Experience Seamless Full Ebook Downloads for Every Genre at textbookfull.

com

Differential Equations A First Course on Ode and a

Brief Introduction to Pde De Gruyter Textbook 1st
Edition Shair Ahmad

https://textbookfull.com/product/differential-equations-a-
first-course-on-ode-and-a-brief-introduction-to-pde-de-
gruyter-textbook-1st-edition-shair-ahmad/

OR CLICK BUTTON

DOWNLOAD NOW

Explore and download more ebook at https://textbookfull.com

 Recommended digital products (PDF, EPUB, MOBI) that
you can download immediately if you are interested.

A Modern Introduction to Differential Equations 3rd

Edition Henry J. Ricardo

https://textbookfull.com/product/a-modern-introduction-to-
differential-equations-3rd-edition-henry-j-ricardo/

textboxfull.com

A First Course in Differential Equations with Modeling

Applications, 12e (Metric Edition) Dennis G. Zill

https://textbookfull.com/product/a-first-course-in-differential-
equations-with-modeling-applications-12e-metric-edition-dennis-g-zill/

textboxfull.com

Pattern Recognition Introduction Features Classifiers and

Principles De Gruyter Textbook 2nd Edition Beyerer

https://textbookfull.com/product/pattern-recognition-introduction-
features-classifiers-and-principles-de-gruyter-textbook-2nd-edition-
beyerer/
textboxfull.com

Handbook of Fractional Calculus with Applications Vol 2

Fractional Differential Equations De Gruyter Reference
1st Edition Anatoly Kochubei (Editor)
https://textbookfull.com/product/handbook-of-fractional-calculus-with-
applications-vol-2-fractional-differential-equations-de-gruyter-
reference-1st-edition-anatoly-kochubei-editor/
textboxfull.com
Introduction to Complex Theory of Differential Equations
Savin

https://textbookfull.com/product/introduction-to-complex-theory-of-
differential-equations-savin/

textboxfull.com

Introduction to Partial Differential Equations Peter J.

Olver

https://textbookfull.com/product/introduction-to-partial-differential-
equations-peter-j-olver/

textboxfull.com

A Course in Differential Equations with Boundary Value

Problems, Second Edition Swift Randall J.

https://textbookfull.com/product/a-course-in-differential-equations-
with-boundary-value-problems-second-edition-swift-randall-j/

textboxfull.com

Numerical Differential Equations Theory and Technique ODE

Methods Finite Differences Finite Elements and Collocation
John Loustau
https://textbookfull.com/product/numerical-differential-equations-
theory-and-technique-ode-methods-finite-differences-finite-elements-
and-collocation-john-loustau/
textboxfull.com

Carbon for Micro and Nano Devices De Gruyter Textbook 1st

Edition Sharma

https://textbookfull.com/product/carbon-for-micro-and-nano-devices-de-
gruyter-textbook-1st-edition-sharma/

textboxfull.com
Shair Ahmad, Antonio Ambrosetti
Differential Equations
Also of Interest
Ordinary Differential Equations
Example-driven, Including Maple Code
Radu Precup, 2018
ISBN 978-3-11-044742-2, e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-044744-6,
e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-044750-7

Elements of Partial Differential Equations

Pavel Drábek, Gabriela Holubová, 2014
ISBN 978-3-11-031665-0, e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-031667-4,
e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-037404-9

Linear and Semilinear Partial Differential Equations

An Introduction
Radu Precup, 2012
ISBN 978-3-11-026904-8, e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-026905-5

Partial Differential Equations

A unified Hilbert Space Approach
Rainer Picard, Des McGhee, 2011
ISBN 978-3-11-025026-8, e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-025027-5

Numerical Analysis of Stochastic Processes

Wolf-Jürgen Beyn, Raphael Kruse, to be published in 2020
ISBN 978-3-11-044337-0, e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-044338-7,
e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-043555-9
Shair Ahmad, Antonio Ambrosetti

Differential
Equations

|
A first course on ODE and a brief introduction to PDE
Mathematics Subject Classification 2010
Primary: 34-01, 35-01; Secondary: 34Axx, 34Cxx, 34Dxx, 49-01

Authors
Prof. Dr. Shair Ahmad Prof. Dr. Antonio Ambrosetti
[email protected] [email protected]

ISBN 978-3-11-065003-7
e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-065286-4
e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-065008-2

Library of Congress Control Number: 2019946488

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek

The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie;
detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de.

© 2019 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

Cover image: shulz / E+ / Getty Images
Typesetting: VTeX UAB, Lithuania
Printing and binding: CPI books GmbH, Leck

www.degruyter.com
Preface
This book was mainly written with the aim of providing an introductory level textbook
for a Sophomore-Junior course in ordinary differential equations, which is offered in
most of the American universities and colleges. The book offers the basic material gen-
erally required in such a course. The authors have used their many years of teaching
experience to make certain that the book is written in a way that gives instructors a
wide range of flexibility and options between theory and applications. Explanations
of elementary methods of solving differential equations are accompanied by ample
examples and applications. While instructors in some disciplines may be mainly in-
terested in methods and applications, others may want to stress the fact that such
methods have their limitations and an understanding of the qualitative behavior of
solutions might be desirable. The book can easily be adapted to the needs of both
types of readers. As far as prerequisites are concerned, undergraduate calculus and
some knowledge of linear algebra should suffice. However, in some classes, depend-
ing on the students’ preparations and backgrounds, an instructor might want to take
a little time to briefly review some of the relevant prerequisites. For this reason a pre-
liminary chapter, containing a brief review of some of the main results of calculus, is
included.
In addition, the book contains sufficient material for a one semester graduate level
course, including topics such as Sturm–Liouville equations and oscillation theory
of second order self-adjoint equations and a brief introduction to partial differential
equations and calculus of variation. A special effort was made to present the more ad-
vanced topics in a simple and elementary manner in order to make them suitable for
some undergraduate students as well. Each chapter contains a large set of exercises
and problems, some elementary, some more challenging, which are marked with *.
A complete and detailed solution manual is available to instructors who may
adopt the book for their classes.
Chapter 1 contains a quick review of some topics from multivariable calculus. It
includes topics such as stationary points, local extrema, mixed derivatives, gradient,
line integral, Implicit Function Theorem, and Fourier series.
Chapter 2 deals with first order linear differential equations. It includes solving
such equations by the method of integrating factors. After introducing the notion
of initial value problem, simple proofs of existence and uniqueness of solutions are
given, using only elementary calculus. Several examples, applications, and some
important properties of solutions are discussed.
Chapter 3 deals with theoretical aspects of the general first order equations. Lo-
cal as well as global existence and uniqueness are discussed with some of the proofs
presented in an appendix. It discusses the importance of learning to analyze the qual-
itative behavior of solutions, particularly when dealing with problems that cannot be
readily solved by known methods. This chapter may be considered optional, some in-

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110652864-201
VI | Preface

structors may wish to simply state the existence and uniqueness results and move on
to the next chapter, depending on the type of students taking the particular class.
Chapter 4 deals with separable equations and application to the logistic equation,
homogeneous equations, Bernoulli’s equation, and Clairaut’s equation.
Chapter 5 is dedicated to the study of exact equations and integrating factors. Ex-
amples are given to show that one can choose among four options, some of which may
be more convenient for a given problem than others.
Chapter 6 is about linear second order equations, homogeneous and nonho-
mogeneous, and includes the wronskian, linear independence, general solutions,
equations with constant coefficients, methods of variation of parameters and unde-
termined coefficients.
Chapter 7 is essentially an extension of Chapter 6 to higher order equations.
Chapter 8 is about systems of differential equations, changing linear scalar equa-
tions to linear systems in matrix form, eigenvalues and eigenvectors, etc.
Chapter 9 deals with phase space analysis of the trajectories of second order au-
tonomous equations, equilibrium points, periodic solutions, homoclinic and hetero-
clinic solutions, and limit cycles. Among applications, there is a discussion of the
mathematical pendulum, the Kepler problem, the Liénard equation and the Lotka–
Volterra system in population dynamics.
Chapter 10 treats the topic of stability, classifying stability of the equilibrium of
2 × 2 linear systems based on properties of eigenvalues. It includes Lyapunov direct
method, a brief discussion of stability of limit cycles, stable and unstable manifolds,
and bifurcation of equilibria.
Chapter 11 discusses how to obtain solutions by power series methods. There
is also a discussion of singular points, ordinary points, the Frobenius method, and
Bessel functions.
Chapter 12 introduces the basic properties of the Laplace transform, its inverse and
application to solving initial value problems of linear differential equations, including
a brief introduction to the convolution of two functions. This deep subject is presented
in a simple and concise manner suitable for readers with minimum background in
calculus.
Chapter 13 treats oscillation theory of selfadjoint second order differential equa-
tions, the Sturm–Liouville eigenvalue problems. Once again, an effort is made to keep
the presentation at an elementary level, but it includes some challenging examples
and problems.
Chapters 14 and 15 deal with a short introduction to linear PDEs in two dimen-
sions. The former contains first order equations such as the transport equation, in-
cluding an appendix on the inviscid Burgers’ equation. The latter deals with the most
classical linear second order equations such as the Laplace equation, the heat equa-
tion and the vibrating string equation.
Chapter 16 gives an elementary introduction to the subject of calculus of variation,
starting with an explanation of a functional and the Euler–Lagrange equation. There
 Preface | VII

