The Nigerian Civil War, also known as the Biafran War, took place in Nigeria from 1967 to 1970.

It was
the result of political, ethnic, and economic tensions among different regions of Nigeria. Nigeria, a diverse
nation with multiple ethnic groups and regions, was a British colony until gaining independence in 1960.
The colonial era left a legacy of ethnic divisions and regional disparities, which later contributed to the
outbreak of the Nigerian Civil War in 1967.

Before Nigeria gained independence in 1960, it was under British administration. The British
amalgamated the Northern and Southern protectorates. They implemented a system of indirect rule,
exerting influence through alliances with local forces, starting with the Northern Protectorate. This system
was so successful that Colonial Governor Frederick Lugard successfully extended it to the Southern
Protectorate through amalgamation. This imposition of a foreign and hierarchical system of governance
affected the Igbos. Intellectuals began to agitate for greater rights and independence, and the size of this
intellectual class significantly increased in the 1950s due to the massive expansion of the national
education program.

During the 1940s and 1950s, the Igbo and Yoruba parties were at the forefront of the campaign for
independence from British rule. However, Northern leaders, fearing that independence would lead to
political and economic domination by the more Westernized elites in the South, preferred the continuation
of British rule.

In exchange for granting independence to Nigeria, the leaders demanded the country remain divided into
three regions, with the North having a clear majority. Igbo and Yoruba leaders, eager to secure
independence at all costs, agreed to the Northern demands. Nigeria gained independence on October 1,
1960, and the First Republic was established on October 1, 1963. Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, a northerner
and co-founder of the Northern People's Congress, became the first prime minister of Nigeria. He formed
an alliance with the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons party, led by the popular nationalist
Nnamdi "Zik" Azikiwe, who served as Governor General and later as President. The Yoruba-aligned
Action Group, the third major party, played the role of opposition.

On January 15, 1966, Major Chukuma Kaduna Nzeogwu, Major Emmanuel Ifeajuna, and other junior
Army officers (mostly majors and captains) attempted a coup d'état. This coup resulted in the assassination
of the two major political leaders of the North, Prime Minister Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa and the
Premier of the Northern region, Sir Ahmadu Bello. Also killed were Bello's wife and officers of Northern
origin. President Sir Nnamdi Azikiwe, an Igbo, was on an extended vacation in the West Indies and did
not return until after the coup. There were widespread suspicions that the Igbo coup plotters had tipped
off Azikiwe and other Igbo leaders about the impending coup.
Besides the Northern political leaders, the Premier of the Western region, Ladoke Akintola, and Yoruba
senior military officers were also killed. This coup, known as the "Coup of the Five Majors," has been
described as Nigeria's only revolutionary coup. One of the reasons cited by the coup plotters was electoral
fraud. In addition to the deaths of many of Nigeria's elite, the coup also claimed the lives of seven officers
holding ranks above colonel, including four from the North, two from the southeast, and one from the
Midwest.

However, this coup was not seen as a revolutionary coup by other sections of Nigerians, especially in the
Northern and Western regions and by later revisionists of Nigerian coups. Some alleged, mainly from the
Eastern part of Nigeria, that the majors sought to release Action Group leader Obafemi Awolowo from
jail and make him the head of the new government. Their intention was to dismantle the Northern-
dominated power structure, but their efforts were unsuccessful. Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi, an Igbo and
loyalist head of the Nigerian Army, suppressed coup operations in the South and declared himself head of
state on January 16 after the surrender of the majors. Aguiyi-Ironsi suspended the constitution, dissolved
parliament, and abolished the regional confederated form of government. He appointed Colonel Hassan
Katsina, son of Katsina emir Usman Nagogo, to govern the Northern Region, indicating a willingness to
cooperate with this bloc. He also preferentially released northern politicians from jail (enabling them to
plan his forthcoming overthrow). Aguiyi-Ironsi rejected a British offer of military support but promised
to protect British interests.

Ironsi failed to bring the coup plotters to trial as required by military law and as advised by most northern
and western officers. Instead, coup plotters were kept in the military on full pay, and some were even
promoted while awaiting trial. The coup, despite its failures, was seen by many as primarily benefiting
the Igbo people, as the plotters faced no repercussions, and no significant Igbo political leaders were
affected. However, Ironsi, himself an Igbo, made numerous attempts to please Northerners. Other events
that fueled suspicions of an "Igbo conspiracy" included the killing of Northern leaders and the murder of
Brigadier-General Ademulegun's pregnant wife by the coup executioners. Among the Igbo people,
reactions to the coup were mixed.

