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Fundamentals of Ground Radar for Air Traffic Control
Engineers and Technicians Roland Bouwman Digital
Instant Download
Author(s): Roland Bouwman
ISBN(s): 9781891121753, 1891121758
Edition: Annotated
File Details: PDF, 20.64 MB
Year: 2009
Language: english
Fundamentals of Ground Radar
For Air Traffic Control Engineers
and Technicians

Ronald Bouwman
FAA (Retired)

Scitech Publishing, Inc.

Raleigh, NC
scitechpub.com
SciTech Publishing, Inc.,
911 Paverstone Drive, Suite B
Raleigh, NC 27615
(919) 847-2434, fax (919) 847-2568
scitechpublishing.com

Copyright © 2009 by SciTech Publishing

All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by
any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under
Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United Stated Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of
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Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 646-8600, or on the web
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Publishing, Inc., 911 Paverstone Drive, Suite B, Raleigh, NC 27615, (919) 847-2434, fax (919) 847-2568, or
email [email protected].

The publisher and the author make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or complete-
ness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation warran-
ties of fitness for a particular purpose.

Editor: Dudley R. Kay

Production Director: Susan Manning
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Cover Design: Doug Bond
Typesetting: Aptara

This book is available at special quantity discounts to use as premiums and sales promotions, or for use in
corporate training programs. For more information and quotes, please contact the publisher.

ISBN: 9781891121753

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Bouwman, Ronald.
Fundamentals of ground radar for air traffic control engineers and
technicians / Ronald Bouwman.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-891121-75-3 (hardcover : alk. paper)
1. Radar air traffic control systems. 2. Radar in aeronautics. 3.
Radar—History. 4. Radar—Equipment and supplies. I. Title.
TL696.R25B68 2009
629.136’6—dc22
2009002923

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 List of Illustrations

NOTE
All illustrations in this book are artistic depictions by the author, unless specifically annotated to the contrary. As
such, they may contain minor, but inconsequential, technical flaws. They are sufficiently accurate and adequate
for the intended purpose of conveying general theoretical information.

1–1 Junkers JU.52—the first aircraft detected by German radar ..................................................................... 3

1–2 The magnetron. Based on USAF Manual 52-3 ......................................................................................... 4
1–3 SCR-270 detected attack ........................................................................................................................... 4
1–4 Pearl Harbor, December 7, 1941 ............................................................................................................... 5
1–5 A/ N TPL-1: searchlight-directing radar .................................................................................................... 6
1–6 SCR-268: early “gun laying” radar ........................................................................................................... 6
1–7 WWII radar night fighter P-61A ............................................................................................................... 6
1–8 AN/ MPN-1 ground-controlled-approach (GCA) system ......................................................................... 7
1–9 Azimuth and elevation precision approach beam scans ............................................................................ 8
1–10 The A/N CPN-4 used in the Berlin airlift ................................................................................................. 8
1–11 Normal vs. MTI displays .......................................................................................................................... 8
1–12 Gilfillan quadradar .................................................................................................................................... 9
1–13 FAA ARSR-3 .......................................................................................................................................... 10
1–14 AN/ FPS-35 ............................................................................................................................................. 11
1–15 ASDE, AMASS, and TAIU ..................................................................................................................... 12
4–1 Basic components of a radar system ....................................................................................................... 34
4–2 “Normal” radar video on an oscilloscope ............................................................................................... 34
4–3 Displaying radar video on a crt (planned position indicator method) .................................................... 35
4–4 “Normal” video on a ppi ......................................................................................................................... 35
4–5 Simple block diagram ............................................................................................................................. 36
4–6 Beam dimensions .................................................................................................................................... 37
4–7 Forming the radiation pattern .................................................................................................................. 37
4–8 Variety of means in forming the constant-phase plane ........................................................................... 38
4–9 Isotropic versus directional power .......................................................................................................... 39
4–10 Transmitter spectrum versus receiver bandwidth .................................................................................... 40
4–11 Noise and signal power versus receiver bandwidth ................................................................................ 40
4–12 Test signal just above minimum discernible ........................................................................................... 41
4–13 The radar maximum range equation ....................................................................................................... 41
4–14 Application and manipulation of the range equation .............................................................................. 42
4–15 Variations in Rmax from a reference .......................................................................................................... 43
4–16 12-dB per octave echo attenuation curve to Rmax .................................................................................... 44
4–17 12-dB per octave stc curve with long recovery point .............................................................................. 44
4–18 Steep curve, rapid recovery ..................................................................................................................... 44
4–19 Electrical Recovery at one-half Rmax ....................................................................................................... 45
4–20 Techniques for reducing clutter returns .................................................................................................. 45
4–21 Pulse compression and diplex principles ................................................................................................ 46
4–22 Lobes and nulls formed by terrain .......................................................................................................... 46
4–23 Combining radiation patterns from two diplexed transmitters ............................................................... 47
4–24 Discrete frequencies and phased-array “beam fan” ................................................................................ 48
5–1 Simplified MTI canceler-type synthesis system ..................................................................................... 54
5–2 High voltage versus drive burst ............................................................................................................... 55
5–3 Phase detector response .......................................................................................................................... 56
xxiii
xxiv List of Illustrations

5–4 Doppler shift ........................................................................................................................................... 56

5–5 The multicavity magnetron. Based on USAF Manual 52-8 .................................................................... 57
5–6 Magnetron System Block Diagram ......................................................................................................... 58
5–7 Interfering and Non-interfering spectra .................................................................................................. 59
6–1 A generic FAA radar ............................................................................................................................... 64
6–2 Staggered fp introduces new ∆f ............................................................................................................... 65
6–3 Partial illustration. FPS-20 series transmitter HV and modulator cabinets ............................................ 67
6–4 PFN charging .......................................................................................................................................... 68
6–5 Staggered charging .................................................................................................................................. 68
6–6 FPS-20 series duplexer, bidirectional coupler, and associated hardware ................................................ 71
6–7 General waveguide switch principle, simplified ..................................................................................... 71
6–8 Major assemblies of a surveillance antenna ............................................................................................ 72
6–9 Azimuth pulse generator ......................................................................................................................... 73
6–10 Power sharing between vertical and horizontal waves ............................................................................ 74
6–11 Active–passive receive systems ............................................................................................................... 75
6–12 Recovery time measurement ................................................................................................................... 76
6–13 STC waveforms and measurements ........................................................................................................ 76
6–14 An ASR-8 STC waveform ....................................................................................................................... 77
6–15 Equivalent circuit of balanced mixer ...................................................................................................... 78
6–16 The reflex klystron. From USAF Manual 52-8 ....................................................................................... 79
6–17 Normal video .......................................................................................................................................... 80
6–18 Logarithmic versus linear amplification ................................................................................................. 80
6–19 Triangular phase detector response ......................................................................................................... 81
6–20 Quadrature phase detection ..................................................................................................................... 82
6–21 Abbreviated digital enhancer diagram .................................................................................................... 84
6–22 The effects of an integrator/enhancer ...................................................................................................... 85
6–23 Large block of video differentiated by a fast time constant .................................................................... 85
6–24 Quantized video ...................................................................................................................................... 86
6–25 Delay line ftc ........................................................................................................................................... 86
6–26 Destaggering in an analog MTI system .................................................................................................. 87
6–27 Destaggering 6-bit digital data ................................................................................................................ 88
6–28 Digital-to-analog converter ..................................................................................................................... 88
6–29 Steps on video caused by A/D and D/A conversions .............................................................................. 89
6–30 The azimuth sliding window process ...................................................................................................... 90
7–1 The second-generation ATCRBS system ................................................................................................ 99
7–2 The third-generation ATCRBS system .................................................................................................. 100
7–3 The fourth-generation ATCRBS/ARTS system .................................................................................... 101
7–4 The sliding-window process ................................................................................................................. 102
7–5 Simplified block diagram, generic ATCRBS interrogator set ............................................................... 103
7–6 Received signals in primary and secondary radars ............................................................................... 104
7–7 P1 pulse positions for modes ................................................................................................................ 104
7–8 Mode 3/A pair on an oscilloscope ........................................................................................................ 105
7–9 Mode 4 interrogation ............................................................................................................................. 105
7–10 Mode 4 reply ......................................................................................................................................... 106
7–11 MSSR simplified interrogator-receiver system ..................................................................................... 107
7–12 ATCRBS interlaced with mode S .......................................................................................................... 108
7–13 Beacon code train with A and B pulses ................................................................................................ 110
7–14 “Discrete” code train ............................................................................................................................. 111
List of Illustrations xxv

7–15 ATCRBS beacon code trains ................................................................................................................. 111

7–16 Beacon transponder controls in an aircraft cockpit ............................................................................... 112
7–17 Pulse position modulation, Mode S reply ............................................................................................. 112
7–18 Electromechanical binary encoding errors ............................................................................................ 113
7–19 Gray coding ........................................................................................................................................... 114
7–20 Altitude codes ........................................................................................................................................ 115
7–21 Modes 3/A and C interlace: transponder at Minimum Range .............................................................. 115
7–22 Range and timing, Secondary vs. Primary ............................................................................................ 116
7–23 The 5-foot array on an ASR reflector .................................................................................................... 116
7–24 Side-lobe suppression in the transponder ............................................................................................. 117
7–25 ISLS. The omni signal creates a suppression gate ................................................................................ 117
7–26 Side-lobe suppression (SLS) ................................................................................................................. 118
7–27 Improved slide-lobe suppression (ISLS) ............................................................................................... 119
7–28 An early interrogator transmitter ........................................................................................................... 120
7–29 Duty cycle and peak power calculations ............................................................................................... 120
7–30 “Ring-around” ....................................................................................................................................... 121
7–31 Raw and quantized code 16 .................................................................................................................. 121
7–32 Beacon control panel ............................................................................................................................. 122
7–33 Delay line decoder ................................................................................................................................ 122
7–34 Raw and decoded beacon ...................................................................................................................... 123
7–35 Real-time data stream into HSIB .......................................................................................................... 123
7–36 Simplified block diagram, ASR-9 beacon reply processor ................................................................... 124
7–37 Alphanumeric data blocks on a controller display. Analog ppi, alphanumerics by
the deadtime stroke generator ............................................................................................................... 125
7–38 Phantom, garble, and interleave conditions .......................................................................................... 126
7–39 The LVA antenna used in the ATCBI-6 for monopulse detection ......................................................... 128
7–40 Fixed dipole array for SCR-270 ............................................................................................................ 129
7–41 Squeezing waveguide and dipole construction ..................................................................................... 129
7–42 “Squeezing wall” varied direction of the antenna beam ....................................................................... 130
7–43 A raster-scan precision phased-array antenna using a squeezing waveguide and
slot radiators. Developed by ITT Gilfillan about 1965 ......................................................................... 131
7–44 Monopulse by amplitude ....................................................................................................................... 131
7–45 Simplified partial functional diagram. Monopulse by amplitude ......................................................... 132
7–46 Phase detector response ........................................................................................................................ 135
7–47 Aircraft takeoff. Tower comm and assingned code 1203 ...................................................................... 136
7–48 Aircraft cockpit in turn .......................................................................................................................... 136
7–49 Handoff, departure control comn, and reply code 1203 ....................................................................... 136
7–50 Boeing 777 at 12 o’clock ...................................................................................................................... 137
7–51 En Route. Flight following by ARTCC ................................................................................................. 138
8–1 Guiding waves. From USAF Manual 52-8 ........................................................................................... 144
8–2 Spacings, coax versus circular waveguide. From USAF Manual 52-8 ................................................. 145
8–3 Insulating the two-wire line. From USAF Manual 52-8 ....................................................................... 146
8–4 Development of waveguide by adding λ /4 sections. From USAF Manual 52-8 .................................. 147
8–5 Effect of different frequencies on the waveguide. From USAF Manual 52-8 ...................................... 147
8–6 Electric fields, condensor plates, and a two-wire line. From USAF Manual 52-8 ............................... 148
8–7 Magnitude of fields on half-wave frames very with strength of field on mail line.
From USAF Manual 52-8 ..................................................................................................................... 149
8–8 e-Field in waveguide. From USAF Manual 52-8 .................................................................................. 149
xxvi List of Illustrations

8–9 Developing the waveguide h-field. From USAF Manual 52-8 ............................................................. 150
8–10 Magnetic fields in a three-half-wavelength waveguide. Form USAF Manual 52-8 ............................. 150
8–11 Both e- and h-fields shown. From USAF Manual 52-8 ........................................................................ 151
8–12 Another field configuration. From USAF Manual 52-8 ........................................................................ 152
8–13 Field radiated by antenna. From USAF Manual 52-8 ........................................................................... 152
8–14 Fields must satisfy boundary conditions. From USAF Manual 52-8 ................................................... 152
8–15 Fitting a field into a waveguide. From USAF Manual 52-8 ................................................................. 153
8–16 Wavefront paths. From USAF Manual 52-8 ......................................................................................... 153
8–17 Wavefront crossing angles. From USAF Manual 52-8 ......................................................................... 153
8–18 Relation of phase, group, and wavefront velocities. From USAF Manual 52-8 ................................... 154
8–19 Trigonometric relationships. From USAF Manual 52-8 ....................................................................... 155
8–20 Counting wavelengths to number modes. From USAF Manual 52-8 ................................................... 155
8–21 A variety of modes. From USAF Manual 52-8 ..................................................................................... 156
8–22 Waveguide excitation by the electric field. From USAF Manual 52-8 ................................................. 157
8–23 Magnetic excitation. From USAF Manual 52-8 ................................................................................... 157
8–24 Electromagnetic excitation. From USAF Manual 52-8 ........................................................................ 158
8–25 Waveguide bends. From USAF Manual 52-8 ....................................................................................... 159
8–26 90° twist. From USAF Manual 52-8 ..................................................................................................... 159
8–27 Choke joint. From USAF Manual 52-8 ................................................................................................ 159
8–28 Circular rotary joint. From USAF Manual 52-8 ................................................................................... 160
8–29 Rectangular-Guide rotary joint. From USAF Manual 52-8 .................................................................. 160
8–30 T-Junctions. From USAF Manual 52-8 ................................................................................................. 161
8–31 Magic tee ............................................................................................................................................... 161
8–32 The anti-transmit-receive (ATR) switch. From USAF Manual 52-8 .................................................... 162
8–33 ATR tube in FPS-20 series ARSR duplexer .......................................................................................... 162
8–34 Reactive plates. From USAF Manual 52-8 ........................................................................................... 163
8–35 Waveguide terminations. From USAF Manual 52-8 ............................................................................. 164
8–36 Ref lecting terminations. From USAF Manual 52-8 ............................................................................. 164
8–37 Developing a resonant cavity from λ/4 sections. From USAF Manual 52-8 ........................................ 165
8–38 Voltages, currents, and fields in a cavity. From USAF Manual 52-8 .................................................... 165
8–39 Some cavity types. From USAF Manual 52-8 ...................................................................................... 166
8–40 Cavity excitation methods. From USAF Manual 52-8 ......................................................................... 166
8–41 Cavity tuning methods. From USAF Manual 52-8 ............................................................................... 167
8–42 Cavity applications. From USAF Manual 52-8 .................................................................................... 167
8–43 Z-Matching cavities. From USAF Manual 52-8 ................................................................................... 168
8–44 An early-day echo box. From USAF Manual 52-8 ............................................................................... 169
8–45 Echo box ringtime ................................................................................................................................. 169
8–46 Echo box and aircraft radar. From USAF Manual 52-8 ........................................................................ 169
8–47 Early airborne radar waveguide system. From USAF Manual 52-8 ..................................................... 170
8–48 An early frequency meter. From USAF Manual 52-8 ........................................................................... 171
8–49 Slotted line. From USAF Manual 52-8 ................................................................................................. 171
8–50 The directional coupler ......................................................................................................................... 172
8–51 The bidirectional coupler used in the FPS-20 series ARSRs ................................................................ 172
8–52 Echo box ringtime on normal video ...................................................................................................... 173
8–53 Echo box ringtime at the phase detector output .................................................................................... 174
8–54 Echo box ringing, incoherent MTI ........................................................................................................ 174
9–1 Typical timing signals in an ASR radar ................................................................................................ 178
9–2 MTI comparator temporal error ............................................................................................................ 179
List of Illustrations xxvii

9–3 The circulating trigger loop ................................................................................................................. 180

9–4 Phase detector response, bipolar video, and A/D ................................................................................ 180
9–5 ASR-8 A/D (Quantizer) timing signals ............................................................................................... 181
9–6 Basic timing block diagram, digital MTI ............................................................................................ 182
9–7 ASR-9 CPI pair ................................................................................................................................... 184
9–8 Range-to-batch conversion .................................................................................................................. 187
9–9 Cross-channel interference .................................................................................................................. 190
10–1 Amplitude modulation and spectrum .................................................................................................. 196
10–2 Distortion of carrier by modulation ................................................................................................... 197
10–3 Frequency mixing and resultant .......................................................................................................... 197
10–4 Additional frequencies and sidebands ................................................................................................. 198
10–5 Modulation percentage. Pulse modulation .......................................................................................... 198
10–6 Harmonics and resultant. Combining harmonics to form a pulse ....................................................... 199
10–7 Plot of sin x/x, x in radians .................................................................................................................. 200
10–8 Sin x/x to 3π ........................................................................................................................................ 200
10–9 Harmonic amplitude to 3π .................................................................................................................. 201
10–10 Pulse-modulated transmitter spectrum ................................................................................................ 202
10–11 Time versus frequency domains .......................................................................................................... 202
10–12 Spectrum analyzer, simplified illustration .......................................................................................... 204
10–13 Spectrum analyzer displays, 1-µs transmitter burst ............................................................................ 205
10–14 System stability display, received spectrum ........................................................................................ 206
10–15 A three-cavity klystron ........................................................................................................................ 207
10–16 Bifilar pulse transformer and filament transformer ............................................................................. 208
10–17 Tuning diaphragm ............................................................................................................................... 208
10–18 Electron group passing through cavity ................................................................................................ 209
10–19 Detected bursts .................................................................................................................................... 210
10–20 ASR-9 transmitter. Based on FAA TI 6310.25 ................................................................................... 212
10–21 HV versus drive burst relationship ...................................................................................................... 213
10–22 The reflex klystron. Redrawn from USAF Manual 101-8 .................................................................. 214
10–23 The magnetron. Some parts from USAF 52-8 ................................................................................... 215
10–24 “Bottle” analogy from WWII. Based on a U.S. War Department Training Film
Army Service Forces T.F. 11 1385 ...................................................................................................... 216
10–25 Behavior of an electron in motion, in magnetic and electric fields ..................................................... 217
10–26 Cycloidal paths .................................................................................................................................... 219
10–27 Magnetron operation ........................................................................................................................... 220
10–28 Magnetron modes of operation ........................................................................................................... 221
10–29 Strapping and alternate cavity sizing .................................................................................................. 221
10–30 Operating parameters and characteristics. Redrawn. Based on FAA Academy
Radar Oscillators Manual FR-205. Undated: issued November 1962 ................................................ 222
10–31 The amplitron ...................................................................................................................................... 223
10–32 Series resonant charging, thyratron switch ......................................................................................... 224
10–33 ASR-4/5/6 modulator .......................................................................................................................... 225
10–34 Voltage propagation on a line .............................................................................................................. 228
10–35 Charging the line ................................................................................................................................. 229
10–36 Artificial line ....................................................................................................................................... 230
10–37 Terminated in a Zο match .................................................................................................................... 231
10–38 Shorted termination ............................................................................................................................. 231
10–39 Termination in an open circuit ............................................................................................................ 232
xxviii List of Illustrations

10–40 Reflections when charging a mismatched line .................................................................................... 233

