Building with Infra-Lightweight Concrete

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 Claudia Lösch | Philip Rieseberg
Edited by Mike Schlaich | Regine Leibinger

Building with ­
Infra-Lightweight
­Concrete
Design | Detailing | Construction

Birkhäuser
Basel

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 Acknowledgments

This manual was created by numerous authors and with the

assistance of many others.

Special thanks go to Dr. Alexander Hückler, who contributed

a large part of his research results on deflection measure-
ments and the bonding, cracking, and deformation behavior
of infra-lightweight concrete and made a significant contri-
bution to this book with corrections and comments. Max
Bauer and Prof. Matthias Schuler (Transsolar Energietechnik
GmbH) wrote the chapter on dynamic simulations (Chap-
ter 6.4). Dr. Arndt Goldack provided assistance with correc-
tions and comments on Chapter 7.

We would also like to thank the many members of staff, stu-

dents, and tutors of the Chairs of Conceptual and Structural
Design and of Building Construction and Design at Berlin
Technical University who, with great personal commitment,
were involved in simulations, designs, studies, test series,
and the construction and testing of prototypes.

Berlin, December 2017

Claudia Lösch, Philip Rieseberg,
Mike Schlaich, Regine Leibinger

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Contents

Acknowledgments 5

1 Introduction 11

2 Theoretical Background 13
2.1 Definition and Classification of Infra-Lightweight ­Concrete 14
2.2 The Development of ­Lightweight and Infra-­Lightweight Concrete 14
2.3 Conceptual Design ­Potential of the Material 19

3 Material Technology 25
3.1 Composition and Bulk ­Density Classes 26
3.2 Properties 27

4 Building Typologies 31
4.1 Example Design of a Building 33
4.2 Infill Building 38
4.3 Linear Buildings 43
4.4 Single-Family House 45
4.5 High-Rise Building 49

5 Key Building Construction Details 55

5.1 Wall Construction Details 58
5.2 Floor Slab Connections 60
5.3 Balconies and Cantilevers 64
5.4 Window Connections 68
5.5 Foundations 78
5.6 Detail of Joint between Parapet and Flat Roof 86

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 6 Fundamentals of Design 91
6.1 Table of Parameters for ­Initial Design ­Considerations 92
6.2 Infra-Lightweight Concrete in the Context of the Energy Conservation Directive (EnEV) 94
6.3 Building Physics Properties 95
6.4 Dynamic Simulation-Based Investigations 104
6.5 Eco-Balance 110
6.6 Costs 112
6.7 Legal Background 113

7 Calculation Procedures for Structural ­Design 117

7.1 Structural Design Principles 118
7.2 Durability 120
7.3 Ductile Building ­Component Behavior 122
7.4 Base Values for Structural Design 123
7.5 Structural Design for the ­Ultimate Limit State 126
7.6 Structural Design for the Serviceability Limit State 133
7.7 Special Considerations for the Design of Components with GRP Reinforcement 141
7.8 Bonding Behavior and ­Concrete Cover 142

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 8 Practical Construction Aspects 145
8.1 Suitable Formwork 146
8.2 Surface Design 146
8.3 Production and Building with ILC 154
8.4 ­ fter-Treatment
Stripping Times and A 155
8.5 Surface Protection – W
­ ater-Repellent Coating 156
8.6 Concrete Cosmetics and After-Treatment 156

9 Selected Buildings 161

9.1 Single-Family House in Infra-Lightweight Concrete, Berlin 162
9.2 Betonoase, Berlin 164
9.3 Single-Family House, Aiterbach 166
9.4 Small House I, Kaiserslautern Technical University 168

10 Appendix 171
10.1 Calculation of Design Values – Examples 173
10.2 ω-tables with Design Values 182
10.3 Editors and Authors 202
10.4 Literature 203
10.5 Index of Figures 209
10.6 Index of Tables 212
10.7 Index of Keywords 213

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1 Introduction

On the Use of This Manual The spectrum of subjects reaches from the technical intro-
duction to the composition, manufacture, and properties of
This manual is the result of the interdisciplinary research the material, through to approaches to the structural design,
project, entitled Infra-lightweight Concrete in Multistory Res- practical application details, and processing methods, as
idential Buildings (INBIG), at the Chair of Conceptual and well as the design possibilities.
Structural Design of Prof. Mike Schlaich and that of Building
Construction and Design of Prof. Regine Leibinger and Prof. The manual is conceived as a reference book and is sub­
Matthias von Ballestrem at Berlin Technical University, which divided into ten chapters. References to other chapters, ex-
received funding from the Future of Building research initia- ternal publications, and built examples help with the search
tive of the Federal Institute for Research on Building, Urban for further information.
Affairs, and Spatial Development (BBSR). This research proj-
ect at TU Berlin focuses on infra-lightweight concrete, a The book provides a short overview of the historical develop-
thermally insulating lightweight concrete, which can be used ment of the material and a short list of some exemplary build-
for the construction of buildings without additional layers of ings built of infra-lightweight concrete that are worth mention-
insulation. A monolithic material that combines load transfer ing in the context of this publication. The authors’ emphasis is
and thermal insulation can be used in robust, durable, and not on a comprehensive historical review or the compilation
straightforward constructions and provides a high degree of of all completed buildings using thermally insulating light-
conceptual design potential. These properties make this weight concrete for construction; instead, their aim is to in-
­material a competitive alternative in terms of conceptual clude some exemplary applications of the material.
­design, fire protection, and recyclability compared with the
multilayer wall constructions common today. The construction details illustrated are intended as a design
aid and as inspiration for conceptual and construction de-
Infra-lightweight concrete has been the subject of research sign. These details reflect the current state of construction
and development at the Chair of Conceptual and Structural technology to the best of our knowledge.
Design at TU Berlin since 2006. During the first research
phase [1], basic knowledge was established for the produc- The practical suitability of the material for buildings has been
tion and processing of the material and a first building was convincingly demonstrated in several completed projects. In
constructed. During the second phase [2], further significant spite of this, infra-lightweight concrete does not – as of
development of the original infra-lightweight concrete was 2017 – have the benefit of general building control approval.
achieved, new information was obtained, and the basis for As of that date, any projects require individual approval as a
various research projects was created – such as the INBIG prerequisite for the use of the material. The approaches pre-
project. The findings from research activity carried out over sented here can be used in the context of this procedure;
a period of ten years are also included in this manual. The however, in each individual case they should be checked,
content is based on investigations in the context of third- adjusted and, if necessary, modified to reflect the require-
party-funded projects, doctoral theses, and student projects ments of the respective building project.
and dissertations.
This manual is intended to promote the wider use of this
It goes without saying that research is continuing; currently useful building material and to make a contribution to the
work is being carried out on optimizing the composition of sustainable use of globally limited resources.
the material. For this reason it is advisable to search for the
latest research results when designing an actual project. The authors and publishers hope that the result of the multi-
disciplinary research presented here will encourage many
This manual is aimed at illustrating the constructive and readers to pursue similar courses of action.
­architectural possibilities of infra-lightweight concrete and at
providing detailed help in the design of buildings with an en-
velope consisting of this new type of material.

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Infralight.indb 12 14.01.20 11:01
 2 Theoretical Background

2.1 Definition and Classification of Infra-Lightweight Concrete

2.2 The Development of Lightweight and Infra-Lightweight Concrete
2.3 Conceptual Design Potential of the Material

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 2 Theoretical Background

2.1 Definition and Classifica- are limited, which is why industrially manufactured aggre-
gates are important.
tion of Infra-Lightweight
­Concrete In addition to the dense structure and porous particulate
lightweight concrete types there is also the group of porous
Infra-lightweight concrete is a constructive lightweight con- lightweight concrete (foam concrete) and porous concrete,
crete with very low bulk density [1] that combines the both of which are manufactured without coarse rock parti-
load-bearing and thermally insulating functions of the build- cles. The porous lightweight types of concrete use foaming
ing envelope in a monolithic material. In contrast to complex, agents for foaming the cement matrix, whereas porous con-
multilayer wall constructions, building with infra-lightweight cretes are manufactured in porous concrete works using
concrete results in straightforward, robust structures that are air-entraining agents such as aluminum [4].
durable, require very little maintenance, and can therefore
contribute to a sustainable use of resources. In spite of ever Infra-lightweight concrete is considered part of the group of
more strict energy conservation regulations, exposed con- dense-structure lightweight concretes. Owing to its low bulk
crete buildings involving sophisticated free-form designs can density of less than 800 kg/m³, it is distinguished from the
make a contribution to our building culture. lightweight concretes defined in DIN EN 206 [5] (dry bulk
densities of between 800 kg/m³ and 2,000 kg/m³). This gives
Generally, different types of lightweight concrete (LC) are rise to the prefix “ultra” (see Figure 2–1). Dense-structure
classified in terms of their structure, making a distinction be- lightweight concretes that have good compressive strength
tween porous particulate and dense-structure (constructive) and low thermal conductivity and can therefore perform
lightweight concrete. Porous particulate lightweight concrete structural and insulating functions are referred to as insulat-
types are characterized by a matrix of rock particles, which ing concretes [6]. Ultra-lightweight concrete is such an insu-
are bonded together with cement paste only at the points of lating concrete, which is characterized by a very good com-
contact; they are usually used for prefabricated components bination of compressive strength and thermal properties and,
or building blocks [3]. By contrast, dense-structure light- in accordance with Faust [7], is to be classified as High Per-
weight concrete has a similar structure to that of normal formance Lightweight Aggregate Concrete (HPLWAC).
concrete (NC). Its low bulk density is mainly achieved by
­using more lightweight rock particles, which can be manu-
factured industrially or are quarried from natural resources. 2.2 The Development of
Industrially manufactured aggregates include expanded ­Lightweight and Infra-­
clay, foam glass, and expanded slate. Natural alternatives
include natural pumice stone, which does not need to be Lightweight Concrete
expanded – a process which does require a large amount of
energy – and therefore has comparatively good properties in Even though concrete has been used for two thousand
terms of ecology. However, natural pumice stone reserves years and modern reinforced concrete, in the last one hun-

Infra-lightweight concrete Lightweight concrete Normal concrete Heavyweight concrete

800 kg / m3 γDR = 2,000 kg/ m3 2,600 kg/ m3

Infrared Ultraviolet
[infra (Latin prefix) = beneath, under]

Figure 2-1 Classification of infra-lightweight concrete in accordance with dry bulk density ρDR [1]

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 2.2 The Development of ­L ightweight and Infra-­L ightweight Concrete

dred years, has been established as the most important Lightweight Ships
building material, these developments indicate that the po-
tential of this material has by no means been exhausted. In Interestingly, modern lightweight concrete construction
terms of lightweight concrete, infra-lightweight concrete can started in shipbuilding: one of the early concrete structures
meet load-bearing and thermal insulation requirements, includes a ship, the concrete barge by Joseph Louis Lambot.
which have arisen as a result of the energy turnaround and In order to save on expensive steel and weight, the United
the discussion on sustainability and climate change. The re- States started to manufacture lightweight concrete ships
search at Berlin Technical University has resulted in infra-­ during the First World War. The USS Selma, a tanker, weighed
lightweight concretes with a bulk density of less than the about 7,500 tons and was 425 feet long! This was based on
normal bulk density of lightweight concretes, which makes it the patented idea of Stephen J. Hayde, who managed to
possible to build houses with exposed concrete walls with- produce lightweight rock particles from shale in the rotary
out additional thermal insulation material. furnaces used by his company, Haydite. The USS Selma was
not completed until after the war, and was then successfully
Below follows a short history of lightweight concretes used for peaceful purposes for many years. These first suc-
through to infra-lightweight concrete. For the history of con- cesses led to the US Marines producing more than 100 cargo
crete, please refer to the specialist literature. ships of lightweight concrete during the Second World War
[8].
Antiquity
Lightweight Concrete in Building Construction
The best-known early lightweight concrete structure is prob-
ably the roof of the Pantheon in Rome, which was started in The experience gained in shipbuilding led to lightweight in
AD 114 by Emperor Trajan and was completed about ten situ concrete being first used in the USA in the 1920s and
years later by Hadrian. In order to reduce the weight of the then also worldwide in building construction. The reduction
spherical shell, the Romans used tuff stone as a lightweight in weight of the load-bearing structure led to savings in the
rock particulate for their opus caementicium. foundations and a reduced mass in the case of earthquakes.
The first high-rise building in lightweight concrete is thought
to be the Park Plaza Hotel in St. Louis dating from 1929;
better known are probably the 60-story-tall towers of Marina
City in Chicago.

The low weight of lightweight concrete and its good resis-

tance to frost and thawing and to frost and de-icing salt can
be beneficial in bridge construction. Particularly attractive
examples are the Dyckerhoff pedestrian bridge in Wies-
­
baden-Schierstein designed by Ulrich Finsterwalder in 1967
and Maintenance Hall V at Frankfurt Airport by Helmut Bom-
hard, a stressed-ribbon construction from 1972 that is cov-
ered with lightweight concrete. In spite of their low bulk den-
sity, modern lightweight concretes can have high structural
strength. The recently completed widely cantilevering roofs of
the tramway stops in front of Berlin Main Railway Station were
built using LC45/50 concrete that only weighs 1,600 kg/m³.
Figure 2-2 Roof of the Pantheon in Rome

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 2 Theoretical Background

Figure 2-3 Tramway stop at Berlin Main Railway Station (source: Hans Joosten)

Figure 2-5 Dyckerhoff bridge at Schierstein Rhine Port

(source: Cengiz Dicleli)

Figure 2-4 Marina City Towers

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 2.2 The Development of ­L ightweight and Infra-­L ightweight Concrete

Bridges Industrial buildings, TU Berlin Buildings

roofs, stadiums
Offshore structures TU Kaiserslautern Oil crisis 1973 HPLWAC

200
180
Modified static resistance αHP

160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
Year

Figure 2-6 Historical development of the performance characteristics of lightweight concrete ([9], based on [10])

The Oil Crisis and New Lightweight Concrete

Expanding clay or glass to produce lightweight rock parti-

cles requires very high temperatures and therefore a high
consumption of energy. As shown in Figure 2–6, the shock
of the 1973 oil crisis and rising energy prices led to an al-
most twenty-year standstill in lightweight concrete con-
struction. Naturally, lightweight concrete was, and contin-
ues to be, used in building and bridge construction owing to
its low weight. Interestingly though, for some years, the idea
of saving energy has once again led to lightweight concrete
becoming attractive for building construction. The thermal
properties of lightweight concrete were primarily rediscov-
ered by Swiss architects, leading to the increased use of
lightweight concrete in residential building. In his important
Figure 2-7 Lufthansa Maintenance Hall V (source: Yoshito Isono) book Architektonisches Potential von Dämmbeton [6], Pat-
rick Filipaj demonstrates the diversity of modern Swiss ex-
posed concrete construction.

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 2 Theoretical Background

Figure 2-8 Single-family house in Berlin, 2007

Research on Infra-Lightweight Concrete in Berlin INBIG – Infra-Lightweight Concrete in Multistory Residential

nn
Buildings, with funding from Future of Building, a project that
The thermal conductivity of lightweight concretes with dry was worked on by architects and engineers in cooperation.
bulk densities of over 1,000 kg/m³, as were used in Switzer- A DFG project for investigating the load-bearing and de-
nn
land, is however too high, which means that the require- formation behavior of infra-lightweight concrete compo-
ments included in the new Energy Conservation Directives nents that are subject to bending stress.
cannot be met. For this reason, infra-lightweight concretes A subproject (C3 B4) of the C3 – Carbon Concrete Com-
nn
with a dry bulk density of less than 800 kg/m³ have been posite project supported by the Federal Ministry for Edu-
investigated at Berlin Technical University since 2006 [11]; cation and Research (BMBF) that investigated carbon-­
these types of concrete can achieve values for thermal con- reinforced infra-lightweight concrete, and
ductivity of significantly less than λ10°,dr = 0.2 W/(m · K). A the MultiLC project, also supported by the BMBF, that looks
nn
first house was built as early as 2007 using this material [1], at multifunctional lightweight concrete components with
and in 2012 the research results of a more developed ver- nonhomogeneous properties. The latter is aimed at devel-
sion received a Holcim Innovation Prize [12]. Nowadays, in- oping building components based on infra-lightweight con-
fra-lightweight concrete has been explored in theory and crete with varying properties across the cross section and
practice to such an extent that there are now fewer and at adding other functionalities such as active insulation or
fewer obstacles to its use in practice. photocatalytic cover layers for improving air quality.
The ILVO research project that focuses on the manufac-
nn
State of Research ture of prefabricated components in infra-lightweight con-
crete, funded by the DBU, in which prefabricated in-
Research at TU Berlin is continuing. Third-party-funded proj- fra-lightweight concrete (ILC) components are developed
ects include: and then used in a multistory residential building of
HOWOGE Wohnungsbaugesellschaft mbH.

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 2.3 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN P
­ OTENTIAL OF THE MATERIAL

In addition, numerous internal research projects exist on

­various subjects.

Generally speaking, there is much interest in insulating con-

crete, which is also why there is much research activity in this
area. In the field of lightweight concrete and infra-lightweight
concrete, the extensive work of Prof. Karl-Christian Thienel,
Department for Construction Materials at the Bundeswehr
University Munich, and the research of Prof. Wolfgang Breit in
the field of construction materials at Kaiserslautern Technical
University, should be emphasized. Prof. Thienel has been fo-
cusing on lightweight concrete for decades and has also sig-
nificantly contributed to the development of infra-lightweight
concrete for the Thalmaier single-family house in Aiterbach in
2016 (see Chapter 9.3 and [13]). During the initial work on
infra-lightweight concrete at TU Berlin in 2006, Prof. Thienel,
together with Prof. Hillemeier (TU Berlin), provided help and
advice. Prof. Breit has developed an infra-light architectural
lightweight concrete, which was used in 2012 to build the
Small House I experimental building in Kaiserslautern (see
Chapter 9.4 and [14]).
Figure 2-9 Prototype smart material house, infra-lightweight concrete
Further development also benefits from the research as well as
from the work required to obtain approval in individual cases. amount of gray energy used in the production of cement, the
Such approvals have already been given for the infra-light- concrete aggregates, and the lightweight rock particles in
weight concrete used in the Thalmaier house and for the Be­ infra-lightweight concrete. Building with thermal insulation
tonoase youth center in Berlin (see also Chapter 9.2). will not become less of an issue until we have clean, renew-
able, and cheap solar energy permanently available.
Does Infra-Lightweight Concrete Have a Future?

Of course, infra-lightweight concretes cannot compete with 2.3 Conceptual Design

the low thermal conductivity of non-load-bearing thermal in-
sulation. Filipaj wrote in 2013: “For this reason, the signifi-
­Potential of the Material
cantly stricter thermal insulation regulations with U-values of
0.2 W/(m² · K) ) have become an almost insurmountable ob- Infra-Lightweight Concrete – From Material to Form
stacle when trying to use insulating concrete for the enve-
lope of buildings …” [15]. However, when we look at the If we approach the architectural design of a project with a
building as a whole, including its floor slab, roof, and facade, certain building material in mind rather than adopting a com-
and take into account alternative heating and cooling meth- pletely free and open attitude with regard to form, structure,
ods, or even consider innovative approaches such as the and material, we have to be aware of the specific logic that
use of capillary tube mats as a form of wall heating and cool- comes with the specific material. Therefore when we design
ing using groundwater, then there are no limits to building a building with a load-bearing and insulating envelope of in-
with infra-lightweight concrete. fra-lightweight concrete, we have to ask ourselves how we
deal with the material convincingly and appropriately, and
Even so, the need for research continues. It is imperative to what form would result from that.
continue reducing the CO² footprint resulting from the

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 2 Theoretical Background

Louis Kahn is well known for having told the following story. heavy construction material in terms of its relative density.
In 1963, when talking to his students, he answered the ar- By contrast, insulation materials are always particularly light-
chitectural question about the interaction between building weight and usually achieve their insulation effect through a
material, form, and construction principle using the example high proportion of air voids. Infra-lightweight concrete com-
of brick masonry, as follows: bines the positive properties of a heavy material with those
of a light one. It is this very combination of opposed proper-
“If you think of Brick, you say to Brick, ‘What do you want, ties that results in one of the primary characteristics of the
Brick?’ And Brick says to you, ‘I like an arch.’ And if you say material: unlike reinforced concrete, infra-lightweight con-
to Brick, ‘Look, arches are expensive, and I can use a con- crete is used in large material thicknesses and volumes. It
crete lintel over you. What do you think of that, Brick?’ Brick needs to be used in these volumes to develop its benefits
says, ‘I like an arch.’” [16] compared to other construction materials. This leads us to
the hypothesis that the thick wall turns out to be a primary
Similarly, we should also ask a new building material such as architectural element, as an epistemic object that is inherent
infra-lightweight concrete what it would like to be. We have in the material. The simple, thick monolithic external wall is
to find out what form of appearance most corresponds to its the basic module in the design of a building made of in-
inner logic. fra-lightweight concrete.

In architecture, expression and form are directly related to Simple, Monolithic, Robust
the material used or the building product it has been trans-
formed into. Material and form are directly interdependent. In “Thus, every time I had the sense of perceiving the deepest
his article “Stoff, Form, Hylemorphismus – Zum Verhältnis sense of the world, I was stunned above all by its simplicity.”
von Konstruktion und Philosophie” [17] the architectural the- (A. Camus [17])
orist Jörg H. Gleiter describes the relationship between mat-
ter and form as described by Aristotle, who uses the term The longing of many architects for simplicity and the desire
hylomorphism: “However, with our senses we can experi- for harmony between expression and construction are often
ence matter only when it is manifest in form. In form, one of driving forces in the architectural design process. It is not a
the possible potentials inherent in the matter is expressed.” new idea resulting from this to develop building materials
with a higher degree of complexity that fulfill different require-
The building materials manifest in archaic basic forms, so- ments. As an example, let’s just mention the brick with its
called epistemic objects. In the case of clay, the dried and cavities, which are filled in addition with highly insulating ma-
later fired brick is the basic module; in steel construction it is terials, or the solid wall made of lightweight clay that has
the double-T beam, at least since Ludwig Mies van der been reinforced with natural fibers.
Rohe. When we are building and designing with infra-light-
weight concrete, we have to clarify what the epistemic ob- Compared with these building materials, infra-lightweight
ject of the material is. concrete appeals not only because it can be used as a
building material for monolithic, smooth, and thick walls,
The Thick Wall as an Epistemic Object thereby radically reducing the number of layers in the wall,
but also because it lends itself to free-forming and can be
Infra-lightweight concrete is a composite material consisting surface-treated in a wide range of different ways, including
of concrete and steel, similar to normal reinforced concrete, even ornamentation. Owing to its high load-transfer potential
that is, a composite consisting of two base materials. How- and also its good resistance to bending moments, it can be
ever, infra-lightweight concrete amplifies the properties of used in monolithic construction, which means that even
reinforced concrete: the property of thermal insulation is cantilevering components can be built using a single building
added to the already existing ones, that is, the transfer of material without additional auxiliary constructions and spe-
loads, the spanning of open spaces, and the free formability. cial connection details.
Despite its enormous performance capability, concrete is a

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 2.3 Conceptual Design P
­ otential of the Material

In contrast to many highly adaptive high-tech building mate-

rials, infra-lightweight concrete nevertheless represents an
approach to minimizing technology and to deliberate sim-
plicity. This idea also gives rise to the hope that buildings
can be put up that have low maintenance requirements and
that, due to their durability and robustness, are ecologically
sustainable in the long term.

The Thick Wall – Layout and Detailing

So, when we design a building with external walls made of

infra-lightweight concrete, our main focus is on the primary
element of the thick wall. The reduction in the thickness of
the external envelope – which took place during the phase
of architectural modernism and resulted in a slender building
element that is hardly distinguishable in plan from other in-
ternal separating walls – does not provide much help in de-
veloping an architecturally pleasing conceptual design with
the thick external wall. For this reason, many authors advise
architects and designers to rely on previous epochs of archi-
tecture with their thick external walls as architectural design
elements, which in those days still had to be employed as a
constructive necessity. In contemporary architecture with
insulating concrete, Baroque architecture with its common
pochés has often been cited as a reference. In this context,
pochés are additional space situations that result from the
variation in wall thickness. “Through porosity or as space-­
containing walls, architectural masses that function as
poché may in turn contain interior spaces which remain in
the background in relation to the main rooms as subsidiary
chambers, ancillary rooms, cabinets, etc.” [18]

Owing to its high load-bearing capacity and, at the same

time, relatively good thermal insulation, infra-lightweight
concrete furthermore offers the opportunity to build floor
decks or roofs with low thermal conductivity using the ma-
terial and to construct a house using the same material Figure 2–10 San Lorenzo, Turin, Guarino Guarini (source: Architet-
throughout. tura civile, plate 4, Torino, 1737)

However, the thick wall also requires special detailing for

adjoining elements such as windows, doors, and roof con- “The cross sections of insulating concrete elements literally
nections. It challenges us to reevaluate these interfaces with call for the insertion of additional functions, for example win-
respect to their spatial effect. For example, in a thick wall dow openings with seating on the sides or niches for cabi-
the window can be arranged in a number of different ways: nets and shelves that finish flush with the wall.” [19]

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 2 Theoretical Background

Figure 2–11 Private house in Leymen, Herzog & de Meuron (photo: Margherita Spillutini)

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 2.3 Conceptual Design P
­ otential of the Material

The design for a residential tower block in Berlin, which re-

ceived an award in a competition (see Chapter 4.5), dis-
plays some aspects of the design possibilities offered by
infra-­lightweight concrete. In this case, the external shape of
the building is reflected on the inside. The window opening
with its deep reveal is utilized as an adaptive thermal buffer
by including an additional glass pane. The material deter-
mines the shape of the building in a decisive way, and this
shape is repeated analogously on the inside.

The Lightness of the “Heavy” Envelope

When we think of examples of buildings in solid concrete,

the concrete architecture of later work by Le Corbusier read-
ily comes to mind (Notre-Dame-du-Haut in Ronchamp, or
Sainte-Marie de la Tourette near Lyon) or the archaic-seem-
ing buildings by Marcel Breuer. Another example of the many
ways in which architectural design can benefit from the
free-formability of a material are the concrete buildings of the
Spanish architect Miguel Fisac with their textile appearance
or the sculptural creations of the Italian architect Angelo
Mangiarotti.

However, we should always remember that, by definition,

infra-lightweight concrete is not an element associated with
heaviness. In contrast to conventional reinforced concrete,
infra-lightweight concrete weighs significantly less than wa-
ter. Any building made of infra-lightweight concrete, irre-
spective of the thickness of its walls, feels more like a light-
weight building than one in solid construction. It is this
duality of the material in particular – that is, the presence of
heaviness and lightness at the same time – which we need
to use appropriately and for which we need to find diverse
architectural expressions.

The architectural potential inherent in the material, and

hence the range of conceptual and constructive design op-
tions, is great. We are now faced with the task of exploring
its boundaries.

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Infralight.indb 24 14.01.20 11:02
 3 Material Technology

3.1 Composition and Bulk Density Classes

3.2 Properties

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 3 Material Technology

Lightweight concrete is classified in accordance with a num-

ber of different criteria. These include dry bulk density, com-
3.1 Composition and
pressive strength, and type of structure, among others. The Bulk ­Density Classes
capability of lightweight concrete is measured in terms of
structural performance, in which strength and bulk density Infra-lightweight concrete in the composition developed at
play a part (see [7]). Owing to its capability, infra-light- TU Berlin [2] consists of cement, water, lightweight rock par-
weight concrete is classed as a High Performance Light- ticles, silica fume, plasticizer, and stabilizer.
weight Aggregate Concrete (HPLWAC [7]) and, with its dry
bulk density of ≤ 800 kg/m³, does not fall within the light- The compositions, which are based on expanded clay as
weight concretes specified in Eurocode (EC) 2 [20]. In spite lightweight rock particles, can be found in various publica-
of its very low dry bulk density, ILC has a closed structure tions (see, for example, [1, 2, 21]). The compositions are
and therefore does not belong to the porous particulate con- continually being developed at Berlin Technical University.
cretes but to the dense-structure or constructive lightweight For this reason, it is recommended to carry out research for
concretes (see Chapter 2.1). improved compositions when collecting information for a
new design project.

At the time of writing this book, compositions are available for

concretes with dry bulk densities of between 600 and
800 g/m³, referred to as ILC600 to ILC800 (Table 3-1), which
have average compressive strengths of between approxi-
mately 5 and 13 MPa (Table 3-2). The bulk density classes of
ILC compare with those of lightweight concrete as defined in
accordance with the EC2 [20].

Figure 3–1 Components of infra-lightweight concrete (source: Alex

Hückler)

26

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 2.3 Conceptual Design P 3.2the
­ otential of PROPERTIES
Material

3.2 Properties The most important parameters for the various ILC classes
have been compiled below. The information is based on ex-
tensive test series carried out by Hückler [21] and are valid
The properties described below and the findings explained in for the composition stated. Detailed data can be found in
later chapters refer to the compositions listed in the doctoral Chapter 7.
thesis “Trag- und Verformungsverhalten von biegebe­ an­
spruch­ten Bauteilen aus Infraleichtbeton” (Load-bearing and
deformation behavior of infra-lightweight concrete [ILC] com-
ponents exposed to bending moments) by Hückler [21].

