EGM 5611

Mechanics of Continuous Media

Class Notes by
Professor Namas Chandra

Based on the book

Introduction to Continuum Mechanics
By
Lai, Rubin and Krempl
 Chapter 1: General Notes

4. Stress (5 Lectures)
o Definition
o Stress vector and Tensor
o Cauchys Formula
o Equations of Equilibrium
o Plane stress
o Principal stress
o Shearing stress
o Boundary Conditions

Exam 2
5. Constitutive Equations of (4 Lectures)
o Definition
o Thermodynamic Constraints
o Hooke's Law
o Elasticity Tensor
o Isotropy, Orthotropy, Anisotropy
o Uniaxial and Multiaxial behavior
o Experimental Determination of elastic constants
o Newtonian Viscous Fluid

6. General Field Equations (6 Lectures)

• Basic Equations
• Green's and Divergence Theorems
• General Principles
• Formulation and Solution of Boundary Value
• Problems

Final
 Concept of Continuous Media

Continuum mechanics deals with forces (stresses) and motion (or deformation,
strain) of solids, liquids and gases disregarding their molecular structure. It is
assumed that continuous mathematical functions can describe the medium valid
at all interior points of the body. This concept allows us to define stress, i.e.,
force/unit area at all points. This definition implies that mass density is
continuous at all points

where are the coordinate position at time t, and is the mass

identified with a volume element of
Applications of the theory lead to the study of the theory of elasticity, plasticity
and fluid mechanics
 Force in a continuous body
Refer to the figure describing the body with surface and
volume element . This body is truly representing
• An airplane
• An automobile
• Thin foil in an electronic circuit
• Fluid flow around a jet

This body is acted upon by

1. Surface forces
• Concentrated (at a point)

• Distributed (over a surface)

2. Body forces
• Gravitational

• Inertial

• Thermoelastic

3. Momental forces (rotational effect)

A set of three figures showing the deformation at time t= 0,
.
The same body deforms with time under the action of
external forces. The point P embedded in the volume
element traverses a path called the trajectory. This path
is described by the displacement function
is continuous within the space and time.
Thus

can be defined. Note that if the function

is not continuous, then the derivatives cannot even be
defined.
 Validity of continuum theory
In the continuum theory, one can take a piece of steel and assign some
property. For example we can say that the steel has an Young's modulus of E=
30 E6 psi. That property is valid for a volume element of the size of the test
piece. The question is that if we keep subdividing the volume element till it
becomes very small will that property still retain its meaning. It may still hold
good if the volume element is 1 mm3. How about if the element is of the order
of a few nanometers, i.e., in the scale of atomic distance. Obviously the idea is
the material is continuous breaks down at that scale.
In a general sense, the concept of continuum depends on the problem. For
example a discontinuity on the same order of the problem being modeled will
not yield the right result. For example a material discontinuity (rarefied
atmosphere) of a few centimeters in the outer space can be ignored when
modeling the flight of a rocket of characteristic dimension of a few meters;
whereas a cavity the size of a few micrometers cannot be ignored when
attempting to solve wave propagation problem where the characteristic
dimensions are also in the same order. As a general rule, if the discontinuity is
not more than two orders of magnitude that of the characteristic dimension in
the problem then the concept of continuum mechanics can be safely applied.
Additional notes on continuum theory

The concept of a continuum is very critical in the study of materials under motion.
Materials in this context refers to solids, fluids or gases. Motion refers to the changes that
take place in the materials when subjected to static or dynamic (e.g. cyclid) loading
conditions. The effect of the loading process may be realized in a few microseconds as in
a ballistic impact conditions, or in a few milleniums as in the movement of geo plates on
the earth surfaces. These two effects are strain-rate effects. The temperatures of the body
may be very very hot as in 3000 C in a flame, 1000 C in a high temperature gamma
titanium aluminde to near absolute temperature in a microkelvin tanks.

A view of the material at the atomic scale:

We know that every physical object is made up of molecules, atoms and even smaller
particles. These particles are not continuously distributed over the object. Microscopic
observations reveal that there are gaps (empty spaces) between particles. Consider an
atomic structure of a metal in which the atoms are separated by interatomic distance of
the order of 4 to 5 nm (4 × 10-9m) . The nucleus of the atom where most of the mass
(neutron and protons) are concentrated are at least three order lower, thus leaving a vast
empty space where the electrons revolve. In essence the physical space occupied by
materials is very very small. However, this effect is never felt in the everyday experience
of dealing with materials. For all practical purposes, we ignore that the material is a
continuously occupied by matter.

Micro, Meso and Mesoscopic scales of the materials.

Though there are many possible scales description of materials in terms of characteristic
lengths is very useful. For that pupose if we analyze the problem at the scale of
micrometers (10−6 m) or less then the descriptions refers to microscopic scale of the
materials. Though in the realms of nuclear physics a scale of (10−9 m or 10-3 µ m 1 nm) ,
sometimes referred to as nanoscopic scale, is used in the study of mechanics of
continuous media we will still refer to them as microscopic description. Understanding
the effect of point (vacancy, interstitials), and line (edge or screw dislocations) defects on
the field falls under this category. In the mesoscopic analysis, we are interested in scales
between 1 µ m and 1 mm (10−6 to 10−3 m) . In this scale, we can analyze the effect of
individual grains, void, cavities, cracks and grain boundaries. In the macroscopic
scale, (> 1 mm) we include the study of structures anywhere between electronic devices,
to automobiles to large space shuttles.

Physical scale of the problem

Every physical problem in nature, based on mechanics or otherwise has a length scale
associated with it. All of those problems are described by a set of governing field
equations be it be based on mechnics, thermodynamics, magnetic or electrical fields.
With each of the specific problem, there is a characteristic length scale. For example if
one were to study the effect of cracks on the failure strength of the material, the size of
the crack is the characteristic length. In this case it ranges from a few tenths of a mm
( 100 µ m ) to a few mm. If we are to study the effect of the deflection of a large bridge
under dynamic loading, then a few mm is the characteristic length. Even for the same
physical problem, the length scale varies depending on what is the specific isssue we are
analyzing. If we like to study the viscous drag of air on an airplane, we will focus on the
boundary layer which is a less than a mm. On the other hand, if we like to evaluate the
lift of the same plane, the projected area is the critical parameter leading to a
characteristic length a few decimeters.

Validity of Continuum assumptions.

In order to validate the assumptions of continuity, we need to compare the characteristic

length of the problem with that of the discontinuity in the material. For the sake of
simplicity, we can assume that the assumptions of continuity is valid if the material
discontinuity is at least two orders of magnitude lower than that of the characteristic
length of the problem. For example the atomic level discontinuity can be ignored in
fracture mechanics problem since the latter has a characteristic length scale of 1000 µ m
compared to the atomic discontinuity of 0.1 µ m .

Ramifications of continuum theory

In general, mechanics of continuum medium attempts to relate the deformation of a body

from an undeformed to deformed state under the action of all external and internal forces.
The assumption of continuity of material particles that make up of the body implies that
there is a one to one correspondence between the original and current configurations.
That is for every particle ai = ai ( x1, x2, x3,t = 0) in the original configurations has a
corresponding xi = xi (a1 , a2, a3,t ) in the deformed configuration and there is one and only
particle that has a correspondence in both the states. Thus the deformation Ψ = Ψ (t ) has
one to one correspondence such that the inverse Γ = Ψ −1 (t ) exists and is unique. Also both
the functions can have derivatives of any given order because of the continuity
assumptions. This assumption is important in the definition of deformation gradient and
strain quantities.
2. Cartesian Tensor Theory

Part A: Indicial Notation

2A1 Summation Convention, Dummy Indices

Consider the sum

S = a1 x1 + a2 x2 + ... + an xn
n n n
= ∑ ai xi =∑ a j x j =∑ ak xk
i =1 j =1 k =1

Thus, the repeated indices (i,j,k…) are called dummy

indices and the dummy indices are summed. [Einsteins
convention]
b b

∫ f ( x ) dx = ∫ f (ξ ) dξ
Very similar to a a x and ξ are
dummies.

In this convention, an index should not be repeated more than

once,
N

∑abc
i =1
i i i
i.e. should not be written in indicial form.

Assume n=3. Then

ai xi = ak xk = a1 x1 + a2 x2 + a3 x3
ai eˆi = a1eˆ1 + a2 eˆ2 + a3eˆ3
concisely represents a vector
Double and Triple Sum
3 3
a11 x1 x1 + a12 x1 x2 + a13 x1 x3 +
∑∑
i =1 j =1
aij xi x j = a21 x2 x1 + a22 x2 x2 + a23 x1 x3 +
a31x3 x1 + a32 x3 x2 + a33 x3 x3 +
≡ aij xi x j
and similarly, by
3 3 3
aijk xi x j xk ≡ ∑ ∑ ∑a x x j xk
ijk i
i =1 i =1 i =1
 2A2 Free Indices

Consider the system of equations,

x1' = a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3
x2' = a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3
x3' = a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3
We can write
x1' = a1i xi
x2' = a2i xi
x3' = a3i xi
And further as
x 'j = a ji xi i=1,2,3 j=1,2,3

'
The index, j, appears only once in xj and a ji and is
called a free index. The free index takes 1,2,3… one at a
time. The free index should appear on the left and right side
of the equation.

ai = b j is meaningless
 2A3 Indicial Notation and Vector Symbols

Consider a right-handed, orthogonal Cartesian

coordinate system. Let eˆ1 , eˆ2 , eˆ3 be the base vectors.

x = x1eˆ1 + x2 eˆ2 + x3eˆ3

x = xi eˆi
From the orthogonality of the base vectors:
eˆ1 ieˆ1 = 1
eˆ2 ieˆ2 = 1
But eˆ1 ieˆ2 = eˆ2 ieˆ3 = eˆ3 ieˆ1 = 0
eˆ3 ieˆ3 = 1

Introduce the symbol called the Kronecker Delta

1⎫ i = j
δ ij = ⎬ and thus eˆi ieˆ j = δ ij
0⎭ i ≠ j
We can see the matrix
⎡1 0 0 ⎤
⎢0 1 0 ⎥ = I = ⎡δ ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎣ ij ⎦
⎢⎣0 0 1 ⎥⎦
Also:
i. δ ii = 3
ii. δ1m am = δ11a1 + δ11a1 + δ11a1 = a1
In general δ im am = ai
iii. δ imTmj = Tij
iv. δ imδ mj = δ ij
v. δ im δ mj δ jn = δ in
vi. δ ij = δ ji ⇐ symmetric
 2A4 Permutation Symbol

Denote
1 ⎫ for i, j , k having even permutation
⎪
ε ijk = −1⎬ " " odd permutation
0 ⎪⎭ " " no permutation

Even/Odd changes from 1,2,3

ε 321 → ε 213 → odd → −1

ε123 → ε 312 → ε 231 → even → 1
Consider
ε 223 → no → 0

Fast way to determine

3 1
1 → 2 3 ← 2
CCW = odd CW = even

i. ε ijk = −ε jik = ε jki

 ii. Consider the cross product

eˆ1 × eˆ 2 = eˆ 3
eˆ 2 × eˆ 3 = eˆ1
eˆ 3 × eˆ1 = eˆ 2
eˆ 2 × eˆ1 = − eˆ 3
in g eneral
eˆ i × eˆ j = ε i j k eˆ k

iii. Thus
a × b = ai eˆi × b j eˆ j
= ai b j ( eˆi × eˆ j )
= ai b j ε ijk eˆk
ε ijmε klm = δ ikδ jl − δ ilδ jk
iv. (ε − δ identity )
 2A5 Operations with indicial quantities

a. Substitution
Consider ai = uim bm and bi = vim cm
To express ai in terms of bi , change the free index,
bi = vim cm i → m m → n
bm = vmn cn
2 repeated indeces = 9 terms
ai = uim ivmncn ←
1 free index = 3 equations
b. Multiplication
p = ambm
q = cm d m ← change dummy index
pq = ambm cn d n
Again
a ib = ( ai eˆi )i( b j eˆ j )
= ai b j eˆi ieˆ j
= δ ij ai b j = ai bi

c. Factoring
Tij n j − λ ni = 0
Use ni = δ ij n j
n j (Tij − λδ ij ) = 0
d. Contraction
Tij = λθδ ij + 2µ Eij
Tii = λθδ ii + 2µ Eii
Tii = 3λθ + 2µ Eii
 Part B Tensors

x = x 'cos θ − y 'sin θ ⎧ x ⎫ ⎡cos θ − sin θ ⎤ ⎧ x ' ⎫

⎨ ⎬=⎢ ⎨ ⎬
cos θ ⎦⎥ ⎩ y '⎭
or
y = − x 'sin θ + y 'cos θ ⎩ y ⎭ ⎣ sin θ
Or, inverting
x ' = x cos θ − y sin θ ⎧ x ' ⎫ ⎡ cosθ sin θ ⎤ ⎧ x ⎫
or ⎨ ⎬ = ⎢ ⎨ ⎬
y ' = x cosθ − y sin θ ⎩ y '⎭ ⎣ − sin θ cos θ ⎦⎥ ⎩ y ⎭
Above represents a transformation of coordinates when the system
is rotated at an angle q CCW
 2B1 Tensors
Let a , b be two vectors in a Cartesian coordinate system. If
T is a transformation, which transforms any vector into some other
vector, we can write

Ta = c
Tb = d
where c and d are two different vectors.
T ( a + b ) = Ta + Tb (1.1a )
If
T (α a ) = αTa (1.2a )
For any arbitrary vector a and b and scalar α , then T is called a
LINEAR TRANSFORMATION and a Second Order Tensor.
(1.1a) and (1.2a) can be written as,
T (α a + β b ) = αTa + β Tb (1.3)
 2B2 Components of a Tensor

Teˆ1 = T11eˆ1 + T21eˆ2 + T31eˆ3

Teˆ2 = T12 eˆ1 + T22 eˆ2 + T32 eˆ3
Teˆ3 = T13eˆ1 + T23eˆ2 + T33eˆ3

~ ^ ^
T ei = T ji e j

T11 = eˆ1 ⋅ Teˆ1

T12 = eˆ1 ⋅ Teˆ2

In general Tij = eˆi ⋅ Teˆ j (2-2)

The components of Tij can be written as,

⎡T11 T12 T13 ⎤
[T ] = ⎢⎢T21 T22 T23 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣T31 T32 T33 ⎥⎦

Example 2B2.3
~
Re1 = cosθe1 + sin θe2
~
Re 2 = − sin θe1 + cosθe2
~
Re 3 = e3
Thus
LMcosθ − sin θ 0 OP
R = M sin θ cosθ 0 PP
MN 0 0 1 Q
Components of Tensor
x = x ' cosθ − y ' sin θ
y = x ' sin θ + y ' cosθ
or
RS x UV = LMsinθ − sin θ OPRS x UV
'

T yW Nsinθ sin θ QT y W
'

On inverting,
x ' = x cosθ + y sin θ
y ' = − x sin θ + y cosθ
or
RS UV L
'
sin θ sin θ x OPRS UV
T W MN
x
=
y' − sin θ sin θ y QT W
Above represents a transformation of coordinates where the
equations can be written as
x ' = β ij x j and xi = β ji x j '

Recall d i
β ij = β ji
T

A matrix is orthogonal if its transpose is equal to its inverse

d i
( β ij ) T = β ji
−1

An example of an orthogonal matrix is the direction cosine matrix.

The transformation associated with the matrix is an orthogonal
transformation.
~
IfT is the transformation, with Tij = β ij , then T~ transforms a
vector a in one coordinate system into another vector b .
 ~ ~
b
e.g. 1 = Ta b
1 and 2 = Ta 2
~
The transformation T is linear if
~
b g ~
T a1 + a2 = Ta1 + Ta2
~
~
b g
T αa = αTa
~
~
For any arbitrary vectors a1 , a2 and scalar α , T is then called a
LINEAR TRANSFORMATION and is a second-order tensor.
~
If b = Ta , then
R|b U| LMT
1 11 T12 OPR|a U|
T13 1

S|b V| = MT T22 T23PPS|a V|

Tb W MNT
2 21 2

3 31 T32 T Q Ta W
33 3

The square matrix is the matrix of the tensor T . In this instance,

T can be considered as the operator for transforming vector a
into b .
However, T11eˆ1 + T12 eˆ2 + T13eˆ3 = T1 j eˆ j can be considered as the
components of a vector Teˆ1 . Similarly, by
Teˆ2 = T21eˆ1 + T22 eˆ2 + T23eˆ3
or, in general
Teˆi = T ji eˆ j

Viewing in this manner, the components of T are expanded

through eˆ1 , eˆ2 and eˆ3 base vectors in one system.