10–41 Discharging a mismatched, open-ended line ...................................................................................... 234
10–42 Inductive charge, resistance discharge, pfn voltage ............................................................................ 236
10–43 Staggered charging .............................................................................................................................. 236
11–1 Spectrum versus bandpass .................................................................................................................. 246
11–2 Signal-to-noise ratio ............................................................................................................................ 246
11–3 Noise, signal, S/N ratio versus ∆ƒ ...................................................................................................... 247
11–4 Test signal just above mds ................................................................................................................... 247
11–5 Noise and gains ................................................................................................................................... 248
11–6 The parametric amplifier ..................................................................................................................... 249
11–7 Solar noise strobe on ppi ..................................................................................................................... 250
11–9 Preselector, rf amplifier, and i-f preamplifier added ........................................................................... 251
11–8 Basic receiver components .................................................................................................................. 251
11–10 Double conversion .............................................................................................................................. 252
11–11 Multiple i-f signals from coded transmitter burst ............................................................................... 252
11–12 Superheterodyne phase detection ........................................................................................................ 253
11–13 Phase-detector response and radar bipolar video ................................................................................ 253
11–14 Equivalent circuit of a signal mixer .................................................................................................... 253
11–15 Beating two frequencies for a resultant .............................................................................................. 254
11–16 The detector crystal ............................................................................................................................. 255
11–17 The magic tee double-balanced mixer ................................................................................................ 255
11–18 Crystal current meter circuit in preamplifier ....................................................................................... 256
11–19 Generic swept-bandpass afc circuit .................................................................................................... 256
11–20 Swept-bandpass principle ................................................................................................................... 257
11–21 afc corrections appearing on ppi ......................................................................................................... 258
11–22 Precise tuning with an echo box ......................................................................................................... 258
11–23 Fundamental discriminator principle .................................................................................................. 259
11–24 Responses synchronous versus quads ................................................................................................. 259
11–25 Normal video pn an oscilloscope ........................................................................................................ 260
11–26 The logarithmic gain principle ............................................................................................................ 261
11–27 Logarithmic and linear video .............................................................................................................. 262
11–28 The “butterfly.” .................................................................................................................................... 263
11–29 Triangular phase-detector response ..................................................................................................... 263
11–30 Rectangular coordinate data ................................................................................................................ 265
11–31 The ASR-9 i-f amplifier, abbreviated .................................................................................................. 266
11–32 “Sweeping” the receiver ...................................................................................................................... 267
11–33 Oscilloscope presentations, four receiver videos ................................................................................ 270
11–34 Strobes of clutter residue .................................................................................................................... 271
12–1 Upward shift, whistle on approaching train ........................................................................................ 278
12–2 Whistle frequency decreases as train departs ...................................................................................... 278
12–3 Radial velocity .................................................................................................................................... 279
12–4 Synthesis system block diagram ......................................................................................................... 281
12–5 Phase-detector response and bipolar video ......................................................................................... 282
12–6 i-f echo phase determined by signal versus stalo phases .................................................................... 283
12–7 No phase difference, coho versus i-f ................................................................................................... 284
12–8 180° phase difference, coho versus i-f ................................................................................................ 284
12–9 Phase difference between two frequencies ......................................................................................... 285
12–10 Synthesis MTI system ......................................................................................................................... 286
List of Illustrations xxix

12–11 c-w and pulsed Doppler shifts ............................................................................................................. 287

12–12 Doppler frequency versus ∆φ .............................................................................................................. 288
12–13 The “butterfly” .................................................................................................................................... 289
12–14 Blind and optimum velocities ............................................................................................................. 290
12–15 Staggered ƒp introduces ∆(∆ƒ) ............................................................................................................ 291
12–16 Freeway traffic on a ppi ...................................................................................................................... 291
12–17 Blind phases ........................................................................................................................................ 292
12–18 Quadrature phase-detector responses .................................................................................................. 293
12–19 Quadrature cancelers and combiner .................................................................................................... 294
12–20 Triangular phase-detector response ..................................................................................................... 294
12–21 Single canceler velocity response envelope, sinusoidal input ............................................................. 295
12–22 Cascaded cancelers (digital MTI system) ........................................................................................... 295
12–23 Adjusting the shape with cascade and feedback ................................................................................. 296
12–24 Bipolar to unipolar conversion ............................................................................................................ 296
12–25 Swept audio in and out of a canceler .................................................................................................. 297
12–26 Sine waves applied to canceler ........................................................................................................... 298
12–27 Single phase-detector velocity response shape ................................................................................... 299
12–28 Quadrature velocity response .............................................................................................................. 299
12–29 An MTI reflector ................................................................................................................................. 300
12–30 Coherent versus incoherent phase detector outputs ............................................................................ 300
12–31 The magnetron system ........................................................................................................................ 301
12–32 Echo box phase-detector video ........................................................................................................... 301
12–33 Locked test pulse generator ................................................................................................................ 302
12–34 Locked test pulses ............................................................................................................................... 303
12–35 Composite video test target train ........................................................................................................ 303
12–36 Canceled cvtt train .............................................................................................................................. 304
12–37 “Live” phase detector and canceled videos ......................................................................................... 304
12–38 The limited velocity response shape ................................................................................................... 305
12–39 Unipolar video gain control ................................................................................................................ 305
12–40 Phase detector response, limited i-f versus unlimited i-f amplifier ..................................................... 306
12–41 Phase pulling in i-f amplifier ............................................................................................................... 306
12–42 Complex doppler echoes ..................................................................................................................... 307
12–43 Residue when antenna first scans onto a clutter block ........................................................................ 308
12–44 Payoff adjustment ............................................................................................................................... 309
12–45 Clutter strength photos ........................................................................................................................ 310
12–46 Subclutter-visibility measurement ...................................................................................................... 311
12–47 Echo box cancellation ratio ................................................................................................................. 312
12–48 i-f cancellation ratio ............................................................................................................................ 314
12–49 Velocity response for two ƒps .............................................................................................................. 315
12–50 Effects on the velocity response shape with staggered ƒps ................................................................. 316
12–51 Weather over canceled clutter ............................................................................................................. 317
13–1 Synchronizer circuits .......................................................................................................................... 326
13–2 Digital “precanceler” circuits .............................................................................................................. 327
13–3 The primary quantizer ......................................................................................................................... 328
13–4 Canceler data paths ............................................................................................................................. 329
13–5 Details, a digital canceler .................................................................................................................... 331
13–6 Baseline shifting, analog and digital ................................................................................................... 332
13–7 “Double-carry” to protect the polarity bits ......................................................................................... 332
xxx List of Illustrations

13–8 The canceler “subtractor” circuit ........................................................................................................ 333

13–9 Velocity response shapes ..................................................................................................................... 334
13–10 Ramp testing ....................................................................................................................................... 335
13–11 After-cancellation circuitry ................................................................................................................. 336
13–12 Logarithmic scaling, in analog for conceptual visualization .............................................................. 337
13–13 Logarithmic scaling and ftc circuitry .................................................................................................. 338
13–14 Range sliding window ......................................................................................................................... 339
13–15 The “hole filler.” .................................................................................................................................. 340
13–16 Normalization/antilog circuitry ........................................................................................................... 341
13–17 Leading edge, velocity response shape, enhancer on and off ............................................................. 342
14–1 MTI versus MTD displays .................................................................................................................. 348
14–2 An analog doppler filter system .......................................................................................................... 348
14–3 CPIP comparison ................................................................................................................................ 349
14–4 Simplified block diagram, ASR-9 MTD system ................................................................................. 351
14–5 Synchronous detector output ............................................................................................................... 352
14–6 Synchronous phase-detector response ................................................................................................ 353
14–7 Filter responses for two CPIs .............................................................................................................. 354
14–8 Filter-magnitude function ................................................................................................................... 355
14–9 Range-order to batch-order conversion ............................................................................................... 356
14–10 A rotating coefficient vector ................................................................................................................ 356
14–11 Filter math ........................................................................................................................................... 358
14–12 Product accumulation .......................................................................................................................... 359
14–13 Filter data output message sequencing ............................................................................................... 360
14–14 Target and two-level W×, block diagram ............................................................................................ 362
14–15 Distribution of filter data into the MLT RAMs ................................................................................... 363
14–16 CFAR threshold development ............................................................................................................. 364
14–17 Mean level averaging .......................................................................................................................... 365
14–18 Filter data BRC versus thresholds versus flags ................................................................................... 366
14–19 Geocensor threshold “amilies.” ........................................................................................................... 367
14–20 Range detection blocks ....................................................................................................................... 368
14–21 Output messages to the C&I process .................................................................................................. 369
14–22 Two-level weather detector and clutter gating .................................................................................... 372
14–23 C&I program block diagram ............................................................................................................... 373
14–24 Graphic depiction, second adaptive map ............................................................................................ 375
14–25 Adaptive map maintenance display ..................................................................................................... 376
14–26 Target performance display ................................................................................................................. 377
14–27 Surveillance processor track scoring ................................................................................................... 378
14–28 Correlated versus uncorrelated display targets ................................................................................... 379
14–29 Output primary radar message ............................................................................................................ 380
15–1 An FAA ppi/rappi display ................................................................................................................... 386
15–2 Electromagnetic and electrostatic crts ................................................................................................ 386
15–3 The three dimensions .......................................................................................................................... 387
15–4 Type “A” display ................................................................................................................................. 387
15–5 Type “J” display .................................................................................................................................. 387
15–6 Type “B” display ................................................................................................................................. 388
15–7 Az–El type “B” display ....................................................................................................................... 388
15–8 Type “C” display ................................................................................................................................. 388
15–9 Type “E” display ................................................................................................................................. 389
List of Illustrations xxxi

15–10 Type “E” Az–El display ...................................................................................................................... 389

15–11 Type “G” display ................................................................................................................................. 389
15–12 Type “P” display (aka “ppi”) ............................................................................................................... 390
15–13 Random-access ppi (rappi) symbol display ........................................................................................ 390
15–14 Air traffic control alphanumeric rappi ................................................................................................. 390
15–15 Drawing symbols or characters on a rappi with X and Y strokes ....................................................... 391
15–16 A radar television display .................................................................................................................... 391
15–17 Scan conversion .................................................................................................................................. 392
15–18 BRITE equipment ............................................................................................................................... 392
15–19 Reconstituted data, synthetic real-time ppi, ASR-9 SCIP ................................................................... 393
15–20 Mechanically rotated deflection coil ................................................................................................... 393
15–21 Simplified rotating-yoke ppi ............................................................................................................... 394
15–22 The electromagnetic crt ....................................................................................................................... 394
15–23 Using a portion of an R–C network charge for sweep generation ...................................................... 397
15–24 The phantastron circuit ........................................................................................................................ 398
15–25 Generating a linear ramp with a clock counter ................................................................................... 399
15–26 Sweep and unblanking gates ............................................................................................................... 399
15–27 Sweep speed increases at outer edge .................................................................................................. 400
15–28 MTI/normal range gate ....................................................................................................................... 401
15–29 The synchro ......................................................................................................................................... 401
15–30 Simple synchro system ....................................................................................................................... 402
15–31 Control transformer, two-phase motor, and tachometer ..................................................................... 402
15–32 A two-speed synchro system, partial diagram .................................................................................... 403
15–33 Pythagorean theorem and sin2θ + cos2θ = 1 ........................................................................................ 404
15–34 Visualizing the trigonometric functions applied to the azimuth of a ppi display ................................ 405
15–35 Fixed coil sweep deflection ................................................................................................................. 406
15–36 sin–cos sweep modulation with azimuth data ..................................................................................... 407
15–37 Electron beam forced upward ............................................................................................................. 407
15–38 Sweep resolver .................................................................................................................................... 408
15–39 Generic sin–cos azimuth data converter ............................................................................................. 409
15–40 Complementing address and/or output produces all four quadrants of sine–cosine data ................... 410
15–41 Deflection strokes for the character “A.” ............................................................................................. 410
15–42 “Accelerating” real time to display 55 nm of data in 1/5 the time ...................................................... 411
15–43 ARTSIIE video time compression ...................................................................................................... 411
15–44 Alignment verifications ....................................................................................................................... 412
15–45 Multiplying D/A converters ................................................................................................................ 413
15–46 Range resolution ................................................................................................................................. 413
15–47 Generic digital deflection block diagram, ppi/rappi display ............................................................... 415
15–48 Noncircular display errors ................................................................................................................... 416
15–49 Second-generation video map unit ...................................................................................................... 417
15–50 Map timing errors ............................................................................................................................... 418
15–51 Visual depiction of a digital scan converter memory .......................................................................... 419
15–52 Square, flat-faced crt ........................................................................................................................... 419
15–53 Using the tangent or cotangent for maximum excursion .................................................................... 420
15–54 ASR-9 message formats ...................................................................................................................... 423
15–55 Abbreviated diagram, ASR-9 SCIP ..................................................................................................... 424
xxxii List of Illustrations

A–1 Type “A” display ................................................................................................................................. 429

A–2 Az-El display ........................................................................................................................................ 431
A–3 Type B display ...................................................................................................................................... 432
A–4 NTSC sync signal ................................................................................................................................. 432
A–5 Black-hole video .................................................................................................................................. 433
A–6 Blocking oscillator ............................................................................................................................... 434
A–7 The “Butterfly.” .................................................................................................................................... 435
A–8 Type C display ...................................................................................................................................... 435
A–9 Ground clutter ...................................................................................................................................... 436
A–10 Composite video test target train .......................................................................................................... 437
A–11 Doppler shift ........................................................................................................................................ 438
A–12 Type E display ...................................................................................................................................... 439
A–13 EIA television sync and blanking ........................................................................................................ 441
A–14 Type “G” display .................................................................................................................................. 441
A–15 Trigger and gate ................................................................................................................................... 441
A–16 Type “J” display ................................................................................................................................... 443
A–17 Magic tee .............................................................................................................................................. 444
A–18 Normal video and terms ....................................................................................................................... 445
A–19 Test signal slightly greater than mds .................................................................................................... 445
A–20 Mode pair spacings. (Modes S and 4 not shown.) ............................................................................... 446
A–21 NTSC commercial television standard ................................................................................................. 448
A–22 Normal video on a ppi .......................................................................................................................... 449
A–23 Generic phase lock loop in a frequency generator ............................................................................... 450
A–24 ppi display ............................................................................................................................................ 451
A–25 Pulse position modulation in a Mode S transponder reply .................................................................. 451
A–26 Scan conversion tube ............................................................................................................................ 453
A–27 RAPPI symbol display ......................................................................................................................... 454
A–28 Range resolution .................................................................................................................................. 454
A–29 Reflex klystron. Redrawn from USAF Manual 101.8 .......................................................................... 455
A–30 Running rabbits .................................................................................................................................... 456
A–31 Schmitt trigger ...................................................................................................................................... 456
A–32 Vertical serrations ................................................................................................................................. 457
A–33 Signal-to-noise ratio ............................................................................................................................. 457
A–34 Pulsed radar spectrum .......................................................................................................................... 458
A–35 Synchronous versus stagger tuning ...................................................................................................... 459
A–36 Synchro. From US Navy Basic Electricity Rote Training Manual
NAVPERS 10086-B 1969 Edition ....................................................................................................... 459
A–37 Thresholding ........................................................................................................................................ 461
 Preface

This text and reference has been written for use by technicians and engineers of a wide variety of ages, educa-
tional backgrounds, and experience in work with electronics equipment. Radar is a wide and diverse field, and air
traffic control ground radar is but a small yet important part of that field. It is the only subject of this book. The
content has evolved from the author’s fifty years of learning, teaching, writing about, and working on ground ra-
dar systems. It is an assemblage of previously documented knowledge, carefully reconstructed into a logical order
and progression, and, it is hoped, restated in a manner especially understandable to the technician. It has been
my purpose, after all, to write and illustrate in order to teach, not to impress. The way to make work enjoyable is
to make it interesting, and the way to be competent is to learn all that one can learn. Thus I have tried to capital-
ize on my accumulated knowledge to make this book interesting, comprehensive, and set within the context of
the great pioneers who led the way. So with this book I hope to have attained my primary objective: to create a
single training foundation that will stand on its own as a reference source, without reckless revision, abridgement,
and “dumbing down” to mere tasks and procedures.

Rationale for the book

As a long-time technician, technical writer, artist, and technical instructor, I have witnessed a growing need
for a standard reference for FAA and military air traffic control radar technicians. Even though radar theory has
grown to enormous heights since the first air traffic control radars were deployed under the emergency of World
War II, technical knowledge among technicans has been in decline. This is the result of increasing sophistication,
particularly circuit miniaturization and integration and also computer-terminal interfaces with radar systems.
The “down side” has been an evolution of a technical approach away from knowledge-based problem solution
to the simpler remedies of lowest-replaceable units (LRU). Under the current approach, radars are restored more
rapidly, but costs and waste are increasing. The result has been fewer technicians, maintaining a growing number
of systems, knowing less about their equipment. While employed by the government, my efforts to encourage
the early pride in knowledge of radar pioneers were only marginally successful. My solution was to create a per-
manent indestructible record of all I had learned and experienced for those who would follow me. Accordingly,
I worked long hours to self-publish Radar Systems for Technicians in 1994, two years after my retirement from
the FAA, and I began selling it in 1996. By 2006, USAF Colonel Kerry Bowers, a radar training instructor, had
purchased a copy and recommended it to Mr. Dudley Kay, President of SciTech Publishing, a leader in radar book
publishing and distribution, particularly airborne radar. I had already been considering a second edition to include
more latter-day technology, and I began this work immediately after conferring with Mr. Kay, and his enthusiasm
for a ground radar book, in the fall of 2006.

Organization
To begin using this book, you may find it helpful to know a little about its design and intent. Although it is orga-
nized for a progressive study from front to back, each chapter has been designed to stand alone for your future
reference. That intent causes some repetition but relieves you of the need to leave the chapter to find background
information.
The book begins with an interesting introduction of the history of radar, oriented, of course, toward air traffic
control systems. Chapter Two deals with professional ethics. Chapter Three introduces the use and manipula-
tion of deciBels, fundamentally essential to all radar engineers and technicians. The fourth chapter is about
the basic physical scientific principles of radar. Chapter Five divides air traffic control “primary” radar into
two major types, the original “magnetron” system, and the performance-superior, but more costly, “synthesis”
system. Chapter Six is a block-diagram-level discussion of a hypothetical air traffic control surveillance radar,
acquainting the reader with hardware and terminology. Chapter Seven provides substantial information on “sec-
ondary” radar principles, evolution, and hardware. Chapter Eight is based on waveguide and cavity theory ob-
tained from USAF Manual 52-8, published in 1951, supplemented with commentary on modern-day hardware.
Chapter Nine addresses synchronizers, somewhat limited to general principles because of the great variety of
system design requirements. Chapter Ten, on transmitters, contains information on dc line-charging, magnetrons,

xxxiii
xxxiv Preface

power klystrons, and more. Chapter Eleven introduces receiver design and hardware, with particular attention to
the effects of noise and bandwidth. Chapter Twelve delves into basic MTI concepts, its ties to Doppler theory,
and the development of velocity response to moving targets. Chapter Thirteen is based on an ASR-8 digital
MTI system to illustrate an application of the theories introduced in Chapters Eleven and Twelve. Chapter
Fourteen explains the ASR-9 MTD system, the late 1980’s Doppler-filter, and greatest improvements to earlier
MTI systems. Chapter Fifteen describes radar indicator (display) methods from the earliest WWII displays to
the current digital scan converters. Each chapter of the book concludes with a set of questions and answers im-
mediately following to allow the reader to check his understanding.