Infra-lightweight concrete Lightweight concrete as specified in EC2 [20]

ILC600 ILC650 ILC700 ILC750 ILC800

Bulk density class 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0

Dry bulk density 551 to 601 to 651 to 701 to 751 to 801 to 1,001 to 1,201 to 1,401 to 1,601 to 1,801 to
class ρdr [kg/m³] 600 650 700 750 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600 1,800 2000,

Table 3–1 Bulk density classes of infra-lightweight and lightweight concrete [21]

Parameters
ILC600 ILC650 ILC700 ILC750 ILC800
Composition [kg/m³]
CEM III/A N – 32.5 LH/NA 190 225 260 296 333
Silica fume 74 72 70 68 66
Effective water 144 154 164 175 185
Lightweight rock particles (expanded clay)
25; 139; 243 42; 132; 227 59; 126; 212 76; 120; 196 93; 114; 180
w60-damp 0/2;1/4; 2/6
Plasticizer 2.86 3.03 3.19 3.36 3.52
Stabilizer 0.27 0.36 0.45 0.53 0.63
Experimentally determined properties (weighted averages; detailed statistical evaluation, dimensions of test specimen,
and test description are documented in Hückler [21])
Fresh concrete bulk density ρfresh [kg/m³] 872 906 947 1,009 1,075
Slump flow sm [mm] 624 664 637 629 591
Air void content AV [ %] 25 25 23 21 21
Intended dry bulk density ρdr [kg/m³] 600 650 700 750 800
Achieved dry bulk density ρdr [kg/m³] 619 674 711 766 809
Mean cylinder strength filcm,cyl [MPa] 5.3 7.4 9.4 11.3 13.0
Tensile strength filctm [MPa] 0.65 0.71 0.76 0.82 0.87
Modulus of elasticity Eilcm [MPa] 2,300 2,700 3,100 3,500 3,900
Thermal conductivity λ10°, dr [W/m · K] 0.141 0.153 0.166* 0.178* 0.193
* from linear interpolation

Table 3–2 Composition and associated properties of infra-lightweight concrete based on [21, 22]

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 3 Material Technology

Consistency/Workability to minimize the temperature gradient in the building compo-

nent between core and surface, it is necessary to apply
Infra-lightweight concrete in accordance with Table 3-2 is careful after-treatment (see Chapter 8.4). Another option
almost self-compacting. This means that ILC is self-leveling for reducing the development of the temperature is the par-
and that spaces, such as those between the reinforcement tial replacement of the water with ice shards, as has already
and the formwork, are filled; however, in contrast to com- been successfully practiced in the Thalmaier project in Aiter-
mon self-compacting concretes, it will not de-air itself. This bach (see Chapter 9.3 and [13]).
would be counterproductive since the increased air void
content is wanted for its thermal insulation.

Consequently, it is not necessary and not recommended to

use classical compaction methods such as vibrating when
installing ILC, because this would significantly change the
properties of the concrete, such as its strength, raw density,
and thermal conductivity. In certain cases it may be helpful
to carry out compacting in specific places (for example, ex-
ternal vibration, poking in the corners) for optical reasons, for
example in order to avoid surface marks in the concrete
(see Chapter 8.3).

Temperature Development

The temperature increase T in the fresh concrete during hy-

dration depends on the cement content z, the hydration
heat H of the cement, and the heat stored (product of the
bulk density ρ and the specific heat capacity c) [7].

T = z ∙ H / (c ∙ ρ) (1)

From the above we can conclude that the temperature rises

more in lightweight concrete compared to normal concrete,
because the bulk density ρ is lower, whereas the specific
heat capacity c is of a similar order in both normal and light-
weight concrete [7]. In addition, owing to the low thermal
conductivity of lightweight concrete, the discharge of its hy-
dration heat takes place more slowly.

In infra-lightweight concrete too we find a stronger tempera-

ture increase owing to hydration. In order to counteract this
effect, cement CEM III for ILC was selected for the formula-
tions discussed here, because this cement produces a rela-
tively small amount of heat. Owing to the different cement
content, the various ILC formulations in Table 3-2 must be
expected to have different temperature development behav-
iors. For example, for ILC800 in a 45 cm thick wall, tempera-
tures of up to 82 °C were measured. It follows that in order

28

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Infralight.indb 29 14.01.20 11:02
Infralight.indb 30 14.01.20 11:02
 4 Building Typologies

4.1 Example Design of a Building

4.2 Infill Building
4.3 Linear Buildings
4.4 Single-Family House
4.5 High-Rise Building

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 4 Building Typologies

The objective here is to illustrate the basic principles in the

conceptual and constructive design of a building using in-
fra-lightweight concrete. Basic design options will be pre-
sented, including initial information about some basic pa-
rameters such as wall thicknesses, proportion of window
area, opening widths, etc.

The objective is not to present concrete design patterns for

dealing with infra-lightweight concrete as a building material.
The sketches deliberately omit conceptual design details –
such as plinth stories, roof details, or surface finishes – in or-
der to give readers and users a maximum of space for the
development of their own aesthetic and technical approaches.

So as to keep the scope manageable, we will be mainly con-

sidering multistory apartment buildings, since these are par-
ticularly suitable for the application of infra-lightweight con-
crete owing to their demanding requirements in terms of
energy and structural design. However, we do not wish to
convey the impression that infra-lightweight concrete is only
suitable for housing. Infra-lightweight concrete also offers
many advantages and opportunities for application in non-
residential buildings, which should be explored in the future.

Figure 4-1 Freestanding apartment building

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 4.1 EXAMPLE DESIGN OF A BUILDING

4.1 Example Design of a Building

Example of Initial Questions to Be Asked When

­Designing a Freestanding, Multistory Apartment
Building in Infra-Lightweight Concrete

From the point of view of the designer, some basic informa-

tion is required in response to the questions below in order
to approach the design of a building in infra-lightweight con-
crete:

What is the basic structure of the building? Which ele-

nn
ments are made of infra-lightweight concrete and which of
other conventional building materials?
How high can I build, and what combination of strength
nn
and wall thickness is needed for the load-bearing external
walls?
What is the combination of bulk density and wall thickness
nn
of infra-lightweight concrete I need to meet the energy
conservation requirements?
What types of openings are possible? What is the propor-
nn
tion of openings?
Will I build using in situ concrete, a hybrid construction
nn
method, or only prefabricated components?

The design of the basic structure of a building (freestanding

apartment building) is shown as an example in order to pro-
vide the parameters for the conceptual and structural outline
design of a sample building. The parameters are summa-
rized in Chapter 6.1 in table form (see Table 6-1 for initial
sizing).
Figure 4-2 Example of the structure of a building in infra-lightweight
concrete:
nnExternal envelope in the form of a load-bearing monolithic wall in
infra-lightweight concrete (black)
nnIntermediate floors in concrete, solid timber, or similar supported
on the load-bearing external wall
nnLoad-bearing internal core of normal concrete (see Figure 4-4)
nnRoof made of lightweight concrete with insulation and weather-
proofing layer
nnCellar built of conventional building materials (here, unheated cellar
of waterproof prefabricated components)

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 4 Building Typologies

ILC800
7 full stories

ILC750
6 full stories

ILC700
4 full stories

ILC600
2 full stories

Figure 4-3 Maximum building heights achievable with different ILC strength classes

Height of Building, Thickness and Strength of Wall Energy Conservation Requirements

The building chosen here as an example is a freestanding The thermal transmittance (U-value) of the respective wall is
apartment building measuring 14.2 m × 20.8 m with varia- calculated from the bulk density in combination with the wall
tions in building height. The building consists of a load-bear- thickness necessary to fulfill the relevant thermal insulation
ing external building envelope of infra-lightweight concrete requirements.
with a consistent wall thickness of 60 cm. The openings at
lower floor level have larger spans. As a rule, the key criterion for the wall thickness is the ther-
mal insulation requirement; therefore, the wall thickness re-
Depending on the number of floors, it is possible to use dif- quired is usually determined on the basis of the calculation
ferent strength classes of ILC. of the necessary U-values (see Details 5-1 and 5-2 of wall
thicknesses and U-values).
Using concrete with a bulk density of 800 kg/m³, buildings
can be designed with up to eight full stories without recourse
to additional structural elements.

34

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 4.1 EXAMPLE DESIGN OF A BUILDING

Scale 1:200

Figure 4-4 Design of freestanding apartment building, standard floor plan

Possible Dimensions of Openings Thermal Insulation in Summer

With an opening width of approximately 1.6 m, the openings The thickness of the walls offers the opportunity to utilize
shown in Figure 4-4 are quite manageable from a structural the walls for thermal insulation in summer. Windows can be
point of view. The only really large openings on the first floor placed in the openings such that the reveal is used as a
are those with a clear opening width of 4.90 m. As a general natural shading element. For windows facing south, the
principle, openings should be limited to a clear span of 3.0 m glass panes should preferably be fitted flush with the inside
for both technical and economic reasons. surface of the wall; windows facing north, east, and west
can be installed centrally. It is currently not recommended
Larger window openings would be very possible; however, to install windows flush with the outside of the walls be-
this would make construction more complex and increase cause it is possible for the inner reveals to suffer from
costs. ­excessive moisture (see Details 5-7 to 5-11 on window
connections).

35

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 4 Building Typologies

Figure 4-5 Detail of ILC balcony connection with back-anchoring

Balconies/Cantilevers The load-bearing and deformation behavior of infra-light-

weight concrete components subjected to bending mo-
Balconies can be connected using conventional systems ments was investigated at TU Berlin. The results demon-
with decoupling devices and with back-anchoring to the strated that the material can be used when exposed to
floor slab. bending moments and is also suitable for components such
as balconies and canopies. The prototype of a projecting
However, it is also possible to design the balconies as pro- infra-lightweight concrete balcony slab (gray) and an inner
jecting infra-lightweight concrete elements. This removes the floor slab of normal concrete (light gray) shown in Figure 4-6
necessity of fitting additional thermal decoupling devices. It illustrates this construction principle. Load tests have al-
also means that the technical complexity of the building and ready been carried out to prove the functionality of this con-
building process is reduced (see Detail 5-6). struction.

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 4.1   EXAMPLE
Example DESIGN
Design OF
of A
a BUILDING
Building

Figure 4-6 Load test of a balcony prototype using a slab bending machine

In Situ Concrete or Prefabricated Component

Generally speaking, both in situ concrete and prefabricated

component constructions are possible with infra-lightweight
concrete. The choice depends on design considerations (in
prefabricated component construction joints are unavoid-
able) as well as other factors, such as the site logistics and
the benefits of prefabrication.

At this stage, the use of infra-lightweight concrete in prefab-

ricated components has not been researched extensively.
However, research projects on this subject are in the pipeline.

37

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 4 Building Typologies

4.2 Infill Building

Building volumes Joist layout Optional position of corridors

Position of stairwells Also optional position of main walls

Figure 4-7 Design of infill building using in situ concrete, standard floor plan

The classical inner-city gap between buildings with two sides Loads are mainly transferred via the two load-bearing exter-
of the external envelope exposed to the outside, that is, fac- nal facades (facing the street and facing the yard) and a
ing the street and the rear, and two thermally neutral side load-bearing spine wall. The span of the floors from the
walls (which do not have to be taken into account in the spine wall to the external wall is approximately 6 m.
design of the envelope) is a type of building that is predes-
tined for innovative building and insulation materials. In this Both buildings shown here are very similar in the design of
case, the proportion of wall surface in relation to the overall the north facade facing the street. They appear like a straight-
envelope of the building is relatively small; also, these build- forward urban facade with individual windows, without any
ings are usually treated preferentially in terms of thermal cal- other particular details of interest. The design of the south
culations. Furthermore, the favorable ratio of envelope sur- facade facing the yard was more elaborate. Here, the sub-
face to building volume means that the global impact of ject of shading the large window areas played an important
thermal bridges on the building is reduced. role, as did the general design and construction consider-
ations (smaller windows facing north, larger windows facing
Both preliminary studies for an infill building using infra-light- south).
weight concrete presented here are initially based on the
classical construction principle used for Berlin tenements.
These buildings are usually 12 to 13 m deep.

38

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   Example Design
4.2 INFILL
of a BUILDING
Building

Scale 1:200

Figure 4-8 Design of infill building using prefabricated components, standard floor plan

Scale 1:200

Figure 4-9 Floor plan of tenement in Leinestrasse around 1910 [23]

39

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 4 Building Typologies

Figure 4-10 Rendering of infill building in in situ concrete construction Figure 4-11 Prototype of a wall section with ILC balcony without
back-anchoring

The Facade in In Situ Concrete Construction – balcony constructions that is appropriate for the material. In
­Potential for Self-Supporting Free-Form Applications spite of the projecting building elements, this design still
­allows for a monolithic wall construction (see also Chap-
Infra-lightweight concrete offers the opportunity to produce ter 6.4.3, Thermal Bridge Simulation).
facades using the same material throughout. This means
that elements such as balconies or oriels do not have to be A facade of this design is probably more convincing as an in
added to the facade, but instead can be developed out of situ concrete construction than as a prefabricated compo-
the facade itself. Formally, this can be achieved in a number nent construction, because in the latter it is not possible to
of different ways. In the example shown here, the forces are avoid the joints between the elements. Owing to the large
transferred directly into the load-bearing wall via arch-like wall cross sections needed when building with infra-light-
canopies. This means that the floor slab is no longer used weight concrete, large quantities of concrete are required,
for back-anchoring the projecting balcony slab. Rather, the which no doubt is a disadvantage on inner-city construction
facade becomes a sculptural component, and recesses and sites with complicated site logistics. Here again, an infill
projections are inherent parts of the construction (see building has a clear advantage compared to a freestanding
­Detail 5-6). building owing to the lower proportion of external envelope.

Of course there will still be a thermal bridge, which cannot

be avoided at points where the cross section of the building
component is reduced in size. The version shown here illus-
trates an alternative to conventional thermally decoupled

40

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 4.2 INFILL BUILDING

Figure 4-12 Rendering of infill building in prefabricated element

construction

Prefabricated Element Facades – Potential for facade layer provides an energy upgrade to the existing
­Applications in New Building and Refurbishment­ building envelope, as well as an extension of the space in
the apartments.
In the directly adjoining infill building in Figure 4-12, a very
different design principle was used for the design of the In the 2016 refurbishment project in the Quartier du Grand
south-facing facade compared to Figure 4-10. This is deter- Parc, Bordeaux, by architectural practice Lacaton & Vassal,
mined by a system of identical loggia modules. The building an additional functional layer is created, which can be
components are delivered prefabricated and are manufac- erected on one side in front of the building or even on two
tured of infra-lightweight concrete throughout. In contrast to sides. Standardized apartment buildings with their serial
a balcony, this loggia can be used as such or as an interior construction logic involving many identical floor plans seem
space that has the benefit of insulation all round. This addi- to be particularly suited to this situation.
tional functionality makes the facade a space element in its
own right. When using infra-lightweight concrete elements, the addi-
tional space created can be used as a thermal buffer zone
This principle of a facade consisting of prefabricated space and also fulfills the same requirements as those for normal
elements can be applied in new building as well as in refur- interior space. This construction method appears particu-
bishment. In a new building the elements would also contrib- larly suited to climate zones with exacting requirements
ute to the load transfer from the floor slabs of the building. In ­regarding the building insulation.
a refurbishment situation, the modules can be placed in front
of the building as an additional facade layer. In that case, this

41

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 4 Building Typologies

Figure 4-13 Schematic of the Quartier du Grand Parc, Bordeaux (source: Anne Lacaton & Jean Philippe Vassal; photo: Frédéric Druot,
Christophe Hutin)

Figure 4-14 Subsequently added loggias at the Quartier du Grand Parc, Bordeaux (source: Anne Lacaton & Jean Philippe Vassal;
photo: Philippe Ruault)

42

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 4.3 Linear Buildings

4.3 Linear Buildings

The example shown here, a linear development at Kracauer-

platz, is located on a site along the heavily trafficked east–
west connection of Berlin’s S-Bahn. The north elevation of
the building forms a kind of attenuation wall facing the exist-
ing railway line, whereas the open south side faces the urban
square.

In order to do justice to the specific urban location, the rear

facade of the building consists of an almost completely
closed infra-lightweight concrete construction and the fa-
cade facing south consists of large open areas constructed
in timber and glass with continuous shading balconies. In
this example, the material’s sound insulation value based on
the mass per area is to be used to good advantage (see
Chapter 6.3.8). At the same time, this approximately 60 m
long in situ concrete wall was used to investigate the theo-
retical effects of creep and shrinkage of the material (see
Chapters 7.4.4 and 7.6.4).

The rear wall of the building facing north is used for a zone
in which secondary rooms are located. The building has a
Figure 4-15 Site plan with linear building using in situ concrete clear orientation, with a more public part facing the city and
construction a more private zone at the rear. This includes toilets, kitch-
ens, work rooms, and also some bedrooms. The wall varies
Since the beginning of architectural modernism at the latest, in its thickness and, in some places, has small pockets
long rows of linear buildings have become a common build- (pochés), which can be used to integrate cabinets or even
ing typology in the urban housing of the twentieth and twenty-­ small functional units.
first centuries. Infra-lightweight concrete is a material that
can also be used for this typology in a number of different
ways.

The example here shows an application option for this typol-

ogy that is based on the specific urban situation as well as
on the combination with other building materials, such as
the use of timber for the floor construction.

Figure 4-16 Design of linear building using in situ concrete

construction, standard floor plan

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 4 Building Typologies

Scale 1:200

Scale 1:500

Figure 4-17 Rendering of linear building in in situ concrete construction

Scale 1:500

External wall in ILC Load-bearing structural element Downstand beams

60 cm Concrete/steel/masonry Floor joists

Figure 4-18 Construction principle of linear building using in situ concrete construction

The small openings in the rear wall (see Figure 4-17) m­ easure forming the base for the meandering balconies along the city
65 cm × 65 cm and are spread across the entire wall surface in square.
an irregular pattern. Shuttering is carried out with standard
formwork panels measuring 2.5 m × 2.5 m. This rigid formwork So here we also see a combination of infra-lightweight con-
pattern fashions the guiding motif for the rear facade. crete with timber construction. It is therefore necessary to
provide structural calculations for the connection between
The floors in the building are constructed using timber joists the timber joists and the load-bearing ILC wall, as well as to
laid perpendicular to the rear wall (see Figure 4-18). These prove the suitability of the material in the chosen configura-
joists penetrate the south facade of the building, thereby tion in terms of building physics.

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 4.4 Single-Family HOUSE
SINGLE-FAMILY House

4.4 Single-Family House

Figure 4-19 Rendering of design for single-family house

To date, the freestanding residence is the type of building in The many completed buildings, some of which are intro-
which infra-lightweight concrete or other insulating con- duced at the end of this publication, adequately demon-
cretes have been used most. As a rule, the reason for this strate the design potential of a monolithic material for this
was the lower load-bearing capacity of the material in early type of building. In this example, the facades shown and the
formulations of the time. Also, the proportional risk relating overall external appearance of the building are of secondary
to the cost of building of a single-family house is of course importance and are only shown for better understanding. In
significantly lower, which means that motivated individuals our discussion below, the main focus is on the floor plan of
were able to implement such ambitious individual projects. the building.

In terms of load-bearing capability, infra-lightweight concrete

does not present any technical problems when applied to
The Inside Face of the External Wall
the construction of a single-family house. As before, this In contrast to multistory apartment buildings, which tend to
type of building lends itself to various design solutions using be designed with generic, economically optimized solutions
infra-lightweight concrete. In view of the fact that, in a single-­ for apartment floor plans, the single-family house offers the
family house in particular, the wall thicknesses can be varied, opportunity to find specific space solutions that meet the
surfaces differentiated, and connection details designed needs of individual users. At the same time, in this type of
more radically, we can conclude that the scope for design project there is less pressure to find the most economic and
with this material has not yet been fully exhausted in this efficient solutions compared to collective housing projects.
type of building. The design shown here is intended to illus- The wall, with its extra thickness, is not subject to the same
trate one of the key design themes when building with the economic restrictions, and can therefore be sculpted more
“primary element of the material,” that is, the architectural freely.
element of the thick wall (see Chapter 2.3).

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 4 Building Typologies

Scale 1:200

Figure 4-20 Rendering of single-family house, floor plans

This means that we can focus on the architectural subject of Large Spans and Cantilevers
designing spaces enclosed by thick walls, including projec-
tions, niches, or pochés (pockets). As part of this process, the When studying examples of houses built with insulating con-
thick wall is no longer just a component designed to meet crete, it is apparent that architects like to transfer the techni-
technical requirements (those of structure and building phys- cal possibilities of applying the large spans and cantilevers
ics) but becomes a key conceptual design element. This goes common in reinforced concrete buildings to buildings made
beyond trying to produce perfect exposed concrete surfaces of insulating concrete. We need to stress at this point that
inside and out. Beyond the aesthetics of a minimalist building although it is possible to achieve spans of certain dimen-
with exposed concrete surfaces all round, the scope of de- sions with both infra-lightweight concrete and insulating
sign of insulating concrete has not as yet been particularly concrete, these materials soon reach their limits when the
well explored (see also Chapter 8.2). spans become too wide. It is possible to cope with larger
spans as well, for example by including more reinforcement
We conclude that the wall can be utilized in many different or integrating steel beams, but these additions are costly,
ways. Window niches can accommodate seats; walls have may reduce the insulating properties of the construction and
niches for cabinets and fitted furniture; the wall can be therefore may not comply with the principles of material-­
strictly orthogonal, smooth, and straight, but it can also be appropriate building.
designed in concave and other free shapes. Even the hori-
zontal surfaces, such as the roof and floor, can become part
of the interior design concept.

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 4.4 Single-Family House

Figure 4-21 Interior of the Birg mich Cilli project, Peter Haimerl (photo: Edward Beierle)

However, it is not intended here to query the rationale of

designing a building that goes beyond the inherent technical
feasibility of its materials. In fact, such design approaches
seem to be a natural fit with infra-lightweight concrete, a
material that lends itself to free sculptural forms.

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 4 Building Typologies

Figure 4-22 Well-designed, technically sophisticated example of a building in insulating concrete, new construction of the Meisterhäuser in
Dessau (Bruno, Fioretti, Marquez Architects; photo: Christoph Rokitta)

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 4.5 HIGH-RISE Building
High-Rise BUILDING

4.5 High-Rise Building

In accordance with the findings of current research, in-

fra-lightweight concrete can be used as a load-bearing ma-
terial for up to a maximum of about seven to ten stories,
depending on the design and structural system. This raises
the question as to whether, in future, high-rise buildings in
infra-lightweight concrete may be possible.

In 2014 an ideas competition for housing fit for the future

was organized in Berlin under the name Urban Living Com-
petition. The high-rise building at Karl-Marx-Allee, which was
designed by Barkow Leibinger Architects and schlaich ber-
germann partner, won one of the first prizes in the competi-
tion. This scheme is of interest to the INBIG project, because
in the design the material is used far beyond its inherent
limits and its possible applications for high-rise buildings
with monolithic facade structures are demonstrated.

Design Concept

The curved load-bearing external wall construction of the

building is based on a single wall type with several curva-
tures that is deployed repeatedly, thereby forming the mono-
lithic exterior envelope of the building. The wall components
are separated by story-high window areas. Balconies and
exterior areas are created in the spaces left by the curvature
of the facade elements.

Figure 4-23 Competition entry, Urban Living Competition, Berlin

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 4 Building Typologies

Scale 1:200

Figure 4-24 Design of high-rise building, standard floor plan

The shape of the facade is also apparent in the interior and

determines to a large degree the atmosphere of the internal
spaces. By exposing the structure of the inside wall, the ma-
terial of the envelope presents itself differently to the outside.

Structural Concept

In view of the fact that the load-bearing capability of ILC on

its own is not sufficient for the number of stories in this proj-
ect, reinforcement bars known as pressure bars are inserted
in the center of the cross section, which will transfer the bulk
of the load. In this case, the surrounding infra-lightweight
concrete does not so much transfer vertical loads, but rather
has the function of preventing the bars from buckling by
adding additional stiffness. A separate research project has
been planned to investigate this structural concept involving
what have been called “Stabwände” (bar walls).

Figure 4-25 Prototyp smart material house, infra-lightweight concrete

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 4.5 High-Rise Building

Figure 4-26 Construction principle of reinforcement bars placed in infra-lightweight concrete (bar walls)

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 4 Building Typologies

Figure 4-27 Detail of walk-in loggia window

Energy Performance – Consideration of Proportion have fairly drastic consequences for the appearance of the
of Window Area facade. Instead the designers tried to find a new solution
that does justice to the thick, solid ILC wall and makes the
While the project was being developed, the EnEV calcula- most of its potential. The selected solution was the installa-
tions were carried out in parallel; this soon revealed that, in tion of a back-ventilated triple glazing system that creates
terms of heat loss from the envelope of the building, the space for a walk-in loggia.
solid walls with a thickness of 60 cm had less impact on the
overall outcome than in other forms of building. Instead, rel- The system utilizes the thickness of the wall and creates a
atively speaking, the larger energy losses occurred through usable, variable intermediate space, which is closed in win-
transparent building elements. Although a case can be made ter. At that time this intermediate space acts as an additional
for a window area proportion of approximately 35 percent, in thermal buffer that significantly enhances the efficiency of
this case, that is, a freestanding high-rise block, the effect is the glazing. In summer however, either the external single
particularly pronounced. A common solution in such a case glazing or the triple glazing on the inside face of the wall is
is to reduce the proportion of window area, which would used to close off the interior space.

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Infralight.indb 53 14.01.20 11:02
Infralight.indb 54 14.01.20 11:03
 5 Key Building Construction Details

5.1 Wall Construction Details

5.2 Floor Slab Connections
5.3 Balconies and Cantilevers
5.4 Window Connections
5.5 Foundations
5.6 Detail of Joint between Parapet and Flat Roof

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Infralight.indb 56 14.01.20 11:03
 The often cited quote “God is in the details” has frequently
been credited to the architect Mies van der Rohe, though he
is likely to have borrowed it from the art historian Aby War-
burg. Mies van der Rohe seizes on the statement in the
sense of an architectural principle that is effective between
the overall appearance of a building and its constituent indi-
vidual elements. Every detail of a construction reflects the
spirit of the overall building.

During the design process, the architect or designer always

faces the same seemingly banal question: How do I actually
do that in detail?

The examples presented here are intended to provide basic

answers to that question. An attempt is made to reflect the
basic simplicity of a building made of infra-lightweight con-
crete. These details reflect the current state of construction
technology to the best of our knowledge.

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 5 Key Building Construction Details

5.1 Wall Construction Details

ETICS, standard Curtain wall facade Poroton S10 Infra-lightweight concrete Infra-lightweight concrete
U = 0.27 W/(m² · K) U = 0.29 W/(m² · K) U = 0.26 W/(m² · K) ILC600 ILC800
U = 0.30 W/(m² · K) (λ10°,dr) U = 0.36 W/(m² · K) (λ10°,dr)
U = 0.34 W/(m² · K) U = 0.41 W/(m² · K)
Scale 1:20
(λ: rated value) (λ: rated value)

Detail 5-1 Comparison of different wall constructions in accordance with EnEV 2016 (external walls with an average thermal transmittance
of U = 0.28 W/m² · K)

Comparison of different wall constructions in accordance nents (such as windows, roof, foundation slab, exposed
with EnEV 2016 (external walls with an average thermal parts of floor slabs, etc.).
transmittance of U = 0.28 W/m² · K)
Whereas in Germany no fixed requirements exist regarding In the assessment of ILC, the rated value for thermal con-
the thermal resistance of individual building components be- ductivity (λrv) was chosen as the parameter. This is approxi-
cause the transmission heat loss H'T relating to the entire mately 20 percent above the measured value of the thermal
heat-transferring envelope surface is considered instead, conductivity (λ10°,dr) of ILC at 10 °C in dry condition.
specific values must be achieved in other countries. In those
cases, the necessary U-value can only be achieved with the Note: Where complex building components contain a high
thickness of the external wall. proportion of reinforcement, the reinforcement may have to
be included in the calculation of the U-value of the external
In Germany it is possible to compensate for any inadequacy wall.
in the thickness of a building component with other compo-

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 5.1 WALL5.1
CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
High-Rise Building

ETICS, standard Curtain wall facade Poroton S10 Infra-lightweight concrete Infra-lightweight concrete
U = 0.21 W/(m² · K) U = 0.21 W/(m² · K) U = 0.22 W/(m² · K) ILC600 ILC800
U = 0.27 W/(m² · K) (λ10°,dr) U = 0.31 W/(m² · K) (λ10°,dr)
U = 0.30 W/(m² · K) U = 0.35 W/(m² · K)
Scale 1:20 (λ: rated value) (λ: rated value)

Detail 5-2 Comparison of different wall constructions in accordance with EnEV 2016 less 20 percent (external walls with an average thermal
transmittance of U = 0.21 W/m² · K)

Comparison of different wall constructions in accordance

with EnEV 2016 less 20 percent (external walls with an
average thermal transmittance of U = 0.21 W/m² · K)
It is likely that, with the future introduction of the new Build-
ing Energy Act, the requirements relating to the building en-
velope will be made more demanding. The examples in the
diagram show the effects of an approximately 20 percent
change which, for the external wall, would mean an average
thermal transmittance of U = 0.21 W/m² · K.

