3 Bonding and structure

FOCUS POINTS
I n what
different ways do elements combine to form compounds?
How do the bonds
within a compound affect its properties?
What is a redox reaction?

In the previous
chapter, you established that
both metal and non-metal elements are
made up of atoms, which can combine to form
compounds. In this chapter you will look more
closely at how different elements combine, or
bond, to form compounds. You will see that,
generally, when elements combine they can
form either ionic bonds with one another and
are known as ionic compounds, or they can form SODIUM
covalent bonds with one another and are known
as covalent compounds. You will also look at
a third type of bonding, found in metals
only,.
called metallic bonding
You will find out how the type of bonding affects
the properties of these compounds. You will
also learn more about formulae and how they
can be obtained from given data and you will
obtain an understanding of redox reactions and
the processes associated with them.

3.1 lonic bonding

Ionic bonds are usually found in compounds
that contain metals combined with non-metals.
When this type of bond is formed, electrons are A Figure 3.1 The properties of salt are very different from
those of the sodium and chlorine it was made from. To
transferred from the metal atoms to the non-metal
get salt into your diet you would not eat sodium or inhale
atoms during the chemical reaction. In doing this,
chlorine!
the atoms become more stable due to their full outer
shells. For example, consider what happens when Sodium has just one electron in its outer shell
sodium and chlorine react together and combine to (Na 2,8,1). Chlorine has seven electrons in its outer
make sodium chloride (Figure 3.1). shell (,Cl 2,8,7). When these two elements react, the
outer electron of each sodium atom is transferred to
sodium + chlorine sodium chloride
the outer shell of a chlorine atom (Figure 3.2).

30
 3.1 lonic bonding

are shown as crosses

In this way both the atoms obtain full outer the electrons from one atom
dots. In the reaction
shells and become "like the noble gas nearest to and those of the other atom as
a sodium ion, in a
them in the Periodic Table (see Figure 9.3, p. 135). the sodium atom has become
ionisation. This sodium ion has
an
One way of showing this transfer of electrons is by process known as
noble gas neon.
using a dot-and-cross diagram. In these diagrams, electronic configuration like the

Sodium ion Chloride ion

Sodium atom Chlorine atom (C)
(Na)
(Na) (CI)
11 protons 11+ 17 protons 17+
10electrons 10 18electrons 18-
Overall charge =1+ Overall charge =1-

A Figure 3.2 lonic bonding in sodium chloride

Only the outer electrons important in bonding,

are
To lose electrons in this way is called oxidation. out the
so we can simplify the diagrams by missing
The chlorine atom has become a chloride ion with inner shells (Figure 3.3).
an electronic configuration like argon. To gain
The charges on the sodium and chloride ions are
electrons in this way is called reduction. and
In the chemical process producing sodium equal but opposite. They balance each other
the resulting formula for sodium chloride is NaCl.
chloride, both oxidation and reduction have taken These oppositely charged ions attract each other
place and so this is known as a redox reaction. and are pulled, or bonded, to one another by strong
electrostatic forces. This type of bonding is called
Key definitions
Oxidation involves loss of electrons.
ionic bonding.

Reduction involves gain of electrons. Key definition

oxidation An ionic bond is a strong electrostatic attraction
Redox reactions involve simultaneous
between oppositely charged ions.
and reduction.

reduction All students should be able to describe the

A further discussion of oxidation and
in terms of electron transfer takes place in
formation of ionic bonds between elements of Group
Chapter 5 (p. 71). I and Group VII and draw dot-and-cross diagrams.
Extended learners should be able to do this for
any metallic and non-metallic element, including
drawing dot-and-cross diagrams.

C [Nal C
Na

Sodium chloride (NaC)

ionic bonding in sodium chloride

A Figure 3.3 Simplified diagram of
31
3 BONDING AND STRUCTURE
*******
****.

Mg (Mgl

Magnesium oxide (Mg0)

A Figure 3.4 Simplitfied diagram of ionic bonding in magnesium oxide

Figure 3.4 shows the electron transfers that Magnesium obtains a full outer shell by losing
take place between a
magnesium atom and an two electrons. These are transferred to theoxyge
oxygen atom during the formation of magnesium atom. In magnesium oxide, the Mg* and 02 are
Oxide.
oppositely charged and are attracted to one
another. The formula for magnesium oxide is Mg0.

C CI

Ca ICal

CI
C

Calcium chloride (CaCl)

A Figure 3.5 The transfer of electrons that takes place during the formation of calcium chloride

When calcium and chlorine react, the calcium formed containing two chloride ions (C) for each
atom gives each of the two chlorine atoms one calcium ion (Ca2*). The chemical formula is
electron (Figure 3.5). In this case, a compound is
CaC.