Vector will have different components in (x,y,z) system and

(x’,y’,z’) system. AB is still the same.
Similarly, by a tensor T at P is the same in the two systems, but,
will have different components like
[T ] = ⎡⎣Tij ⎤⎦ and eˆ1 , eˆ 2 , eˆ 3

[T ]′ = ⎡⎣Tij′ ⎤⎦ and eˆ1′ , eˆ ′2 , eˆ ′3

 2B4 Sum of Tensors

If T and S are two tensors, then

(T + S )a = Ta + Sa
(T + S )ij = Tij + Sij
⎡T + S ⎤ = ⎡⎣T ⎤⎦ + ⎡ S ⎤
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
 2B5 Product of Two Tensors
dTS~~ia = T~dSa~ i
Components:
(TS )ij
= Tim S mj ~~ ~ ~
TS = T S

( ST ) ij
= SimTmj or ~~ ~ ~
ST = S T
In general, the product of two tensors is not commutative:
~~ ~~
TS ≠ ST
 2B6 Transpose of a Tensor
~ ~
Transpose of T is denoted by T T . If a and b are two vectors,
then
a ⋅ Tb = b ⋅ T T a
In component form, Tij = Tji
T

~~
Note TSd i T ~ ~
d ~~~
= S T T T or ABC i T
= C T B T AT
 2B7 Dyadic Product
~
a ⊗b = W
d i
Definition a ⊗ b c = a b ⋅ c d i
~
d
Wij = ei ⋅ We j = ei a ⊗ b e j i
d i
= ei a b ⋅ e j = ai ⋅ b j = ai b j
L aO LMa b a1b2 a1b3 OP
W = MMa PP b
1 1 1
~
b2 b3 = Ma b a2b2 abP
MNa PQ MNa b a b PQ
2 1 2 1 2 3

3 3 1 a3b2 3 3
 2B8 Trace of a Tensor
tr (a ⊗ b ) = a ⋅ b
tr (T ) = tr (Tij eˆi eˆ j ) = Tijtr (eˆi ⋅ eˆ j )
= Tij ( eˆi ⋅ eˆ j ) = Tijδ ij = Tii
= T11 + T22 + T33
= tr (T T )
 2B9 Identity Tensor
A linear transformation which transforms every vector a into
~
itself is an identify tensor I
~
Ia = a
L 1 0 0 OP
I = MM0
~
1 0P
MN0 0 1PQ
Inverse of a vector
~
Given a tensor T , if S~ exists such that
~~
ST = I
~ ~
then S is the inverse of T , or
~ ~
S = T −1
~
Inverse, if T exists if the matrix T is non-singular,
~ ~
T −1T = I
~~
Note that ST d i −1 ~ ~
= T −1S −1
 2B10 Orthogonal Tensor
~
Transformed vectors preserve their lengths and angles, thus if Q
is an orthogonal tensor, then
~
Qa = a
d i d
~ ~
cos a , b = cos Qa , Qb , Thus i
~ ~
Qa ⋅ Qb = a ⋅ b

for any a and b ,

~ ~ ~ ~
(Qa ) ⋅ (Qb ) = b ⋅ Q T (Qa )
~ ~
= b ⋅ Q T Q ( a ) = b ⋅ a = b ⋅ Ia
~T ~ ~
Thus Q Q = I
~ ~ ~ ~
Also, Q T Q = Q −1Q = I , Thus
QT = Q −1
Thus for an orthogonal matrix, the transpose is also its inverse.
Example:
A rigid body rotation is an ORTHOGONAL tensor,

R R =I
T LM
cosθ − sin θ 0 OP
det R = 1 MM
R = sin θ cosθ 0 PP
0 N
0 1 Q
 2B11 Transformation Matrix Between Two Coordinate
Systems

Consider two systems X ≡ {e1 , e2 , e3 } and X′ ≡ {e1′, e2′ , e3′ } ,

{ei′} is obtained from {ei } using a rigid body rotation of {ei } .
We are interested to relate the unit vectors {ei′} in X′ from that of
X.

eˆi′ = Qeˆi = Qmi eˆm ê 2

ê 2′
We see that,

eˆ1′ = Q11eˆ1 + Q21eˆ2 + Q31eˆ3 ê 3′

ê 1
eˆ2′ = Q12 eˆ1 + Q22 eˆ1 + Q32 eˆ3 ê 3
eˆ3′ = Q13eˆ1 + Q23eˆ1 + Q33eˆ3 ê 1′

[Q ] is the transformation given by

We note that for QiQ = I , ⎡⎣Q ⎤⎦ is an orthogonal matrix

T

Q11 = eˆ1 iQeˆ1′

(e.g.)
Q13 = eˆ1 iQeˆ3′

For example,
 2B12 Transformation laws for Vectors.
Consider one vector a

Let a belong to {ei } . Thus ai = a.ei in the X frame.

If X′ is another system, and we wish to express a within X′ ,
'
let ei = Qmi em
ai' = a.Qmi e m = Qmi (a.e m )
ai' = Qmi am
[a ]' = [Q]T [a ]
⎡ a1′ ⎤ ⎡Q11Q21Q31 ⎤ ⎧a1 ⎫
⎢ a′ ⎥ = ⎢Q Q Q ⎥ ⎪ a ⎪
⎢ 2 ⎥ ⎢ 12 22 32 ⎥ ⎨ 2 ⎬
⎢⎣ a3′ ⎥⎦ ⎣⎢Q13Q23Q33 ⎦⎥ ⎩⎪a3 ⎭⎪

Thus {a1′, a2′ , a3′} are the components of a with respect to the
X′ system.
Example:
'
If {e } is obtained by rotating {ei } ccw with respect to
i
'
e3 -axis find the components of a = 2eˆ1 in terms of {e } i

Answer

⎡0 −1 0 ⎤
[Q ] = ⎢⎢1 0 0⎥⎥
⎢⎣0 0 1 ⎥⎦
[ a ] = [Q ] [ a ]
' T

⎡ 0 1 0 ⎤ ⎧ 2 ⎫ ⎧0 ⎫
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
= ⎢⎢ −1 0 0 ⎥⎥ ⎨0 ⎬ = ⎨−2 ⎬
⎢⎣ 0 0 1 ⎥⎦ ⎩⎪0 ⎭⎪ ⎩⎪0 ⎭⎪
2B13 Transformation law for tensor

Let T ∈ {ei } and T ∈ {ei' }

⎧Tij = ei iTe j
⎪
Recall that the components of a tensor T are: ⎨ and
⎪T ′ = e′iTe′
⎩ ij i j
Since ei′ = Qmi em , we have

Tij' = Qmi e m .TQnj e n

= QmiQnj (e m .T e n )
Tij' = QmiQnjTmn

Thus
⎡T11' T12' T13' ⎤ ⎡Q11 Q12 Q13 ⎤ ⎡T11 T12 T13 ⎤ ⎡ Q11 Q12 Q13 ⎤
⎢ ' ' ⎥ ⎢Q ⎢ ⎥
⎢T21 T '
22 T23 =
⎥ ⎢ 12 Q22 Q32 ⎥⎥ . ⎢T21 T22 T23 ⎥ . ⎢⎢Q12 Q22 Q32 ⎥⎥
⎢T31' T32' T33' ⎥ ⎢⎣Q13 Q23 Q33 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣T31 T32 T33 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣Q13 Q23 Q33 ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦
[T ] = [Q ] [T ][Q ]
' T

Note that the tensor T is the same, but has different components
[T ]′ in the new frame {ei′} compared to [T ] in {ei }
Example

⎡0 1 0⎤
[ T ] = ⎢⎢1 2 0 ⎥⎥
Let
⎢⎣0 0 1 ⎥⎦
If [Q ] represents rotation as in the earlier example such that
⎡0 −1 0 ⎤
[Q ] = ⎢⎢1 0 0⎥⎥ , then
⎢⎣0 0 1 ⎥⎦

[T ] = [Q ] [T ][Q ]
' T

⎡ 2 −1 0 ⎤
= ⎢⎢ −1 0 0 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 1 ⎥⎦
 2B14 Tensors by Transformation laws

'
{ei } are the components of the system X , and {ei } are that of
new system X ′ . Q or Qij define direction cosines tensor

to X ′ .
'
transforming from X Qij = cos(ei , e j ) ; Q is an
T
orthogonal transformation; QQ = I

The components transform as follows:

α' =α Scalar
a = Qmi am
'
i Vector
T = QmiQnjTmn
'
ij Second Order Tensor
Tijk' = QmiQnj QrkTmnr Third Order Tensor
Tijk ... = QmiQnj Qok .....QspTmno... n th Order Tensor
n n
 Multiplication Rule

a.) If ai are components of vector and bi are components of

another vector, then Tij = ai b j is a second order tensor.

b.) If ai is a vector and Tij are tensor components, then

wijk = aiT jk is a the third order tensor.
c.) The quotient rule
If ai are components of a vector, Tij is the second-
order tensor, then
ai = Tij b j
bj is a vector.
Similarly Tij and Eij are tensors, then
Tij = Cijkl Ekl
means Cijkl is a fourth-order tensor,
 2B15 Symmetric and Anti-symmetric Tensors
~ ~
If T is tensor with Tij is its components, then T T is its transpose,
T ~
with ji components. If T is symmetric, then
~ ~T T = T T = T
(a) T = T or ij ij ji

L T T12 T13OP
T = MMT
11
~
T22 T P only has 6 components.
Thus a symmetric
MNT T PQ
12 23

13 T23 33
~ ~ ~T
(b) If T is anti-symmetric, then T = − T
Tij = −Tij = − Tji
T

L 0 T12 T13 OP
T = MM− T
~
0 T P
MN−T 0 PQ
12 23
Thus only has 3 independent
13 −T23
components.
~
(c) Any T can be decomposed into
~ ~T
~ T +T
TS =
2
~ ~ ~ ~ ~T
T = TS +T A ~A T −T
T =
2
 2B16 Dual Vector of an Anti-symmetric Tensor
For an antisymmetric tensor,
T12 = −T21
T13 = −T31
T11 = T22 = T33 = 0
T23 = −T32
We can form a vector with the 3 independent components to
Let t A ≡ ( Dual Vector)
~
Ta = t A × a ;
From basics,
d i b g
a⋅ b ×c =b⋅ c ×a
T12 = eˆ1 ⋅ Teˆ2 = eˆ1 ⋅ t A × eˆ2
= t A ⋅ eˆ2 × eˆ1 = −t A ⋅ eˆ3 = −t3
A

Similarly
T31 = − t 2 T23 = − t1
A A
and
It can be seen that
1 1
t A
= − ε ijk Tjk ei or ti = − ε ijk Tjk
2 2

~A
0 LM − T12 − T13 OP
T = T12 MM 0 − T23 PP
NT
13 T23 0 Q
 2B17 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors of A Tensor
~
If T is a tensor, and a is a vector, then if
~
Ta = λa
then a is an eigenvector, λ is the corresponding eigenvalue,
If n is a unit eigenvector, then
~
Tn = λn = λIn
d~ ~
i
T − λI n = 0

Let n = α i eˆi , in terms of components,

(Tij − λδ ij )α j = 0
or
(T11 − λ )α1 + T12α 2 + T13α 3 = 0
T21α1 + (T22 − λ )α 2 + T23α 3 = 0
T31α1 + T32α 2 + (T33 − λ )α 3 = 0
α1 , α 2 ,α 3 are direction cosines of the vector, then
α12 + α 2 2 + α 32 = 1
We have a unique vector (eigenvector) for each eigenvalue.
 2B17 (Ct’d)
For any given T,
T − λ Iˆ = 0
or
T11 − λ T12 T13
T21 T22 − λ T23 =0
T31 T32 T33 − λ

Above yields a cubic equation in λ , called the characteristic

equation. Roots of the equation are the eigenvalues of T.
 2B18-19 Eigenvalues and Eigen vectors of tensor T
Recall the definition that T is a linear transformation,
transforming a into b ,
a , b ∈ R for every a
Ta = b all in X
However, if the vector a is transformed parallel to itself, then
Ta = λ a
a is called an EIGEN VECTOR, and
λ is the corresponding eighen value.
We consider a as a unit vector, transformed into a vector parallel
to itself.
Let n̂ be a unit eigen vector, then Tn = λ n = λ In
or (T − λ I )nˆ = 0 with nˆ ⋅ nˆ = 1
Let nˆ = ni eˆi = n1eˆ1 + n2 eˆ2 + n3eˆ3
(Tij − λδ ij ) ni = 0 with ni n j = 1
 2B18 (Ct’d)

The equation can be written as

(T11 − λ )n1 + T12 n2 + T13 n3 = 0

T21n1 + (T22 − λ )n2 + T23 n3 = 0
T31n1 + T32 n2 + (T33 − λ )n3 = 0
n1 + n2 + n3 = 1
2 2 2
and
or in matrix form
T − λI = 0
T11 − λ T12 T13
T21 T22 − λ T23 = 0
T31 T32 T33 − λ
The above equation is a cubic equation in λ ( Tij known).
Giving three roots λ1 , λ2 and λ3 with three corresponding eigen
vectors.
 2B18-19 (Ct’d) Physical Interpretation
z
Let [σ ] denote the stress state

at P ≡σ
σ ⋅ n̂ = s y
Physically s denotes stress
vector in the direction of n̂ . x

Note the direction of n̂ and

s are not same, since s has components parallel and vertical
to n̂ .
However, if s
and n̂ direction are same, then they are the
EIGEN DIRECTIONS.
 '
Important: Eigen values will be the same irrespective of X or X
⎡2 0 0 ⎤
⎢
Let [T ] = 0 3 4
⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 4 −3⎥⎦
To find: Eigen values and eigen vectors
The characteristic equation is
2−λ 0 0
T − λI = 0 3 − λ 4 = (2 − λ )(λ 2 − 25) = 0
0 4 −3
or λ = 2,5, −5
λ1 = 5
Let
λ2 = 2
λ3 = −5
Consider λ1 = 5 , we need to find the eigen vector
( 2 − λ1 ) n1 + 0n2 + 0n3 = 0
0 + (3 − λ1 )n2 + 4n3 = 0
0 + 4n2 + (−3 − λ1 ) n3 = 0
−3n1 = 0 ⇒ n1 = 0
−2n2 + 4n3 = 0⎫
⎬ dependent equation
4n2 − 8n3 = 0 ⎭
1 2
n1 + n2 + n3 = 1 ⇒ n3 = and n2 =
2 2 2

5 5
1
or nˆ( λ1 ) = ± ( 2eˆ2 + eˆ3 )
5
Similarly nˆ( λ2 ) = ± eˆ1
 1
Similarly nˆ( λ3 ) = ± ( −eˆ2 + 2eˆ3 )
5
 Principal Values and Directions of Real Symmetric Tensors

In elasticity stress tensor, strain tensor, rate of deformation tensor

are all real and symmetric. Eigen values of any real symmetric
tensor are all real. So, there are at least three eigen vectors called
PRINCIPAL DIRECTIONS and corresponding eigen values called
PRINCIPAL VALUES. Also in this special case, the principal
directions are MUTUALLY PERPENDICULAR.
Case(i) If the characteristic equation T − λ I has three distinct
roots.
There will be three distinct eigen values and three eigen
vectors mutually perpendicular to each other.
Case (ii) If the characteristic equation has one distinct root λ1 and
two repeated roots λ2 = λ3
There will be two distinct eigen values. There will be an
eigen vector corresponding to λ1 . Any line vertical to λ1
will also be an eigen vector. Or any vector lying in the
plane vertical to n̂( λ1 ) will be an eigen vector.
Case(iii) All the three roots are equal.
There is only one eigen value. Any vector in the domain
is an eigen vector.
(e.g.) δ ij tensor
Corresponding to the three mutually vertical directions of eigen
vectors , the tensor T can be transformed by coordinate
transformation with nˆ1 , nˆ2 , nˆ3 , as the unit base vectors
⎡λ1 0 0⎤
⎡⎣T ⎤⎦ = ⎢ 0 λ2 0⎥
nˆ1 , nˆ2 , nˆ3 ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 λ3 ⎥⎦
to give a diagonal matrix with eigen values.
With the convention λ1 ≥ λ2 ≥ λ3
 2B20 Scalar Invariants of a tensor
Recall that for a tensor T , the characteristic equation is
Tij − λδ ij = 0
The cubic equation can be written as
λ 3 − I1λ 2 + I 2λ − I 3 = 0
with 3 roots λ1 , λ2 , λ3 and three invariants I1 , I 2 , I 3
I1 = T11 + T12 + T13 = Tkk