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 5 Key Building Construction Details

5.2 Floor Slab Connections

Scale 1:10

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 5.2 Floor
FLOOR Slab
SLAB Connections
CONNECTIONS

Detail 5-3 Connection of a normal concrete floor

slab with a load-bearing wall in infra-lightweight concrete
(ILC), with the face of the slab insulated

1 External wall: ILC, 50–60 cm

Reinforcement, corrosion-proof
2 Floor slab: normal concrete, 2,400 kg/m³
3 Bearing: expanded rubber pad
4 Face insulation to reduce the thermal bridge effect
5 Formwork
6 Floor construction:
– Loose layer of expanded clay (installations)
– Impact sound insulation
– Screed (underfloor heating)
– Floor finish

Standard section, floor slab bearing

Alternative to continuous bearing:
bearing pockets

Connection of a normal concrete floor slab with a load-­ Optionally it is possible to rest the floor slab in bearing pock-
bearing wall in infra-lightweight concrete (ILC), with the face ets with a length of about 0.8 to 1.0 m, for example. These
of the slab insulated pockets are used partly in an effort to reduce thermal bridg-
In principle it is possible to achieve a rigid connection; how- ing and partly to create areas for the direct vertical load
ever, a flexible soft connection as used in a connection with transfer. In order to reduce the risk of spalling in the area of
a brick wall is normally preferred. The face of the floor slab is the bearing, a strip of expanded rubber is inserted in the
fitted with additional insulation in order to reduce the inevita- formwork.
ble thermal bridge. In the detailed thermal bridge calculation
this insulation reduces the effect of thermal bridges on the The casting joint is located at the lower edge of the adjoining
external envelope. floor slab. To reduce the risk of edge breakages it is possible
to insert an added horizontal arris rail.

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 5 Key Building Construction Details

Scale 1:10

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 5.1
5.2 Floor
FLOOR Slab
SLAB Connections
CONNECTIONS

Detail 5-4 Connection of a normal concrete floor

slab with a load-bearing wall in infra-lightweight
concrete (ILC), without insulation on the face of the
slab

1 External wall: ILC, 50–60 cm

Reinforcement, corrosion-proof
2 Floor slab: normal concrete, 2,400 kg/m³
3 Bearing: expanded rubber pad
4 Formwork
5 Floor construction:
– Loose layer of expanded clay (installations)
– Impact sound insulation
– Screed (underfloor heating)
– Floor finish

Standard section, floor slab bearing

Alternative to continuous bearing:
bearing pockets

Connection of a normal concrete floor slab with a load-­ detail is possible. In accordance with the calculations, there
bearing wall in infra-lightweight concrete (ILC), without is no formation of condensate even though the influence of
insulation on the face of the slab the thermal bridge is more pronounced than in the insulated
In principle it is possible to achieve a rigid connection; how- version.
ever, a flexible soft connection as used in a connection with
a brick wall is normally preferred. The thermal bridge cre- As shown in the detail with the insulation applied to the face
ated at the face of the floor slab due to the geometric re- of the slab, it is possible to build the floor slab with bearing
duction in the thickness of the material is not fitted with ad- pockets (see Detail 5-3).
ditional insulation. From a building physics point of view, this

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 5 Key Building Construction Details

5.3 Balconies and Cantilevers

Scale 1:10

Cantilevering balcony slab (prefabricated ILC component) The balcony can be prefabricated and then fitted on the
with back-anchoring to the floor slab and an external wall construction site. Because of the low weight of ILC, it is pos-
of infra-lightweight concrete sible to transport and fit very large elements. However, it is
The balcony has been back-anchored to the reinforced important to consider the differential expansion of the bal-
concrete floor slab over its entire length. This construction cony slab and the floor slab when there are big differences
is similar to the system of back-anchoring with thermal sep- between the outside and inside temperatures; this should be
aration, except that here no insulating element is inserted accommodated with appropriate expansion joints in the bal-
but rather the entire balcony slab functions as an insulating cony slabs.
­element.
In order to meet the requirements of the directive on the
The balcony slab is shown with a decreasing thickness sealing of flat roofs [24, 25], the balcony is finished with con-
­towards the edge; this is not a structural requirement, but crete slabs placed on gravel and a sealing layer.
results in a saving of material and in a narrower front face of
the balcony edge. Owing to the high porosity of the material it is recommended
not to use infra-lightweight concrete balcony slabs without
an additional sealing layer.

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 5.35.1BALCONIES
Floor Slab
ANDConnections
CANTILEVERS

Detail 5-5 Cantilevering balcony slab

(prefabricated ILC component) with
back-anchoring to the floor slab and an
external wall of infra-lightweight concrete

1 Balcony slab: ILC800, 14–25 cm

Reinforcement: glass-fiber,
­corrosion-proof
2 External wall: ILC, 50–60 cm
Reinforcement, corrosion-proof
3 Floor slab: normal concrete,
2,400 kg/m³
Reinforcement: steel bar
4 Continuous reinforcement,
­corrosion-proof
5 Terrace construction:
– Sealing layer
– Liquid membrane
– Gravel bed
– Concrete slab
6 Insulation wedge
7 Windows: wood windows with
triple glazing
8 Edge insulation strip
9 Floor construction, interior:
– Loose layer of expanded clay
– Impact sound insulation
– Screed (underfloor heating)
– Floor finish
10 Bearing: expanded rubber pad

Scale 1:20

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 5 Key Building Construction Details

Scale 1:10

Cantilevering balcony slab (in situ ILC) without back-­ of the balcony edge. In this construction detail the balcony
anchoring to the floor slab, with an external wall of is seen as part of the external wall rather than as a floor slab
­infra-lightweight concrete element. Therefore the use of prefabricated balcony compo-
The balcony is not back-anchored to the reinforced concrete nents is not an obvious choice in this version (see Chap-
floor slab but has been formed as an independent building ter 4.2 Infill Building, The Facade in In Situ Concrete
element from the plane of the wall, in the shape of a console. ­Construction – P ­ otential for Self-Supporting Free-Form
Applications).
The balcony slab is shown with a decreasing thickness to-
ward the edge; here too, this is not a structural requirement, In this detail again, the balcony is finished with concrete
but results in a saving of material and in a narrower front face slabs placed on gravel and a sealing layer (see Detail 5-5).

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 5.3 Balconies and Cantilevers

Detail 5-6 Cantilevering balcony slab

(in situ ILC) without back-anchoring to
the floor slab, with an external wall of
infra-lightweight concrete

1 Balcony slab: ILC800

Reinforcement: glass-fiber,
­corrosion-proof
2 Floor slab: normal concrete,
2,400 kg/m³
Reinforcement: steel bar
3 Terrace construction:
– Sealing layer
– Liquid membrane
– Gravel bed
– Concrete slab
4 Insulation wedge
5 Windows: wood windows with
triple glazing
6 Edge insulation strip
7 Floor construction, interior:
– Loose layer of expanded clay
– Impact sound insulation
– Screed (underfloor heating)
– Floor finish
8 Bearing: expanded rubber pad

Scale 1:20

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 5 Key Building Construction Details

5.4 Window Connections

Scale 1:20

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 5.3 Balconies
5.4 WINDOW
andCONNECTIONS
Cantilevers

Detail 5-7 Window placed centrally, with

window rabbet and metal windowsill dressing

1 External wall: ILC, 50–60 cm

Reinforcement, corrosion-proof
2 Windows: wood windows with
triple glazing
3 Slanted metal dressing (zinc)
4 Windowsill inside: solid wood

Window placed centrally, with window rabbet and metal

windowsill dressing
The diagram shows a window fitted centrally to the wall in-
cluding a typical 6 to 8 cm wide window rabbet. The window
rabbet helps to reduce the thermal bridging effect in the win-
dow reveal so that it is possible to omit additional insulation.

In order to avoid additional shuttering costs and long-term

building damage, the inside windowsill is fitted with a con-
ventional window board. On the outside, metal dressing is
applied to the sloping sill surface.

It is also possible to form the lintel over the window with a

slight angle in order to ensure that any water will drain off to
Scale 1:10 the outside at the top of the window.

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 5 Key Building Construction Details

Scale 1:20

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 5.4 Window Connections

Detail 5-8 Window placed centrally,

without window rabbet, with stone sill
element

1 External wall: ILC, 50–60 cm

Reinforcement, corrosion-proof
2 Windows: wood windows with
triple glazing
3 Solid sill element (waterproof fiber
cement)
4 Lining of inside reveal:
– Solid wood
–R  eveal insulation board, 20 mm,
thermal conductivity group 020,
fully bonded

Window placed centrally, without window rabbet, with

stone sill element
The diagram shows a window fitted centrally to the wall
without a window rabbet. In order to reduce the risk of con-
densate forming in the area of the inner window reveal, the
window should be fitted with an insulated internal reveal lin-
ing all round. The insulation should be 20 to 25 mm thick.
Depending on the insulation material, an additional vapor
barrier should be used.

On the outside, a sloping stone sill element can be used

as an alternative to the metal windowsill dressing (see
­Detail 5-7). Additional sealing can be applied beneath the
sloping stone sill element.

As an alternative to the sloping detail of the window lintel

(see Detail 5-7), the lintel is cast with a drip, which is
Scale 1:10 achieved by inserting an arris rail in the formwork.

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 5 Key Building Construction Details

Scale 1:20

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 5.4 Window Connections

Detail 5-9 Window placed on the

inside face, with window rabbet and
stone sill element

1 External wall: ILC, 50–60 cm

Reinforcement, corrosion-proof
2 Windows: wood windows with
triple glazing
3 Solid sill element (waterproof fiber
cement)
4 Window frame inside: wood with
reveal insulation board, 30 mm,
thermal conductivity group 020,
fully bonded

Window placed on the inside face, with window rabbet

and stone sill element
The window is fitted flush with the inside face of the wall. In
order to reduce the risk of condensate forming in the area of
the window reveal, the window should be fitted with an insu-
lated internal frame all round. Various details are possible
for the design of the external sill and lintel (see Details 5-7
Scale 1:10 and 5-8).

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 5 Key Building Construction Details

Scale 1:20

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 5.4 Window Connections

Detail 5-10 Window placed centrally,

with window rabbet, sloping concrete
surface and additional metal dressing

1 External wall: ILC, 50–60 cm

Reinforcement, corrosion-proof
2 Windows: wood windows with ­
triple glazing
3 Slanting metal dressing in the area of
the horizontal window rabbet, outside
windowsill of waterproofed exposed
concrete

Window placed centrally, with window rabbet, sloping

concrete surface and additional metal dressing
Here the window is fitted centrally to the wall to a window
rabbet, and the windowsill consists of ILC with w
­ ater-­repellent
treatment. The window rabbet helps to reduce the thermal
bridging effect in the window reveal so that it is possible to
omit additional insulation.

In order to avoid the need for an external window board, the

monolithic external windowsill features a very steep draining
angle.

The flatter area of the sill (3) is protected by an angled metal

sheet that is tucked into a recess in the window frame and
has a slope of approximately 3°. It is strongly recommended
to apply additional water-repellent treatment to the surfaces.

Note: This detail has been implemented in similar form in

prototypes and its performance under heavy rain has been
simulated. Practical experience has not yet obtained. Due to
the high propensity of the material to absorb water, it is sug-
gested that sill details with metal dressing or high-density
Scale 1:10 concrete should be chosen.

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 5 Key Building Construction Details

Scale 1:20

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 5.4 Window Connections

Detail 5-11 Window fitted on the

outside face of the wall, without rabbet

1 External wall: ILC, 50–60 cm

Reinforcement, corrosion-proof
2 Windows: aluminum windows with
triple glazing
3 Inside reveal lined with solid wood,
reveal insulation board, 20 mm,
thermal conductivity group 020,
fully bonded

Window fitted on the outside face of the wall, without rabbet

Windows fitted flush with the outside of the wall are a special
case in our discussion. In spite of the doubtless architectural
qualities of this solution, it must be viewed with strong cau-
tion, particularly where windows are fitted in an infra-light-
weight concrete wall. It is the authors’ view that otherwise,
heavy moisture saturation may occur in the area of the inner
reveal due to the high water absorption capability of the ma-
terial in the case of driving rain directly hitting the facade. For
this reason this solution is not recommended, taking into
account the current state of technology and material devel-
Scale 1:10 opment.

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 5 Key Building Construction Details

5.5 Foundations

Groundwater

Scale 1:10

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 5.4 5.5 Connections
Window FOUNDATIONS

Detail 5-12 The building has a cellar; the external ILC wall
starts from the foundation slab

1 External wall: ILC, 50–60 cm

Reinforcement, corrosion-proof
2 Foundation slab: waterproof concrete and
insulation layer
3 Metal barrier plate
4 Cellar wall: waterproof concrete
5 Vertical damp-proofing
6 Calcium silicate brick up to groundwater level
7 Drainage to suit ground conditions
8 Layer of gravel
9 Floor slab: normal concrete, 2,400 kg/m³
10 Floor construction:
– Loose layer of expanded clay
– Impact sound insulation
– Screed (underfloor heating)
– Floor finish

The building has a cellar; the external ILC wall starts from Where a building has no cellar, the detail should be adapted
the foundation slab accordingly.
A cellar extends beneath the entire building. The external
infra-lightweight concrete wall is placed as an insulating ex- Note: In the detail shown here it is possible that the external
ternal skin in front of the cellar wall of waterproof concrete. wall will be saturated by splash water in the area just above
the ground. Depending on the detailing of the roof edge/roof
Owing to the high water absorption capability of the material, overhang, the detail can be adjusted accordingly (for exam-
the entire surface of the cellar wall should be sealed on the ple, by applying water-repellent treatment to the plinth or
outside. Any differences in level between the first floor and raising the external wall sealing to above ground level,  see
the cellar depend on the respective design. The concrete wall Detail 5-13).
of the building runs into the ground without transition.

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 5 Key Building Construction Details

Groundwater

Scale 1:10

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 5.5 Foundations

Detail 5-13 The building has a cellar, the external ILC wall
starts from the foundation slab; the plinth has been sealed

1 External wall: ILC, 50–60 cm

Reinforcement, corrosion-proof
2 Foundation slab: waterproof concrete and insulation layer
3 Metal barrier plate
4 Cellar wall: waterproof concrete
5 Vertical damp-proofing
6 Calcium silicate brick up to groundwater level
7 Drainage to suit ground conditions
8 Fiber-cement board reaching into the ground
9 Floor slab: normal concrete, 2,400 kg/m³
10 Floor construction:
– Loose layer of expanded clay
– Impact sound insulation
– Screed (underfloor heating)
– Floor finish

The building has a cellar, the external ILC wall starts from with water from splash-back, the sealing is raised to approx-
the foundation slab; the plinth has been sealed imately 30 cm above ground level. A fiber-cement panel
A cellar extends beneath the entire building. The external reaches down into the ground, protecting the lowest part of
infra-lightweight concrete wall is placed as an insulating ex- the building.
ternal skin in front of the cellar wall of waterproof concrete.
Any differences in level between the first floor and the cellar
Owing to the high water absorption capability of the mate- depend on the respective design. Where a building has no
rial, the entire surface of the cellar wall should be sealed on cellar, the detail should be adapted accordingly.
the outside. In order to prevent the plinth being saturated

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 5 Key Building Construction Details

Scale 1:10

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 5.5 Foundations

Detail 5-14 The building has a cellar, cellar wall of ILC

1 External wall: ILC, 50–60 cm

Reinforcement, corrosion-proof
2 Foundation slab: waterproof concrete and insulation layer
3 Metal barrier plates optional
4 Cellar wall: ILC
5 Vertical damp-proofing
6 Drainage to suit ground conditions
7 Layer of gravel
8 Bearing: expanded rubber pad, 10 mm
9 Floor slab: normal concrete, 2,400 kg/m³
10 Floor construction:
– Loose layer of expanded clay
– Impact sound insulation
– Screed (underfloor heating)
– Floor finish

The building has a cellar, cellar wall of ILC Where a building has no cellar, the detail should be adapted
A cellar extends beneath the entire building. The external in- accordingly.
fra-lightweight concrete wall functions as a load-bearing and
insulating external building component from the bottom up. Note: In the detail shown here it is possible that the external
wall will be saturated by splash water in the area just above
Owing to the high water absorption capability of the mate- the ground. The detail can be adapted to suit the detail of the
rial, the entire surface of the cellar wall should be sealed on roof edge/roof overhang.
the outside.

Any differences in level between the first floor and the cellar
depend on the respective design. The concrete wall of the
building runs into the ground without transition.

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 5 Key Building Construction Details

Scale 1:10

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 5.5 Foundations

Detail 5-15 The building has a cellar, the ILC wall

starts from ground level

1 External wall: ILC, 50–60 cm

Reinforcement, corrosion-proof
2 Foundation slab: waterproof concrete and
­insulation layer
3 Metal barrier plate
4 Cellar wall: waterproof concrete
5 Cellar insulation: expanded polystyrene
6 Floor slab: normal concrete, 2,400 kg/m³
7 Floor construction:
– Loose layer of expanded clay
– Impact sound insulation
– Screed (underfloor heating)
– Floor finish
8 Artificial stone slab as spray protection

The building has a cellar, the ILC wall starts from Any differences in level between the first floor and the cellar
ground level depend on the respective design. Where a building has no
A cellar extends beneath the entire building. The external cellar, the detail should be adapted accordingly.
infra-lightweight concrete wall starts from the transition be-
tween the first floor and the cellar. The cellar wall consists of Note: In the detail shown here it is possible that the external
waterproof concrete and is fitted with external insulation of wall will be saturated in the transition area just above the
extruded polystyrene; this does not require any additional ground. This is due to the effect of water splash-back.
sealing.

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 5 Key Building Construction Details

5.6 Detail of Joint between Parapet and Flat Roof

Detail 5-16 Parapet with exposed concrete

surface on the inside

1 External wall: ILC, 50–60 cm, reinforcement

­corrosion-proof
2 Flat roof construction:
– Normal concrete slab, 210 mm
– Vapor barrier
– Insulation, average 160 mm
– Insulation wedges at the edges
– Damp-proofing
– Gravel layer, 100 mm
– Concrete slabs, 40 mm
3 Bearing: expanded rubber pad, 10 mm
4 Metal flashing on parapet

Scale 1:10

Parapet with exposed concrete surface on the inside between the flat roof covering and the parapet, the water-
The parapet shown here has an exposed concrete finish on proofing is continued up the parapet.
the inside, such as a terrace parapet. From the point where
the normal concrete flat roof slab rests on the wall, the par- Note: If snow accumulates, leakage can occur. For this­
apet is thinner. ­reason, the top of the parapet should be sealed with suit-
able materials (shown here is metal flashing). Alternatively,
The waterproofing of the roof can either be applied on top of it is possible to use a prefabricated concrete element, for
the insulation or underneath it, that is, directly on the flat example.
concrete roof (inverted roof not shown here). At the transition

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 5.6 Detail of Joint between Parapet and Flat Roof

Detail 5-17 Parapet with waterproofing on the

inside and metal flashing on top

1 External wall: ILC, 50–60 cm

Reinforcement, corrosion-proof
2 Flat roof construction:
– Normal concrete slab, 210 mm
– Vapor barrier
– Insulation, average 160 mm
– Insulation wedges at the edges
– Damp-proofing, drainage layer
– Roof greening, 170 mm
3 Bearing: expanded rubber pad, 10 mm
4 Metal flashing includes inside face of parapet

Scale 1:10

Parapet with waterproofing on the inside and metal flashing The waterproofing of the roof can either be applied below
on top the insulation, on top of the insulation, or on the flat concrete
The detail shown here is a parapet with waterproofing on the roof (inverted roof not shown here).
inside and overlapping metal flashing; the thickness of the
parapet is reduced from the point where the flat normal con-
crete roof rests on the wall.

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 5 Key Building Construction Details

Detail 5-18 Parapet with waterproofing on the inside

1 External wall: ILC, 50–60 cm

Reinforcement, corrosion-proof
2 Flat roof construction:
– Normal concrete slab, 210 mm
– Vapor barrier
– Insulation, average 160 mm
– Insulation wedges at the edges
– Damp-proofing
– Drainage layer
– Roof greening, 170 mm
3 Bearing: expanded rubber pad, 10 mm
4 Metal flashing (zinc)
Multiplex plywood bearing
Zinc metal sheet, 0.7 mm

Scale 1:10

Parapet with waterproofing on the inside The waterproofing of the roof can either be applied below
This detail shows a parapet with waterproofing on the inside, the insulation, on top of the insulation, or on the flat concrete
carried up vertically to the top of the parapet (plastic or bitu- roof (inverted roof not shown here).
men); the thickness of the parapet is reduced from the point
where the flat normal concrete roof rests on the wall. Where In order to compensate for inaccuracies in the concreting
the waterproofing is exposed to solar radiation it must be process, conventional parapet flashing is applied on Multi-
protected against the effects of UV radiation. plex plywood bearing.

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Infralight.indb 89 14.01.20 11:03
 6.1 Table of Parameters for Initial Design Considerations 47

6.2 Infra-Lightweight Concrete in the Context of the Energy Conservation Directive (EnEV)51

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 6 Fundamentals of Design

6.1 Table of Parameters for Initial Design Considerations

6.2 Infra-Lightweight Concrete in the Context of
the Energy Conservation Directive (EnEV)
6.3 Building Physics Properties
6.4 Dynamic Simulation-Based Investigations
6.5 Eco-Balance
6.6 Costs
6.7 Legal Background

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 6 Fundamentals of Design

Infra-lightweight concrete is a very lightweight concrete used

in construction that resembles conventional lightweight con-
6.1 Table of Parameters
cretes in many ways but also differs significantly with regard for ­Initial Design
to some properties. These properties must be taken into
­account in the design. In addition to load-bearing capability,
­Considerations
construction details, and durability, this also affects building
physics (thermal insulation, sound insulation, fire protection, When starting the design of a building with monolithic in-
etc.) and other issues such as the formwork striking time fra-lightweight concrete walls, many designers always face
and of course costs. the same questions. For example, one of the architect’s first
questions will be what wall thickness is required for meeting
The next two chapters are intended to provide approaches structural and building physics requirements.
to the design with infra-lightweight concrete. The information
given here largely relies on ILC-specific findings that are re- When this information is not readily available, the architect,
search results from TU Berlin. Where no explicit results have structural engineer, and energy consultant need to spend a
yet been obtained for infra-lightweight concrete, we have considerable amount of time in the quest for this information
relied on relevant literature as a source of design details. and relevant details. Often this lack of basic experience and
the associated extra work input required are important rea-
Infra-lightweight concrete is neither covered by the currently sons for both client and designer to avoid infra-lightweight
applicable standard nor has general building control ­approval concrete as an option for the envelope of a building.
been obtained for it. This means that all design approaches
shown here must be checked, adjusted and, if necessary, In order to fill this information void, at least in parts, several
adapted to the respective building project as part of a pro- sample designs for residential buildings have been estab-
cedure for individual building control approval. lished, including the relevant structural calculations and
building physics details, in accordance with the current state
of knowledge (see also Chapter 4). The results of this
study have been compiled in a table of parameters that is
aimed at helping designers make initial decisions for the de-
sign of future buildings. It goes without saying that the table
only provides a starting point for the continuing work and the
details cannot be summarily applied; rather, the full design
process needs to be carried out for each project.

The table includes the possible number of stories of a build-

ing when using different bulk density classes of infra-light-
weight concrete with wall thicknesses of 50 and 60 cm, tak-
ing the example of the freestanding apartment building
described in Chapter 4.1. In view of the fact that the number
of stories possible largely depends on the design and struc-
tural concept of a building, the details given should only be
understood as guide values. More stories in a building are
also feasible if the structural system and other design fea-
tures are adjusted accordingly, for example, applying differ-
ent ILC bulk densities across the height of the building.

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 6.1 TABLE OF PARAMETERS FOR ­INITIAL
6.1DESIGN
TableCONSIDERATIONS
of Parameters

7
7 Possible number of stories
in the sample building for wall
6 6 thickness d = 50 cm*
6

5 Possible number of stories

5
in the sample building for wall
Number of stories

thickness d = 60 cm*
4 4
4
* Calculated on the basis of the
boundary conditions of the sample
3
building in Chapter 4.1, calculation of
stress in concrete for centrally applied
2 2 2 2 compression
2

0
ILC800 ILC750 ILC700 ILC650 ILC600

Figure 6-1 Number of possible stories in the sample building in Chapter 4.1 for different classes of ILC

The next diagram shows the U-values of the external walls Finally, the table of parameters shows the possible effects
for different bulk density classes and wall thicknesses. This on a concrete project, taking into account the requirements
information is based on the rated value for thermal conduc- resulting from EnEV 2016 [26].
tivity (see Chapter 6.3.1).

0.45
0.45 ILC800
0.42
0.41
0.40 0.39 ILC750
0.38
0.37
Thermal transmittance U W/(m 2·K)

0.36
0.35 ILC700
0.35 0.34
0.35 0.34
0.33 0.32 0.32 ILC650
0.30
0.30 0.30
0.30
0.28 0.28 ILC600

0.26
0.25

0.20
45 50 55 60
Wall thickness d [cm]

Figure 6-2 U-values for different wall thicknesses and ILC classes (based on the rated value for thermal conductivity, see Chapter 6.3.1)

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 6 Fundamentals of Design

General parameters, ILC Thermal insulation details/Requirements as per EnEV 2016

factor Heating + HW
Selected construc-

H'T permiss. EnEV

thickness ILC [cm]

Selected number

U-value, window

to-­volume A / Ve
Ratio of surface-­­­
correction factor
Refe­rence build.
2016 W/( m² · K)
Project /

Thermal bridge

Primary energy
Selected wall

Proportion of

U-value, roof

H'T permiss.
window area

U-value, wall
of full stories
Parameter

tion method
Formulation

H'T existing
W/(m²· K)
W/( m² · K)
W/(m² · K)

W/(m² · K)

W/(m² · K)
ILC800 In situ concrete/
4.1 Example of building
ILC700 60 7 prefabricated 34% 0.34 0.88 0.14 0.50 0.56 0.47 0.05 0.32 0.7
type Free-standing building
ILC600 part
ILC800
4.2 Infill building,
ILC700 50 7 In situ concrete 44% 0.41 0.87 0.14 0.65 0.50 0.46 0.10 0.23 0.7
free-form
ILC600
ILC800 Prefabricated
4.2 Infill building,
ILC700 50 7 part + in situ 36% 0.41 0.96 0.14 0.65 0.48 0.48 0.10 0.19 0.7
loggia facade
ILC600 concrete
ILC800
4.3 Linear row of buildings,
ILC700 60 7 In situ concrete 30% 0.30 0.95 0.14 0.50 0.54 0.50 0.10 0.31 0.7
Rear wall in ILC
ILC600
ILC800
4.4 Single-family house
ILC700 60 3 In situ concrete 22% 0.34 0.95 0.14 0.50 0.61 0.49 0.10 0.53 0.7
Villa
ILC600
ILC800
4.5 High-rise building with Prefabricated
ILC700 60 17 34% 0.30 0.67 0.14 0.50 0.62 0.48 0.10 0.24 0.7
bar walls part + bar wall
ILC600

Table 6-1 Table of parameters for sample buildings designed using ILC [27]

6.2 Infra-Lightweight Concrete are just about still acceptable, this results in U-values above
those for common multilayer wall constructions such as
in the Context of the Energy composite thermal insulation systems.
Conservation Directive In contrast to other EU countries, Germany does not impose
(EnEV) special requirements for individual building components,
which means that the relatively “poorer” values of an external
Infra-lightweight concrete has both insulating and load-bear- infra-lightweight concrete wall can be effectively compen-
ing properties. The lower the bulk density of a lightweight sated for with other building components.
concrete, the lower its thermal conductivity, but as a rule its
compressive strength is also reduced. This implies that ther- Following the introduction of the Building Energy Act (GEG)
mal conductivity through concrete can only be avoided to a [28], which as of 2017 has been submitted to the respective
certain degree, because a certain degree of load-bearing German Federal Ministry, new requirements for residential
capability must also be ensured. Even though the develop- buildings are likely to apply in Germany from 2021. In partic-
ment of the material has by no means reached the end of ular, the stationary consideration of the transmission heat
the road, such a material implicitly cannot compete with loss H'T regarding the heat-transferring building envelope
non-load-bearing thermal insulation that has been designed will be omitted. From then on, the requirements for the refer-
for insulation only. In wall thicknesses of 55 to 60 cm, which ence building will apply.

