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Philosophy
|
The Quest for Truth
Tenth Edition

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Philosophy
|
The Quest for Truth
Tenth Edition

Louis P. Pojm a n
Lew is Vaughn

New York Oxford
OX F OR D UNI V E R SI T Y PR E SS

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Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the
University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing
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certain other countries.

Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press


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© 2017, 2014, 2012, 2009, 2006, 2003 by Oxford University Press


© 1999, 1996, 1992, 1989 by Wadsworth

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All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in
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reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department,
Oxford University Press, at the address above.

You must not circulate this work in any other form


and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Pojman, Louis P., editor. | Vaughn, Lewis, editor.


Title: Philosophy : the quest for truth / [edited by] Louis P. Pojman, Lewis Vaughn.
Other titles: Philosophy (Oxford University Press)
Description: Tenth Edition. | New York : Oxford University Press, 2016. |
Description based on print version record and CIP data provided by
publisher; resource not viewed.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016033600 (print) | LCCN 2016033063 (ebook) | ISBN
9780190254810 (Ebook) | ISBN 9780190254773 (pbk.)
Subjects: LCSH: Philosophy--Introductions.
Classification: LCC BD21 (print) | LCC BD21 .P48 2016 (ebook) | DDC 100--dc23 LC
record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016033600

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Printed by R.R. Donnelley, United States of America

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Dedicated to Teachers
who themselves are dedicated
to opening the hearts of the young
to the love of wisdom and
the quest for truth

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Contents
|
Preface xiii
Time Line xv

I. What Is Philosophy? 1
The Good of Philosophy 2
Philosophical Terrain 3
Thinking Philosophically 5
Reasons and Arguments 5
Fallacious Reasoning 14
Identifying Arguments 19
Some Applications 21
Exercises in Critical Reasoning 22
Study and Discussion Questions 25
1. Plato: Socratic Wisdom 27
2. Plato: The Allegory of the Cave 39
3. John Locke: Of Enthusiasm and the Quest for Truth 42
4. Bertrand Russell: The Value of Philosophy 49
Key Terms 53
Suggestions for Further Reasoning 53

II. Philosophy of Religion 55


Introduction
II.A. Is Belief in God Rationally Justified?
Arguments for the Existence of God 56
The Cosmological Argument
Pro
5. Th­­­omas Aquinas: The Five Ways 60
6. William Lane Craig: The Kalam Cosmological Argument
and the Anthropic Principle 64
Contra
7. Paul Edwards: A Critique of the Cosmological Argument 82

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viii c on t e n t s

The Teleological Argument


Pro
8. William Paley: The Watch and the Watchmaker 92
Contra
9. David Hume: A Critique of the Teleological Argument 95
The Ontological Argument
Pro et Contra
10. St. Anselm and Gaunilo: The Ontological Argument 102
11. William Rowe: An Analysis of the Ontological Argument 105
II.B. Why Is There Evil? 117
12. Fyodor Dostoevsky: Why Is There Evil? 118
13. B. C. Johnson: Why Doesn’t God Intervene to Prevent Evil? 122
14. John Hick: There Is a Reason Why God Allows Evil 128
15. William L. Rowe: The Problem of Evil and Some Varieties
of Atheism 133
II.C.   Is Faith Compatible with Reason? 142
16. Blaise Pascal: Yes, Faith Is a Logical Bet 142
17. W. K. Clifford: The Ethics of Belief 146
18. William James: The Will to Believe 151
19. Antony Flew, R. M. Hare, and Basil Mitchell: A Debate
on the Rationality of Religious Belief 160
20. Alvin Plantinga: Religious Belief Without Evidence 166
21. Søren Kierkegaard: Faith and Truth 178
22. Bertrand Russell: Can Religion Cure Our Troubles? 182
Key Terms 188
Suggestions for Further Reading 189

III. Knowledge 191


Introduction
III.A.   What Can We Know? Classical Theories of Knowledge 192
23. René Descartes: Cartesian Doubt and the Search for
Foundational Knowledge 194
24. John Locke: The Empiricist Theory of Knowledge 200
25. George Berkeley: An Idealist Theory of Knowledge 212
26. David Hume: The Origin of Our Ideas 222
27. G. E. Moore: Proof of an External World 224
III.B.   Truth, Rationality, and Cognitive Relativism 228
28. Bertrand Russell: The Correspondence Theory of Truth 230
29. William James: The Pragmatic Theory of Truth 235
30. Richard Rorty: Dismantling Truth: Solidarity Versus
Objectivity 244
31. Daniel Dennett: Postmodernism and Truth 252

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Contents ix

III.C.   Feminist Perspectives on Knowledge 259


32. Eve Browning Cole: Philosophy and Feminist Criticism 259
33. Alison Ainley: Feminist Philosophy 263
III.D.  Induction 265
34. David Hume: Skeptical Doubts Concerning the
Operations of the Understanding 266
35. Wesley C. Salmon: The Problem of Induction 277
Key Terms 285
Suggestions for Further Reading 285

IV. Philosophy of Mind: The Mind-Body Problem 287


Introduction
IV.A.   What Am I? A Mind or a Body? 288
36. René Descartes: Substance Dualism 291
37. Gilbert Ryle: Exorcising Descartes’ “Ghost in the Machine” 298
38. J. P. Moreland: A Contemporary Defense of Dualism 305
39. Paul Churchland: On Functionalism and Materialism 316
40. J. J. C. Smart: Sensations and Brain Processes 331
41. Thomas Nagel: What Is It Like to Be a Bat? 341
42. Jerry A. Fodor: The Mind-Body Problem 349
43. David Chalmers: Property Dualism 360
44. John Searle: Minds, Brains, and Computers 362
45. Ned Block: Troubles with Functionalism 370
IV.B.   Who Am I? Do We Have Personal Identity? 376
46. John Locke: Our Psychological Properties Define the Self 380
47. David Hume: We Have No Substantial Self with Which
We Are Identical 383
Key Terms 386
Suggestions for Further Reading 386

V. Freedom of the Will and Determinism 389


Introduction
Contra
48. Baron d’Holbach: We Are Completely Determined 395
Pro
49. William James: The Dilemma of Determinism 400
50. Roderick M. Chisholm: Human Freedom and the Self 411
Pro et Contra
51. Harry Frankfurt: Freedom of the Will and the
Concept of a Person 419
52. David Hume: Liberty and Necessity 429

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x c on t e n t s

Key Terms 432


Suggestions for Further Reading 432

VI. Ethics 435


Introduction
VI.A. Are There Any Moral Absolutes or Is Morality
Completely Relative? 439
53. Ruth Benedict: Morality Is Relative 440
54. James Rachels: Morality Is Not Relative 445
VI.B.   Ethics and Egoism: Why Should We Be Moral? 454
55. Plato: Why Should I Be Moral? Gyges’ Ring and
Socrates’ Dilemma 455
56. Louis P. Pojman: Egoism and Altruism:
A Critique of Ayn Rand 461
57. Joel Feinberg: Psychological Egoism 466
VI.C.   Which Is the Correct Ethical Theory? 480
58. Immanuel Kant: The Moral Law 480
59. John Stuart Mill: Utilitarianism 493
60. Bernard Williams: Against Utilitarianism 500
61. Aristotle: The Ethics of Virtue 508
62. Virginia Held: The Ethics of Care 518
63. Alison M. Jaggar: Feminist Ethics 528
64. Annette C. Baier: The Need for More
Than Justice 539
65. Jean-Paul Sartre: Existentialist Ethics 548
66. James Rachels: The Divine Command Theory 555
67. Thomas Nagel: Moral Luck 558
Key Terms 566
Suggestions for Further Reading 566

VII. Political Philosophy and Justice 569


Introduction
VII.A.   What Is the Most Just Form of Government? 570
68. Robert Paul Wolff: In Defense of Anarchism 571
69. Thomas Hobbes: The Absolutist Answer:
The Justification of the State Is the Security It Affords 576
70. John Locke: The Democratic Answer: The Justification of the
State Is Its Promotion of Security and Natural Human Rights 586
71. John Stuart Mill: A Classical Liberal Answer:
Government Must Promote Freedom 591