Glossary and Appendices

An annotated glossary of many radar terms and acronyms is located in the back of the book. A brief explanation
is provided for each term, and references to pages in the book are offered for those items addressed in the text. In
some cases, illustrations are provided, and in other cases, there is some treatment of subject matter not contained
in the text. Should you encounter something unfamiliar, you may find additional information in the glossary, and
it may direct you to other places in the text, making a time-consuming search unnecessary.
You may find other information in the appendices useful. There is a listing of several radar equations, of
Greek symbols, and of conversions and constants. Most don’t use trigonometry frequently enough to remember
all the identity relationships, so there is a quick reference to assist you in recalling them. Should you not remem-
ber or recognize the application of a trigonometric equation, you may wish to consult a trigonometry textbook.
This book is intentionally general in nature and could be no more without becoming something approaching
the size of an encyclopedia. After WWII, such an “encyclopedia of radar” called the MIT Radiation Labora-
tory Series was written as a multi-book series. By this time, those twenty-some volumes based on vacuum-tube
theories are mostly valuable as interesting archives, even though much of the physics and mathematics are still
valid. Should you wish greater detail and depth, look for publications addressing specific areas of radar theory.
Many fine radar publications are offered on the SciTech Publishing website. No two radar systems are identical,
and learning all the detailed theory of operation of a single system requires the manufacturer’s instruction book.
There are many fundamental ideas and design concepts contained here that will help you to rapidly comprehend
the manufacturer’s design and reasoning,

Summary of Features
• To assure that this book will be useful, long after the technician has completed training, the book is a single
ground radar reference source, containing definitions, equations, conversions, and useful data
• Built-in aids for self-learning: chapter questions with answers, extensive glossary, data appendices
• The book may very well contain the most thorough, yet simply understandable, information available any-
where on MTI, MTD, and Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon Systems
• The book contains a unique thorough treatment of the development of the radar maximum range equation and
the effects upon maximum range by variations within the equation
• To encourage the development of professional pride, responsibility, and quest for knowledge, the book in-
cludes rarely included chapters on professional ethics and history
This book is intended only as general information. Neither I nor SciTech assume any liability for reduced
equipment performance resulting from its use. Radar engineers or technicians must always follow the manufac-
turer’s instruction books and/or official government directives to align, repair, and evaluate radar systems. Great
care has been taken to achieve accuracy in this book. However, should any errors or oversights be discovered by
readers, students, or instructors, the author assumes responsibility for them, and invites your feedback. This is
important in helping us to better future printings or editions.
 Table of Contents

List of Illustrations ................................................................................................................................ xxiii

Preface .................................................................................................................................................. xxxiii
Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................................. xxxv

Chapter 1 Radar’s Rich History and Development 1

The Basic Physical Science ............................................................................................................ 1
Propagation of Electrical Waves...................................................................................................... 1
Inventions in Early Radio Communications ................................................................................... 2
Radiolocation .................................................................................................................................. 2
Pulsed Radar.................................................................................................................................... 2
The Cathode Ray Tube .................................................................................................................... 3
Radar Developments from 1930 through 1940 ............................................................................... 3
Microwave Radar and “The Greatest Shipment” ............................................................................ 4
The Pearl Harbor Surprise Attack ................................................................................................... 4
The Reflex Klystron ........................................................................................................................ 5
The Explosion of Radar Science in World War II .......................................................................... 5
Electronic Countermeasures and Aircraft Identification ................................................................ 6
The Landing Radar ......................................................................................................................... 7
The Berlin Airlift ............................................................................................................................ 9
GCA and Civilian Air Traffic Control ............................................................................................ 9
Other Air Traffic Control Radars .................................................................................................. 10
Ground-Controlled Intercept (GCI) Radar Systems .................................................................... 10
Air Route Surveillance Radar (ARSR) ........................................................................................ 10
The Joint-Use ARSR Program ..................................................................................................... 10
Airport Surface Detection Equipment (ASDE) ............................................................................ 12
Review Questions ......................................................................................................................... 14
Answers to Review Questions ...................................................................................................... 15

Chapter 2 The Professional Radar Engineer/Technician ..................................................... 17

“Professional” .............................................................................................................................. 17
Radar Technicians in World War II .............................................................................................. 17
The Korean War ............................................................................................................................ 18
The Post-Korean Period ............................................................................................................... 18
The Division of Professions ......................................................................................................... 18
The Scientific Approach ............................................................................................................... 18
Webster’s Dictionary Definition of “Scientific” ........................................................................... 20
Observing the Electronic Event in Question ................................................................................ 20
Using Standard Language ............................................................................................................ 20
Guesswork .................................................................................................................................... 20
Making Up Your Own Stories ...................................................................................................... 20
Ego Versus Truth .......................................................................................................................... 20
Mathematics and Radar ................................................................................................................ 21
Talents Required of the Radar Technician ................................................................................... 21
Professional Responsibility .......................................................................................................... 22
Review Questions ......................................................................................................................... 23
Answers to Review Questions ...................................................................................................... 24

vii
viii Table of Contents

Chapter 3 Logarithms, DeciBels, and Power ....................................................................... 25

The DeciBel ................................................................................................................................. 25
Logarithms ................................................................................................................................... 25
DeciBels to Express Gain or Attenuation ..................................................................................... 25
Expression of Power in dBW or dBm .......................................................................................... 26
Using dBm or dBW in Combination with dB .............................................................................. 27
Mental Approximations ................................................................................................................ 27
Actual Attenuation of Devices ..................................................................................................... 28
Peak and Average Power Measurement. ...................................................................................... 28
Half-Power and 70% Amplitude .................................................................................................. 29
Decibels in Voltage (dBV) ............................................................................................................ 29
Review Questions ......................................................................................................................... 30
Answers to Review Questions ...................................................................................................... 31

Chapter 4 The Science Behind Radar ................................................................................... 33

Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 33
Echo Time .................................................................................................................................... 33
Synchronization ............................................................................................................................ 33
Displaying the Received Echoes .................................................................................................. 34
Deadtime ...................................................................................................................................... 34
Summary of the Basic Radar Principle ........................................................................................ 35
Repetition Rate and Period ........................................................................................................... 36
Radar Detection Range ................................................................................................................ 36
The Antenna Radiation Pattern (Beam) ....................................................................................... 37
The Isotopic Source Reference .................................................................................................... 37
The Antenna Gain (Gt) ................................................................................................................. 39
Aperture ........................................................................................................................................ 39
Attenuation of the Echo ............................................................................................................... 39
Receiver Sensitivity (Pr (min)) ......................................................................................................... 39
Radar Maximum Range ............................................................................................................... 41
12 dB per Octave Curves .............................................................................................................. 42
Other Methods for Ground Clutter Reduction ............................................................................. 43
Mitigations to the Range Equation ............................................................................................... 44
CHIRP .......................................................................................................................................... 44
Diplexed Transmitters .................................................................................................................. 45
Rmax and stc in Secondary Radars ................................................................................................. 47
Rmax Inversely Proportional to Transmitter Frequency ................................................................. 47
More Forms of CHIRP ................................................................................................................. 47
Review Questions ......................................................................................................................... 49
Answers to Review Questions ...................................................................................................... 50

Chapter 5 Magnetron versus Synthesis ................................................................................ 53

Synthesis System Block Diagram ................................................................................................ 53
Stalo–Coho–Transmitter Phase Relationships ............................................................................. 54
The Transmitter Burst .................................................................................................................. 55
Phase Detection ............................................................................................................................ 55
The MTI Canceler ........................................................................................................................ 55
The Magnetron System ................................................................................................................ 56
Coherence ..................................................................................................................................... 56
Automatic Frequency Control (afc) ............................................................................................. 57
Table of Contents ix

Radar System Frequencies, Applications, and Ranges ................................................................ 58

Component Size versus the Applied Voltage ................................................................................ 58
Receiver Bandwidth and Range Resolution ................................................................................. 59
Doppler Shift ................................................................................................................................ 59
Spectrum and Interference ........................................................................................................... 59
Radar Type Designations .............................................................................................................. 59
New Band Designation ................................................................................................................. 60
Review Questions ......................................................................................................................... 61
Answers to Review Questions ...................................................................................................... 62

Chapter 6 Circuitry and Hardware ...................................................................................... 63

A Generic System ........................................................................................................................ 63
Other Types .................................................................................................................................. 63
Data Processing ............................................................................................................................ 63
The Coherent Oscillator (Coho) ................................................................................................... 64
Countdown Circuitry .................................................................................................................... 65
The Range Cell Counter ............................................................................................................... 65
The Timing Programmed Read-Only Memory (PROM) ............................................................. 65
The Stagger Circuitry and PROM ................................................................................................ 65
The Modulator Trigger ................................................................................................................. 65
Danger! ........................................................................................................................................ 65
The Transmitter Modulator .......................................................................................................... 66
The Pulse Transformer ................................................................................................................. 66
The Filament Power Supply ......................................................................................................... 66
The Charging Diode ..................................................................................................................... 68
The High-Voltage Power Supply .................................................................................................. 68
The Switch ................................................................................................................................... 68
The ASR-8 Magnetic Modulator .................................................................................................. 69
The Power Klystron Tube ............................................................................................................ 69
The Exciter and rf Driver ............................................................................................................. 70
The Duplexer ................................................................................................................................ 70
The Four-Port Circulator .............................................................................................................. 70
Directional Coupler ...................................................................................................................... 71
The Waveguide Switch ................................................................................................................. 71
Three Modes of a Radar Channel ................................................................................................ 72
The Antenna ................................................................................................................................. 72
The Azimuth Pulse Generator (apg) ............................................................................................. 73
Aligning the apg ........................................................................................................................... 73
Newer 16,384-ACP Generators .................................................................................................... 73
The Rotary Joint ........................................................................................................................... 74
Antenna Polarization and Control ................................................................................................ 74
The Basic Principle of Circular Polarization ............................................................................... 74
Active and Passive Feedhorns ...................................................................................................... 75
The T-R Device ............................................................................................................................ 75
The stc Module ............................................................................................................................. 76
The Beam Switch ......................................................................................................................... 77
The Preselector Filter ................................................................................................................... 77
The Low-Noise Amplifier (lna) .................................................................................................... 77
The Crystal Mixer ........................................................................................................................ 78
The Preamplifier ........................................................................................................................... 78
The Stalo ...................................................................................................................................... 78
x Table of Contents

The i-f Amplifiers ......................................................................................................................... 79

The Normal i-f Amplifier ............................................................................................................. 79
Fast Time Constant (ftc) ............................................................................................................... 80
The Logarithmic i-f Amplifier ...................................................................................................... 80
The MTI i-f .................................................................................................................................. 81
Quadrature Phase Detection ......................................................................................................... 83
The MTI Analog-to-Digital (A/D) Converter .............................................................................. 83
The MTI Processor ....................................................................................................................... 84
The Enhancer ............................................................................................................................... 84
The Log and Normal Receiver Processing ................................................................................... 85
Differentiating ftc ......................................................................................................................... 85
IAGC and Soft Limiting ............................................................................................................... 86
Constant False Alarm Rate (CFAR) ............................................................................................. 86
Delay-Line ftc .............................................................................................................................. 87
The Destagger Circuitry ............................................................................................................... 87
Normal A/D and Enhancer ........................................................................................................... 88
The Digital-to-Analog Converters ................................................................................................ 88
The Line Drivers .......................................................................................................................... 89
The Digitizer ................................................................................................................................ 89
Review Questions ......................................................................................................................... 92
Answers to Review Questions ...................................................................................................... 94

Chapter 7 Secondary Radar Systems ................................................................................... 97

General ......................................................................................................................................... 97
Secondary Radar is Essential Safety Equipment ......................................................................... 97
Advantages and Disadvantages of Secondary Radar ................................................................... 97
Dangers in Excessive Reliance ..................................................................................................... 97
Evolution of the Technology ........................................................................................................ 98
The First Generation ................................................................................................................... 98
The Second Generation ................................................................................................................ 98
The Third Generation ................................................................................................................... 98
The Fourth Generation ................................................................................................................. 98
ARTS Data Processing ............................................................................................................... 100
Data Processing at an ARTCC .................................................................................................. 100
Data Utilization and Processing ................................................................................................ 101
Code Validation .......................................................................................................................... 102
The Fifth Generation ................................................................................................................. 102
ARTCRBS Interrogator Basics ................................................................................................... 102
Basic ATCRBS Interrogator Principle ....................................................................................... 102
Detection Probability ................................................................................................................. 104
Interrogation ............................................................................................................................. 104
Challenge/Interrogation Modes ................................................................................................. 104
Evolution of the Challenge/Interrogation ................................................................................... 105
Traffic Collision Avoidance System (TCAS), MSSR, and Mode S ........................................... 105
Mode 4 Challenge ...................................................................................................................... 105
Mode 4 Reply ............................................................................................................................. 106
MSSR Basic Interrogator-Receiver Concepts ........................................................................... 106
General ...................................................................................................................................... 106
Basic Concepts ........................................................................................................................... 106
Transmitter ................................................................................................................................ 106
Table of Contents xi

Mode S Interrogation ................................................................................................................. 108

All Call ...................................................................................................................................... 108
Roll Call ..................................................................................................................................... 108
Uplink P6 Contents ................................................................................................................... 108
Receipt by the Transponder ....................................................................................................... 109
P5 Pulse/Burst ........................................................................................................................... 109
ATCRBS Mode Interlace .......................................................................................................... 109
Interlace with Mode S ............................................................................................................... 109
Interlace Pattern Determined by Antenna Rotation Rate ........................................................... 109
Interlace versus Azimuth ........................................................................................................... 110
Reply Codes ................................................................................................................................ 110
Conventional ATCRBS Reply Codes ......................................................................................... 110
Original A-B Code Train ............................................................................................................ 110
“Discrete” Codes ........................................................................................................................ 111
Octal Numbering ........................................................................................................................ 111
Civil and Military Idents ............................................................................................................ 112
Mode S Reply Codes .................................................................................................................. 112
Altitude Codes ............................................................................................................................ 112
Adjusting for Barometric Pressure ............................................................................................. 112
Matching the Display of Primary and Secondary Radar ........................................................... 113
Timing Relationships ................................................................................................................. 113
Radar Mile Remains 12.3552 µs ................................................................................................ 113
Real-Time P3-to-”Main Bang” Timing Relationship ................................................................. 114
Timing Error Alarms .................................................................................................................. 114
Measuring “Reinforcement Rate” .............................................................................................. 114
The Interrogator Transmitter and Antenna System .................................................................... 115
Side-Lobe Suppression (SLS) and Improved
Side-Lobe Suppression (ISLS) .................................................................................................. 116
SLS and MSSR .......................................................................................................................... 117
Receive Side-Lobe Suppression (RSLS) .................................................................................... 117
ATCBI-3 Hardware Transmitter Block Diagram ....................................................................... 117
The Receiver ............................................................................................................................... 119
STC/GTC ................................................................................................................................... 119
Code Train Data Processing ...................................................................................................... 120
Decoders ..................................................................................................................................... 121
Non-common Decoders ............................................................................................................. 121
Fourth-Generation Processing ................................................................................................... 122
Fourth-Generation Digital Data Processing ............................................................................... 122
Delay Lines Replaced by Shift Registers ................................................................................... 122
Multiple Code Extractors ........................................................................................................... 123
Identifying the Interrogation Mode and Azimuth ...................................................................... 124
More about the Beacon Azimuth Sliding Window ..................................................................... 124
Final Data Display ...................................................................................................................... 125
Beacon Reply and Mode Pair Reconstitution ............................................................................ 125
Interaction between Code Trains ................................................................................................ 125
Interference and FRUIT ............................................................................................................. 126
Range Ambiguities (Second-Time Replies) ............................................................................... 126
Test Equipment ........................................................................................................................... 127
Special Test Equipment .............................................................................................................. 127
Graphic User Interfaces (GUIs) ................................................................................................. 127
xii Table of Contents

Test Equipment Evolution .......................................................................................................... 127

Sliding-Window Detection ......................................................................................................... 127
Deficiencies in the Beacon Azimuth Sliding Window ............................................................... 128
Monopulse Transponder Detection ............................................................................................ 128
History of Dipole Arrays ............................................................................................................ 129
Phasing the Dipoles (or Slots) .................................................................................................... 129
Beam Control by Frequency Agility .......................................................................................... 130
Fire-Control Secondary Radar .................................................................................................. 130
Monopulse by Amplitude ............................................................................................................. 131
FAA Monopulse Antennas ......................................................................................................... 131
LVA Array .................................................................................................................................. 133
Beacon Monopulse Operation .................................................................................................... 133
General ....................................................................................................................................... 133
Receiver Side-Lobe Suppression ................................................................................................ 133
Rotational Rate ........................................................................................................................... 134
An MSSR Receiver and Processing System .............................................................................. 134
Phase Detector ............................................................................................................................ 134
Off-Boresight Calculation .......................................................................................................... 135
Monopulse by Phase Difference or Doppler (Interferometry) ................................................... 135
Multiple Facilities and Coordination .......................................................................................... 135
Review Questions ...................................................................................................................... 140
Answers to Review Questions ................................................................................................... 141

Chapter 8 Microwave Transmission Lines and Cavities ................................................... 143

Origin of this Chapter ................................................................................................................ 143
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 143
The Beginning ............................................................................................................................ 143
Need to Know ............................................................................................................................. 143
Waveguides: Guided and Unguided Electromagnetic Waves ..................................................... 144
Propagation on Wires and in Space ............................................................................................ 144
Electromagnetic Waves in Space ................................................................................................ 144
First Discoveries ......................................................................................................................... 144
Waveguides versus RF Lines ...................................................................................................... 145
Advantages of Waveguides ......................................................................................................... 145
Disadvantages of Waveguide ...................................................................................................... 146
Waveguide Theory and the Two Analogies ................................................................................. 146
Waveguide as Compared to a Two-Wire rf Line ........................................................................ 146
Effect of Different Frequencies on a Waveguide ........................................................................ 147
Electromagnetic Fields in a Waveguide ..................................................................................... 148
The Electric Field ....................................................................................................................... 148
The Magnetic Field .................................................................................................................... 149
Waveguide Propagation by Electric Waves ................................................................................ 151
Path of Wavefronts in a Waveguide ............................................................................................ 153
The Wavefront Crossing Angle .................................................................................................. 153
Numbering System of the Modes ............................................................................................... 155
Rectangular Waveguides ............................................................................................................ 155
Circular Waveguides ................................................................................................................... 155
Counting Wavelengths for Measuring Modes ............................................................................ 155
Introducing Fields into a Waveguide .......................................................................................... 156
Excitation with Electric Fields ................................................................................................... 156
Table of Contents xiii

Excitation with a Magnetic Field ............................................................................................... 157

Excitation with Electromagnetic Fields ..................................................................................... 158
Bends, Twists, Joints, and Terminations ..................................................................................... 158
Bends .......................................................................................................................................... 158
Rotating the Field ....................................................................................................................... 159
Joints .......................................................................................................................................... 159
Rotary Joints ............................................................................................................................... 160
T-Junctions ................................................................................................................................. 161
The ATR Switch ......................................................................................................................... 161
Matching Devices ....................................................................................................................... 163
Terminating a Waveguide ........................................................................................................... 163
Cavity Resonators ...................................................................................................................... 164
The Fields in a Cavity ................................................................................................................ 165
Cavity Excitation ........................................................................................................................ 166
Tuning the Cavity ....................................................................................................................... 166
Uses of Cavities .......................................................................................................................... 167
Waveguide Test Equipment ......................................................................................................... 170
The Early Frequency Meter ........................................................................................................ 170
The Slotted Line ......................................................................................................................... 171
The Directional Coupler ............................................................................................................. 171
Review Questions ....................................................................................................................... 175
Answers to Review Questions .................................................................................................... 176

Chapter 9 Radar Synchronizers .......................................................................................... 177

Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 177
The Master Trigger Blocking Oscillator .................................................................................... 177
The Automatic Temporal Control .............................................................................................. 178
Regulation by Phantastron ......................................................................................................... 178
The Circulating Trigger Loop .................................................................................................... 178
Digital MTI and Elimination of the Delay Line ......................................................................... 179
Analog-to-Digital Conversion of the Bipolar Video .................................................................. 179
Basic Timing .............................................................................................................................. 180
Range-Cell Clock Rate ............................................................................................................... 180
Timing Events Within the Range Cell ........................................................................................ 181
Timing Circuitry Block Diagram ............................................................................................... 181
Range Cells versus Shift Register Stages ................................................................................... 181
Range Cell and Trigger Synchronization ............................................................................................ 182
The Basic Unstaggered ƒp Generator .......................................................................................... 182
ƒp Adjustment ............................................................................................................................. 182
Staggered ƒp ................................................................................................................................ 183
Digital Timing in Magnetron Systems ....................................................................................... 183
MTD System Timing ................................................................................................................... 183
Preface and Introduction ............................................................................................................ 183
Azimuth Data and the Synchronizer .......................................................................................... 184
The Coherent Processing Interval Pair (CPIP) ........................................................................... 184
The Single-Board Computer ...................................................................................................... 185
Computer Hardware ................................................................................................................... 185
Brief Description of Computer Components ............................................................................. 185
Program Counter ........................................................................................................................ 185
Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) ............................................................................................ 186
xiv Table of Contents

Nonvolatile RAM (NVRAM) .................................................................................................... 186

Instruction Repertoire ................................................................................................................. 186
Program Execution ..................................................................................................................... 186
Interrupts .................................................................................................................................... 186
Interrupt Priorities ...................................................................................................................... 186
Status Registers .......................................................................................................................... 186
Interrupt Tabling ......................................................................................................................... 187
Watchdog Timer ......................................................................................................................... 187
The ASR-9 Timing Scheme ......................................................................................................... 187
CPIP Azimuth ............................................................................................................................. 187
The MTD Front End ................................................................................................................... 187
CPIP and ƒp Stagger ................................................................................................................... 188
Complexities Introduced by the CPIP Process ........................................................................... 188
Calculation and Example of ASR-9 Average ƒp ......................................................................... 188
Synchronizers in Redundant Radar Channels ............................................................................ 189
Interference between Channels .................................................................................................. 190
Review Questions ....................................................................................................................... 191
Answers to Review Questions .................................................................................................... 192