Test yourself
1 Define the term 'ionic bond'. b lithium chloride [LiC)
2 Why do inert Inoble) gases not bond with themselves
and other elements? magnesium fluoride (MgF,)
3 Draw diagrams to represent the bonding in each d calcium oxide (Ca0).
of the following ionic compounds:
a potassium fluoride [KF]|

32
 3.I ionic bendirg

Going further
Scientists, using X-ray diffraction
obtained photographs
that
(Figure 3.6al, have is possible to use them to investigate extremely small
indicate the way in which the
ions are arranged
IFigure structures.
3.6b]. The electron
map of sodium chloride is shown in density When X-rays are passed through a crystal of sodium
Figure 3.6c.
Figure 3.6d shows the structure of sodium chloride, for example. you get a pattern of spots called
determined by the X-ray diffraction chloride as a diffraction pattern ( ure 3.68 . This pattern can
technique. The
diffraction was pioneered bystudy
of crystals using X-ray be recorded on photographic film and used to work
William Bragg and his son Sir Lawrence Sir out how the ions or atoms are
arranged in the crystal
Bragg
X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation.
in 1912. Crystals give particular diffraction patterns depending
have a much shorter They on their structure, and this makes X-ray diffraction a
wavelength than light therefore it particularly powerful technique in the investigation af
crystal structures.
Crystal

X-rays

Diffraction pattern
on a photographic film
a X-ray diffraction technique

Nat CI

bX-ray diffraction photograph of sodium chloride

C
100 200 500 Na
1000 100

300

500

1000
2000
Nat surrounded Cl surrounded
5000 by 6CI ions
2000 5000 O by 6Na ions
d The structure of sodium chloride
cElectron density map of sodium chloride

A Figure 3.6

33
3 BONDING AND STRUCTURE

lonic structures Properties of ionic compounds

Jonic structures are solids at room Jonic compounds have the following properties.
have high
melting and
boiling points.
temperature and
»They are usually solids at room temperature.
The ions are
packed together in a regular with high melting and boiling points.
arrangement called a lattice. Within the lattice,
oppositely charged ions attract one another This is due to the strong electrostatic forces
Figure 3.6d shows strongly holding the crystal lattice together. A lot of
only a tiny part of a small
crystal of sodium chloride. Many millions of sodium energy is therefore needed to separate the
ions and chloríde ions ions and melt the substance.
would be arranged in this
way in a crystal of sodium
chloride to make up the
giant ionic lattice structure. Each sodium ion in »They are usually hard substances.
the lattice is surrounded »They mainly dissolve in water.
each chloride ion is by six chloride ions, and
surrounded by six sodium ions. This is because water molecules are able to
bond with both the positive and the negative
Going further ions, which breaks up the lattice and keeps the
ions apart. Figure 3.8 shows the interaction
Not all ionic substances between water molecules (the solvent) and
form the same structures.
Caesium chloride ICsCI), for sodium and chloride ions from sodium chloride
different structure due to theexample, forms a
caesium ion larger size of the (the solute). For a further discussion of the
compared with that of the sodium ion. This solubility of substances see, Chapter 8, p. 120.
gives rise to the structure shown in
called Figure 3.7, which is
ion is
a
body-centred cubic structure. Each caesium »They usually conduct electricity when in the
surrounded by eight chloride ions and, in
each chloride ion is surrounded turn, molten state or in aqueous solution.
by eight caesium ions.
The forces of attraction between the ions are
weakened and the ions are free to move to the
appropriate electrode. This allows an electric
current to be passed
through the molten
compound (see Chapter 5, p. 71).
CS »They usually cannot conduct electricity when solid,
because the ions are not free to move.
-CI
a The arrangernent of ions

Nat

CI

Na
Cst surrounded by 8 CI ions
In the sarne way, each C
IS Surrounded by 8 Cs" ions
b The unit cell

Figure 3.7 The structure of caesium chloride

A Figure 3.8 Salt lan ionic

compound) dissolving in water
 3.1 lonic bonding

Test yourself
4 Link the terms in the boxes definitions the
on the left with the on right.
An atom or group of atoms which has lost one or more electrons
Oxidation

Reduction Involves loss of electrons

oppositely charged ions

Redox A strong electrostatic force of attraction between

Negative ion Involves gain of electrons

Positive ion Involvesboth oxidation and reduction
lonic bond
Anatom or group of atoms which has gained one or more electrons