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Contents xi

72. John Rawls: The Contemporary Liberal Answer 598


73. Robert Nozick: Against Liberalism 608
VII.B.   What Is Social Justice? 618
74. Martin Luther King, Jr.: Nonviolence and Racial Justice 619
75. Susan Moller Okin: Justice, Gender, and the Family 621
76. Mary Wollstonecraft: A Vindication of the Rights
of Women 624
Key Terms 627
Suggestions for Further Reading 627

VIII. What Is the Meaning of Life? 629


Introduction
77. Epicurus: Moderate Hedonism 631
78. Epictetus: Stoicism: Enchiridion 637
79. Albert Camus: Life Is Absurd 646
80. Julian Baggini: Living Life Forwards 651
81. Louis P. Pojman: Religion Gives Meaning to Life 659
82. Thomas Nagel: The Absurd 663
83. Bertrand Russell: Reflections on Suffering 671
Suggestions for Further Reading 673

IX. Contemporary Moral Problems 675


Introduction
IX.A.   Is Abortion Morally Permissible? 676
Contra
84. Don Marquis: Why Abortion Is Immoral 677
85. Francis J. Beckwith: Arguments from Bodily Rights 691
Pro
86. Mary Anne Warren: On the Moral and Legal Status
of Abortion 704
87. Judith Jarvis Thomson: A Defense of Abortion 711
Pro et Contra
88. Jane English: The Moderate Position:
Beyond the Personhood Argument 723
IX.B.   Is the Death Penalty Morally Permissible? 730
Pro
89. Burton Leiser: The Death Penalty Is Permissible 731
Contra
90. Hugo Adam Bedau: No, the Death Penalty Is Not
Morally Permissible 737

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xii c on t e n t s

IX.C.   Should Society Permit Same-Sex Marriage? 747


Contra
91. Maggie Gallagher: What Marriage Is For:
Children Need Mothers and Fathers 747
Pro
92. Jonathan Rauch: For Better or Worse? 752
IX.D.   Do We Have Obligations to the Poor and Hungry? 759
Pro
93. Peter Singer: Famine, Affluence, and Morality 761
Contra
94. Garrett Hardin: Living on a Lifeboat 770
Suggestions for Further Reading 783

Appendix: How to Read and Write Philosophy Papers 785


Glossary 795

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Preface
|

T
hanks to the many teachers of philosophy who have reviewed this text, this
tenth edition of Philosophy: The Quest for Truth is a clear improvement over
the ninth. Yet the book stays true to its original intent—to provide an anthol-
ogy focused on the classic readings in the classic philosophical problems but firmly
planted in the middle ground between texts that are rigorous but inaccessible and
accessible but thin.
Ninety-four readings are arranged as far as possible in a pro/con format around
key philosophical questions; each selection comes with explanatory headnotes plus
questions before and after it; every major section has a substantial preface; Part I in-
cludes a logic and argument tutorial and a brief introduction to philosophy; and an
appendix offers helpful guidelines for reading and writing philosophy papers. All the
traditional problems of philosophy are represented here plus some nontraditional
ones: philosophy of religion, knowledge, philosophy of mind, personal identity, free
will and determinism, ethics, political philosophy, the meaning of life, and contem-
porary moral issues.

I mproveme n t s i n the T e n th E dition

• Added eight new readings with headnotes, study questions, and discussion
questions. Five of the new readings are by women—two in the Knowledge sec-
tion, two in Justice and Political Philosophy, and one in the Same-Sex Marriage
subsection:
32. Eve Browning Cole: Philosophy and Feminist Criticism
33. Alison Ainley: Feminist Philosophy
60. Bernard Williams: Against Utilitarianism
67. Thomas Nagel: Moral Luck
74. Martin Luther King, Jr.: Nonviolence and Racial Justice
75. Susan Moller Okin: Justice, Gender, and the Family
76. Mary Wollstonecraft: A Vindication of the Rights of Women
91. Maggie Gallagher: What Marriage Is For: Children Need Mothers and
Fathers

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xiv p r e fac e

• Added a new section: “What Is Social Justice?” in Part VII: Justice and Political
Philosophy.
• Revised Part I: What Is Philosophy?
• Added to Key Terms in several chapters and the Glossary; revised the Time
Line.
• Added more pages while continuing to keep the book’s price reasonable.

A ncillarie s

Along with a revised text comes updated ancillaries. These include the following:
• Online Instructor Resources on the book’s companion website, providing
• Summaries of every selection for easy reference
• Lists and definitions of Key Terms (also appearing as flashcards in the Student
Resources section of the website)
• Helpful Web Links (recommended to students for additional information)
• Sample Syllabi for planning courses
• Test Banks available to instructors in print and on CD
• Online Student Resources, offering
• Essay Questions for Review of every selection to reaffirm main ideas and
arguments
• Quizzes that test student knowledge of each selection
• Flashcards that highlight key terms and concepts
• Helpful Web Links that guide exploration of each philosophical problem

Ack nowledgme n t s

In the years since this text was first published, dozens of sharp reviewers have helped
to make it an extremely useful and a highly regarded anthology. For help with the
tenth edition, I am grateful to many more: Erik Anderson, Drew University; Sorin
Bangu, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; Thad Botham, Arizona State
University; Miguel Endara, Los Angeles Pierce College; William L. Langenfus, John
Carroll University; David McElhoes, University of Maryland; Jason Miller, Florida
State University; Michael Pace, Chapman University; Mark Piper, James Madison
University; Michael H. Reed, Eastern Michigan University; Joshua Rollins, Univer-
sity of Oklahoma; David Lee Stegall, Clemson University; Jeffrey Strayer, Indiana
University Purdue University Fort Wayne; and Rebecca Traynor, CUNY Queens
College. As always, many thanks are due my talented and hard-working editors at
Oxford University Press, especially Robert Miller, the guiding light of the project,
and Kristin Maffei and Emily Krupin.

Lewis Vaughn

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Time Line
|

T H E A NC I E N T PER IOD

Philosophers Dates Major Figures and Events


Socrates* c. 470–399 b.c. Trial and death of Socrates, 399 b.c.
Democritus c. 460–370 b.c.
Plato c. 427–347 b.c. Plato founds the Academy, c. 388 b.c.
Aristotle 384–322 b.c. Aristotle founds the Lyceum, 334 b.c.
Pyrrho c. 360–270 b.c. Death of Alexander the Great, 323 b.c.
Epicurus 341–270 b.c. Epicurus opens school in Athens, 306 b.c.
Zeno the Stoic c. 336–264 b.c. Zeno opens school at the Stoa, 301 b.c.
Rome conquers the Greek world,
200–128 b.c.
Caesar is dictator of Rome, 49–44 b.c.
Jesus Christ, c. 4 b.c.– a.d. 30
Epictetus c. 50–130 Romans destroy Temple in Jerusalem, 70
Marcus Aurelius 121–180
Sextus Empiricus c. 200

T H E M E DI EVA L PER IOD

Philosophers Dates Major Figures and Events


Constantine grants tolerance to
  Christianity, 313
Augustine 354–430 Theodosius I makes Christianity the
  state religion of Rome, 392
Boethius c. 480–524 Fall of the Roman Empire in the West, 476
Avicenna 980–1037

*Philosophers whose names apperar in boldface appear in this volume.