Chapter 10 Radar Transmitters ............................................................................................ 195

Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 195
Compressed High-Resolution Pulse (CHIRP) Transmitters ...................................................... 195
Modulation ................................................................................................................................. 196
Carrier and Intelligence .............................................................................................................. 196
Linear versus Nonlinear Devices ............................................................................................... 196
Modulation Creates Harmonics .................................................................................................. 196
Frequency Mixing ...................................................................................................................... 197
Modulation Percentage ............................................................................................................... 197
Pulse Modulation ....................................................................................................................... 197
Combining Harmonics to Form a Pulse ..................................................................................... 198
The sin x/x Amplitude Wave ....................................................................................................... 198
Calculation of the Harmonic Resultant at Pulse Center ............................................................. 199
Calculation of the Amplitude of a Single Harmonic .................................................................. 200
Harmonic Frequency at the Crossover ....................................................................................... 201
Number of Harmonics in a Radar Pulse ..................................................................................... 201
The Actual Transmitter Spectrum .............................................................................................. 201
The Spectrum Analyzer .............................................................................................................. 202
Spectrum Analyzer Functional Description ............................................................................... 203
The i-f Amplifier and Resolution Bandwidth ............................................................................. 203
Sweep Speed versus Resolution Bandwidth .............................................................................. 205
The Display ................................................................................................................................ 205
Common Uses ............................................................................................................................ 206
Video Bandwidth ........................................................................................................................ 206
Fourier Transforms ..................................................................................................................... 206
The Klystron Power Amplifier .................................................................................................... 207
General ....................................................................................................................................... 207
Construction ............................................................................................................................... 207
The Electron Gun ....................................................................................................................... 207
The Input Cavity ......................................................................................................................... 208
The Intermediate Cavity ............................................................................................................. 209
Table of Contents xv

The Output Cavity ...................................................................................................................... 209

The Collector .............................................................................................................................. 209
Drive Power ................................................................................................................................ 209
Body, Collector, and Beam Current ........................................................................................... 210
Self-excitation ............................................................................................................................ 210
The Ion Pump ............................................................................................................................. 210
Radiation Hazard ........................................................................................................................ 211
Additional Cavities ..................................................................................................................... 211
Tuning ........................................................................................................................................ 211
Drive Pulse T iming .................................................................................................................... 213
Klystron Interlock Circuits ......................................................................................................... 213
Out-of-Band Filters .................................................................................................................... 213
The Magnetron ........................................................................................................................... 214
A Predecessor, the Reflex Klystron ............................................................................................ 214
Application by MIT Radiation Laboratories .............................................................................. 214
Physical Construction ................................................................................................................. 214
The “Bottle” Analogy ................................................................................................................. 214
Underlying Principles ................................................................................................................. 216
Effect of a Magnetic Field on an Electron in Motion ................................................................ 216
Circular Electron Travel in a Uniform Magnetic Field .............................................................. 216
Magnetic Fields .......................................................................................................................... 216
The Cycloid ................................................................................................................................ 219
Formation of Synchronous Electron Clouds .............................................................................. 219
Modes of Operation .................................................................................................................... 221
Strapping .................................................................................................................................... 221
Performance Characteristics ....................................................................................................... 221
The Amplitron, aka Crossed-Field Amplifier ............................................................................. 222
The Modulator ............................................................................................................................ 223
Requirements .............................................................................................................................. 224
Fundamental Pulse Modulator Principle .................................................................................... 224
The ASR-4, ASR-5, and ASR-6, as an Example ........................................................................ 225
Interlocks .................................................................................................................................... 225
The High-Voltage Power Supply ................................................................................................ 226
The Charging Chokes and Diode ............................................................................................... 226
Charging the pfn to Twice the HVPS Voltage ............................................................................ 226
The Hydrogen Thyratron ............................................................................................................ 226
The Modulator Driver ................................................................................................................ 226
Discharging the Pulse-Forming Network ................................................................................... 227
Magnetron Filament Circuit ....................................................................................................... 227
Test Points .................................................................................................................................. 227
Real and Artificial Transmission Lines ...................................................................................... 227
Real Transmission Lines ............................................................................................................ 227
Common Transmission Line Characteristics ............................................................................. 228
Signal Propagation on a Transmission Line ............................................................................... 228
Temporal Delay .......................................................................................................................... 229
Frequencies above ƒx and Reactance .................................................................... 229
Artificial Transmission Lines ..................................................................................................... 230
Charging the Line Capacitance .................................................................................................. 230
Termination RL ........................................................................................................................... 231
Reflection at the Sending End of the Line ................................................................................. 232
xvi Table of Contents

Wave Computations ................................................................................................................... 232

Discharging the Line .................................................................................................................. 233
Forming the Modulator Pulse ..................................................................................................... 234
Pulse Shape ................................................................................................................................ 234
The Pulse Transformer ............................................................................................................... 235
Reflections .................................................................................................................................. 235
Calculating the First Discharge Wave ........................................................................................ 235
Inductive Charging ..................................................................................................................... 235
Other Modulator Types .............................................................................................................. 236
Review Questions ....................................................................................................................... 238
Review Answers ......................................................................................................................... 240

Chapter 11 Radar Receivers .................................................................................................. 245

Amplifying the Echo .................................................................................................................. 245
The Limitation by Noise ............................................................................................................ 245
Bandwidth Requirement of the Receiver ................................................................................... 245
mds Measurement ...................................................................................................................... 246
“Tangential” mds ........................................................................................................................ 246
Noise Figure ............................................................................................................................... 246
Noise Figure in DeciBels ........................................................................................................... 247
Signal-to-Noise Ratio Degradation ............................................................................................ 247
Overall Noise Figure Ft .............................................................................................................. 248
The Parametric Amplifier (Paramp) ........................................................................................... 249
Effective Noise Temperature ...................................................................................................... 249
Noise Figure Monitoring ............................................................................................................ 250
Antenna Noise and Solar Strobes ............................................................................................... 250
The Superheterodyne Receiver .................................................................................................. 251
The Low-Noise Amplifier and Preselector Filter ....................................................................... 251
Double Conversion ..................................................................................................................... 251
Multiple i-f Amplifiers ............................................................................................................... 252
Phase Detection .......................................................................................................................... 252
Quadrature Phase Detectors ....................................................................................................... 253
The First Detector/Signal Mixer ................................................................................................ 253
The Detector Crystal .................................................................................................................. 254
The Double-Balanced Mixer ...................................................................................................... 254
Mixer Current ............................................................................................................................. 255
Fault Indications ......................................................................................................................... 255
The Local Oscillator ................................................................................................................... 255
The Swept-Bandpass afc ............................................................................................................ 256
Sweeping the Bandpass .............................................................................................................. 257
Search Operation ........................................................................................................................ 257
Track Operation .......................................................................................................................... 258
Adjustment ................................................................................................................................. 258
Discriminator-Type afc ............................................................................................................... 258
i-f Amplifiers .............................................................................................................................. 259
The Normal i-f Amplifier ........................................................................................................... 259
Normal i-f Ancillary Circuits ..................................................................................................... 260
Special Features ......................................................................................................................... 260
Special Uses ............................................................................................................................... 260
Testing and Alignment ............................................................................................................... 260
Table of Contents xvii

The Logarithmic i-f Amplifier .................................................................................................... 260

Test Procedures .......................................................................................................................... 261
The MTI i-f Amplifier ................................................................................................................ 261
Performance Testing ................................................................................................................... 262
Adjustments ................................................................................................................................ 262
Video Output .............................................................................................................................. 263
The MTD i-f Amplifier (ASR-9) ................................................................................................ 263
Adjustments ................................................................................................................................ 264
Gain and Bandpass Testing ........................................................................................................ 264
Markers ....................................................................................................................................... 268
General Rules ............................................................................................................................. 268
Gain Testing ............................................................................................................................... 269
Review Questions ....................................................................................................................... 270
Answers to Review Questions .................................................................................................... 272

Chapter 12 Moving Target Indicators and the Doppler Effect .......................................... 277
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 277
The Frequency and Time Domains ............................................................................................ 277
Christian Doppler ....................................................................................................................... 277
Upward Doppler Shift ................................................................................................................ 277
Downward Doppler Shift ........................................................................................................... 278
Basic Doppler Equation ............................................................................................................. 278
“Apparent Doppler” .................................................................................................................... 278
Radial Velocity ........................................................................................................................... 278
Radar Doppler Shift ................................................................................................................... 279
Radar Doppler Equation with Transmitter Frequency ............................................................... 279
Bidirectional Wave Travel and Speed of Light ........................................................................... 279
Speed of Light in Nautical Miles per Hour ................................................................................ 280
Incorporating the Radial Velocity Calculation ........................................................................... 280
The Tangential Effect ................................................................................................................. 280
The Doppler Effect and Phase Detection ................................................................................... 280
First and Second Phase Detectors .............................................................................................. 281
Phase-Detector Response ........................................................................................................... 282
Phase Response of the Signal Mixer .......................................................................................... 282
The Phase-Detector Operation ................................................................................................... 282
Comparing Different Frequencies in a Synchronous Phase Detector ........................................ 283
Doppler Shift Representation at the Phase-Detector Output ...................................................... 285
The Doppler Effect in Pulsed Systems ........................................................................................ 286
The Echo-Marking Approach ..................................................................................................... 286
The Identical Doppler Effect in c-w and Pulsed Echoes ............................................................ 287
Synthesis System Block Diagram, Incorporating the MTI Principle ......................................... 287
Cancellation ................................................................................................................................ 288
The Difference between Radar Doppler and Tr-to-Tr Echo Phase Change ................................ 288
The “Butterfly” ........................................................................................................................... 289
Blind and Optimum Velocities ................................................................................................... 289
Blind Velocity Calculation ......................................................................................................... 289
Blind Velocity and Staggered ƒp ................................................................................................. 290
Optimum Velocity Calculation ................................................................................................... 291
The Blind Phase Effect ............................................................................................................... 291
Quadrature Phase Detectors ....................................................................................................... 291
xviii Table of Contents

The Triangular Phase-Detector Response .................................................................................. 292

The Velocity Response Shape .................................................................................................... 292
Improvement to the Velocity Response Shape ........................................................................... 292
Cascaded Cancelers and Feedback .............................................................................................. 294
Bipolar and Unipolar Velocity Response Shapes ....................................................................... 294
Sweeping the Canceler with Audio ............................................................................................ 295
Mathematical Relationships from the Velocity Response Shape ............................................... 297
Finding ∆φ from ƒD and ƒp ......................................................................................................... 297
Finding the ∆φ from Vr, ƒxmtr , and ƒp ........................................................................................... 297
Finding the ∆φ from Aircraft Course, Radar Bearing, ƒp, and ƒxmtr ............................................ 297
Tr–Tr Radial Target Movement ................................................................................................... 297
The MTI Reflector ...................................................................................................................... 298
The Magnetron MTI System ....................................................................................................... 298
Achieving Coherence ................................................................................................................. 299
Summary of Magnetron Coherence ........................................................................................... 300
Magnetron System Maintenance Techniques ............................................................................. 301
The Locked Test Pulse Generator .............................................................................................. 302
i-f Test Pulse Generators in Synthesis Systems ......................................................................... 303
The Composite Video Test Target Generator ............................................................................. 303
Live Video .................................................................................................................................. 304
Output Limiting .......................................................................................................................... 304
Complex Doppler Echoes and Subclutter Visibility ................................................................... 305
Simultaneous Multiple Dopplers ................................................................................................ 305
i-f Limiting for a Consistent Phase-Detector Response ............................................................. 306
Echo Phase “Pulling,” Competition, and Resultant .................................................................... 306
Those Phase-Detector Outputs Variable with Signal Power ...................................................... 307
Optimum i-f Amplifier Adjustment ............................................................................................ 308
Payoff Adjustment Procedure ..................................................................................................... 308
Maximum i-f Gain ...................................................................................................................... 309
Clutter Strength Photographs ..................................................................................................... 310
Subclutter-Visibility Measurement ............................................................................................ 310
Echo Box SCV Procedure .......................................................................................................... 310
The Passive High-Beam Receiver System ................................................................................. 312
Isolating Performance Derogation ............................................................................................. 312
Poor Cancellation ....................................................................................................................... 312
Echo-Box Cancellation Ratio ..................................................................................................... 312
Video Cancellation Ratio ........................................................................................................... 313
Echo-Box Ratio Poor, Video Cancellation Ratio is Satisfactory ................................................ 313
i-f Cancellation Ratio ................................................................................................................. 313
Causes of Cancellation Failures ................................................................................................. 314
Further Implications of the Velocity Response ........................................................................... 315
Doppler Ambiguity ..................................................................................................................... 315
Increasing the ƒp Decreases Antenna Scanning Residue ............................................................ 315
Range Ambiguities, Magnetron versus Synthesis ...................................................................... 315
Different ƒps Provide Different Blind Velocities ........................................................................ 316
Staggered ƒps and Canceler Velocity Response .......................................................................... 316
MTI and Weather ........................................................................................................................ 317
The SSR/DMTI Modification for Early ARSR and FPS Series Radars ..................................... 317
Current (“Soft”) Limiting in the MTI i-f Amplifier ................................................................... 317
Multiple Staggered ƒp ................................................................................................................. 317
Four-Pulse Canceler ................................................................................................................... 317
Table of Contents xix

Review Questions ....................................................................................................................... 320

Answers to Review Questions .................................................................................................... 322

Chapter 13 An MTI Processor .............................................................................................. 325

Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 325
Timing ........................................................................................................................................ 325
Circuitry to the Canceler Input .................................................................................................. 325
The MTI Video Conditioner ....................................................................................................... 325
The Swept Audio Generator ....................................................................................................... 325
The Ramp Generator .................................................................................................................. 325
The Quantizers ........................................................................................................................... 326
The Digital Canceler .................................................................................................................. 329
Data Steering .............................................................................................................................. 329
Feedback Scaling ....................................................................................................................... 329
Hardwired Right and Left Shifting ............................................................................................ 329
Greater Detail, Dual Canceler Operation ................................................................................... 330
The Input Register ...................................................................................................................... 330
The Feedback Adder and Limiter ............................................................................................... 330
The One-Tr Data-Delay Path ...................................................................................................... 330
Staggered ƒp and Canceler Operation ......................................................................................... 332
The Canceler “Subtractor” Circuit ............................................................................................. 332
Canceler 1 to Canceler 2 ............................................................................................................ 332
Feedback Modes ......................................................................................................................... 333
The Register and Bipolar-to-Unipolar Converter ....................................................................... 334
The Canceler Output .................................................................................................................. 335
Canceler Testing and Troubleshooting ....................................................................................... 335
Post-Cancellation Circuits ......................................................................................................... 336
The Quadrature Combine ........................................................................................................... 336
Logarithmic Scaler and ftc Circuit ............................................................................................. 336
Log Conversion .......................................................................................................................... 337
ftc Operation ............................................................................................................................... 337
The “Hole Filler” ........................................................................................................................ 339
The Normalization and Antilog Circuitry .................................................................................. 339
The Enhancer ............................................................................................................................. 342
Review Questions ....................................................................................................................... 343
Answers to Review Questions .................................................................................................... 344

Chapter 14 The Moving Target Detector MTI System ....................................................... 347

MTD Definition .......................................................................................................................... 347
Improvement over Canceler-Type MTI ...................................................................................... 347
General Description ................................................................................................................... 347
The Original Analog Range-Gated Doppler Filters ................................................................... 348
An Overview of the MTD System ................................................................................................ 349
T iming Scheme .......................................................................................................................... 349
The i-f Amplifier and Phase Detectors ....................................................................................... 350
The Analog-to-Digital Converter ............................................................................................... 350
Memory and Filter Bank ............................................................................................................ 352
Power Combiner (Rectangular-Coordinate Converter) .............................................................. 352
The Target and Two-Level Detector ........................................................................................... 352
The Postprocessor ...................................................................................................................... 353
xx Table of Contents

Rectangular Coordinate Data Input ............................................................................................ 355

The Input Data Buffer ................................................................................................................ 355
The General Math Unit .............................................................................................................. 356
The Filter Arithmetic Units ........................................................................................................ 357
The Accumulated Product .......................................................................................................... 359
The Filter Data Message ............................................................................................................ 360
The Power Combiner ................................................................................................................. 361
The Target and Two-Level Weather Detector ............................................................................. 361
The Mean-Level Threshold (MLT) Cards .................................................................................. 361
Improved Detection in Weather .................................................................................................. 362
Primitive Detector Number 1 (PD1) .......................................................................................... 363
Clutter Map and Clutter Map Control Card ............................................................................... 365
Primitive Detector No 2 (PD2) ................................................................................................... 365
The Geocensor Map ................................................................................................................... 365
The Primitive Formatter Card .................................................................................................... 368
The C&I Formatter Card ............................................................................................................ 368
The Weather Data ....................................................................................................................... 369
The F1 Control Card .................................................................................................................. 369
The Two-Level Weather Detector ............................................................................................... 370
The Characteristics of Weather Echoes ...................................................................................... 370
Weather Level Detection and MTI ............................................................................................. 371
Selecting Normal or MTI Inputs for the Two-Level Weather Detector ..................................... 371
Two-Level Weather Detector Operation ..................................................................................... 371
The Postprocessor and MTD Software ....................................................................................... 371
Primary Radar Data Inputs ......................................................................................................... 371
Secondary (Beacon) Data Inputs ................................................................................................ 373
The C&I Software Module ......................................................................................................... 373
Centroiding ................................................................................................................................. 373
Quality and Confidence Ranking ............................................................................................... 374
rf Interference (rfi) Testing ......................................................................................................... 374
The Second Adaptive Threshold Map ........................................................................................ 374
Track Eligibility ......................................................................................................................... 375
Performance Observation ........................................................................................................... 375
Second Adaptive Map Maintenance Display ............................................................................. 375
The Target Performance Window ............................................................................................... 377
Appearance of the MTI Reflector .............................................................................................. 377
Azimuth Alignment .................................................................................................................... 378
The Surveillance Processor (SP) ................................................................................................ 379
Two-Level Weather Smoothing and Contouring ........................................................................ 379
The Message Interface ............................................................................................................... 380
Review Questions ....................................................................................................................... 381
Answers to Review Questions .................................................................................................... 382

Chapter 15 Radar Displays .................................................................................................... 385

Preface ........................................................................................................................................ 385
General ....................................................................................................................................... 385
Electromagnetic and Electrostatic Deflection ............................................................................ 385
The Three Dimensions ............................................................................................................... 386
Display Types ............................................................................................................................. 386
The A-Type Display ................................................................................................................... 386
Table of Contents xxi

Real T ime ................................................................................................................................... 387

The J-Type Display .................................................................................................................... 387
The B-Type Display ................................................................................................................... 387
The C-Type Display ................................................................................................................... 388
The E-Type Display ................................................................................................................... 388
The G-Type Display ................................................................................................................... 389
The P-Type Display .................................................................................................................... 389
Variations of Type P Displays .................................................................................................... 389
The Random-Access ppi (rappi) ................................................................................................ 390
Scan Conversion ......................................................................................................................... 390
Preface ........................................................................................................................................ 390
Radar Television Displays .......................................................................................................... 390
Radar Bright Display Equipment (RBDE) ................................................................................. 391
Storage Tube ............................................................................................................................... 392
Bright Radar Intensity Television Equipment (BRITE) ............................................................. 392
Synthetic Real-T ime ppi Displays ............................................................................................. 392
Reconstituting Real T ime ........................................................................................................... 393
Basic Operation of the ppi ......................................................................................................... 393
General ....................................................................................................................................... 393
The Electromagnetic Cathode Ray Tube (crt) ............................................................................ 395
The Electron Gun ....................................................................................................................... 395
The Phosphor(s) ......................................................................................................................... 395
Cathode Ray Tube Hazards ........................................................................................................ 396
The Focus and Deflection Coils ................................................................................................. 396
The Sweep Generator Circuit ..................................................................................................... 397
The Phantastron .......................................................................................................................... 397
Ramp Generation by a Binary Counter ...................................................................................... 398
Sweep and Unblanking Gates .................................................................................................... 398
T iming ........................................................................................................................................ 398
Overscan Limit ........................................................................................................................... 399
The Sweep Generator and Driver ............................................................................................... 400
The Video Amplifier ................................................................................................................... 400
The Evolution of Azimuth Data ................................................................................................. 401
Basic Synchro System ................................................................................................................ 401
Increasing Torque ....................................................................................................................... 402
Hybrid Systems .......................................................................................................................... 403
The Trigonometric Identity, sin2θ + cos2θ = 1 ............................................................................ 404
Fixed-Coil Deflection ................................................................................................................. 405
Creating the sin–cos Modulation ............................................................................................... 406
Digital Azimuth Data ................................................................................................................. 407
One Stored Curve can Produce All Sine and Cosine Data ......................................................... 408
Alphanumeric Display ............................................................................................................... 408
“Accelerating” Real T ime ......................................................................................................... 408
Other Uses of the Azimuth Counter ........................................................................................... 410
Arithmetic Calculations to Convert Azimuth Data .................................................................... 412
Azimuth Alignment .................................................................................................................... 412
Sweep Modulator Circuitry Operated by sin–cos Information .................................................. 413
ppi Display Phenomena ............................................................................................................. 413
Range Resolution ....................................................................................................................... 413
Azimuth Resolution ................................................................................................................... 414
xxii Table of Contents