Formulae of ionic substances can form the Cu ion and the Cu ion, with oxidation
numbers of 1 and 2 respectively. Therefore it can
We previously (see p. 31) that ionic compounds
saw
form two different compounds with chlorine, CuC
contain positive and negative ions, whose charges
and CuCL. We can also distinguish the difference
balance. For example, sodium chloride contains one
by using Roman numerals in their names: CuCl is
Na ion for every C ion, giving rise to the formula
NaCL This method can be used to write down copper() chloride and CuCl is copper(I) chloride.
Similarly, iron forms the Fe and Fes ions and so
formulae which show the ratio of the number of ions
can also form two different compounds with, for
present in any ionic compound.
example, chlorine: FeCl, (iron(II) chloride) and FeC
The formula of magnesium chloride is Mgl, This
formula is arived at by each Mg* ion combining with (iron(TI) chloride).
Table 3.1 shows the oxidation numbers of a
two C ions, and once again the charges balance. The
series of ions you will normally meet in your study
use of oxidation numbers is useful when working out
of chemistry.
the formula of a compound. An oxidation number shows
You will notice that Table 3.1 includes groups
how oxidised or reduced an ion is compared to its atom.
of atoms which have net charges. For example,
Nat has an oxidation number of +1 because it is formed
the nitrate ion is a single unit composed of one
by the loss of one electron (Chapter 5, p. 71) from a
nitrogen atom and three oxygen atoms, and has
sodium atom but Mg* has an oxidation number of +2
one single negative charge. The formula, therefore,
because it is formed when a magnesium atom loses
of magnesium nitrate would be Mg(NO,). You will
two electrons (Table 3.1). Nat can bond (combine) with
notice that the NO, has been placed in brackets with
only one C ion, whereas Mg* can bond with two
a, outside the bracket. This indicates that there are
CI ions. A chloride ion has an oxidation state of-1
two nitrate ions present for every magnesium ion.
because it is formed when a chlorine atom gains one
The ratio of the atoms present is therefore:
extra electron.
Some elements, such as copper and iron, possess Mg (N 02
two ions with different oxidation numbers. Copper 1Mg: 2N:60
Table 3.1 Oxidation numbers Ivalencies) of some elements lions) and groups of atoms

Oxidation numbers Ivalencies)

1 2 3
Metals Lithium Li Magnesium (Mg2 Aluminium (A
Sodium (Na Calcium Ca2 Iron[I} Fe3
Potassium IK CopperI1 ICu
Zinc
Silver Agl Zn2
Copperl Cu Iron II Fe2)
Lead Pb2
Barium (Ba
 3 BONDING AND STRUCTURE **
****
**********"**

Oxidation numbers (valencies

3
1 2
Non-metals 021
Fluoride IF) Oxide
Chloride IC Sutfide
Bromide (Br
Hydrogen IH'1
Groups of atoms Hydroxide Carbonate CO Phosphate P09
OH
Nitrate
INO Sulfate IsO
Ammonium Dichromate/VI ICr,01
INH
Hydrogencarbonate IHCO
Manganate (VIII (Mn0

Oxidation number
Each atom in an element or compound is
assigned
an oxidation number to show how much it is
reduced or oxidised. The following points should be
remembered when using oxidation numbers.
Roman numerals (I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII)
are used in writing the oxidation number of an
element.
Figure 3.9 IronlII] sulfate is pale green, while iron(I1]
sulfate is yellow
»This number is placed after the element that
it refers to. For example, the name for FeCl, is An increase in the oxidation number, for
iron(III) chloride and not iron(3) chloride. example, from +2 to +3 as in the case of Fe2* to
»The oxidation number of the free element is Fe3, is oxidation.
always 0, for example, in metals such as zinc »However, a reduction in the oxidation number,
and copper. for example, from in the
+6 to +3 as case of Cr
»In simple monatomic ions, the oxidation number (in Cro) to Cr, is reduction.
is the same as the charge on the ion. So iodine
has an oxidation number of 0 in I, but an
Key definitions
oxidation number of -1 in I.
Oxidation involves an increase in oxidation number.
»Compounds have no charge overall. Hence
the oxidation numbers of all the individual Reduction involves a decrease in oxidation number.
elements in a compound must add up to 0. The
oxidation numbers of elements in compounds During a redox reaction, the substance that brings
can vary, as seen in Table 3.1. It is possible about oxidation is called an oxidising agent and is
to recognise which of the different oxidation itself reduced during the process. A substance that
numbers a metal element is in by the colour of brings about reduction is a reducing agent and is
its compounds (Figure 3.9). itself oxidised during the process.

36
 3.1 lonic bonding
**** *********
*** *** ************
******

For example, if a dilute solution of acidified

potassium manganate(VII) (pale purple) is added
to solution of iron(II) sulfate, a colour
a
change
takes place as the reaction occurs (Figure 3.10).
The iron(I) sulfate (pale
green) changes to pale
yellow, showing the presence of iron(IIT) ions.

75

Figure 3.11 The blue-black colour shows the presence

t of iron III) ions

It is possible to recognise redox processes by

looking at the oxidation numbers on the two sides of
Figure 3.10 ManganatelVIIl ions loxidising agent) and the chemical equation for a reaction. For example, in
iron II) ions (reducing agent) are involved in a redox
reaction when mixed
the reaction between magnesium and dilute sulfuric
acid, the magnesium dissolves and hydrogen gas is
In this reaction, the iron(II) ions have been produced. Both magnesium metal and hydrogen gas
oxidised to iron(III) ions (increase in oxidation are free elements and so have an oxidation number of
number) and the manganate(VII) ions have 0. In sulfuric acid, hydrogen has an oxidation number
been reduced
to
manganese(1I) ions (decrease of +1 since the overall charge on the sulfate ion is
in oxidation number), which are very pale pink. -2. Similarly, the oxidation number of magnesium in
Hence the manganate(VII) ions are the oxidising magnesium sulfate is +2.
agent and the iron(11) ions are the reducing
magnesium+ sulfuric magnesium + hydrogen
agent. acid sulfate
Potassium iodide is a common reducing
agent. When it is oxidised, a colour change is
also produced. The iodide ion (I) is oxidised to
Mg(s)
0
+H,SO,(aq)-MgSO,aq)
+1 +2
+H,(9)
iodine(1,). The colour of the resulting solution The sulfate ions are unchanged by the reaction and
will change from colourless to yellow-brown. If so can be ignored.
you then add starch indicator, a test to show the
presence of iodine, it will turn blue-black. Hence if As you can see, the oxidation number of
potassium iodide solution is added to a solution of magnesium has increased from 0 to +2. Therefore the
iron(III) solution followed by the starch indicator, magnesium has been oxidised by the sulfuric acid and
then a blue-black colour will be seen as shown in so sulfuric acid is the oxidising agent. The oxidation
Figure 3.11. This shows that the iron(III) ions must number of hydrogen has decreased from +1 in the
have been reduced to iron(II) ions as the iodide sulfuric acid to 0 in the free element. Therefore the
ions are oxidised to iodine. hydrogen has been reduced by the magnesium and so
magnesium is the reducing agent.