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 6.3 Building Physics Properties

In this context, the use of active wall insulation systems thereby reduces the insulating effect. In order to be able to
powered by renewable energy would appear the most sen- take real-life conditions into account, the measured value
sible solution in order to fulfill the often stationary require- λ10°,dr is converted into the rated value for thermal conduc-
ments for building components in other EU countries or to tivity λrv in accordance with DIN EN ISO 10456 [30]. The
comply with generally increased insulation standards. conversion also takes into account the statistical quality of
the measured data, allowances for temperature and for
The infra-lightweight concrete mixtures available at the time moisture content, as well as for aging.
of the publication of this manual already have a significantly
lower thermal conductivity than conventional lightweight con- The calculation of the rated value λrv was carried out for
crete mixtures. We can assume that the values currently be- ILC800 in accordance with the composition in Table 3-2 as
ing achieved for thermal conductivity can be further improved an example, and the calculated increase over the measured
in future by optimizing the formulation (see also [15]). value λ10°,dr was then adopted for the other ILC classes.

The following should be noted regarding the calculation of

6.3 Building Physics Properties the rated value of ILC800:

6.3.1 Thermal Conductivity / Thermal The statistical quality is taken into account via the number
nn
T
­ ransmittance of measured values obtained (here n = 3). It may be possi-
ble to achieve an improvement, that is, a reduced allow-
Requirements ance, by carrying out further testing to increase the num-
ber of measured results. This has been planned as part of
In the current EnEV, the U-value for the external walls of the the ongoing research activities at TU Berlin.
EnEV reference building for target temperatures in heated The conversion factors for temperature and moisture
nn
rooms of ≥ 19 °C is stated as U = 0.28 W/m² · K [26]. How- ­content were determined for an ambient temperature of
ever, as explained in the previous section, in contrast to other 23 °C and 80 percent relative humidity. For this condi-
EU countries, in Germany no special requirements are stipu- tion, DIN EN ISO 10456 states a moisture content of
lated for individual building components (as of 2017). This u = 0.03 kg/kg for lightweight concrete with expanded
means that the specified U-value of 0.28 W/m² · K is not man- clay aggregate. This value was confirmed in experimental
datory but should be understood as a guide value. Instead, investigations with ILC800, which means that the values
the requirements relating to transmission heat loss and to in the DIN can be used for ILC.
primary energy for the building as a whole must be met. nnThere is no clear definition of the effects of aging. The
standard does not contain any references to conversion
Test Values and Calculation Basis rules. In this respect, no long-term data is as yet available
for infra-lightweight concrete. From what we know to
The thermal conductivity of infra-lightweight concrete was date, we assume that ILC is not subject to significant ag-
determined by KIWA GmbH, an approved inspection body in ing processes that affect thermal conductivity. We there-
Berlin, using the guarded hotplate method [29]. As part of fore propose to use the factor of 1.0 for aging.
this process, the test specimen was first dried and then
tested at a temperature of 10 °C. The measured value is ex- We would like to point out here that, where other compositions
pressed as λ10°,dr. The test was carried out for ILC800, than those in Table 3-2 are under consideration, the rated value
ILC650, and ILC600 and the values for ILC700 and ILC750 has to be determined separately on the basis of the respective
were calculated by linear interpolation. test results for thermal conductivity, and that the allowances/
values listed here are not transferable. As an alternative to the
In real-life conditions, it is common for building components calculation of the rated value, it is possible to carry out a test at
to have a certain moisture content, which increases the ther- the appropriate test levels, that is, at an ambient temperature
mal conductivity compared to the dried test specimen and of 23 °C and 80 percent relative humidity.

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 6 Fundamentals of Design

For the composition shown in Table 3-2, the rated values λrv ing. However, this can be effectively compensated for with
listed in the following table have been established, as well as other building components.
the associated thermal transmission values for wall thick-
nesses of 50 to 65 cm. The U-value was determined using 6.3.2 Resistance to Frost and Thawing
the following formula:
1 Requirements
U= d
[W/(m2 K)] (2)
Rsi + rv
+ Rse
As a rule, infra-lightweight concrete is used as an external
building component, the vertical surface of which is exposed
whereby to rain and frost; in accordance with the informative exam-
ples of EC2 [20], this would mean exposure class XF1 (mod-
Rsi = 0.13 [m² · K/W] internal heat transmission resistance erate water saturation without deicing agent). Exposure
with a horizontal flow of heat [31] class XF3 refers to environmental conditions that lead to
high water saturation without deicing agent. With respect to
Rse = 0.04 [m² · K/W] external heat transmission resistance normal concrete, EC2 mentions the informative example of
[31] horizontal surfaces directly exposed to the weather. The lat-
ter is not very likely / should be avoided when using infra-­
d: wall thickness [m] lightweight concrete in construction. However, it should be
noted that, in accordance with findings to date, ILC tends to
λrv: rated value of thermal conductivity [W/m · K] retain water for longer than normal concrete owing to its
structure, which can also lead to a higher degree of satura-
tion in vertical building components. Therefore it may be
Conclusion worth considering whether ILC used in a vertical external
wall directly exposed to the weather should be classified as
The current EnEV (as at 2017) does not stipulate mandatory XF3 rather than XF1.
limit values for the thermal transmittance of external walls.
The U-value of ILC walls measuring between 50 cm and Test Result and Allocation to Exposure Classes
65 cm in thickness lies between 0.41 and 0.24 W/m² · K. This
means that, in most cases, the external ILC walls exceed the In order to investigate in detail the frost-thawing resistance
guide value of U = 0.28 W/m² · K of the EnEV reference build- of infra-lightweight concrete, experiments [32] were carried

Property ILC600 ILC650 ILC700 ILC750 ILC800

Thermal conductivity
0.141 0.153 0.166* 0.178* 0.193
λ10°,dr [W/m)]
Rated value of thermal conductivity**
0.160 0.174 0.189 0.202 0.219
λrv [W/m · K]
U-value for 50 cm wall thickness [W/m² · K] 0.30 0.33 0.35 0.38 0.41

U-value for 55 cm wall thickness [W/m² · K] 0.28 0.30 0.32 0.35 0.37

U-value for 60 cm wall thickness [W/m² · K] 0.26 0.28 0.30 0.32 0.34

U-value for 65 cm wall thickness [W/m² · K] 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.30 0.32
*by linear interpolation **allowance for ILC800 calculated and for ILC600 to 750 adopted

Table 6-2 Thermal conductivity and thermal transmittance of infra-lightweight concrete for different compositions as per Table 3-2

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 6.3 Building Physics Properties

out with ILC800 and ILC600 in accordance with DIN CEN/ Conclusion
TS 12390-9:2006 [33]. The results showed that ILC800
­fulfills the acceptance criterion for XF3 as modified in accor- ILC800 in the composition as listed in Table 3-2 fulfills the
dance with Faust [7] via the dry bulk density, which is why requirements of exposure classes XF1 and XF3 also when
ILC800 can be considered suitable as XF3 and XF1. How- directly exposed to the weather, that is, without surface pro-
ever, the results for ILC600 were significantly above the tection. By contrast, ILC600 as listed in Table 3-2 should not
­acceptance criterion for XF3. It is not possible to make a be used where directly exposed to the weather, but should
statement regarding XF1 because no recommendation for be given an appropriate surface protection coating.
an acceptance criterion was given [32]; however, the fact
that XF3 was clearly exceeded suggests that XF1 is not As was also shown in the tests regarding exposure to direct
achieved without protective surface coating. rain in Chapter 6.3.6, water-repellent coating generally
makes sense for external ILC building components of all ILC
Property ILC600 ILC800 classes. This would result in a significantly reduced risk of
frost-thawing damage. Further experiments should be car-
Weathering (mean value) [g/m²] 1,620 262
ried out to prove this point.
Acceptance criterion for XF3 in acc.
275 374
with [32] [g/m²]
6.3.3 W
 ater Absorption and
Table 6-3 Frost-thawing resistance of ILC600 and ILC800 in accor-
dance with the composition in Table 3-2, based on [32] Depth of Penetration

Requirements
DIN 1045-2 specifies minimum requirements for lightweight
concretes for different exposure classes, such as cement
content, water/cement value, etc. For example, the mini- Regarding the penetration of water, a material can be as-
mum cement content for XF1 is 280 kg/m³ and for XF3, sessed using two different parameters: the water absorption
300 kg/m³ (270 kg/m³ in each case when aggregates are coefficient that describes the capillary absorption capability,
taken into account) [34]. As can be seen from the composi- for example during continuous exposure to rain or driving
tion in Table 3-2, the cement content of ILC600 to ILC700 rain, and the water penetration depth that takes into account
inclusive is under 270 kg/m³; only that of ILC800 is over penetration under pressure.
300 kg/m³, and that of ILC750 is 296 kg/m³. Assuming the
transferability of the criteria to infra-lightweight concrete, it Standards and regulatory instruments with specific require-
follows that ILC600 cannot be assigned to exposure class ments for the classification of water penetration depth are
XF1 (ILC800 fulfills the requirements for XF3, which is borne not available. Examples are available for waterproof con-
out by the test results of the frost-thawing test). cretes, with limit values of 50 mm (see, for example, [35]).
However, this criterion should not be used for ILC since it is
When assessing the results of the frost-thawing investiga- not possible to preclude the water penetration depth pro-
tions, note should be taken of the fact that the tests were gressing over time.
designed for normal concrete and its behavior during the
capillary absorption of moisture. By contrast, in accordance Testing for Water Absorption and Depth of Penetration
with findings to date, ILC will absorb water over a longer
period of time, which is why a higher degree of saturation During internal research work, the water absorption coeffi-
must be assumed especially toward the end of the test, cient for ILC800 and ILC600 as per the composition in Ta-
which would indicate more severe damage. Whether such ble 3-2 was tested in accordance with DIN EN ISO 15148
an increased degree of saturation occurs in practice de- [36].
pends on the boundary conditions of the installation, such
as the application of water-repellent coating.

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 6 Fundamentals of Design

Property ILC600 ILC800 Porous concrete Cement concrete Calcium silicate block
Water absorption coefficient Ww [kg/m²h0.5] 0.3 0.7 2 to 8 0.1 to 1.0 2.5 to 10
Table 6-4 Water absorption coefficient Ww of ILC600 and ILC800 as per the composition in Table 3-2 compared with other building materials [37]

The results for both compositions showed a coefficient of

≤ 0.7; the value of ILC600 was below the results for ILC800.
The reason for this may lie in the different cement content.
However, in an earlier test series similar values were ob-
tained – although in that series ILC800 absorbed less water
than ILC600 [32]. It is as yet not clear what the reasons are
for the differences between the two test series. Further tests
are required in order to provide sufficient statistical evidence
for the above results. Note should also be taken that, in ac-
cordance with the findings in Chapter 6.3.2, water absorp-
tion in ILC takes place over a longer period. In view of the
fact that the tests for water absorption, in accordance with
standard DIN EN ISO 15148 [36], were designed for a short
period of time (only 24 hours), it may be the case that the Figure 6-3 Test specimen for determining the depth of water
tested water absorption coefficient for long-term water ab- penetration in ILC800 [32]
sorption in ILC is not relevant.

Property ILC600 ILC800

In the context of internal research work, tests were also car-
ried out on the depth of water penetration under pressure [32] Water penetration depth (short-term)
66 12.5
[mm]
in ILC600 and ILC800 in accordance with DIN EN 12390-8
[38]. In these tests, a water jet with a pressure of 5 bar is di- Table 6-5 Water penetration depth (short-term) of ILC600 and
rected onto the surface of the test specimens to be tested for ILC800 in the composition shown in Table 3-2, based on [32]
72 ± 2 hours. The specimens are then split in order to mea-
sure the maximum depth of water penetration. Conclusion

The test series with ILC800 were carried out in accordance The short-term water absorption and short-term water pen-
with the standard and throughout the tests no water es- etration resistance of infra-lightweight concrete in the com-
caped from the sides of the specimens. During the tests with position shown in Table 3-2 are of a similar order of size as
ILC600 it was not possible to prevent water escaping from those of normal concrete. However, longer-term and there-
the sides; in spite of that, the pressure was kept at 5 bar fore increased water absorption and/or penetration depth
during testing. The test results obtained in this way were cannot be precluded.
confirmed with additional tests using test specimens with
sealed sides. In spite of the relatively good properties of ILC in terms of
penetration of moisture, a protective surface treatment is
recommended (such as water-repellent coating) in order to
prevent the possibility of longer-term water absorption.

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 6.3 Building Physics Properties

ILC600 ILC800 Steam-cured Concrete (density Lightweight con- Calcium silicate

porous 2,400 kg/m³) crete with porous brick masonry
­concrete particulate structure (density 1,200 to
(exclusively 2,200 kg/m³)
­expanded clay)
Water vapor diffusion
resistance coefficient µ 11 (dry) 31 (dry) 5/10 80/130 5/15 15/25

Table 6-6 Water vapor diffusion resistance coefficient of ILC600 and ILC800 in the composition shown in Table 3-2 [41, 42] compared with that of
other building materials [31]

ILC800 Steam-cured porous Concrete with Lightweight concrete Calcium silicate

concrete bulk density of with porous particulate brick masonry
2,200 kg/m³ structure (exclusively
expanded clay)
Specific heat capacity c [J/kgK] 863 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000

Table 6-7 Specific heat capacity of ILC800 in the composition shown in Table 3-2 [43] compared with other building materials [31]

6.3.4 Water Vapor Diffusion water vapor diffusion took place through the specimens. By
weighing the test specimens regularly it was possible to es-
Requirements tablish the water vapor diffusion resistance coefficient.

It is desirable to opt for a “diffusive” construction as this Conclusion

­offers various opportunities in terms of the moisture man-
agement in building components. The water vapor diffusion The water vapor diffusion resistance (dry) of ILC600 in the
resistance coefficient µ is a parameter that describes the composition shown in Table 3-2 is of the same order of size
degree of diffusiveness / diffusion resistance. This parameter as that of porous concrete or of porous particulate light-
indicates by which factor the water vapor diffusion resis- weight concrete. The resistance of ILC800 as per Table 3-2
tance of a material is greater than that of a stationary layer of is significantly greater but also significantly below that of nor-
air of the same thickness and same temperature [39]. This mal concrete.
means that the lower the water vapor diffusion resistance
coefficient, the more the building material tends to be open
to diffusion. 6.3.5 Specific Heat Capacity

Test Result Requirements

The water vapor diffusion of ILC800 and ILC600 was tested The specific heat capacity indicates how much heat can be
[41, 42] in accordance with DIN EN ISO 12572 [40]. In these stored by a material. This property in combination with the
tests, specimens were placed on containers filled with drying bulk density ρ is mainly of practical relevance in terms of
agent, and these were set up in a defined climate with in- thermal protection during summer. The greater the product
creased relative humidity. Owing to the differential water va- of c times ρ, the more the material contributes to keeping
por pressure on the different sides of the test specimens, the interior cool even when the ambient temperature is high.

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 6 Fundamentals of Design

Test Result of Hot Disk Transient Plane Source (TPS) The ILC facade section including the window board was di-
Method rectly exposed to the rain event. The back of the section
(= inside of the external wall) was not exposed to the rain but
The specific heat capacity of ILC800 in the composition was exposed to the increased relative humidity in the room.
shown in Table 3-2 was established using the TPS method The absorption of moisture from the air was checked using
[43]. To date, the specific heat capacity of ILC600 to ILC750 regularly weighed test specimen of ILC600 that had been
has not yet been investigated. set up at the back of the test rig.

Conclusion The prototype was suspended from the ceiling via a load
cell, which made it possible, simultaneously with the test
The specific heat capacity of ILC800 in the composition procedure, to measure and document the increase in the
shown in Table 3-2 is somewhat below the heat capacity of weight of the building component as a result of the rain
normal concrete or porous concrete, for example. However, event. Furthermore, measuring points were fitted within the
the order of size is similar, which means that the effect on test specimen, which were used to check the relative humid-
thermal protection during summer compared to normal con- ity within the building components using resistance mea-
crete is less due to the specific heat capacity and more to surements at specified time intervals.
the low bulk density.
Both the recording of the weight and the moisture measure-
ments within showed nearly no change during the course of
6.3.6 Behavior During Exposure the test; it therefore appeared that the building component
to Driving Rain was largely dry on the inside. Following the rain event test,
the wall was cut open with a hammer and chisel in order to
Requirements be able to check the depth of water penetration in the com-
ponent. The results confirmed that the component was dry
The absorption of moisture in an external envelope, in par- inside. The component was only penetrated by moisture on
ticular during driving rain events, is of special importance for the outside to a depth of approximately 1 to 2 cm.
various aspects, such as the insulating effect, the durability,
surface cracking, etc. Therefore the absorption of moisture After 24 hours the surface had almost completely dried out.
in an external building component should be limited. This in However, when the specimen was cut open to a greater
turn raises the need for surface treatment in certain cases or depth it could be seen that the moisture had penetrated ap-
the inclusion of roof overhangs or drip details in the overall proximately 15 to 20 cm into the interior of the wall section;
architectural concept. this was also confirmed by the electrical resistance mea-
surements.
Test Result of Driving Rain Test
Conclusion
In order to investigate the absorption of moisture in an un-
treated infra-lightweight concrete surface during a rain event, This test showed that initially moisture only penetrates the
a driving rain test was carried out with the prototype of a surface of the ILC during a rain event but that over time pen-
window opening in a 50 cm thick ILC600 wall. The test was etration progresses to the interior of the building component.
carried out using the driving rain test rig of the Department This is confirmed by the findings from the frost-thawing re-
for Building Physics and Building Construction of TU Berlin, sistance tests (see Chapter 6.3.2). For this reason, ILC
which is also used in the context of the certification of sark- surfaces should be systemically protected against moisture
ing membranes in accordance with prEN 15601. The rain penetration, such as by applying water-repellent coating
event chosen was an event with a duration of three hours (see Chapter 8.5).
that had been developed for sarking membranes.

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 6.3 Building Physics Properties

Figure 6-4 Prototype in the driving rain test rig showing the front to be exposed to the rain (left) and the penetration depth of the moisture shortly
after exposure to the rain (right) [27]

6.3.7 Fire Protection Table-based method (evidence level 1)

nn
Simplified calculation method (evidence level 2)
nn
Requirements General calculation method (evidence level 3).
nn

The requirements of fire protection are defined in relation to The table-based method (evidence level 1) for reinforced
the class of building and the type of building component. As concrete specifies requirements for the minimum size of
a rule, multistory apartment buildings of infra-lightweight cross sections and the distance of the center of reinforce-
concrete will be assigned to building class 5, below the high- ments from the edge of the building component, which were
rise building limit. This means that load-bearing external determined on the basis of standard fire tests [31]. The min-
walls have to be fire-resistant, that is, complying with fire imum cross section sizes and the loading take into account
resistance class F90-AB or REI90 [31]. that the strength of concrete reduces when exposed to high
temperatures; the minimum concrete cover ensures ade-
Fire Behavior of ILC quate protection of the reinforcement.

DIN 4102-4 [44] lists building materials that are classified as For walls consisting of lightweight concrete with a closed
noncombustible (building material class A1 in accordance with structure, DIN 4102-4 [44] allows a reduction in the mini-
DIN 4102-1 [45]). These include, first and foremost, concretes mum dimensions, which increases as the bulk density de-
as per EC2 [20]. Owing to its low dry bulk density and strength, creases. For example, in load-bearing walls of bulk density
infra-lightweight concrete is not included in this category; class 1.0 the minimum wall thickness and the distance of the
however, the general description “Building materials that do center of the reinforcement from the edge of the component
not contain more than 1 percent (of mass) of homogeneously can be reduced by 20 percent, subject however to minimum
distributed organic components” [44] applies to ILC. This dimensions of 150 mm for the wall thickness and a distance
means that ILC should be classed as noncombustible. of 30 mm of the reinforcement center from the edge of the
component [44].
EC2 offers three methods for establishing the load-bearing
behavior in the case of fire:

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 6 Fundamentals of Design

Concrete Lightweight concrete Reinforcement steel GRP reinforcement ILC800

0.006 (axial) 0.007 – 0.012

αT [mm/m · K] 0.01 0.008 0.018 – 0.012
0.022 (radial)  αT ≈ 0.01 mm/m · K
Table 6-8 Thermal coefficient of linear expansion αT of ILC800 compared with other materials [24, 31]

As a rule, infra-lightweight concrete walls will be 50 to 60 cm Conclusion

thick (see Chapter 6.1), which means that compliance
with the above minimum cross section dimensions should ILC is to be classed as noncombustible. Experimental inves-
not pose a problem. Furthermore, in view of the fact that ILC tigations indicated a behavior at high temperatures that is
has better thermal insulation properties than normal con- common for concrete in relation to the reduction in strength
crete, it can be assumed that the requirements for the dis- and stiffness. The behavior in the case of fire has not yet
tance of the reinforcement from the building component been adequately investigated, particularly with respect to
edge in EC2 / DIN 4102-4 are on the safe side. spalling, which is why further research work/testing may be-
come necessary as part of the application procedure for in-
Experimental investigations at TU Berlin with infra-light- dividual building control approval.
weight concrete at high temperatures showed behavior
commonly experienced with concrete in the sense that the Depending on the type of reinforcement material it is possi-
reduction in compressive strength at high temperatures di- ble that special fire protection requirements apply, such as in
minished as the proportion of aggregate to cement in- the case of GRP reinforcement (see Chapter 7.7). The re-
creased. A reduction in strength and rigidity was observed quirements should be checked in each individual case.
from about 200 to 400 °C [46].
6.3.8 Sound Insulation
However, no investigation was carried out regarding the risk
of spalling in infra-lightweight concrete. The reason for spall-
Requirements
ing can be found in residual and restraint stresses due to
uneven heating of the cross section, differential expansion of The sound insulation quality of an external building compo-
the reinforcement and concrete, as well as of the lightweight nent can be stated in terms of the evaluated sound insula-
rock particulates and cement stone. Another possible cause tion value Rw. For this parameter no concrete limit values are
may be tensile stresses resulting from hydrostatic water va- in existence, because the sound insulation effect also de-
por pressure and water vapor escaping [7]. pends on various other factors such as the proportion of
openings, flanking building components, etc. and also be-
The thermal expansion of ILC was determined experimen- cause the requirements differ depending on the location
tally using ILC800 and compared as follows: and/or ambient conditions. The higher the evaluated sound
insulation value of a building component, the better is the
As can be seen, the thermal expansion of infra-lightweight sound insulation achievable.
concrete is not somewhat less than that of normal concrete,
as is common for lightweight concrete, but lies in a similar Calculations
range. This allows the conclusion that, analogously to nor-
mal reinforced concrete, no significant restraint stress be- The evaluated sound insulation value for infra-lightweight
tween reinforcement and concrete must be expected due to concrete classes is calculated below using the example of a
changes in temperature. 55-cm-thick wall. The calculation is based on DIN 4109-32
of 2016 [47]. The mass per unit area is calculated as follows:

m' = d ∙ ρ [kg/m²] (3)

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 6.3 Building Physics Properties

In accordance with DIN 4109-32, the mean value for the When the wall thickness is varied between 45 and 60 cm the
class as specified in DIN EN 206 should be used for the resulting evaluated sound insulation values lie between 54
purpose of calculating the bulk density of lightweight con- and 62 dB.
crete. This procedure is adopted for ILC, which means that
for ILC800 (range of bulk density 751 to 800) the mean value In the table below, these values are compared with those of
of 775 kg/m³ is chosen. other building methods. In the case of normal concrete and
calcium silicate brick walls, only the load-bearing part is
The evaluated sound insulation value Rw is calculated in re- taken into consideration, because additional insulation lay-
lation to m', the calculated mass per unit area. DIN 4109-32 ers may lead to an improvement but equally to a worsening
includes the mass curves for various materials, which were [48].
determined on test rig–based test measurements for build-
ing acoustics. Equations are available for concrete, light- Evaluated
sound insula-
weight concrete (that has a curve which is 2 dB more favor- Building component
tion value Rw
able than normal concrete with the same mass per unit [dB]
area), and porous concrete. The mass curve for lightweight
ILC600 to 800, 45 to 60 cm 54 – 62
concrete is used for infra-lightweight concrete, because the
mass per unit area m' of ILC is in a range (140 kg/m² to Porous concrete, 350 kg/m³, 48 cm, 1 cm plaster
on both sides (1,000 kg/m³) in accordance with 51
480 kg/m²) covered by the formula. The mass curve for po- DIN 4109-32 [47]
rous concrete however only applies to m' ≤ 300 kg/m², the
Calcium silicate brick, plastered, depending on
value of which would only exceptionally be less for infra-light- density and wall thickness [49]
50 – 65
weight concrete walls (for example, ILC600 with a wall thick-
Normal concrete, 20 cm, in accordance with
ness of 45 cm). Furthermore, a comparative calculation with 61
DIN 4109-32 [47]
the formula for porous concrete revealed that the results
were only slightly (< 1 dB) below the results based on the Table 6-10 Comparison of evaluated sound insulation values Rw of
formula for lightweight concrete. ILC with those of other wall constructions

Therefore the formula for lightweight concrete is used to cal- Conclusion

culate the evaluated sound insulation value for ILC:
As can be seen from Table 6-10, the evaluated sound insu-
Rw = 30.9 · lg (m'total /m'0) – 20.2 [db], (4) lation values of infra-lightweight concrete determined in ac-
cordance with DIN 4109-32 lie within the average range. The
whereby 140 kg/m² <m'total <480 kg/m² and values for this material are better than those for porous con-
crete and are slightly below the sound insulation values of
the reference value m'0 = 1 kg/m² [47] heavy building materials such as calcium silicate brick or
normal concrete.
The values for the different ILC classes are shown in the
following table, taking a 55 cm thick wall as example.

Property ILC600 ILC650 ILC700 ILC750 ILC800

Mean bulk density [kg/m³] 575 625 675 725 775
Wall thickness [cm] 55 55 55 55 55
Mass per unit area m' [kg/m²] 316 344 371 399 426
Evaluated sound insulation value Rw [dB] 57 58 59 60 61

Table 6-9 Evaluated sound insulation values Rw of infra-lightweight concrete as per DIN 4109-32 using the example of 55 cm thick walls
(solid single-skin walls) [47]

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 6 Fundamentals of Design

6.4 Dynamic Simulation-Based temperature which, particularly in summer, results in a slower

increase in temperature inside the building. On the other
Investigations hand, infra-lightweight concrete has less inertia than a build-
ing construction with heavy materials, which theoretically
Investigations using dynamic simulations help to assess the allows for faster cooling of the interior after hot days. In order
behavior of building components over a longer period of to be able to prove this behavior, the following construction
time. Compared to static calculations, this type of investiga- methods were investigated and compared using a reference
tion has the advantage that it is possible to obtain far more room in a thermal simulation.
accurate information regarding the behavior of building com-
ponents over a defined period of time. By contrast, static An investigation of the thermal insulation effect in summer
calculations only focus on a specific point in time. Using dy- revealed that the temperature in the room with an ILC wall
namic investigations it is possible to identify ways of optimiz- exceeded 26 °C for shorter periods compared to the light-
ing ILC building components and their material properties. weight and heavyweight constructions. This result is based
on a simulation of a room model with natural ventilation and
6.4.1 Thermal Simulation with Regard to an air change of 0.5 h–1, without additional ventilation during
the night. That air change rate meets the hygiene require-
User Comfort (Thermal Insulation in ments for residential buildings. When additional ventilation is
Summer) and Performance Aspects provided during the night to the room with heavy construc-
tion (2.0 h–1), the hours of excess temperature are similar
Using dynamic thermal simulation it is possible to make a (difference of 9 hours).
comfort- and performance-oriented assessment of the
monolithic building method using infra-lightweight concrete Active Thermal Insulation / Thermo-Active Building
compared to conventional building methods. Below, two Component Systems
cases are taken into consideration: the behavior of an ILC
wall in the summer months (thermal insulation in summer) In another investigation, it could be shown that active ther-
and the scenario involving the installation of active thermal mal insulation is a very effective method of improving thermal
insulation (thermo-active building component systems). comfort. The term active insulation refers to the installation
of tubes (here, capillary polypropylene tube mats) in the
Thermal Comfort in the Summer Months building component, which conduct water at a certain flow
temperature.
Infra-lightweight concrete has two important properties that
impact on thermal comfort. On the one hand it has a greater The simulations indicated that the integration of such a sys-
thermal mass than the materials used in lightweight building tem in an external ILC wall resulted in improved user com-
construction and therefore reacts more slowly to changes in fort, performance, and energy consumption. With the help of

No. Construction method Materials λ [W/m · K] c [J/kgK] ρ [kg/m³]

External wall (U-value: 0.31 W/m² · K):
OSB 0.130 2,100 660
Lightweight construction
1 Fir 0.130 2,100 450
Timber-frame construction
Wood shavings 0.045 2,100 50
2 Infra-lightweight concrete ILC800; Monolithic 60 cm ILC 0.193 870 800
Heavy building construction Concrete 2,300 880 2,300
3
Brick + ETICS Mineral wool 0.035 830 20
Table 6-11 Different construction methods designed for the same U-value: 1. Lightweight construction, 2. ILC800, 3. Heavy building construction [27]

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 6.4 DYNAMIC 6.3
SIMULATION-BASED
Building Physics
INVESTIGATIONS
Properties

such a system it is possible to significantly improve the tem- the cold season. In the simulations involving a heated room,
perature of the interior. With regard to user comfort in sum- the thermal activation was installed at a depth of 5 cm in the
mer, the investigation demonstrated that a system embed- building component. The results of the simulations indicate
ded in the wall on the inside at a depth of 11 cm is extremely that, owing to the thermal activation system, it is possible to
effective. The frequency distribution in Figure 6–5 below reduce the thickness of the wall. However, if the same wall
­illustrates the extent to which an active thermal system with thickness is used together with the system, it is possible to
a flow temperature of 15 °C and a flow throughput of minimize the demand for energy to heat the interior. These
10 kg/h · m² of facade area of ILC wall can be used to posi- results are based on a representative week in winter with a
tively influence the room temperature in summer compared flow temperature of 15 °C and an average flow throughput of
to the other construction methods. approximately 20 kg/h · m² of facade area. These investiga-
tions show that the use of a thermal activation system has a
The distribution of the hours in which the excess tempera- positive effect both in summer and in winter, depending on
tures occur illustrates that ILC leads to fewer hours with in- the location.
creased temperatures compared to other construction meth-
ods. The version with the additional thermal activation has However, it is necessary to take into account the fact that the
the advantage that temperatures do not rise above 28 °C. thermal activation system also requires energy. Therefore the
installation of such a system in an ILC wall can only be con-
The installation of a thermal activation system has a signifi- sidered effective when the energy required to run the system
cant effect not only in the summer months, but also during can be obtained as effectively and cheaply as possible.