Summary of Digital Deflection .................................................................................................. 414

Selected Azimuth Data ............................................................................................................... 414
Range Expansion or Minor Deflection ....................................................................................... 414
Baseline Control ......................................................................................................................... 414
Display Circularity ..................................................................................................................... 414
The “Slant Range” Effect ........................................................................................................... 416
Range-Ambiguous (Second-Time) Targets ................................................................................ 416
Second-Time Weather ................................................................................................................ 416
The Video “Mapper” .................................................................................................................. 416
Alignment ................................................................................................................................... 417
T iming ........................................................................................................................................ 418
Orthogonality ............................................................................................................................. 418
Focus .......................................................................................................................................... 418
Digital Maps ............................................................................................................................... 418
Digital Scan Conversion ............................................................................................................ 418
Conventional Sine and Cosine Azimuth Data ............................................................................ 418
Octants, Tangents, and Cotangents ............................................................................................. 419
One Tangent Curve in Storage ................................................................................................... 421
Selecting the Pixels to be Written .............................................................................................. 421
T iming, Real-Time Storage, and Television Reading ................................................................ 421
Trails ........................................................................................................................................... 421
Alphanumeric Operation ............................................................................................................ 422
The ASR-9 Surveillance Communications Interface Processor (SCIP) ..................................... 422
Message Data Transfer ............................................................................................................... 422
SCIP Block Diagram .................................................................................................................. 422
Synthetic Real-T ime Beacon Mode Pair and Code Trains ........................................................ 425
Weather Data .............................................................................................................................. 425
Review Questions ....................................................................................................................... 426
Answers to Review Questions .................................................................................................... 427
Appendix A Annotated Glossary .......................................................................................... 429
Appendix B Major Equations ............................................................................................... 465
Appendix C Conversions and Constants .............................................................................. 469
Appendix D Government Nomenclatures ............................................................................ 471
Appendix E Radar Frequencies ............................................................................................ 472
Appendix F Greek Alphabet in Radar ................................................................................. 473
Appendix G Technical Expression ........................................................................................ 474
Appendix H Trigonometry .................................................................................................... 476
 CHAPTER 1

Radar’s Rich History and Development

The quality of a professional that distinguishes him from a tradesman is his formal knowledge, which includes
an understanding of the background and origins of his business. A chemist should know about Robert Boyle,
Antoine Lavoisier, John Dalton, Amadeo Avogadro, Henry Louis Le-Chatelier, and many, many, more. A medi-
cal doctor should know about Hippocrates, Anton van Leeuwenhoek, Louis Pasteur, Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis,
Joseph Lister, and more. If for no other reason, those who made contributions to the science must never be forgot-
ten, for to forget them is to dishonor them, and to dishonor the roots of the science is to discredit the profession.
Science is a characteristic of a highly developed civilization and intellect; its growth and maintenance relies upon
perpetual regard for the past. In most cases, the founders of science were geniuses who made incredible discover-
ies with only primitive knowledge; we owe them eternal gratitude, for there are very few of us, if any at all, who
could achieve what they have achieved. It is the responsibility of every member of a profession to keep his or her
memory and respect alive.
Although most think of radar as a precipitate of World War II, its beginnings are traceable to the late nine-
teenth and early twentieth centuries, a brief period of unparalleled discovery, ingenuity, and invention in the his-
tory of man. And although the US government was the major entity responsible for the development of modern
microwave radar as we know it today, this credit is due to the imposition of urgency of World War II, and to the
gift of the multicavity magnetron by the British government in 1940.

The Basic Physical Science

The original discovery of electricity as a force is attributed to Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) [3] between 1727
and 1746. The physical science concepts behind radar began perhaps as early as 1831, when the English scien-
tist Michael Faraday (1791–1867) [1] first discovered the relationships between electromagnetism and electric
current. The British physicist James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879) [2], using Faraday’s experimental findings,
determined and quantified the mathematical relationships between current and magnetic fields. Maxwell further
concluded that electric and magnetic lines of force would cause changes in the space surrounding the operating
circuit, providing the first suggestion that electrical signals could be radiated into space.
Thomas Alva Edison (1847–1931) [4] deserves much credit in the invention of early electrical and electronic
devices; however even though modern technology could not have progressed to its present state without his
inventions, he is more regarded by the scientific world as a very successful trial-and-error experimenter.

Propagation of Electrical Waves

In 1842, the German physicist Christian Johann Doppler (1803–1853) [5] first described the apparent shift of a
propagated frequency caused by motion; the Doppler effect is a major element of the science of physics, and of
radar theory today. Doppler’s work deserves recognition in the invention of radar, since the comparison of trans-
mitted and received frequencies was the foundation of the earliest bistatic echo detectors, which simply relied
upon the interference between transmitted and reflected signals. Further, Doppler shift is the phenomenon upon
which moving-target-indicator (MTI) systems and weather-velocity detection radars are based. Without MTI,
detection of moving targets is nearly impossible in any locations where ground clutter echoes are received. Weath-
er-velocity radar detectors make it possible to detect violent weather to issue warnings or take evasive action.
In 1879, David E. Hughes of London successfully generated and received radio waves [8]. The German
physicist Heinrich Rudolph Hertz (1857–1894) [6] further expanded on Maxwell’s work, proving that electrical

1
2 Radar’s Rich History and Development

and light waves behaved identically, and documenting his discovery in an 1890 paper entitled Uber die Bezie-
hungen zwischen Licht und Electrizitat. Hertz had also determined that electrical waves could be reflected,
as could light waves, providing probably the first prediction that radar was possible. In the 1960s, the words
describing oscillations, “cycles per second,” were universally changed to Hertz (Hz) in his honor.

Inventions in Early Radio Communications

An immigrant to the United States from Serbia, Nikola Tesla (1856–1943) [7] developed alternating-current theory
and outlined, in 1892, the basic manner in which radio transmission and reception could be accomplished. Tesla’s
genius was too early for the time, and he was unable to immediately put his ideas to practical applications worthy
of patent, mostly because working components were not yet available, rather than because his ideas were faulty.
Research proceeded throughout the world. In 1894, Sir Oliver Lodge of England [8] had developed a radiotelegraph
system, and in 1895, Alexander Popov of Kronshtadt, Germany, had independently devised another system [8].
In 1896, the Italian electrical engineer Guglielmo Marconi (1874–1937) [9] left Italy after the government
had refused recognition of his radiotelegraph invention; he went to England to obtain his first patent on wireless
telegraphy. In 1898, he achieved radiotelegraph communication across the English channel; in 1901, his radio
waves crossed the Atlantic from Cornwall, England, to St John’s, Newfoundland. In 1915, Tesla failed in legal
actions against Marconi’s patents, and was not vindicated until 1943, when the US Supreme Court made a deci-
sion recognizing that Tesla’s work preceded Marconi’s, and invalidating Marconi’s patents [7]. One can only
speculate as to the influence upon the court by World War II; Marconi was a member of Italy’s Fascist party and
held high office in Mussolini’s government [9].
Component inventions contributed enormously to the development of radio. The vacuum tube was invented
by John Ambrose Fleming [8]; Lee DeForest (1873–1961) [10] added a “grid” called the “Audion element” to
the vacuum tube. The grid ultimately permitted low voltages to control the larger current through the tube, and
the concept of amplified current control became the foundation of both vacuum tube and transistor technology.
DeForest further invented radio transmitters and antennas, leading to regular transatlantic communication by
1907. By 1910, an audio-modulated DeForest transmitter first broadcast the voice of Enrico Caruso from the New
York Metropolitan Opera; by 1915, DeForest transmitted human voice from Arlington, VA, to Paris, France.

Radiolocation
The growth of radiotelegraphy and radio broadcast was paralleled by work in radiolocation, a predecessor to
radar. The word “radar” was actually coined by the United States; some sources attribute it to the US Navy; it
may also have come from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology’s (MIT) Radiation Laboratories. Before the
universal acceptance of the word “radar,” it had been called “radio direction finder” and “radio position finder.” A
significant radiolocation event occurred in World War I, on May 31, 1916, when the British Navy attacked Ger-
man warships off the western coast of Denmark, after detecting a 1.5° change in radio signals from the German
fleet [8]. The conflict is known as the great naval battle of Jutland and was a turning point in the war; the German
fleet remained in port afterward, even though England had suffered greater losses [11].
All early experimentation with reflected radio signals dealt with the interference, or beating, of continuous
wave received and transmitted signals; systems based on this principle are now called “bistatic” [12]. In 1903,
a German engineer named Christian Hulsemier patented a device which emitted a spark and received an echo;
he intended that it be used by ships to detect obstacles in its path [8, 18]. It could not measure range and is not
recognized as radar.

Pulsed Radar
During World War I, in 1917, Tesla had talked of the possibility of transmitting a high-frequency burst of energy
to be reflected and received, and then displayed on a fluorescent screen; this was probably the first visualization of
range-measurement pulsed radar as we know it today. Tesla had again been ahead of his time. It does not appear
that any great interest in radio reflection was created until Marconi, in June of 1922, lectured in New York about
the “reflection and deflection” of short radio waves [8].
By September of 1922, two American civilian scientists, Dr. A. Hoyt Taylor and his assistant Leo Young,
working for the Department of The Navy, discovered that short radio waves transmitted across the Potomac
Radar Developments from 1930 through 1940 3

were interrupted by a ship [13]. The first successful application of pulsed echoing was accomplished in 1925 by
Gregory Breit of the Carnegie Institution of Washington and Merle Tuve of Johns Hopkins University [8]; they
used a 1-ms transmitter [8] made by the Naval Research Lab to measure the height of the ionosphere [18]. The
development of radar followed, paralleled in Germany, Great Britain, and the United States.

The Cathode Ray Tube

Apart from transmitters and receivers, probably the most important invention to make pulsed radar possible was
the cathode ray tube (crt), necessary to display high-speed radar information; it is also the major component of
a television display. Research reveals that so many were involved in several stages of development of this device
that it would be unfair to assign credit to all in a brief history such as this. As early as 1875, an English scientist,
Sir William Crookes [8], had developed a vacuum tube with electrodes at both ends and gained current flow
through the tube. By 1895, the German physicist Wilhelm Konrad Roentgen (1845–1923) [14] found that rays
from the tube were found to cause photographic exposure, and called them “X-rays” (it may be significant to note
that Roentgen died of cancer). Roentgen was, of course, the founder of X-ray technology. The crt, using phosphor
instead of film as a beam target, was significantly developed at Bell Laboratories by 1922 [8], and a home televi-
sion receiver was first offered by Allen Dumont in 1939; experiments on color television began as early as 1940.
The fields of television and radar have been related in many respects since those earliest days because of the crt,
high-speed video reproduction, and phase detection.

Radar Developments from 1930 through 1940

As early as the summer of 1933, German naval scientists recorded an echo from a small surface vessel at a range
of 8 miles [8]. In December of 1934, the US Naval Research staff had obtained a photograph of a pulsed radar
echo from an aircraft at a 2 or 3 miles range [8]. In 1935, the German scientist Dr. Wilhelm Runge obtained an
echo from a Junkers Ju.52 [8], a large trimotor aircraft used as a heavy bomber and cargo transport. The Ju.52 is
illustrated in Figure 1-1.
In late 1934, the British Air Ministry created a Committee for the Scientific Survey of Air Defense [8, 18],
directed by Sir Robert Watson-Watt [8, 12, 18]. One proposal recommended that Britain line its coast with low-
frequency antennas in a “home chain” of antennas [8,18]. An operational system had been developed for use
by the Royal Air Force by March of 1938 [8, 18]. This historic 22–28 MHz chain home pulsed system could
detect aircraft as distant as 90 miles [12], well into parts of Germany. By September of 1938, the system was
in round-the-clock service, and remained so throughout the war [12]. The system exhibited poor range and azi-
muth resolution, but was sufficient to bring about severe losses to the Nazis in the early years of the war, and is
credited with discouraging a German invasion of Great Britain [8, 12, 13].
By 1936, the US Army had developed a 75-W, 100-MHz pulsed radar, operating at a pulse repetition rate
of 20 kHz. In May of 1937, the US Army Air Corps requested the development of a “long-range detector and
tracker” [18]. It evolved into the SCR-270 early-warning radar, which was used to detect the Japanese surprise
attack on Pearl Harbor [12, 13, 18]. In 1938, testing of the SCR-268 began. It was to be used for searchlight
and anti-aircraft gun control; this was probably the first fire-control radar. The SCR-268 was designed and built
by the US Army Signal Corps Laboratories [18].
In 1939, the Radio Corporation of America was granted a contract to build six shipboard systems [12]. The
first permanent shipboard radar, the CXAM, operating at 195 MHz [12], was installed on the battleship “New
York” [12, 18] and tested in 1940. An original
purchase of six systems was made [18]. Nineteen
of these shipboard systems were operational by
1941 [12].
In October of 1940, a British Technical Team
went to the United States for the purpose of in-
formation exchange and gave all British radar
research and development information to the US
government with an appeal for assistance [12, 13]. FIGURE 1–1
In November of 1940, the MIT Radiation Junkers JU.52—the first aircraft detected by German
Laboratories was created by the US Department radar.
4 Radar’s Rich History and Development

Mounting Flange Magnet Pole of War [12, 18]. Dr. Lee A

Placed Here Heater and Cathode DuBridge of the University
Connections
of Rochester was appointed
Permanent Magnet
director, and it remained the
Glass Seal nation’s central authority on
radar for over 5 years [18].
Cooling Fins on Magnetron The organization started
Glass Plate Structure
Seal with 40 people [12, 13, 18].
Outside Conductor Before the Japanese sur-
Center Conductor of of Coaxial Coupling prise attack on Pearl Harbor
Coaxial Coupling Magnet
Cathode on December 7, 1941, the
Pickup Loop US Army had purchased
Outer Conductor Cooling Fins 100 SCR-270 early warn-
of Coaxial Coupling Resonant Cavities ing radars [17]. Six of these
Glass Glass were on the island of Oahu
Seal Seal before the attack [12].
Center Conductor of Cathode and
Coaxial Coupling Filament Lead
Alternate Segments of
Microwave Radar
Plate Strapped Together and “The Greatest
Mounting Flange
Shipment”
FIGURE 1–2 The greatest limitations to
the early radars of the 1930s
The magnetron. Based on USAF Manual 52-3.
were related to their low
operating frequencies, long
wavelengths, and large antennas. Azimuth bearing resolution depended on the antenna radiation pattern, which,
in turn, depended upon antenna size and transmitter wavelength. Radar development in Great Britain was con-
centrated on airborne radar, where size requirements made short wavelengths absolutely essential. Throughout
the world, all attempts at transmitting short wavelengths at high power had failed until November of 1939, when
three English physicists, Sir John Randall, Henry Albert (Harry) Boot [12, 13], and James Sayers, working on the
Birmingham University team [8] in Great Britain, developed probably the second most significant invention in
all the history of radar, the multicavity magnetron, which made possible the use of high frequencies with 10 cm
wavelengths (λ), at power levels of 1 kW [12]. A magnetron is illustrated in Figure 1-2. In 1940, Great Britain was
in great peril, and was seeking help from the United States [13]. In October of 1940, a magnetron was taken to
the US government aboard a ship, in a black container, by a member of the British radar team [13]. Many say that
singular action had more to do with the Allied victory than any
other, including the development of the atomic bomb, and that
the discreet transfer of the magnetron was the most important
shipment of the war [13].

The Pearl Harbor Surprise Attack

Even though the MIT Radiation Laboratories had successfully
created an operational microwave radar within 3 months
after the delivery of the British magnetron, interest in radar had
somewhat ebbed [13] until the surprise attack on US instal-
lations at Pearl Harbor and Hickam field on Sunday morning,
December 7, 1941. See Figures 1-3 and 1-4. The approaching
Japanese aircraft were detected by a low-frequency Westing-
house SCR-270 early warning radar system at Opana Station
above Kahuku Point [17] on the island of Oahu; the Opana
FIGURE 1–3 radar station was one of six on the coast of Oahu, and the US
SCR-270 detected attack. Army had purchased over 100 of these systems before the
The Explosion of Radar Science in World War II 5

Pearl Harbor attack [17]. No less than 19 radar detections [17]

were recorded from 7:02 am to 7:39 am, and the approaching at-
tack force was twice that reported by Private Joseph Lockard of
the US Army [13] to an officer at Fort Shafter [17].
Some accounts indicate that, when first detected, the
approaching Japanese aircraft were over 200 miles away, and
only 183 of the 353 attack planes had been launched. However,
the power output and pulse repetition frequency of the SCR-270
(100 kW and 621 Hz) [18] make it unlikely they could have been
more than 130 miles out. Some of the Japanese aircraft probably
passed directly over the radar site. The attack began at 7:55 am,
FIGURE 1–4
16 min after the final radar detection and 53 min after the first.
The radar detection reports were disregarded, partly because Pearl Harbor, December 7, 1941.
a group of 11 B-17s from Hamilton Field, CA, were due into
Hickam Field at the time of the attack [13, 17]. In defense of the officer who concluded the approaching aircraft
were the B-17s. They did indeed follow a course very similar to the Japanese attack route, arriving at Hickam field
at 8:20 am to find themselves, disarmed and defenseless, in the middle of a battle, and between the first and second
attack waves [18]; two were shot by Japanese aircraft, one on the Hickam runway. One B-17 crew member at the
waist gun opening took a photograph of a Japanese dive bomber flying above and forward of his aircraft.
Although the Japanese force was considerably larger than the B-17 flight, the SCR-270 was a primitive radar
with a range resolution of 0.8 to 2.0 nmi and an azimuth resolution of 28° [18]; the number of aircraft could not
have been determined. One B-17 landed on the Kahuku golf course [17], just below the Opana radar station.
The Pearl Harbor disaster, and the recognition that radar detection of the surprise attack had provided nearly an
hour to prepare a defense against it, brought radar to the attention of the world forever.

The Reflex Klystron

Scientists in the United States had been working on another type of microwave oscillator tube in the late 1930s.
Efforts were devoted toward a tube which operated on a principle of electron repulsion and bunching within a
cavity. This reflex klystron could not produce adequate power for radar transmitters, but was a continuous-wave
device that proved essential as a receiver local oscillator for many years. Further development of klystrons led in
postwar years to the klystron drift tube, a high-power amplifier tube exhibiting many performance advantages
over magnetrons. Klystron drift tubes have been used in radar systems for years, but are gradually being replaced
by solid-state technology.