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xvi timeline

T H E M E DI EVA L PER IOD

Philosophers Dates Major Figures and Events


Gaunilo c. 1000
Anselm 1034–1109
Averroës 1126–1198 University of Paris founded, 1160
Thomas Aquinas 1225–1274
John Duns Scotus c. 1266–1308 The Black Death ravages Europe,
 1347–1351
William of Ockham c. 1285–1349

T H E MODER N PER IOD

Philosophers Dates Major Figures and Events


Johann Gutenberg invents the
  printing press, 1445
Leonardo da Vinci, 1452–1519
Thomas Hobbes 1588–1679
René Descartes 1596–1650 The reign of Louis XIV in France,
 1643–1715
Blaise Pascal 1623–1662
Benedict (Baruch) 1632–1677 Johann Sebastian Bach, 1685–1750
Spinoza
John Locke 1632–1704 Two Treatises on Government, 1689
Gottfried Wilhelm 1646–1716
Leibniz
George Berkeley 1685–1753 Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, 1756–1791
David Hume 1711–1776 Ludwig van Beethoven, 1770–1827
Adam Smith 1723–1790 The Wealth of Nations, 1776
Immanuel Kant 1724–1804 Critique of Pure Reason, 1781
Baron D’Holbach 1732–1789
William Paley 1743–1805
Jeremy Bentham 1748–1832 Industrial Revolution in England, c. 1790
Napoleon crowns himself emperor of
  France, 1804
Mary Wollstonecraft 1759–1797 Charles Darwin, 1809–1882
Richard Wagner, 1813–1883
Georg W. F. Hegel 1770–1831 Fyodor Dostoevsky, 1821–1881
Leo Tolstoy, 1828–1910

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xvii
Timeline 

T H E MODER N PER IOD

Philosophers Dates Major Figures and Events


Arthur Schopenhauer 1788–1860 Second French Revolution, 1830
Opium War in China, 1839
John Stuart Mill 1806–1873 On Liberty, 1859
Darwin’s Origin of Species, 1859
Søren Kierkegaard 1813–1855 Fear and Trembling, 1841
Karl Marx 1818–1883 The Communist Manifesto, 1848
Sigmund Freud, 1856–1939
Friedrich Nietzsche 1844–1900 Pablo Picasso, 1881–1973
James Joyce, 1882–1941
Virginia Woolf, 1882–1941
The Dreyfus Affair (France), 1899

T H E C ON T E M P OR A RY PER IOD

Philosophers Dates Major Figures and Events


Charles S. Peirce 1839–1914 Albert Einstein presents theory of
  relativity, 1905
William James 1842–1910
W. K. Clifford 1845–1879
Alfred North 1861–1947 Joseph Stalin becomes general secretary
Whitehead   of the Communist party, 1922
Bertrand Russell 1872–1970 The Great Depression, 1929–1939
Spanish Civil War, 1936–1939
G. E. Moore 1873–1958
W. T. Stace 1886–1967
Ludwig Wittgenstein 1889–1951 Second World War, 1939–1945
Martin Heidegger 1889–1976 Dropping of the atomic bomb on
 Hiroshima, August 6, 1945
Gilbert Ryle 1900–1976 Israel becomes a nation, 1949
Karl Popper 1902–1994 People’s Republic of China under
 Mao Tse-tung established, 1949
Crick and Watson identify the
  structure of DNA, 1953
Jean-Paul Sartre 1905–1980 Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962
Simone de Beauvoir 1908–1986
Willard V. O. Quine 1908–2000 War in Vietnam, 1954–1975
A. J. Ayer 1910–1989 Assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr.,
 1968

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xviii timeline

T H E C ON T E M P OR A RY PER IOD

Philosophers Dates Major Figures and Events


Albert Camus 1913–1960
Roderick M. 1916–1999
Chisholm
Philippa Foot b. 1920
J. J. Smart 1920–2012
John Rawls 1921–2002 A Theory of Justice, 1971
John Hick 1922–2012
Paul Edwards 1923–2004
Antony Flew 1923–2010
Wesley C. Salmon 1925–2001
Joel Feinberg 1926–2004
Harry Frankfurt b. 1929
Judith Jarvis b. 1929
Thomson
Annette C. Baier 1929–2012
Richard Rorty 1931–2007
William Rowe 1931–2015
Alvin Plantinga b. 1932
Michael Martin 1932–2015
John Searle b. 1932
Jerry A. Fodor b. 1935
Thomas Nagel b. 1937 Islamic terrorist attacks on U.S. World
  Trade Center and Pentagon,
 September 11, 2001
Robert Nozick b. 1938–2002
James Rachels 1941–2003
Daniel Dennett b. 1942
Paul Churchland b. 1942
Ned Block b. 1942
Peter van Inwagen b. 1942
Peter Singer b. 1946
Mary Anne Warren 1946–2010
Jane English 1947–1978
David Chalmers b. 1966

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Part I
|
What Is Philosophy?

The unexamined life is not worth living.


socr ates

If God held all Truth in His right hand and in His left hand the eternal
Quest for Truth, and said to me, “Choose!” I would with courage touch His
left and say, “Father, Give me this! The pure Truth is fit for you alone.”
g. e. lessing, Werke, vol. X, p. 53; my translation.

01-Pojman-Part01.indd 1 22/08/16 1:50 PM


P
hilosophy is the name that philosophers have given to both a discipline and
a process. As a discipline, philosophy is one of the humanities, a field of study
out of which several other fields have evolved—physics, biology, political sci-
ence, and many others. As a process, philosophy is a penetrating mode of reflection
for understanding life’s most important truths. This mode is what we may call the
philosophical method—the systematic use of critical reasoning to try to find answers
to fundamental questions about reality, morality, and knowledge. The method, how-
ever, is not a master key used exclusively by professional philosophers to unlock
mysteries hidden from common folk. The philosophical method is the birthright of
every person, for we are all born with the capacity to reason, to question, to discover.
For thousands of years, great minds like Aristotle, Plato, Confucius, Descartes,
Aquinas, and Sartre have used it in their search for wisdom, and what they found has
changed countless lives. But amateur philosophers like you have also used it—and
continue to use it—to achieve life-­altering understanding that would have eluded
them otherwise.

T h e G o od of Ph i lo s oph y

Philosophy is not just about ideas; it’s about fundamental ideas, those upon which
other ideas depend. A fundamental belief logically supports other beliefs, and the more
beliefs it supports the more fundamental it is. Your belief or disbelief in God, for exam-
ple, might support a host of other beliefs about morality, life after death, heaven, hell,
free will, science, evolution, prayer, abortion, miracles, homosexuality, and more.
Thanks to your upbringing, your culture, your peers, and other influences, you already
have a head full of fundamental beliefs, some of them true, some false. Whether true or
false, they constitute the framework of your whole belief system, and as such they help
you make sense of a wide range of important issues in life—issues concerning what
exists and what doesn’t, what actions are right or wrong (or neither), and what kinds of
things we can know and not know. Fundamental beliefs, therefore, make up your “phi-
losophy of life,” which informs your thinking and guides your actions.
Perhaps now you can better appreciate philosophy’s greatest practical benefit: it
gives us the intellectual wherewithal to improve our lives by improving our philoso-
phy of life. A faulty philosophy of life—that is, one that comprises a great many false
fundamental beliefs—can lead to a misspent or misdirected life, a life less meaningful
than it could be. Philosophy is the most powerful instrument we have for evaluating
the worth of our fundamental beliefs and for changing them for the better. Through
philosophy we exert control over the trajectory of our lives, making major course
corrections by reason and reflection.
The Greek philosopher Socrates (469–399 b.c.), one of Western civilization’s great
intellectual heroes, says, “An unexamined life is not worth living.” To examine your
life is to scrutinize the core ideas that shape it, and the deepest form of scrutiny is
exercised through philosophy. This search for answers goes to the heart of the tradi-
tional conception of philosophy as a search for wisdom (the term philosophy is derived
from Greek words meaning “love of wisdom”). With the attainment of wisdom, we
come to understand the true nature of reality and how to apply that understanding
to living a good life.
2

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Part One: What Is Philosophy? 3

Philosophy’s chief theoretical benefit is the same one that most other fields of in-
quiry pursue: understanding for its own sake. Even if philosophy had no practical
applications at all, it would still hold great value for us. We want to know how the
world works, what truths it hides, just for the sake of knowing. And philosophy
obliges. Astronomers search the sky, physicists study subatomic particles, and archae-
ologists search for ancient ruins, all the while knowing that what they find may have
no practical implications at all. We humans wonder, and that’s often all the reason we
need to search for answers. As the great philosopher Aristotle says, “For it is owing
to their wonder that people both now begin and at first began to philosophize.”
For many people, the quest for understanding through philosophy is a spiritual,
transformative endeavor, an ennobling pursuit of truths at the core of life. Thus,
several philosophers speak of philosophy as something that enriches or nurtures the
soul or mind. Socrates, speaking to the jurors who condemned him for practicing
philosophy on the streets of Athens, asked, “Are you not ashamed that, while you
take care to acquire as much wealth as possible, with honor and glory as well, yet you
take no care or thought for understanding or truth, or for the best possible state of
your soul?” In a similar vein, the Greek philosopher Epicurus (341–270 b.c.) said,
“Let no young man delay the study of philosophy, and let no old man become weary
of it; for it is never too early nor too late to care for the well-­being of the soul.” And
in our own era, the philosopher Walter Kaufmann (1921–1980) declared, “Philoso-
phy means liberation from the two dimensions of routine, soaring above the well
known, seeing it in new perspectives, arousing wonder and the wish to fly.”
Along with philosophical inquiry comes freedom. We begin our lives at a particular
place and time, steeped in the ideas and values of a particular culture, fed ready-made
beliefs that may or may not be true and that we may never think to question. If you
passively accept such beliefs, then those beliefs are not really yours. If they are not
really yours, and you let them guide your choices and actions, then they—not you—
are in charge of your life. You thus forfeit your personal freedom. But philosophy
helps us rise above this predicament, to transcend the narrow and obstructed stand-
point from which we may view everything. It helps us sift our hand-­me-­down beliefs
in the light of reason, look beyond the prejudices that blind us, and see what’s real
and true. By using the philosophical method, we may learn that some of our beliefs
are on solid ground and some are not. In either case, through philosophy our beliefs
become truly and authentically our own.

