eg:
the spoken language. These can be assigned to two small classes:
(i) 'reaction signals', eg: no, yes, yeah, yep, »I, hrn, rnhrn She has bought a big house, so she must have a lot of money.
(ii) 'initiators', eg: well, oh, ah; oh we", well then, why <esp AmE) We have complained several times about the noise, and yet he does
nothing about it.
Adverb and preposition All our friends are going to Paris this summer. We, however, are
7.30 There are various combinations of verbs plus particles (c/ 16.3jJ). Since a going to London.
preposition is normally followed by its complement, the particle is an If they open all the windows, then I'm leaving.
adverb if the verb is intransitive: I didn't invite her. She wouldn't have come, anyway.
The plane has taken off.
Adverb as modifier
When a noun phrase follows the particle, the verb may still be an advcrb.
The particle in the phrasal verb in [I) is an adverb because it can be Modifier of adjective
transposed to follow the verb, as in [la]: 7.32 An adverb may premodify an adjective. Most commonly the adverb is an
intensifier or emphasizer (c/8.36f):
They turned on the light. [I ]
They turned the light on. [ I a] extremely dangerous really beautiful
deeply concerned very good
In contrast, 10 in [2] is a preposition, part of the prepositional verb take to, perfectly reasonable just impossible
because its position is fixed, as we see from [2a1:
Some premodifiers are rclatcd to adverbs that express such notions as
They took 10 us. [2] manner and means but also have some intensifying effect:
*Thcy took us 10. [2a]
easily debatable quietly assertive
Syntactic functions of adverbs openly hostile readily available

Adverb as adverbial Some premodifiers express 'viewpoint' (c/8.33):

7.31 ADJUNCTS and SUBJUNCTS are relatively integrated within the structure of politically expedient ('expedient from a political point of view')
the clause (c/ S . 1 3, 8.32). Examples of adjuncts: theoretically sound technically possible

Slowly they walked back home. NOTE Enough may postmodify an adjective: old enough. Like may also postmodify an adverb,
He spoke to me about it briefly. though ndeed
i tends to go with a premodifying very: carefully enough, very easily indeed.
 150 Adjectives and adverbs Correapondence between adjective and adverb 151

NOTE raj Kind of and sort of (both informal) usually follow the determiner:
This must be a sorl ofjoke.
Modifier of adverb and preposition Other of-phrases precede the determiner:
7.33 An adverb may premodify another adverb:
I had a bit of a shock.

I
very heavily surprisingly well
extremely quickly so clearly [bJ Ever can be an intensifier with interrogative wh-words:
,
Why ever should she apply for such a post?
Adverbs modifying other adverbs can only be intensifiers. On postmodi�
fying enough and indeed, see 7.32 Note. 7.36 Some time and place adverbs postmodify nouns;
A few intensifying adverbs, particularly right and well, premodify
prepositions: the meeting yesterday her trip abroad
the meal afterwards the way ahead
The nail went right through the wall.
Others may either premodify or postmodify:
He made his application lVell within the time.
Her parents are dead against the trip. <informal) the downstairs hall the hall dowflStairs
Modifier of pronoun, predeterminer, and numeral
the above quotation the quotation above
7.34 Intensifying adverbs can premodify: A very few may only premodify:
(a) indefinite pronouns (c/6.21ff):
an away game inside information
Nearly <everybody) came to our party.
NOTE Else can postmodify:
(b) predeterminers (c/5.7ff):
raj compound indefinite pronouns and compound adverbs in -body. -one, -where.
They recovered roughly (half) their equipment. elc:

(c) cardinal numerals (c/6.28 Note [b]): somebody else, someone else 's. nowhere else. something else

Over/under (two hundred) deaths were reported. [bJ interrogative wh-pronouns and wh-adverbs :
who el.�e. what el.fe. how else. when else
(d) ordinals and superlatives (cf7.39) in which case a definite determiner
is obligatory: [e] singular all, much, a great/good deal, a lot, !illle:

We counted approximately (the first) thousand votes. all else. much else, !illle else.
She gave me almost (the largest) piece of cake.
Adverb as complement of preposition
Modifier of noun phrase 7.37 Some place and time adverbs function as complement of a preposition:
7.35 A few intensifiers may premodify noun phrases and precede the
determiner when they do so. The most common among adverbs are quite over here since recently
and ralher (esp BrE): near there till /hen
from abroad from now
We had quite a party. from behind for ever
They were quite some players.
It was rmher a mess. (esp BrE)
The predeterminers such and what have a similar function:
He is such a fool. What a mess they made! Correspondence between adjective and adverb
A few intensifiers precede the indefinite article when it is equivalent to
the numeral one: 7.38 We have earlier observed (7.27) that open-class adverbs are regularly,
though not invariably, derived from adjectives by suffixation. There is
They will stay for aboul a week. another sense in which adjectives and adverbs are related. A correspon­
Nearly a thousand demonstrators attended the meeting. dence often exists between constructions containing adjectives and
 152 AdJectlye. and adnrbs Comparl.on ot adJectly.. and adyerb. 153