is also a discussion of the brachistochrone problem, the Fermat problem in optics and
the isoperimetric problem. A final section is devoted to revisiting the Sturm–Liouville
problem from the viewpoint of calculus of variations, leading to a study of the varia-
tional properties of the first eigenvalue and the Poincaré inequality.
In many of the chapters, an interested reader can find, in addition to standard
elementary material, some more advanced topics that might open further perspectives
and that might be an incentive to have an in-depth analysis of the subject.
Acknowledgment
Professor Shair Ahmad wishes to acknowledge the indispensable and loving help and
care of his wife, Carol Fulton. He also wishes to acknowledge pleasant interactions
with his grandchildren (specially Alton Shairson) and his great-grandchildren (spe-
cially Daniela Ahmad).

Professor Antonio Ambrosetti wishes to dedicate this book to his loved grandchildren
Tommaso, Michele, Sara and Cristiano.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110652864-202
Contents
Preface | V

Acknowledgment | IX

1 A brief survey of some topics in calculus | 1

1.1 First partial derivatives | 1
1.2 Second partial derivatives | 2
1.3 Line integrals | 3
1.4 The divergence theorem | 4
1.5 Fourier series | 5

2 First order linear differential equations | 7

2.1 Introduction | 7
2.2 Linear homogeneous equations | 7
2.2.1 Cauchy problem | 9
2.3 Linear nonhomogeneous equations | 11
2.4 Applications to RC electric circuits | 15
2.5 Exercises | 19

3 Analytical study of first order differential equations | 21

3.1 General first order differential equations | 21
3.1.1 Initial value problem | 23
3.2 Existence and uniqueness results | 23
3.2.1 On uniqueness | 27
3.2.2 Local vs. global existence | 29
3.3 Qualitative properties of solutions | 30
3.4 Appendix | 34
3.5 Exercises | 41

4 Solving and analyzing some nonlinear first order equations | 43

4.1 Separable equations | 43
4.2 An application: the logistic equation in population dynamics | 45
4.3 Homogeneous equations | 49
4.4 Bernoulli’s equation | 52
4.5 Clairaut’s equation | 54
4.6 Exercises | 57
4.6.1 Exercises on separable equations | 57
4.6.2 Exercises on homogeneous equations | 57
4.6.3 Exercises on Bernoulli equations | 58
4.6.4 Exercises on Clairaut equations | 58
XII | Contents

5 Exact differential equations | 59

5.1 Exact equations | 59
5.2 Solving exact equations | 60
5.2.1 The initial value problem for exact equations | 61
5.3 General solution of exact equations | 63
5.4 Integrating factor | 68
5.5 Appendix | 70
5.6 Exercises | 71

6 Second order linear differential equations | 73

6.1 Preliminaries | 73
6.2 General solution of L[x] = h | 74
6.2.1 Linear dependence and independence | 75
6.2.2 General solution of homogeneous equation | 78
6.2.3 General solution of the non-homogeneous equation | 79
6.2.4 Appendix: reduction of order method | 80
6.3 Equations with constant coefficients | 82
6.3.1 The homogeneous case | 82
6.3.2 Applications | 84
6.3.3 The non-homogeneous case | 87
6.4 Euler’s equation | 91
6.5 Exercises | 93
6.5.1 Exercises on linear dependence and independence | 93
6.5.2 Exercises on equations with constant coefficients | 93
6.5.3 Exercises on Euler equations | 94

7 Higher order linear equations | 95

7.1 General results | 95
7.2 Higher order linear equations with constant coefficients | 96
7.2.1 Euler equations | 102
7.3 Exercises | 103

8 Systems of first order equations | 105

8.1 General preliminaries | 105
8.2 Linear systems | 106
8.3 Linear systems with constant coefficients | 110
8.4 Appendix: the exponential matrix | 121
8.5 Exercises | 123

9 Phase plane analysis | 125

9.1 Preliminaries | 125
9.2 Phase plane analysis: some examples | 126
 Contents | XIII

9.3 Periodic solutions | 129

9.3.1 Remarkable examples | 132
9.4 Van der Pol’s equation | 134
9.5 Homoclinic and heteroclinic solutions | 137
9.6 On planar autonomous systems | 141
9.6.1 The Lotka–Volterra prey–predator system | 141
9.6.2 Limit cycles | 145
9.7 Exercises | 147

10 Introduction to stability | 149

10.1 Definition of stability | 149
10.2 Stability of linear systems | 150
10.2.1 Stability of 2 × 2 linear systems | 151
10.2.2 Stability for linear homogeneous equations with constant
coefficients | 156
10.3 Stability of conservative systems | 158
10.4 The Lyapunov direct method | 160
10.5 Stability by linearization | 162
10.6 Further remarks | 165
10.6.1 Stable and unstable limit cycles | 165
10.6.2 Hyperbolic equilibria: stable and unstable manifolds | 166
10.6.3 Change of stability: bifurcation of equilibria | 167
10.7 Exercises | 169

11 Series solutions for linear differential equations | 173

11.1 A brief overview of power series | 173
11.2 Ordinary points | 174
11.3 Bessel functions | 177
11.3.1 Bessel functions of first kind | 178
11.3.2 General solution of (Bm ) and Bessel functions of second kind | 181
11.4 Singular points: the Frobenius method | 182
11.5 Exercises | 186

12 Laplace transform | 187

12.1 Definition | 187
12.2 Properties of L | 188
12.3 Inverse Laplace transform | 191
12.4 Solving differential equations by Laplace transform | 192
12.5 Exercises | 199

13 A primer on equations of Sturm–Liouville type | 201

13.1 Preliminaries | 201
XIV | Contents

13.2 Oscillation for self-adjoint equations | 203

13.2.1 Sturm separation and comparison theorems | 203
13.2.2 Checking the oscillatory status of equations | 208
13.3 Sturm–Liouville eigenvalue problems | 212
13.4 Exercises | 217

14 A primer on linear PDE in 2D. I: first order equations | 221

14.1 First order linear equations in 2D | 221
14.1.1 Linear transport equations | 221
14.2 Appendix: an introduction to inviscid Burgers’ equation | 231
14.3 Exercises | 234

15 A primer on linear PDE in 2D. II: second order equations | 237

15.1 The Laplace equation | 237
15.1.1 Dirichlet problem on a ball and the method of separation of
variables | 238
15.1.2 The maximum principle | 245
15.1.3 Uniqueness of the Dirichlet problem | 246
15.1.4 Appendix: Dirichlet’s integral | 246
15.2 The heat equation | 248
15.2.1 Appendix: further properties of the heat equation | 250
15.3 The vibrating string equation | 253
15.3.1 An initial value problem for the vibrating string:
D’Alembert’s formula | 254
15.3.2 Appendix: continuous dependence on the initial conditions | 256
15.3.3 The method of the characteristics | 257
15.3.4 A boundary value problem for the vibrating string:
the method of separation of variables | 260
15.4 Exercises | 264
15.4.1 Exercises on the Laplace equation | 264
15.4.2 Exercises on the heat equation | 265
15.4.3 Exercises on D’Alembert’s equation | 266

16 The Euler–Lagrange equations in the Calculus of Variations:

an introduction | 267
16.1 Functionals | 267
16.2 The Euler–Lagrange equation | 268
16.3 Least time principles | 273
16.3.1 The brachistochrone | 273
16.3.2 Fermat’s principle in geometrical optics | 278
16.4 Stationary solutions vs. minima | 281
16.5 On the isoperimetric problem | 282
 Contents | XV

16.6 The Sturm–Liouville eigenvalue problem revisited | 284

16.7 Exercises | 288

Bibliography | 289

Index | 291
1 A brief survey of some topics in calculus
Here we recall some results from calculus of functions of two variables. Some addi-
tional more specific results that we will need in this book will be stated later. For a
textbook on Calculus, see e. g. G. B. Thomas Jr., Calculus, 14th ed., Pearson, 2018.