Ph i lo s oph ic a l T er r a i n

Philosophy’s sphere of interest is vast, encompassing fundamental beliefs drawn from


many places. Philosophical questions can arise anywhere. Part of the reason for this
is that ordinary beliefs that seem to have no connection with philosophy can become
philosophical in short order. A physiologist may want to know how our brains work,
but she ventures into the philosophical arena when she wonders whether the brain is
the same thing as the mind—a question that science alone cannot answer. A lawyer
studies how the death penalty is administered in Texas, but he does philosophy when
he considers whether capital punishment is ever morally permissible. A medical

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4 pa r t on e : w h a t i s p h i l o s op h y ?

scientist wants to know how a human fetus develops, but she finds it difficult to avoid
the philosophical query of what the moral status of the fetus is. An astrophysicist
studies the Big Bang, the cataclysmic explosion thought to have brought the universe
into being—but then asks whether the Big Bang shows that God caused the universe
to exist. On CNN you see the horrors of war and famine, but then you find yourself
grappling with whether they can be squared with the existence of an all-­powerful,
all-­k nowing, and all-­good God. Or you wonder what your moral obligations are to
the poor and hungry of the world. Or you ponder whether government should help
people in need or leave them to fend for themselves.
We can divide philosophy’s subject matter into four main divisions, each of which
is a branch of inquiry in its own right with many subcategories. Here’s a brief run-
down of these divisions and a sampling of the kinds of questions that each asks.
Metaphysics is the study of reality in the broadest sense, an inquiry into the ele-
mental nature of the universe and the things in it. Though it must take into account
the findings of science, metaphysics generally focuses on basic questions that science
cannot address. Questions of interest: Does the world consist only of matter, or is it
made up of other basic things, such as ideas or minds? Is there a spiritual, ideal realm
that exists beyond the material world? Is the mind the same thing as the body? How
are mind and body related? Do people have immortal souls? Do humans have free
will, or are our actions determined by forces beyond our control? Can they be both
free and determined? Does God exist? How can both a good God and evil exist si-
multaneously? What is the nature of causality? Can an effect ever precede its cause?
What is the nature of time? Is time travel possible?
Epistemology is the study of knowledge. Questions of interest: What is knowl-
edge? What is truth? Is knowledge possible—can we ever know anything? Does
knowledge require certainty? What are the sources of knowledge? Is experience a
source of knowledge? Is mysticism or faith a source? Can we gain knowledge of the
empirical world through reason alone? If we have knowledge, how much do we have?
When are we justified in saying that we know something? Do we have good reasons
to believe that the world exists independently of our minds? Or do our minds consti-
tute reality?
Axiology is the study of value, including both aesthetic value and moral value.
The study of moral value is known as ethics. Ethics involves inquiries into the nature
of moral judgments, virtues, values, obligations, and theories. Questions of interest:
What makes an action right (or wrong)? What things are intrinsically good? What is
the good life? What gives life meaning? What makes someone good (or bad)? What
moral principles should guide our actions and choices? Which is the best moral
theory? Is killing ever morally permissible? If so, why? Are moral standards objective
or subjective? Is an action right merely because a culture endorses it? Does morality
depend on God? What makes a society just?
Logic is the study of correct reasoning. Questions of interest: What are the rules
for drawing correct inferences? What are the nature and structure of deductive argu-
ments? How can propositional or predicate logic be used to evaluate arguments?
Upon what logical principles does reasoning depend? Does logic describe how the
world is—or just how our minds work? Can conclusions reached through inductive
logic be rationally justified?

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Part One: What Is Philosophy? 5

In addition to these divisions, there are subdivisions of philosophy whose job is to


examine critically the assumptions and principles that underlie other fields. Thus we
have the philosophy of science, the philosophy of law, the philosophy of mathematics,
the philosophy of history, the philosophy of language, and many others. When those
laboring in a discipline begin questioning its most basic ideas—ideas that define its
subject matter and principles of inquiry—philosophy, the most elemental mode of
investigation, steps in.

T h i n k i ng Ph i lo s oph ic a lly

As we have seen, to think philosophically is to bring your powers of critical reasoning


to bear on fundamental questions. When you do this, you are usually clarifying the
meaning of concepts, constructing and evaluating philosophical theories, or devising
and evaluating logical arguments. This latter task constitutes the principal labor of
philosophy. Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Descartes, and other great thinkers do not
deliver their philosophical insights to us without argument, as if we are automatically
to accept their views with no questions asked. Philosophers provide reasons for think-
ing their ideas are plausible—that is, they give us arguments. And if we believe what
they say, it should be because there are good reasons for doing so. Likewise, if we
expect intelligent people to accept our philosophical views, we must argue our case.
Since the philosophy we read will most likely contain arguments, our understanding
of the text will hang on our ability to identify and understand those arguments.

Reasons and Arguments


As you might have guessed, the term argument does not refer to heated disagree-
ments or emotional squabbles. An argument is a group of statements in which one
of them is meant to be supported by the others. A statement (or claim) is an asser-
tion that something is or is not the case and is therefore the kind of utterance that is
either true or false. In an argument, the statement being supported is the conclusion,
and the statements supporting the conclusion are the premises. The premises are
meant to provide reasons for believing that the conclusion is true. A good argument
gives us good reasons for accepting a conclusion; a bad argument fails to provide
good reasons. In philosophy—and in any other kind of rational ­inquiry—accepting a
conclusion (statement) without good reasons is an elementary mistake in reasoning.
Believing a statement without good reasons is a recipe for error; believing a statement
for good reasons increases your chances of uncovering the truth.
When we do philosophy, then, we are likely at some point to be grappling with
arguments—we are trying to either (1) devise an argument to support a statement or
(2) evaluate an argument to see if there really are good reasons for accepting its
conclusion.
Note that argument in the sense used here is not synonymous with persuasion. An
argument provides us with reasons for accepting a claim; it is an attempted “proof”
for an assertion. But persuasion does not necessarily involve giving any reasons at all
for accepting a claim. To persuade is to influence people’s opinions, which can be
accomplished by offering a good argument but also by misleading with logical

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6 pa r t on e : w h a t i s p h i l o s op h y ?

fallacies, exploiting emotions and prejudices, dazzling with rhetorical gimmicks,


hiding or distorting the facts, threatening or coercing people—the list is long. Good
arguments prove something whether or not they persuade. Persuasive ploys can
change minds but do not necessarily prove anything.
Now consider these two simple arguments:
Argument 1
It’s wrong to take the life of an innocent person. Abortion takes the life of an
­innocent person. Therefore abortion is wrong.
Argument 2
God does not exist. After all, most college ­students believe that that is the case.
In Argument 1, the conclusion is “abortion is wrong,” and it is backed by two prem-
ises: “It’s wrong to take the life of an innocent person” and “Abortion takes the life of
an innocent person.” In Argument 2, the conclusion is “God does not exist,” which is
supported by the premise “After all, most college students believe that that is the case.”
Despite the differences between these two passages (differences in content, the number
of premises, and the order of their parts), they are both arguments because they exem-
plify basic argument structure: a conclusion supported by at least one premise.
Though the components of an argument seem clear enough, people often fail to
distinguish between arguments and strong statements that contain no arguments at
all. Suppose we change Argument 1 into this:
Abortion is wrong. I can’t believe how many people think it’s morally okay. The
world is insane.
Now there is no argument, just an expression of exasperation or anger. There are
no statements giving us reasons to believe a conclusion. What we have are some un-
supported assertions that may merely appear to make a case. If we ignore the distinc-
tion between genuine arguments and nonargumentative material, critical reasoning
is undone.
The simplest way to locate an argument is to find its conclusion first, then its prem-
ises. Zeroing in on conclusions and premises can be a lot easier if you keep an eye out
for indicator words. Indicator words often tag along with arguments and indicate that
a conclusion or premise may be nearby.
Here are a few conclusion indicator words:

consequently as a result
thus hence
therefore so
it follows that which means that