I 2 = (TiiT jj − TijT ji )
1
2
T T T T T T
= 11 12 + 22 23 + 11 13
T21 T22 T32 T33 T31 T33
T11 T12 T13
I 3 = T21 T22 T23 = det [T ]
T31 T32 T33
In terms of eigenvalues,
I1 = λ1 + λ2 + λ3
I 2 = λ1λ2 + λ2λ3 + λ3λ1
I 3 = λ1λ2λ3
Note that scalar invariants do not change under coordinate
transformations.
 Part C
Tensor Calculus

2C1 Tensor valued function of a Scalar

Let Ti = Ti ( t ) be a tensor-valued function of a scalar t say,

Differentiating with respect to time.
dTi Ti (t + ∆t ) − Ti (t )
= lim
dt t →0 ∆t

The usual rules of differential calculus hold good.

d i i dTi d Si d i dα i dTi
(T + S ) = + (α (t ).T ) = T+ α
dt dt dt dt dt dt
dTi d i T ⎛ dTi ⎞
T
d i da
(T a ) = a + Ti (T ) = ⎜ ⎟
dt dt dt dt ⎝ dt ⎠

Next: 2C1 Example Problem 1

 2C1 Example Problem 1
Previous: 2C1 Tensor valued function of a Scalar

dTi
Consider
dt
⎛ dTi ⎞ dTiij
We can show that ⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ dt ⎠ij dt
The new tensor can be obtained by differentiating the individual
components
T =
d 
dt
( )
T

Thus Tij = (Tij )

d
dt
Next: 2C1 Example Problem 2
 2C1 Example Problem 2
Previous: 2C1 Example Problem 1
If R(t) is a time dependant rotation tensor, ro is transformed into
r(t) by
r ( t ) = R ⋅ ro
dr 
= r =ω ×r
dt

i iT
Where ω is the dual vector of RR

Proof:
dr dR
=  T r =ω ×r
r O = RR
dt dt
 T
Recall that ω is the dual vector of of RR

Next: 2C2 Scalar Field, Gradient of a Scalar Function

 2C2 (a) Scalar Field, Gradient of a Scalar Function
Previous: 2C1 Example Problem 2

Let φ (r ) be a scalar valued function of r . φ (r ) can be

density, temperature at r ;
⎛ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎞
Let us define ∇ = ⎜ i+ j+ ⎟
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠
We note that the gradient of φ ( r ) is a vector field
grad(φ ) = ∇φ
dφ = φ (r + d r ) − φ ( r ) = ∇φ .d r
dr  
Unit vector along gradient = =n=e
dr
Next: 2C2(b) (Continued)
 2C2(b) (Continued)
Previous: 2C2(a) Scalar Field, Gradient of a Scalar Function
∂φ l ∂φ l ∂φ l
∇φ = e1 + e2 + e3
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
gradφ .dr = 0
∇φ ⋅ d r = 0 For d r on “iso-φ”
∇φ ⋅ d r is maximum when ∇φ is parallel to d r

gradφ = ∇φ
dr
φ = const. = φ1
Y

Z φ = φ2
Next: 2C2 Example Problem
 2C2 Example Problem:
Previous: 2C2 (b) (Continued)

φ = x1 x2 + x3 Find n normal to const φ at r = (2,1,0)

∂φ l ∂φ l ∂φ l
∇φ = e1 + e2 + e3 = x1 e 1 + x2 e 2 + x3 e 3
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
⎧ ∇φ = e 1 + 2e 2 + e 3
⎪
At (2,1,0) ⎨ 1 
⎪ ˆ
n = (e1 + 2e 2 + e 3 )
⎩ 6
Next: 2C3 Vector field, Gradient of a vector field
 2C3 Vector Field, Gradient of a Vector Field
Previous: 2C2 Example Problem

Let v( r ) vector valued function, displacement or velocity field.

Grad v( r ) is a tensor field ∇V
dV = V (r + d r ) − V (r )
= (∇V )d r
(∇V )ij = ei .(∇V )e j
∂V ∂  ∂v
= ei = (ei .V ) = i = vi , j
∂x j ∂x j ∂x j
⎡ ∂v1 ∂v1 ∂v1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3 ⎥
⎢ ∂v2 ∂v2 ∂v2 ⎥
[∇V ] = ⎢ ⎥ = [vi , j ]
⎢ ∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3 ⎥
⎢ ∂v3 ∂v3 ∂v3 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3 ⎦

∂vi
Define = vi , j
∂x j
Note that ( ),j indicates differentiation in the x j th direction.
∂xi
Also, = xi , j = δ ij
∂x j

Next: 2C4 Divergence of a Vector Field: -Scalar Field

 2C4(a) Divergence of a Vector Field: - Scalar Field.
Previous: 2C3 Vector Field, Gradient of a Vector Field

Let v( r ) be a vector field. div.v( r ) = tr (∇.V )

∂v1 ∂v2 ∂v3
Recall diagonal element, , ,
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v
div(v) = 1 + 2 + 3 = m = vm ,m
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3 ∂xm
Next: 2C4 Divergence of a Tensor Field
 2C4(b) Divergence of a Tensor Field
Previous: 2C4(a) Divergence of a Vector Field: - Scalar Field.

Let Ti ( r ) be a tensor field. Div[Ti ( r )] is a vector field. For any

vector a ,

∂Tim
div(Tim em ) − 0 = = Tim ,m
∂xm
If b =αa
∂b ∂a ∂α
divb = i = α i + ai
∂xi ∂xi ∂xi
= α .div(a ) + (∇α ).a
Next: 2C5 Curl of a Vector Field: Vector Field
 2C5 Curl of a Vector Field: - Vector Field
Previous: 2C4 Divergence of a vector field: - Scalar field.

A
Let v( r ) be a vector field. t Is a dual vector of (∇v)
A

A
Curl of v = ∇ × v = 2t .
⎡ 1 ∂v1 ∂v2 1 ∂v1 ∂v3 ⎤
⎢ 0 ( − ) ( − )⎥
2 ∂x2 ∂x1 2 ∂x3 ∂x1
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 1 1 ⎥
[∇V ] A = ⎢ − (v1,2 − v2,1 ) 0 − (v2,3 − v3,2 ) ⎥
2 2
⎢ ⎥
⎢ − 1 (v − v ) − 1 (v − v ) 0 ⎥
⎢ 2 1,3 3,1 2
2,3 3,2
⎥
⎣ ⎦
∇ × V = 2.t A
= (v − v ).e 1 + (v − v ).e 2 + (v
3,2 2,3 1,3 3,1 2,1 − v1,2 ).e 3
Next: Problem 2C4
 Problem 2C4

Consider a temperature field given by θ = 3xy .

(a) Find the heat flux at the point A(1,1,1) if
q = − k ∇θ .
(b) Find the heat flux at the same point as part (a) if
q = − K ∇θ , where
⎡k 0 0 ⎤
[ K ] = ⎢ 0 2k 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 3k ⎥⎦

Solution: ∇θ = 3 ye1 + 3 xe2 → ( ∇θ ) A = 3e1 + 3e2

(a ) q = −3k ( e1 + e2 )
⎡ k 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ 3⎤ ⎡ 3k ⎤
(b) [ q ] = − ⎢ 0 2k 0 ⎥ ⎢ 3⎥ = − ⎢6k ⎥ → q = −3ke1 − 6ke2
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 3k ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
 Chapter 3
Kinematics of a Continuum
Kinematics refers to the motion of a particle without regard to what causes
the motion. Particles in a continuum refer to the infinitesimal volume of a
body.

P ( X1, X 2 , X 3 )
x2
P ′ ( x1 , x2 , x3 )

r0 t=0

r (t ) t=t

x1

x3

Particle P at t=0 moves to P’ at t=t. The position vector,

r ( t ) = x ( t ) e1 + y ( t ) e2 + z ( t ) e3

Every particle moves according

xi = xi ( X 1 , X 2 , X 3 , t ) i = 1, 2,3
x = x ( X , t ) → Pathline
Position of particle X i = x ( X ,0)
X 1 , X 2 , X 3 → Position of particles (material coordinates)
x1 , x2 , x3 → Spatial coordinates
In a reference configuration, we may use original particle description leading
to a Lagarangian description. If we refer to current coordinates at t=t, then it
is called Eulerian description.

Next: 3-1 Example

 3.1 Example:
Previous: Kinematics of a Continuum

kt C' B B'
C

O A X

Given: x = X + ktX 2 e1
In terms of components
x1 = X 1 + ktX 2
x2 = x2
x3 = x3

At:
t =0 t =t
O ( 0,0,0 ) O ( 0,0,0 )
C ( 0,1,0 ) C ( kt ,1,0 )
B (1,10 ) B (1 + kt ,10 )

Note that the motion is simply a shearing process.

Next: Material and Spatial Description

 3.2 Material and Spatial Description
Previous: 3.1 Example
Consider the variables
Scalar θ Temperature
Vector v Velocity
Tensor T Stress

Then θ = θ1 ( X 1 , X 2 , X 3 , t )
v1 = v1 ( X 1 , X 2 , X 3 , t )

T = T 1 ( X 1 , X 2 , X 3 , t ) ⇐ Lagarangian
If θ = θ1 ( x1 , x2 , x3 , t )
v1 = v1 ( x1 , x2 , x3 , t )

T = T 1 ( x1 , x2 , x3 , t ) ⇐ Spatial or Eulerian
Next: 3.3 Material Derivative
 3.3 Material Derivative.
3.2 Material and Spatial Description
D
( ) : Material derivative is defined as the time rate of change of
Dt
quantity ( ) for a fixed particle.
(i) If θ = θ1 ( X 1 , X 2 , X 3 , t ) → Material description
Dθ ⎛ ∂θ1 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟
Dt ⎝ ∂t ⎠ X i fixed
(ii) If θ = θ 2 ( x1 , x2 , x3 , t ) → Spatial description
Dθ ⎛ ∂θ 2 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟
Dt ⎝ ∂t ⎠ X i fixed
∂θ 2 ∂x ∂θ 2 ∂y ∂θ 2 ∂z ⎛ ∂θ 2 ⎞
= + + +⎜ ⎟
∂x ∂t ∂y ∂t ∂z ∂t ⎝ ∂t ⎠ X i fixed
∂θ 2 ∂θ ∂θ ∂θ
= + v1 2 + v2 2 + v3 2
∂t ∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
Dθ ∂θ
= + v i∇θ
Dt ∂t
Thus, in spatial description , we have an additional term v i∇θ indicating
the effect of velocity at that location xi .

Next: 3.4 Acceleration of a Particle

 3.4 Acceleration of a Particle
Previous: 3.3 Material Derivative.

It is the material derivative of velocity.

Thus in material description:
x = x ( X ,t )
⎛ ∂x ⎞ DX
v =⎜ ⎟ ≡
⎝ ∂t ⎠ X i fixed Dt
⎛ ∂v ⎞ Dv
a =⎜ ⎟ ≡
⎝ ∂t ⎠ X i fixed Dt

In terms of spatial description

∂v
a= + ( ∇v ) v
∂t
If v = v ( x1 , x2 , x3 , t ) ,
∂vi ∂v
Then ai = + vj i
∂t ∂x j

Next: 3.5 Displacement Field

 3.5 Displacement Field
Previous: 3.4 Acceleration of a Particle

u = rt − ro
= x ( X ,t ) − X
Example:

y P′
P u

r
rt

X1
x1 = x2 = X 2 x3 = X 3
2
X X
u1 = 1 − X 1 = − 1
2 2
u2 = u3 = 0

Next: 3.6 Rigid Body Motion

 3.6 Rigid Body Motion
Previous: 3.5 Displacement Field
(a) Rigid Body Translation
x = X + c (t )
u = c ( t ) No relative displacement
(b) Rigid Body Rotation
(
x − b = R (t ) X − b )
where R (t ) is proper orthogonal (rotation) tensor.

R (0) = I Rotation about particle b

Rotation about origin x = R (t ) X
Xp P' x p′
P ∆X ∆x
XQ x q ′
Q Q'

t=0
 PQ = X P − X Q
xP − b = R ( t ) ( X P − b )
xQ − b = R ( t ) ( X Q − b )
xP − xQ = R ( t ) ( X P − X Q )
or ∆x = R ( t ) ∆X

∆x − ∆X = ( R ( t ) ∆X ).R ( t ) ∆X

( ∆x ) = ( ∆X ) .R.RT
2 2

( ∆x ) = ( ∆X )
2 2

Results indicate that there is no change in length

 3.6(c) General Rigid Body Motion
Previous: 3.6 Rigid Body Motion
⎛ ⎞
x = R (t ) ⎜ X − b ⎟ + c (t )
Rotation ⎝
Origin ⎠
Translation

(
v = R (t ) X − b + c (t ) )
(X −b) = R
T
(x − c )

Substituting v = RR ( x − c ) + c ( t )
However
R ⋅ RT = I
R ⋅ RT − R ⋅ RT = 0
( R ⋅ RT )T = ( R ⋅ R )T = − R ⋅ RT

However R ⋅ R is anti symmetric with w as a dual vector. Using this

T

concept
w×(x − c ) + c
v = w×(x − c ) + c
Let r = x − c then
v = w× r + c

Next: 3.7 Infinitessimal Deformation

 3.7 Infinitesimal Deformations
Previous: 3.6(c) General Rigid Body Motion

Let P ( X ) , Q ( X + dX ) deform to P′ ( x ) + Q′ ( x + dx ) with

Q ( t0 ) Q′ ( t )

dx
dX
P ( t0 ) P′ ( t )
ê2

ê1

ê3

uP ( X ) = x − X
uQ ( X + dX ) = ( x + dx ) − ( X + dX )
dx = P′ + Q′
= ⎡⎣( x + dx ) − ( X + dX ) ⎤⎦ − ( x − X ) + dX

dx = u ( X + dX ) − u ( X ) + dX
Define displacement gradient
du
∇u =
da
Then
dx = dX + (∇u ).dX
⎡ ∂u1 ∂u1 ∂u1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ∂a1 ∂a2 ∂a3 ⎥
⎢ ∂u ∂u2 ∂u2 ⎥
∇u = ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎢ ∂a1 ∂a2 ∂a3 ⎥
⎢ ∂u3 ∂u3 ∂u3 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ∂a1 ∂a2 ∂a3 ⎦
Next: 3.7 Example Problem
 3.7 Example Problem
Previous: 3.7 Infinitessimal Deformation
Particle A:
u1 = ka22
u2 = u3 = 0
x1 = u + a1 = a1 + ka2
2

x2 = a2 ; x3 = a3
x2
B' C C'
B

O
A x1

Line OB
X 1 = Constant = 0
x1 = ka22 ( Parabolic )
Next: 3.7 Example Prob. (Cont’d - B)
 3.7 Example Prob. (Cont’d - B)
Previous: 3.7 Example Prob.

x2
B' C C'
B

O A x1
Particle B
We use a1 , a2 , a3 instead of x1 , x2 , x3 for convenience
( a1 , a2 , a3 ) = ( 0,1,0 )
( x1 , x2 , x3 ) = ( k ,1,0 )
⎡ 0 2ka2 0⎤
∇u = ⎢ 0 0 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 0 ⎥⎦
Now
dx = da + ( ∇u ) da
da = da ( I + ∇u )
Next: 3.7 Example Prob. (Cont’d – C)
 3.7 (Cont’d – Deformation Gradient)
Previous: 3.7 Example Prob. (Cont’d – B)
Let F = deformation gradient = ( I + ∇u ) , then
Fij = ui , j + δ ij
dx = F ⋅ da
dxi = Fij da j

C onsider a length of da .da t h e n

2
(d a) 2
(dx)

O rig in al
D eform ed

dx .dx = F .da( ) ( F .da )

( ds )
2
(
= da . F Fda
T
)
F is orthogonal, then F F = I , then ( dx ) = ( da )
T 2 2
If i.e. no change in
length
Thus rigid body rotation does not produce any change in length.
Consider
F T F = ( I + ∇u )
( I + ∇u )
T

= I + ∇u + ( ∇u ) + ∇u T .∇u
T

If ∇u T .∇u is small compared to ∇u then

 F T F = I + 2E

Where E=
1
2
( ∇u + ∇u T ) infinitesimal strain tensor

Eij =
1
2
( ui , j + u j ,i )
Next: 3.8 Geometrical Meaning of Eij
 3.8 Geometrical Meaning of Eij
Previous: 3.7 Example Prob. (Cont’d – C)
Consider two material elements
D A'
B dx2 D'
da1
da2 dx1
A B'
C'
C

dx ( ) = Fda ( )
1 1

dx ( ) = Fda (
2 2)

(1) ( 2)
= F Fda ( ) da (
T 1 2)
dx dx

Diagonal terms
Case (i)
Let
da ( ) = da ( ) = da = ds.n
1 2

dS = da ( ) :
1

da ( ) = n .dS
1 1

n̂ da = dsinˆ

X
Let ds be the deformed length, then
 ( ds ) = ( dS ) + F F da ( )
2 2 T
( 1
)
T
F F = I + 2E
( ds ) − ( dS ) = da ( ) F Fda ( )
2 2 1 T 1