constructions containing the corresponding adverbs. The simplest illus­ (c) Comparison to a lower degree is expressed by less and least :
tration is with adverbs equivalent to prepositional phrases containing a This problem is less difficult than the previous one.
noun phrase with the corresponding adjective as premodifier: This is the least difficull problem of all.
He liked Mary considerably. For higher degree comparisons, English has a three-term inflectional
- He liked Mary /0 a considerable ex/em. contrast between ABSOLUTE, COMPARATIVE, and SUPERLATIVE forms for
She explained the process brillialJlly. many adjectives and for a few adverbs. In Table 7.39 the three inflectional
- She explained the process ill a brillialll mallller. forms are displayed with their periphrastic equivalents.
He wrote frequently.
- He wrote on frequent occasions. Table 7.39 Comparison of adjectives and adverbs
Politically, it is a bad decision.
ABSOLUTE
"-' From the political point of view, it is a bad decision. COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

INFLECTION
Here are some other examples of adjective-adverb correspondences:
adjective high higher highest
a heavy sleeper somebody who sleeps hem'ily adverb 5001/ sooner soolleSf
a former student somebody who wasformerly a student
PERIPHRASIS
a failhful friend a friend who acts faithfully
a Ileal typewriter a typewriter that types lIeally adjcctive complex more complex most complex
his legible writing He writes legibly adverb conifortably more conifortably most coniforlably
a true scholar She is truly a scholar
the maill reason It was maillly the reason NOTE Comparalives oradjcctives and adverbs, whether inflectional or periphrastic. can
be modified by intensifiers:
much easier somewhat shorter
much more difficult a lot more inconvcnient
very much beuer a good deal sooner
Comparison 01 adjectives and adverbs very much more carerully a great deal more easily
Similarly, superlatives ean be modified by intensificrs:
7.39 With gradable adjectives and adverbs there are three types of
the youngest candidate ever
COMPARISON:
the most remarkable result ever
(a) to a higher degree by rar the best solution
(b) to the same degree the most absurd answer by rar
(c) to a lower degree
The three types of comparison are expressed by these means: Inflected superlatives can be premodified by I'er)', ir a definite detennincr is
present: of rhe I'er), lasl moment, lhe very youngesl. But neither periphrastic
(a) Comparison to a higher degree is expressed by the inflected forms in
superlatives nor comparativcs can be premodified by I'er)'.
-er and -est or their periphrastic equivalents with more and 11I0s1 :
.
Anna IS { cleverer } than Susan. 7.40 The comparative is generally used to express a comparison between two
more c e\'er
I persons, two items, or two sets:
cle\lerest }
Anna IS the {
. . Jane is cleverer than her sister.
, student In the class. Jane is clel'erer than all the other students in the class.
11I0s1 Clever
(b) Comparison to the same degree is expressed by as (or sometimes The superlative is generally used when more than two are involved:
so) . . . as: Jane is the clel'erest of the three sisters.
Anna is as tall as Bill. Jane is the cleveresf of all the students in the class.

Anna is not {:; } tall as John. With the superlative, Jane is included in the group and compared with the
others.
 154 AdJective. and adverb.
Comparl�n of adlKtiv•• and adv.rb. 155

NOTE More and most have other uses in which they are not equivaient to the comparison (b) In bases ending in a consonant followed by -y, y changes to -i before
inHections. Notice the paraphrases in the following two uses of more: -er and -est:
He is more than happy about it. ['He is happy about it to a degree that is not
angry -angrier -angriest
adequately expressed by the word happy.')
He is more good than bad. ['11 is more accurate to say that he is good than (c) If the base ends in a mute (unpronounced) -e, this e is dropped before
that he is bad.') the inflection:
She i s more keen than wise. (,She is keen rather than wise.') p"re -purer -p"rest
Most may have an intensifying meaning, as in Della is a most efficient publisher.
The same applies if the base ends in -ee:
Comparison of adjectives free -freer -freesl I'fri:lst/

Irregular forms of comparison (d) Syllabic /1/, as in simple, ceases to be syllabic when inflections are
7.41 A small group of highly frequent adjectives have comparative and addedo
superlative forms with stems which are different from the base: (e) Even for speakers who do not pronounce final r, the r is pronounced
before the inflection, as in poorer.
good .... better - besl

{
bad - worse - worst NOTE There is a variant spelling in:
lar
-fllrther
-farther
-furthest
-farthest cruel
{ - crueller - cruellest
- crueler -cruelest (esp AmE)