Here are some premise indicator words:

in view of the fact assuming that


because since

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Part One: What Is Philosophy? 7

due to the fact that for


inasmuch as given that
Just remember that indicator words do not guarantee the presence of conclusions
and premises. They are simply telltale signs.
Assuming we can recognize an argument when we see it, how can we tell if it is a
good one? Fortunately, the general criteria for judging the merits of an argument are
simple and clear. A good argument—one that gives us good reasons for believing a
claim—must have (1) solid logic and (2) true premises. Requirement (1) means that
the conclusion should follow logically from the premises, that there must be a proper
logical connection between the supporting statements and the statement supported.
Requirement (2) says that what the premises assert must in fact be the case. An argu-
ment that fails in either respect is a bad argument.
There are two basic kinds of arguments—deductive and inductive—and our two
requirements hold for both of them, even though the logical connections in each
type are distinct. Deductive arguments are intended to give logically conclusive sup-
port to their conclusions so that if the premises are true, the conclusion absolutely
must be true. Argument 1 is a deductive argument and is therefore supposed to be
constructed so that if the two premises are true, its conclusion cannot possibly be
false. Here it is with its structure laid bare:
Argument 1
1. It’s wrong to take the life of an innocent person.
2. Abortion takes the life of an innocent person.
3. Therefore, abortion is wrong.
Do you see that, given the form or structure of this argument, if the premises are
true, then the conclusion has to be true? It would be very strange—illogical, in fact—
to agree that the two premises are true but that the conclusion is false.
Now look at this one:
Argument 3
1. All dogs are mammals.
2. Rex is a dog.
3. Therefore, Rex is a mammal.
Again, there is no way for the premises to be true while the conclusion is false. The
deductive form of the argument guarantees this.
So a deductive argument is intended to have this sort of airtight structure. If it
actually does have this structure, it is said to be valid. Argument 1 is deductive be-
cause it is intended to provide logically conclusive support to its conclusion. It is valid
because, as a matter of fact, it does offer this kind of support. A deductive argument
that fails to provide conclusive support to its conclusion is said to be invalid. In such
an argument, it is possible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false. Argu-
ment 3 is intended to have a deductive form, and because it actually does have this
form, the argument is also valid.

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8 pa r t on e : w h a t i s p h i l o s op h y ?

An elementary fact about deductive arguments is that their validity (or lack
thereof  ) is a separate issue from the truth of the premises. Validity is a structural
matter, depending on how an argument is put together. Truth concerns the nature of
the claims made in the premises and conclusion. A deductive argument is supposed
to be built so that if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true—but in a
particular case, the premises might not be true. A valid argument can have true or
false premises and a true or false conclusion. (By definition, of course, it cannot have
true premises and a false conclusion.) In any case, being invalid or having false prem-
ises dooms a deductive argument.
Inductive arguments are supposed to give probable support to their conclusions.
Unlike deductive arguments, they are not designed to support their conclusions de-
cisively. They can establish only that, if their premises are true, their conclusions are
probably true (more likely to be true than not). Argument 2 is an inductive argument
meant to demonstrate the probable truth that “God does not exist.” Like all induc-
tive arguments (and unlike deductive ones), it can have true premises and a false
conclusion. So it’s possible for the sole premise—“After all, most college students
believe that that is the case”—to be true while the conclusion is false.
If inductive arguments succeed in lending probable support to their conclusions,
they are said to be strong. Strong arguments are such that if their premises are true,
their conclusions are probably true. If they fail to provide this probable support, they
are termed weak. Argument 2 is a weak argument because its premise, even if true,
does not show that more likely than not God does not exist. What college students
(or any other group) believe about God does not constitute good evidence for or
against God’s existence.
But consider this inductive argument:

Argument 4
1. Eighty-­five percent of the students at this university are Republicans.
2. Sonia is a student at this university.
3. Therefore, Sonia is probably a Republican.
This argument is strong. If its premises are true, its conclusion is likely to be true.
If 85 percent of the university’s students are Republicans, and Sonia is a university
student, she is more likely than not to be a Republican too.
When a valid (deductive) argument has true premises, it is a good argument.
A good deductive argument is said to be sound. Argument 1 is valid, but we cannot
say whether it is sound until we determine the truth of the premises. Argument 3 is
valid, and if its premises are true, it is sound. When a strong (inductive) argument has
true premises, it is also a good argument. A good inductive argument is said to be
cogent. Argument 2 is weak, so there is no way it can be cogent. Argument 4 is
strong, and if its premises are true, it is cogent.
Checking the validity or strength of an argument is often a plain, commonsense
undertaking. Using our natural reasoning ability, we can examine how the premises
are linked to the conclusion and can see quickly whether the conclusion follows from
the premises. We are most likely to make an easy job of it when the arguments are
simple. Many times, however, we need some help, and help is available in the form of
methods and guidelines for evaluating arguments.

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Part One: What Is Philosophy? 9

Having a familiarity with common argument patterns, or forms, is especially


useful when assessing the validity of deductive arguments. We are likely to encounter
these forms again and again. Here is a prime example:
Argument 5
1. If the surgeon operates, then the patient will be cured.
2. The surgeon is operating.
3. Therefore, the patient will be cured.
This argument form contains a conditional premise—that is, a premise consisting
of a conditional, or if-­t hen, statement (actually a compound statement composed
of two constituent statements). Premise 1 is a conditional statement. A condi-
tional statement has two parts: the part beginning with if (called the antecedent),
and the part beginning with then (known as the consequent). So the antecedent of
Premise 1 is “If the surgeon operates,” and the consequent is “then the patient
will be cured.”
The best way to appreciate the structure of such an argument (or any deductive ar-
gument, for that matter) is to translate it into traditional argument symbols in which
each statement is symbolized by a letter. Here is the symbolization for Argument 5:
1. If p, then q.
2. p.
3. Therefore, q.
We can see that p represents “the surgeon operates,” and q represents “the patient
will be cured.” But notice that we can use this same symbolized argument form to
represent countless other arguments—arguments with different statements but
having the same basic structure.
It just so happens that the underlying argument form for Argument 5 is extremely
common—common enough to have a name, modus ponens (or affirming the anteced-
ent). The truly useful fact about modus ponens is that any argument having this form
is valid. We can plug any statements we want into the formula and the result will be
a valid argument, a circumstance in which if the premises are true, the conclusion
must be true.
An equally prevalent argument form is modus tollens (or denying the consequent).
For example:
Argument 6
1. If the dose is low, then the healing is slow.
2. The healing is not slow.
3. Therefore, the dose is not low.
1. If p, then q.
2. Not q.
3. Therefore, not p.
Modus tollens is also a valid form, and any argument using this form must also be
valid.

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10 pa r t on e : w h a t i s p h i l o s op h y ?