= n.E.n 2 ( ds )
2

( ds ) − ( dS ) = ( ds − dS )( ds + dS )
2 2

2dS ( ds − dS )
ds − dS
∴ = n.E.n = Enn (no sum)
dS
E11 Elongation in 1 direction, E22 in 2 and E33 in 3 hence engineering
ds − dS
strain is the diagonal term of E in three directions.
dS
 3.8 Cont’d (b)
Previous: 3.8 Geometrical Meaning of Eij
Off Diagonal Terms

D
B D'
da ( ) = dS1.m ds( )
1 B' 1

C
da( ) = dS2.n
2

ds(
C' 2)
A A'

da 1ds1.m da 2 = ds2 .n
da ( ) .da ( ) = 2 ( dS1 )( dS 2 ) m.E.n
1 2

= ( dS1 )( dS 2 ) .cosθ
π
γ = − θ = Shear strain
2
⎛π ⎞
Cos ⎜ − γ ⎟ = Sinγ ≈ γ for small γ
⎝2 ⎠
∴ γ = 2m.E.n
 before

after

γ /2

γ /2

Thus 2E12 gives angle between lines lying along x1 and x2 directions

2E12 ⇒ Shear strain at P of x1 − x2 .

x2

P x1
 Example 3.8.2
Given :

u1 = k ( 2a1 + a22 )
u2 = k ( a12 − a22 )
u3 = 0

Assume k is small i.e order of 10-4

Find: Particle (
P X = e1 − e 2 ) , find the unit elongation and change in
angle. (normal and shear strain)

Solution:
⎡ 2 2a2 0 ⎤
[∇u ] = k ⎢ 2a1 −2a2 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 0 ⎥⎦
⎡ 2 −2 0 ⎤
[∇u ] = k ⎢ 2 2 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 0 ⎥⎦ at (1, −1,0 )

⎡2 0 0⎤
[ E ] = [∇u + ∇u T ] = k ⎢ 0 2 0 ⎥
1
2 ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 0 ⎥⎦
E11 = E22 = 2k
⇒ da1 and da2 stretch by 2k times
dx1 − da1 = 2k dx2 − da2 = 2k
If k = 2 X 10-4 then

dx1 = 2 X 10−4 da1

dx2 = 2 X 10−4 da1
E12 = 0 ⇒ no shear strain
Since xi = ai + ui
dx ( ) = [∇u ]da ( ) + da1
1 1

⎡ da (1) ⎤ ⎡ 2 −2 0 ⎤ ⎡ da1 ⎤ ⎡1 + 2k ⎤
⎢ ⎥
= ⎢ 0 ⎥ + k ⎢ 2 2 0 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥ = da1 ⎢ 2k ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢⎣ 0 0 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦

B
A'
da
1
da 2kda
2
O A α 1

O A

2kdk1
Line OA α = tan −1 da1
da1

Similarly Line OB ⇒ β=2k (No shear strain)

 3.9 Principal Strain
Previous: Example Problem 3.8.2
Since E is real and symmetric, there are three mutually perpendicular
directions n1 , n 2 and n3 for which is diagonal
⎡ E1 0 0 ⎤
[ E ]ni = ⎢ 0 E2 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 E3 ⎥⎦

n1 , n 2 and n3 are the principal directions of strain

E1 , E2 , E3 are the three Principal strains (maximum and minimum
strains)
Characteristic equation for E is
λ 3 − I1λ 2 + I 2λ − I 3 = 0
and
I1 = E11 + E22 + E33
E11 E12 E11 E13 E22 E23
I2 = + +
E12 E22 E13 E33 E23 E33
I 3 = Eij

λi s are the scalar invariants

e = change in unit volume = ∆V/V
∂ui
= Eii = E11 + E22 + E33 = = div.u
∂a j

Next: 3.10 Dilataion

 3.10 Dilataion
Previous: 3.9 Principal Strain
When a body deforms from a volume dV to dv where V, v are volumes in
{X} and {x},
Then
dv = ds1 ids2 ids3
= dS1 (1 + E1 ) dS2 (1 + E2 ) dS3 (1 + E3 )
= dS1dS 2 dS3 (1 + E1 + E2 + E3 + H .O.T )
= dV (1 + E1 + E2 + E3 )
Change in Volume =dv − dV
dv − dV
Volumetric Strain =
dV
= E1 + E2 + E3
= Eii = first scalar invariant of E
Next: 3.11 Rotation Tensor
 3.11 Rotation Tensor
Previous: 3.10 Dilataion
1
dx = da + ( ∇u ) da ⎡⎣( ∇u ) + ∇u T ⎤⎦ = E
2

(
dx = da + E + Ω da ) 1
2
⎡⎣( ∇u ) − ∇u T ⎤⎦ = Ω

is stretched and rotated to result in . Stretching comes purely from

, whereas the rotation comes both from and . However, if is
along the eigen vector direction of , then change (rotation) in comes
A
purely from Thus denotes the rotation of eigen vector of . If t
is dual vector of , then

t A × da = Ωda
and t A = Ω32 e1 + Ω13 e 2 + Ω 21 e3
where lie along the principal direction of .

Next: 3.12 Time Rate of Change of a Material Element

 3.12 Time Rate of Change of a Material Element
Previous: 3.11 Rotation Tensor

We need to compute the rate of change da at time t. Let us use spatial

D
coordinates ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) and denote dx = ( ∇v ) dx
Dt

da
dx

t=0 t=t
x2

x1
x3

Velocity gradient = ∇v = vi , j where (), j with respect to spatial coordinates

⎡ ∂v1 ∂v1 ∂v1 ⎤

⎢ ⎥
⎢ ∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3 ⎥
⎢ ∂v ∂v2 ∂v2 ⎥
Thus ∇v = ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎢ ∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3 ⎥
⎢ ∂v3 ∂v3 ∂v3 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3 ⎦
Next: 3.13 Rate of Deformation Tensor.
 3.13 Rate of Deformation Tensor.
Previous: 3.12 Time Rate of Change of a Material Element
Let ( ∇v ) = D + W
Where D = symmetric part of velocity gradient.
1⎡
( ∇v ) + ( ∇v ) ⎤
T
= = Rate of deformation tensor
2⎣ ⎦
W = anti-Symmetric part of velocity gradient
1⎡
( ∇v ) − ( ∇v ) ⎤
T
=
2⎣ ⎦
= Spin tensor
Thus

Dij =
1
2
( vi , j + v j ,i )

Wij = ( vi , j − v j ,i )
1
2

D describes the rate of change of length dx

W describes the rate of rotation of dx

Next: 3.14 Spin tensor and Angular velocity vector

 3.14 Spin tensor and Angular velocity vector
Prevous: 3.13 Rate of Deformation Tensor.

Since W a
is anti symmetric for any vector
Wa = ω × a

Where (
ω = − W23 e1 + W31 e2 + W12 e3 )
Consider a vector dx , then
Wdx = ω × dx
D
Dt
(
( dx ) = ( ∇v ) dx = D + W dx )
= Ddx + Wdx
= Ddx + w × dx
(simply rotate, no length change)

2W ⇒ vorticity tensor

Next: 3.15 Conservation of Mass

 3.15 Conservation of Mass
Previous: 3.14 Spin tensor and Angular velocity vector

Since ρ dV is the mass of an element with volume dV,

D D Dρ
( ρ dV ) = 0 ⇒ ρ ( )
dV + dV =0
Dt Dt Dt
now, dividing by dV
∂vi D ρ
⇒ ρ + = 0 Conservation of Mass / Continuity Equation
∂xi Dt
Dρ
ρ .div (V ) + =0
Dt
In spatial coordinates
D ρ ∂ρ
= + v .∇ρ
Dt ∂t
In Cartesian coordinates

D ρ ∂ρ Dρ
= + v i∇ρ and ρ div (V ) + =0
Dt ∂t Dt
Thus
⎛ ∂ v1 ∂ v 2 ∂ v 3 ⎞ ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ
ρ⎜ + + ⎟+ + v1 + v2 + v3 =0
⎝ ∂ x1 ∂ x 2 ∂ x 3 ⎠ ∂t ∂ x1 ∂x2 ∂ x3

Note, for incompressible material

divV = 0
or
∂v1 ∂v2 ∂v3
+ + =0
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3

Next: 3.16 Compatibility Conditions

 3.16 Compatibility conditions
Recall u ≡ ( u1 , u2 , u3 ) has the three displacement components, but E
strain tensor has six components E11 , E22 , E33 , E12 , E13 , E23 . If u is
known and continuous E exists and is unique. However, given a set of
E , displacement field u need not exist, reason being that there are 6
equations and 3 unknowns.
E11 = a2 Eij = 0
2
Consider all other

E2 C' C
E12
A B E2 E12
E1
A' E1 B'

∂u1
= a2
2

∂a1
u1 = a1a2 + f ( a2 , a3 )
2

E22 = 0 ⇒ u2 = g ( a1 , a3 )
∂u1 ∂u2
E23 = 0 ⇒ + =0
∂a2 ∂a1
∂f ( a2 , a3 ) ∂g ( a1 , a3 )
2a1a2 + + =0
∂a2 ∂a1
⇒ f1 ( a3 ) + g (a3 ) ≠ 0
Hence such a displacement field cannot exist
There are thus for Eij ( a1 , a2 , a3 ) are continuous with continuous second
partial derivative, for them to have single valued continuous solutions
u1 , u2 and u3 . The six equations are
 3.16 Compatibility Conditions
Previous: 3.15 Conservation of Mass
Recall u ≡ ( u1 , u2 , u3 ) has the three displacement components,
but Ei strain tensor has six components
i
E11 , E22 , E33 , E12 , E13 , E23 . If u is known and continuous E
exists and is unique. However, given a set of Ei , displacement field
u need not exist, reason being that there are 6 equations and 3
unknowns.
Consider E11 = a2 all other Eij = 0
2

E2 C' C
E12
A B E2 E12
E1
A' E1 B'
 ∂u1
= a2
2

∂a1
u1 = a1a2 + f ( a2 , a3 )
2

E22 = 0 ⇒ u2 = g ( a1 , a3 )
∂u1 ∂u2
E23 = 0 ⇒ + =0
∂a2 ∂a1
∂f ( a2 , a3 ) ∂g ( a1 , a3 )
2a1a2 + + =0
∂a2 ∂a1
⇒ f1 ( a3 ) + g (a3 ) ≠ 0

Hence such a displacement field cannot exist

Next: 3.16 (b) Continued
 3.16 (b) Compatibilityy Conditions (Cont’d)
Previous: 3.16 Compatibility Conditions
There are thus for Eij ( a1 , a2 , a3 ) are continuous with continuous
second partial derivative, for them to have single valued
continuous solutions u1 , u2 and u3 . The six equations are:

∂ 2 E11 ∂ 2 E22 ∂ 2 E12 ⎫

+ =2 ⎪
∂a2
2
∂a1
2
∂a1∂a2 ⎪
∂ 2 E33 ∂ 2 E11 ∂ 2 E31 ⎪
+ =2 ⎪
∂a1
2
∂a3
2
∂a3 ∂a1 ⎪
⎪
∂ 2 E33 ∂ 2 E22 ∂ 2 E23 ⎪
+ =2
∂a2
2
∂a3
2
∂a2 ∂a3 ⎪
⎪
⎬
∂ 2 E11 ∂ ⎛ ∂E23 ∂E31 ∂E12 ⎞ ⎪
= ⎜− + + ⎟
∂a2 ∂a3 ∂a1 ⎝ ∂a1 ∂a2 ∂a3 ⎠ ⎪
⎪
∂ 2 E22 ∂ ⎛ ∂E31 ∂E12 ∂E ⎞ ⎪
= ⎜− + + 23 ⎟ ⎪
∂a3 ∂a1 ∂a2 ⎝ ∂a2 ∂a3 ∂a1 ⎠ ⎪
∂ 2 E33 ∂ ⎛ ∂E12 ∂E23 ∂E31 ⎞ ⎪
= ⎜− + + ⎟⎪
∂a1∂a2 ∂a3 ⎝ ∂a3 ∂a1 ∂a2 ⎠ ⎪⎭
These equations are called compatibility equations.
Note:
1) If u field is given, compatibility is automatically satisfied.
2) If Eij are linear in a1 , a 2 , and a 3 , then all second partial
derivative vanish and compatibility is satisfied.

Next: Problem 3.56

 Problem 3.56
Previous: 3.16 (b) Compatibility Conditions

⎡ a12 a2 + a3
2 2
a1a3 ⎤
⎢ 2 ⎥
[ E ] = k ⎢ a2 + a32 0 a1 ⎥
⎢ 2 ⎥
⎢⎣ a1a3 a1 a2 ⎥⎦
∂ 2 E11 ∂ 2 E22
+ = 0+0 = 0
∂a2 ∂a1
2 2

∂ 2 E22 ∂ 2 E33
+ = 0+2 ≠ 0
∂a3 ∂a2
2 2

Not satisfied, Hence incompatible field.

The same problem arises when rate of deformation Dij is specified

in fluids problems. However, when velocity field v1 , v 2 , v3 are
specified, compatibility is automatically satisfied.

For strain-rate related problems, when using compatibility

equations, replace v by u and E by D
Next: 3.18 Deformation Gradient
 3.18 Deformation Gradient
Previous: Problem 3.56

In spatial coordinates x = x (a , t )

Q ( a + da ) Q' ( x + dx )
x3 , a3
da
P( a ) dx

t=0 P' ( x)

t=t

o
x2 , a2

x1 , a1
dx = x ( a + da , t ) − x ( a , t )
= ( ∇x ) da
Thus dx = Fda
F is the deformation gradient at a.
In indicial notations, dxi = Fij da j
xi = ai + ui
i ij(
Since dx = δ + u da
i, j j )
Thus Fij = ui , j + δ ij or F = ∇u + I
Next: Example 3.6.1
 Example 3.6.1
Previous: 3.18 Deformation Gradient
⎡ ∂x1 ∂x1 ∂x1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ∂a1 ∂a2 ∂a3 ⎥
⎢ ∂x ∂x2 ∂x2 ⎥
x1 = 3a3 F = ⎡⎣ Fij ⎤⎦ = ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎢ ∂ a1 ∂ a 2 ∂ a 3 ⎥
x2 =−a1 ⎢ ∂x3 ∂x3 ∂x3 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ ∂a1 ∂a2 ∂a3 ⎥⎦
x3 =−2a2
⎡0 0 3⎤
= ⎢⎢ − 1 0 0 ⎥⎥
⎣⎢ 0 − 2 0 ⎦⎥

If   T = I , then F is a rotation tensor I . Then at that

FF
location, rigid body motion occurs. Recall that F ( a1 , a2 , a3 ) , i.e.,
it can vary from point to point.
Next: 3.20 Finite Deformation
 3.20 Finite Deformation
Previous: Problem 3.61

Recall that dx = Fda or dxi = Fij da j , where da j is the original

vector between two points, and dx the vector after deformation. If
F is a pure R , then dx and da have same length, i.e., no strain
but rigid body motion. It is likely that in a body some parts be
straining and in othes put rotation but no strain.

If F is symmetric, let F be designated as U , then

dx = Uda

In the neighborhood of da , there is only pure stretching. Since U

is real and symmetric, U can be made diagonal with specific
nˆ1 , nˆ2 , nˆ3 corresponding to λ1 , λ2 , and λ3 ,
 da ( ) = da1nˆ1 ⇒ dx ( ) =λ1da1nˆ1
1 1

da ( ) = da2 nˆ2 ⇒ dx ( ) =λ2 da2 nˆ2

2 2

da ( ) = da3 nˆ3 ⇒ dx ( ) =λ3 da3 nˆ3

3 3

nˆ2 , λ2

nˆ1 , λ1
nˆ3 , λ3

dx
Let stretch
λ=
da
Thus eigen values of U are the principal stretches (minimum,
intermediate, maximum)

Next: 3.20 Example Problem

 3.20 Example Problem
Previous: 3.20 Finite Deformation

x1 = 3a1 , x2 = 4a2 , x3 = a3
⎡3 0 0⎤
⎡⎣ F ⎤⎦ = ⎢0 4 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣0 0 1 ⎥⎦

Q' B'

5
λOB =
5 1 .4 1 4
λ2 = 4 R o ta tio n o f O B
Q to O B '
B

O
P P'
λ1 = 3
 3.21 Polar Decomposition Theorem
Previous: 3.20 Example Problem
Let F Deformation gradient tensor

If F is proper orthogonal, then F = R , rigid body displacements.