The Explosion of Radar Science in World War II

World War II created a phenomenal growth in radar science and manufacture. The MIT Radiation Laboratories
grew from 40 to 4,000 employees, and finally occupied 15 acres of floor space [13, 18]. By the end of the war,
nearly 3 billion dollars of radar equipment had been purchased by the Army and Navy [13, 18]. For many years
afterward, several volumes of engineering books created by the organization after the war, entitled MIT Radia-
tion Laboratory Series [18], served as a national encyclopedia for the field of radar. Although the science was
founded on 1930s’ developments by the British, the feverish effort at development went far past what Great
Britain had envisioned.
When the United States entered the war after Pearl Harbor, crash programs had already begun at the MIT
Radiation Laboratories to develop radar systems, monitored by Secretary of War Henry Stimpson’s representa-
tive, Edward L Boles, an electrical engineering professor at MIT [13]. One major objective was to develop auto-
matic tracking radars to accurately point anti-aircraft guns at enemy airplanes and “buzzbombs.” These were to
become known as fire-control radars; the first radars of this type simply provided information to aim searchlights
at aircraft, so that manually operated guns could be fired at them. One of these, the AN/TPL-1, is illustrated in
Figure 1-5, and a prewar gun-laying radar is shown in Figure 1-6. Development led to the SCR-584 radar system,
containing an electromechanical connection through an analog computer to anti-aircraft guns. Another objec-
tive was to develop airborne radar, which permitted aircraft to detect and destroy German U-boats on surfacing.
6 Radar’s Rich History and Development

Shipboard radars were also needed for the Navy, for defense
warning, searching for the enemy, fire control, and directing
returning aircraft to carriers.
Still another objective was to improve early warning
radars to provide for detection of approaching enemy air-
craft, V-1 buzzbombs, and V-2 rockets. Yet another objective
was to develop a “landing radar” to permit operations against
the Axis in all types of weather. Both the landing radar and
early warning radar have evolved to become the two major
components of today’s air traffic control radar system.
Frequencies used for these early systems were originally
based on the 10-cm λ British magnetron, but a 3-cm λ mag-
netron was necessary and quickly developed for precision
airborne radar ground imaging and for the landing radar. The
3-cm λ also allowed for small components and antennas in
FIGURE 1–5
aircraft. Early in the war, development of the P-61A radar
A/ N TPL-1: searchlight-directing radar. fighter shown in Figure 1-7 was started as a means to counter
Nazi fighters as they attacked bombers returning
to Great Britain. For purposes of wartime secre-
cy, the radars were assigned letter designations to
describe the bands; those band designations are
still in use today. The 10-cm λ was named “S”
band for wartime security purposes; it is widely
used today for airport surveillance radar (ASR)
systems and weather radars. The 3-cm λ was
similarly named “X” band.
Germany also used radar in World War II,
but their systems were the large-antenna, low-
frequency, long-range type used to detect ap-
proaching enemy aircraft. In 1943, the Nazis
captured a microwave radar from a downed Brit-
ish aircraft and reproduced the system. Unfortu-
nately for Hitler and his Nazis, it was too late
FIGURE 1–6 in the war [13]. Russia, Japan, France, and Italy
SCR-268: early “gun laying” radar. also had primitive radar systems operating at the
frequencies below microwave [12].

Electronic Countermeasures and Aircraft Identification

German radar and German interference with Allied radar led the United States to the development of elec-
tronic countermeasures (ECM). A major ECM technique during the war required the use of hundreds of
tons of tin foil strips, called “chaff,” to cause large blocks of radar clutter which would obscure radar detec-
tion of the Allied aircraft [13]. Nazi aircraft were also able to capitalize on Allied radar by following Allied
aircraft back to England; this led to the de-
ployment of an equipment called IFF, for
“identification friend or foe.” IFF equipment
incorporated a two-pulse interrogation from
the ground, and a multipulse reply, at a dif-
ferent frequency, from the aircraft. A greatly
expanded version of the IFF equipment has
become the Air Traffic Control Radar Bea-
con System (ATCRBS), now used through-
FIGURE 1–7 out the world for civil aircraft identification
and altitude reporting.
WWII radar night fighter P-61A.
The Landing Radar 7

FIGURE 1–8
AN/ MPN-1 ground-controlled-approach (GCA) system.

The Landing Radar

To accomplish the many radar projects, MIT Radiation Laboratories worked with over 70 manufacturers capable
of converting the scientific creations into working hardware [13]. One of the Radiation Laboratories’ major
programs was instituted in 1942 to create a “landing radar.” One small company, previously devoted to building
radios and electrical tools, the Gilfillan Corporation of Los Angeles, CA, was subsequently assigned this landing
radar project [15]. Gilfillan built the first Ground-Controlled-Approach (GCA) radar systems, delivered the first
system in December of 1943 [15], and remained the leader in these types of systems for many years after the war.
These systems actually contained two types of radars, a search or surveillance (both terms often used) system
to permit observation of all traffic in the vicinity and a precision system used to “zero in” on the final approach
of aircraft to the runway. The radar was assigned the official US Army Air Corps designation, AN/MPN-1; it is
illustrated in Figure 1-8.
The MPN-1 was an incredible engineering achievement for the time, and a major milestone in radar history.
Consider the overall state of technology in the United States in the 1940s. Across the country, farms were still
without electricity. Homes that did have electricity usually had a single living room, a-m radio, if any at all.
Model A Fords were still the only means of transportation for thousands. New Chevrolets relied on scoop-and-
splash (no oil pump) engine lubrication. The most common cargo aircraft was the DC-3/C-47. Yet, this MPN-
1 contained both 10-cm λ and 3-cm λ magnetrons and klystrons. Even beyond that, the precision approach
GCA antennas were a motor-driven, variable, phased array, sometimes called the squeezing waveguide, and
waveguide itself was new. Antennas identical to the original squeezing waveguide are still in use today, and they
were the foundation for today’s exotic, phased-array tracking radars.
The MPN-1 was the first air traffic control radar system, and the first radar to contain a form of phased-array
beam steering. It permitted Allied aircraft to operate at night and in low-visibility weather, thereby increasing
the frequency of attacks and the subsequent pressure on both Nazi Germany and Japan; it played a great part in
winning the war. The significance of GCA is apparent in an account by a Pacific Theatre GCA technician telling
of a B-29 making a GCA landing under conditions of a 100-foot ceiling, visibility under a mile, crosswinds, tur-
bulence, and an obstacle near the approach course; a safe landing would have otherwise been impossible [15].
GCA operations were based on the use of two separate radars, called “search” and “precision” (see Figure 1-9).
The precision was used to monitor the aircraft’s final approach to the runway, and both azimuth and elevation
antennas were used to observe course and altitude. Because the precision system was dedicated to accuracy, its
radar observation was of only a small wedge of space, and the search system was necessary to initially detect the
aircraft, providing the controllers a means to guide the aircraft into the precision antenna patterns.
Even though the MPN-1 was such an incredible achievement for its time, it was an infant in the develop-
ment of air traffic control radar, and it was severely limited in usefulness. The search radar had a range of only
30 miles, and the precision, 10 miles. Ground clutter echoes on the search system obscured aircraft echoes
at close ranges, where it was most important to see them; controllers used a “timed approach” technique to
8 Radar’s Rich History and Development

calculate when and where aircraft would

emerge from the clutter, or used traffic
PPI Display
Three B-17s on downwind leg patterns which avoided clutter areas.
One on final approach to runway 35 When wind changes made it necessary
to use different runways, the entire radar
Radar
Runway 35
had to be turned around or moved by the
Precision “prime mover,” the truck which towed it,
Az-EI and which contained the engine genera-
Display tor. There were no spare radar channels,
and upon a failure, the radar would be
out of service until it could be repaired.
The US Army Air Corps and its suc-
cessor, the US Air Force, made such
extensive use of the AN/MPN-1 that
every US air base in the world had one
by the early 1950s. However, because
of the clutter problem, the range limita-
tions, poor surveillance azimuth resolu-
FIGURE 1–9 tion, and a list of improvement needs to
be expected of the first experience with
Azimuth and elevation precision approach beam scans. a new system, it was naturally destined
to be replaced with an improved sys-
tem. Work had been done by the Radiation Laboratories and
Gilfillan to reduce clutter returns by detecting an absence of
Doppler shift in clutter echoes; the new type of system was
called moving target indicator (MTI). See Figure 1-10. A
new GCA system employing MTI, the Gilfillan AN/CPN-4,
was used in the 1948–1949 Berlin airlift [16] and then de-
ployed on a wide-scale basis in the early 1950s. However,
the MIT Radiation Laboratory Series contains substantial
information on MTI, evidence that significant work on it had
been done during the war. A secret wartime project called
“Rosebud” at the Gilfillan Los Angeles plant was probably
dedicated to the development of MTI.
MTI is probably the greatest single milestone development
in the history of air traffic control radar (see Figure 1-11).
MTI removes ground clutter from radar presentations, yet
displays aircraft targets flying over that ground clutter. The
AN/CPN-4 system became the basis for the Civil Aeronau-
tics Administration’s (CAA) radar program. The search sys-
tem became the first airport surveillance radar (ASR) ASR-
1, and the precision radar became the CAA’s first precision
FIGURE 1–10 approach radar (PAR), the PAR-1. ASR radars now com-
The A/N CPN-4 used in the Berlin airlift. prise the greatest share of FAA radars, but PAR systems are
now rare, partly because more economical instrument land-
ing systems (ILS) are widely used. There is some hazard in-
volved with the total reliance on a single system, particularly
one which relies on operational equipment in the aircraft.
The US military and other governments still use PARs,
but often use a system called the quadradar, as illustrated in
Figure 1-12. The quadradar was first built in the 1950s to of-
fer an economical alternative to air traffic control radar needs
for low-volume airports. Quadradars do not use the phased-
FIGURE 1–11 array precision antennas, have no MTI, and do not operate
Normal vs. MTI displays. simultaneously in search and precision. Military designations
GCA and Civilian Air Traffic Control 9

of the quadradar were AN/FPN-33, -36, -40, and FSQ-84. Other Gilfillan
radars of similar design were used for the carrier-controlled approach and
were designated AN/SPN-XX. Still others were built for prompt tacti-
cal deployments. Hundreds of these radars have been sold throughout the
world; among major purchasers have been the US Army, Navy, Marine
Corps, Canada, and West Germany.

The Berlin Airlift

GCA radar may well have been the single factor to prevent war from
breaking out over the Berlin blockade through 1948 and 1949. Josef Stalin FIGURE 1–12
ordered the total blockade of West Berlin, and citizens of the city lost all Gilfillan quadradar.
means to obtain such basic necessities as food and coal. As a nonaggres-
sive solution, the United States launched the largest air traffic control operation in history, the Berlin airlift [16].
At West Berlin’s Templehof Air Force Base, two MPN-1 systems were installed at each end of the runways. One
radar served as a backup for another, and runway direction could be reversed without relocating the system. From
June of 1948 until May of 1949, 277,264 flights [15] to Templehof delivered 2 million tons of supplies [16] from
other airports in West Germany, Western Europe, and the Great Britain. Aircraft landed at a rate of one every
2 to 3 min; on one emergency occasion, 26 C-54 aircraft landed in 26 min. Over a 10-month period, 54,000 GCA
landings were made [15].
An AN/CPN-4 was deployed at Templehof in late 1948. The CPN-4 contained an MTI system, which
afforded the United States a new radar advantage. Aircraft approaching or departing West Berlin were restricted
to narrow corridors over buildings, and terrain which caused ground clutter. Soviet fighters harassed the freight
aircraft [16], and air traffic controllers could not monitor conflicts while the aircraft were obscured by clutter.
However, the approaching fighters could be detected by the CPN-4 in spite of the clutter, and defensive actions
thwarted the Soviet harassment.

GCA and Civilian Air Traffic Control

The US Air Force, and its predecessor, the Army Air Corps, developed air traffic control radar for wartime use.
It naturally followed that the technology would be put to use for civil aviation by the CAA, then a part of the
Department of Commerce. A GCA system was used by the CAA at the Indianapolis Airport in 1946 [15]. In
1948, President Harry Truman’s airplane made a GCA landing under conditions of less than 3/8-mile visibility,
attracting the attention of the aviation world [15]. In the early 1950s, the federal government initiated a develop-
ment program called “Project Friendship,” to supply both the Air Force and CAA with air traffic control radar.
Many cities throughout the country had both air bases and commercial airports, and a single search radar on the
air base served for traffic control. The facilities used for this purpose were called RAPCON, an acronym for radar
approach control.
The Project Friendship RAPCONs employed an AN/CPN-18 surveillance radar, which was very similar to
the CPN-4 search and ASR-1, but manufactured by Bendix. The precision radar was an AN/FPN-16, a non-
transportable system used only by the military. The FPN-16 was mounted on a large turntable to allow the entire
radar set, including the building, to be electrically rotated for different runway alignments. The AN/FPN-16 was
nearly identical to the CPN-4 precision, and was also manufactured by Gilfillan. Search and precision display
equipment was installed in a common RAPCON building on the air base. In a joint-use RAPCON, CAA/FAA
controllers performed all ASR control, and USAF controllers performed the PAR approaches to the military
base. The first operational RAPCON was at the Offutt Air Force Base Strategic Air Command Headquarters
near Omaha, NE, and many others followed. This author began work as a GCA technician at the McConnell Air
Force Base RAPCON in Wichita, KS, in 1956.
Obviously, every city does not have an air base, and all civilian traffic could not be controlled from joint-use
RAPCONs. The CAA installed ASR-1s, -2s and -3s at municipal airports across the country. In the 1960s, the
FAA built new control facilities and grew away from the RAPCONs. Although the CAA/FAA did use a limited
number of PAR radars, the ground-controlled approach was unpopular in the civilian world, and it is now practi-
cally extinct in civil aviation. Its replacement was the instrument landing system (ILS), and now global position-
ing satellite (GPS) approaches are being made. This has been a controversial subject, as some are opposed to
excess reliance on equipment aboard the aircraft, since acts of war could destroy the satellites and create havoc.
10 Radar’s Rich History and Development

The early ASRs and CPN-18s were replaced with ASR-4, -5, and -6 improved dual-channel systems, and
Automated Radar Terminal System (ARTS) computers were installed to handle increasing volumes of traffic
and information. Some of the ASR-3s at low-volume airports remained in operation until they were replaced
with ASR-7s or ASR-8s in the 1970s. Radar facilities became increasingly complicated with ARTS comput-
ers, video-mapping equipment, television scan conversion equipment, air traffic control radar beacon systems
(ATCRBS), multiple radio communications channels, telephone switching equipment, and more.

Other Air Traffic Control Radars

Although the MPN-1 was the first air traffic control radar, other systems followed. In the early 1960s, the US
Navy deployed AN/SPN-35 carrier-controlled-approach (CCA) systems for aircraft carriers; these radars were
mounted on “stable tables,” which were gyro-controlled level platforms to prevent the radar from rocking with the
ship’s motion. Many of the first CCA radars were very similar to the Quadradar. Today, CCA radars have become
sophisticated automatic tracking systems. CCA and GCA radar has now advanced with the state of the art, and
phased-array automatic tracking systems are now in operation. It is noteworthy that an “automatic GCA” system
had been developed early in the 1950s.

Ground-Controlled Intercept (GCI) Radar Systems

Long-range, early-warning radar systems are among the oldest; the Pearl Harbor attack was even detected by such
a radar. The basic principle of operation was very similar to the GCA surveillance system, with a continuously
rotating antenna, but several performance characteristics differed to serve the purpose. The antenna rotation rate
was slower to permit the beam to dwell on distant targets, the transmitter required a greater power output, and
lower L-band frequencies have usually been used for several reasons. These military systems were also called
Aircraft Control and Warning (AC&W). Large-scale deployment of these systems within the United States began
in the early 1950s. In addition to the long-range surveillance radar, AC&W facilities were also characterized by
height-finder radars, necessary to determine the altitude of intruders to direct fighter intercept operations.

Air Route Surveillance Radar (ARSR)

The ASR radar is used by the FAA for airport arrival and departure control, but the FAA has an additional need
for radar for another purpose. Once an aircraft has departed from an airport traffic area to begin a cross-country
flight, it becomes an enroute aircraft, and its flight progress is monitored by an Air Route Traffic Control Cen-
ter (ARTCC). Enroute aircraft traverse great distances, and radar surveillance requires the use of greater range,
higher power systems. ARSR systems employ a 200-mile range, in contrast to the 60-mile range of ASR systems.
The ARSR-3 antenna is illustrated in Figure 1-13.

The Joint-Use ARSR Program.

The requirements for ARSRs and GCI radars were so similar that separate
systems for both air defense and air traffic control were clearly unneces-
sary. The FAA and USAF then entered into joint-use agreements in which
the FAA would maintain military long-range radar systems and supply ra-
dar data to both Air Force air defense centers and FAA ARTCCs. Initially,
most of these military ARSRs were the AN/FPS-20; to this day, it has
been one of the finest, most stable and reliable of all systems. The FPS-20
was among the very first synthesis radar systems, a type of radar that did
not use a magnetron transmitter, but instead synthesized the transmitter
frequency by combining oscillator outputs and then amplifying the fre-
quency to high power with a klystron “drift” tube. Most new radar systems
FIGURE 1–13 are now of the synthesis type, as the MTI performance of these systems is
FAA ARSR-3. superior to that of magnetron systems.
The Joint-Use ARSR Program 11

In the 1960s, several very sophisticated

radar systems were incorporated into the
joint-use ARSR program to thwart any 86-ton Antenna
possible Soviet air attack on the continen-
tal United States (see Figure 1-14). Across
the country, the air defense radar network 60' × 60'
comprised radars operating in several dif- Concrete Building
ferent frequency bands to make electronic
countermeasures (ECM) against the entire Air Defense Command
Power AN/FST-2 Computer Bldg
system difficult, if not impossible. Because Plant
of the use of the different bands, the pro-
gram was called the Frequency Diversity
(FD) radar program. Each of the FD sys-
tems also contained many special electronic
counter-countermeasures (ECCM) fea-
tures to defeat the effects of jamming at its
own frequency, and some of the techniques
appear in many modern radar systems today.
Among these were pulse compression, vid-
eo integration, frequency agility, and many
others. Systems included the AN/FPS-24
(VHF), FPS-35 (UHF), FPS-7 (L band),
FPS-27 (S band), and upgraded versions
of the L band FPS-20, designated FPS-64,
-65, -66, and -67.
The immensity of the FD radar systems
deserves some description. The FPS-35, for FIGURE 1–14
instance, was contained in a 60′ × 60′ five- AN/ FPS-35.
story concrete building. The UHF frequency
band necessitated an 86-ton antenna approximately 150′ wide, driven by six 100 hp, 440-V electric motors. The
antenna was too large for a radome; in high winds, it was shut down when the total motor current reached 900
A per leg on the three phases. One channel of the radar was installed on the fourth floor, the other on the third
floor. The first floor contained all the cooling pumps and mechanical equipment; the fifth floor contained the
large UHF waveguide assemblies, and the antenna drive and lubrication equipment. Maintenance of the system
required 24-h attendance; each of three shifts comprised a supervisor, three radar technicians, and an electro-
mechanical technician.
The Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) treaty prohibited further use of the sophisticated FD systems, and the
ARSR program returned to simpler systems in the 1970s. Many of the FPS-64, -65, -66, and -67 systems were
retained for use as ARSRs with the ECCM features deactivated, and the ARSR network exclusively used the
L band. However, the sophistication achieved in these systems made an impact on radar and radar technicians
forever.
The FAA also utilized a number of purely civilian ARSRs, called the ARSR-1 and ARSR-2. These sys-
tems were deployed on a large scale following the collision of two airliners over the Grand Canyon in the late
1950s. The ARSR-1 and -2 were magnetron transmitter systems that employed another microwave amplifier
tube, called the amplitron, to achieve the necessary high transmitter power. The amplitron is also known as a
crossed-field amplifier (CFA).
In the late 1970s, an ARSR-3 system was deployed; the antenna is illustrated in Figure 1-11. It was a major
state-of-the-art upgrade, containing microprocessor circuitry, and using a new klystron drift tube. The ARSR-
4, a 1990s’ radar, is a rho-theta-phi (three-dimensional; range, azimuth, and altitude) phased-array feedhorn,
CHIRPed (compressed high resolution pulse) system, for FAA/military joint use. The ARSR-4, deployed
mostly around the US borders, does have a height-finding capability to detect and challenge intruding aircraft.
Early in radar development, defense radars had also contained a “secondary” aircraft-recognition radar sys-
tem called identification, friend or foe (IFF); it was also called selective identification feature (SIF). An
expanded version of these systems, compatible with both military and civilian systems, was to later become
12 Radar’s Rich History and Development

civil aviation’s ATCRBS. The systems have also been expanded into data-link systems. Military data-link sys-
tems are called “Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System, Identification Friend or Foe, Mark XII System,”
given the acronym AIMS. Civilian data-link systems introduced in the 1980s are called Mode S, and military
challenges to potential intruders are accomplished with Mode 4 Interrogations.