Key definitions
An oxidising agent is a substance that oxidises another A reducing agent is a substance that reduces another
substance and is itself reduced. substance and is itself oxidised.

37
3 BONDING AND STRUCTURE ***

of the (inert) gas electronic

noble
gain the stability exanmple of this type of
Test yourself configuration. The simplest
considering the hydrogen
5 ldentify the oxidising bonding can be seen by
and reducing agents the
following reactions.
in
molecule, H
a
Znls+H,S0.laq) » ZnS0,laql+ H,lgl Key definition
b
Cu2laql+Znls] -» Culsl+Zn*laq formed when a pair of oloctrons
A covalent bond is
atoms loading to noble gas
cMglsl CulNO1,laql > MglNO,laq)+ Culs is shared betwoen two
olectronic contigurations.
6
d
Fels+H,sO laq] FeS0,laq]+ H,lgl
Using
the information in Table 3.1, write the molecule has one
formulae for: Each hydrogen atom in the
outer shell and
a copper{I) oxide e potassium electron. In order to obtain a full
b zinc phosphate that is the same as
Ciron III] chloride
manganatelVIII gain an electronic configuration
d lead(II) bromide
sodium the noble gas helium, each of the hydrogen atoms
dichromatelVI). must have two electrons. To do this, the outer shells
Using the formulae in your answer to question 6,
write down the ratio of atoms of the two hydrogen atoms overlap (igure 3.12a). A
present for each molecule of hydrogen is formed, with two hydrogen
of the compounds.
atoms sharing a pair of electrons (Figure 3.12a, b).
This shared pair of electrons is known as a single
covalent bond and is represented by a single line as
Going further in hydrogen:
H-H
The cross-over method
A less scientific but simpler method to work out the
formulae of compounds is called the
cross-over H H H
method. In this method it is only necessary to 'swap
the numerical value of the oxidation number of the
elements or groups of atoms lor radicals) concerned.
This is easily done by crossing over the numerical 2 hydrogen atoms Hydrogen nmolecule (1,)
value of their oxidation numbers, by placing the
numerical value of the oxidation number of the first a The electron sharing to form the single covalent bond in
element after the symbol of the second and placing the H, molecules
numerical value of the oxidation number of the second
element or radical after the symbol of the first.

For example, in aluminium sulfide the oxidation

numbers of the elements are:
Al = 3 and S 2

Hence the chemical formula is Al,Sg.

Similarly, in sodium sulfate the oxidation numbers are:
Na 1 and S0, = 2

Hence the chemical formula is Na,SO

3.2 Covalent bonding b Model of a hydrogen molecule

Another form
way in which atoms can stable Figure 3.12
compounds is by sharing the electrons in their
outer shells. This occurs between non-metal atoms, A similar example exists in the diatomic halogen
and the bond formed is called a covalent bond. molecule chlorine, Cl, (Figure 3.13).
During the bond formation, the atoms involved

38
 3.2 Covalent bonding

Other covalent compounds

molecules
Methane (natural gas) is a gas whose
electronic
contain atoms of carbon and hydrogen. The
configurations are:
C
C 2,4 HI
The carbon atom needs four more electrons to
attain the electronic configuration of the noble gas
neon. Each hydrogen atom needs only one electron
to form the electronic configuration of helium.
2 chlorine atoms
Figure 3.15 shows how the atoms gain these electronic
configurations by the sharing of electrons. Note that
only the outer electron shells are shown.

CI C

Chlorine molecule (CI,)

AFigure 3.13 The electron sharing to form the single
covalent bond in Cl, molecules lsharing outer electron
shells onlyl

Another simple molecule is hydrogen chloride.

This time two different elements share electrons to
gain the electronic configuration of their nearest
H
noble gas. In this case hydrogen, with only one
electron in its outer shell, needs to share one more
electron to gain the electronic configuration of Carbon atom 4 hydrogen atoms
helium. Chlorine has seven electrons in its outer
shell so it also needs to share one more electron,
this time to gain the electronic configuration of the
noble gas argon (Figure 3.14).

H CI

A Figure 3.14 Dot-and-cross diagram to show the

formation of a hydrogen chloride molecule.