If F is symmetric, then F = U , pure stretch deformation tensor.
−1
If F is real with det F ≠ 0 , i.e., F exists,
then, F = R ⋅ U or F = V ⋅ R
U and V are positive definite symmetric tensors.
R is a proper orthogonal ⇔ polar decomposition.
Therefore, R , U , V are unique.

dx = Rdx ' = RUda = Fda

We see that dx = Fda = RUda
Since F = RU = VR

RT RU = RT VR or U = RT VR
' dx = Rdx '
B Q A
'
Q
B' =RUda
P A
' =Fda
P
a
x
O

Uda = dx '
Next: 3.22 Stretch Tensors
 3.22 Stretch Tensors
Previous: 3.21 Polar Decomposition Theorem

F = RU , Dropping (~)

a) F T F = ( RU )T RU = U T RT RU = U T U = U 2
Note that U is symmetric, i.e., U = U
T

U = FT F
b) Since F = RU R = FU −1
c) F = VR V = FRT = RURT
Next: 3.25 Left Cauchy-Green Deformation Tensor
 3.23 Right Cauchy-Green Deformation Tensor
Previous: 3.22 Stretch Tensors
dx
We know that F = provides the deformation gradient. One of the strain
da
measures was infinitesimal strain E , stretch tensor λi , i = 1, 2,3 . We have a
new measure C called the Green's deformation tensor. We know that U is
the right stretch tensor. Define
C =U2 = FTF
Note that if F were to be a pure rotation tensor (proper orthogonal), then
C=I
Next: 3.22 (b) Components of C: (1. Diagonal Element)
 3.23 (b) Components of C : (1. Diagonal Element)
Previous: 3.23 Right Cauchy-Green Deformation Tensor

(1) (2)
Consider two differential elements dx and dx deformed from
da (1) and da ( 2 ) .
Since
dx (1) dx ( 2 ) = F da (1) i F da (1) = da (1) F T F da ( 2 )
= da (1) C da ( 2 )
For example, if the original element is da = dS eˆ1 deformed to dx = ds n̂
then
( ds ) = ( dS ) eˆ1Ceˆ1
2 2

2
⎛ ds ⎞
Thus C11 = ⎜ ⎟ represents the ratio of the square of the deformed
⎝ ⎠
dS
element with respect to an element originally lying along the x-axis.
Next: 3.23 (c) Components of C: (2. Off-Diagonal Element)
 3.23 (c) Components of C : (2. Off-Diagonal Element)
Previous: 3.23 (b) Components of C : (1. Diagonal Element)

If da = dS1 eˆ 1 and da ( 2 ) = dS2 eˆ 2 which deform

(1)

into dx = ds1 m ˆ and dx ( 2 ) = ds2 nˆ , then

(1)

ds1ds2 cos β = dS1dS2 eˆ1Ceˆ2

which leads to
ds1ds2
C12 = cos( dx (1) , dx ( 2 ) )
dS1dS2
Similar expressions can be derived for C23 and C31 .
Next: 3.24 Lagrange Strain Tensor
 3.24 Lagrange Strain Tensor
Previous: 3.23 (c) Components of C: (2. Off-Diagonal Element)
This is one of the most important of the finite strain measures. This tensor
E * needs to be used whenever the strain is not infinitesimal and when there
is rigid body rotation during the deformation. As defined in the previous
section, if C is the Green deformation tensor then,
E * = 12 (C − I )
*
where E is the Lagrangian Finite Strain tensor. If there is no deformation
(or rigid body rotation), then C = I leading to E = 0 .
*

*
Note that E can also be expressed as follows:
E * = 12 ⎡⎣∇u + ( ∇u ) ⎤⎦ + 12 ( ∇u ) ∇u
T T

⎛ ∂u ∂u ⎞ ∂u ∂u
Eij = 12 ⎜ i + j ⎟ + 12 k k
⎝ ∂u j ∂ui ⎠ ∂ui ∂u j

Next: 3.24 (b) Components of E (1. Diagonal Element)

 3.24 (b) Components of E (1. Diagonal Element)
Previous: 3.24 Lagrange Strain Tensor

(1) (2)
Consider two differential elements dx and dx deformed from
da (1) and da ( 2 ) .
Since
dx (1) dx ( 2 ) − da (1) da ( 2 ) = da (1) i(C − I ) da (1)
= 2 da (1) E * da ( 2 )
For example, if the original element is da = dS eˆ1 deformed to dx = ds n̂
then
( dS ) − ( ds )
2 2
*
e1 E e2 =
2dS 2
ds 2 − dS 2
Thus E11 = represents the ratio of the difference in the squared
ds 2
length to that of original length, when the element originally is aligned along
the x-axis. Similar interpretation can be made for other components
E22 and E33
Next: 3.24 (c) Components of E (2. Off-Diagonal Element)
 3.24 (c) Components of E (2. Off-Diagonal Element)
Previous: 3.24 (b) Components of E (1. Diagonal Element)

If da = dS1 eˆ 1 and da ( 2 ) = dS2 eˆ 2 which deform

(1)

into dx = ds1 m ˆ and dx ( 2 ) = ds2 nˆ , then

(1)

ds ds
2 E12 = 1 2 cos( nˆ , mˆ )
dS1dS2
Similar expressions can be derived for E23 and E31 .
Next: 3.25 Left Cauchy-Green Deformation Tensor
 3.25 Left Cauchy-Green Deformation Tensor
Previous: 3.24 (c) Components of E (2. Off-Diagonal Element)

We know that

F = RV = VR, V is left stretch tensor

Define B ≡ V 2
B is left Green's tensor or Finger deformation tensor.
Note F = VR
FF T = VR i RT iV T = VV T = V 2 since V is symmetric
Thus B = FF T Note C = FF T

Relationship between B and C

F = RU or FF T = R ⋅ U ⋅ U T RT = RU 2T = RCT T
Thus B = RCRT
Again, RT ⋅ B ⋅ R = RT R ⋅ CRT ⋅ R = C
or C = RT BR
Note that if n̂ is eigenvector of C with eigenvalue λ , then
Rnˆ is eigenvector of B with the same eigenvalue λ
Similarly, relationship exists between U and V , i.e.,
B and V are obtained by pure rotation of C and U .
Next: 3.25 (b) Meaning of B
 3.25 (b) Meaning of B
Previous: 3.25 Left Cauchy-Green Deformation Tensor

Consider da = da inˆ and nˆ = RT ieˆ1

(
Where R is rotation associated with F , F = RU = VR )
ds 2 = da 2 ⋅ nˆ ⋅ Cnˆ
=da 2 ⋅ RT eˆ1 ⋅ C ⋅ RT eˆ1
=da 2 ⋅ eˆ1 ⋅ ( CRT ) ⋅ RT ⋅ eˆ1
T

=da 2 ⋅ eˆ1 ⋅ RT CRT ⋅ eˆ1

=da 2 ⋅ eˆ1 ⋅ B ⋅ eˆ1
ds 2 =da 2 ⋅ eˆ1 ⋅ B ⋅ eˆ1 with da = da ( RT eˆ1 )
2
⎛ ds ⎞
B11 = ⎜ ⎟ for element da = da ( RT eˆ1 )
⎝ da ⎠
In component form,
⎛ ∂ui ∂u j ⎞ ⎛ ∂ui ∂u j ⎞
Bij = δ ij + ⎜ + ⎟⎟ + ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ∂a
⎝ j ∂ai ∂
⎠ ⎝ m m⎠
a ∂a

Next: 3.26 Eulerian Strain Tensor

 3.26 Eulerian Strain Tensor
Previous: 3.25 (b) Meaning of B
e* ≡
1
2
(
I − B −1 )
*
We note the e is defined with respect to current coordinates,
x1 , x2 , x3 and not a1 , a2 , a3
Note dx = Fda or da = F −1dx
−1 −1 ∂ai
dai = Fij dxi ⇒ Fij =
∂x j
∂xi
Note that xi = xi ( a1 , a2 , a3 , t ) ⇒ Fij =
∂a j
∂ai
a i = ai ( x1 , x2 , x3 , t ) ⇒ Fij =
−1

∂x j
⎡ ∂a1 ∂a1 ∂a1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3 ⎥
Also
⎢ ∂a ∂a2 ∂a2 ⎥
da ( ) da ( ) = dx ( ) ⋅ B −1dx (
2)
⎡⎣ F −1 ⎤⎦ = ⎢ 2 ⎥
1 2 1

⎢ ∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3 ⎥

Note that
⎢ ∂a3 ∂a3 ∂a3 ⎥
dx ( ) dx ( ) = da ( )Cda (
2)
⎢ ⎥
1 2 1

⎢⎣ ∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3 ⎥⎦

−1 da 2 ds 2 − da 2
= 2 , e11 =
*
Since
B11
ds ds 2
∇ xu T ∇ xu
Definitions e = ( ∇ x u + ∇ x u ) −
1 * T

2 2
In terms of indicial rotations,
 1 ⎛ ∂ui ∂u j ⎞ 1 ⎛ ∂uk ∂uk ⎞
eij = ⎜ + ⎟⎟ − ⎜⎜
*
⎟⎟
2 ⎜⎝ ∂x j ∂xi ⎠ 2 ∂
⎝ ix ∂x j ⎠

∂u1 1 ⎡⎛ ∂u1 ⎞ ⎛ ∂u2 ⎞ ⎛ ∂u3 ⎞ ⎤

2 2 2

= − ⎢⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎥
*
e11
∂x1 2 ⎢⎝ ∂x1 ⎠ ⎝ ∂x1 ⎠ ⎝ ∂x1 ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
1 ⎛ ∂u ∂u ⎞ 1 ⎡⎛ ∂u ⎞ ⎛ ∂u ⎞ ⎛ ∂u ⎞ ⎛ ∂u ⎞
= ⎜ 1 + 2 ⎟ − ⎢⎜ 1 ⎟ ⎜ 1 ⎟ + ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎜ 2 ⎟
*
e12
2 ⎝ ∂x2 ∂x1 ⎠ 2 ⎣⎝ ∂x1 ⎠ ⎝ ∂x2 ⎠ ⎝ ∂x1 ⎠ ⎝ ∂x2 ⎠
⎛ ∂u ⎞ ⎛ ∂u ⎞ ⎤
+ ⎜ 3 ⎟ ⎜ 3 ⎟⎥
⎝ ∂x1 ⎠ ⎝ ∂x2 ⎠ ⎦

Next: 3.28 Change of Area due to Deformation

 3.28 Change of Area due to Deformation
Previous: 3.26 Eulerian Strain Tensor
da ( ) = da1eˆ1
1
Let
da ( ) = da2 eˆ2 at a at time t o
2

( 2)
The area formed by and da , it is given by,
dA0 = da ( ) × da ( ) = da1da2 ⋅ eˆ3 = dA0 eˆ3
1 2

dA0 … undeformed area

Deformed area dA = Fda ( ) × Fda (
1 2)

= da1da2 ⋅ Feˆ1 × Feˆ2

=dA0 Feˆ1 × Feˆ2
Let dA = dA nˆ where n̂ is the unit outward normal to dA .
Thus
(
dA nˆ = dA0 ⋅ Feˆ1 × Feˆ2 )
Feˆ1 ⋅ dA ⋅ nˆ = Feˆ2 ⋅ dA nˆ = 0
Feˆ3 ⋅ dA = dA0 ⋅ ( Feˆ3 ⋅ Feˆ1 × Feˆ2 )
Since Feˆ1 , Feˆ2 and nˆ are mutually perpendicular.
a ib × c is the determinant of rows with vectors a , b , c .
Thus Feˆ3 ⋅ Feˆ1 × Feˆ2 = det F
Thus Feˆ3 ⋅ dA nˆ = dA0 det F (B)
eˆ1 ⋅ F T ⋅ nˆ = eˆ2 ⋅ F T ⋅ nˆ = 0 (perpendicular to each other)
Or
 ⎛ dA ⎞
eˆ3 ⋅ F ⋅ nˆ = ⎜ 0 ⎟ det F ⇒ scalar
⎝ dA ⎠
Thus F T nˆ and eˆ3 are in the same direction, or
⎛ dA ⎞
F T nˆ = ⎜ 0 ⎟ det F ⋅ eˆ3
⎝ dA ⎠
⎛ dA ⎞
∴ dAnˆ = ⎜ 0 ⎟ ⋅ (det F ) ( F −1 ) eˆ3
T

⎝ dA ⎠
direction
In general

dAnˆ = dA0 ⋅ (det F ) ( F −1 ) nˆ0

T

dA0 is the magnitude of initial area with normal n̂0

F is the deformation gradient
dA and n̂ are the magnitudes and direction in terms of
original configuration.

Next: 3.29 Volume Change due to Deformation

 3.29 Volume Change due to Deformation
Previous: 3.28 Change of Area due to Deformation
da ( ) = da1eˆ1
1

da ( ) = da2 eˆ2 At time t o

2

At the location, a , let dV0 = da1 da2 da3

da ( ) = da3 eˆ3
3

dV = Fda ( ) ⋅ Fda ( ) ⋅ Fda (

1 2 3)

1 2 3
(
= da ( ) ⋅ da ( ) ⋅ da ( ) ⋅ Feˆ1 ⋅ Feˆ2 × Feˆ3 )
dV = det F ⋅ dV0
dV
Thus = det F
dV0
Recall
C = FT F det C = det B
B = FF T = ( det F )
2

dV = det C dV0
or
= det B dV0

ρ o dVo = ρ dV
dV
In general, = det F
dVo
ρ o = ρ det F
For incompressible materials

det F = det B = det C = 1 or ρ =ρo

Next: Example 3.61
 Example 3.61 (page 170)
Previous: 3.29 Volume Change due to Deformation
Given x1 = 3a3 x2 = − a1 x3 = −2a2
⎡ 0 0 3⎤
(a) [ F ] = ⎢⎢ −1 0 0 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 0 −2 0 ⎥⎦
⎡ 0 −1 0 ⎤ ⎡ 0 0 3⎤ ⎡1 0 0⎤
(b) C = ⎡⎣ F T ⎤⎦ [ F ] = ⎢⎢ 0 0 −2 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ −1 0 0 ⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢ 0 4 0⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 3 0 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 −2 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 0 9 ⎥⎦
⎡ 0 0 3⎤ ⎡ 0 −1 0 ⎤ ⎡9 0 0⎤
(c) B = [ F ][ F ] = ⎢⎢ −1 0 0 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ 0 0 −2 ⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢ 0 1 0 ⎥⎥
T

⎣⎢ 0 −2 0 ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ 3 0 0 ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ 0 0 4 ⎦⎥
⎡1 0 0 ⎤
⎡1 0 0 ⎤ ⎢ ⎥
⎢
(d) ⎡⎣U ⎤⎦ = F F = C = ⎢0 2 0 ⎥ ; U = 0
T ⎥ −1 ⎢ 1 0 ⎥
⎢ 2 ⎥
⎢⎣0 0 3⎥⎦ ⎢0 0 1 ⎥
⎢⎣ 3 ⎥⎦
⎡ 0 ⎤⎥ ⎡ 0 0 1 ⎤
⎡ 0 0 3 ⎤ ⎢1 0
(e) [ R ] = [ F ] ⎡⎣U −1 ⎤⎦ = ⎢⎢ −1 0 0 ⎥⎥ ⎢0 1 0 ⎥ = ⎢⎢ −1 0 0 ⎥⎥
⎢ 2 ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 −2 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎢⎣ 0 −1 0 ⎥⎦
⎢⎣0 0 ⎥
3⎦
⎡0 0 0⎤ ⎡0 0 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
( f ) ⎡⎣ E * ⎤⎦ = ⎡⎣C − I ⎤⎦ = ⎢⎢0 3 0 ⎥⎥ = ⎢0 3
1 1
0⎥
2 2 2
⎢⎣0 0 6 ⎥⎦ ⎢0 0 4 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡4 ⎤
1
⎢ 9− 0 0 ⎥ ⎢9 0 0 ⎥
1 1 ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
( g ) ⎣⎡e* ⎦⎤ = ⎡⎣ I − B −1 ⎤⎦ = ⎢ 0 0 0 ⎥ = ⎢0 0 0 ⎥
2 2⎢
1⎥ ⎢0 0 3 ⎥
⎢ 0 0 1 − ⎥ ⎢ 8⎥
⎣ 4⎦ ⎣ ⎦
 ∆V
(h) = det B = 9 ⋅1 ⋅ 4 = 6
∆V0

(i ) ( )
dA = dA0 ⋅ det F ⋅ F −1 ⋅ nˆ0
dA0 = 1 ⎡ 0 −6 0 ⎤
F −1 = ⎢⎢ 0 0 −3⎥⎥
1
det F = 6
6
ˆn0 = eˆ2 ⎢⎣ 2 0 0 ⎥⎦
⎡ 0 −6 0 ⎤ ⎡ −6 ⎤
⎡ dA⎤ = ⎢ 0 0 −3⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥ ⇒ dA = −6eˆ1
⎣ ⎦ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 2 0 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
 4 Stress
Body Forces and Surface Forces

Force/moments determine the kinetics of motion. Forces may be

classified as external forces acting external to the body or internal
forces acting between two parts of the same body.