NOTE (aJ Old is rcgularly inHcctcd as older- oldest. I n allributive position, particularly Choice between inflectional and periphrastic comparison
when referring to the order of birth of members of a family, the irregular fonns 7.43 (a) Monosyllabic adjectives normally form their comparison by
elder-eldest are nonnally substituted (especially in BrE):
inflection:
My elder/older sister is an artist.
low - lower - lowest
His eldest/oldest son is still al school.
However, elder is not a true comparative in that it cannot be followed by tha1l: (b) Many disyllabic adjectives can also take inflections, though they

M Y sLster
O oLS t hree years { older } than me. have the alternative of the periphrastic forms:
O {
politer/more polite.
*eider Her chI ldren are .
(tire) po/itest/(lhe) most pO/lie.
rb] Well ['in good hcalth'] and ilI!"in bad hcalth' (csp BrE)J are inflcctcd likc good
and bad, rcspectively, for the comparative: He/eels better/worse. He is beller can Disyllabic adjectives that can most readily take inflected forms are those
mean either (a) 'He is well again' or (b) 'He is less i][". ending in an unstressed vowel, syllabic /1/, or r, eg:
Regular forms of comparison -y: ear ly . easy. funny, happy, noisy, wealthy, pretty
7.42 With adjectives taking the regular inflections, certain changes in spelling -ow: mellow. narrow, shallow
or pronunciation may be introduced in the base of the adjective when the -le: able, feeble, gentle, noble, simple
suffixes arc added. (c) Trisyllabic or longer adjectives can only take periphrastic forms:
(a) A single consonant at the end of the base is doubled before -er and
·esr when the preceding vowel is stressed and spelled with a single letter (cf beautiful
the spelling of verb forms, 3.6): - more beautiful [BUT NOT: *beautiful/er]
- the most beautiful (BUT NOT: -beautiful/est)
big -bigger - biggest
Adjectives with the negative un-prefix , such as unhappy and rmfidy, are
But contrast: exceptions:
lIeat -nearer - neatest
thick - tlricker - tlrickest - unlrappier - unlrappiest - untidier- untidiest
 156 Adjectives and adverbs
Comparison 01 adjectives and adverbs 157

NOTE [a] Participle forms which are used as adjectives regularly take only periphrastic
big (small ), bright (dim), fat (thin), heavy (light ), large (liltle), strong
forms:
(weak).
interesling - more interesling - mosl interesling
wounded - more wounded -mosl wounded How heavy is your computer?
worn - more worn ..... most worn How accurate is that clock?

[b] Most adjectives that are inflected for comparison can also take the periphrastic Some adverbs are also used as an unmarked term in how questions, eg:
-

forms with more and mosl. With more, they seem to do so more easily when they
How much does it cost?
are predicative and are followed by a Ihan-clause:
Howfar did you drive today?
He is more wealthy than I thought.
NOTE Ifwe use the marked term, as in HolI' young is John?, we are asking a question that
Comparison of adverbs presupposes that the relevant norm is towards the lower end of the scale, ie that
John is young, whereas the unmarked term in HolI' old i.� John? does not
7.44 For a small number of adverbs, the inflected forms used for comparison presuppose that John is old. Notice that neither term is neutral in exclamations:
arc the same as those for adjectives. As with adjectives, there is a small
group with comparalives and superlatives formed from different stems. How young he is! ('He is extremely young!']
HolI' old he is! ('He is extremely old!']
The comparative and superlative inflections are identical with those for
the corresponding adjectives good, bad, and/ar, and the quantifiers much
Bibliographical note
and little:
On adjectives and adverbs, see Bolinger (\ 967a); Vendler ( 1 968); Warren ( 1984).
badly ,... worse - worst
On adverbs. see bibliographical note in Chapter 8.
well - bel/er - best On comparison and intensification, sce Bolinger ( 1 967b. 1972a); Bresnan

{
little - less (lesser) - least ( 1 973); GnUlloman Cl a1. ( 1 973); Rusiecki ( 1 985).
,..,further -furthest
fa,
'""'farther -farthest
much -more -most
Adverbs that are identical in form with adjectives take inflections if the
adjectives do so : fast, hard, late, long, quick. They follow the same spelling
and phonological rules as for adjectives, eg: early '""' earlier ...... earliest :
The unmarked term in measure expressions
7.45 We use the adjective old in measure expressions (x years old) when we
refer to a person's age, regardless of the age:
M r Jespersen is 75 years old.
His granddaughter is two years old.
In the scale ofmeasurement. oldindicates the upper range (He is old) but it
is also the unmarked term for the whole range, so that She is two years old
is equivalent to Her age is TWO years. The measure adjectives used in this
way are the following, with the marked term in parentheses:
deep (shallow) high (Iow) long (shorT) old (young) tall (short)
thick (thin) wide (narrow)
These unmarked terms are also used in how·questions and, again, they
do not assume the upper range. How oldis she? is equivalent to What is her
age? Other adjectives are also used in the same way in how question s, eg:
-