1.1 First partial derivatives

Let F(x, y) denote a function of two variables, defined on an open set S ⊆ ℝ2 , which
possesses first partial derivatives Fx , Fy .
– The gradient ∇F is the vector defined by setting

∇F = (Fx , Fy ) ∈ ℝ2 .

– We say that F ∈ C 1 (S) if Fx , Fy exist and are continuous in S.

– A point (x0 , y0 ) ∈ S is a stationary point of F if ∇F(x0 , y0 ) = (0, 0), namely if
Fx (x0 , y0 ) = Fy (x0 , y0 ) = 0.
– A point (x0 , y0 ) ∈ S is a (local) maximum, resp. minimum, of F if there exists a
neighborhood U ⊂ S of (x0 , y0 ) such that

F(x, y) ≤ F(x0 , y0 ), ∀(x, y) ∈ U, resp. F(x, y) ≥ F(x0 , y0 ), ∀(x, y) ∈ U.

– A stationary point of F which is neither a local maximum nor a local minimum is

called a saddle.

Theorem 1.1. Suppose F(x, y) has first partial derivatives Fx , Fy at (x0 , y0 ) ∈ S. If (x0 , y0 )
is a local maximum or minimum of F, then (x0 , y0 ) is a stationary point of F, that is,
∇F(x0 , y0 ) = (0, 0), or Fx (x0 , y0 ) = Fy (x0 , y0 ) = 0.

The following result allows us to solve, locally, the equation F(x, y) = 0 for x or y.

Theorem 1.2 (Implicit function theorem). Let F(x, y) be a continuously differentiable

function on S ⊆ ℝ2 and let (x0 , y0 ) ∈ S be given such that F(x0 , y0 ) = c0 . If Fy (x0 , y0 ) ≠ 0,
resp. Fx (x0 , y0 ) ≠ 0, there exists a neighborhood I of x0 , resp. neighborhood J of y0 , and
a unique differentiable function y = g(x) (x ∈ I), resp. a unique differentiable function
x = h(y) (y ∈ J), such that g(x0 ) = y0 and F(x, g(x)) = c0 for all x ∈ I, resp. h(y0 ) = x0
and F(h(y), y) = c0 for all y ∈ J.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110652864-001
2 | 1 A brief survey of some topics in calculus

1.2 Second partial derivatives

Let F(x, y) possess second partial derivatives,
𝜕2 F 𝜕2 F 𝜕 𝜕F 𝜕 𝜕F
Fxx = , Fyy = , Fxy = ( ), Fyx = ( ).
𝜕x2 𝜕y2 𝜕y 𝜕x 𝜕x 𝜕y
Fxy and Fyx are called mixed partial derivatives.

Theorem 1.3. Suppose that the mixed partial derivatives Fxy and Fxy are continuous at
(x0 , y0 ) ∈ S. Then
Fxy (x0 , y0 ) = Fyx (x0 , y0 ).
– The Hessian of F is the matrix
Fxx Fxy
H=( ).
Fyx Fyy
– The determinant of H is given by
󵄨󵄨 F Fxy 󵄨󵄨󵄨󵄨
󵄨󵄨 xx
det(H) = 󵄨󵄨󵄨 󵄨󵄨 = Fxx Fyy − Fxy Fyx .
󵄨
󵄨󵄨 F Fyy 󵄨󵄨󵄨
󵄨 yx
If Theorem 1.3 applies, then we find simply
2
det(H) = Fxx Fyy − Fxy .

– We say that F ∈ C 2 (S) if Fxx , Fxy , Fyx , Fyy exist and are continuous in S.

Theorem 1.4. Let (x0 , y0 ) ∈ S be a stationary point of F(x, y) and suppose F ∈ C 2 in a

neighborhood of (x0 , y0 ). Then:
1. if det(H) > 0 and Fxx (x0 , y0 ) > 0, then (x0 , y0 ) is a local minimum;
2. if det(H) > 0 and Fxx (x0 , y0 ) < 0, then (x0 , y0 ) is a local maximum;
3. if det(H) < 0, then (x0 , y0 ) is a saddle point.

Another way to state the previous theorem is to consider the eigenvalues λ1,2 of H,
namely the roots of the second order algebraic equation
󵄨󵄨 F − λ Fxy 󵄨󵄨󵄨󵄨
󵄨󵄨 xx
det(H − λI) = 󵄨󵄨 󵄨 󵄨󵄨 = 0,
󵄨
󵄨󵄨 F Fyy − λ 󵄨󵄨󵄨
󵄨 yx

i. e.,
2
(Fxx − λ)(Fyy − λ) − Fxy = 0, or λ2 − (Fxx + Fyy )λ + Fxx Fyy − Fxy
2
= 0.
Then
1. λ1 and λ2 are both positive ⇒ (x0 , y0 ) is a local minimum;
2. λ1 and λ2 are both negative ⇒ (x0 , y0 ) is a local maximum;
3. λ1 ⋅ λ2 < 0 ⇒ (x0 , y0 ) is a saddle point.

Brought to you by | Stockholm University Library

Authenticated
Download Date | 10/29/19 6:13 PM
 1.3 Line integrals | 3

1.3 Line integrals

Let γ be a planar piecewise C 1 (1 ) curve with components x(t), y(t), t ∈ [a, b].
– The length of γ is given by

ℓ(γ) = ∫ √x󸀠 2 (t) + y󸀠 2 (t) dt.

a

In particular, if γ is a Cartesian curve with equation y = y(x), x ∈ [a, b], we find

ℓ(γ) = ∫ √1 + y󸀠 2 (x) dx.

a

– The curvilinear abscissa of a point (u, v) = γ(τ) is defined as the length of the arc
from γ(a, b) to (u, v), namely
τ

s = ∫ √x󸀠 2 (t) + y󸀠 2 (t) dt.

a

Introducing the arc differential

ds = √x󸀠 2 (t) + y󸀠 2 (t) dt,

we can simply write

ℓ(γ) = ∫ ds.
a

– Given a continuous F(x, y), (x, y) ∈ S and the piecewise C 1 curve γ : [a, b] 󳨃→ ℝ2
such that γ([a, b]) ⊂ S, the curvilinear integral F on γ is defined by

∫ F(x, y) ds = ∫ F(x(t), y(t)) ⋅ √x 󸀠 2 (t) + y󸀠 2 (t) dt.

γ a

1 Recall that a function f (t) is piecewise continuous on S ⊂ ℝ if there is a discrete set of points D ⊂ S
such that:
1. f is continuous on S \ D;
2. f has a jump discontinuity at any t0 ∈ D.

We say that f is piecewise C 1 on S if it is continuous on S and there is a discrete set of points D󸀠 ⊂ S

such that the restriction of f on S \ D󸀠 is continuously differentiable.

Brought to you by | Stockholm University Library

Authenticated
Download Date | 10/29/19 6:13 PM
4 | 1 A brief survey of some topics in calculus

1.4 The divergence theorem

Given a vector field V : S ∋ (x, y) 󳨃→ (F(x, y), G(x, y)) ∈ ℝ2 with F, G ∈ C 1 (S), the
divergence of V is defined as div V = Fx + Gy .

Theorem 1.5 (Divergence theorem). Let V(x, y) be a C 1 vector field defined on S and sup-
pose Ω ⊂ S is a domain (i. e., a bounded connected open set) such that its boundary 𝜕Ω
is a piecewise continuous curve with components (x(t), y(t)). Then

∫ div V dx dy = ∫ V ⋅ n ds
Ω 𝜕Ω

where n = (y󸀠 , −x󸀠 ) denotes the outer normal at 𝜕Ω.

Using the components F, G of V, we find div V = Fx + Gy and V ⋅ n = Fy󸀠 − Gx󸀠 .