Methane molecule (CH)

AFigure 3.15 Dot-and-cross diagram to show the
formation of a methane molecule

39
 3 BONDING AND STRUCTURE

N H

A Figure 3.16 Model of a methane molecule

Ammonia is a gas containing the elements
and hydrogen. It is used in nitrogen H
fertilisers. The electronic large amounts to make
elements are: configurations of the two

N 2,5 HI Nitrogen atom 3 hydrogen atoms

The nitrogen atom needs three more electrons

to obtain the noble
gas structure of neon. Each
hydrogen requires only one electron to form the noble
gas structure of helium. The nitrogen and
atoms share electrons, hydrogen
forming three single covalent
bonds (Figure 3.17).
Water is a liquid containing the elements H
and oxygen. The electronic hydrogen N

two elements are:

configurations of the
0 2,6 H
The oxygen atom needs two electrons to
gain the
electronicconfiguration neon. Each hydrogen
of
requires one more electron to gain the electronic
configuration of helium. Again, the oxygen and
hydrogen atoms share electrons, forming a water Ammonia molecule (NH)
molecule with two single covalent bonds as shown
in Figure 3.19. A Figure 3.17 Dot-and-cross diagram to show the
formation of an ammonia molecule

40
 3.2 Covalent honding
******.

A Figure 3.18 Model of the ammonia molecule A Figure 3.20 Model of a water molecule

Carbon dioxide is a gas containing the

elements carbon and oxygen. The electronic
configurations of the two elements are:

C2,4 0 2,6
O
In this case each carbon atom needs to share
four electrons to gain the electronic configuration
of neon. Each oxygen needs to share two
electrons to gain the electronic configuration
of neon. This is achieved by forming two double
covalent bonds in which two pairs of electrons
Oxygen atom 2 hydrogen atoms are shared in each case, as shown in Figure 3.21.
Carbon dioxide is a linear molecule (Figure 3.22).

O 2 oxygen atoms Carbon atom

Water molecule (H,0)

A Figure 3.19 Dot-and-cross diagram to show the

formation of a water molecule
Carbon dioxide molecule (CO,)
A Figure 3.21 Dot-and-cross diagram to show the
formation of a carbon dioxide molecule

41
3
BONDING AND
STRUCTURE . *****i,

O=C=o has the electronic

Each nitrogen atom
a
Carbon dioxide shown below:
molecule. Notet nthee double covalent Configuration
is
represented by a double
line
double covalent bond
bona
N 2.5

Both nitrogen atoms in the molecule need to

to share
gain the electronic
a further three electrons
noble gas neon.
configuration of the
The triple bond can be shown in the molecule-
N=N.

N N

b Model of a linear carbon dioxide

molecule
A Figure 3.22

Another molecule which A Figure 3.24 Dot-and-cross diagram to show the bondino
covalent bond is that of contains a double in a nitrogen molecule

the oxygen atoms has sixoxygen gas, 0,. Each of Methanol, CH,OH, is a molecule which contain
electron shell. electrons in its outer
three different types of atom. When this happens
and you need to draw a dot-and-cross diagram,
26 simply make sure that atoms which bond with one
Each needs to share another another do not both have dots or crosses. In this
two electrons to gain
the electronic molecule the atoms have these configurations:
configuration the noble gas neon.
of
C 2,4 HI 02,6
The carbon atom needs to share four further
O O electrons which it can do with the three hydrogens;
each needs to share one more electron, and the
oxygen atom. The oxygen atom, which shares one
electron with the carbon atom, shares another
electron with the remaining hydrogen atom. By
doing this, the hydrogen atoms gain the electronic
configuration of helium, and the carbon and oxygen
atoms gain the electronic configuration of neon.
The dot-and-cross diagram for methanol is:

A Figure 3.23 Dot-and-cross diagram to show the H

formation of an oxygen molecule

As with the carbon dioxide molecule, the double

bond can be shown by a double line between the
H
O H
two oxygen atoms, representing two shared pairs
of electrons.
O-O
Nitrogen gas, N, is molecule which contains a
triple covalent bond. A triple covalent bond is
formed when three pairs of electrons are shared A Figure 3.25 Dot-and-cross diagram
and it is represented by '=. formation of
to show the
a methanol molecule

42
 3.2 Covalent bonding

Giant covalent structures contain many

Test yourself
hundreds of thousands of atoms joined by strong
8 What do you understand
by the term covalent covalent bonds. Examples of substances with
bond'?
this type of structure are diamond, graphite and
9 Draw diagrams to
represent the bonding in
silicon(IV) oxide (Figure 3.27).
each of the following covalent
a tetrachloromethane (CCl compounds:
b hydrogen sulfide (H,S) Properties of covalent compounds
Covalent compounds have the following properties.
»As simple molecular compounds, they are usually
Covalent structures gases, liquids or solids with low melting and
Compounds containing covalent bonds have boiling points.
molecules whose structures can be classified as The melting points are low because of the weak
either simple molecular or giant covalent.
Simple molecular structures are simple, formed intermolecular forces of attraction which exist
between simple molecules. These are weaker
from only a few atoms. They have strong covalent compared to the strong covalent bonds. Giant
bonds between the atoms within a molecule covalent substances have higher melting points,
(intramolecular bonds) but have weak bonds because the whole structure is held together by
between the molecules
(intermolecular forces). strong covalent bonds.