There are also common argument forms that are invalid. Here are two of them:
Argument 7 (Affirming the Consequent)
1. If the mind is an immaterial substance, then ESP is real.
2. ESP is real.
3. Therefore, the mind is an immaterial substance.
1. If p, then q.
2. q.
3. Therefore, p.
Argument 8 (Denying the Antecedent)
1. If morality is relative to persons (that is, if moral rightness or wrongness de-
pends on what people believe), then moral disagreement between persons
would be nearly impossible.
2. But morality is not relative to persons.
3. Therefore, moral disagreement between persons is not nearly impossible.
1. If p, then q.
2. Not p.
3. Therefore, not q.
The advantage of being able to recognize these and other common argument
forms is that you can use that skill to readily determine the validity of many deductive
arguments. You know, for example, that any argument having the same form as
modus ponens or modus tollens must be valid, and any argument in one of the common
invalid forms must be invalid.
Inductive arguments also have distinctive forms, and being familiar with the forms
can help you evaluate the arguments. In enumerative induction, we arrive at a gener-
alization about an entire group of things after observing just some members of the
group. Consider these:
Argument 9
Every formatted disk I have bought from the computer store is ­defective.
Therefore, all formatted disks sold at the computer store are probably defective.
Argument 10
All the hawks in this wildlife sanctuary that I have observed have had red tails.
Therefore, all the hawks in this sanctuary probably have red tails.
Argument 11
Sixty percent of the Bostonians I have interviewed in various parts of the city are
pro-­choice.
Therefore, 60 percent of all Bostonians are probably pro-­choice.

01-Pojman-Part01.indd 10 22/08/16 1:50 PM


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V. Hungernder Massai. Nach Photogr. des Verf. 32
gez. von R. Bacher. Heliogravüre
VI. Station Mwansa am Victoria-See. Nach
Skizze des Verf. gez. von Ludw. Hans Fischer 40
VII. Felsdorf in Uaschi. Nach Skizze des Verf.
gez. von Ludw. Hans Fischer 56
VIII. Wasukuma-Weib. Nach Photogr. des Verf.
gez. von R. Bacher 64
IX. Uebergang über den Kagera. Nach Skizze
des Verf. gez. von Ludw. Hans Fischer 80
X. Missosi ya Mwesi und die Nilquelle. Nach
Skizze des Verf. gez. von Ludw. Hans Fischer 88
XI. Tanganyika von Usige. Nach Skizze des Verf.
gez. von Ludw. Hans Fischer 96
XII. Pfahldorf am Mlagarassi. Nach Skizze des
Verf. gez. von Ludw. Hans Fischer 104
XIII. Wanyaturu-Stockkämpfer. Nach Photogr. des
Verf. gez. von R. Bacher. Heliogravüre 112
XIV. Wataturu aus Mangati. Nach Photogr. des
Verf. gez. von R. Bacher. Heliogravüre 120
Massai-Krieger aus Mutyek. Nach Photogr. Titelbild zum
XV.
des Verf. gez. von R. Bacher. Heliogravüre II. Theil
XVI. Ausblick von Meri gegen Nord. Nach Skizze
des Verf. gez. von Ludw. Hans Fischer 136
XVII. Mangati und der Gurui-Berg. Nach Skizze des
Verf. gez. von Ludw. Hans Fischer 144
XVIII. »Iraku-Leute« und »Wafiomi«, Heliogravüre
nach Photogr. des Verf. 168
XIX. Unterirdische Wohnstätten, Iraku. Nach
Skizze des Verf. gez. von Ludw. Hans Fischer 176
XX. Hirt aus Ufiomi. Nach Photogr. des Verf. gez. 184
von R. Bacher. Heliogravüre
XXI. Leute aus Iraku. Nach Photogr. des Verf. gez.
von R. Bacher. Heliogravüre 192
XXII. Ornamente auf Körben der Wakerewe 208
XXIV. Watussi. Nach Photogr. des Verf. gez. von R.
Bacher 224
XXIV. Mollusken, Lichtdruck 305
XXV. " " 320
XXVI. Schädel, " 360
XXVII. " " 360

Karten.

Karte des Forschungsgebietes der Massai-Expedition des


Deutschen Antisklaverei-Komite. Nach den Original-Aufnahmen von
Dr. Oscar Baumann, reducirt von Dr. Bruno Hassenstein
1:1,500,000.
Kartons:
Geologische Uebersichtskarte 1:4,000,000.
Ethnologische Uebersichtskarte 1:5,000,000.
Schematisches Profil der Victoria-See-Bahn, 1:400,000, fünffach
überhöht Seite 256.
I. THEIL.
[←] I. KAPITEL.

Von Tanga nach Aruscha.


Die Massai-Expedition. — Reisevorbereitungen. — Anwerbung der Mannschaft. —
Die Spitzen der Karawane. — Aufbruch von Tanga. — Ein Tag aus dem
Karawanenleben. — Unruhen im Wadigo-Land. — Durch die Umba Nyika. —
Kisuani. — Aruscha.