In response to provocations from the Eastern media, which repeatedly displayed humiliating posters and
cartoons of the slain Northern politicians, northern soldiers at Abeokuta barracks mutinied on the night of
July 29, 1966, triggering a counter-coup that had already been in the planning stages. Ironsi was in Ibadan
during their mutiny, where he was killed along with his host, Adekunle Fajuyi. The counter-coup resulted
in the installation of Lieutenant-Colonel Yakubu Gowon as Supreme Commander of the Nigerian Armed
Forces. Gowon was chosen as a compromise candidate. He was a Northerner, a Christian, and from a
minority tribe.
Upon assuming office as the new Head of State, Lt. Colonel Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu, the
military governor of the Eastern region, was displeased with the process that led to Yakubu Gowon's
appointment. He believed the Northerners intended to dominate other regions completely. In response, the
Igbo people declared the secession of the Eastern region and the establishment of the Republic of Biafra.
This declaration marked the beginning of the conflict.

In 1967, the Nigerian Army was ill-prepared for war. It lacked the necessary training and experience for
warfare on an operational level, as it had primarily served as an internal security force. Many Nigerian
officers were more focused on their social lives than military training, spending an excessive amount of
time on activities such as partying, drinking, hunting, and playing games. Social status within the Army
held great importance, with officers dedicating considerable time to ensuring their uniforms remained
impeccable. There was even a competition to own the most expensive automobiles and homes.

The killings and purges resulting from the coups of 1966 had eliminated many of the Sandhurst graduates.
By July 1966, all officers holding ranks above colonel had been either killed or discharged, leaving only
five officers with the rank of lieutenant colonel still in active service. Most junior officers had received
their commissions after 1960 and heavily relied on the more experienced NCOs for leadership. The
Biafran Army faced similar challenges, as its officer corps was composed of former Federal Igbo officers.
The shortage of experienced officers was further exacerbated by a climate of paranoia and suspicion within
Biafra, as Ojukwu believed that other former Federal officers were plotting against him.

On August 9, Biafran forces crossed their western border and the Niger River into the Mid-Western state
of Nigeria. They advanced west through the state capital of Benin City, reaching as far as Ore in present-
day Ondo State by August 21, 210 kilometers (130 miles) east of the Nigerian capital, Lagos. The Biafran
attack, led by Lt. Col. Banjo, a Yoruba man with the Biafran rank of brigadier, faced minimal resistance,
and the Mid-Western state was swiftly taken over. This was due to a pre-secession arrangement where
soldiers were instructed to return to their respective regions to quell the violence, as Igbo soldiers had
been major victims. Some Nigerian soldiers in the Mid-Western state resisted the invasion, while others
collaborated with their Biafran counterparts.

In response to the Biafran advance, General Gowon tasked Colonel Murtala Mohammed to establish
another division, the 2nd Infantry Division, to repel the Biafrans from the Mid-Western state, defend the
Western state border, and launch an attack on Biafra. Gowon also declared "total war" and announced the
mobilization of the entire Nigerian population for the war effort. Over the course of the summer of 1967
to the spring of 1969, the Federal Army expanded from a force of 7,000 to 200,000 men organized into
three divisions. Biafra, on the other hand, began the war with only 230 soldiers in Enugu, which eventually
grew to two battalions by August 1967 and were later expanded into two brigades, the 51st and 52nd,
forming the core of the Biafran Army. By 1969, Biafra had managed to field 90,000 soldiers divided into
five undermanned divisions, along with several independent units.

Several countries, including Tanzania, Gabon, Ivory Coast, Zambia, Haiti, and France, officially
recognized the new Republic of Biafra and provided humanitarian aid and weapons to support its quest
for independence. In contrast, the United Kingdom, which had once colonized Nigeria, supported the
Nigerian side by supplying heavy weapons and ammunition. The official reason was to preserve the multi-
ethnic nation it had created, safeguard the supply of Nigerian oil to the United Kingdom, and protect the
investments of Shell-BP. Humanitarian organizations, like the Red Cross, played a role in providing aid.