Hence the preceding equality can also be written more explicitly as

∫(Fx + Gy ) dx dy = ∫ (Fy󸀠 − Gx󸀠 ) ds. (1.1)

Ω 𝜕Ω

From the divergence theorem we can derive an important formula.

Let F = gfx and G = gfy . Then Fx = gx fx + gfxx and Gy = gy fy + gfyy yield

Fx + Gy = gx fx + gfxx + gy fy + gfyy

and hence from (1.1)

∫(gx fx + gfxx + gy fy + gfyy ) dx dy = ∫ (gfx y󸀠 − gfy x 󸀠 ) ds

Ω 𝜕Ω

2 2
or, introducing the laplacian operator Δ = 𝜕xx + 𝜕yy = div ∇,

∫(gΔf + ∇g ⋅ ∇f ) dx dy = ∫ (gfx y󸀠 − gfy x 󸀠 ) ds.

Ω 𝜕Ω

Assuming that g = 0 on 𝜕Ω we find

∫(gΔf + ∇g ⋅ ∇f ) dx dy = 0 ⇒ ∫ gΔf dx dy = − ∫ ∇g ⋅ ∇f dx dy,

Ω Ω Ω

which can be seen as an integration by parts for functions of two variables.

Exchanging the roles of f , g we find

∫ f Δg dx dy = − ∫ ∇f ⋅ ∇g dx dy,
Ω Ω

from which immediately follows that

∫ gΔf dx dy = ∫ f Δg dx dy.
Ω Ω

Brought to you by | Stockholm University Library

Authenticated
Download Date | 10/29/19 6:13 PM
 1.5 Fourier series | 5

1.5 Fourier series

Fourier series are series associated to periodic functions. Recall that f (t), t ∈ ℝ, is
T-periodic if f (t + T) = f (t), ∀t ∈ ℝ.
The Fourier series associated to a 2π-periodic function f (t) is the trigonometric
series
∞
∑[an sin nt + bn cos nt],
0

where
π π
1 1
an = ∫ f (t) sin nt dt, bn = ∫ f (t) cos nt dt, n ∈ ℕ,
π π
−π −π

are called the Fourier coefficients of f . Here and below it is understood that f is such
that the previous integrals make sense.
In particular,
– if f is 2π-periodic and odd, then the associated Fourier series is given by
∑∞1 an sin nt;
– if f is 2π-periodic and even, then the associated Fourier series is given by
∑∞0 bn cos nt.

If the Fourier series of f is convergent we will write

∞
f (t) = ∑[an sin nt + bn cos nt].
0

We recall below some simple convergence criteria for Fourier series. It is understood
that f (t) is 2π-periodic.

Theorem 1.6. Let f be piecewise continuous on [0, 2π]. Then

π
1
(Parseval identity) ∑(a2n + b2n ) = ∫ f 2 (t) dt.
2π
π

Therefore limn→∞ an = limn→∞ bn = 0.

Theorem 1.7. Let f be piecewise continuous and let t0 ∈ [−π, π] be such that

def f (t0 + h) − f (t0 +) def f (t0 + h) − f (t0 −)

f 󸀠 (t0 +) = lim and f 󸀠 (t0 −) = lim
h→0+ h h→0− h
exist and are finite. Then
∞
1
∑[an sin nt0 + bn cos nt0 ] = [f (t0 +) + f (t0 −)],
0
2

Brought to you by | Stockholm University Library

Authenticated
Download Date | 10/29/19 6:13 PM
6 | 1 A brief survey of some topics in calculus

where

f (t0 +) = lim f (t) and f (t0 −) = lim f (t).

t→t0 + t→t0 −

Corollary 1.1. If f is continuous, then the Fourier series of f converges pointwise to f (t)
provided f is differentiable at t.

Theorem 1.8. If f is of class C 1 then the Fourier series of f is uniformly convergent to f .

Theorem 1.9. Suppose that for some integer k ≥ 1 one has

∞
∑ nk (a2n + b2n ) < +∞.
0

k
Then f (t) = ∑∞
0 [an sin nt + bn cos nt] is of class C and

dk f (t) ∞ dk sin nt dk cos nt

= ∑ [a n + b n ].
dt k 1 dt k dt k

For example:
2 2
(1) If ∑∞ ∞
1 n(an + bn ) < +∞ then f (t) = ∑1 [nan cos nt − nbn sin nt].
󸀠

2 2 2 2 2
(2) If ∑∞ ∞
1 n (an + bn ) < +∞ then f (t) = ∑1 [−n an sin nt − n bn cos nt].
󸀠󸀠

If f (t) is T-periodic, all the preceding results can be extended, yielding, under the ap-
propriate assumptions,
∞
2π 2π
f (t) = ∑[an sin( nt) + bn cos( nt)],
0
T T

where
T T
2 2
2 2π 2 2π
an = ∫ f (t) sin( nt) dt, bn = ∫ f (t) cos( nt) dt, n ∈ ℕ.
T T T T
− T2 − T2

For a broader discussion on Fourier series we refer, e. g., to the book by S. Suslov, An
Introduction to Basic Fourier Series, Springer US, 2003.

Brought to you by | Stockholm University Library

Authenticated
Download Date | 10/29/19 6:13 PM
2 First order linear differential equations
2.1 Introduction
A differential equation is any equation that relates some unknown function with its
derivatives.
In this introductory chapter we will focus on the following specific class of differ-
ential equations:

x󸀠 + p(t)x = q(t) (2.1)

where p, q are continuous functions defined on some interval I. The main features of
equation (2.1) are:
1. it is an ordinary differential equation because there is only one independent vari-
able t and hence the derivative is ordinary;
2. it is first order, because the only, and hence the highest order, derivative in the
equation is the first order derivative of x(t);
3. it is linear, because the dependence on x and x 󸀠 is linear.

A solution to (2.1) is a differentiable function x(t), defined on the interval I, such that

x󸀠 (t) + p(t)x(t) = q(t), ∀t ∈ I.

For example, x(t) = e−t is a solution of the differential equation x 󸀠 + x = 0 since replac-
ing x by e−t results in (e−t )󸀠 + e−t = −e−t + e−t = 0 for all real numbers t.
Let us point out explicitly that the fact that solutions are defined on the whole
interval I, where the coefficient functions p(t) and q(t) are continuous, is a specific
feature of linear equations.
If q = 0, the resulting equation

x󸀠 + p(t)x = 0 (2.2)

is called homogeneous, to distinguish it from (2.1), which is a nonhomogeneous equa-

tion.
The rest of the chapter is organized as follows. In section 2.2 we deal with homo-
geneous equations. In section 2.3 we address nonhomogeneous equations. Finally,
section 2.4 is devoted to applications to electric circuits.

2.2 Linear homogeneous equations

Let us consider the homogeneous equation (2.2). First of all, we note that the zero
function x(t) ≡ 0 is a solution, regardless of what kind of a function p(t) might be. The

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110652864-002

Brought to you by | Stockholm University Library

Authenticated
Download Date | 10/29/19 12:14 PM
8 | 2 First order linear differential equations

zero solution is also called the trivial solution. Of course, we are interested in finding
nontrivial solutions of (2.2).
To outline the idea of the procedure for solving such equations, we first consider
the simple equation

x󸀠 − 2x = 0.

We note that if we multiply both sides of the equation by the function μ(t) = e−2t , we
obtain

e−2t x󸀠 − 2e−2t x = 0,

which is equivalent to the equation

(e−2t x) = 0.
󸀠

Therefore, integrating both sides yields e−2t x = c and x(t) = ce2t , c ∈ ℝ.

As we just saw, the function μ(t) played an important role in solving the above
equation for x(t). We now search for a differentiable function μ(t) that will help us to
solve such linear equations in general.

Definition 2.1. A differentiable function μ(t) is called an integrating factor of

x󸀠 + p(t)x = 0 if

μ(t)x󸀠 + μ(t)p(t)x = (μ(t)x) .

󸀠

In order for μ(t) to be an integrating factor, we must have

μ(t)x󸀠 + p(t)μ(t)x = (μ(t)x) ,

󸀠

which is equivalent to

μ(t)x󸀠 + p(t)μ(t)x = μ󸀠 (t)x + μ(t)x 󸀠 .