Going further It should be noted that in ionic compounds,

the interionic forces are much stronger than
Some of the strongest of these weak intermolecular the intermolecular forces in simple covalent
forces ocur between water molecules.
substances and so the melting and boiling points
One type of weak bond between molecules is known are generally higher.
asthe van der Waals bond lor force), and these
forces »Generally, they do not conduct electricity when
increase steadily with the increasing size of the
molecule.
molten or dissolved in water. This is because they
do not contain ions. However, some molecules
react with water to form ions. For example,
Examples of simple molecules are iodine
hydrogen chloride gas produces aqueous hydrogen
(Figure 3.26), methane, water and ethanol. ions and chloride ions when it dissolves in water:
Weak intermolecular bond
HCI(g) w H*(aqg) + Cl (aq)
The presence of the ions allows the solution to
conduct electricity.
Strong covalent bond »Generaly, they do not dissolve in water. However,
water is an excellent solvent and can interact
AFigure 3.26 Strong covalent and weak intermolecular with and dissolve some covalent molecules
forces in iodine better than others. Covalent substances are
generally soluble in organic solvents.

43
 3 BONDING AND STRUCTURE

b Quartz is a hard solid at room temperature. It has a

a The siliconlIV) oxide structure melting point of 1610°C and a boiling point of 2230°C
in quartz
A Figure 3.27

Going further
Giant covalent structures physical forms is called an allotrope. Allotropy is
When an element can exist in more than one physical actually quite a common feature of the elements in the
form in the same physical state, it is said to exhibit Periodic Table (p. 135]. An example of an element which
allotropy lor polymorphism). Each of the different shows allotropy is carbon.

R) Practical skills
Testing the electrical conductivity of ionic and
covalent substances
Safety
Eye protection must be worn.
For safe experiments/demonstrations which Take care when handling dilute
are related to this chapter, please refer to the aqueous
solutions: most are low hazard
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Practical Skills
(and should all
be sIM); 0.2-1.0
Workbook, which is also part of this series.
mol/dm copper(I1) sulfate
solution is an irritant and corrosive.
 3.2 Covalent bonding

The apparatus was set up as shown in the

diagram on the right to investigate the electrical
conductivity of a number of compounds in
aqueous solution.
Describe the experimental method you could Cathode (-)F (+) Anode

use to carry out a fair test on a

variety of ionic
and covalent substances dissolved in water
and using the apparatus shown in the
diagram. Graphite
electrodes

Test solution

Does the substance in solution Does the substance in solution

Solution Doesthe bulb light? conduct electricity? contain ionic or covalent bonding?

Glucose ICH,0 No

Potassium chloride Yes

Calcium chloride Yes
Sodium iodide Yes

Ethanol (CH,OH) No
CopperlII) sulfate Yes
Pure water No

Copy and complete the results table above. 5 Predict and explain the results you would
3 Using your answers to columns three and obtain for magnesium nitrate solution.
four in the results table, write a conclusion for 6 Predict and explain the results you would
obtain with just distilled water - that is, no
this experiment. In your conclusion, state and
explain ay trends shown in the results. dissolved substance present.
4 Would the results be different if solid potassium
chloride were used instead of potassium
chloride solution? Explain your answer.

Different forms of carbon

Carbon is a non-metallic element which exists in so they exhibit different physical properties
more than one solid structural form. These are (Table 3.2). The different physical properties that
graphite and diamond. Each of the forms has a they exhibit lead to graphite and diamond being
different structure (Figures 3.28 and 3.29) and used in different ways (Table 3.3 and Figure 3.30)

45
3 BONDING AND STRUCTURE

structure
A small part of the

One layer

Showing how the layers fit together

a A portion of the graphite structure

A view of a much larger part

of the structure

a The structure of diamond

b A piece of graphite as imaged through a scanning

tunnelling microscope b The Regent Diamond has been worn by Queen Elizabeth
A Figure 3.28 A Figure 3.29

46
 3.2 Covalent bonding

Table 3.2 Physical properties of graphite and diamond Table 3.3 Uses of graphite and diamond

Property Graphite Diamond Graphite Diamond

Appearance A dark
grey, shiny A colourless Pencils Jewellery
solid
transparent crystal Electrodes Glass cutters
which sparkles
n light Lubricant Diamond-studded saws

Electrical Conducts Does not conduct Drill bits

conductivity electricity electricity Polishers
Hardness A soft material A very hard
with a
slippery feel substance
Density lg/cm 2.25 3.51