450450
450
450
Stunden
Stunden
Stunden
Stunden
Hours > 26°
>>26°
>26 >
C
26°
°C26°
CCC
leicht:Lightweight:
leicht:
leicht:
leicht:
815815815h815
h815 hh h
400400
400
400 ILC:
ILC:ILC:
ILC:
ILC: 650650650h650
h650 hh h
schwer:Heavyweight:
schwer:
schwer:
schwer:
742742742h742
h742 hh h
350350
350
350 ILCILC ILC
aktiv:
ILC
ILC active:
aktiv:
aktiv:
aktiv:
72 72
h72h h hh
72
72

300300
300
300
Anzahl der Stunden
Stunden
Stunden
Anzahl der Stunden
of hours

250250
250
250
Anzahl der
Anzahl der

200200
200
200
Number

150150
150
150

100100
100
100
Only the hours above an average
Es Es
werden
EsEs
werden
werden
werden
outside nur nur
die
nur
nur
die
Stunden
die
temperaturedie
Stunden
Stunden
Stunden
bei
of 18 °Cbei
bei
bei
are
50 50
5050
einer
einer
einer
mittleren
einer
mittleren
taken mittleren
mittleren
into Außentemperatur
Außentemperatur
Außentemperatur
Außentemperatur
consideration.
vonvon
>18°
von
von
>18°
>18°
C>18°
berücksichtigt.
CCberücksichtigt.
Cberücksichtigt.
berücksichtigt.
0 000
16 16
1616 18 18
1818 20 20
2020 22 22
2222 24 24
2424 26 26
2626 28 28
2828 30 30
3030 32 32
3232 34 34
3434
Operative
Operative
Operative
Operativetemperature
Operative
Temperatur [°C][°C]
Temperatur
Temperatur
Temperatur [°C]
[°C]
[°C]

ILCILC
ILC
ILC leicht
leichtleicht
leicht
Lightweight schwer
schwer
schwer
schwer
Heavyweight ILCILC
ILC
aktivaktiv
ILC
ILCaktiv
aktiv
active

Figure 6-5 Frequency distribution of the operative temperature in summer without ventilation during the night hours
(average daytime external temperature > 18 °C) [27]

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 6 Fundamentals of Design

Possible energy sources are gray water (wastewater with a important role. In order to be able to arrive at an overall
low degree of soiling) and also groundwater. In common sit- ­assessment, it is necessary to make a careful choice of the
uations, these can be provided cheaply and are therefore a source of energy for the thermal activation system. Because
suitable choice. Other investigations suggest that it is possi- of the many aspects involved, further investigations are in-
ble to cover the energy requirement from these sources. If, tended in order to verify the findings to date in a more de-
however, the thickness of the wall is reduced and therefore tailed simulation model and to optimize the thermal a
­ ctivation
the thermal conductivity increased, it will no longer be pos- system, as well as to establish in greater detail its advan-
sible to cover the energy demand with gray water. This in- tages and disadvantages.
vestigation illustrates that gray water is a possible source of
energy depending on the material properties of the wall and Conclusion
its thickness, and the energy embedded in the gray water,
although there are also limits to this. Compared to lightweight and heavyweight building con-
struction, a room model with an ILC wall and with natural
As can be seen from the above, the effectiveness of a ther- ventilation, without increased air changes during the night
mal activation system depends on numerous factors. In ad- hours, can increase the thermal comfort during the summer
dition to the flow temperature, the flow throughput plays an months. If, in addition, ventilation during nighttime is in-
important role. Furthermore, the effectiveness of the system creased, the behavior of ILC is comparable to that of heavy
can be influenced by the location of the capillary tube sys- building construction.
tem. The thickness of the building component also plays an

> 34 > 34 > 34 Kelvin hours >26

Kelvinstunden
Kelvinstunden> °C
Kelvinstunden
26°
>C26°
>C26° C
Lightweight:
leicht:
leicht:
leicht: 2531kh
1,253
1 2531 Kh Kh
253 Kh
32 – 34
32 – 34
32 – 34 ILC: 694 kh
ILC: ILC: ILC:
694 Kh
694 Kh
694 Kh
Heavyweight: 713 kh
schwer:
schwer:
ILC active:
schwer:
713 Kh
713
33 kh
Kh
713 Kh
30 – 32
30 – 32
30 – 32 ILC aktiv:
ILC aktiv:
ILC33
aktiv:
Kh33 Kh
33 Kh
operative Temperatur [°C]
operative Temperatur [°C]
operative Temperatur [°C]
Operative temperature [°C]

28 – 30
28 – 30
28 – 30

26 – 28
26 – 28
26 – 28

24 – 26
24 – 26
24 – 26

22 – 24
22 – 24
22 – 24

20 – 22
20 – 22
20 – 22

18 – 20
18 – 20
18 – 20

< 18 < 18 < 18

0 0 0 1 ,000
1 ,000
1 ,000
2 ,000
2 ,000
2 ,000
3 ,000
3 ,000
3 ,000
4 ,000
4 ,000
4 ,000
5 ,000
5 ,000
5 ,000
6 ,000
6 ,000
6 ,000
7 ,000
7 ,000
7 ,000
Anzahl
Anzahl
Number der
ofAnzahl
Stunden
der Stunden
hours der Stunden

leichtleichtleichtILC ILC ILC

Lightweight schwer
schwer ILC aktiv
schwer
Heavyweight ILC aktiv
ILC
ILC aktiv
active

Figure 6-6 Frequency distribution of the operative temperatures in summer without ventilation during the night hours
(average daytime external temperature >18 °C)

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 6.4 Dynamic Simulation-Based Investigations

The installation of active thermal insulation involving tubes 3,000

conveying water in the building component is an extremely
effective means of improving thermal comfort, both in sum- 2,500
mer and in winter. However, such an activation system de- 2,507
pends on a number of factors, which is why further investi- 2,000
gations are intended in order to establish the advantages 71%
71% 72%
72%

Stunden
Hours
and disadvantages in greater detail. Generally it can be 1,500

stated that the installation of an active thermal insulation sys-

1,000
tem provides the opportunity to reduce the cross section of
infra-lightweight concrete walls while retaining the same 717 711
500
U-value.
0
6.4.2 Hygric Simulation (Relative Humidity) ILCclay
ILC Lehmputz
plaster ILC ILC vapor
ILC Dampfsperre
barrier
Figure 6-7 Number of hours in which the relative humidity lies outside
In addition to temperature, relative humidity has an impact the range of 30 to 60 percent for different wall constructions [27]
on user comfort inside buildings. A hygric-dynamic simula-
tion was carried out in order to investigate how the relative hours outside the desired range of 30 to 60 percent relative
humidity is affected by an ILC wall. Like the investigation of humidity can be improved on with an ILC wall. We can there-
thermal comfort, this investigation of the hygric behavior of fore state that for ILC its hygric effects on a room are mod-
the ILC wall was carried out in comparison with other wall erate. Compared with standard concrete, it is possible to
constructions. slightly increase the number of hours in the desired range.

The simulation results indicate that infra-lightweight concrete It is important to state here that the hygric simulation is sig-
in an external wall impacts positively on the hygric room cli- nificantly affected by the increase in sorption isotherms.
mate. This is demonstrated by the comparison of a wall of These values are included in the simulation program for
ILC, a wall of ILC with nondiffusive vapor barrier on the in- standard materials. The values are based on measurements.
side, and a wall of ILC with a layer of clay plaster on the in- However, no such values exist as yet for ILC. For this reason,
side. The version with a vapor barrier represents the case of by agreement with the Fraunhofer Institute for Building Phys-
a wall that does not store any moisture, whereas the version ics, these values were determined for ILC as the mean val-
with the layer of clay plaster represents a wall with good ues of those of concrete and porous concrete. In other
moisture storage capability. words, the assumption is that the values for ILC lie between
those of the two materials. When a detailed determination is
The results of the simulations indicate that, in terms of hygric intended, the respective values must be established via
behavior, the ILC wall behaves in a similar way to the ILC wall measurements. Relevant investigations are currently being
with a 2-cm-thick layer of clay plaster on the inside. Both carried out at TU Berlin.
materials are capable of storing moisture and of releasing this
again to the interior. This behavior is slightly more pronounced
in the version with the clay plaster than in the version of the Conclusion
ILC wall without the plaster. This is illustrated in the figure
below (Figure 6-7) in terms of the number of hours outside The impact of ILC on relative humidity is moderate. Com-
the target range of 30 to 60 percent relative humidity. pared to normal concrete, the effect of ILC is slightly more
positive. However, the investigations are based on assump-
In another investigation comparing an external ILC wall with tions relating to the increase in the sorption isotherms of ILC,
one of normal concrete it was found that the hygric behavior because this value is currently not available. This value
differs slightly. The reason for this is that the two materials should be established via measurements in order to verify
are very similar. Even so, it was found that the number of the results of the investigation.

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 6 Fundamentals of Design

Variante
Version 1 1 Variante2 2
Version

Figure 6-8 Analyzed thermal bridge details of a balcony connection [27]

6.4.3 Thermal Bridge Simulation The investigation of the two versions showed that only the
values at the window connection are likely to be below the
In addition to the investigation of the thermal and hygric 12.6 °C isotherms. This means that, in this area, there is a
impact of ILC on the interior and the associated user com- risk of the formation of condensate and therefore of the
fort and energy consumption, the thermal behavior of the ­formation of mold. However, because this area was not
component also plays an important role. Thermal bridges in ­explicitly investigated and optimized in this investigation, a
a building component can be detected when the tempera- separate investigation should be carried out in order to look
ture gradients in the component are investigated. A thermal at the connection in greater detail. By contrast, the calcula-
bridge in a building is an area where the heat from the inte- tion of the section of the balcony connection revealed that
rior to the exterior is transferred faster than through “nor- no formation of condensate and no formation of mold is to
mal” components or parts of the component. The related be expected. This results from the thermal bridge simulation
loss is described by the thermal bridge loss coefficient using the 12.6 °C isotherms.
(Ψ-value).
In general it can be stated that the connection of an interme-
In the example below a balcony connection detail is investi- diate floor slab always has a negative effect on the thermal
gated to see how the detail is affected by the use of ILC. bridge loss coefficient of the building component. This in-
creases the loss of energy in this area of the building com-
Two details of a balcony connection (Figure 6-8) are com- ponent. The objective of the investigation was to keep these
pared in terms of thermal bridging in the upper and lower losses as small as possible. Options for improvement in-
facade connections. The two details differ in terms of the clude the variation of the window position, as well as im-
balcony connection, which in Version 2 is formed as an arch, proved detailing at the face of the intermediate floor slab
and in terms of the wall thicknesses. with the help of a wedge of insulation material.

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 6.4 Dynamic Simulation-Based Investigations

Version 1
Version 1.1 (basic) Version 1.2 Version 1.3
Ψ-value = 0.463 W/(m · K) (window central) (face of floor slab insulated and
Ψ-value = 0.320 W/(m · K) insulation wedge)
Ψ-value = 0.191 W/(m · K)

Version 2
Version 2.1 (basic) – Version 2.3
Ψ-value = 0.436 W/(m · K) (face of floor slab insulated and
insulation wedge)
Ψ-value = 0.192 W/(m · K)

Table 6-12 Comparison of Ψ-values (source: Max Bauer, based on [27])

All investigations showed that Version 2 with the arch has In this consideration of thermal bridges it is important to take
better results than Version 1. The reason for this can be into account that the Ψ-value is influenced by several ther-
seen in the more substantial cover afforded by the arch. The mal bridges. The Ψ-value is affected by the cantilevering of
investigation also revealed that it is possible to significantly the balcony, the intermediate floor slab, and the upper and
influence the thermal bridge loss coefficient via the position- lower window connections. This means that a classification
ing of the windows. When the windows are fitted in the in accordance with the current standards is not possible. If
­center of the building component, the lowest Ψ-value is the versions of the upper and lower window connections are
achieved. This is illustrated in Version 1.2 with central win- calculated separately, the results show that the values are
dow position. Compared with the basic version, the Ψ-value better than those specified in DIN 4108 Sheet 2 [50] for a
for Version 1 can be reduced by 0.143 W/(m · K). In addition, window connection in monolithic brickwork. That standard
the Ψ-values could be further improved by inserting addi- also clarifies that the versions with an insulated face of the
tional insulation at the face of the intermediate floor slab and intermediate floor slab do not require any evidence because
a wedge of ­insulation material. With these details, a reduc- they represent a thermally decoupled construction.
tion by 0.272 W/(m · K) could be achieved for Version 1.3
compared to the basic version and by 0.244 W/(m · K) for
Version 2.3. The following figure shows the Ψ-values for the
different versions.

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 6 Fundamentals of Design

Conclusion lightweight rock particulate. Adopting these data would dis-

tort the balance toward a more positive result, because
The investigations regarding thermal bridges indicate that pumice is a naturally occurring raw material for which only
ILC building component connections can also be detailed quarrying and transport have to be taken into account. It is
without additional insulation elements for thermal separa- not possible to apply this data to lightweight concretes with
tion, thus avoiding building physics problems (not achieving industrially produced rock particulate, such as expanded
minimum thermal insulation resulting in the formation of con- clay or expanded glass, as this would not be realistic. For
densate and/or mold). However, the connection details do this reason, a separate data set was established for in-
not comply with the values stipulated in the revised Sheet 2 fra-lightweight concrete using the GaBi life cycle assess-
of DIN 4108-Part 2 [50]. This means that, when preparing a ment software [54]. As part of this process, detailed informa-
project in accordance with EnEV [26]/GEG [28], the relatively tion from the manufacturers and existing data sets for
high thermal bridge correction factor of 0.1 W/m²K should individual components from GaBi were used as far as possi-
be used or a detailed thermal bridge calculation should be ble. Where no explicit data were available, assumptions had
carried out. to be made.

The results show that the current composition of ILC still

6.5 Eco-Balance requires some optimization from an ecological point of
view. Critical factors are those associated with the compo-
First findings are available from theoretical investigations re- nents silica fume, expanded clay, and cement (see Fig-
garding the eco-balance of infra-lightweight concrete con- ure 6-9).
struction methods in which infra-lightweight concrete is
compared with an external thermal insulating composite In this context, the balancing of silica fume is disputed how-
system (ETICS), both in the form of in situ concrete [51] and ever, because it is a by-product of the manufacture of met-
prefabricated component construction [52]. allurgical silicium. Two options were considered: on the one
hand only taking into account packaging and transport (this
The comparisons were carried out on the basis of the design corresponds to the data provided by the manufacturer) and
for the freestanding apartment building already introduced in on the other hand calculating the ratio of quantity of the
Chapter 4.1. The external walls of the respective examples by-product to the main product (allocation).
were designed such that they all have the same thermal
transmittance, so that functionally equivalent buildings could The manufacturer was asked what the proportional quantity
be compared with respect to thermal insulation and energy of silica fume was in the production of the main product, but
consumption. The U-value chosen was 0.35 W/m² · K, which no answer was received. When approximately 40 percent is
made it possible to keep the wall thickness of the external assumed in accordance with [55], the silica fume contributes
ILC walls reasonable and also to comply with the require- approximately 50 percent of the primary energy input (PEI)
ments of EnEV for the whole building. The key results are and approximately 30 percent of the global warming poten-
briefly summarized below. tial (GWP) of the composition of infra-lightweight concrete.
The proportions of the different materials of the composition
Eco-Balancing of the Composition of Infra-Lightweight are shown in the following diagram.
Concrete
Aside from the disputed allocation for silica fume, expanded
An important task was to balance the infra-lightweight con- clay and cement account for significant proportions, which
crete, which was intended to be as realistic as possible. It represent a potential for improvement. To date, infra-light-
was not possible to use an existing data set from ÖKOBAU- weight concrete has been mainly developed with a view to
DAT [53] because the existing data do not accurately reflect its dry bulk density and strength. First steps toward ecolog-
the material. For example, the data set for lightweight con- ical optimization have already been initiated, including the
crete is based on a composition in which pumice features as use of more ecologically compatible lightweight aggregates

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 6.4 Dynamic Simulation-Based
6.5 Investigations
ECO-BALANCE

60%

Primärenergie
Primary energy (PEI)
(PEI), total
Gesamtwert der Zusammensetzung ILC800

gesamt
50%
Proportion of total value of ILC800 composition

Greenhouse potential
Treibhauspotenzial
(GWP)
(GWP)
40%
Versauerungspotenzial
Acidification potential,
soil andund
Boden water (AP) (AP)
Wasser
30%

20%
Anteil am

10%

0%
Plasticizer
Fließmittel Expanded
Blähtonclay Silica fume
Silikastaub Stabilizer
Stabilisierer Cement
Zement Energy
Energie Transport
Transport

Figure 6-9 Proportions of material of the composition of ILC800 as per Table 3-2 in the impact indicators PEI, GWP, and AP when balancing silica
fume via allocation [51]

such as expanded glass or expanded granulate from recy- the summary results for the entire life cycle for the different
cled masonry rubble [51, 56]. construction methods were relatively similar. This calls for
further investigations as to the comparison with other build-
Comparison on the Level of Building and ings that require less in terms of operational expenditure.
Building Component
Another important point to note is that the duration of service
A comparison on the level of the building component per life is a critical point of discussion which has a major impact.
square meter of external wall surface reflects the findings Because infra-lightweight concrete is a new material, no
from the balancing of the ILC composition, that is, that the long-term values are available with respect to the length of
high values of the impact indicators of ILC in the manufac- service life. For a multilayered external wall in normal con-
turing phase exceeded those of an ETICS. The comparison crete, a service life of 100 years can be assumed in accor-
at building level covering the life cycle (cradle-to-grave) dance with the data given in BBSR [57]; that of lightweight
showed a relatively small influence of the external wall on the concrete is stated as 80 years. In accordance with BBSR
overall result for the selected reference building; one of the [57], porous concrete is allocated 60 years. An unlimited ser-
reasons is that the operation of the selected building was vice life can be achieved following an Environmental Product
dominant compared to the other phases such as manufac- Declaration [58] and provided the material is used for the in-
ture, transport, installation, and disposal. In consequence, tended purpose. In view of the fact that the ­resistance to

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 6 Fundamentals of Design

weather of ILC (see Chapter 6.3.2) is further enhanced by if appropriate, adjusted to make it possible to assess the
the recommended water-repellent treatment and that further- eco-balance as realistically as possible and to undertake
more, in accordance with the current state of the art, it is meaningful comparisons with other building methods.
combined with corrosion-resistant reinforcements, it would
appear realistic to assume a service life of 100 years. How-
ever, because no long-term values are available and in order 6.6 Costs
to be on the safe side, only 70 years were assumed for the
purpose of eco-balancing. Manufacturing Costs

The investigations also revealed that some of the balancing Infra-lightweight concrete consists of components which,
rules currently applicable are not very well suited to a build- although readily available commercially, are not always
ing construction with a long service life and low maintenance stocked by concrete works. For this reason, the cost of
and repair requirements. An example is the period of manufacturing ILC depends to a large extent on which com-
50 years of service life as recommended in the Assessment ponents (for example, type of cement or grain size of light-
System for Sustainable Building (BNB) [59]. This calls for ad- weight rock particulate) are held in stock at the respective
justments in order to make it possible to carry out meaning- works or whether separate stockholding is required. It is due
ful eco-balancing. Furthermore, effects such as the negative to this that, in the past, different works provided very diverg-
impact of biocides leaking out of ETICS paint coatings and/ ing price information, quoting prices that ranged from two-
or the water-repellent coating of ILC walls into surrounding fold to four-fold those of normal concrete. In the context of
ground and waterways should be taken into account in or- this manual it is therefore not possible to provide any reliable
der to achieve an assessment that is as realistic as possible. price indication; instead, only approximate figures can be
Another aspect is the rapid carbonation of ILC (see Chap- mentioned at this stage (2017). When planning a project it is
ter 7.2.1). This means that a building component carbonizes advisable to contact concrete works that are being consid-
completely over its service life and, in that process, removes ered at an early stage in order to obtain as realistic a price
about 55 kg CO²/m³ from the atmosphere (example calcu- for materials as possible.
lated with a concrete with a cement content of 360 kg/m³
[60]). Another important point is that the choice of corrosion-resis-
tant reinforcement also has an impact on costs, because
Conclusion there are significant differences in the price of galvanized
steel reinforcements, stainless steel reinforcements, and
The compositions as shown in Table 3-2 were not developed GRP reinforcements. Another item to consider is the cost of
from an eco-balance point of view, but they are a viable ba- the individual building control approval procedure (see
sis for further optimization. In future, these compositions can Chapter 9). Constructions using ILC have cost advantages
be further developed to take account of eco-balancing as- owing to their monolithic structure, because fewer work
pects in accordance with the respective project require- steps are required compared to multilayer systems.
ments. The critical components in this respect are the silica
fume, expanded clay, and cement, which hold the greatest In accordance with experience to date, the price for one cu-
improvement potential. bic meter of infra-lightweight concrete (without reinforce-
ments) was approximately 350 €/m³. When including the
Building with infra-lightweight concrete results in buildings cost of corrosion-resistant reinforcements (here galvanized
with a long service life of probably at least 70 but more likely steel reinforcements), exposed concrete formwork on both
100 years and, owing to the combination with noncorroding sides, and the fact that ILC has to be poured using buckets
reinforcements, potentially even longer. For the purpose of (infra-lightweight concrete cannot be pumped), one arrives
future investigations, the current balancing rules should be at a cost of approximately 500 to 600 €/m² external wall area
critically reassessed with a view to long service life building for small projects (one- and two-story buildings). These
methods, such as that using infra-lightweight concrete and, costs come down as project size increases, but should be

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 6.7 LEGAL BACKGROUND
6.5 Eco-Balance

discussed between the designers and building owners at the four-fold that of normal concrete. When planning a project it
beginning of a project. is therefore recommended to make contact with potential
concrete works at an early stage.
Life Cycle Costs
In terms of life cycle costs, ILC construction offers advan-
In addition to manufacturing costs there are also the life tages, owing to its likely long service life and resulting low
­cycle costs, such as for operation, inspection and mainte- replacement investments and to the lower cost of demolition
nance, replacement investment and annual repairs, demo­ and disposal of this monolithic type of construction, for ex-
lition and disposal. ample. Quantification of these potential cost saving aspects
depends largely on the respective material price.
An important factor impacting on life cycle costs is the useful
service life of a material. Infra-lightweight concrete is a new
material of which no long-term experience exists regarding 6.7 Legal Background
its service life. Information to date allows the conclusion that
ILC is a durable building material (likely to last at least 70 and The strength of infra-lightweight concrete is below that of
up to 100 years), which is further enhanced by the use of class LC12/13, which is why ILC is not covered by EC2-1-1.
corrosion-resistant reinforcements. During the service life, no Likewise, owing to its very low dry bulk density ILC is not
replacement investment for ILC needs to be taken into ac- covered by DIN EN 206. In view of the fact that ILC has a
count. It is likely that any maintenance and repair work will be closed structure, the standards for lightweight concretes
limited to regular renewal of the water-repellent coating and/ with a porous particulate structure and for porous concretes
or anti-graffiti coating. Owing to the monolithic construction are not binding.
method, demolition and disposal of the material would be
less costly compared to complex multilayer systems. This means that ILC is a new building product that is not
included in Construction Products List A Part 1 [108] and to
Initial calculations have already been made as part of a life date is not bindingly covered by the technical rules or by the
cycle cost analysis. However, owing to the problem of the technical building regulations [109] mentioned therein. To
heavily fluctuating material price of ILC mentioned above, date, no general building control approval or general building
the results are not presented here since they would only be control test certificate exists for ILC.
valid for the price of the material used in each case and
therefore would not be generally applicable. Furthermore, In accordance with the Model Building Code (MBO) [110]
there is also a need here to adjust the currently applicable such a noncontrolled building product may nevertheless be
balancing recommendations because some of them contain used if the supreme building control authority issues individ-
simplifications – such as the lump sum input for the cost of ual approval. This requires evidence that the material can be
maintenance and repair as a percentage of manufacturing used in the sense of Section 3 para. 2 of the MBO. The su-
costs [61] – which inadequately represent a construction preme building control authority can also declare that no
method that represents a low maintenance and repair con- approval is required where no risk is to be expected.
struction method.
The application procedure for obtaining individual approval is
Conclusion specific to each federal state. For most federal states, notes
on the procedure can be found in information sheets issued
The manufacturing costs of infra-lightweight concrete de- for this purpose. Depending on the subject of the applica-
pend to a large extent on the material price of the concrete tion, different documents are required, such as technical
and the corrosion-resistant reinforcements. In accordance construction details, test reports from experimental investi-
with experience to date, the price of ILC varies very much as gations, expert reports, and any other individual approvals
a result of the different manufacturing situations at the quot- issued previously.
ing works. In the past, the price varied between two- and

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 6 Fundamentals of Design

Generally, it is advisable to make contact with the authority

at an early stage in the design in order to agree what docu-
ments need to be submitted and to initiate the production of
these documents at an early stage. Commissioning experi-
mental tests and expert reports, and hence the cost of
these, are down to a party involved in the building, usually
the applicant. The administration fees payable to the author-
ity also vary according to the federal state. For example, the
range of fees cited in Berlin is between EUR 500 and
EUR 15,000 [111].

In the past two individual approvals have already been

granted for infra-lightweight concrete, which may well be of
benefit for obtaining individual building control approvals in
the future:

Individual building control approval for external building

nn
components made of infra-lightweight concrete issued by
the Senate Administration for Urban Development and
Housing, Berlin, February 27, 2017
Building project: Betonoase youth center,
Berlin-Friedrichsfelde
Client: Lichtenberg District Office, Berlin
Start of construction 2017
Individual building control approval for infra-lightweight
nn
concrete
Building project: Two-story single-family house, Aiterbach
Client/architect: Michael Thalmaier
Year of construction 2015

A description of the building projects can be found in Chap-

ter 9.

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Infralight.indb 115 14.01.20 11:03
Infralight.indb 116 14.01.20 11:03
 7 Calculation Procedures
for Structural ­Design

7.1 Structural Design Principles

7.2 Durability
7.3 Ductile Building Component Behavior
7.4 Base Values for Structural Design
7.5 Structural Design for the Ultimate Limit State
7.6 Structural Design for the Serviceability Limit State
7.7 Special Considerations for the Design of Components
with GRP Reinforcement
7.8 Bonding Behavior and Concrete Cover

Infralight.indb 117 14.01.20 11:03

 7 Calculation Procedures for Structural ­D esign

With its dry bulk density of less than 800 kg/m³ and a
strength class that is currently less than that of LC12/13,
7.1 Structural Design Principles
infra-lightweight concrete does not fall within normative lim- 7.1.1 Applicability of Relevant Standards
its (see 7.1.1). Due to its special properties, some of the
standard calculation procedures need to be adjusted. Eurocode 2 (DIN EN 1992-1-1) [20] is applicable to the
nn
structural design of load-bearing structures in concrete,
The explanations given in the sections below are based on reinforced concrete, and prestressed concrete with nor-
the results of a number of research projects. In particular, the mal and lightweight aggregates. The code includes classi-
information on material parameters, on the stress-strain fications for lightweight concrete, that is, strength classes
curve, on the design for deflection, and on cracking, defor- LC12/13 to LC80/88 and the bulk density classes D 1.0
mation, and bonding behavior is based on the results of a to 2.0 (800 to 2,000 kg/m³).
DFG research project (SCHL 1901/7-1), which was pub- nnDIN EN 206 Concrete – Specification, performance, pro-
lished in detail as part of the doctoral thesis by Alex Hückler duction and conformity covers concrete used for in situ
[21]. concrete buildings, buildings consisting of prefabricated
concrete elements, and prefabricated elements for build-
The results show that the behavior of ILC is largely similar to ings and engineering structures. However, the range of
that of lightweight concrete [21]. In areas where no research concretes covered only includes lightweight concretes with
results are available on infra-lightweight concrete (for exam- bulk density classes D 1.0 to 2.0 (800 to 2,000 kg/m³) [5].
ple, its shear force bearing behavior), the proposal therefore nnIn addition to the two standards above, there are some
is to use the approaches of the EC2 [20] or, in the case of other regulatory instruments that relate to lightweight
GRP reinforcements, of the respective general building con- ­concrete with a porous particulate structure or porous
trol approvals for use in normal concrete. We do not as yet ­concrete:
have statistically relevant investigations to tell us whether nn DIN 4213 [62, 63], DIN EN 1520 [64] for lightweight
these approaches are applicable to ILC. The use of such concrete with a porous particulate structure or porous
approaches in an actual case therefore has to be agreed as concrete (for example, prefabricated building elements
part of the procedure for individual building control approval using lightweight concrete with a porous particulate
(see Chapter 9). structure)
nn DIN EN 771-3 [65], DIN V 18151-100 [66], DIN V
The appendix contains examples of calculations for the 18152-100 [67], DIN V 20000-403 [68] for masonry
structural design of an ILC wall component and an ILC beam units made of lightweight concrete with a porous partic-
exposed to bending moments using the approaches de- ulate structure
scribed below. nn DIN 4166 [69] for autoclaved aerated concrete slabs
and panels
nn DIN EN 771-4 [70], DIN 20000-404 [71] for autoclaved
aerated concrete masonry units
nn DIN EN 12602:2016-12 [72], DIN 4223-100 [73] to
-103 [74] for prefabricated reinforced components
made of autoclaved aerated concrete

The strength of infra-lightweight concrete is below that of

class LC12/13, D 1.0, which is why ILC is not covered by
EC2 [20]. In view of the fact that ILC has a closed structure,
the standards for lightweight concretes with a porous partic-
ulate structure and for porous concretes are not binding.