Simplifying, we obtain

p(t)μ(t)x(t) = μ󸀠 (t)x(t).
μ󸀠 (t)
Let us further impose the condition that μ(t) ≠ 0. Then we can write μ(t)
= p(t), or
dμ(t)
μ(t)
= p(t) dt. Integrating both sides and suppressing the constant of integrations,
since we need only one function, we obtain ln |μ(t)| = ∫ p(t) dt, or

μ(t) = e∫ p(t) dt .

Notice that μ(t) > 0 so that the preceding calculations make sense. The function μ(t)
is an integrating factor since it can easily be verified, using the fundamental theorem
of calculus, that

e∫ p(t) dt x󸀠 + p(t)e∫ p(t) dt x = (e∫ p(t) dt x) .

󸀠

Brought to you by | Stockholm University Library

Authenticated
Download Date | 10/29/19 12:14 PM
 2.2 Linear homogeneous equations | 9

Remark 2.1. Let us agree by convention that ∫ f (t) dt stands for a fixed antiderivative
of f (t) and not the whole family of antiderivatives. When we wish to discuss the family
of antiderivatives of a function f (t), we will write ∫ f (t) dt + c, where c is an arbitrary
constant.

Let x(t) be any nontrivial solution satisfying (2.2). If we multiply both sides of the
equation by μ(t) = e∫ p(t) dt , it will automatically make the left side of the equation to
be the exact derivative of the product e∫ p(t) dt x(t), yielding the equation

(e∫ p(t) dt .x(t)) = 0.

󸀠

Integrating both sides, we obtain e∫ p(t) dt x(t) = c, or x(t) = ce− ∫ p(t) dt , where c is an
arbitrary constant.
We have shown that any nontrivial solution x(t) has to be of the form x(t) =
ce− ∫ p(t) dt . On the other hand, it is easy to see that, for any constant c, x(t) = ce− ∫ p(t) dt
is a solution, simply by substituting ce− ∫ p(t) dt for x(t) in (2.2) and verifying that it
satisfies the equation. Hence the family of solutions

x(t) = ce− ∫ p(t) dt , (2.3)

where c is an arbitrary constant, includes all the solutions and is called the general
solution of (2.2).

Remark 2.2. In determining the integrating factor, instead of using the indefinite inte-
t
∫t p(t) dt
gral, sometimes it is convenient to use the definite integral, obtaining μ(t) = e 0
t
− ∫t p(t) dt
and the general solution x(t) = ce 0 , where t0 is some number in I.

2.2.1 Cauchy problem

Both, in application and in theoretical studies, one often needs to find a particular
solution x(t) of a differential equation that has a certain value x0 at a fixed value t0 of
the independent variable t. The problem of finding such a solution is referred to as an
initial value problem or a Cauchy problem. The initial value problem for a homogeneous
first order equation can be expressed as

x󸀠 + p(t)x = 0, x(t0 ) = x0 . (2.4)

Example 2.1. (a) Solve the Cauchy problem

x󸀠 − 2x = 0, x(0) = 3.

We have shown above that the general solution to this problem is given by x(t) = ce2t .
So, in order to find the solution satisfying x(0) = 3, all we have to do is substitute the

Brought to you by | Stockholm University Library

Authenticated
Download Date | 10/29/19 12:14 PM
10 | 2 First order linear differential equations

initial data into the equation and solve for the constant c. Thus we have 3 = ce0 = c
and the desired solution is x(t) = 3e2t . The solution can be verified by noting that
(3e2t )󸀠 − 2.3e2t = 6e2t − 6e2t = 0 and x(0) = 3.
(b) Find k such that the solution of the Cauchy problem

x󸀠 = kx, x(0) = 1

satisfies x(1) = 2.
The general solution of x󸀠 = kx is given by x(t) = cekt . The initial condition yields
1 = ce0 = c. Thus the solution of the Cauchy problem is x(t) = ekt . Since x(1) = 2 we
find 2 = x(1) = ek whereby k = ln 2.

Lemma 2.1. A nontrivial solution of the homogeneous equation (2.4) cannot vanish any-
where.

Proof. Since x(t) is nontrivial, there exists a number t ̄ in I such that x(t)̄ = x̄ ≠ 0.
Recall that the general solution is given by x(t) = ce− ∫ p(t) dt . Therefore, there exists
̄ − ∫ p(t) dt . Since x(t) is nontrivial, we must have c̄ ≠ 0,
a constant c̄ such that x(t) = ce
otherwise we would have x(t) ≡ 0 because e− ∫ p(t) dt ≠ 0. This shows that x(t) cannot
vanish anywhere.

Theorem 2.1 (Existence–uniqueness, homogeneous equations). If p(t) is continuous

in an interval I, then there is a unique solution to the initial value problem

x󸀠 + p(t)x = 0, x(t0 ) = x0 . (2.5)

Furthermore, the solution is defined for all t in I.

Proof. Existence. Recall that the general solution is given by x(t) = ce− ∫ p(t) dt . We
t
− ∫ p(t) dt
claim that x(t) = x0 e t0 is a particular solution that satisfies the initial condition
x(t0 ) = x0 . This can easily be verified by direct substitution, since using the funda-
t t
− ∫t p(t) dt 󸀠 − ∫t p(t) dt
mental theorem of calculus, (x0 e 0 ) = −p(t)x0 e 0 , and hence
t t t t
− ∫t p(t) dt 󸀠 − ∫t p(t) dt − ∫t p(t) dt − ∫t p(t) dt
(x0 e 0 ) + p(t)(x0 e 0 ) = −p(t)x0 e 0 + p(t)x0 e 0 = 0.
t
− ∫ p(t) dt
Finally, it is clear from x(t) = x0 e t0 that x(t0 ) = x0 e0 = x0 and it is defined on
the interval where p(t) is continuous.
t
∫t p(t) dt
An alternate proof is: using the integrating factor μ(t) = e 0 , the general solu-
t
− ∫t p(t) dt
tion is given by x(t) = ce 0 . Hence x(t0 ) = x0 implies that x0 = ce0 = c and there-
t
− ∫t p(t) dt
fore a solution satisfying the required initial condition is given by x(t) = x0 e 0 ,
which can be checked by direct substitution.
t
− ∫t p(t) dt
Furthermore, x(t) = x0 e 0 implies that x(t0 ) = x0 .

Brought to you by | Stockholm University Library

Authenticated
Download Date | 10/29/19 12:14 PM
 2.3 Linear nonhomogeneous equations | 11

Uniqueness. Suppose that x(t) and y(t) are both solutions. Then we must have x 󸀠 +
p(t)x = 0, x(t0 ) = x0 , and y󸀠 + p(t)y = 0, y(t0 ) = x0 . Subtracting the second equation
from the first, we obtain x󸀠 − y󸀠 + p(t)(x − y) = 0. Let z(t) = x(t) − y(t). Then z(t) satisfies
the equation z 󸀠 + p(t)z = 0 and z(t0 ) = 0. It follows from Lemma 2.1 that z(t) ≡ 0 and
hence x(t) − y(t) ≡ 0, or x(t) ≡ y(t).

Remark 2.3. Let x0 be another initial value and let x(t) denote the corresponding so-
lution of the ivp (2.5). Evaluating |x(t) − x(t)| we find
t t t
󵄨󵄨 󵄨 󵄨 − ∫ p(t) dt − ∫ p(t) dt 󵄨󵄨 − ∫ p(t) dt
󵄨󵄨x(t) − x(t)󵄨󵄨󵄨 = 󵄨󵄨󵄨x0 e t0 − x0 e t0 󵄨󵄨 = e t0 ⋅ |x0 − x 0 |.
t
− ∫t p(t) dt
For any bounded interval T ⊆ I, setting maxt∈T [e 0 ] = C, a constant depending
on T, we infer
󵄨 󵄨
max󵄨󵄨󵄨x(t) − x(t)󵄨󵄨󵄨 ≤ C ⋅ |x0 − x 0 |.
t∈T

We will refer to this result by saying that the solutions of (2.5) depend continuously on
the initial values.

The homogeneous equation x󸀠 + p(t)x = 0 has some important properties that do

not hold in the nonhomogeneous case. We list them in a corollary.

Corollary 2.1.
(a) If x(t0 ) = 0 for some number t0 in I, then x(t) ≡ 0 for all t in I.
(b) Every nontrivial solution is either always positive or always negative.
(c) If x1 (t) and x2 (t) are any solutions of the homogeneous differential equation x 󸀠 +
p(t)x = 0, then x(t) = c1 x1 (t) + c2 x2 (t) is also a solution, where c1 and c2 are any
constants.