Graphite Diamond
Figure 3.28a shows the structure of graphite. This Figure 3.29a shows the diamond structure. Each of
is a layer structure. Within each layer, each carbon the carbon atoms in the giant structure is covalently
atom is bonded to three others by strong covalent bonded to four others. They form a tetrahedral
bonds. Each layer is therefore like a giant molecule.
arrangement similar to that found in silicon(IV) oxide
Between these layers there are weak forces of (p. 44). This bonding scheme gives rise to a very
attraction and so the layers will pass over each rigid three-dimensional structure and accounts for
other easily. the extreme hardness of the substances silicon(IV)
With only three covalent bonds formed between oxide and diamond. All the outer shell electrons of
carbon atoms within the layers, an unbonded the carbon atoms are used to form covalent bonds, so
electron is present on each carbon atom. These there are no electrons available to enable diamond or
spare' (or delocalised) electrons form electron silicon(IV) oxide to conduct electricity.
clouds between the layers and it is because of these It is possible to manufacture the different
spare electrons that graphite conducts electricity. allotropes of carbon. Diamond is made by heating
graphite to about 300°C at very high pressures.
Diamond made by this method is known as industrial
Going further diamond. Graphite can be made by heating a
mixture of coke and sand at a very high temperature
Graphitic compounds in an electric arc furnace for about 24 hours.
In recent years, a set of interesting compounds
known as graphitic compounds have been developed. The various uses of graphite and diamond result
In these compounds, different atoms have been fited from their differing properties (Figure 3.30).
in between the layers of carbon atoms to produce a
substance with a greater electrical conductivity than
pure graphite. Graphite is also used as a component
in certain sports equipment, such as tennis and
squash rackets.

Going further

Graphene
Discovered in 2004, graphene is a so-called super
material made up of single layers of graphite
as
3.28a. It is
shown in the upper diagram of Figure
million times better
able to conduct electricity one

has potential in
than copper metal and enormous

electronics.

47
 3
BONDING AND
STRUCTURE
****

A IA

A FIgure 3.30 Uses of graphite las a pencil 'lead' and in a squash racket) and diamond las a toothed saw to cut marble and
on a dentist's drill)

Going further
Buckminsterfullerene an unusual form of Buckminsterfullerene is named after an American
carbon architect, Buckminster Fuller, who built complex
geometrical structures (Figure 3.32).
In 1985, a new allotrope of carbon was obtained by
Richard Smalley and Robert Curl of Rice University,
Texas. It was formed by the action of a laser beam on a
sample of graphite.
The structure of buckminsterfullerene can be seen in
Figure 3.31.
This spherical structure is composed of 60 carbon
atoms covalently bonded together. Further spherical
forms of carbon, bucky balls, containing 70, 72 and
84 carbon atoms have been identified and the discovery
has led to a whole new branch of inorganic carbon
exists
chemistry. It is thought that this type of molecule
have suggested that, due to
in chimney soot. Chemists
of the bucky balls, they may have
the large surface area

uses as (Chapter 7. p. 106). Also they may have

catalysts
uses as superconductors.
AFigure 3.31 Buckminsterfullerene -a 'bucky ball'

48
 3.2 Covalent bonaing

A Figure 3.32 Cohas a structure similar to a football and to the structure of the domes shown

Test yourself
10 Explain the difference between ionic and covalent 12 Draw up a table to summarise the properties of the
bonding. different types of substances you have met in this
chapter. Your table should include examples from
11 Compare the structures of silicon[IV) oxide and
ionic substances and covalent substances lsimple
diamond.
and giant.

Going further
Glasses and ceramics
Glasses
Glasses are all around us. Glasses are irregular giant
molecular structures held together by strong covalent
bonds. Glass can be made by heating siliconlIV] oxide
with other substances until a thick viscous liquid is
formed. As this liquid cools, the atoms present cannot
move freely enough to return to their arrangement
within the pure silicon[IV) oxide structure. Instead they
are forced to form a disordered arrangement as shown
Si
in Figure 3.33. Glass is called a supercooled liquid.
Figure 3.33 Two-dimensional structure of siliconlIVl
oxide in glass

49
3 BONDING AND
STRUCTURE

Ceramics atype of glass,

consists or many tiny mineral cre
stals
The word with glass.
ceramic comes from bonded together
the Greek word keramos
meaning pottery or "burnt uses of these ceramic mata
ground contains a mixture stuff'. Clay dug from the There are now many
rials,
of several materials
including siliconlIV) oxide. During such as ceramic
discs, which
ceramic
prevents
short-circuits
tiles,, which tect
clay is heated to a firing in a furnace, the the national grid pylons;
temperature of 1000°C. The and ceramic bearings that do nat
need
produced at the end of the the spacecraft;
materiaIs
firing, the ceramic, which lubrication.

3.3 Metallic bonding metal is connected in a circuit, the electrone

terminal while at
move towards the positive
Another way in which atoms the
obtain a more stable
electronic configuration is found
same time electrons are fed into the other end
in metals. The of the metal from the negative terminal.
electrons in the outer shell of the
atom of »They are malleable and ductile. Unlike thefixed
freely throughout the structure. They aremetal
a
move
bonds in diamond, metallic bonds are not rigid.
delocalised, forming a mobile 'sea of electrons but they are still strong. If a force is applied to
(Figure 3.34). When the metal atoms lose
electrons, they form a giant lattice of these ions. a metal, rows of ions can slide Over one another.