Body forces acting based on volume or mass.

e.g. magnetic per unit volume
gravitational per unit mass
External Forces Surface Forces
e.g. At free surfaces, concentrated
distributed pressure reaction
Contact forces between two bodies
Internal Forces
Internal Forces

Inertial forces
•Frictious; forces set to be in dynamic equilibrium
• Can be considered as body forces in continuum mechanics.

Concept of Stress
 Surface ∆S

F
∆A
Body B
Surface S

Body B is subjected to forces F. Section ∆A has a unit normal n̂ ,

∆F is the force acting on ∆A . Then stress vector tn is defined as
∆F
tn = lim
∆A→0 ∆A

This Cauchy stress vector tn is the function of location xi , unit

normal n̂ to the surface ∆S at n̂ and time t
t = t ( x , t , nˆ )
4.2 Stress tensor T
T33

T32 E
T23 T23
A T13 B T22
P T12
T21
T1 1 C F
x3 D

x2
x1

Let T be a tensor at point P. The three faces have unit normal

(1,0,0),(0,1,0) and (0,1,0) with unit area.
Let tn1 be the stress vector for nˆ (1,0,0 ) , and
tn2 be the stress vector for nˆ ( 0,1,0 ) , and
tn3 be the stress vector for nˆ ( 0,0,1) , then
 t n̂ 2
n̂ 2

tn̂1

tn̂ 3 P n̂ 1
y n̂ 3

z x
tn1 = t1eˆ1 + t2eˆ2 + t3eˆ3
t1 = T11 tn1 = T inˆ1
and t2 = T12 or tn2 = T i nˆ2
t3 = T13 tn3 = T inˆ3
Thus tn = T i nˆ

T is the stress tensor with the first subscript in “ Tij ”, “ i ”

indicates the plane and “ j ” indicates the direction.
4.3 Components of Stress Tensor
If eˆ1 , eˆ2 , eˆ3 are three unit vectors representing three planes at a
point, then
tei = Teˆi
or
te1 = Teˆ1
te2 = Teˆ2
te3 = Teˆ3
⎡T11 T12 T13 ⎤ tn
⎢T T T23 ⎥
N t
⎢ 21 22 ⎥ P
⎢⎣T31 T32 T33 ⎥⎦ ts = τ
τ
(0,1,0) (0,0,1)

Vecter acting on surface

normal (1,0,0)

At a point P, let n̂ be the unit normal, then tn

Let nˆ = eˆ1 , then
 ê3
P ê2
t
ê 1

t = T11eˆ1 + T21eˆ2 + T31eˆ3

T11 is the normal stress component. Then

τ= shear stress=T21eˆ2 + T31eˆ3
τ 1 = T212 + T312
t = Tnˆ or ti = Tij n j or [t ] = [T ][ n ]
 4.4 Symmetry of Stress Tensor
Previous: 4.3(b) Components of Stress Tensor (Cnt’d)

T22 + ∆T22
T21 + ∆T21

T12 + ∆T12

T11 T11 + ∆T11

A

T12
x2
T21 T22
x1 ∆x1
Taking moments about A
⎛ ∆x1 ⎞ ⎛ ∆x1 ⎞
∑ A M = 0 = T ⋅
12 ⎜
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎟ ⋅ ∆x2 ∆ x3 + ( 12
T + ∆ T12 ) ⎜
⋅
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎟ ⋅ ∆x2 ∆x3

⎛ ∆x ⎞ ⎛ ∆x ⎞
− T21 ⋅ ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⋅ ∆x1∆x3 − (T21 + ∆T21 ) ⋅ ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⋅ ∆x1∆x3 =0
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
Dividing by ∆x1∆x2 ∆x3
T21 = T12
Similarly, T23 = T32 and T31 = T13
Thus, T is symmetric. Thus T has 6 independent components.

Next: 4.5 Principal Stresses

 4.5 Principal Stresses
Previous: 4.4 Symmetry of Stress Tensor
Since [T ] is a symmetric tensor, the eigenvectors of T give
principal directions and eigenvalues give the maximum,
intermediate or minimum values. Note that three invariants
I1 , I 2 and I 3
I1 = T11 + T22 + T33
T11 T12 T11 T13 T22 T23
I2 = + +
T21 T22 T31 T33 T32 T33
I 3 = det [T ]

Next: 4.6 Maximum Shear Stress

 4.6 Maximum Shear Stress
Previous: 4.5 Principal Stresses

nˆ = n1eˆ1 + n2eˆ2 + n3eˆ3

T n
t

Let T be the tensor at P. Let T1 , T2 , T3 be the principal stresses,

then
⎡T1 0 0 ⎤
⎢0 T 0⎥ is the tensor T in eigendirections set
⎢ 2 ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 T3 ⎥⎦
⎡ n1 T1 ⎤
t = [T ]{nˆ} = ⎢ n2 T2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ n3 T3 ⎥⎦
= n1T1eˆ1 + n2T2eˆ2 + n3T3eˆ3
Next: 4.6(b) Maximum Shear Stress (Ct’d)
 4.6(b) Maximum Shear Stress (Ct’d)
Previous: 4.6 Maximum Shear Stress (Ct’d)
Normal stress
Tn = nˆ itˆ
=n1 T1 + n2 T2 + n3 T3
2 2 2

Shear stress
Ts = t − Tn
2 2

1 1
2 2
(
= T n + T2 n2 + T3 n3 − T1 n1 − T2 n2 − T3 n3
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
)
2 2

= f ( n1 , n2 , n3 )
But n1 + n2 + n3 = 1
2 2 2

Next: 4.6(c)Maximum Shear Stress (Ct’d)

 4.6(c) Maximum Shear Stress (Ct’d)
Next: 4.6(b)Maximum Shear Stress (Ct’d)
It can be shown that if T1 , T2 , T3 are the three principal stress
quantities at eˆ1 , eˆ2 and ê3 respectively, then
T1 − T2
At nˆ1 = 1
2
( eˆ1 + eˆ2 ) we have shear Ts3 =
2
nˆ2 = 1
2
( eˆ2 + eˆ3 ) T −T
Ts1 = 2 3
2
nˆ3 = 1
2
( eˆ3 + eˆ1 ) Ts2 =
T3 − T1
2
If (Tn )max and (Tn )min are the maximum and minimum principal
stresses, then
(Tn )max − (Tn )min
(Ts )max =
2

(Tn )m

1
T1 + T2 nˆ = ( nˆ1 + nˆ2 )
n1 + n2
2 2
2
Next: 4.6(d) Maximum Shear Stress (2-D Mohr’s Circle)
 4.6(d) Maximum Shear Stress (2-D Mohr’s Circle)
Next: 4.6(c)Maximum Shear Stress (Ct’d)
2-D Mohr’s Circle
τ
⎛ T1 + T2 ⎞
⎜ , τ max
⎝ 2 ⎠
T ,τ
n̂
2θ θ
P x-axis
T2 P T1 T

Same stress state at P

Mohr’s circle gives all possible “θ ” for nˆ = cosθ with x-axis.
T1 , T2 …Principle stress (with zero shear stress).
Next: Problem 4.1
 Problem 4.1
Previous: 4.6(d) Maximum Shear Stress (2-D Mohr’s Circle)
Given:
⎡1 2 3⎤
T = ⎢ 2 4 5 ⎥ T at specific point
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 3 5 0 ⎥⎦
T is written in terms of eˆ1 , eˆ2 , and eˆ3
Find: Normal and shear stress on planes with nˆ = eˆ1 , eˆ2 , and eˆ3

(a) Normal stress on ê1 plane ⇒ 1 MPa

ê2 plane ⇒ 4 MPa
ê3 plane ⇒ 0 MPa

(b) Shear stress on ê1 plane

3
τ e = 22 + 32 = 13 MPa at tan −1 = θ
1
2
ê2 plane
τ e = 52 + 22 = 29 MPa
2

τ e = 52 + 32 = 34 MPa
3

Next: Problem 4.3

 Problem 4.3
Previous: Problem 4.1

⎡ 2 −1 3 ⎤
⎢
Given T = −1 4 0 ⎥ Mpa
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 3 0 −1⎥⎦
Find:
Stress vector through the point P and parallel to plane
x1 − 2 x2 + 3 x3 = 4

Solution:
Normal to the plane = eˆ1 − 2eˆ2 + 3eˆ3 = Nˆ
Unit normal ⇒ 1
14
( eˆ1 − 2eˆ2 + 3eˆ3 )
t = Tnˆ
⎡ 2 −1 3 ⎤ ⎧ 1 ⎫
⎪ ⎪
t = 114 ⎢ −1 4 0 ⎥ ⎨−2 ⎬ =
Stress vector
⎢ ⎥
1
14
(13eˆ1 − 9eˆ2 )
⎪ ⎪
⎣⎢ 3 0 −1⎥⎦ ⎩ 3 ⎭
Next: Problem 4.8
 Problem 4.8
Previous: Problem 4.3
Given:
⎡α x2 2 0 0⎤
⎢ ⎥
T =⎢ 0 0 0⎥
⎢ 0 0 0 ⎥⎦
⎣
Find:
a) Stress distribution on x1=0 plane (y-z plane)
x3

(0,-1,1) (0,1,0)
A B P

x2

D C
(0,-1,-1) (0,1,-1) P'

Plot the stress vector distribution on the plane

Section PP '

x2

x1
C, D B, A

x3
(b)
(c) Find the total force F
 ⎛ α x23 ⎞
∫ ∫ (α x ) dx dx
1 1
−1
F= eˆ1 = 2 ⎜
2
2 2 3 ⎟
−1 −1 ⎝ 3 1 ⎠
4
= α eˆ1
3
M =r ×F

∫ ∫ ( x eˆ )
1 1
M= 2 2 + x ˆ
e
3 3 ) × (α x
2
ˆ
2 e1 dx2 dx3
−1 −1

=0
Next: Problem 4.12
 Problem 4.12
Previous: Problem 4.8

We define S = Deviatoric Stress Tensor

Tkk
Sij = Tij − δ ij
3
S11 = T11 − 13 (T11 + T22 + T33 )
S 22 = T22 − 13 (T11 + T22 + T33 )
S33 = T33 − 13 (T11 + T22 + T33 )
(a) First invariant S11 + S 22 + S33
S11 + S 22 + S33 = 0

(b)
⎡ 60 50 −20 ⎤
T = ⎢ 50 80 40 ⎥ MPa kk =
T 180
= 60
⎢ ⎥ 3 3
⎢⎣ −20 40 90 ⎥⎦
⎡ 0 50 −20 ⎤
S = ⎢ 50 −30 40 ⎥ MPa S11 + S 22 + S33 = 0
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ −20 40 30 ⎥⎦

(c)Let n̂ be eigenvector of T
Tnˆ = λ nˆ
⎡ ⎛1 ⎞ ⎤
Snˆ = ⎢T − ⎜ Tkk ⎟ I ⎥ nˆ
⎣ ⎝3 ⎠ ⎦
1
= (λ nˆ − Tkk ) nˆ
3
= λ 'nˆ
Hence, eigenvectors remain the same.
1
However, the principal values are λi − Tkk
3
Next: Problem 4.23
 Problem 4.23
Previous: Problem 4-12
⎡300 0 0 ⎤
T = ⎢ 0 −200 0 ⎥ kPa
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 400 ⎥⎦
(a) Find the shear stress on the plane with N = 2e1 + 2e 2 + e3

(
1
n = 2e1 + 2e 2 + e3
3
)
⎡300 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ 2⎤
tn = ⎢ 0 −200 0 ⎥ ⎢ 2 ⎥
1
3⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 400 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 ⎥⎦
⎡6⎤
100 ⎢ ⎥
= −4
3 ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 4 ⎥⎦
Tn = n.t n
⎡6⎤
[ 2 2 −1] ⎢⎢ −4⎥⎥ = 88.9kPa
100
=
3
⎢⎣ 4 ⎥⎦
Ts2 = tn − Tn
2 2

= 67700 or Ts = 260kPa

(b) Maximum Shear stress

 400 − ( −200 )
(Ts )max = = 300kPa
2
e 2 + e3
at
2
 MOHRS CIRCLE IN THREE DIMENSIONS

Consider the state of stress given by

⎡T11 T12 T13 ⎤

Ti = ⎢T21 T22 T23 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣T31 T32 T33 ⎥⎦{el ,el ,el }
1 2 3

Ti is symmetric. When we determine the principal value, let T I , T II and

T III be the principal value. Let T I ≥ T II ≥ T III be the principal values.
{ }
(1)

Let T be associated n = n , n , n
I (1) (1) (1)
,
1 2 3

{ } for T
( 2)
n = n1( ) , n2( ) , n3( )
2 2 2 II

{ }
n( ) = n ( ) , n ( ) , n ( ) for T
3 3 3 3 III
1 2 3
(1) ( 2 ) ( 3)
Note thatn , n , n form a rectangular Cartesian coordinate
(1) ( 2)
system. If [Q] represents the transformation from el , el , el
( 3)
to{ 1 2 3 }
{ (1) ( 2 ) ( 3)
n , n , n } , then

⎡T I 0 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
0 ⎥ = [Q ] [T ][Q ]
T
⎢0 T II
⎢0 0 T III ⎥⎦
⎣

X-axis represents the eigen value with coordinate system n(1) , n ( 2) , n ( 3) . As

we rotate the radius with arbitrary angles α, β and γ with old system (eigen
vector system) with α + β 2 +γ 2 =1
2
Thus [T ′] = [Q ]
T
[T ]eigin [Q ]

τ
( TI + TIII , TI - TIII
2 2 )
^
(T,τ) n

γ β α
T
T III T II TI e^
 4.7 Equations of Motion
Previous: Mohr’s Circle in 3-D
NOTES
• On -ve face, -ve direction, stress component is positive
• There is a gradient of of stress component from –ve to +ve face.
Stress field is continuously varying.