Proof. (a) This immediately follows from Lemma 2.1; in fact, it is a contrapositive of
the statement there.
(b) Suppose that x(t) is a nontrivial solution such that it is neither always posi-
tive nor always negative. Then there exist two numbers t1 , t2 such that x(t1 ) > 0 and
x(t2 ) < 0. This, however, would imply the existence of a number t,̄ between t1 and t2 ,
such that x(t)̄ = 0, by the intermediate value theorem, contradicting Lemma 2.1.
(c) This can be verified just by substitution and regrouping (see problem 22).
None of the three properties listed above are valid for nonhomogeneous equations
(see exercises at the end of the chapter).

2.3 Linear nonhomogeneous equations

There are some significant differences between the homogeneous and nonhomoge-
neous equations. For example, simple substitution shows that contrary to the case for

Brought to you by | Stockholm University Library

Authenticated
Download Date | 10/29/19 12:14 PM
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
—one of the best known in Paris as well as St. Petersburg and
Vienna. Immediately I wanted to know everything about him. He on
his side wished me to tell him all sorts of things of which I had never
even dreamed. We were at once on terms of delightful intimacy.
A short time after I was obliged to leave Nice. Just as my train
was about to go, my good friend jumped into my carriage and
accompanied me as far as Marseilles. There he bade me adieu and
returned to Nice.
Letter writing followed, in the course of which he told me how
highly he regarded my friendship—more highly in fact than anything
else in the world. For my part I thought of him more often than I
should care to confess, but I had my wits about me sufficiently to
announce to him, at the cost of a great effort of will, that he was too
young for our feelings of regard for each other to continue without
danger to both, and that he ought to forget me.
Just at this time there was presented to me a viscount, who laid
claim to my heart and hand. Need I confess that, with my eyes still
filled with pictures of the other man, I could not endure his assiduous
importunity. No one is deafer, says a French proverb, than who he is
unwilling to hear. And the viscount would not listen to my
discouraging remarks.
He seemed to have imposed upon himself, in spite of my rebuffs,
which were often severe and always discourteous, the task of
bringing me to terms. Undoubtedly, in spite of my reserve and
coldness, he might eventually have succeeded if one fine evening he
had not dropped out altogether under threat of legal proceedings. He
had a well-established reputation as a swindler.
During the time when the viscount was playing his game to win
my affections, my good friend’s communications stopped coming. I
wrote him several letters. They were never answered.
Some years later, in 1900, I had installed my theatre, as is
perhaps still remembered, at the Universal Exposition in Paris.
One day as I was on my way to the theatre I saw at a distance
my lover of the days at Nice. My heart began to beat violently.
 My friend approached. We were going to pass each other. He
had not yet seen me; for he was walking with his eyes on the
ground. Standing still, with my left hand restraining the beating of my
heart, I waited, feasting my eyes upon him. He turned his head and
passed me.
I was destined not to see him again for a long time.
Meantime, indeed, I learned through a third person that he had
told his father of his desire to marry me. A violent scene took place
between the two men. The father threatened to disinherit him. The
poor boy was sent away, almost by main force, on a voyage round
the world.
I have frequently reflected since then on the part the “viscount”
played in all this affair, and I should not be astonished to learn that
he led some artful embassy against His Majesty King Love.
 XVII
SOME PHILOSOPHERS