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 7.1 STRUCTURAL
6.7 Legal
DESIGN
Background
PRINCIPLES

This means that ILC is not covered by any current standard. f f

f ilcd = ilck = 0.75 ilck = 0.5 f
However, owing to its properties and its concrete-like behav- ilcc 1.5 ilck (6)
ior, the EC2 [20] in particular is used as basis for the struc- ilc
tural design approaches described below. (In the chapters
below, references to the bibliography will be omitted when In accordance with EC2 [20], when calculating the evidence
referring to the above standards.) for building components without or with only few reinforce-
ments (with degrees of reinforcement below the minimum
7.1.2 Ultimate Limit State reinforcement grades) the fatigue strength coefficient αcc,pl
is used to take account of the lower ductility. For normal
The design value for various loads is determined in accor- concrete this is calculated by multiplying the fatigue strength
dance with the EC2. In accordance with the EC2, the design coefficient for reinforced components αcc = 0.85 by a duc-
value of the characteristic compressive strength (cylinder tility coefficient αcc,pl = 0.70.
strength) is determined using the fatigue strength coefficient
αilcc and a material safety coefficient γc. Applied to ILC, this In view of the fact that, to date, no data are available on the
results in: fatigue strength of reinforced and nonreinforced infra-light-
f weight concrete, it is proposed to adopt the procedure from
f ilcd = α ilcc ⋅ ilck (5) the EC2 for determining the fatigue strength coefficient of
γ
ilc nonreinforced ILC components by multiplying by a factor of
whereby 0.7/0.85. The following formulae result:

filcd: design value for compressive strength of ILC αilcc,pl = αilcc · 0.7 ⁄ 0.85 = 0.75 · 0.7 ⁄ 0.85 = 0.62 (7)

filck: characteristic compressive strength of ILC

f ilck f ilck
f ilcd,pl = ilcc,pl = 0.62 = 0.41 f ilck (8)
ilc 1.5
αilcc: fatigue strength coefficient of ILC

γilc: material safety coefficient of ILC In an actual application, the characteristic compressive
strength filck for the selected composition has to be deter-
The material safety coefficient γc, which consists of variation mined as part of an individual building control approval pro-
coefficients relating to modeling uncertainties, geometry, cedure. For example, for the compositions in Table 3-2 the
and material strength, is identical for normal concrete and characteristic strengths were determined in relation to the
lightweight concrete. For ILC no significantly greater varia- occurring spread across the 5 percent quantile.
tion coefficients for material strength must be expected,
which is why we propose to adopt the material safety coef- 7.1.3 Serviceability Limit State
ficient of γilc = 1.5 also for ILC.
In order to provide evidence of the serviceability limit state,
The fatigue strength of lightweight concrete is lower than the procedures described in the EC2 are used. The criteria
that of normal concrete. In the EC2 [20] this is taken into include
account by including a reduction factor of 0.75 or 0.80 in-
stead of 0.85 for normal concrete [4]. the limitation of stresses,
nn
the limitation of the width of cracks, and
nn
To date, the fatigue strength of ILC has not yet been explic- the limitation of deformations.
nn
itly investigated. We therefore propose to use the coefficient
of 0.75 for ILC. The design value for compressive strength is
therefore calculated as follows:

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 7 Calculation Procedures for Structural ­D esign

pH value
13.8 Maximum alkalinity of concrete

11.0 Start of depassivation No corrosion

9.5 Start of passivation

alkaline

7.2 Durability neutral Corrosion

acid
7.2.1 Corrosion Behavior and
5.5
Type of Reinforcements
Corrosion Behavior
Heavy and rapid corrosion
In general, concrete provides protection through its high de-
gree of alkalinity (pH value: 12.5 to 13.5) and/or through
passivation of the reinforcement before corrosion (Fig-
ure 7-1). As a rule durable protection against aggressive me- Figure 7-1 Corrosion potential in relation to the pH value [75]
dia can be achieved with just a few centimeters of concrete
cover. Water and carbon dioxide in concrete lead to carbon- fra-lightweight concrete this would be the case after only
ation, which reduces alkalinity and progresses at different 1.7 years, which corresponds to a carbonation process [76]
speeds depending on the type of concrete. Infra-lightweight accelerated by a factor of 60 (!). In order to verify this result
concrete is very porous and therefore does not prevent the another test was carried out in which a core sample from a
penetration of water and carbon dioxide to the same degree beam dating from 2006 was tested. The carbonation factor
as normal concrete, and therefore carbonizes significantly measured was k = 30 mm/a0.5, which confirmed the order of
faster. size of the previously obtained results.

In view of this fact, an ILC wall [2] dating from 2012 was in- Furthermore, experimental investigations were carried out to
vestigated for its depth of carbonation [75]. As part of this establish the influence of silane-based water-repellent treat-
test three core samples were taken from the primarily dry ment on carbonation [77]. For this purpose, nontreated and
wall, split and sprayed with a phenolphthalein solution in or- treated surfaces of ILC800 were sprayed daily with water
der to test for the depth of carbonation. This causes the area over a period of five months, after which time the carbon-
that is still alkaline to show up in a color (Figure 7-2). The ation depth was measured. The measurements revealed a
average depth of carbonation was y = 45 mm after a time of carbonation factor k of the area treated with water repellent
t = 2.75 years [a] and a carbonation coefficient of of “only” approximately 15 to 20 mm/a0.5, whereas the non-
k = 27.14 mm/a0.5 (compare knormal concrete = 3.54 mm/a0.5) treated areas confirmed the previous values. This means
[76]. Normal concrete with a concrete cover of 35 mm will that, although the water-repellent treatment counteracts the
reach a theoretical age of about 100 years before the rein- carbonation process, corrosion of the reinforcements during
forcements have to be investigated for corrosion. For in- the service life of a structure cannot be ruled out.

Figure 7-2 Measuring the carbonation depth with phenolphthalein solution (source: Philipp Reiter)

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 7.1 Structural Design
7.2 DURABILITY
Principles

Conclusion galvanized steel reinforcements,

nn
coated steel reinforcements,
nn
The results indicate that carbonation in infra-lightweight con- rust-resistant reinforcement steel (stainless steel
nn
crete progresses very rapidly. For this reason, taking into ­reinforcements),
account current findings, the use of corrosion-resistant rein- GRP reinforcements (glass-fiber-reinforced plastic),
nn
forcements is recommended. Water-repellent treatment can carbon reinforcements,
nn
also counteract the corrosion of reinforcements as it hinders basalt reinforcements.
nn
the penetration of water.

7.2.2 Choice of Reinforcements

Even though reinforcements in ILC walls usually only have to
be inserted to prevent large shrinkage cracks, we must not
forget that the walls almost always also have areas of dis-
continuity (D-areas, see [78]). In load application areas, in
areas of geometric discontinuity such as recesses, and of
course at window lintels and balcony connections, more
than just “compatibility reinforcements” are necessary. For
this reason, corrosion-resistant reinforcements are very
­important.

A range of different materials can be considered. In accor- Figure 7-3 Different types of reinforcements (from left to right: rein-
dance with current findings, these include forcement steel, galvanized reinforcement steel, GRP reinforcements)

Galvanized steel reinforcements Rust-resistant reinforcements GRP reinforcements

Elastic modulus (MPa) 200,000 ~ 160,000 60,000 (tensile)
Rated value for yield limit fyd 435 435 445
[N/mm²]
Weight [g/cm³] 7.85 ~ 7.7 to 7.85 2.2
Thermal conductivity λ [W/m · K] 60 15 0.7 (axial)/ 0.5 (radial)
0.8 to 1.2 · 10–5 ~ 1.0 to 1.6 · 10–5 0.6 · 10–5 (axial)
Thermal expansion [1/K]
2.2 · 10–5 (radial)
Subsequent bending permitted Permitted; however, damage to the Yes No
during installation layer of zinc must be repaired
Approximate range of cost for d = 8: 0.70 to 1.20 €/lin m d = 8: 1.50 to 3.50 €/lin m d = 8: 2.45 €/lin m
d = 8 mm and 12 mm per linear d = 12: 1.50 to 2.50 €/lin m d = 12: 3.50 to 8.00 €/lin m d = 12: 4.70 €/lin m
meter [€/lin m]
(prices may vary significantly (Assumption: price including (Depends on the alloy content; (Example as in [83])
­depending on price development, ­galvanizing between approximately example as in [81, 82])
product, and quantity) 1.80 and 3.00 €/kg)
DIN EN 1992-1-2 [84], C = 65 mm [24]
Thickness of concrete cover load-bearing normal concrete walls: (Normal concrete, R90; less
­required for REI90/R90 fire 20 to 25 mm (distance from center ­concrete cover may be possible,
­protection of reinforcement, REI90) see also Chapter 7.7)

Table 7-1 Comparison of corrosion-resistant types of reinforcements based on [24, 25]

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 7 Calculation Procedures for Structural ­D esign

From this selection, galvanized steel reinforcements, stainless When using GRP reinforcements, further regulatory provi-
steel reinforcements, and GRP reinforcements are most com- sions stipulated under building control approval and the
monly available in the German market. These reinforcements Technical Rules [24, 80] must be taken into account.
differ with regard to certain properties, such as weight and
stiffness, regarding subsequent bending after installation, and Furthermore, there may be requirements for concrete cover
also regarding cost (see Table 7-1). Furthermore, the mate- for reasons of fire safety, which may have to be taken into
rials also differ in terms of robustness during transport and account (see Chapter 6.3.7 / Chapter 7.7).
installation. For example, during the transport or installation of
galvanized building components, it is possible for the zinc
coating to suffer damage, which has to be repaired [79]. GRP
reinforcements [80] are subject to specific rules for transport 7.3 Ductile Building ­
and storage in order to avoid damage [80].
Component Behavior
7.2.3 Concrete Cover
Ductility describes the deformation potential of building com-
In accordance with EC2 the concrete cover of lightweight con- ponents prior to breaking. In accordance with EC2, building
crete has to be increased by 5 mm compared to normal con- components must have certain ductile properties in order to
crete. The nominal dimension for concrete cover therefore is: avoid failure without preliminary signs. This is ensured by

cnom ≥ dlargest grain + 5 mm (9) the requirement for minimum reinforcements As,min,
nn
determining the degree of maximum reinforcement As,max,
nn
For the ILC compositions listed in Table 3-2 with a diameter and
of the largest grain dlargest grain of 6 mm this results in in the case of components that are mostly subject to
nn
cnom ≥ 6 mm + 5 mm = 11 mm (this value may have to be bending, the limitation of the relevant compression zone
adjusted for different compositions). height ξlim.

As described in the previous section, the use of corro- For infra-lightweight concrete, the EC2 requirements for
sion-resistant reinforcements is recommended. In that case, minimum and maximum reinforcement are adopted (on min-
only the minimum dimension of concrete cover cmin is appli- imum reinforcement, see also Chapter 7.8.2). Regarding the
cable for securing proper bonding: compression zone height, the following limit is recom-
mended, analogously to other lightweight concretes:
cmin ≥ ds and safety margin Δcdev = 10 mm [31].
ξlim = x/d ≤ 0.35 (10)
Resulting in
whereby
cnom = cmin + Δcdev = cmin + 10 mm ≥ dlargest grain + 5 mm
ξlim: limit of relevant compression zone height
whereby
x: compression zone height
cmin ≥ ds
d: effective structural height
dlargest grain (diameter of largest grain) = 6 mm for ILC com-
positions in Table 3-2 If this is exceeded, it is possible to consider confinement of
the bending compression zone [85]. This limit of the com-
pression zone height applies to steel reinforcement (on the
ductility of GRP reinforcement, see Chapter 7.7).

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 7.4 7.2 Durability
BASE VALUES FOR STRUCTURAL DESIGN

7.4 Base Values for 14.0

3.5; 13.0
Structural Design 12.0
3.2; 11.3

stress σ [ MPa ]
10.0
3.0; 9.4
7.4.1 Stress-Strain Curves
8.0

Druckspannung
2.7; 7.4
Infra-lightweight concrete has no plastic deformation poten-
6.0
tial; it is similarly brittle to that of UHPC (Ultra-High Perfor- 2.4; 5

Compressive
mance Concrete), for example. This means that the stress- 4.0
strain curve of ILC is linear up to failure at the average
compressive strength filcm and the elongation at fracture 2.0

εilc1. 0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

7.4.2 Mechanical Properties and Elastic Dehnung ε [ ‰ ]

Elongation
D
­ eformation Properties ILC800 ILC750 ILC700 ILC650 ILC600

In order to be able to derive at a characteristic strength filck Figure 7-4 Notional stress-strain curves for the compositions of
ILC600 to ILC800 from experimentally determined average compres-
from the experimentally determined average compressive
sive strength and elongation at fracture (source: Alex Hückler [21])
strength filcm, Hückler [21] proposes to use the 5 percent
quantile based on normal distribution. The structural design
value of the compressive strength filcd is then derived in ac- 7.4.3 Notional Cross Section Values
cordance with the details in Chapter 7.1.2.
In reinforced concrete construction, a distinction is made be-
Below follows a summary of the key material parameters of tween three types of cross section values: gross cross sec-
the different ILC compositions, ILC600 to ILC800, in relation tion, net cross section, and notional cross section. The gross
to the materials listed in Table 3-2. cross section refers to a cross section of homogeneous con-
crete with the actual external cross-sectional dimensions; the

Property ILC600 ILC650 ILC700 ILC750 ILC800

Experimentally determined properties (weighted average values; detailed statistical evaluation, test specimen dimensions, and test procedure documented
in Hückler [21])
Average cylinder strength filcm,cyl [MPa] 5.3 7.4 9.4 11.3 13.0
Characteristic cylinder strength filck [MPa] 4.0 5.0 8.0 9.0 11.0
Design value for compressive strength filcd [MPa] 2.0 2.5 4.0 4.5 5.5
Tensile strength filctm [MPa] 0.65 0.71 0.76 0.82 0.87
Modulus of elasticity Eilcm [MPa] 2,300 2,700 3,100 3,500 3,900
Elongation at fracture εilc1 [‰] 2.4 2.7 3.0 3.2 3.5
Poisson’s number* 0.2
Thermal expansion** αT = 10 · 10–6 K–1 (measured for ILC800; range 7 · 10–6 K–1 to 12 · 10–6 K–1)
*  Poisson’s number was determined for ILC800. In view of the fact that cross-expansion apparently only depends on the composition of the matrix
and the ILC classes have similar matrix properties, it can be assumed that the values for ILC600 can be transferred to ILCs up to ILC750 [86].
** The thermal expansion was also determined for ILC800; it is initially assumed that the values can be transferred to the other ILC classes; however,
this should be confirmed experimentally.

Table 7-2 Summary of the properties of ILC in accordance with the compositions in Table 3-2, based on [21]

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 7 Calculation Procedures for Structural ­D esign

effect of the reinforcements is neglected. The net cross sec- area moment of inertia of the notional cross section
tion is the gross cross section less the reinforcements, thereby
representing the pure concrete cross section. Notional cross zi,s: distance between center of gravity of reinforce-
section values take into account the effect of the reinforce- ments and notional center of gravity
ments and correctly represent the compound cross section.
zi,max,s : maximum distance of the tensile edge from the
In reinforced concrete cross sections with normal concrete notional center of gravity (in a rectangular cross
the use of notional cross sections is often omitted; calcula- section with height h, for example, zi,max,s = h/2−Δzi)
tions are preferably carried out with gross cross sections
because the effect of the reinforcements is small. In normal concretes the cracking moment is usually deter-
mined by approximation using the nonreinforced cross sec-
However, in concretes such as infra-lightweight concrete in tion; for ILC this should also be calculated using the notional
which the rigidity of the reinforcement is significantly greater cross section. The same applies to the determination of the
than that of the concrete, the notional cross section values minimum reinforcement and the calculation of crack widths.
for items such as center of gravity, area moment of inertia, For the calculation of the notional cross section values, see
and structural moment are important for the calculations. also [87].
The most important of these are listed below:
7.4.4 Creep and Shrinkage
Ac : gross cross section area
In infra-lightweight concrete, time-dependent concrete behav-
As : cross section area of steel reinforcements ior, such as creep and shrinkage, is of particular importance.
Below we show ways of determining the parameters for creep
An = Ac – As ; net cross section area (11) and shrinkage behavior. The effects of the time-dependent be-
havior on deformation are described in Chapter 7.6.4.
Ai = Ac + (αs – 1) · As ; notional cross section area (12)
Creep Coefficient
Ai,eff = Ac,eff + (αs – 1) · As ; notional effective
area of reinforcements (13) In the EC2, the creep coefficient ϕ(t,t0) for normal concrete
is determined in accordance with the catalog of formulae.
Ai,ct = Act + (αs – 1) · As ; (14) This calculation can also be applied to lightweight concrete,
except that the result must be multiplied by the factors ηE
notional cross section of concrete in the tension zone imme- (reduction) and η2 (increase). The creep coefficient is used
diately prior to the formation of cracks (referring to one side when determining the initial elastic deformation. Owing to
of the component; as a rule: Act = 0.5 · w · h) the lower elastic modulus, the initial elastic deformation of
lightweight concretes is greater than that of normal con-
αs = Es  /  Eilc (15) cretes. If the same creep coefficient were used, greater
creep deformation would result compared to normal con-
j j
Δzi = ((αs −1) ⋅ ∑ j A s ⋅ zcs ) / A i ; (16) crete. However, test results allow the conclusion that the
creep expansion of dense-structure lightweight concretes
distance between the center of gravity of the gross cross sec- for long-term loads applied at the mid-term is of the same
tion and the center of gravity of the notional cross section order of size as that of normal concretes of the same
strength. This means that, in accordance with the EC2, the
zc,s:  distance between center of gravity of reinforce- creep coefficient can be reduced with the factor ηE. On the
ments and center of gravity of gross cross section other hand, the factor for increase η2 takes into account that
2 the lightweight rock particulate in lightweight concretes of
Ii,y = Ic,y + A c zi2 + ( s 1) j
j As (zijs ) ; (17) low strength classes causes less restriction to creep [88].

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 7.4 7.4
BASE VALUES FOR Base Values
STRUCTURAL for
DESIGN

ηE = (ρ / 2,200)² (18) (26)

whereby ρ: dry bulk density [kg/m³] βH   =  1.5 · [1 + (0.012 · RH)18 ] · h0 + 250 · α3  ≤  1,500 · α3 (27)

η2 = 1.2 für flck  ≤  LC16/18 (19) t0,eff = t0 [9/(2+t1.2 0.5 *) ; (28)

0 )+1]

Initial explorative tests have been carried out on the creep effective age of concrete at the onset of loading (in days)
behavior of infra-lightweight concrete and the results from
components exposed to bending stress have been compared *) The effect of increased or reduced temperatures on the
with the EC2 calculations. However, the factors mentioned degree of curing of the concrete, in a range from 0 to
above, that is, ηE and η2, were deliberately omitted since 80 °C, can be reflected via the age of the concrete, that
these are used to determine the creep behavior of lightweight is, from t0,eff to t0,T (see the EC2, Appendix B [20]).
concretes that are significantly stronger than infra-lightweight
concretes. This means that the calculations carried out for ILC RH: relative ambient humidity as percentage
were equivalent to those used for normal concrete but, owing
to the different initial elastic deformation, result in significantly RH0 = 100 percent (reference value)
greater creep deformation. Comparisons with the experimen-
tal results obtained indicate that the calculation described be- h0 = 2Ac/u; effective thickness of component in mm (Ac:
low results in conservative values for ILC. cross section area; u: circumference of cross sec-
tion exposed to drying)
In actual applications this procedure should be agreed and,
depending on requirements, should be verified with further fcm: median concrete compressive strength in N/mm²
tests as part of the procedure for individual building control
approval. t: age of concrete in days at the time of analysis

Determining the creep coefficient [20, 31] t 0: actual age of concrete at onset of load (in days)

Creep coefficient at time t: α1 = α2 = α3 = 1.0 for fcm ≤ 35 N/mm²

ϕ (t,t0) = ϕ0 · βc(t,t0) (20)
α = −1 for cement S (slow): CEM 32.5 N
Basic creep coefficient:
ϕ0 = ϕRH · β(fcm) · β(t0) (21) = 0 for cement N (normal): CEM 32.5 R; CEM 42.5 N

Final creep coefficient for t→∞: = 1 for cement R (rapid): CEM 42.5 R; CEM 52.5 N;
ϕ(∞,t0) = ϕ0 (22) CEM 52.5 R

whereby Composite Creep

βc (t,t0) = [(t – t0) / (βH + (t – t0))]0.3 ; (23) Zilch and Zehetmaier [87] define composite creep as the de-
function of time formation due to creep in the composite zone as well as, to
a small degree, in the concrete area exposed to tension ow-
3 h ))
ing to long-term exposure to tension. This reduces the con-
RH = [1+ ((1 RH RH0 ) / 0.1 0 1] 2 (24)
crete’s contribution to resisting tensile stress. The time-de-
pendent effects can be reflected in a simplified manner by a
( f cm ) = 16.8 / f 0.5
cm (25) solidity coefficient βt that is reduced by one-third. This re-
sults in the values of βt = 0.6 (short-term load exposure) and

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 7 Calculation Procedures for Structural ­D esign

βt = 2/3 · 0.6 = 0.4 (long-term and repeated exposure to date, the best match was achieved with the calculations of
load), which are also taken into account in the determination the RILEM B3 model; however, even this model underesti-
of the crack width. mates the shrinkage dimensions obtained in the experimen-
tal investigations.
The composite creep of infra-lightweight concrete with steel
reinforcements was investigated experimentally. A compari- For this reason we would like to recommend here that the
son of the test results [89] with those obtained by calculation shrinkage dimension for an actual building project be deter-
in accordance with Model Code 2010 [90] showed that ILC mined experimentally as part of the procedure for individual
behaved similarly. building control approval. The above values nevertheless
provide an initial estimate of the order of size of the shrink-
For this reason it is proposed to also adopt the reduction in age behavior.
the short-term solidity coefficient by one-third for infra-light-
weight concrete in order to take into account composite
creep. The solidity coefficient of ILC for short-term load ex- 7.5 Structural Design for
posure was determined by Hückler [21] (see the chapters the ­Ultimate Limit State
on the calculation of deformation 7.6.3 and determining
the crack width 7.6.2). As a load-bearing thermal insulation, infra-lightweight con-
crete is primarily used for the envelope of buildings and is
Degree of Shrinkage therefore a wall component. In addition to the mainly vertical
transfer of loads, ILC may also be exposed to bending mo-
The shrinkage of concrete is affected by various factors. ments, such as when used for a window lintel or balcony
deck. In this section we therefore first consider the self-
Several models exist that can be used for calculating the weight and then approaches to the structural design of wall
degree of shrinkage, as per the EC2 [20], CEB-FIP [90, 91], components exposed to vertical loads; this is followed by
or RILEM B3 (1995) [92, 93], for example. approaches to the structural design for bending and, finally,
for exposure to shear force.
Several explorative tests were carried out on the shrinkage
behavior of infra-lightweight concrete, which supplied values 7.5.1 Load Assumptions – Self-Weight of ILC
for the final shrinkage dimension after one hundred days of
approximately 1.0 mm/m for ILC600 and approximately The self-weight to be assumed for infra-lightweight concrete
1.5 mm/m for ILC800. In these tests about 80 percent of the consists of the dry bulk density and an addition for the mois-
degree of shrinkage after one hundred days was already ture content under normal climate conditions, as well as an
reached after two weeks. The results were compared with addition for the reinforcements.
the calculations proposed by different models. This showed
that the EC2 model underestimates the shrinkage of in- In accordance with DIN EN ISO 10456 [30], the moisture
fra-lightweight concrete in the compositions in Table 3-2. To content at 23 °C and with 80 percent relative humidity for

Property ILC600 ILC650 ILC700 ILC750 ILC800

Dry bulk density ρtr [kg/m³] ≤ 600 ≤ 650 ≤ 700 ≤ 750 ≤ 800
Addition for design weight [kg/m³] 50 50 50 50 50
Weight of nonreinforced ILC (rounded up) [kN/m³] 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5
Addition for steel reinforcements [kN/m³] 1 1 1 1 1
Weight of ILC with steel reinforcements [kN/m³] 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5
Table 7-3 Self-weight of ILC classes

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 7.5 STRUCTURAL DESIGN FOR THE7.4
­U LTIMATE LIMIT STATE
Base Values for

lightweight concrete with expanded clay is to be assumed Infra-lightweight concrete buildings are usually designed
as u = 0.03 kg/kg. This was confirmed for ILC800 using ex- such that vertical loads are transferred purely via the con-
perimental investigation. For a dry bulk density of 800 kg/m³ crete, which means that no reinforcements are required for
this would result in an addition of 24 kg/m³. On the other compression. Therefore structural design in accordance with
hand, the EC2 specifies a design density for lightweight con- the procedure in the EC2 for nonreinforced concrete walls
crete which is 50 kg/m³ greater than its dry bulk density [20]. with off-center loading is suggested [20]. However, surface
Because this addition is conservative compared to that cal- reinforcements must always be provided and designed for
culated for the moisture content, an addition of 50 kg/m³ is the purpose of the necessary limitation of crack width. Like-
adopted for ILC. Similarly, the addition for steel reinforce- wise, the D-areas must be designed with appropriate rein-
ments of 1 kN/m³ for reinforced lightweight concrete is ad- forcements.
opted in accordance with the EC2. The values are compiled
in the following table. In the case that the calculation for nonreinforced c­ omponents
indicates insufficient load-bearing capability, the structural
When GRP reinforcement is used it is possible, staying on design can be carried out in accordance with the ­calculations
the safe side, to adopt the addition for steel reinforcement, for reinforced components. Where the load transfer is off-­
or to calculate an approximate reduction to the addition of center it may be necessary to provide evidence of the inter-
1 kN/m³ in the proportion of the respective densities (steel: action of the normal force and bending.
7.85 g/cm³; GRP: 2.2 g/cm³), assuming that the same
amount of reinforcement is required. The latter has to be Below we first of all explain the structural design for nonrein-
checked in each case, because although these two types of forced concrete walls, followed by the structural design of
reinforcement are similar in strength, they are dissimilar in D-areas, pressure from uneven distribution, and finally the
rigidity (see Chapter 7.2.2). Naturally the most precise interaction of the normal force and bending.
method is to calculate the weight of the actually used quan-
tity of reinforcements with their respective density. Nonreinforced Walls Subject to Compression

7.5.2 Longitudinal Compressive Force, In accordance with the EC2 [20], nonreinforced compres-
sion members should always be considered as slender com-
Slightly Off-Center
ponents; however, where λ ≤ 8.6 it is permitted to omit an
Wall components made of ILC are primarily exposed to ver- investigation of the deformed system. The maximum permit-
tical loading. Depending on the configuration of the load ted slenderness is λ ≤ 86 [31].
transfer and bearing, the flow of force and the structural de-
sign situation may be different. Using the simplified structural design method, the transfer-
able longitudinal force is calculated as follows:
Where loads are applied to the walls evenly and across the
entire area, the force flow is even (B-areas). In that case the NRd, λ = b · hw · filcd,pl · ϕ (29)
structural design can be for a central compressive force.
whereby
However, where the load transfer is uneven, which in prac-
tice is to be expected due to the off-center bearing of the b/hw: width / overall thickness of cross section
floor slabs or the window lintels or if the bearing is not evenly
distributed, there will be areas with concentric loads that are filcd,pl   = αilc,pl · filck / γc
referred to as static discontinuities in accordance with the
theory of framework modeling. Holes for windows, corners, αilcc,pl = 0.62; fatigue strength coefficient for nonreinforced
etc., also form geometric discontinuities. These discontinuity cross sections (see Chapter 7.1.2)
areas (D-areas) must be sized and designed appropriately.