Note that center of cube is origin P

Let Ti be the stress tensor at a point P. Let X be the body force/volume
at that point.
Note : B be the body force/mass. ρB = X
Next: 4.7 Equations of Motion (Cnt’d)
 4.7 (b) Equations of Motion (Cnt’d)
Previous: Equations of Motion
Summing all the forces in the x1 direction
⎛ ∂T11 ⎞
⎜ 11
T + dx1 ⎟ dx2 dx3 − T11dx2 dx3
⎝ ∂x1 ⎠
⎛ ∂T ⎞
+ ⎜ T21 + 21 dx2 ⎟ dx1dx3 − T21dx1dx3
⎝ ∂x2 ⎠
⎛ ∂T ⎞
+ ⎜ T31 + 31 dx3 ⎟ dx2 dx1 − T31dx2 dx1
⎝ ∂x3 ⎠
+ X 1dx1dx2 dx3 = 0

Dividing by dx1dx2 dx3 we have

∂T11 ∂T21 ∂T31

+ + + X1 = 0
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
or
∂T ji
+ X i = 0 or T ji , j + X i = 0
∂xi

Since we already know that

Tij = T ji for the moment equilibrium

Tij , j + X i = 0 is the equation of the equilibrium

3 equations (3+1) terms per equation

Next: 4.9 Boundary Conditions
 4.9 Boundary Conditions
Previous: Equations of Motion (Cnt’d)

Forces/Length
n

Surface S

Volume V

Fixed
Roller

If n is the unit outward normal at a given point in surface then,

t = Ti n (1)
where t is the force vector or traction vector per unit area. Equation (1)
represents the stress or traction boundary condition
Next: 4.10 First P-K Stress
 4.10 First P-K Stress
Previous: 4.9 Boundary Conditions

We define
Tij =Cauchy stress tensor (Force/area in the deformed geometry)
We know for equilibrium equation
∂T ji
+ Xi = 0
∂xi
Define two other stress tensors, first and second Piola-Kirchoff Stress
tensors

Three different stress measures

Ti = Cauchy Stress ⇒ Ti
Ti 0 = I Piola Kirchoff Stress ⇒ σi
Ti = II Piola Kirchoff Stress ⇒ Si
i as first P-K and
We will denote σ Si as II P-K stress

Note

Stress Book Ours Configuration

Cauchy
Ti Ti
Current force
Current area
I P-K
Ti o σi Current force
Original area
II P-K
Ti Si
Fictitious force
Original area
Previous: 4.10 First P-K Stress
 4.10 (a) First P-K Stress
Previous: 4.10 First P-K Stress

Undeformed
Let
dso → Undeformed area with N
ds → Deformed area with n
dP → Same force vector with same
orientation (in deformed and undeformed )
Next: 4.10(b) First P-K (Cont’d)
 4.10 (b) First P-K Stress Contd
Previous: 4.10(a) First P-K Stress

I n x2
T2
TI
T11
θ I
x1
T1
T12

T21

T22
Resolution of forces in 2-D

We can develop two basis for stress relative to the undeformed area.
Define the first p-k stress tensor σ such that it gives the actual force dP
on the deformed surface dS but measured w.r.t undeformed surface dSo
Next: 4.10(c) First P-K contd
 4.10(c) First P-K contd
Previous: 4.10(b)First P-K contd
dP1
In 1-D caseσ 11 = where dP1 is the component of dP in the
dS0
x1 direction.
Let dPi be the component of dP in the i th direction.
Recall.
ti = T ji n j (in the deformed)
dPi = n jT ji dS (in the deformed)...(1)
dPi
= N jσ ji (in the original)......(2)
dSo
Thus from (1) and (2)
N jσ ji dSo = dPi = n jT ji dS
Next: 4.10(d)First P-K contd
 4.10(d) First P-K Contd
Previous : 4.10(c)First P-K contd

Now, we know that

∂a j
ρ ni dS = ρ o N j dS0
∂xi
Substituting
⎡ ρo ∂ak ⎤
N jσ ij dSo = T ji ⎢ N k dSo ⎥
⎢⎣ ρ ∂ x j ⎥⎦
⎡ ρ o ∂a j ⎤
or N j dSo ⎢σ ji − Tki ⎥=0
⎣ ρ ∂x k ⎦
Finally,
ρ ∂xi
Tij = σ kj
ρ o ∂ak
First P-k Stress
Cauchy
Det F def gradient

Note, the tensor is not symmetric i.e. σ ij ≠ σ ji First P-K stress is not
symmetric
Next: 4.10(e) First P-K contd
 4.10(e) First P-K contd
Previous: 4.10 (d) First P-K contd

(2) II P-K Stress Sij

Sij is defined in terms of fictitious force dP applied to undeformed surface
dSo . This force is related to the real force dP (applied to dS) in the same
way that a material vector da at a is related by the deformation to the
corresponding spatial vector dx at x . The angle θ is the same
dP on dS and d P i on dS
o

dP i i = ∂ai .dP
∂x j
j

⎛ ∂u ⎞
= ⎜ δ ij − i ⎟⎟ dPj
⎜ ∂x j
⎝ ⎠
Or
i i = ∂ai d P
N j S ji dSo = d P ij
∂x j
∂ai
i=
dPi
∂x j
( nkTkj dSo ) ..........(1)
Next: 4.10(f) First P-K contd
 4.10(f) First P-K contd
Previous: 4.10 (e) First P-K contd

We know that
∂ai
ρ ni dS = ρ o N j dSo .........(2)
∂x j
Substisuting,
ρ o ∂ai ∂ai
Sij = Tkl
ρ ∂x j ∂x j

Note the P-K stress is symmetric Sij = S ji

Next: 4.11 Equation of Motion in Terms of
Undeformed configeration
 4.11 EQUATION OF MOTION
IN TERMS OF
UNDEFORMED CONFIGURATION
Next: 4.9(h) Boundary Conditions
i in terms of current forces and current
We defined the Cauchy’s stress T
geometry. σi , the first Piola-Kirchoff stress was defined using the current
force and original configuration. σi is similar to the engineering stress but is
unsymmetric due to the rotated forces in the current configuration. We know
that in terms of cauchy’s stress,
∂Tim
+ ρ Bi = ρ ai (1)
∂xm
where B i is the body force /mass and ρ is current density and a is the
acceleration.
The above equation can also be written as
divTi + ρ B
i = ρa
We can easily show that (1) can also be written as
∂σ im
+ ρ o Bi = ρ o ai
∂am

all interms of original geometry and first P-K stress. Thus in terms of
material coordinates,
divσi + ρ o B
i=ρ a
o
 GOVERNING FIELD EQUATIONS
Previous: 4.11 Eq. Of Mot. in Undef. Conf.
In general we have:
• Conservation of Energy (I law of thermodynamics)
• Principle of Entropy (II law)
• Law of Heat Conduction
• Conservation of linear/angular momentum (Newton’s law)

Next: 4.13 Heat Conduction Law

 4.13 Heat Conduction Law
Previous: Governing Field Equations

q ( per unit area)

Q2
Q1

x2

x1
x3

q = Heat flow /area.

Qc =Net heat flow = Q2 − Q1

Consider the X direction

{q 1 x1 + dx1 , x2 , x3 1 2 3
}
− q1 x , x , x dx2 dx3
∂q1
=− dx1dx2 dx3
∂x1
The equation is similar in the other direction. Thus
⎛ ∂q1 ∂q2 ∂q3 ⎞
Qc = − ⎜ + + ⎟ .dV
∂
⎝ 1 x ∂x2 ∂x3 ⎠

= − ( div.q ) dV
or
q = − k .∇θ
where
k- thermal conductivity
∇θ - temperature gradient
Next: 4.14 Conservation of Energy
 4.14 Conservation of Energy
Previous: 4.13 Heat Conduction Law
QS (Radiation)

Qc ( conduction)

A( x ,t )

U = Internal Energy
KE = Kinetic Energy
Qc = Net heat due to conduction
Qs = Net heat due to radiation
P = Rate of work done (mechanical)
Next: 4.14(b) Conservation of Energy (Cnt’d)
 4.14(b) Conservation of Energy (Cnt’d)
Previous: 4.14 Conservation of Energy
Conservation of Energy,
D
(U + KE ) = P + Qc + QS
Dt
But
D ∂U i
P= ( ) ij
KE + T dV
Dt ∂x j

Motive work Stress work

∂qi
Qc = − dV ( Fourier's Law )
∂xi
DU ∂v ∂q
= Tij i dV − i dV + QS
Dt ∂x j ∂xi
U = u ρ dV
Define u = internal energy per unit mass.
DU D ( u ρ dV ) Du
= = ρ dV
Dt Dt Dt
D
conservation of mass ⇒ ( ρ dV ) = 0
Dt
combining,
DU ∂u ∂q
ρ = Tij i − i + ρ qS
Dt ∂x j ∂xi

Next: 4.15 Entropy Production (II law)

 4.15 Entropy Production (II law)
Previous: 4.14(b) Conservation of Energy (Cnt’d)
η ( x , t ) = Entropy/mass

D
Rate of increase of entropy of a volume = ( ρηdV )
Dt
D Dη
= ( ρ dV ) + ρ dV
Dt Dt
According to the second law,

Dη q q
ρ ≥ div + ρ s
Dt θ θ
θ = Temperature
q = Heat flux
qs = Heat added
 CHAPTER 5: The Elastic Solid and Elastic Boundary Value
Problems

Constitutive equation is the relation between kinetic (stress, stress-

rate) quantities and kinematic (strain, strain-rate) quantities for a
specific material. It is a mathematical description of the actual
behavior of a material. The same material may exhibit different
behavior at different temperatures, rates of loading and duration of
loading time.), Though researchers always attempt to widen the
range of temperature, strain rate and time, every model has a given
range of applicability.

Constitutive equations distinguish between solids and liquids; and

between different solids.
In solids, we have: Metals, polymers, wood, ceramics, composites,
concrete, soils…In fluids we have: Water, oil air, reactive and
inert gases
 5.1 The Elastic Solid and Elastic Boundary Value
Problems

Relationship between kinetics (stress, stress rate) and kinematics

(strain, strain-rate) determines constitutive properties of materials.
Internal constitution describes the material's response to external
thermo-mechanical conditions. This is what distinguishes between
fluids and solids, and between solids wood from platinum and
plastics from ceramics.

Elastic Solid

Uniaxial test: The test often used to get the mechanical properties

P
σ= = engineering stress
A0
∆l
ε= = engineering strain
l0
σ
E=
ε
 ε d = diametral strain
ε a = axial strain
εd
ν = Poisson's Ratio = −
εa

Load-displacement response

Table 5.1
Table 5.2
Properties of some aluminum-alloy matrix materials
Alloy Modulus Yield Stress Ultimate Strain to
(Gpa) (0.2% Tensile Failure %
offset) Strength
(Mpa) (Mpa)
1100 63 43 86 20
2024 71 128 240 13
5052 68 135 265 13
6061 70 77 136 16
Al- 72 65 120 23
7Si

Note that the modulus does not change (if any), but there is wide
range of variation in yield and ultimate tensile strength and failure
strain.
5.2 Linear Elastic Solid

If Tij is Cauchy tensor and Eij is small strain tensor, then in general,
Eij = Cijkl Ekl
Cijkl Cijkl
where is the fourth order elasticity tensor, since is a
tensor,
Cijkl = QmiQniQrk Qsl Cmnrs
However, we know that E kl = E lk and Tij = Tji , then
Cijkl = C jikl = Ciklk
We have C 4×4 symmetric matrix with 36 constants,
If elasticity is a unique scalar function of stress and strain, strain
energy is given by
dU = Tij dE kl or U = Tij Eij
∂U
then Tij =
∂Eij
⇒ Cijkl = Cklij
⇒ Number of independent constants = 21
Now consider that there is one plane of symmetry (monoclinic)
material, then
One plane of symmetry⇒ 13
If there are 3 planes of symmetry, it is called an ORTHOTROPIC
material, then
Orthotropy→ 3 planes of symmetry ⇒ 9
Where there is isotropy in a single plane, then
Planar isotropy (Planar isotropic) ⇒ 5

Number of
independent
Crystal structure Rotational symmetry
elastic
constants
Triclinic None 21
Monoclinic 1 twofold rotation 13
Orthorhombic 2 perpendicular twofold rotations 9
Tetragonal 1 fourfold rotation 6
Hexagonal 1 sixfold rotation 5
Cubic 4 threefold rotations 3
Isotropic 2
 Elastic Solid
(General 5.1 and 5.2)

PART A
Topics Problems
Linear elastic isotropic for small #5.1, #5.2, #5.3
strain
5.3⎯5.4 Equations, Elastic 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 5.7, 5.8, 5.9,
constants 5.10, 5.11
5.5 Equations of Elasticity 5.12, 5.13, 5.14, 5.15, 5.16
5.7 Principles of super??
Dynamics 5.17, 5.18, … 5.34
5.8 Plane Irrotational Wave
5.9 Plane Equivoluminal Wave
5.10 Reflection of Plane Elastic
Waves
5.11 Vibration of Plates 5.35, …5.39
Statics
5.12 Univaxial tension 5.40, 5.41, 5.42
5.13 Torsion of Circular Cylinder 5.43, …5.54
5.15 Bending of beam 5.55,…5.63
PART C
Large deformation problems
5.32 Change of frame 5.92, 5.96, 5.97, 5.98, 5.99
5.33 Constitutive Equation for an 5.100
Elastic Medium under Large
Deformation
5.34 Constitutive Equation for an
Isotropic Elastic Medium
5.35 Simple Extension of an
Incompressible Isotropic Elastic
Rectangular Block
5.36 Simple Shear
 5.3 Linear isotropic Solid

A material is isotropic if its mechanical properties are independent

of direction
Tij = Cijkl E kl with ei basis
Tij ' = Cijkl ' E kl ' with ei ' basis

Cijkl = Cijkl '

Note that the isotropy of a tensor is equivalent to the isotropy of a
material defined by the tensor.
Most general from of Cijkl (Fourth order) is a function
αδ ijδ kl + βδ ik δ jl + γδ ilδ jk
Thus for isotropic material
Tij = Cijkl Ekl = λε kkδ ij + 2 µ Eij
For i ≠ j Tij = 2 µEij
λ and µ are called Lame's constants. µ is also the shear modulus
of the material (sometimes designated as G).

Next: 5.4 Relationship between Youngs Modulus E y , Poissons Ratio γ

5.4 Relationship between Youngs Modulus E y , Poissons Ratio γ
Shear modulus µ = G and Bulk modulus k
We know that

Tij = λδ ij ε kk + 2 µEij
(Let e ≡ E kk = E11 + E22 + E33 )
b g
Inverting, Tkk = 3λ + 2 µ ε kk or ε kk =
b
1
3λ + 2 µgTkk

Eij =
1 LM
Tij −
λ
Tkk δ ij
OP
2µ N 3λ + 2 µ Q
T11

Consider uniaxial stress T11 ≠ 0 and all other Tij = 0

λ+µ
=
Thus 11 µ ( 3λ + 2 µ ) T11
E
T11 µ (3λ + 2 µ )
(a) Define E y = E or E y = λ + µ ..........(1)
11
E22 E33 λ
(b) Define γ = − = − γ = ..................(2)
E11 E11 2( λ + µ )

Ey
From (1) and (2), µ = 2(1 + γ )
 T 12 =τ

1
τ
Consider a simple shear state
τ
T12 = T21 = τ ⇒ E12 = E21 =
2µ
τ
G≡ =µ
2 E12

σH

Consider hydrostatic stress state

Tij = σ H δ ij when σ H = − p ⇒ pressure
3σ H
E kk =
2 µ + 3λ
Hydrostress σ H 2 µ + 3λ
k=Bulk modulus= Volume change E =
=
3
kk

k = λ + 23 µ
For interrelationship, see table (below)

Note for isotropic materials, there are only 2 constants

E and γ (engineering) or Lame ( λ and µ )
 5.5 EQUATIONS OF INFINITESIMAL THEORY OF
ELASTICITY
Boundary Value Problems
Given a body subjected to surface and body forces, with specified boundary
conditions, to determine the displacement field knowing the material constitutive
equations. In this case, we assume that the strain is small and there is no rigid body
rotation. Further we assume that the material is governed by linear elastic isotropic
material model.
Field Equations
(1) Strain Displacement Relationships

Eij =
1
2
( ui, j + u j ,i ) (1)
(2) Stress Strain Relations
Tij = λ Ekkδ ij + 2 µ Eij ( 2)
(3) Cauchy Traction Conditions (Cauchy Formula)
ti = T ji n j
(4) Equilbrium Equation
T ji , j + X j = 0 → For Statics
T ji , j + ρ Bi = 0
T ji , j + ρ Bi = ρ ai → For Dynamics

In general,we know that

∂Tij
+ ρ Bi = ρ ai
∂x j
Bi is the body force/mass
ρ Bi is the body force/volume = X i
ai is the acceleration

For small displacement xi = ai

 Dxi ∂ui ∂ui
Thus vi = = + vj
Dt ∂t xi fixed ∂x j

Assume v << 1, then

∂ui
vi =
∂t xi fixed

∂vi ∂ 2ui
ai = = 2
∂t ∂t
Since dV = dV0 (1 + Ekk )
1
ρ= ρ o = (1 + Ekk ) −1 ρ o
1 + Ekk
 (1 − Ekk ) ρ o

For small strain, ρ  ρ o

Thus for small displacement/rotation problem
∂Tij ∂ 2ui
+ ρ Bi = ρ 2
∂x j ∂t
I
Tij , j + ρ Bi = ρ ui
or

Consider a Hookean elastic solid, then

 Tij = λ Ekkδ ij + 2 µ Eij
= λuk ,kδ ij + µ ( ui , j + u j ,i )
Tij , j = λuk ,kjδ ij + µ ( ui ,ij + u j ,ij )
Thus, equation of equilibrium becomes
∂ 2ui ∂Ekk ∂ 2ui
ρ o 2 = ρ o Bi + ( λ + µ ) +µ
∂t ∂xi ∂xi ∂x j

∂ 2ui
For static Equilibrium = 0 Then
∂t 2
∂Ekk ⎛ ∂2 ∂2 ∂2 ⎞
(λ + µ ) + µ⎜ 2 + + u + ρ o B1 = 0
2 ⎟ 1
∂x1 ⎝ ∂x1 ∂x2
2
∂x3 ⎠
∂Ekk ⎛ ∂2 ∂2 ∂2 ⎞
(λ + µ ) + µ⎜ 2 + + u + ρ o B2 = 0
2 ⎟ 2
∂x2 ⎝ ∂x1 ∂x2
2
∂x3 ⎠
∂Ekk ⎛ ∂2 ∂2 ∂2 ⎞
(λ + µ ) + µ⎜ 2 + + u + ρ o B3 = 0
2 ⎟ 3
∂x3 ⎝ ∂x1 ∂x2
2
∂x3 ⎠
The above equations are called Naviers equations of motion.
In terms of displacement components
∂ 2u
( λ + µ ) ∇Ekk + µ div∇u + ρo B = ρo 2
∂t
 5.7 PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION

ui( ) ui(
1 2)
Let be solution to problem (1) and be solution to problem (2).
( 3)
Then for infinitesmal field the solution of problem (3) ui is
( 3) (1) ( 2)
ui = ui + ui
This is called principle of superposition. Hence complex problem can be split into
a number of simple problem with known solution and the solutions added.
Problem 5.4