I HAVE frequently seen monarchs whose profession consisted in

ruling the crowd. I have sometimes seen crowds that appeared to
me mightier than the greatest of monarchs.
More rarely I have encountered philosophers, out of touch with
everything, who yet were able to create kingdoms within themselves.
These last have seemed to me more affecting than the proudest of
monarchs or the most impressive of crowds. Characteristic traits of
some of these are worthy of being described here. I should like to try
to do so, because of the emotions they have aroused in me.
We were living at Passy, my mother and I, in a house situated in
the centre of a garden. One day I heard some animated music
coming from the street. I ran to the gate to look at the makers of this
joyful harmony. A man and a woman were passing. The man played
an accordion as he walked with short steps. He was blind, and his
wife led him. The music was so sprightly, so different from the folk
who were making it, that I hailed the pair. I wanted the man to play in
the garden, behind the house, so that my mother, who was
paralysed, might hear him. They consented very willingly. I made
them sit down under a tree, near my mother’s chair, and the man
played on the accordion until a servant came to say that lunch was
served. I asked the man and his wife if they had eaten. When I
discovered they had had nothing since the day before, I told the
maid they were going to share our meal.
LOIE FULLER IN HER GARDEN AT PASSY
 At table we had a long conversation. The man had always been
blind. I asked him if he could perceive difference among colours. No.
But he was able, at least, to tell without fear of making a mistake,
whether the weather was clear or cloudy, dull or pleasant. He was
extremely sensitive to differences of texture.
I placed a rose in his hand and asked him what it was. Without
hesitation and without raising the flower to his nostrils he replied:
“It is a rose.”
Almost immediately, grasping it gently in his fingers, he added:
“It is a beautiful one, too, this rose, very beautiful.”
A little more and he would have told me whether it was a La
France, a Maréchal Niel, or some other species of rose.
As he had used the word “beautiful” I asked him what seemed to
him the most beautiful thing in the world.
“The most beautiful thing alive is woman.”
I then asked him who the person was in whose company I had
found him. His voice took on a tender tone as he said:
“It is my wife, my dear wife.”
After that I looked with more attention at the self-effacing and
almost dumb soul who accompanied the blind musician. Confused,
embarrassed, she had lowered her eyes, which she kept obstinately
fixed upon an apron, of a faded blue, on which the patches appeared
to be more extensive than the original material.
She was unattractive, poor thing, and at least twenty years older
than her companion.
Quietly, without concerning myself with the beseeching looks the
poor woman cast at me from under wrinkled and reddened
eyebrows, I asked the blind musician:
“She satisfies you, does she?”
“Certainly.”
 “You find her beautiful?”
“Very beautiful.”
“More beautiful than other women?”
As he had peopled his darkness with beauty my optimist replied:
“I do not say that, for all women are beautiful. But she is better,
yes, better than most of them, and it is that which, in my sight,
constitutes the purest beauty.”
“What makes you think she is better than the others?”
“Oh, everything. Her whole life, her whole manner of existence as
regards me.”
And in words so convincing that for a moment I felt that he could
see, he added:
“Just look at her, my good lady. Isn’t it a fact that goodness is
written on her face?”
The woman, with her eyes lowered, kept looking at her blue
apron. I then asked the blind man how he had made his living up to
this time, and how they had become acquainted, he and his
companion.
“I used to be, owing to infirmity, a real burden upon my family. I
did whatever I could but I could not do much. I washed the dishes,
lighted the fire, picked the vegetables, swept the floor, washed the
windows, made the beds—perhaps badly, but at any rate I did all
that, and although we were very poor at home they kept me. The day
came, however, when my mother died. Then it was my father’s turn. I
had to leave the empty house. I went on the road armed with my
accordion, asking for alms. My accordion became my best friend.
But I blundered along the roads. Then I met my dear companion who
is with me, and I married her.”
She was a cook, the woman told me this herself in an undertone,
who had become too old to keep her place, and who consented to
join her fate with that of the wandering blind man, serving as his
guide along the roads. The blind man found this arrangement a
blessing from Heaven, a kindness bestowed upon him by
Providence. They were married without delay.
“But how do you manage to live?” I asked.
“Well, it is not always easy to make both ends meet, for alas! now
and then, one of us falls ill. We are getting old, you understand.
When it is not fatigue that gets the better of us, then there is always
the cold. There are times when we cannot go out. Then it is
necessary to take a notch in one’s girdle.”
Each day they visited one district of Paris. They had divided the
city into blocks, and they sometimes walked miles before arriving at
their destination, for they lived far from the centre, in one of the
poorest suburbs.
“What day do you go by here?”
“Every Sunday, before mass. Many people of this quarter go to
church, and we encounter them going and coming.”
“Do they give you something?”
“It is a rich neighbourhood. We have several very good clients.”
“Good what?” I asked. “Good clients?”
“Yes, good clients,” he repeated simply.
“And who are these clients?”
“They are servants of the rich.”
“Servants?”
“Yes, some of them are very good. They give us old clothes; food
and money when they can.”
“And the rich people themselves?”
“We do not see them often. This is the first time a client has ever
invited us to lunch, and we have been going through this street for
seven years. No one ever asked us to come in before.”
“What do you do when you are tired?”
 “We sit down on a bench or on one of the steps, and we eat
whatever we have in our pockets. Here we eat while they are at
church.”
“Very well. You will have no need to bring anything to eat the day
you come by here. I invite you for every Sunday.”
I expected impassioned thanks. The man said simply:
“We thank you very much, good lady.”
Shortly after, I left for a long tour in America, and during my
absence my domestics received them every Sunday. From their
point of view I was merely a sure client.
One day I gave them tickets for a great concert. I was in the hall
and observed them.
The woman was overcome at seeing so many fashionable
people. As for the man, his features aglow with an unearthly light, his
head thrown a little back after the way of the blind, he was in
ecstasy, intoxicated with the music.
After four years they disappeared. I never saw them again.
The man, whom I had seen to be failing, probably died, and the
woman, the poor old thing, so unattractive in her blue apron,
undoubtedly did not dare to return alone.
At Marseilles I saw another blind man, a very old man, seated on
a folding stool against a wall.
Beside him stood a basket, guarded by a very young dog, who
sniffed at all the passers-by and barked after each one. I stopped to
talk to the old man.
“Do you live all alone?” I asked him.
“Oh, no,” he replied. “I have two dogs. But I cannot bring the
other one with me. He makes a continual disturbance, leaps and
fidgets so much that he never gets fat and any one would think to
see him that I don’t give him anything to eat. As a matter of fact, you
see, I cannot show him without being ashamed of him. People would
suppose that I was allowing him to die of hunger. Anyway I need only
one dog here. As for the other I leave him at the house, where he
serves as watch dog.”
“Oh, you have a house,” I said.
“That is to say, I have a room, I call it my house.”
“Who does your cooking for you? Who makes the fire at your
house?”
“I do,” he replied. “I light a match and then by the crackling of the
wood I know whether it has caught.”
“How do you clean your vegetables?”
“Oh, that is easy. I can tell by the feeling when the potatoes are
well peeled.”
“And the fruits and the salad?”
“Oh, that is something we do not have very often.”
“I suppose you eat meat.”
“Not very often, either. We have bread and vegetables, and when
we are rich we buy some cheese.”
“Why does your dog sniff so at every one passing by? Why does
he bark so spitefully?”
“Ah, madam, you see each time that any one hands me a sou,
thanks to his grimaces, I give him a little piece of bread. There, look
at him now.”
At this moment somebody had just thrown a coin into the blind
man’s bowl. The old man drew from his pocket a little piece of dry
bread.
The animal fell upon it with such a cry of joy that one might have
supposed he had just received the daintiest titbit in the world. He
nearly devoured his master with caresses.
“At what time do you eat? Do you go home to your lunch?”
“No. I carry my lunch in a basket.”
I looked. It contained some crusts of bread and nothing else.
 “Is that all that you have to eat?”
“Why, yes. Like the dog, I don’t ruin my digestion.”
“Where do you drink when you are thirsty?”
He pointed to a corner of the alley, where there was a little
fountain, alongside of which hung a goblet attached to a chain.
“And the dog?”
“He leads me to the fountain when he is thirsty and I give him his
share.”
“Do you come here every day?”
“Yes. This is the entrance to the baths. We do a good business
here.”
“How much do you make a day?”
“Twenty sous, sometimes thirty. That depends on the day. There
have been times when we have made more than two francs. But that
is rare. I have my rent to pay and three mouths to feed, my two dogs
and myself.”
“Where do you get your clothes?”
“They are given me by one and another. The butcher, the grocer,
the cabinetmaker, these are very kind to me.”
“Are you happy all alone so?”
“I am not all alone. I have my dogs. The only thing I lack is my
eyesight. But I thank Providence every day for keeping me in good
health.”
It was in consequence of a malignant fever that he had lost his
eyesight, for unlike my blind man at Passy, this man was not born
blind. Formerly he had been able to admire nature, to see pretty girls
in a country flooded with sunlight, to enjoy with his own eyes the
smile in other eyes, in eyes tender and well loved. In short he had
seen. What sadness his must be, to be unable to see again!
With much diplomacy I asked him about this.
 He had far less difficulty in answering me.
“I used to admire many pretty things,” he said. “I still have them
carefully enclosed under my eyelids. I see them again whenever I
wish, just as if they were there before me once again. And so, you
see, as these are things of my youth it seems to me that, in spite of
everything, in spite of being such an old hulk as I am, I have
remained young. And I thank the dear Lord for having been kind
enough not to have made me blind from birth.”
“And how old are you?”
“Eighty years, madam.”
This old man had a long walk before him to get back to his
residence. As I commiserated him regarding this, he replied:
“There is no reason for complaining, madam, I have such a good
guide, such a brave little comrade!”
He made an almost theatrical gesture, and said, in a voice filled
with emotion:
“My dog!”
“Does he guide you through the streets of Marseilles?”
“He does!”
“And no accident happens to you?”
“Never. One day I was crossing a street. My dog pulled at me so
hard from behind that I fell backward. I was just in time. A step more
and I should have been crushed by a tramcar, which grazed me. I
am mighty lucky, come now, to have a dog like that.”
In all circumstances this old man was willing to see only the
favourable side of things. That side, at least with the eyes of
imagination, the blind man could see.
One day the charwoman who came to our house at Passy to help
the servants arrived very late.
As she was ordinarily exceedingly punctual, I reproached her in a
way I should not have done if she had been habitually unpunctual.
Here is what I found out about this brave woman.
Three years before one of her neighbours, a working woman, had
had an attack of paralysis. This neighbour was poor, old, without
relatives and no one would bother with her. The poor little
charwoman, encumbered with a drunken husband and six children,
agreed to take care of the paralytic and her home if the other
neighbours would be willing to provide the bare necessities of life.
She succeeded in overcoming the selfishness of each and every one
in the warmth of her kindness. From that time on she never ceased
in the rare hours when she was free to look after the paralytic. She
attended to the housework, the cooking, the washing. The
neighbour’s condition grew worse. The case was one of complete
paralysis. The assistance which she had to give to this half-dead
woman was often of the most repulsive kind. Always smiling, always
tidy, always cheerful, she gave to the human hulk she had taken
under her protection the most thorough and intelligent care.
My little charwoman had always, at all times, been cheerful. I
wondered what kind of gaiety she would exhibit when at last the
paralytic’s death should free her from the load with which she had
benevolently burdened her life. This morning, the morning on which
she came late, she was crying. She wept warm tears.
I supposed that my reproach had caused this tearful outpouring.
But not at all. She said to me between sobs:
“I am crying—crying—because—she’s dead—the poor woman.”
It was her neighbour the paralytic for whom she wept.
In the north of Ireland I once saw some children barefooted in the
snow, during an intensely cold February. With some friends I visited
the poor quarter of a provincial city, where, I was told, people
working in the mills lived twelve or even more in cabins containing
but two rooms.
We placed no especial credence in these stories and we decided
to look into the matter for ourselves. It was all true, nevertheless. In
some cases the conditions were even worse.
 On reaching the district in question we noticed that a little boy
had followed our carriage. At a trot sharp enough to run his little legs
off he continued for about a mile and a half, all in the hope of getting
twopence.
The small boy came forward to open the door of our carriage.
The coachman rebuked him brutally. The child had so odd an
expression that I began to talk to him. He had five brothers and
sisters. He did the best he could to pick up something in the streets,
and he made from sixpence to eightpence a day. Just at present he
was trying to get a little money to buy some coal for his mother.
I, doubting the truth of these statements, made him take me to
his hut, which he had pointed out to us.
“That is where I live, madam.”
Certainly there was no coal in the house, but there were three
sick people. The father swept snow in the streets to make a few
pennies, for in this cold weather the mill where he worked was not
running.
There was complete wretchedness, frightful wretchedness,
irreparable wretchedness. And yet our little lad sang while he trotted
behind our carriage, just as his father whistled as he swept the snow.
Is not misery the school, the sadly sovereign school, of
philosophy?
 XVIII
HOW I DISCOVERED HANAKO