Am 16. November 1891


langte ich mit dem
deutschen Postdampfer in
Tanga, Deutsch-Ostafrika,
an. Vor meinen Blicken
erhob sich die üppige
Tanga-Insel aus der
tiefblauen Fluth, dahinter
lugten auf hoher Uferrampe
die braunen Hütten des
Städtchens zwischen
schlanken Kokospalmen
hervor und tauchte der
breite Bau des Forts auf,
wie ein weisser Klecks in
der Landschaft erscheinend. Im Hintergrunde ragten die bläulichen
Berge Usambára's; alte liebe Bekannte. Betrat ich doch nicht als
Fremdling den Boden Afrikas, war es doch das vierte Mal, dass ich
mein Glück im dunklen Welttheil versuchte.
Einmal hatte ich Westafrika befahren und den Riesenstrom des
Kongo bis in's Herz des Kontinents, bis Stanley-Falls, verfolgt, zwei
Mal hatte ich in Ost-Afrika der Erforschung Usambára's und der
Länder bis zum Kilimanjaro mich gewidmet. Diesmal freilich stand
eine grössere Aufgabe vor mir, galt es doch die weiten gänzlich
unerforschten Massai-Gebiete zwischen Kilimanjaro und Victoria-
Nyansa zu durchziehen, welche nach den spärlichen Berichten als
wasserarme, von feindlichen Stämmen durchstreifte Wüsten
dargestellt wurden. Da mir jedoch die Haupterfordernisse des
Reisenden: Kenntniss der Sprache und Kenntniss des Landes zu
Gebote standen, so blickte ich mit Vertrauen in die Zukunft. Die
Weltsprache Ostafrikas, das Kiswahíli, spreche ich völlig fliessend
und afrikanische Erfahrung besass ich zur Genüge; so fehlten nur
sorgfältige Ausrüstung und tüchtige Mannschaft, um das Gelingen
des Unternehmens — die Gunst des Schicksals vorausgesetzt —
wahrscheinlich zu machen.
Was die Ausrüstung anbelangt, so kann ich mich nicht zur
Ansicht Jener bekennen, welche behaupten, in Ostafrika bekomme
man »Alles«. Allerdings man bekommt mehr oder weniger Alles,
aber schlecht und theuer, so dass ein Reisender, der sich in Europa
ausrüstet, selbst wenn er das Vorzüglichste wählt, immer noch
billiger wegkommt. Ein Zelt wie das von Benjamin Edgington in
London, welches mir während zwei Reisen Obdach gewährte, ein
Feldbett, Feldtisch, Feldstuhl und Blechkoffer wie die von Silver in
London, gehören nicht zu dem »Alles«, welches man in Ostafrika
erhält.
Selbst die Provisionen, die man noch am ehesten an Ort und
Stelle beziehen kann, zog ich vor, aus Europa mitzunehmen, da eine
sorgfältige, gegen alle Fälle gesicherte Verpackung draussen kaum
durchführbar ist. Die Firma Wilhelm Richers in Hamburg lieferte sie
mir in durchwegs vorzüglicher Qualität und zu sehr mässigen
Preisen. Dieselben wurden genau nach meiner Angabe in längliche
Holzkisten verpackt, deren jede ungefähr dasselbe enthielt, so dass
der Verlust einer Kiste keinen unersetzlichen Schaden verursacht
hätte. Alle hatten einen verlötheten Blecheinsatz, der erst geöffnet
wurde, wenn die Kiste in Verwendung kam und den wohlverstauten
Inhalt vor Verderben schützte.
So wurden denn alle die Kisten und Ballen der Expedition in
Tanga ausgeladen, daneben auch drei Kameele, die ich für etwaige
Wüstenwanderungen aus Aden mitgenommen und welche ihre
Treiber, braune untersetzte Araber aus Yemen, mit grosser Sorgfalt
unterbrachten. Auch 15 kohlschwarze Sudanesensoldaten, die ich in
Massaua angeworben, fanden ein vorübergehendes Heim in einer
Negerhütte, während mir selbst in den wohlbekannten Räumen des
Usagarahauses gastliche Aufnahme geboten wurde.
Noch am Abend meiner Ankunft stellten sich schwarze Freunde,
meist Getreue von meinen früheren Reisen ein, darunter auch der
brave Kihara wadi Mwamba, der 1888 die schweren Stunden der
Gefangenschaft bei Buschiri mit Dr. Meyer und mir durchgemacht.
Alle erfuhren von meinen neuen Plänen und erklärten sich
unbedenklich bereit, bei der Massai-Expedition wieder einzutreten.
Auch meine treue Reisegefährtin von der Usambára-Fahrt, die
Halbaraberin Ranïe binti Abedi, meist »Kibibi« genannt, liess nicht
lange auf sich warten.
Nachdem ich mich noch einige Tage in Tanga aufgehalten und
dem späteren Engagement der Mannschaften vorgearbeitet, begab
ich mich nach Sansibar, um ein wichtiges Geschäft, den Ankauf der
Tauschwaaren zu besorgen. Während mehrerer Tage
durchschlenderte ich mit Sapojee, dem gewandten Parsi der
Ostafrikanischen Gesellschaft, die Bazars, um »Merikani« und
»Kaniki«, »Mishanga kuta« und »Mutinarok«, alle die verschiedenen
Baumwollstoffe, Glasperlen und sonstigen Artikel anzukaufen,
welche im Innern Afrika's das Geld ersetzen. In Sansibar traf ich
auch einen Landsmann aus Transleithanien, den ungarischen
Sportsman Herrn vo n I n ke y, der eben auf einer Jagdexkursion
begriffen war und mich bat, die Expedition bis zum Kilimanjaro
begleiten zu dürfen, was ich ihm gerne zugestand.
Bald jedoch kehrte ich wieder nach Tanga zurück, harrte doch
meiner eine wichtige Aufgabe, ja die wichtigste, welche meiner
Ansicht nach ein Expeditionsführer in Afrika zu lösen hat: die
Anwerbung der Mannschaft. Es ist allerdings in Ostafrika die
Möglichkeit geboten sich die Sache bequem zu machen: man
braucht nur mit einem indischen Agenten einen Trägervertrag zu
schliessen, in welchem sich derselbe verpflichtet, die Mannschaften
bis zu einem gewissen Tage zu stellen. Dann kann man die
Zwischenzeit bequem im Lehnstuhl verträumen, in der
Ueberzeugung, am bestimmten Tage seine Leute bereit zu finden.
Dieser Vorgang scheint ungemein einfach und wurde auch
thatsächlich bis in die neueste Zeit von Gouvernements-
Expeditionen sowie von Privaten eingeschlagen. Dabei war es fast
ausschliesslich der indische Kaufmann Sewah Haji, der mit den
Aufträgen der Europäer beehrt wurde. Dieser ist nicht etwa ein
indischer Grosshändler im Stile Sir Taria Topan's, dessen
Handelsbeziehungen bis ins Herz des Kontinents reichen und der
die bedeutendsten Araber wie Tippo-Tip als seine Agenten
bezeichnen kann, sondern er hat eigentliche kaufmännische
Geschäfte fast ganz aufgegeben. Seine Firma ist jetzt ein
Dienstvermittelungs-Bureau in grossem Stile, er ist Träger- und
Arbeiter-Agent, d. i. ein Mann, der durch die Unerfahrenheit und
Bequemlichkeit der Europäer und den Unverstand der Afrikaner
Reichthümer sammelt. Diese gestatten es ihm, zeitweise Reisen
nach Europa zu unternehmen, wo er von Jenen, die ihm ihr Geld in
den Rachen geworfen, zum Frühstück eingeladen wird.
Für Alle, für Deutsche, Engländer, Franzosen und für den
Kongostaat wirbt Sewah Haji Träger an. Aber er lässt sich auch
dafür bezahlen. Während er selbst dem Küstenmann höchstens 10
Rps. pro Monat, dem Mnyamwesi und Msángo gar nur einige Ellen
Baumwollstoff giebt, muss der Europäer 15-20 Rps. monatlich
bezahlen! Durch kleine Beträge, die Sewah den Schwarzen in ihrer
arbeitsfreien Zeit vorschiesst und dann wucherisch verzinst, weiss er
sich stets Leute an der Hand zu halten. Durch hohe Bezahlungen
gewinnt er einflussreiche Karawanenführer, dafür werden die
Anderen in ihren hart verdienten Löhnungen um so mehr verkürzt.
Ausser den Vorschüssen, die mit Zins und Zinseszins bis ins
Unendliche anwachsen, werden ihnen noch allerlei »Gebühren«
abgezogen, besonders wenn es sich um naivere Inlandleute handelt.
Schliesslich ist der arme Afrikaner froh, wenn er nur einige Rupies
oder etwas weissen Baumwollstoff bekommt, ja er freut sich noch,
wenn man ihm eine rothe Mütze oder sonst einen Plunder als
»Bakschisch« schenkt. Er führt ja keine Bücher, während der Inder
alles schwarz auf weiss hat und Unzufriedene auffordert, nur
immerhin auf die Station zu gehen und sich über ihn zu beschweren.
Der Begriff »Station« ist jedoch in Ostafrika noch so innig mit dem
Begriffe »Prügel« verbunden, dass Jedermann es sich dreimal
überlegt dahin klagen zu gehen, wenn er seiner Sache nicht ganz
sicher ist.
Es ist jedoch begreiflich, dass die Mannschaften unter solchen
Umständen dem Unternehmen wenig Lust und Liebe
entgegenbringen und besonders wenn der europäische Gebieter,
den sie am Abmarschtage zum ersten Mal sehen, ihnen nicht
zusagt, einfach davonlaufen. Geschieht dies in der Nähe der Küste,
so muss Sewah Haji selbst, sonst seine Agenten in Tabora und
Mwansa freilich Nachschub leisten und der Karren wird mit Mühe
und Noth im Gange erhalten, doch mit unendlichem Aerger und
Verzögerungen muss der Reisende die Mussestunden an der Küste
büssen.
Da ich während der Dr. Meyer'schen Expedition 1888 das Sewah
Haji'sche Trägerelend gründlich ausgekostet, so beschloss ich mich
nie mehr mit diesem oder einem andern Agenten einzulassen,
sondern meine Leute selbst zu engagiren. Schon 1890, während der