Given
λ = 119.2GPa (17.3 × 106 psi )
µ = 79.2GPa (11.5 × 106 psi )

Find the E y , γ and k

From the table,

µ ( 3λ + 2 µ )
Ey = = 206GPa
λ+µ
λ
γ = = 0.3
2(λ + µ )

k = λ + µ = 172GPa ( 25 × 106 )
2
3
Problem 5.8

⎡ 100 −100 0 ⎤
⎢
If E = −100 −50 0 ⎥ × 10−6
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 200 ⎥⎦
Find the stress components, given λ = 119.2 Gpa (17.3 × 10 psi )
6

And µ = 79.2 Gpa (11.5 × 10 psi)

-6

Solution:
Tij = λ Ekkδ ij + 2 µε ij
T = λ eI + 2 µ E where e = Ekk = E11 + E22 + E33
e = (100 − 50 − 200)10−6 = 250 × 10−6
⎡1 0 0 ⎤
T = 119.2 × 250 × 10−6 ⎢0 1 0 ⎥ +
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣0 0 1 ⎥⎦
⎡ −100 −100 0 ⎤
2(79.2) ⎢ −100 −50 0 ⎥ × 10−6 Gpa
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 200 ⎥⎦
⎡ 45.6 -15.8 0 ⎤
= ⎢-15.8 21.9 0 ⎥ × 103 Mpa
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 61.5⎥⎦
Problem 5.9

⎡100 42 6 ⎤
E y = 207GPa
Given [T ] = ⎢⎢ 42 −2 0 ⎥⎥ MPa µ = 79.2GPa
⎢⎣ 6 0 15⎥⎦

(1) Find [E]

1 γ
[E] = [T ] − (Tkk )[ I ]
2µ Ey
Ey
γ= − 1 = 0.3
2µ
−3
⎡100 42 6 ⎤ ⎡1 0 0 ⎤
=
10 ⎢ 42 −2 0 ⎥ − 0.3 × 113 × 10−3 ⎢ 0 1 0 ⎥
2 ( 79.2 ) ⎢ ⎥ 207 ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 6 0 15⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 0 1 ⎥⎦
⎡ 4.67 2.65 0.379 ⎤
= ⎢ 2.65 −1.76 0 ⎥ × 10−4
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0.379 0 −0.691⎥⎦

(2) Volume change for 5cm cube.

e = E11 + E22 + E33

= 2.22 × 10−4
∆V = eV = 2.22 × 10−4 ( 53 )
= 2.77 × 10−4 cm3
Problem 5.19

Elastic waves

Consider u1 = ε [ Sinβ ( x3 − ct ) + α Sinβ ( x3 + ct )], u2 = u3 = 0

(1) Transverse wave in x3 plane

(2) Strain components /Stress

E11 = E22 = E33 = 0 Also E12 = E23 = 0

1 ∂u1 1
E13 = E31 = = ε [Cos β ( x3 − ct ) + α Cos β ( x3 + ct )]
2 ∂x3 2
∂u1
T13 = T31 = µ
∂x3

(3) Equation of motion with zero body force

∂T13 ∂ 2u1
= ρo 2
∂x3 ∂t
µβ 2ε [− Sinβ ( x3 − ct ) − α Sinβ ( x3 + ct )]
= ρ o ( β c ) ε [− Sinβ ( x3 − ct ) − α Sinβ ( x3 + ct )]
2

µ = ρoc 2

x3 = 0 → Stress Vector
(4)
Problem 5.14

Given
u1 = ka3a2
u2 = ka3a1 k = 10−4
u3 = k (a1 − a2 )
2 2

Find: (a) Stress components, (assume no rotations)

(b) In the absence of body force, is it an equilibrium stress field?
Solution
⎡ 0 ka3 ka1 ⎤
[∇u ] = ⎢⎢ ka3 0 ka1 ⎥
⎥
⎢⎣ 2ka1 −2ka2 0 ⎥⎦
(a)
⎡ 0 ka3 k (2a1 + a2 ) / 2 ⎤
E= ⎢ k (a1 − 2a2 ) 2 ⎥
1
ka3 0
2⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ k (2a1 + a2 ) / 2 k ( a1 − 2a2 ) / 2 0 ⎥⎦

Constitutive equation is
Tij = λ Ekkδ ij + 2 µ Eij
Ekk = 0 ⇒ Tij = 2 µ Eij
Thus
⎡ 0 a3 (2a1 + a2 ) / 2 ⎤
[T ] = 2µ k ⎢⎢ a3 0 (a1 − 2a2 ) 2 ⎥
⎥
⎢⎣ (2a1 + a2 ) / 2 (a1 − 2a2 ) / 2 0 ⎥⎦
Since k = 10−4 and no rotations x ≈ ai
⎡ 0 x3 (2 x1 + x2 ) / 2 ⎤
[T ] = 2µ k ⎢⎢ x3 0 ( x1 − 2 x2 ) 2 ⎥
⎥
⎢⎣ (2 x1 + x2 ) / 2 ( x1 − 2 x2 ) / 2 0 ⎥⎦
 = 0 (verify)
(b) No body force. T ji , j
T11,1 + T12,2 + T13,3 = 0
T21,1 + T22,2 + T23,3 = 0
T31,1 + T32,2 + T33,3 = 0 = 2 µ k − 2 µ k = 0

Hence a valid field.

 CLASSIFICATION OF IMPACT PHENOMENON

Low Velocity High Velocity

Extent of Deformation Global Local
Modal Response Low Frequency High Frequency
Loading/Response time Millie Sec- Seconds Sub mille seconds
Strains 0.5-10 % > 60%
Strain Rates 10−2 − 101 > 105
Pressures Order of σ y 10 –100 σ y
Failure Mode Large Plastic Flow Mat’l Separation
 TYPES OF IMPACT PROBLEMS

HIGH RATE TENSION TEST

ROD IMPACT

PLATE IMPACT
 PROJECTILE IMPACT

PROJECTILE IMPACT ON COMPOSITES

 HYPERVELOCITY IMPACT

BEFORE IMPACT

V−∆V

AFTER IMPACT
 MATERIAL BEHAVIOR UNDER HYPERVELOCITY IMPACT

MATERIAL “DISINTEGRATION”
HIGH ENERGY DENSITY
INTENSE RADIATION → IMPACT FLASH
MELTING
VAPORIZATION

IMPACT VELOCITIES REQUIRED TO PRODUCE MELTING AND

VAPORIZATION OF THREE METALS

IRON ALUMINUM LEAD

Incipient melting (Km/s) 6.6 – 9.2 5.2 – 7.3 1.3 –1.8
Complete melting (Km/s) 7.1 – 10 6.6 – 9.2 1.6 – 2.2
Incipient vaporization (Km/s) 10 – 14 11 –15 3.3 – 4.6
Complete vaporization (Km/s) 19 – 26 24 – 33 6.8 – 9.5

DYNAMICS OF MOTION

The area is called elastodynamics. Very important in the study of stress

wave propagation

• Crash analysis
• Earth quakes
• Armor/Anti-armor
• Low – medium – high impact studies

⎛ mm m 2 − 5 Km ⎞
⎜ few → → velocities ⎟
⎝ Sec Sec Sec ⎠
In very high impact studies, simple Hooke’s law is not valid. There are two
types of waves
TRANSVERSE (SHEAR) WAVES

Wave Travel

Particle Motion

LONGITUDINAL (DILATIONAL) WAVES

Wave Travel

Particle Motion
 5.8 PLANE IRROTATIONAL WAVES

Consider the particle displacement

2π
u1 = ε Sin ( x1 − cLt )
l
u2 = u3 = 0 ε  1
Note that the motion along x1 direction and the wave (phase) velocity is
cL in the +ve x1 direction. l is the wavelength. Particle velocity at a given
du
x = x1 is 1
dt

Strain

2π 2π
E11 = ε Cos ( x1 − cLt )
l l
E23 = E12 = E13 = E33 = 0
Ekk = e = E11

Stress

T11 = ( λ + 2µ ) E11 ( λε kk δ ij + 2µε ij = Tij )

T22 = T33 = λ E11
T12 = T23 = T31 = 0
In the absence of body forces, equation of equilibrium is
∂ 2ui ∂Tij
ρo 2 =
∂t ∂x j
∂ 2u1 ∂T11 ∂ 2u1
or, = = ( λ + 2µ ) 2
∂t 2 ∂x1 ∂x1
 ∂ 2u1 ∂ 2u1 2π
Substituting and and using u1 = ε Sin ( x1 − cLt ) , we
∂t 2
∂x1
2
l
have
ρ o cL 2 = λ + 2µ or
λ + 2µ
cL =
ρo

Thus the longitudinal wave travels at a velocity of cL and is only a function

of λ, µ (elastic constants) and density.
 5.8 (b)

IRROTATIONAL WAVE

∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3 ∂u2 ∂u1 ∂u3

= = = = = =0
∂x2 ∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3 ∂x3 ∂x1
1 ⎛ ∂ui ∂u j ⎞
Thus ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ = 0
2 ⎝ ∂x j ∂xi ⎠
Hence there is no rotation of particle. Planes remain same.

Rarifaction

Compression

Wave Travel

Wave Length

Volume change due to the wave

2π
e = E11 = ε ( x1 − cLt )
l
Volume changes also harmonically at a given location x1 , thus it is called
dilatational wave
Example: Problem 5.22
Given:
u3 = Sinβ ( x3 − ct ) + α Sinβ ( x3 + ct )
u1 = u2 = 0
(a) Nature of Wave
Longitudinal in el3 direction.
(b) Strain
Only non-zero
∂u3
E33 = = β ⎡⎣Cos β ( x3 − ct ) + α Cos β ( x3 + ct ) ⎤⎦
∂x3
Stress components

∂u3
T11 = T22 = λ
∂x3
∂u3
T33 = ( λ + 2 µ )
∂x3
(c) Using equilibrium equation, determines c.
∂T33 ∂ 2u3
= ρo 2
∂x3 ∂t
− ( λ + 2 µ ) β 2 ⎡⎣ Sinβ ( x3 − ct ) + Sinβ ( x3 + ct ) ⎤⎦
= ρβ 2c 2 ⎡⎣ Sinβ ( x3 − ct ) + Sinβ ( x3 + ct ) ⎤⎦
Thus

λ + 2µ = ρoc 2
λ + 2µ
or c =
ρo
Problem 5.19

Elastic waves

Consider u1 = ε [ Sinβ ( x3 − ct ) + α Sinβ ( x3 + ct )], u2 = u3 = 0

(1) Transverse wave in x3 plane: wave propagates in the x1 direction. Can be
understood from inspection.

(2) Strain components /Stress

E11 = E22 = E33 = 0 Also E12 = E23 = 0

1 ∂u1 1
E13 = E31 = = ε [Cos β ( x3 − ct ) + α Cos β ( x3 + ct )]
2 ∂x3 2
∂u1
T13 = T31 = µ
∂x3

(3)Equation of motion with zero body force

∂T13 ∂ 2u1
= ρo 2
∂x3 ∂t
µβ 2ε [− Sinβ ( x3 − ct ) − α Sinβ ( x3 + ct )]
= ρ o ( β c ) ε [− Sinβ ( x3 − ct ) − α Sinβ ( x3 + ct )]
2

µ = ρoc 2

x3 = 0 → Stress Vector
 5.9 Transverse (Shear) waves

This is also called as distortional or equal volume or equivoluminal wave.

The material volume does not change, but only distortion occurs

el2
(
Particle Motion el2 or el3 )

el1
Wave Motion

el3

General motion
u1 = 0
2π
u2 = ε sin ( x1 − cT t )
l
u3 = 0
Strain Components
E11 = E22 = E23 = E13 = 0
ε ⎛ 2π ⎞ 2π
E12 = ⎜ ⎟ Cos ( x1 − cT t )
2⎝ l ⎠ l
Stress Components
2π 2π
T12 = 2 µ E12 = µε Cos ( x1 − cT t )
l l
Since equation of motion is
∂T12 ∂ 2u 2
=ρ 2
∂x2 ∂t
µ
We get, µ = ρ cT or cT =
2

ρ
λ + 2µ
Recall that cL =
ρ
Thus
cL λ + 2µ 2 − 2ν
= =
cT µ 1 − 2ν
Thus the ratio depends only on the Poisson’s ratio.
cL
When γ = 0.3 = 1.87
cT
For γ < 0.5 (most metals and alloys) cL is always greater than cT .
Example 5.9.3

If an infinite train of harmonic plane waves propagates on a plane

with unit direction eln , find the form of longitudinal and transverse wave

en

x2

d P

x1

Soln:
Let P be a generic point on the plane. Since the wave is restricted to
the plane (normal to eln ). Motion of particle P should be identical to all the
points on the plane.

Thus the form will be

Sin
2π
l
( )
x .eln − ct − η or Cos
2π
l
(
x .eln − ct − η )
Longitudinal Wave:
u Should be parallel to eln

u = ε Sin ⎢
⎡ 2π l
⎣ l
(
x en − cLt − η )⎤⎥⎦ el
n

Transverse Wave:

u Should be parallel to the plane (perpendicular to eln )

u = ε Sin ⎢
⎣ l
(
⎡ 2π l
x en − cT t − η ) ⎤l
⎥⎦ et
Example 5.9.4
Polarized waves in x1 − x2 plane

x1

α1 α3
α2
en3

en1

en2

Transverse wave along e n1

Amplitude ε1 and wavelength l1
e n = Sinα e 1 − Cosα e 2
1

x e n1 = x1Sinα1 − x2Cosα1
e t = ± (Cosα e 1 + Sinα e 2 )
1

Displacement Field

⎡ 2π ⎤
u1 = cosα1ε1 sin ⎢ ( x1 sin α1 − x2 cosα1 − cT t − η1 ) ⎥
⎣ l1 ⎦
⎡ 2π ⎤
u2 = sin α1ε1 sin ⎢ ( x1 sin α1 − x2 cosα1 − cT t − η1 ) ⎥
⎣ l1 ⎦
u3 = 0

Transverse Wave Along e n2

Amplitude ε2
Wavelength l2
e n2 = sin α 2 e 1 + cosα 2 e 2
x e n = x sin α + x cosα
2 1 2 2 2

(
e t2 = ± cosα 2 e 1 − sin α 2 e 2 )
Displacement Field
⎡ 2π ⎤
u1 = cosα 2ε 2 sin ⎢ ( x1 sin α 2 + x2 cosα 2 − cT t − η2 ) ⎥
⎣ l2 ⎦
⎡ 2π ⎤
u2 = sin α 2ε 2cos ⎢ ( x1 sin α 2 + x2 cosα 2 − cT t − η2 ) ⎥
⎣ l2 ⎦
u3 = 0
Longitudinal Wave along e n3
Amplitude ε3
Wave Length l3
e n3 = sin α 3 e 1 + cosα 3 e 2
x .e n = x sin α + x cosα
3 1 3 2 3

Direction along e n3
⎡ 2π ⎤
u1 = sin α 3ε 3 sin ⎢ ( x1 sin α 3 + x2 cosα 3 − cLt − η3 ) ⎥
⎣ l3 ⎦
⎡ 2π ⎤
u2 = cosα 3ε 3 sin ⎢ ( x1 sin α 3 + x2 cosα 3 − cLt − η3 ) ⎥
⎣ l3 ⎦
u3 = 0
 5.10 Reflection of Plane Elastic Waves.
If a single transverse wave is incident on a free surface, it produces two
waves as shown below.

x1

α3
α1 α2

Reflected
Longitudinal

Reflected
Transverse
Incident
Transverse
x2
With all the three waves we have
u1 = cosα1ε1 sin ϕ1 + cosα 2ε 2 sin ϕ 2 + cosα 3ε 3 sin ϕ 3
u1 = cosα1ε1 sin ϕ1 − cosα 2ε 2 sin ϕ 2 + cosα 3ε 3 sin ϕ 3
u3 = 0
where
2π
ϕ1 = ( x1 sin α1 − x2 cosα1 − cT t − η1 )
l1
2π
ϕ2 = ( x1 sin α 2 + x2 cosα 2 − cT t − η2 )
l2
2π
ϕ3 = ( x1 sin α 3 − x2 cosα 3 − cT t − η3 )
l3
From traction free boundary conditions,
Ti e 2 = 0
and the equilibrium conditions we can show that
sin α1 sin α 2 sin α 3
= =
l1 l2 l3
cT cT cL
and = =
l1 l2 l3