E VERYTHING that comes from Japan has always interested me

intensely. Consequently it is easy to understand with what
pleasure I came into relationship with Sada Yacco, and why I
did not hesitate to assume financial responsibility for her
performances when she decided to come to Europe with her whole
company.
Sada Yacco had brought with her a troupe of thirty people. These
thirty cost me more than ninety of another nationality would have
done; for apart from everything that I was obliged to do to entertain
them, I had constantly to go down on my knees to secure permission
to attach to each train that carried them an enormous car laden with
Japanese delicacies, rice, salted fish, mushrooms and preserved
turnips—delicacies were necessary to support the existence of my
thirty Japanese, including Sada Yacco herself. During one whole
season I paid the railway companies 375,000 francs for
transportation, but that cost me much less than to pay all the debts I
should have been obliged to assume from Lisbon to St. Petersburg if
I had decided to send my Japanese home.
I tried for a long time to get my money back by transporting my
Nipponese and their viands up and down the earth, but, weary of the
struggle, I finally assembled another troupe, which was as good as
the first one and which was willing to travel without a cargo of rice
and salted fish.
“Business is business” I am well aware. I decided, therefore, to
endure bravely the losses I had incurred, and I was thinking of quite
another subject when fortune appeared to smile on me again.
In London there was a Japanese troupe looking for an
engagement. The actors came to see me. They made some
ridiculous claims and I sent them away. But as they did not find an
engagement, we came to an understanding, and I found an
impresario for them, who took them to Copenhagen.
I went to Denmark, too, and I expected to look after the affairs of
these Japanese and attend to my own business as well.
When they arrived at Copenhagen I saw the whole troupe for the
first time. They all came to greet me at my hotel and played some
piece or other of their own invention.
I noticed at that time, among the comedians, a charming little
Japanese woman, whom I should have been glad to make the star of
the company. Among these Japanese, however, women did not
count for much, all the important roles being taken by men. She was,
nevertheless, the only one who had attracted my attention. She
played a minor part, it is true, but very intelligently, and with the
oddest mimicry. She was pretty withal, refined, graceful, queer, and
so individual as to stand out, even among those of her own race.
When the rehearsal was over I gathered the actors together and
said to them:
“If you are going to remain with me you will have to obey me. And
if you do not take this little woman as your star you will have no
success.”
And as she had a name that could not be translated, and which
was longer than the moral law, I christened her on the spot Hanako.
To make a long story short they assented to my request, and
lengthened out my protégée’s role. In reality the play had no climax. I
therefore made one for it then and there. Hanako had to die on the
stage. After everybody had laughed wildly at my notion, and Hanako
more than all the others; she finally consented to die. With little
movements like those of a frightened child, with sighs, with cries as
of a wounded bird, she rolled herself into a ball, seeming to reduce
her thin body to a mere nothing so that it was lost in the folds of her
heavy embroidered Japanese robe. Her face became immovable, as
if petrified, but her eyes continued to reveal intense animation. Then
some little hiccoughs convulsed her, she made a little outcry and
then another one, so faint that it was hardly more than a sigh. Finally
with great wide-open eyes she surveyed death, which had just
overtaken her.
It was thrilling.
The evening of the first appearance came. The first act was
successful. The actors acquired confidence and entered into the
spirit of their parts, a fact which caused them to play wonderfully
well. I was obliged to leave after the first act, for I was dancing at
another theatre, but some one came to tell me at the close of the
performance that Hanako had scored more than a success; it was a
veritable triumph. To her it came as a genuine surprise, but one that
was not more extraordinary than the anger provoked by her success
among the actors of the company. The box office receipts, however,
somewhat assuaged their sensitiveness, and I was able to give to
the feminine member of the troupe a longer part in the new play,
rehearsals of which were just beginning.
From this time on Hanako was in high favour. Everywhere she
was obliged to double the number of her performances. After
Copenhagen she made a nine months’ tour of Europe. Her success
in Finland bordered upon popular delirium. Finland, it is interesting to
note, has always evinced the greatest sympathy for Japan. This was
during the time of the Russian-Japanese War.
She played in all the royal theatres of Europe. Then after a tour in
Holland she came finally to Paris.
 LOIE FULLER’S ROOM AT THE FOLIES-BERGÈRE
The Japanese and Hanako stayed with me for nearly a year. At
the close of their contract they gave some performances at
Marseilles and then dispersed. Some of them went home, others
proceeded to Paris or elsewhere. Time passed, and I heard nothing
more about my Japanese, when one day I received a letter from
Hanako, who told me that she was at a cheap concert hall at
Antwerp, where she had to sing and dance for the amusement of
sailors, patrons of the place. She was all alone among strangers,
and the man who had brought her to this degrading pursuit inspired
her with mortal terror. She wrote me that she wanted at all costs to
be saved from her fate, but that, without assistance, the thing was
utterly impossible. She had gone from Marseilles to Antwerp with
other actors of the troupe to take a steamer for Japan. At Antwerp
she and her travelling companion had fallen into the hands of a low-
lived compatriot, and she called me to her rescue.
One of the actors of the company happened to be in Paris, and I
sent him to Antwerp with two of my friends. After numerous
difficulties and thanks to the police, they were able to enter into
communication with Hanako and tell her that they had come to take
her away.
One evening she succeeded in escaping with her companion,
and, with no baggage except the little Japanese robes which they
wore, they took the train for Paris.
Hanako had been obliged to leave behind her little pet Japanese
dog, lest by taking it away from the house she should arouse the
proprietor’s suspicion. They reached Paris shrouded in the European
cloaks I had sent them, which were far too long, and hid them
completely.
Presently I found myself in Paris, manager of one of the most
gifted Japanese artists, but, alas! with no company to support her. I
was puzzled to know what to do with and what to do for a kind,
gentle, sweet little Japanese doll.
I first tried to find out if some one would not engage Hanako, then
an entire stranger to Paris, and a small, a very small company for
one of the minor theatres.
I received from one of the managers a remarkable answer. If I
could guarantee that the play which Hanako would present was a
good one he would engage her.
The play? Why there was no play. But I was not bothered by a
little detail like that, and I explained that Hanako would offer a
wonderful play, one that was easy to understand whether you knew
Japanese or not.
Then I signed a contract for ten performances on trial. A
contract? Yes, it was a contract. And I had not secured my actors
yet. And I had no play yet. I had, altogether, Hanako, her maid and a
young Japanese actor. I was not discouraged, however. I undertook
to find another actor. I secured one in London, thanks to an agent.
Then I went to work to construct a play for four characters. There
were two major roles and two supernumeraries. The result of my
efforts was “The Martyr.”
 A great difficulty now arose. The question came up of procuring
wigs, shoes, costumes and various accessories. But here again luck
helped me out. They made a very successful first appearance at the
Théâtre Moderne in the Boulevard des Italiens. The play was given
thirty presentations instead of ten and twice a day, at a matinee and
in the evening. Presently the manager said to me:
“If your actors have another play as good as that one I would
keep them a month longer.”
Naturally I declared they had another play, a better one than the
first, and I signed a new contract.
New stage settings, new costumes and new accessories were
necessitated. The result was a new tragedy called “A Drama at
Yoshiwara.”
While the new play was running the manager of the Palais des
Beaux-Arts at Monte Carlo made a very important offer for my
Japanese, for three performances. I accepted. The troupe left for
Monaco, where they gave twelve performances instead of three. In
the meantime a small theatre, that of the Musée Grevin, proposed to
engage my Nipponese for a month in a new play which was to be a
comedy. To suit the purposes of this theatre we wrote “The Japanese
Doll.” Next the Little Palace offered a month’s engagement for a play
that was to be a tragi-comedy. There my Japanese played the “Little
Japanese Girl.” Finally they went to the Treteau Royal, where Mr.
Daly engaged them for their six plays, a circumstance that compelled
me to increase their repertoire by three new pieces, “The Political
Spy,” “The Japanese Ophelia,” and “A Japanese Tea House.”
Hanako finally began a tour of Switzerland with the company. Mr.
Daly suddenly wanted Hanako to appear in New York, and to break
off this trip I needed more imagination and took more trouble than in
writing a dozen plays. Then I was obliged, still on Mr. Daly’s account,
to break an agreement for a tour in France.
Such is the history of my relations with Hanako, the great little
actress from Japan. As it is always fitting that a story of this kind
shall end with a wedding, I may say that, conforming to the tradition,
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

textbookfull.com