Usambára-Expedition, war mir dies trefflich gelungen, und obwohl
»Kenner« mir diesmal versicherten, dass bei der herrschenden
»Trägertheuerung« und dem »Trägermangel« Sewah Haji absolut
nicht zu umgehen sei, wollte ich dies dennoch versuchen.
Von einschneidender Wirkung für das Gelingen einer Expedition
ist die Wahl guter Karawanenführer. Für mich war dies um so mehr
der Fall, als ich beschlossen hatte, keinen europäischen Begleiter
mitzunehmen, sondern a ll e in zu reisen. Vor Allem brachte mich zu
diesem Entschluss der Umstand, dass ich, wie ich offen gestehe,
mich in Afrika unter Schwarzen am wohlsten fühle. Doch würde
dieses, mehr persönliche Moment, mich selbstverständlich nicht
abgehalten haben einen Europäer mitzunehmen, falls ich dies im
Interesse der Expedition für nothwendig gehalten hätte. Ich bin
jedoch zu der Ansicht gelangt, dass man Europäer in Afrika nur da
verwenden soll, wo Schwarze absolut nicht zu brauchen sind. Dies
ist bei einer Expedition nur bezüglich der Oberleitung und der
wissenschaftlichen Forschung der Fall, denn alles Andere, von der
Marschdisziplin angefangen, bis zu den kleinsten Details des
Karawanenlebens, verstehen ja die Schwarzen unendlich besser als
wir. Es ist ja begreiflich, dass ein Mann, dessen Väter schon vor
Livingstone und Krapf nach dem Innern Afrika's zogen, der in den
Verhältnissen geboren und darin aufgewachsen ist, unter kräftiger
Leitung und bei entsprechender Befähigung ganz anderes leisten
muss als ein europäischer Neuling. Ob durch Mitnahme des
Vertreters eines anderen Faches wissenschaftlich mehr ausgerichtet
worden wäre, ist noch fraglich. Denn bekanntlich können
verschiedene Fachleute sehr schwer zusammen arbeiten und es ist
ferner sicher, dass man allein, schon durch Langeweile getrieben,
weit mehr Studien macht als etwa in angenehmer Gesellschaft.
Einer jener Leute, welche mir mehr werth sind als ein und selbst
mehrere Weisse, stellte sich mir nach meiner Rückkehr in Tanga vor.
Es war Mzi mb a b in O ma r i, ein Swahíli aus Bweni bei Pangani,
der s. Zt. bei der Usambára-Expedition als Träger eintrat, durch
seine Tüchtigkeit es rasch zum Askari (Soldaten) brachte und
während einer Krankheit des damaligen ersten Mnyapara
(Anführers) dessen Stelle vertrat. Diesmal hatte ich ihn selbst trotz
seiner Jugend — er ist kaum 25 Jahr alt — zu diesem wichtigsten
Posten bestimmt. Der Mnyapara spielt eine ähnliche Rolle in der
Expedition, wie der Feldwebel in der Kompagnie, nur dass die
Expedition eben vollständig selbstständig ist und alle
Zwischenglieder zwischen Hauptmann und Feldwebel fehlen. Mehr
als einmal hat Mzimba während meiner Abwesenheit und
Erkrankung meine Stelle vertreten und ich hatte dann stets das
Gefühl dass es eben so gut, ja besser ging, denn Mzimba hatte den
Ehrgeiz, mir zu beweisen, dass er auch ohne mich fertig werden
könne. Ueberhaupt hatte er eine bei Schwarzen seltene
Selbstständigkeit und hat mehr als einmal allein Gefechte mit
Besonnenheit und Muth auf das Schneidigste geleitet. Der
Mannschaft gegenüber besass er grosse Autorität, die er
hauptsächlich dadurch aufrecht erhielt, dass er nur mit einigen
jüngeren Verwandten unter den Trägern, sonst aber mit den Leuten
garnicht verkehrte. Obwohl musterhaft gehorsam, zögerte Mzimba
doch nie, eine ganz bestimmte Meinung abzugeben, wenn ich ihn
um seinen Rath befragte. Freilich hatte er sich derart in mein
Reisesystem und in meine Denkweise eingelebt, dass er meist nur
das äusserte, was mir selbst als das richtigste erschien.
Während Mzimba ein untersetzter, lichtbrauner Bursche mit
klugen Augen und von nicht übermässiger Schönheit ist, war
Mk a mb a, der zweite Anführer der Kirongozi, ein hochgewachsener,
schwarzer junger Hüne, ein ernster, auffallend hübscher Bursche. Er
war im Gegensatz zu Mzimba Sklave, doch schienen ihn seine
Fesseln gerade nicht zu drücken, denn ungehemmt durchstreifte er
jahraus jahrein das Massailand. Er bildet den Typus eines »Msafíri«
(Karawanenmannes) aus Pangani. Heute kehrt er vom Rudolfsee
zurück um einige Tage darauf wieder nach Kavirondo aufzubrechen,
bei einer Karawane zahlt man ihm seinen spärlichen Lohn und bei
der andern nimmt er schon Vorschuss für die nächste Reise.
Eine weitere, sehr wichtige Persönlichkeit für eine Massaireise ist
der Leigwenan, der Dolmetscher. Diesen fand ich in der Person des
B a k a r i b i n Mf a wme aus Mtangata, der meist mit seinem
Massainamen »Kiburdangóp« genannt wurde. Er war ein im
Massailand ergrauter Mann, der die Sprache der gefürchteten
Viehräuber fliessend handhabte und eine erstaunliche
Landeskenntniss besass, ein gutmüthiger, etwas ängstlicher Swahíli.
Nachdem ich diese drei Stützen der Expedition gesichert, ging
ich daran mit ihrer Hilfe die Askari und Träger anzuwerben. Vor
Allem die Aska r i, die Soldaten. Denn es ist selbstverständlich, dass
der Reisende in unerforschten Theilen Afrika's auch heute, wo die
rothen und blauen Grenzlinien der Kolonien, Schutzgebiete und
Interessensphären Kreuz und Quer durch die Karte des Kontinents
gezogen sind, doch noch einzig und allein auf seine eigene Kraft
angewiesen ist. Die Stationen, die hunderte von Meilen weit entfernt
an den grossen Heerstrassen liegen, können ihm auch nicht den
Schatten von Schutz gewähren. Ebensowenig kann er erwarten von
der kaiserlichen Schutztruppe, die ohnehin nur das Nothwendigste
an Mannschaft besitzt, eine Bedeckung zu bekommen. Der letztere
Nachtheil ist übrigens nicht so gross als man annehmen sollte, da es
ja dem Reisenden freisteht zu thun, was bei der Schutztruppe
geschieht, nämlich Neger anzuwerben, dieselben zu uniformiren und
militärisch abzurichten. Da das Menschenmaterial genau dasselbe
ist, so ist solche eigene »Schutztruppe« jener des Gouvernements
völlig ebenbürtig, ja ich habe diesmal mit meinen selbst
angeworbenen Leuten weit bessere Erfahrungen gemacht als auf
der Usambárareise mit den 7 Askari des Reichskommissariats, von
welchen drei ausrissen und überhaupt nur einer als Soldat
verwendet werden konnte.
Fünfzehn Sudanesen hatte ich mir, wie erwähnt, schon
mitgebracht. Die übrigen Askari wurden zusammen mit den Trägern
angeworben und nur gutempfohlene und anscheinend intelligente
Leute zu diesem Dienst berufen. Viele darunter hatten während des
Aufstandes in der Schutztruppe gedient und sich dabei die
deutschen Kommandos und Griffe angeeignet. Ihre Ombascha's
(Gefreiten) waren der Sudanese Bahid Mohammed, ein
tiefschwarzer, langer Dinkaneger und der Swahíli Hailala wadi
Baruti, ein hübscher, kluger Yao. Freilich wurde mancher, der als
Askari angeworben war, im Laufe der Zeit zum Träger gemacht und
dafür Träger, die besondere Eigenschaften zeigten, zu Askari
befördert.
Zur Anwerbung der Träger begab ich mich von Tanga nach
Mtangata, Pangani und Bagamoyo und sandte Leute nach Bondei
und Muoa aus. Ich verfolgte dabei stets den Grundsatz im
Allgemeinen nur Leute zu nehmen, die durch einen an der Küste
ansässigen und bekannten Gewährsmann empfohlen wurden. Bei
Sklaven waren dies meist ihre Herren. Mit diesem Gewährsmann
wurde ein schriftlicher Vertrag abgeschlossen, wonach er sich
verpflichtete den Vorschuss des Trägers zurück zu zahlen, falls
dieser zu irgend einer Zeit davonliefe. Es mag ja freilich langweilig
sein an 200 solcher Verträge aufzusetzen, doch sind diese das
einzige Mittel welches gegen Desertionen schützt. Irgend welche
Schwierigkeit, die Leute zu bekommen, fand ich trotz des
angeblichen »Trägermangels« keineswegs. Im Gegentheil, die
Massai-Expedition war populär geworden, aus allen Dörfern kamen
junge Burschen, und Kontraktarbeiter lösten ihre Verträge um als
Träger einzutreten. Leute die 12 und 15 Rps. monatlich hatten,
traten bei mir für 10 ein; ich hätte, falls ich damals gewollt hätte,
1000 und mehr Leute anwerben können.
Die 200 Mann, die ich angeworben, hatten sich Anfangs Januar
1892 in Tanga vereinigt und ich beschleunigte das Packen der
Lasten, um rasch fortzukommen. Denn dass zweihundert junge
Burschen, die einer unsicheren Zukunft entgegengehen, die
Vorschuss erhalten haben und täglich Zehrgeld bekommen, zu
allerlei Unfug geneigt und ganz danach angethan sind, ein Nest wie
Tanga auf den Kopf zu stellen, scheint begreiflich. Ich selbst stand
diesem Treiben völlig machtlos gegenüber, da ich die Leute, die in
der Stadt zerstreut lebten, nicht in der Hand hatte und es mir auch
im Interesse der Sache garnicht einfiel, jetzt schon die Zügel straff
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