Airport Surface Detection Equipment (ASDE)

Airport runways and taxiways have always been dangerous places for both aircraft and ground vehicles, and
the increased traffic and landing speeds over the years have worsened the hazard. Serious collisions and many
deaths have been caused by “runway incursions,” the term often used to describe a vehicle or aircraft entering an
active runway as an aircraft is landing. In the earliest days of aviation, high-intensity “light guns” in the air traffic
control towers were used to signal aircraft pilots that they had been cleared to land. Colored light guns were later
used to signal vehicles on the ground, green for “proceed,” red for “don’t proceed,” and white for “clear the area
immediately.” Many vehicles regularly on the airfield were not equipped with mobile radios. For clearance to
cross a runway, it was common practice to flash headlights at the tower to gain attention, or to begin driving in
circles, if that did not work. I was once erroneously cleared to drive an Air Force truck onto a runway in front of
a landing B-47; had it become anything other than a very close call, I would not be writing this today.
Other incidents such as my own prompted the installation of mobile radios in all airfield vehicles, but even
that was far from adequate. In bad weather, a vehicle driver could become disoriented, and fail to realize that
he should contact the tower, and controllers in the tower could not see the vehicle. Some true disasters occurred
when landing airliners fell upon other aircraft on the runway.
ASDE radar was envisioned in the 1940s and first deployed in the 1950s. For echo definition, a very short
pulse and high operating frequency (originally Ka band) became necessary, creating many engineering design
challenges. The short-range and high pulse repetition rate offered a large number of hits per scan, and the
antenna could be rotated at a high rate (the ASDE-3, 60 rpm) for rapid update. The antenna requires a very high
gain and narrow beam width (0.25° for the ASDE-3) to achieve azimuth definition, and that requirement had
much to do with the choice of high operating frequencies. A traveling-wave tube was employed in the ASDE-3
transmitter. The earliest ASDEs operated in the Ka band. For the ASDE-3, the frequency was reduced to the Ku
band, and then for the ASDE-X, to the X band. Precipitation has always plagued the ASDE systems, and that
was the motivation for frequency reduction. Among further efforts to reduce the derogating effects of precipita-
tion, the ASDE-3 antenna reflector was shaped to limit elevation coverage to just 200′ above the ground level.
Because of the high antenna rotation rate, the ASDE-3 antenna is enclosed in a radome that rotates with the
antenna. The radome is aerodynamically
Data for AMASS from ASR-9, other digitizer, and/or ARTS via TAIU
designed to provide lift when rotating, so
as to reduce stress, wear, noise, drag, and
ASDE-3 Max Range Limited by Timing. drive-motor current.
Because of increasingly high land-
200' Altitude Limitation ing speeds, it became necessary to see
approaching aircraft outside the ASDE
range and above its antenna pattern (see
Figure 1-15). An interface system was
created to merge ASR-9 digital track
data, ARTS (Automated Radar Terminal
Beam width 0.25° System) flight plan data, and ASDE radar
data. A terminal interface unit (TAIU)
usually located at an ARTS facility pro-
Vertical Beam Shape vides digital data for approaching aircraft
cosec−1.5 from 0.8° to 3.2° to an airport movement area surveillance
cosec from 3.2° to 31° system (AMASS). When aircraft courses
and velocities indicate a developing haz-
ard, the automated system provides both
FIGURE 1–15 aural and visual alarms in the air traffic
ASDE, AMASS, and TAIU. control tower.
References 13

References
1. J. R. Partington, “Michael Faraday” Contribution to Collier’s Encyclopedia, Crowell-Collier
Publishing Co., U.K. and Canada, 1964.
2. R. L. Smith-Rose, “James Clerk Maxwell” Contribution to Collier’s Encyclopedia, Crowell-
Collier Publishing Co., U.K. and Canada, 1964.
3. T. R. Hay, “Benjamin Franklin” Contribution to Collier’s Encyclopedia, Crowell-Collier
Publishing Co., U.K. and Canada, 1964.
4. H. Gordon Garbedian, “Thomas Alva Edison” Contribution to Collier’s Encyclopedia, Crowell-
Collier Publishing Co., U.K. and Canada, 1964.
5. D. Park, “Doppler Effect” Contribution to Collier’s Encyclopedia, Crowell-Collier Publishing
Co., U.K. and Canada, 1964.
6. R. Todd, “Heinrich Rudolph Hertz” Contribution to Collier’s Encyclopedia, Crowell- Collier
Publishing Co., U.K. and Canada, 1964.
7. L. I. Anderson, “Nikola Tesla” Contribution to Collier’s Encyclopedia, Crowell-Collier
Publishing Co., U.K. and Canada, 1964.
8. F. J. Kerr, “Radar” Contribution to Collier’s Encyclopedia, Crowell-Collier Publishing Co.,
UK. and Canada, 1964.
9. C. W. Davis, “Guglielmo Marconi” Contribution to Collier’s Encyclopedia, Crowell-Collier
Publishing Co., U.K. and Canada, 1964.
10. C. W. Davis, “Lee DeForest” Contribution to Collier’s Encyclopedia, Crowell-Collier Publishing
Co., U.K. and Canada, 1964.
11. M. Kraus, “Battle of Jutland” Contribution to Collier’s Encyclopedia, Crowell-Collier Publish-
ing Co., U.K. and Canada, 1964.
12. M. Skolnik, Introduction to Radar, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1990.
13. L. Garmon, Echoes of War, television production for Public Broadcasting System.
14. I. Behrens, “Wilhelm Konrad Roentgen” Contribution to Collier’s Encyclopedia, Crowell-
Collier Publishing Co., U.K. and Canada, 1964.
15. ITT Gilfillan Scanner, Vol. 28, No. 3, Spring 1992.
16. C. C. Held and K. Schroeder, “Berlin” Contribution to Collier’s Encyclopedia Crowell-Collier
Publishing Co., U.K. and Canada, 1964.
17. L. Kimmet and M. Regis, The Attack on Pearl Harbor, Navigator Publishing, Seattle, WA, 1991.
18. L. N. Ridenour, Radar System Engineering: Volume I, MIT Radiation Laboratory Series,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1947.
14 Radar’s Rich History and Development

Review Questions
1. Those listed below all had some part in the development of radio and/or radar. Name the things
each accomplished:
Benjamin Franklin Guglielmo Marconi
Christian Johann Doppler Thomas Edison
Michael Faraday John Ambrose Fleming
James Clerk Maxwell Lee DeForest
Sir William Crookes Dr. A. Hoyt Taylor
Wilhelm Roentgen Leo Young
Heinrich Rudolph Hertz Randel and Boot
Nikola Tesla Joseph Lockhard
Christian Hulsemier
2. The first scientist to propose that electromagnetic energy would be propagated in the same manner
as light was .
3. Microwave technology began with the invention of the in
(country) by .
4. The first scientist known to have expressed the idea of pulsed radar was .
5. The first invention leading to the cathode ray tube was the
by .
6. Japanese aircraft attacking Pearl Harbor were detected miles
north of Oahu by an radar system.
7. The first air traffic control radar was the built in (time period) .
8. Define the following terms or acronyms:
AC&W Squeezing Waveguide
AMASS GCA
ARSR GCI
ASR MTI
ARTS Microwave
ASDE PAR
ATCRBS Quadradar
Fire Control Radar TAIU
Answers to Review Questions 15

Answers to Review Questions

1. Those listed below all had some part in the development of radio and/or radar. Name the things
each accomplished:
Benjamin Franklin discovered electricity.
Christian Johann Doppler proved and quantified frequency shift by motion.
Michael Faraday performed early experiments with electrical charges.
James Clerk Maxwell developed equations to quantify Faraday’s findings.
Sir William Crookes made current flow through space in a tube.
Wilhelm Roentgen used Crookes’ findings to develop the X-ray.
Heinrich Rudolph Hertz showed that electromagnetic energy could be propagated as light.
Nikola Tesla pioneered alternating-current theory, and devised several ideas before
their time.
Christian Hulsemier invented a spark device to receive echoes.
Guglielmo Marconi used others’ findings to create a transatlantic telegraph.
Thomas Edison, an experimenter who developed many devices.
John Ambrose Fleming invented the vacuum tube.
Lee DeForest invented amplitude-modulated radio transmitters.
Dr. A. Hoyt Taylor with assistant Leo Young first began work to create radar in the
United States.
Leo Young was an assistant to Dr. Taylor.
Randel and Boot created the magnetron.
Joseph Lockhard reported the radar detection of Japanese aircraft approaching
Pearl Harbor.
2. The first scientist to propose that electromagnetic energy would be propagated in the same manner
as light was Heinrich Rudolph Hertz.
3. Microwave technology began with the invention of the magnetron in England by Randel and
Boot.
4. The first scientist known to have expressed the idea of pulsed radar was Nikola Tesla.
5. The first invention leading to the cathode ray tube was the X-ray by Wilhelm Roentgen.
6. Japanese aircraft attacking Pearl Harbor were detected over 100 miles north of Oahu by an
SCR-270 radar system.
7. The first air traffic control radar was the AN/MPN-1, built in World War II.
8. Define the following terms or acronyms:
AC&W: Air Control and Warning, 200-mile radar systems for detection and interception.
AMASS: Airport Movement Area Surveillance System.
ARSR: Air Route Surveillance Radar, 200-mile “en route” air traffic control radar.
ASR: Airport Surveillance Radar, 60-mile “terminal” radar for airport arrival and
departure control.
ARTS: Automated Radar Terminal System (or Service). Computer handling of radar data
for airport arrival and departure control.
ASDE: Airport Surface Detection Equipment. A very short range radar for surveillance of
ground traffic on the airport.
ATCRBS: Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System (or Service).
Fire Control Radar: Radar used to automatically track targets and fire guns or missiles.
Squeezing Waveguide: A variable-width waveguide used for beam-steering in GCA
systems.
Discovering Diverse Content Through
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Tóbiás király

városa
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Title: Tóbiás király városa

Author: Knut Hamsun

Translator: Géza Ács

Release date: January 14, 2024 [eBook #72709]

Language: Hungarian

Original publication: Budapest: Fővárosi Könyvkiadó, 1926

Credits: Albert László from page images generously made available

by the Hungarian Electronic Library

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TÓBIÁS

KIRÁLY VÁROSA ***
 Knut Hamsun

Tóbiás király városa

Norvégból forditotta

Ács Géza

Fővárosi Könyvkiadó
Egyedül jogositott magyar kiadás

Fővárosi nyomda rt.

 1.