As part of reconciliation efforts to prevent further escalation of the conflict, several peace accords were
attempted, with the most notable being the Aburi Accord held in Aburi, Ghana. However, there were
differing accounts of what transpired during the Aburi talks. Ojukwu accused the federal government of
reneging on their promises, while the federal government accused Ojukwu of distorting the agreements.
The Eastern Region, led by Ojukwu, advocated for a confederation, rather than a federation, but the federal
government believed it had fulfilled the spirit of the Aburi Agreement.

The Eastern Region, Biafra, was ill-equipped for war, outnumbered and outgunned by the Nigerians.
However, they possessed the advantage of fighting on their home turf, the support of most Easterners,
determination, and resourcefulness. In response to the extension of the blockade to include oil, the
Nigerian government initiated a "police action" to recapture the secessionist territory. The war officially
began on July 6, 1967, as Nigerian Federal troops advanced into Biafra. The Nigerian Army launched an
offensive through the north of Biafra, with the 1st Infantry Division, led predominantly by northern
officers. Faced with fierce resistance and high casualties, they pushed toward Nsukka, which fell on July
14, and Garkem, captured on July 12. The Biafrans responded with their own offensive. On August 9,
Biafran forces crossed their western border into the Mid-Western state of Nigeria. They advanced through
Benin City, reaching Ore in Ondo State by August 21. The Biafran attack met minimal resistance, as the
soldiers meant to defend the Mid-Western state were predominantly Igbo, some of whom collaborated
with the Biafran forces.

In response, General Gowon tasked Colonel Murtala Mohammed with forming the 2nd Infantry Division
to expel the Biafrans from the Mid-Western state, defend the Western state border, and attack Biafra.
Simultaneously, Gowon declared "total war" and announced the mobilization of the entire Nigerian
population for the war effort. Over the summer of 1967 to the spring of 1969, the Federal Army expanded
from 7,000 to 200,000 men, organized into three divisions. Meanwhile, Biafra, which began the war with
only 230 soldiers, expanded to two brigades, the 51st and 52nd, forming the core of the Biafran Army. By
1969, Biafra had 90,000 soldiers divided into five undermanned divisions, along with several independent
units.

On October 17, 1967, Nigerian forces invaded Calabar, led by "Black Scorpion" Benjamin Adekunle,
while the Biafrans were commanded by Col. Ogbu Ogi, responsible for controlling the area between
Calabar and Opobo, and foreign mercenary Lynn Garrison. The Biafrans faced immediate fire from the
water and air, with their stations and military supplies bombarded by the Nigerian air force. On the same
day, Lynn Garrison reached Calabar but came under immediate fire from federal troops. By October 20,
Garrison's forces retreated, and Col. Ogi officially surrendered to Gen. Adekunle. On May 19, 1968, Port
Harcourt was captured. With the capture of Enugu, Bonny, Calabar, and Port Harcourt, the Federal
government's supremacy in the war was made evident to the world.

With increased British support, the Nigerian federal forces launched their final offensive against the
Biafrans on December 23, 1969, primarily driven by the 3rd Marine Commando Division, commanded
by Col. Olusegun Obasanjo, who would later become president. This offensive successfully split the
Biafran enclave in two by the end of the year. The final Nigerian offensive, known as "Operation Tail-
Wind," commenced on January 7, 1970, with the 3rd Marine Commando Division advancing and support
from the 1st Infantry Division in the north and the 2nd Infantry Division in the south. Owerri fell on
January 9, and Uli on January 11.

Just days earlier, Ojukwu had fled into exile in the Ivory Coast, leaving his deputy, Philip Effiong, to
handle the surrender to General Yakubu Gowon of the Federal Army on January 13, 1970. The surrender
documents were signed on January 14, 1970, in Lagos, marking the end of the civil war and the
renunciation of secession. Fighting ceased shortly after, as Nigerian forces advanced into the remaining
Biafran-held territories, encountering minimal resistance. The war concluded after approximately three
years of conflict, resulting in significant loss of life and widespread suffering.

References

1. Diamond, L. (1988). Class, Ethnicity, and Democracy in Nigeria:

2. The Failure of the First Republic. Syracuse University Press
3. Ojukwu, C. (1989). Because I am Involved. Spectrum Books
4. Reference: Nnoli, O. (1980). Ethnic Politics in Nigeria. Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishers.
5. Reference: Madiebo, A. (1980). The Nigerian Revolution and the Biafran War. Fourth Dimension
Publishi
6. Baxter, Peter (2015). Biafra: The Nigerian Civil War 1967-1970. Helion and Company. ISBN
9781910777473.