Therefore, metals consist of positive They reposition themselves and the strong bonde
in a sea of positive ions embedded re-form as shown in Figure 3.35. "Malleable'
moving electrons. The negatively charged means that metals can be bent or hammered inta
electrons attract all the positive metal ions
them and bond different shapes. 'Ductile means that the metals
together with strong electrostatic forces of can be pulled out into thin wires.
attraction as a
single unit. This is the metallic bond. »They usually have high melting and boiling points
due to the strong attraction between the positive
metal ions and the mobile sea' of electrons.

Force
applied
here

Before

A Figure 3.34 Metals consist of positive ions surrounded

by a sea of delocalised electrons

Properties of metals
Metals have the following properties.
After
»
They conduct electricity due to the mobile A
electrons within the metal structure. When a Figure 3.35 The positions of the
before and after a force has positive ions in a metal
been applied

50
 3.3 Metal1c bonding

»They have high densities because the atoms are

very closely packed in a regular manner, as can Test yourself
be seen in Figure 3.36. Different metals have 13 Explain the terms.
different types of packing of atoms and in doing a malleable
so they produce the arrangements of ions shown b ductile
14 Explain why metals are able to conduct
in Figure 3.37.
electricity.

A Figure 3.36 Arrangement of ions in the crystal lattice

of a metal

Going further

Close-packed Body-centred Face-centred

hexagonal structure Cubic structure Cubic structure
(eg. magnesiun, (e.g. iron, (e.g.copper,
density density= density=
1.74 g cm) 7.87gcm) 8.92 g cm3)

Figure 3.37 Relating different structures to the density of metals

51
 3 BONDING AND
STRUCTURE

Revision checklist
oxidation and
reduction in redox react ons
After studying Chapter 3 you should be able to: ldentify
Explain how compounds form between metals and ana reducing agents in
oxidising agents
non-metals. ldentify
redox reactions.
Describe the properties of ionic compounds.
Explain in terms of structure and bonding the between
simple compounds form
vExplain how
properties of ionic compounds. covalent bonds
non-metals by single
Work out the formulae of ionic substances from compounds containing mutini
the charges on the ions. Explain how simple non-metals.
form between
covalent bonds

ldentify redox reactions as reactions involving gain and explain the properties ofsimple
Describe
and loss of oxygen.
covalent compounds.
structures of graphite
ldentify redox reactions as reactions involving Describe the giant covalent
and diamond.
gain and loss of electrons.
Identify redox reactions by changes in oxidation structure of siliconliv
Describe the giant covalent
number.
oxide, Si0
Define redox reactions as involving simultaneous graphite and diamond to
Relate the structures of
oxidation and reduction
their usesS.
ldentify oxidation as gain of oxygen and reduction
as loss of oxygen. Describe the similarity in properties between
related to their
diamond and siliconlIV) Oxide,
Define oxidation as loss of electrons and increase
structures.
in oxidation number, and reduction as gain of
Describe the arrangement of particles in a solid
electrons and reduction in oxidation number.
metal.
Identify redox reactions by the colour changes metal held
Recognise that the particles in a are
involved when using acidified potassium
together by metallic bonds
manganatelVII) or potassium iodide.
Describe metallic bonding.
Define an oxidising agent as a substance that
U s e metallic bonding to explain some of the
oxidises another substance and is itself reduced
properties of metals.
during a redox reaction.
Define a reducing agent as a substance that
reduces another substance and is itself oxidised
during a redox reaction.

52
 Exam-siyle quest:ons

Exam-style
1Define
questions
the following: 5 Atoms of elements X, Y and Z have 16, 17 and
a positive (+) ion 19 electrons, respectively. Atoms of argon have
b negative (-) ion 12
[2] 18 electrons.
cionic bond (2 a Determine the formulae of the compounds
d electrostatic force of attraction. formed by the combination of the atoms of
2 Using Table 3.1 on p. 35, write down the
[2
names of: the elements:
a three atoms which would form an ion
with a charge of +2
i X and Z (1
b three atoms which would form an ion
31 ii Y and Z [1
with a charge of +1
ii X with itself. 1
3 b In each of the cases shown in a i-ii above,
c three
atoms/groups of atoms which would identify the type of chemical bond formed. [3]
form an ion with a charge of -2. cGive two properties you would expect each
(3
of the compounds formed in a ii and ii
3 Sketch diagrams to show the bonding in each
of the following compounds:
to have. [4
a calcium fluoride
(CaF2) [4 6 Explain the following statements.
b oxygen (0,) [4] a Ammonia is a gas at room temperature. [3]
cmagnesium chloride (MgCl,) 4 b The melting points of sodium chloride
d tetrachloromethane (CCL). 41
4 Use the information given in Table 3.1
and iodine are very different.
cMetals generally are good conductors
8
on p. 35 to deduce the formula for: of electricity. B]
a silver oxide d Graphite acts as a lubricant but diamond
b zinc chloride does not.
c potassium sulfate
d calcium nitrate
e iron(11) nitrate
copper(II) carbonate
9 iron(1I) hydroxide
h aluminium fluoride. 8

53