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 7 Calculation Procedures for Structural ­D esign

ϕ = 1.14 · (1– 2 · etot / hw) –  0.02 ·  l0 / hw   (30) gation has yet to take place to establish what design values
should be adopted for the compressive strength of com-
pression struts and nodes in infra-lightweight concrete. It is
etot = e0 + ei + e2 ; etot /  h ≤ 0.4
however possible to state that the structural design of ILC
components must take into account discontinuity areas, in
(In accordance with the EC2 [20] it is generally permitted to particular those resulting from nodes and the transfer of
disregard the creep eccentricity e2. However, in view of the crossed stresses caused by the reinforcements. The theory
fact that creep is significant in ILC we propose to take e2 into of framework models is a very helpful aid in this context.
account. In accordance with the calculation in the EC2 [20]
the creep eccentricity of e2 ≥ 0 does not occur until there is Pressure from Uneven Distribution
a slenderness of λ ≥ 25.)
When a concrete component is exposed to unevenly distrib-
Discontinuity Areas (D-Areas) uted loading, the concrete below that load is subject to com-
pressive strain in the direction of the load and to cross-expan-
As mentioned above, D-areas can be the result of recesses sion. However, the latter is restricted by the surrounding
or points of concentrated load transfer. In particular, the con- concrete (confinement), which leads to a tri-axial stress con-
centrated load transfer from eccentrically supported floor dition that increases the permissible pressure from uneven
slabs, a common occurrence, must be taken into consider- distribution compared to mono-axial compressive strength.
ation. The structural design of such discontinuity areas, in- This effect is essentially influenced by the effectivity factor k of
cluding dimensions, can be made in accordance with the the confinement and the tensile strength of the concrete.
theory of framework modeling (see [78]).
For determining the permissible unevenly distributed load for
Framework models consist of concrete compression struts lightweight concretes, the EC2 suggests a reduction com-
and tension struts (reinforcements) that are joined in nodes. pared to normal concrete, which takes into account the dry
The structural integrity of tension and compression struts bulk density [20]. This allows for the lower tensile strength
and nodes must be proven separately for the ultimate limit and the lower confinement effect, which in turn depend on
state. The EC2 [20] allows for the use of framework models the stiffness of the lightweight rock particulates and there-
for lightweight concretes. However, it also prescribes a mod- fore on the dry bulk density [7].
ification because lightweight concretes generally have a
greater tendency to cracking than normal concretes [7]. To In view of the high porosity and low strength of infra-light-
allow for that, the design value for the strength of the com- weight concrete, it is assumed that, in ILC, there is only a
pression struts is reduced by the factor η1 = 0.4 + 0.6 · ρ/2,200 slight increase in the permissible unevenly distributed load.
(whereby ρ: dry bulk density); this is similar to the calculation Owing to the low bulk density, the reduction calculated in
for the shear force (see Chapter 7.5.4), which allows for accordance with the EC2 would be substantial. Given the
the greater cross tensions owing to the comparatively lower low stiffness and the consistently lightweight rock particu-
tensile strength of lightweight concrete. The same applies to lates (lightweight sand instead of natural sand), we can as-
the compressive stresses in the nodes; this reduction takes sume that the confinement effect is very small [7].
into account the increased risk of splitting as well as the re-
duced amount of pressure from uneven distribution that can In view of the fact that, to date, no experimental results are
be transferred (see below) [7]. available on unevenly distributed pressure on ILC, we pro-
pose that, compared to mono-axial compressive strength,
Generally speaking, the framework model method can also an increase in the permissible unevenly distributed load is
be used for the structural design of D-areas in ILC wall com- omitted in ILC.
ponents. This was further corroborated in initial theoretical
and experimental investigations on the use of framework
models for the design of wall-type ILC beams [94]. Investi-

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 7.5 STRUCTURAL DESIGN FOR THE ­U LTIMATE LIMIT STATE

Reinforced Components Exposed to Bending Stress 7.5.3 Components Primarily Subject to

and Normal Force Bending under Normal Force
Should the structural calculations for nonreinforced compo- With the help of Hückler’s [21] investigations on the capacity of
nents reveal that reinforcements are necessary, the struc- ILC components to resist bending it was possible to obtain in-
tural calculations can be carried out in the same way as for formation on the capacity, deformation, and ductility of the ma-
reinforced components. Often, walls support intermediate terial for the purpose of the structural design to resist bending.
floor decks eccentrically, which means that – in addition to
the main normal force – there will also be a bending mo- In accordance with the EC2, the structural design of beams
ment, which means that the interaction between the two subject to bending in the ultimate limit state only involves a
forces has to be calculated. Owing to the wall thicknesses of limitation of the elongation distribution, that is, the concrete’s
≥ 50 cm and hence the small slenderness, there is normally limit of compression and the elongation limit of the reinforce-
no risk of buckling; however, this needs to be checked in ments. As an aid for the structural design, there is for exam-
each individual case. ple the general sizing diagram or, in numeric form, sizing
tables without dimensions (ω-tables). With respect to these
It is usual to use interaction diagrams for the structural de- sizing aids, the same conditions and assumptions apply to
sign of components that are exposed to bending and normal normal concrete and lightweight concrete:
force where there is no risk of buckling. They depend on the
edge distance of the reinforcement and also on the specific The elongation curve across the cross section is linear
nn
material properties, such as the stress-strain curve / the (Bernoulli hypothesis)
elongation at fracture. The sizing is established in the crack, which means that
nn
the tensile strength of the concrete is not taken into ac-
No diagrams or experimental findings are available on the count and any occurring tensile forces are absorbed by
interaction in infra-lightweight concrete. Faust [7] provides the reinforcements
interaction diagrams for lightweight concretes for which he There is a rigid bond between the reinforcements and the
nn
uses a bilinear stress-strain curve; these diagrams vary in concrete, which means that concrete slippage can be pre-
accordance with the dry bulk density and the edge dis- cluded
tances. In view of the fact that infra-lightweight concrete has The material properties are described by idealized stress-
nn
a linear stress-strain curve and Faust does not provide dia- strain curves
grams for dry bulk densities of < 800 kg/m³, the interaction The forces are always in equilibrium.
nn
diagrams provided by Faust are not relevant for ILC and may
only be used, if at all, as rough approximations. For a struc- Generally speaking, the above method can also be used for
tural design concept in the context of individual building ILC. However, the following adaptations are necessary:
control approval, it is possible to adapt the equations on
which the diagrams are based for use with ILC (see, for Owing to the linear-elastic and brittle material property
nn
example, [87]). This should be confirmed using experimental when exposed to compression, a triangular distribution is
investigation. assumed in the bending compression zone of an ILC
beam rather than a parabola/rectangle distribution of the
The same applies to slender components with a risk of compression stresses. This means that the solidity coeffi-
buckling. According to Faust [7] the model column method cient is αR = 0.5 · εc/εilcu, the height coefficient is ka = 1/3,
can be used for lightweight concretes. In this respect, no which means that the concrete compressive force is lo-
information is available for infra-lightweight concrete. How- cated at a = 1/3 · x.
ever, designing slender ILC components exposed to normal Depending on the ILC composition as per Table 7-2, the
nn
force is not appropriate for the material, and this should utilization of the ultimate limit state of the edge elongations
therefore be avoided. for steel reinforcement is εs1 = 25 ‰, for GRP reinforce-
ment it is εfud = 7.4 ‰, and for ILC it is εc2 = εilc1.

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 7 Calculation Procedures for Structural ­D esign

This leads to the following sizing diagram for steel and GRP
reinforcements, from which the relevant inner leverage of
ζ = z/d can be deduced for the respective moment:

µEds = MEds
= αR ⋅ ξ ⋅ (1− k a ⋅ ξ) (31)
b ⋅ d2 ⋅ f ilcd

This is then used to calculate the reinforcement cross sec-

tion required as follows

(32)

For the sake of easier handling, ω-tables have been pro-

duced, which can be found in the appendix. This is then
used to determine the required reinforcement as follows

(33)

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 7.5 STRUCTURAL DESIGN FOR THE ­U LTIMATE LIMIT STATE

Elongation of reinforcements (steel)

Elongation of reinforcements (glass fiber compound)
Elongation of concrete (with steel bars)
rungswirkung kann aufgrund der geringen Steifigkeit der durchgängig leichten Gesteinskörnung (Leichtsand statt
Elongation of concrete (with glass fiber compound bars)
­Natursand) als sehr gering angenommen werden [7].
Respective inner leverage
. Respective compression
Da bislang noch keine experimentellen Ergebnisse zur Teilflächenpressung von zone height
ILC vorliegen, wird vorgeschlagen, für
Steel bars der einachsialen Druckfestigkeit zu verzichten.
ILC auf eine Erhöhung der aufnehmbaren Teilflächenlast gegenüber
Glass fiber compound bars

.
. . . . . . .

Figure 7-5 General sizing diagram for ILC beams (source: Alex Hückler [22])

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 7 Calculation Procedures for Structural ­D esign

7.5.4 Shear Force and Torsion GRP reinforcements (glass-fiber-reinforced plastic)

When doing the structural design for components with GRP
The behavior of ILC when exposed to shear force and tor- reinforcements, the rules of the general building control ap-
sion has not yet been explicitly investigated. For as long as provals must be followed. As part of the explorative test with
this information is not available, we propose to use the a balcony element of infra-lightweight concrete for the INBIG
methods proposed by Faust [7] and/or the applicable provi- project [27], the shear force resistance VlRd,c for components
sions of the EC2. not needing shear force reinforcements as per calculations
was determined in accordance with a product approval [80].
Shear Force In addition, as suggested by Faust, the formula was multiplied
by the factor η1 = 0.4 + 0.6ρ/2,200 in order to take account
Steel reinforcement of the reduced tensile strength of the lightweight concrete.
In accordance with Faust [7], the factor η1 = 0.4 + 0.6 ρ/2,200
(whereby ρ = dry bulk density) is used in shear force calcu- Shear force resistance VlRd,c of components with no need for
lations to take account of the reduced tensile strength of shear force reinforcements (GRP reinforcement; see [80]):
lightweight concrete [7]. This corresponds to the method
used in DIN 1045-1 (2008) and the EC2; an example can be
0.138 1
seen in the formula for components which, according to cal- VlRd,ct = k (100 I E f E s f ilck ) 3 b w d 1 (35)
c
culations, do not need shear force reinforcements:

Shear force resistance VlRd,c of components with no need for The experimental results of the explorative test indicate that
shear force reinforcements (steel reinforcement; see [20]): this adapted equation provides values that are close to real-
ity [27].
0.15 1
V lRd,c = 1 k (100 I f ilck ) 3 + 0.12 cp bw d
c
( 1 l,min + 0.12 cp ) bw d (34)
It follows that, for components without and with shear force
reinforcements, the provisions of the EC2 for lightweight
concrete in accordance with Chapter 11, in combination
with the National Appendix [85], can provide an approach for
the calculation of shear forces in ILC. This has been con-
firmed in tests that were carried out on ILC beams exposed
to bending as part of the determination for individual building
control approval for the Betonoase project (see Chap-
ter 10.2) at Berlin Technical University.

Figure 7-7 Explorative test of an ILC balcony slab with GRP rein-
forcements

Torsion

For torsion design, Faust describes the method in DIN 1045-1

for lightweight concrete, which includes a reduction in the
compression strength in relation to the bulk density using the
factor [7]. Analogously, the current provisions of the EC2
(Section 11.6.3 in combination with 6.3), which also use to
Figure 7-6 Beam test for individual building control approval for Bet- calculate the reduced strength, provide a first orientation for
onoase (source: Alex Hückler [22]) ILC.

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 7.6 STRUCTURAL
Structural DESIGN
Design FOR
for THE
the SERVICEABILITY
Serviceability LIMIT
Limit STATE
State

7.6 Structural Design for the would allow for a maximum crack width of 0.4 mm in accor-
dance with the EC2.
Serviceability Limit State
When ILC is used as exposed concrete, the requirements
regarding visual appearance are stricter. However, to date
7.6.1 Limitation of Stresses there are no clear guidelines as to what crack width must not
The concrete compression stresses are limited in accor- be exceeded in order to achieve the desired quality of ex-
dance with the EC2 in order to prevent longitudinal cracks, posed concrete. Instead, this will be individually specified in
micro-cracks, or excessive creep in case these compromise the tender documents of a building project.
the function of the load-bearing structure. It is permitted to
assume linear creep for concrete components exposed to Calculating the Crack Width
compressive stress (when exposed to a quasi-constant im-
pact combination) of 0.45 fck; for values above this, nonlin- The tensile stress and bending tests carried out by Hückler
ear creep must normally be taken into account. [21] using infra-lightweight concrete revealed favorable
cracking behavior featuring an even distribution of cracks
According to Faust [7] it is not necessary to modify this ap- with small crack distances and widths. The calculation
proach for lightweight concrete compared to normal con- methods suggested in the EC2 for determining the crack
crete. Experimental investigations carried out by Zareef [11] width provide realistic, if somewhat conservative, results and
with infra-lightweight concrete also allow the conclusion that can therefore be used. Generally, the width of cracks wk is
no nonlinear creep will occur at a value of 0.45 fck. In accor- calculated for all crack formation phases using the following
dance with the EC2, we therefore propose to adopt the equation:
stress limit under a quasi-constant load case combination
for ILC as follows: wk = sr,max · (εsm – εcm) (37)

σc ≤ 0.45 · filck (36) whereby

(38)
7.6.2 Limitation of Crack Width and sr,max =
ds s ds
M
­ inimum Reinforcement 3.6 i,eff 3.6 f ct,eff

Requirement (39)
s f ct,eff 0.6 s
sm cm = t (1+ s s)
Es Es i,eff Es
The crack width is limited in order to ensure compliance
with the requirements for proper function of the load-bear- for steel reinforcements; for GRP reinforcements see [80].
ing structure, for the visual appearance, and for the durabil-
ity of the structure. The EC2 provides maximum crack Both for the calculation of the crack width and the minimum
widths for reinforced concrete in relation to exposure reinforcement, reference is made to the effective area of the
classes in order to guarantee durability and an acceptable reinforcement. At this point it is important to ensure that the
visual appearance. nominal cross section values are used for ILC and that, in
the effective area of the reinforcement, its influence on the
Infra-lightweight concrete is used as an external building nominal cross section values is taken into account (see
component with direct exposure to rain and is therefore to Chapter 7.4.3),
be assigned to exposure class XC4. However, as the current
recommendation is for corrosion-resistant reinforcement,
there is no corrosion risk. Under the aspect of durability, this

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 7 Calculation Procedures for Structural ­D esign

As ;
whereby ρi,eff = —— (40) To date, very little practical experience is available regarding
Ai,eff
the formation of cracks due to restraint stress, such as that
degree of reinforcement related to the nominal effective area caused by shrinkage, in infra-lightweight concrete compo-
of the reinforcement. nents. For example, in the single-family residence in Berlin
dating from 2007 (see Chapter 9.1), GRP reinforcement
The factor βt was determined by Hückler [21] for short-term with a diameter of 8 mm was inserted crosswise at 15 cm
loading at 0.8 > βt > 0 (steel) and 0.8 (GRP): spacing to serve as surface reinforcement; this was suc-
cessful in limiting the formation of cracks [1].
Short-term loading:
In view of the fact that shrinkage in ILC tends to be more
s sr;0.95
Steel reinforcement: t = 0.8 1 (41) pronounced and that the material has less tensile strength,
fy sr;0.95 we should generally assume that the restraint stress would
GRP reinforcement: βt = 0.8 (constant) reach that of crack strain, provided the restraint can develop
its full impact. We therefore propose, for ILC, to use the
For long-term and repeated loading, we propose to adopt crack strain as basis for determining the minimum reinforce-
the reduction of the solidity coefficient by one-third (see ment, taking into account the limitation of crack width, this
7.4.4). In addition, the equation for steel reinforcement is being on the safe – albeit less commercially viable – side.
conservatively extended to 0 ≤ βt ≤ 0.5, so that the area
between the initial crack formation and the final crack image The extent to which restraint stress can build up in ILC build-
(σsr ≤ σs ≤ σsr;0.95) is covered by constant βt = 0.5. ing components depends on the respective construction
details. One cause of restraint stress arises when an ILC wall
Long-term/repeated loading: is cast on previously completed foundations. DAfStb Journal
466 [95] deals with this subject in the context of normal con-
s sr;0.95
Steel reinforcement: t = 0.5 1 ; 0 ≤ βt ≤ 0.5 (42) crete walls. According to the Journal, the buildup of restraint
fy sr;0.95
stress clearly depends on the ratio of the length l to the
whereby height h of the wall [95]. A safe approach would be, depend-
ing on the respective application of ILC in a building, to limit
σsr;0.95 = filct;0.95 · Ai,eff / As = 1.3 · filctm · Ai,eff / As the ratio of l/h as suggested in Journal 466 by including ap-
propriate expansion joints. Furthermore, in a bid to achieve
Ai,eff =  Ac,eff + (αs – 1) · As ; nominal effective area of a more commercially viable solution, it would be possible to
­reinforcement identify ILC wall areas as suggested in DAfStb Journal 466
[95] in which it is possible to reduce the minimum amount of
As: cross section area of steel reinforcement reinforcement. This should be verified by experimental inves-
tigation.
GRP reinforcement: βt = 0.5 (constant)
In view of the fact that infra-lightweight concrete walls tend
Minimum Reinforcement to be relatively thick, we would recommend that, in the case
of central restraint stress, the minimum reinforcement is de-
Minimum reinforcement is required in order to counteract termined taking into account an effective edge zone:
residual and restraint stresses, such as those caused by the
flow of hydration, heat, or shrinkage; as a rule, this should be
designed to take account of cracking strain and the require-
ments for limiting crack width. For steel-reinforced concrete
components it is permissible to reduce the minimum rein-
forcement when the strain of restraint is less than the crack-
ing strain [31].

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 7.6 STRUCTURAL
Structural DESIGN
Design FOR
for THE
the SERVICEABILITY
Serviceability LIMIT
Limit STATE
State

Central restraint stress in thicker components 7.6.3 Limitation of Deformation

(see the EC2 National Appendix [85])
Compression of Components Primarily Exposed
As,min = fct,eff · Aiø,eff / σs ≥ k · fct,eff  · Ai,ct / fyk (43) to Pressure

whereby Requirement
The requirements regarding the limitation of bending/deflec-
Ai,eff = 
Ac,eff + (αs – 1) · As ; nominal effective area of rein- tion of components subject to bending are well known in
forcement practice; the limitation of vertical deformation of wall compo-
nents is much less commonly considered in daily practice.
Ac,eff = heff · b; effective area of reinforcement (see [31]) However, in view of the fact that deformation in ILC may
reach relevant orders of size due to the low stiffness in com-
Ai,ct: nominal concrete cross section in the tension zone bination with the creep and shrinkage behavior, we are pro-
immediately prior to the formation of cracks (applies viding here a short overview of possible requirements.
to one side of the component; as a rule Act = b · h)
The EC2 states that “the deformation of a building compo-
k: factor that takes account of nonlinear stress distri- nent or load-bearing structure must not negatively impact the
bution; see [31] proper function or the appearance of the component” [20].
Limits must be determined in relation to the type of load-bear-
fct,eff: tensile strength of concrete when cracks occur ing structure, to the fit-out, etc. The EC2 does not recom-
mend any limit values for vertical wall components. ISO 4356,
In this approach to designing the minimum reinforcement on which the EC2 data on bending are based, mentions dif-
needed in the case of central restraint stress in thicker com- ferent limit values for vertical kinds of deformation, depending
ponents as well as for the purpose of limiting crack width, on the situation. For deformation in vertical components
the nominal cross section should be used for ILC. When which can lead to damage in other components, a limit value
calculating the minimum reinforcement for ILC components of height of story/100 is recommended for the bearing points
exposed to bending, the nominal concrete cross section in of floor slabs and roofs [96]. If the expected deformation is
the tension zone immediately prior to crack formation Ai,ct too great, compensatory measures must be taken.
should be taken into account.
Calculation
The critical value for calculating the crack width and the mini- For the calculation of the compression of reinforced con-
mum reinforcement is the effective tensile strength fct,eff at the crete components that are primarily exposed to pressure it
time of crack formation. For example, if restraint stress arises is assumed that concrete and reinforcement are bonded,
due to the flow of hydration heat, cracking can occur after that is, that the compression of concrete εilc and reinforce-
only three to five days. In this case, fct,eff can be assumed to ment εs is equal:
be 50 percent of the average tensile strength after 28 days
[31]. εilc = εs (44)

For infra-lightweight concrete we propose not to make such a Having said that, the distribution of the load N on concrete
reduction, but to enter the full experimentally determined av- and steel reinforcement is given by Zilch and Zehetmaier [87]
erage tensile strength after 28 days for fct,eff, in order to cover as follows:
any later restraint stress that may occur due to shrinkage.
An
This approach would also cover any restraint stress occurring Filc = ilc Eilc A n = N (45)
Ai
early due to the flow of hydration heat, but such stress should
be prevented in any case using appropriate treatment meth- As
s
ods (see also Chapter 3.2 and Chapter 8.4). Fs = s Es A s = N (46)
Ai

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 7 Calculation Procedures for Structural ­D esign

and the compression of the concrete as follows: reality for infra-lightweight concrete, we would recommend
the more precise method of calculating the deflection.
N
ilc = (47)
Eilc A i Zilch and Zehetmaier [87] propose two approaches:

whereby The calculation of the M-κm curve (effective M-κ curve),
nn
which determines the average curvatures, taking into ac-
Filc: load share, ILC count the contributing effect of the concrete (tension stiff-
ening),
Fs: load share, steel reinforcement II
II = sm M (48)
II
=
m d x
m
EI mII
εilc: elongation, ILC
and subsequently the integration for determining the de-
εs: elongation, steel reinforcement flections:
(49)
Eilc: modulus of elasticity, ILC −w'' = κ IIm

whereby
Es: modulus of elasticity, steel reinforcement
κmII: a
 verage curvature in condition II, including tension
An = Ac – As ; net cross section area, ILC stiffening

As: cross section area, steel reinforcement εsmII: average steel elongation in condition II

Ac: gross cross section area, ILC d: structurally effective height

Ai  =  Ac + (αs – 1) · As ; nominal cross section area xmII: average compression zone height in condition II

EImII: effective bending stiffness of the cracked cross

αs = Es  / Eilc section in condition II

The above refers to steel reinforcement (for the calculation of –w'': two-fold derivation of deflection w
the deformation with GRP reinforcement, see Chapter 7.7;
in this case, the reinforcement part is omitted because GRP When the M-κm relation is known, the punctual deformation
may not be relied upon for the purpose of pressure rein- can be calculated using the principle of virtual forces; for the
forcement). numeric integration, Simpson’s rule or the trapezoid rule can
be used [87].
The effects of creep and shrinkage must be taken into ac-
count (see Chapter 7.6.4). The simplified calculation, which is also included in the
nn
EC2; in this calculation, the first step is to determine the
Deflection limit values of the curvatures for the noncracked (κI) and
In accordance with the EC2, the deflection of components cracked (κII) condition; in the second step, the expected
exposed to bending can be limited using the simplified average curvatures κm are calculated via interpolation us-
method for limiting the respective slenderness or the direct ing distribution coefficients ζ:
calculation. Faust proposes an adaptation of the procedure
m= II + (1 ) I (50)
for determining the slenderness of lightweight concrete com-
ponents depending on the relation between moduli of elastic- The distribution coefficient can be calculated in a number of
ity [7]. However, in order to achieve results that are closer to ways.

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 7.6 STRUCTURAL
Structural DESIGN
Design FOR
for THE
the SERVICEABILITY
Serviceability LIMIT
Limit STATE
State

Effective M-κ relation

Pure condition II
ST beam GF beam

Figure 7-8 Effective M-κ curve for reinforced ILC components subject to bending, with steel reinforcement (ST) and
glass-fiber reinforcement (GF) [21]

Deformation model for infra-lightweight concrete (effective

M-κ curve)
In Hückler [21], the M-κm curve for determining the deforma-
tion of infra-lightweight concrete components exposed to
bending has been determined with consideration of the ten-
sile stiffening βt; this is because research has not yet been
carried out to establish whether or which distribution coeffi-
cients should be used for infra-lightweight concrete in the
context of simplified procedures. Therefore, it is preferable to
determine the M-κm curve for ILC directly and then to deter-
mine the deflection via the curvature. The figure below
shows the effective M-κ curve of ILC beams with steel rein-
forcement (ST beams) and with glass-fiber reinforcement
(GF beams) exposed to bending.

The parameters for the description of the deformation model

shown in Figure 7-8 can be found in the following tables.

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 7 Calculation Procedures for Structural ­D esign

Steel-reinforced beams (ST beams)

κs Ms
κ0 = 0 M0 = 0
Mcr,i Ii,s
cr = Mcr,i = f ctm ⋅
EIi,s zi,max,s
Mcr,i;0.95 Mcr,i Ii,s
cr;0.95 = t cr Mcr,i;0.95 = f ct;0.95 = 1.3 Mcr,i
EI II EI sII zi,max,s
s
My
y = My = fyd · As · zs
EI II
s

Mu Mcr,i
u= t cr Mu = –αR · x · b · filcd · (d – ka · x)
EI II EI II
s s
Table 7-4 Parameters for the description of the deformation model (effective M-κ curve) for ILC beams with steel reinforcement as per Hückler [21]

Glass-fiber reinforced beams

κf Mf
κ0 = 0 M0 = 0
Mcr,i Ii,f
cr = Mcr,i = f ilctm ⋅
EIi,f zi,max,f
Mcr,i;0.95 Mcr,i Ii,f
cr;0.95 = t cr Mcr,i;0.95 = f ilct;0.95 = 1.3 Mcr,i
EI f II EI f II zi,max,f

Mu Mcr,i
u= t cr Mu = –αR · x · b · filcd · (d – ka · x)
EI fII EI fII

Table 7-5 Parameters for the description of the deformation model (effective M-κ curve) for ILC beams with glass-fiber reinforcement as per
Hückler [21]

Legend: zi,max,s or zi,max,f: maximum distance of the tensile edge of

the concrete from the nominal center of gravity (in
Indices 0/ cr/ cr;0.95/ y/ u: no load / at crack formation / end a rectangular cross section with height h, for ex-
of crack formation phase (95 percent quantile) / yield point ample, zi,max,s = h/2-Δzi, see Chapter 7.4.3).
of reinforcement steel / condition at fracture
Mcr,i;0.95: moment at the end of the crack formation phase
Indices s/f: steel reinforcement/glass-fiber reinforcement (95 percent quantile)

Mcr,i: crack moment of nominal cross section filct;0.95: 95 percent quantile of the tensile strength of the
concrete (filct;0.95 = 1.3 · filctm as per the EC2)
filctm: average tensile strength of concrete
IsII or IfII: area moment of inertia of the cracked cross sec-
Ii,s or Ii,f: nominal area moment of inertia with steel rein- tion, such as for a simply reinforced rectangular
forcement/glass-fiber reinforcement (see Chap- cross section subject to bending (steel)
ter 7.4.3.)

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 7.6 STRUCTURAL
Structural DESIGN
Design FOR
for THE
the SERVICEABILITY
Serviceability LIMIT
Limit STATE
State

I sII = s A s1 zs (d x) ; (51) M 1.3 Mcr,i

Steel reinforcement: t = 0.5 1 ;
My 1.3 Mcr,i

Moment of inertia of the cracked, simply reinforced cross 0 ≤ βt ≤ 0.5 (53)

section [87]
Following the determination of the curvature via the effective
βt: solidity coefficient M-κ curve, it is possible to then calculate the deflection via a
k-value [97], depending on the structural system; for exam-
zs: inner leverage ple, for a beam on two posts with evenly distributed load via
k = 5/48, whereby
d: structurally effective height
⎛M ⎛ Mcr,i Mcr,i ⎞⎞ 2
w = k ⋅ ⎜ '' − βt ⋅ ⎜ '' − ⎟⎟ ⋅ l (54)
x: compression zone height ⎝ EI ⎝ EI EIi ⎠⎠ eff

αR = 0.5 · εc / εilcu, solidity coefficient (see Chapter 7.5.3) Additional information on the deformation model can be
found in Hückler [21].
ka = 1/3; height coefficient
The influence of creep and shrinkage on the deflection of
Contributing effect of the concrete from tension (tension infra-lightweight concrete is significant and should therefore
stiffening) via solidity coefficient βt be taken into account (see Chapter 7.6.4).
In this approach, the tension stiffening is entered via the so-
lidity coefficient βt (see Figure 7-8). Based on the experi- For the calculation of the deformation of components with
mental results for short-term loading described in Hückler GRP reinforcement, see also Chapter 7.7.
[21], this can be entered as follows:
7.6.4 Effects of Creep and Shrinkage
Short-term loading:
Creep
GRP reinforcement: βt = 0.8 (constant)
The effect of creep must be taken into account when deter-
M 1.3 Mcr,i mining deformation. In accordance with the EC2 [20] the
Steel reinforcement: t = 0.8 1 M 1.3 M (52)
y cr,i long-term effects of concrete creep are covered by a modi-
whereby Mcr,i and My are taken from Table 7-4. fication of the modulus of elasticity Eilcm using the creep co-
efficient ϕ(t,t0) (see Chapter 7.4.4). The so-called effective
For long-term and repeated loading, we propose to adopt modulus of elasticity Eeff,ilc at the time t is calculated as fol-
the reduction in the solidity coefficient by one-third (see lows:
7.4.4). In addition, the equation for steel reinforcement is Eilcm
conservatively extended to 0 ≤ βt ≤ 0.5 so that the area be- Eeff,ilc (t,t0) = ———— (55)
1 + ϕ (t,t0)
tween the first crack formation and the final crack image
(Mcr,i ≤ M ≤ Mcr,i;0.95 = 1.3 · Mcr,i) is covered by the constant The effective modulus of elasticity is used for the determina-
βt = 0.5. tion of compression in ILC wall sections/columns exposed to
pressure and for the determination of the deflection of com-
Long-term/repeated loading: ponents subject to bending.