Valaki áll az új zászlódombon, ugyan mit keres ott? Ez

bizonyosan megint a boltos Theodor hóbortja, de tudná csak az
apja, az öreg boltos Per!
Lám, Holmengraa úrnak, a földesúrnak volt zászlórúdja is,
zászlólengetője is. Ez érthető, mert szükséges. Neki a postahajónak
kell jelt adnia, különösen olyankor, ha súlyosan megrakott teherhajó
közeledik a rakodópart felé és búzát hoz a malomnak. De boltos
Theodor nem ismert szemérmet, zászlódombot csinált csak azért,
mert szatócs és mindenért lengette a lobogót, néha semmi okból,
vagy csak azért, mert vasárnap volt. Bolondot csinált magából.
Most is felküldött egy embert a zászlódombra, mintha kellett
volna. És az ember ott áll és kémleli a tengert. Készen tartja a
lobogót, hogy felhúzhassa, mihelyst meglátja azt, amit kell. Pedig
legföljebb csak a halászhajót várhatta.
Furcsa dolog, de az ifjú boltos Theodor akárhányszor lengette a
lobogót és tette bolonddá az embereket, mindig megbocsátottak
neki. Kiváncsivá tette, magával ragadta őket és megindította a
szóbeszédet: ugyan mi van vele ma megint? Az az ördöngős
Theodor mindig tartogat valami meglepetést. Ole Johan és Lars
Manuelsen mindenesetre nagyon kiváncsiak, lent az úton találkoztak
és nem tudják levenni a szemüket arról a zászlós emberről.
Ole Johan még mindig ugyanaz, aki volt, évek hosszú sora óta
Holmengraa úr szolgálatában áll, zsákokkal, meg súlyos terhekkel
robotol, – hosszúszárú csizmába és izlandi bekecsbe bujt
piszokfészek.
 Bizony nem vitte sokra és a családja éppen olyan nyomorúságos
helyzetben van, mint azelőtt, ennyire rosszul megy a sora némelyik
embernek. Lars Manuelsen ellenben felvirágzott, együtt nőtt
Segelfoss városával, az ő fia L. Lassen, a nagy délnorvégiai pap, a
tudós és püspökség várományosa és az ő fia Julius, a rakodóparti
Larsen-szálloda gazdája. Daverdana is az ő gyermeke, a vöröshajú,
aki férjhez ment a hajóhíd őréhez és olyan szenvedélyesnek látszik.
Igy hát Lars Manuelsen családja zöldágra vergődött és ő maga is
már régen önálló gazda, még senki se látta őt pénz nélkül a boltban.
Ilyen jól is mehet némelyik embernek a sora. A vörös szakálla
finomabb lett és megszürkült, a haja egészen kihullott, de a fia, L.
Lassen vett és küldött neki egy parókát és azt hordja most nap-nap
után. Ha aztán két gombsoros bekecsében jár és a munkához hozzá
sem nyúl, ez talán csak azért van, mert nincs szüksége rá, annyira
megjavultak a viszonyai. Manapság már senki se beszél Larsszal
bántó hangon, de persze akadtak régi pajtásai és rabszolgatársai a
földön, akik megkockáztatják az ilyen kérdéseket, mint: Nem tudom
megérteni, Lars, hogy miből élsz, hacsak nem lopod a pénzt! Erre
Lars Manuelsen köp egy nagyot és azt feleli: Tartozom tán neked
valamivel? – Dehogy is. De bár tartoznál! – Akkor megfizetném, –
mondja. Lars Manuelsen jövedelme nagyon természetesen adódott.
Hát járhat-e például egy ember, akinek ilyen finom gyerekei vannak,
másokhoz munkába? Ugy-e nem? De amikor Julius berendezte a
szállodáját és vendégeket fogadott, persze az öreg apját is
belekapcsolta az üzembe. Ki vinné el különben a bőröndöket meg a
ládákat a hajóhídról és ki cipelné vissza? Kezdetben Lars
Manuelsen szerény volt és keveset keresett, de utóbb gyarapodott a
jövedelme, jött egyik-másik hajós vagy állatkereskedő és
vágómarhát vett a városok számára, avagy fényképész, esetleg
egyik vagy másik képeslapnak az utazó tudósítója, azonkivül egyre
gyakrabban jöttek kereskedelmi utazók és árumintáikat bőröndben
hozták magukkal. És ezek mind bőkezű és jóravaló utasok voltak,
világfiak, akiknek megért egy huszonötőrést az, hogy híres ember
apja cipelte a holmijukat. Erről az Ole Johanról senki se tudott
semmit, Lars Manuelsenről ellenben mindenki tudta, hogy kicsoda, –
sőt ő maga is tudta és nem is hallgatta el.
 Nem várnak ezek se halászhajót, se vitorlást, mondja Lars
Manuelsen. Mert hiszen nincsen is szél.
Az ám, nincs szél. Akkor talán vendégek, vagy idegenek jönnek,
evezőscsónakon?
Mind a ketten ilyesmire gondolnak, de lehetetlennek és
nevetségesnek tartják. Mert a boltos Per meg a fia, a boltos Theodor
nem igen szokott vendégeket fogadni. Ellenben ha Holmengraa úr
zászlódombján állt volna valaki…
Mert Holmengraa úr még mindig az a nagy ember volt, akire
mindenki legelőbb gondolt. Néhány évvel ezelőtt nagy veszteséget
szenvedett ugyan és azóta is voltak veszteségei, de mi egy-két
veszteség annak, aki el tudja viselni. Hiszen rozs meg búza most is
éppúgy jött Segelfossba, mint azelőtt, nagy gőzösökön, Amerikából
meg a Fekete-tengerről és aztán el is ment liszt alakjában minden
északi országba és Finmarkenbe. Hiszen Holmengraa úr malma
nem szünetelt egyetlen munkanapon sem, bár már nem járt úgy
éjszakánként is, mint régente.
De ami a vendégeket és más efféléket illeti, Ole Johan és Lars
Manuelsen törték a fejüket, hogy ugyan kit várhatna Holmengraa úr,
a nagyember, hiszen a leánya, Mariane kisasszony, már visszatért
Krisztiániából és a külföldről, vörös köpenyében, de az ördögbe is,
Holmengraa úr akkor se venné igénybe a boltos Theodor zászlaját.
Ole Johan ezt mondja: Ha volna időm, akkor a zászlódomb felé
venném az útamat és megtudakolnám. Nem mehetnél te, Lars?
Micsoda? Nem! Nincsen rá kedvem!
Hát akkor nem, de akkor egyikünk se tudja meg, mondja Ole
Johan sértődötten. De nagyra vagy, már semmire sincs kedved.
Lars Manuelsen köp egyet és így felel: Tartozom neked
valamivel? Ole Johan indulni készül, de abban a pillanatban
meglátja Martin bérest, amint madarakkal a vállán közeledik feléjük.
Martin béres az erdőből jön, puska van a kezében és vadat űz egész
nap, a kékróka prémje hetven korona, a nyesté pedig harminc.
 Mit lőttél ma? kérdi Lars Manuelsen az előzékenység kedvéért.
Nézd meg! feleli Martin béres röviden.
Mert Martin béres ilyen félvállról kezel mindenkit és egy nagy
ember apjával se tesz kivételt. Nagy ember – ki nagy manapság?
Amióta az előbbi gazdája meghalt, Martin béres senkit se lát
nagynak az emberek között, legnagyobbrészt a hadnagy napjaiból
való emlékeinek él, a harmadik Willatz Holmsen napjaira gondol,
amikor még a mostani Rasch ügyvédné volt a házvezetőnő a
birtokon, a távirász Gottfred meg szolga a Segelfoss-kastélyban.
Azokra a napokra emlékszik. Persze most is van egy Willatz
Holmsen, az a negyedik, akit ifjú Willatznak hívnak. De az művész
és ritkán van odahaza, Martin béres alig ismeri.
Martin tovább megy a madaraival a vállán és a régimódi
gondolkozásmódjával.
Miért nem mégy le a mi szállodánkba, ott eladhatnád a
madaraidat és pénzt kaphatnál értük, mondja neki Lars Manuelsen.
Nem hallotta ezt Martin béres? Dehogy nem, jól hallotta, csak
nem felelt. Annyira megvetette ezt a fenhéjázó ajánlatot.
Nem láttad, hogy ki áll a zászlódombon? kiáltja utána Ole Johan.
Martin béres megáll: A zászlódombon? A boltos Kornelius, feleli,
mert hát Ole Johan kérdezte.
A boltos Kornelius?
Az.
Martin béres tovább megy. És különösen azért utálja Lars
Manuelsent, mert két sor gomb van a bekecsén.
Ó, hiszen Ole Johan és Lars Manuelsen jól látta, hogy Kornelius,
a szatócsinas áll odafent lesben és rajzolódik az ég hátterébe
lobogóval a kezében, de hát hallani is akarták és beszélni is akartak
róla. Hát ha Kornelius van ott, akkor csak olyasmiről lehet szó, ami a
boltosékat illeti, a boltos Pert, vagy a fiát, a boltos Theodort. De
vajjon mi lehet az?
A bolt – egyébként ma már csak egy embert jelentett, mert az
öreg P. Jensen már nyolcadik éve nyomja bénultan az ágyat és az
üzlet szempontjából annyit számított, mint a nulla, ellenben a fia volt
minden, nagyszerűen felvirágoztatta az üzletet, nagystílüvé, vagyont
érővé fejlesztette. Ez a Theodor szerencsés volt mindenben, amit
kitervelt és megvalósított, felülmulta az apját, mert ő már tollasodott
is, míg az apja csak takarékoskodott. Pedig ez a fiatalember még
csak a huszas éveiben volt és mind e mai napig sikerült kivédeni a
helyét a konkurrensek ellenében, legutóbb még a péket is elnyelte
egész sütődéjével együtt, holmi fűszertartozásért.
De ha makacs és keménnyakú volt is ez az aranyharácsoló,
alapjában véve korlátolt ember volt. Mi mást is várhatott tőle az
ember? Parasztnak, ostobának született, jól vezette a boltját, de az
üzleten kívül nem volt több, mint az osztályából való többi legény, sőt
talán hiúság és szeszélyek dolgában még rosszabb is. Az emberek
sokszor látták, hogy mind a két keze tele volt gyűrüvel és gyakran
szaladgált boltjának mocskos padlóján selyempántos cipővel. Még a
saját falujából valók is nevettek rajta és azt mondták: Az ám, látná
csak az apád!
Az apjával nem sokat törődött, azt már legyőzte, megelőzte,
felülmulta. Évek óta mindig a saját szakállára spekulált és halat vett
Lofotenben, amennyit csak módjában állt megvenni, minden évben
többet, végül már magán-halászbárkát is. Ekkor valóban kiállhatott a
fiú a dombra és végigtekinthetett a birodalmán. Ősszel azzal lepte
meg az embereket, hogy eladta az új halászbárkáját és sok pénzt
kapott érte. Vajjon visszavonult a halászattól? Igen: egy évre.
Lélegzetet akart venni.
Tavasszal az egyik ytteröjai társaságtól megvette az „Anna“ hajót,
a nagy, korhadt tákolmányt, amelynek repedésein még egy esernyőt
is átdughatott az ember. A hajó nem ért sokat, de az ára se volt
nagy. Néhány hónappal később a hajót a lehető legjobb és
leggyorsabb módon rendbehozták, átszerelték gályává, átmázolták,
bebiztosították és elküldték heringhalászatra. Az „Anna“ kitartott,
nem esett ki a feneke. És télen talán átküldték volna Lofotenbe
nagyhalászatra? Az a pusztulását jelentette volna. Ellenben Theodor
az idén teherhajót bérelt a nagyhalászatra. Ez furcsa volt és
mindenki megértette, hogy minden nap új veszteséget jelentett.
Veszteséget? Éppen azokban a napokban tétetett a kis Theodor tűt
egy arany huszkoronásra és ezt a feltünő ékszert használta
nyakkendőtűnek. De mi történt ősszel, mikor a tőkehalrakomány
kiszáradt és súlyban megcsökkent? A kis Theodor átrakatta a
korhadt gályába, megint biztosíttatta és útnak indította. Valóban ez
volt az „Anna“ gálya utolsó útja, mert már Follától délre elpusztult.
De a kis Theodor sohase csinált jobb üzletet. Ezzel a manőverrel
megszerezte a szükséges tőkét a következő híres sakkhuzásához,
amikor megvette a Henriksen kereskedő egész lúdpehelykészletét.
És ezt a jó fogást még több másik követte. Különösen az ócska
hajókkal volt nagy szerencséje, így például most megint volt egy
öreg, de használható yachtja. És most ez a yacht volt minden nap
várható, hogy az új nagyhalrakományát kiszárítsák a hegyekben, de
ez a yacht nem haladhatott szél nélkül. Tehát Korneliusnak mégsem
a yacht kedvéért kellett volna elngetnie a lobogót.
Ole Johannak van egy meggyökeresedett hibája és ez örökösen
kínozza. Olyan kíváncsi, mint egy nő. Azt az ajánlatot teszi, hogy
hajlandó egyenesen lemenni a boltba és tudakozódni, ha azalatt
Lars Manuelsen átveszi a munkáját a malomban.
Lars Manuelsen ugyan nem dolgozik már a kezével, de már
annyiszor utasította vissza öreg pajtását és szomszédját, hogy
ezegyszer nem akar kereken nemet mondani. A ruhám nem
alkalmas arra, mondja inkább.
A ruhád? Persze nyolc gomb van a bekecsed mellén! gúnyolódik
Ole Johan ingerülten és nem szabad őket belisztezned?
Ami azt illeti… feleli Lars Manuelsen eléggé békés hangon. De
nem tudom, hogy a parókám miatt lehet-e?
 A parókád miatt? Hát azt nem teheted le? És a parókád miatt kell
minden munka alól kibújnod? A fenébe azzal a parókával! De ha
csak ünnepnap vennéd fel vagy olyankor, ha vecsernyére mégy,
akkor nem volna rajta kivetni való.
Erre Lars Manuelsen egyenesen felmegy a malomba és nem
vitatkozik tovább. Sokkal büszkébb annál. A vállán keresztül látja,
hogy Ole Johan a bolt felé irányítja lépteit.
Fönt az ipartelepen még a régi időkből ismerik Lars Manuelsent
és az öreg magától megtalálja a munkáját. De nem hajol le jobban a
kelleténél, nem emelget nagy terheket, az ilyesmi már a multé, azóta
már megundorodott a robottól.
Most a sagvikai Bertel áll a helyén. Ez az ember bizalmi emberré
növekedett Holmengraa szolgálatában és a napszáma is nagyobb,
mint kezdetben volt. A sagvikai Bertelnek meg a feleségének
tűrhetően megy a sora, őneki magának biztos jövedelme van, a
felesége pedig azok közé tartozik, akik zsákokat varrnak a
malomnak és így mellékesen keresnek. A gyerekeik szépen fejlődtek
és lett is belőlük valami a konfirmációk után, Gottfred például
állandóan a távirdán dolgozik, a Pauline leány pedig szakácsnő a
Segelfoss kastélyban és azoknak az embereknek főz, akiket az ifjú
Willatz a birtok szolgálatában tart. Ez a Pauline még az öreg Willatz
Holmsenéknél tanulta meg a házvezetést meg a főzést és nagyon
csinos és tiszteletreméltó háziasszony lett volna belőle a Larsen-
szállodában. És vajjon Julius nem gondolt erre? Hohó, sokáig
gondolt ő a lányra és kitartóan csapta neki a szelet, de Pauline
elutasította. Lars Manuelsen nem állhatja meg, hogy át ne lóduljon
Bertelhez egy kis tereferére és először megmagyarázza, hogy nem
azért jött, mintha újra dolgozni akarna itt, hanem csak hogy
szívességet tehessen Ole Johannak.
Értem, feleli Bertel és egy kicsit nevet magában.
Nem dolgozom már, nem szorulok rá.
Nem a’, feleli Bertel és még jobban nevet magában, mert Bertel
az évek multával derüsebb és kedélyesebb lett.
 Mert ami azt illeti, ott van a Julius Larsen szállodája, enni meg
innivalóval, megvetett ágyakkal és mindennel, amit csak kívánhat az
ember.
Az ám.
Lars Manuelsen így szól:
Hát hogy áll a dolog, elveszi Julius a Paulinét? Hallottál valamit a
dologról?
Nem.
Mert amondó volnék, folytatja Lars Manuelsen, hogy akkor a
Larsen, a fiam eskethetné meg őket és ez többet jelent, mintha más
végezné a cerimóniát.
Bertel azt feleli erre, hogy semmit se tud, Pauline azt teheti, amit
akar, úgy látszik egyáltalán nem kívánkozik el a kastélyból.
Persze, hogy azt teheti, amit akar. De mit akar és mi a
szándéka? Ez mulatságosan hangzik. Talán bizony magára Willatzra
gondol? A kóbor madárra, a vándorcigányra, aki egyszer az egyik
országban van, másszor meg másikban. A birtokot pedig az a Martin
béres igazgatja.
De Bertel, nyilván megőrizte a Holmsenek iránti régi tiszteletét,
bosszantja az, hogy Lars Manuelsen gúnyolódik az ifjú Willatz fölött
és ezt nem is rejti véka alá:
Az anyádnak volt egy kóbor madara, mondja és az te voltál,
mondja. Az a Willatz olyan magasan áll fölöttem, meg az enyéim
fölött, hogy meg se lát minket a földön, még kevésbé veszi észre
Paulinét, aki évi bérért eszi a kenyerét. Az a Willatz úriember, de mi
vagy te meg én? És a mosdatlan szádra se hederít sokat, Lars,
hanem legföljebb rácsap egyet:
Erre Bertel jókora tiszteletlenséggel hosszut sercint a levegőbe.
Lars Manuelsen megnémul, mert tudja, hogy ő kicsoda. A mai
napig tán még senki se beszélt vele ilyen bántó hangon és már
megy is – megy a helyére, a munkájához és otthagyja a sagvikai
Bertelt.
Lent az úton Holmengraa úr közeledik, maga a malomtulajdonos.
Érdekes, mennyire megváltozott ez az ember. Szürke bekecs,
szürke, gyűrött nadrág, a liszttől fehér, vastag cipő és nagy,
keféletlen kalap – ez az egész külső dísze! A telek enyhültek az
évek folyamán és azok az emberek, akik bekecsben jártak azelőtt,
most felöltőt hordanak, nagyon finomak lettek, de fagyoskodnak is
eleget. Holmengraa úr azonban még mindig szürke bekecsben jár.
Pedig már az ura-i előljárónak is aranypaszománt van a sapkáján és
a parti gőzös pilótája is horgonyos, fényes gombokat hord.
Holmengraa úr azonban úgy jár, mint valami halászhajós vagy mint
egy munkafelügyelő. Ha az emberek nem szokták volna meg az
utóbbi években és nem látták volna már máskép is, akkor nagyon
csodálkoztak volna rajta. Hát nem ő volt-e ugyanezen a helyen
Tóbiás király és nem ő gyűrt-e le és kényszerített térdre minden
teremtményt? Ha nem lett volna még most is az a vastag aranylánc
a mellényén, akkor igazán nem lehetett volna elhinni, hogy ő az.
Nem, akkor igazán csak a boltos Theodor halszárítójának nézték
volna.
Elhalad a sagvikai Bertel előtt és Bertel köszön neki. Holmengraa
ahoz a négy emberből élló csoporthoz megy, amely lisztet tölt a
zsákokba és bekötözi a zsákok száját. Köszönnék is neki, meg nem
is, kettő bólint egy kicsit, kettő pedig a zsákokra hajol és úgy tesz,
mintha semit se látna. Ezek modern munkások, sárcipőben járnak és
kerékpáron mennek munkába, a biciklijük ott áll a közelben.
Holmengraa úr beszél hozzájuk, nem egyenesednek fel és nem
hallgatnak figyelmesen, hanem a zsákokra hajolva pihennek és úgy
hallgatják. Mikor a gazdájuk befejezte a szavait, kiegyenesednek,
gondolkoznak rajta, hogy mit mondott, aztán hangosan, a gazda
jelenlétében, maguk közt megtárgyalják a dolgot, kifejezik
kétségeiket rendelkezéseinek helyessége iránt, kikérik egymás
véleményét, köpködnek, tanácskoznak: Mit gondolsz, Aslak?
mondják. Mit csináljunk? mondják.
 A malomtulajdonos indúlni készült, már tett is néhány lépést, de
amikor meghallja az utolsó szavakat, hátraszól: Hogy mit
csináljatok? Azt tegyétek, amit én mondok. Ezzel, azt hiszi tán, hogy
elintézte az ügyet. Ó, bizony mégsem intézte el. De a
malomtulajdonos, mint már máskor is, látja, hogy vége a
tekintélynek, fél a veszekedástől és inkább elmegy. Egyebet nem
mer megtenni. Már megtörtént, hogy felmondott Aslaknak, de akkor
a többi alkalmazott azzal fenyegette meg, hogy ők is otthagyják.
Kétszer is megesett ez már és mind a kétszer nem lett a dologból
semmi, hanem maradt minden a régiben.
Történt volna csak ez a segelfossi birtok előbbi gazdájával, a
hadnaggyal: A lovaglóostor megsuhant volna a levegőben –
takarodj! Az évek multán Holmengraa úrnak sokszor visszakellett
emlékeznie Holmsen hadnagyra! Keveset beszélt az, két szót, de a
szeme olyan volt, mint két puskagolyó! Ha a kezével megszorította
az ostornyelet, akkor a csontjai kifehéredtek rajta, de ha kinyitotta a
kezét és barátsággal fordult valakihez, akkor az gazdag és
emlékezetes pillanat lett. Jó volt nála dolgozni, mert tudott
parancsolni, igazi főnök volt, úr volt. Talán aranykarikát hordott a
fülében, mint a nagy nyugati hajóskapitányok? Vagy ezüstveretü,
hosszú tajtékpipát szívott? Kövér volt és két székre kellett ülnie,
hogy elférjen rajta a nagyságával? És mégis, senkinek se csináltak
akkora helyet, mint neki és senki se mert vele félvállról beszélni.
Holmengraa úr még ma is csodálkozik rajta. Hát ő nem
próbálkozott meg minden módszerrel, hogy tekintélyt szerezzen
magának az emberei előtt? Hát nem jutott-e eszébe még az is, hogy
szabadkőműves legyen és így rejtélyes hatalmat sejtessen a háta
mögött? De az emberek nem sokat törődtek ezzel, senki se félt tőle,
nem volt olyan együgyü. De nem is akadt olyan, aki bizonyosan
tudta volna, hogy a malomtulajdonos valóbn szabadkőmüves.
Holmengraa Lars Manuelsenhez lép és azt mondja: Jónapot,
Lars. Megint beléptél hozzám?
Lars így felel: Eszem ágában sincs. Ez csak amolyan időtöltés.
Ole Johan hol van?
 Lenn tartóztatják. Addig is én helyettesíteném.
Ma reggel egy napszámost küldtem ide segítségül, hol van az?
kérdi Holmengraa úr.
Napszámost? Tán a Konrádot? – Nem, Lars Manuelsen nem
látott semmilyen Konradot.
Nálam eszik, ott van koszton, me reggel ide kellett volna jönnie.
Akkor talán valahol üldögél és várakozik. Megkeressem?
Keresd meg.
Minden helytelenül megy és a malomtulajdonos a szemöldökét
ráncolja. Bizony, a segelfossi ipartelep királyának sok baja van.
Néhány évvel ezelőtt jóindulatú, kedélyes ember volt, most már
kéklenek az erek a halántékán, sovány az orra, ráncok vannak a
szeme körül és a szakálla ősz. Minden vékony rajta, a keze, az arca,
a lábszára, úgyszólván csak csont és bőr. De ezért jelentéktelen
ember volt-e? Hiszen akkor nem lehetett volna az, aki valósággal
volt! Igaz, hogy az ipartelepe már nem működött olyan tékozlóan
nagyszabású módon, mint azelőtt, a malom már csak nappal őrölt és
a személyzetet is csökkentették; de Tóbiás király maga nem tört
meg, sőt még kitartóbb volt, mint valaha. Ha megáll itt, elgondolkozik
és végignéz a hatalmas folyón, a hajóhídig meg a tengerig és csak a
fejét dolgoztatja, akkor az arca erőt fejez ki és a szeme barátságot
sugároz. Hiszen az ifjúság elmult már fölötte, de az öregkor még
nem jött el, koros volt ugyan az évek tekintetében, de azt mondják,
hogy még most is születtek gyerekei a környéken.
Lars Manuelsen jön a napszámosokkal és a malomtulajdonos azt
kérdi: Mit végeztél ma?
Semmit, mostanáig csak üldögéltem, feleli Konrad.
Csak üldögélt és pipázott, jelenti Lars Manuelsen.
Hát mit csináltam volna? kérdi Konrad. Nem jött az az Ole Johan.
 Akkor jelentkezhettél volna nálam, majd én adtam volna munkát,
mondja Lars Manuelsen és fontoskodik.
Konrad megvetően néz rá: Nálad? Nálad jelentkeztem volna?
Igen, azt kellett volna tenned, szól rá a malomtulajdonos.
Azt már nem, mondja Konrad. És ha uraságod le akar valamit
vonni ezért az időveszteségért, hát nem bánom.
És akkor minden rendben van, azt hiszed? kérdi a
malomtulajdonos. De a munkád elvégezetlenül hever ott még
mindig.
Az igaz, de ha egyszer nem jött az az Ole Johan. Nem tehettem
mást.
És azt a két étkezést is levonjam, amit ma kaptál?
Erre a napszámos így vág vissza: Az ételt? Hát éhgyomorral
kezdtem volna munkába? Nekünk, bérrabszolgáknak egyre
rosszabb lesz a dolgunk, uraságod még a szánktól is írígyli a falatot.
Szép kis szóváltás lett volna ebből megint, ha a malomtulajdonos
el nem hallgat. Hiszen tudta, hogy mi lett volna a dolog vége: ez az
ember maradt volna a helyén.
Tulajdonképpen mindjárt haza kellett volna téged küldenem,
mondta Holmengraa és elment.
De Konrad nem maradt adós a válasszal. Gondolja uraságod?
Én pedig vagyok olyan együgyü és azt hiszem, hogy van még jog és
törvény az országban. És ha lemennék a laphoz, alighanem ott is így
vélekednének.
Igen, a lapnál így vélekednek, gondolta Holmengraa úr, a jó
S e g e l f o s s i U j s á g b a n , amely már a hetedik évét tapossa és
a városnak meg a környéknek a szellemi vezetője. A
malomtulajdonos neve néhányszor megfordult már ebben a lapban,
egyért-másért felelősségre vonták, sokat gáncsolták a lisztárak miatt
is, különösen a buzalisztről meg a finomszemű rozslisztről mondták,
hogy drága lett a szegény ember számára. De a S e g e l f o s s i
U j s á g igazságos lap is volt, a szerkesztő nem fukarkodott az
elismerő szóval sem és ha elismert valamit, akkor az nem volt
jelentőség nélkül való. Azt mondta: mi. Azt mondta: a mi
véleményünk. Egyszer nagynehezen elismerően nyilatkozott
Holmengraa úr működéséről is és ezz írta:
A körülményekhez képest helyeselnünk kell azt, hogy a
malomtulajdonos áthelyezi a malomhoz vezető kocsiutat. Igy
lényegesen kisebb az emelkedés, a kocsisai 100 kilóval többet
rakhatnak fel. Az út hosszabb lett ugyan, de viszont, mint mondottuk,
a kocsisok nagyobb szállítmányt vihetnek. Ki akarjuk fejezni azt a
nézetünket, hogy az út átépítése hasznos intézkedés a városunkra
nézve, de nem hallgathatjuk el azt a megjegyzést, hogy sok szegény
ember lovának nehezebb munkában, nagyobb emelkedéseken is el
kell mennie. Kétségkívül a munkaadónak is előnyére szolgál, hogy
az agyoncsigázott munkás reggelenként egészen munkahelyéig
haladhat a kerékpárján és így kevésbbé fogyatkozott erővel kezdheti
meg a napi robotját. Ezt jegyezzétek meg, dolgozó emberek!
Végre odatotyog Ole Johan. Ő a malom egyik régi, jó embere,
ostoba és korlátolt, de hűséges és erős, olyan munkás, aki nem
kíméli magát, ha arra kerül a sor. Nála abban nyilvánul meg az
udvariasság, hogy már messziről köszön és így kiált:
Jónapot. Csúnyán elkéstem, de hát azért küldtem addig magam
helyett Lars Manuelsent.
Holmengraa úr csak bólintott és otthagyta őket.
Haragudott? kérdezte Ole Johan és utána nézett.
De még mennyire! felelte Lars Manuelsen túlzott buzgalommal.
Hát bizony nem volt egészen nyugodt! tette hozzá a napszámos
és kidüllesztette a mellét.
Erre aztán elmondták az egész históriát, megtárgyalták,
megvitatták. A napszámos nem felejtette el megismételni, hogy mit
mondott a derék uraságnak: Jog és törvény az országban?
mondtam.
Igen, én is itt voltam és hallottam, szól közbe Lars Manuelsen,
aki most Konrad pártjára állt. Erre a támogatásra Konrad felbuzdul
és még jobban veri a mellét.
Te is tudod, Lars és te is, Ole Johan, hogy elvégzem a munkámat
és teljesítem a kötelességemet. De ha ő úgy rohan rám, mint valami
zsarnok vagy rabszolgahajcsár, akkor mondhatom, nem vagyok én
az az ember, aki befogja a száját. Ezt az emlékezetébe vésheti. Mert
vagy a szemébe mondom a véleményem vagy egy szót se szólok.
Nem, mondta Lars Manuelsen. De mit is akartam? tudja-e valaki,
hogy mért akar a boltos Theodor zászlót lengetni?
Konrad megsértődztt, azt hitte, hogy egy darabig, ha tudja kötni a
figyelmüket. Aztán otthagyja őket, elhalad a sagvikai Bertel, meg a
kerékpárok előtt, útközben szemügyre veszi őket és megáll a zsákot
kötöző csoportnál.
De Ole Johan ledől egy zsákra, hogy a liszt csak úgy porzik
körülötte. A disznó. Ó, nem nagy baj, egy kis liszttel több vagy
kevesebb nem árt a ruhájának. Azelőtt is csupa liszt volt és a kovász
csomókban ül a ruháján.
Hogy mért akar lengetni? mondta. Megkérdeztem, hogy miért
fagyoskodik egy embere ott a zászlódombon. Majd kiderül idővel,
felelte a Theodor:
A felelet egészen őrá vall, meg az eszejárására, mondja
bosszusan Lars Manuelsen.
Ole Johan felkelt, levetette a bekecsét, hogy munkához
foghasson. De a kíváncsisága túlságosan nagy volt, szinte
megbénította. Csak megtudhatnám! mondta. Te mit gondolsz, Lars?
Talán megint a Theodor újabb hiúsága és hencegése.
Ole Johan így szólt: Tudod mit gondolok, Lars? Azt gondolom én
is, hogy semmi egyéb, mint a Theodor hiúsága és hencegése. Hogy
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