GRP reinforcement: βt = 0.5 (constant)

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 7 Calculation Procedures for Structural ­D esign

Compression of components exposed to pressure In accordance with Zilch and Zehetmaier [87], the shortening
of a component due to shrinkage is calculated as follows,
For the calculation of the compression of components ex- taking the effective modulus of elasticity into account:
posed to pressure (total stress-induced elongation as the
sum of elastic elongation and creep elongation at the time t), Fs,s An
s,s = = ilcs (57)
the effective modulus of elasticity can be used as follows Es A s A i,eff
(see [87]):

N N whereby
c(t,t0 ) = = (56)
Eilc,eff A n + E s A s Eilc,eff A i,eff
Ai,eff = Ac + (αs,eff – 1) · As (nominal cross section area))
whereby
N: normal force An = Ac – As (net cross section area)
Ai,eff = Ac + (αs,eff –1) · As; nominal cross section area
αs,eff = Es / Eilc,eff
An = Ac – As ; net cross section area
εilcs: degree of shrinkage
αs,eff  = Es / Eilc,eff
For the calculation of the deflection due to shrinkage, it is
Eeff,ilc (t,t0) = Eilcm /(1+ j (t,t0)) possible to use the substitute normal force

Deflection Ncs = εilcs · Es · As (58)

The effective modulus of elasticity has an effect on the factor and/or the resulting moment
αs,eff and therefore, in the case of components subject to
bending, also on the compression zone height x, which in- Mcs = Ncs · zi,s (59)
creases due to creep. For the calculation of the deflection of
an ILC component subject to bending, taking into account
creep, the modified values Eeff,ilc, αs,eff and the compression whereby
zone height x can be used directly for determining the mo-
zi,s: distance of the center of gravity of the reinforcement
ment/curvature relation. from the center of gravity of the nominal cross section
directly in the moment/curvature curve.
The approach can be used analogously for GRP reinforce-
ment instead of steel reinforcement (indices f instead of s).  For the effect of shrinkage on the minimum reinforce-
ment/crack width limitation, see Chapter 7.6.2.
Shrinkage

Shrinkage causes tensile stress in the concrete, which leads

to compression stress in the reinforcement. In symmetrically
reinforced components, shrinkage only causes shortening;
in asymmetrically reinforced components, however, it also
causes a curvature. This applies to components exposed to
pressure and also to those subject to bending.

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 7.7 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS7.6
FORStructural
THE DESIGN Design
OF COMPONENTS WITH GRP REINFORCEMENT
for the Serviceability Limit State

7.7 Special Considerations for reinforcements of the selected product manufacturer must
not be used for the purpose of compression reinforcement
the Design of Components [80]. This also means that, when calculating the compres-
with GRP Reinforcement sion of a GRP-reinforced ILC wall, it is not permitted to as-
sume any vertical load transfer via the reinforcement.

For the design of the GRP reinforcement it is possible to use Owing to the lower stiffness (E = 60,000 N/mm² for tension)
the general building control approval [80] and the design compared to reinforcement steel, the likely deflection will be
concept [24] of the product used. However, the latter is only greater, particularly when combined with the lower stiffness
applicable to concretes of class C20/25 and higher. Below and increased tendency of ILC toward creep and shrinkage.
we will touch on a few points that need to be taken into ac- The procedures for calculating the deflection while taking
count when dealing with infra-lightweight concrete. In addi- account of creep and shrinkage are explained in the general
tion, the above regulations apply. building control approval of the respective GRP reinforce-
ment [80]. For ILC particularly, Hückler [21] proposes a de-
Long-term Tensile Strength and Elongation Limit formation model using the direct calculation of the M-κm
curve (see Chapter 7.6.3). Should the calculations reveal
For concretes of lower strength classes (< C20/25 and excessive deformation, suitable measures must be adopted
≥ C12/15) the general building control approval states re- to compensate for the effect, for example by increasing the
duced values for long-term tensile strength and elongation size of the component.
limit in order to limit any slippage in the case of weak bond-
ing. However, test results to date showed significantly lower Fire Protection
slippage values for ILC under maximum bonding tension
than for normal concrete [21]. We can therefore assume Given the fact that GRP reinforcement is noncorrosive, the
that, in ILC, slippage plays a lesser role and that it is there- amount of concrete cover needed is only small (see Chap-
fore not necessary to reduce the long-term tensile strength ter 7.2.3). However, where fire protection requirements have
and elongation limit in this situation. We therefore propose to to be met, special aspects need to be considered. Where a
use the elongation limit of εfud = 7.4 ‰ and the design value fire protection requirement of R90 has to be met, the general
for the long-term tensile strength of ffd = 445 MPa (6.1 ‰ building control approval states that the bond of GRP rein-
and 370 MPa for structurally undetermined load-bearing forcement with the concrete will be reduced, and it further
structures) from the general building control approval for the stipulates a concrete cover of cmin = 65 mm [80]. This value
product used for straight rods [21, 80]. was determined for normal concretes in order to guarantee
a minimum strength of bonding. For infra-lightweight con-
Ductility crete the value of cmin = 65 mm can be considered conser-
vative as the material has lower thermal conductivity, and it
In view of the fact that, owing to its lower stiffness, GRP re- can be assumed that the concrete cover could be reduced,
inforcement is subject to greater deformation in the ultimate always depending on the intended strength of bonding. This
limit state than reinforcement steel, it can be assumed that could be verified in experimental investigations as part of an
in infra-lightweight concrete too there will be some prior in- individual building control approval procedure.
dication of failure; in other words, the component will have
ductile properties. The application of fire protection requirements should be ex-
amined individually for each component and the function of
Deformation the respective reinforcement (reinforcement as a structural
requirement or in order to limit the width of cracks resulting
When doing the structural design for components with GRP from restraint).
reinforcement, the stiffness/deformation behavior must be
observed. Under the general building control approval, GRP

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 7 Calculation Procedures for Structural ­D esign

7.8 Bonding Behavior and The EC2 [20] states the following method for calculating the
design value for bonding strength:
­Concrete Cover f lctk;0.05
f bd = 2.25 1 (60)
c
Below we summarize the bonding behavior and concrete
cover requirements of infra-lightweight concrete. Further in- whereby
formation on construction details, for example relating to the
configuration of reinforcements in lightweight concretes in η1: coefficient indicating the quality of the bond;
the form of larger bending roller diameters and overlap 1.0 for good bonding conditions; 0.7 for all other condi-
lengths is given in Faust [7]. Where GRP reinforcement is tions
chosen, special provisions must be observed in accordance
with the building control approvals and technical rules [24, The results obtained by Hückler [21] indicate that a r­ eduction
80]. by the factor η1 is not required, because ILC has a p ­ orous
matrix anyway, which occurs in all parts of the component in
7.8.1 Bonding Behavior equal measure.

The bonding behavior is referred to in terms of the relation In view of the fact that it is expressly recommended not to
between bonding strength and slippage, which has been carry out internal compaction, there will not be any addi-
established for ILC with the help of pull-out tests [21]. The tional air bubbles due to internal compaction, which would
general result was that the bonding was “unyielding,” which lead to additional air bubbles beneath the reinforcement
implies favorable cracking and deformation behavior. Taking rods.
guidance from MC90/B8 [98], a dedicated bonding law was
developed for ILC that can be used for more detailed analy- Taking into account the experimentally determined average
sis. The test results using reinforcement steel and GRP rein- tensile strength filctm of ILC stated in [21] and the approach
forcement also demonstrated that the existing calculation given in the EC2 of filctk;0.05 = 0.7 · filctm [20] the following
methods for establishing the design value of the bonding formula results:
strength as stated in the EC2 result conservative values,
which means that they can be used [21]. In the context of f ilctm 0.7
f bd = 2.25 (61)
the procedure for individual building control approval for a c
building project in Berlin, bonding tests were carried out with
galvanized reinforcement steel. The bonding strengths de- The following table summarizes the resulting values for the
termined in the tests allow the conclusion that galvanizing ILC family.
has no relevant impact on bonding strength and that the
design values given in the EC2 are on the safe side [99].

ILC600 ILC650 ILC700 ILC750 ILC800

filctm [MPa] 0.65 0.71 0.76 0.82 0.87

filcbd [MPa] 0.68 0.75 0.80 0.86 0.91

Table 7-6 Design values for bonding strength in ILC

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 7.8 BONDING BEHAVIOR AND ­C ONCRETE COVER

7.8.2 Minimum Reinforcement

As a rule, minimum reinforcements are inserted to absorb
restraint stresses otherwise unaccounted for and to provide
a means of early indication of failure, and are defined in the
standard in relation to the type of component and load.

The minimum reinforcement in walls and columns is mainly

inserted in order to absorb unplanned bending moments
and to minimize time-dependent deformation. In accordance
with Faust the information given in the standard relates to
construction details and is therefore equally applicable to
normal and lightweight concretes [7]. We therefore suggest
that the information be also adopted for infra-lightweight
concrete.

Robustness reinforcement in components subject to bend-

ing is inserted in order to ensure that the cracking moment
can be absorbed. This should also be provided for ILC com-
ponents, using the experimentally determined value for aver-
age tensile strength.

It is not possible to use the minimum shear force reinforce-

ment degree to determine a value for infra-lightweight con-
crete, because the behavior of ILC exposed to shear force
has not yet been researched (see Chapter 7.5.4).

The minimum reinforcement required for the limitation of

crack widths is described in Chapter 7.6.2.

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Infralight.indb 144 14.01.20 11:03
 8 Practical Construction Aspects

8.1 Suitable Formwork

8.2 Surface Design
8.3 Production and Building with ILC
8.4 Stripping Times and After-Treatment
8.5 Surface Protection – Water-Repellent Coating
8.6 Concrete Cosmetics and After-Treatment

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 8 Practical Construction Aspects

8.1 Suitable Formwork Conclusion

Where the surface of an infra-lightweight concrete compo-

The properties of formwork have a significant impact on the nent is intended to have few pores, the use of shuttering
result of exposed concrete quality. In practice, wood-based panels with a degree of suction is recommended (alterna-
shuttering panels are frequently used, in particular for in situ tively it is also possible to use fleece; see Chapter 8.2). The
concrete construction. Many different products are available tests carried out with ILC800 produced satisfactory results.
that differ in strength, quality, and coating, etc. One property
that has a significant impact on the appearance of exposed
concrete is the suction behavior of the shuttering material. 8.2 Surface Design
As a rule, shuttering with open-pored surfaces (allowing suc-
tion) results in darker, slightly rough surfaces that have few This chapter contains a systematic listing of the different sur-
pores and air voids. By contrast, shuttering without suction face design options for infra-lightweight concrete. The mea-
results in smooth, lighter surfaces. sures taken into consideration are the use of matrix form-
work, textured shuttering surfaces achieved with a range of
In order to identify suitable shuttering material for infra-light- materials, and the use of pigment additives. Options for after-­
weight concrete, various shuttering panels have been tested treatment of completed surfaces, such as sanding, oiling,
with different coatings and suction behaviors [100]. The re- waxing, etc., are dealt with in the following chapter.
lease agent used was a partially synthetic universal release
agent that does not mix with water and does not contain Some Basic Aspects of Infra-Lightweight Concrete
solvents [101]. The results were in line with expectations: for Surfaces
example, a plywood panel consisting of birch wood with a
special film coating on one side allowing slight suction re- As in normal concrete mixtures, the outer exposed surface
sulted in a slightly rough surface with few pores and air of infra-lightweight concrete is formed from the fine cement
voids. On the other hand, a plywood panel consisting of matrix. The surface qualities resulting from the use of a wide
birch wood with phenolic resin film coating on both sides range of shuttering materials were tested as secondary re-
allowing no suction resulted in a smooth surface with an sults in the context of several research projects and student
even distribution of pores (see Figure 8-1). works. The result of these investigations allows the conclusion

Figure 8-1 Examples of ILC800 surfaces achieved using shuttering with special film coating with no suction (left) and with birch plywood panel
shuttering allowing slight suction (right) [27]

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 8.2 SURFACE DESIGN

Figure 8-2 Infra-lightweight concrete prototypes and surfaces; left: ILC800, right: ILC600

that – provided the correct ILC formulation for higher bulk Using Nonsuction Concrete Matrix Formwork
densities is used – similar surface designs are possible to Made of Plastic
those achieved with normal concrete. The popular formula-
tions of about 800 kg/m³ allow the widest design range, be- The use of nonsuction matrix formwork made of plastic de-
cause the surfaces tend to be more uniform and have fewer livered a very convincing result in terms of surface quality.
pores. The very lightweight concrete formulations below ap- This formwork was tested in a dedicated series of studies on
proximately 700 kg/m³ in particular are highly porous and the subject of surface quality of infra-lightweight concrete
therefore tend to result in more irregular-looking surfaces, using several uniform test specimens measuring 50 cm ×
which may require more extensive after-treatment. The proto- 50 cm × 10 cm.
types of a wall component with window shown in Figure 8-2
were produced with different concrete formulations. The for- In infra-lightweight concrete too, the surfaces of smooth tex-
mulation with 800 kg/m³ results in a contiguous exposed con- tures (ribs, waves, and studs) remain smooth, closed, and
crete surface (in this case the visible lines are the result of the almost free from faults. Shuttering patterns with more pro-
small concrete batches being poured), whereas the formula- nounced profiles also showed convincing results, which is
tion with 600 kg/m³ resulted in a very uneven surface, even partly due to the self-compacting property of the ILC. Very
though the shuttering had been optimized for ­infra-lightweight sophisticated reliefs (timber imitation or photoengraving)
concrete, that is, it had a high-suction surface. showed small concentrations of pores in areas with pro-
nounced patterns.
These results can be transferred directly to the surfaces of
textured formwork patterns; here too the more lightweight
concrete formulations result in similar effects.

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 8 Practical Construction Aspects

Figure 8-3 ILC component with ribbed surface

Figure 8-4 ILC component with wood-plank-textured surface achieved with plastic matrix formwork

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 8.2 Surface
SURFACE Design
DESIGN

Figure 8-5 ILC component with photoengraved surface

The strength of infra-lightweight concrete is less than that of If insufficient separating oil is applied to the geometrically
common normal concrete of lightweight concrete formula- uneven high-suction surfaces, too much water is taken out
tions. Shapable, flexible formwork suits the material well, of the concrete during the curing process; this means that
particularly when the shuttering geometry is complex, be- the surface becomes too soft and bits of concrete remain
cause the risk of breakage and spalling at the more sensitive attached to the formwork. However, if too much separating
edges is reduced. We can therefore state that special matrix oil is applied, the concrete surface will be discolored un-
formwork consisting of flexible materials is particularly suit- evenly. When using natural wood it is therefore recom-
able for infra-lightweight concrete. mended to test the correct application of separating oil for
the respective surface using prototypes.
Use of High-Suction Formwork – Wood, Fabric, and
Organic Materials With building materials that have very irregular and heavily
patterned surfaces, such as OSB, it is common for parts of
When using natural formwork materials such as wooden the concrete to remain attached to the shuttering boards,
boards, chipboard, or OSB (oriented strand board), it is im- particularly in places where the concrete runs behind the
portant to use separating oil in the precise formula for the shuttering material.
respective material and to observe the correct point in time
for stripping the formwork. Generally it can be said that,
­similar to shuttering panels commonly available in the mar-
ket, here too the high-suction surfaces result in the reduction
of air pores and velvety but smooth surfaces (see also
­Chapter 8.1).

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 8 Practical Construction Aspects

Figure 8-6 ILC component with wooden board surface texture

Figure 8-7 ILC component with OSB surface texture

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 8.2 SURFACE
Surface DESIGN
Design

Figure 8-8 ILC component with surface pattern from leaves inserted in the formwork

Insertion of Leaves, Ornaments, and Profiles Use of Shaped Formwork

Infra-lightweight concrete is well suited to the insertion of The use of extruded or expanded polystyrene foam was also
­objects such as ornaments, profile shapes, or other noncon- investigated with individual prototypes. Initial tests quickly led
crete organic elements such as leaves. The fine leaf struc- to the conclusion that, due to the rough and open-pored sur-
tures leave a clear impression in the concrete surface, face texture, untreated surfaces shaped by routing lead to
although occasionally organic residues will remain and dis- problems when separating the formwork from the concrete.
coloration may occur. This could not be prevented even with the application of con-
siderable quantities of separating oil. The use of polystyrene
Shuttering Fleece formwork only worked satisfactorily when the surface was
coated with an epoxy resin lacquer prior to concreting. In
Special shuttering fleeces can be used to great effect. Once order to achieve an adequate thickness of coating, several
the concrete has cured, the fleece material can be removed layers have to be applied and then sanded.
almost without any residue. The concrete does not have any
visible air inclusions and has a contiguous surface texture,
which shows the pattern of the fleece fabric. The surface is
slightly rough and uneven and therefore has a somewhat
soft, textile-like appearance.

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 8 Practical Construction Aspects

Figure 8-9 ILC component with fleece surface pattern

Figure 8-11 A polystyrene formwork element being sanded

This “special treatment” is normally not suitable for commer-

cially viable production as it consumes a large amount of
material, the formwork elements are extremely delicate, and
Figure 8-10 Prototype produced using polystyrene formwork the work of sanding, the after-treatment, and the drying pro-
cess are extremely time-consuming.

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 8.2 SURFACE
Surface DESIGN
Design

Furthermore, using large amounts of polystyrene in the pro-

duction of an ILC component, which is intended as an alter-
native to insulating materials containing polystyrene, is a
highly questionable approach given that the polystyrene has
to be discarded as waste material.

Colored Infra-Lightweight Concrete – Pigments,

Color Additives

As well as producing different surface effects in terms of geo-

metric texturing, it is also possible to change the appearance
of concrete surfaces with color additives. The effect of color-
ing the concrete was tested by adding commonly available
pigments. Commercially available pigments in the colors red,
black, and green were used for the stepwise coloring of infra-­
lightweight concrete test specimens (slabs of 50 cm × 50 cm
× 10 cm and test specimens of 10 cm × 10 cm × 10 cm). For
coloring the infra-lightweight concrete components in shades
of red and green it is sufficient to add 5 or 6 volume percent of Figure 8-13 ILC prototype with red coloring (photo: Minh Duc Pahm)
pigment to the cement in order to achieve an esthetically
pleasing degree of coloration.

Figure 8-12 Pigments used for producing colored ILC

(photo: Minh Duc Pahm)

Only the black pigment did not achieve an adequate color

intensity when 5 volume percent of pigment of the cement
Figure 8-14 ILC prototype with black coloring (photo: Minh Duc Pahm)
content was added to the formulation. In order to achieve
satisfactory results, it would be necessary to significantly in-
crease the amount of pigment added.

The examples show that, in spite of the materials infra-light-

weight concrete contains, such as silica fume, expanded clay,
and expanded clay sand, it lends itself well to coloring and, in
the spectrum from red to green, produces convincing results.

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 8 Practical Construction Aspects

8.3 Production and Building Building with ILC

with ILC When using infra-lightweight concrete in situ, it is poured

into the formwork using buckets. ILC is not suitable for
Production pumping because firstly, the water is pressed into the light-
weight rock particulate, which increases the bulk density
Like common normal and lightweight concrete, the produc- and may lead to a stiffening of the consistency and, in turn,
tion of infra-lightweight concrete is not restricted to certain to clogging. Secondly, air is driven out of the slurry, which
constituent materials or a certain composition. The produc- also increases the bulk density.
tion of ILC should therefore be specified to suit the respec-
tive concrete works, both in terms of source materials and Infra-lightweight concrete in the composition listed in Ta-
the concrete composition and mixing regime. ble 3-2 is virtually self-compacting. This means that ILC is
self-leveling and that spaces, such as those between the
For the purpose of controlling the quality of the concrete in a reinforcement and the formwork, are filled; however, in con-
specific project, it is recommended to initially request that trast to common self-compacting concretes, it will not de-air
the concrete supplier produce sample mixtures in a labora- itself. This would be counterproductive since the increased
tory so that the composition can be determined such that air void content is wanted for its thermal insulation property.
the fresh and cured concrete properties defined in the spec- Consequently, classic compaction using immersion vibra-
ification can be achieved. The specified properties of fresh tors is not required and should not be carried out, since this
concrete are also used for the purpose of quality assurance would drive the air from the slurry, which would result in ex-
during the building process. cessive bulk density and could even lead to de-mixing. In
certain cases it may be helpful to carry out compacting (for
In the mixing process, special attention must be paid to the example, external vibration, poking in the corners) for optical
lightweight rock particulate. Owing to its porosity, it is possi- reasons, for example in order to avoid surface marks in the
ble that it withdraws water from the cement slurry during concrete.
mixing and up to the point of solidification. For this reason,
the moisture content of the lightweight rock particulate and Drop Height
the resulting suction behavior have a significant impact on
the fresh and cured concrete properties (see also [4]). In order to test the effects of different drop heights on the
Therefore, the moisture content of the rock particulate properties of infra-lightweight concrete, tests were carried
should be determined before embarking on the mixing pro- out in which the concrete was poured from buckets from
cess. Based on this data, the proportion of suction water is different heights (approximately 60 cm, 100 cm, and 150 cm)
determined and preferably added in the first step. The sub- [100]. In these tests the ILC did not show any signs of
sequent mixing process at the factory produces a mixture, de-mixing at any of the drop heights. It was not possible to
which initially is somewhat too liquid; however, owing to con- arrive at a final conclusion as to whether the material com-
tinuous suction of the rock particulate taking place during pacted when dropped from a height of approximately
transport, the desired consistency is finally achieved. 1.50 m. In any case, it is advisable to limit the drop height,
also with a view to obtaining the desired exposed concrete
In any case, we would recommend that the building contrac- quality (for example, as per Guide Sheet for Exposed Con-
tor be asked to construct a sample wall so that the produc- crete, maximum of 1 m [102]).
tion, construction, shuttering, and exposed concrete quality
can be checked and optimized beforehand. Avoiding Surface Marks

Usually, self-compacting concretes are poured continually

using pumps, in which case – ideally – the end of the hose
is constantly immersed in the fresh concrete during pumping

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 8.4 8.2 ­A FTER-TREATMENT
STRIPPING TIMES AND Surface Design

(tremie method). When concrete is not poured continually it may lead to a negative effect on the coloring of the exposed
is possible for a skin to form on the surface of each batch, a concrete. For a specific project, the stripping time should be
tough continuous layer of cement slurry. This prevents the determined for that project and tested using a test wall.
mixing of different batches, which can later show on the sur-
face of the component as a surface mark [103]. Regulations for the after-treatment of concrete are contained
in DIN EN 13670 [104] and DIN 1045-3 [105]. The time pe-
Infra-lightweight concrete as per Table 3-2 is a virtually riods for the after-treatment stated in these standards de-
self-compacting concrete which, however, is not pumped pend on the curing strength of the concrete and the ambient
but poured using buckets. This means that a certain discon- temperature, among other factors. As a general rule, in-
tinuity may occur and hence also the formation of a skin on fra-lightweight concrete should not be poured when the
the batches. In order to avoid surface marks in the concrete, temperature is too low in order to ensure that no frost dam-
a range of measures was tested with ILC800. In addition to age occurs and that it cures to its required strength. In devi-
manual methods involving poking or the use of an immersion ation from DIN 1045-3 and supplementary to DIN EN 13670,
vibrator in certain places, an external vibrator was also used. a minimum air temperature of, for example, 5 °C should
This achieved good results, the feared de-mixing did not therefore be specified for pouring the concrete, depending
­occur. Irrespective of the measures selected, it is recom- on the respective project conditions.
mended to keep the interval between batches as short as
possible in order to limit the formation of skin on the con- The time before any after-treatment is applied to ILC should
crete. Another possibility for preventing surface marks is the be longer than that specified for normal concrete in the
use of high-suction formwork or of shuttering fleeces. In the above standards. When the test specimens were produced,
case of a specific building project, the exact procedure an after-treatment applied within about seven days after
should be tested and determined by constructing a sample stripping the formwork produced satisfactory results.
wall beforehand. Other methods may be considered in this
process, such as the tremie method for example. The method of after-treatment and its timescale should be
selected taking into account the exposed concrete quality to
be achieved and the respective project conditions, and
8.4 Stripping Times and should therefore be determined individually for each building
­After-Treatment project. In any case, the concrete must be protected from
damaging environmental factors and premature drying must
The optimum stripping time is determined by various factors. be prevented. Rapid cooling of the surface must be avoided,
In addition to commercial aspects, early curing strength, af- for example by covering freshly poured concrete with mate-
ter-treatment effects, weather conditions, the effect of pig- rial of adequate thermal insulation. Furthermore, it is import-
mentation, etc., need to be considered. ant to protect the edges adequately.

Even though a stripping time of one to two days may be Conclusion

technically possible when considering the early curing
strength of infra-lightweight concrete in relation to its bulk The stripping time, timing of after-treatment, and methods of
density and type of formwork (and has been carried out after-treatment should be decided individually for each build-
when using smaller test specimens), the stripping time for ing project and should be tested using a test wall. When
larger components and in situ buildings should be longer. producing test specimens under laboratory conditions, good
Longer stripping times generally provide a good opportunity results were achieved with stripping times of between four
for after-treatment, reduce the risk of cement slurry remain- and six days and with after-treatment taking place after
ing attached to the formwork, and have a positive effect on about seven days.
the shrinkage behavior of the concrete. Under laboratory
conditions, good results were achieved with stripping times
of between four and six days. In certain cases, longer times

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 8 Practical Construction Aspects

8.5 Surface Protection – An alternative to the surface treatment is to make the con-
crete water-repellent using an additive. In this process, the
­Water-Repellent Coating water-repellent additive is added to the concrete during the
mixing process. Experience with infra-lightweight concrete
As already mentioned in the previous chapters, ILC surfaces has been gained from the experimental building Small House
exposed to the weather should be protected against the I, in Kaiserslautern (see Chapter 9.4 and [14]). However,
penetration of moisture. owing to the thickness of the ILC walls, considerable quan-
tities of the additive are used even though the water-repel-
The reasons for this are that an increase in thermal conduc- lent effect is only needed in the surface exposed to the
tivity and in frost-thawing resistance should be avoided weather.
(see Chapter 6.3.2). The treatment also prevents any
damage due to repeated penetration and discharge of water Any ILC surfaces that are in contact with the ground must
via surface shrinkage cracks. The investigation of surfaces also be protected against the penetration of moisture. The
with water-repellent coating also revealed positive effects treatment recommended for this is the application of a bitu-
regarding carbonation (see Chapter 7.2.1). men-based coating (see also Chapter 5.5).

Surfaces should be protected against moisture by means of

the design/construction (roof overhangs, drip edges, etc.) as
well as by means of added technical measures, such as wa- 8.6 Concrete Cosmetics and
ter-repellent coating.
After-Treatment
Water-repellent coating refers to subsequent treatment of In this chapter we will touch on various methods of carrying
the concrete, which according to DIN EN 1504-2 [106] re- out cosmetic work to concrete, including finishing processes
sults in a water-repellent surface while causing no or only and treatments. Whereas cosmetic work refers to the repair
little change to the appearance. Pores and capillaries are not of blemishes, the closing of tie holes, etc., finishing pro-
filled, but only lined. Common water-repellent agents are of- cesses involve structural changes to the surface using me-
ten based on silanes or siloxanes. Depending on the depth chanical methods such as sanding or polishing. Finishing
of penetration, the name of the product may include the treatment is applied for the protection of the surface, for ex-
word deep. Water-repellent treatments have to be renewed ample by way of water-repellent coating (see Chapter 8.5),
at regular intervals. The length of these intervals depends on impregnation, or other types of coating (including oiling,
the respective situation in each project and on any exposure waxing, or painting), whereby the diffusiveness of the con-
faced by the surface, the structure of the concrete, and the crete must be maintained [106].
properties of the selected product, among others.
Below we explain some of the methods that have been
A silane-based water-repellent treatment of infra-lightweight tested on infra-lightweight concrete surfaces. In accordance
concrete has been used at the single-family residence in with the different objectives, these methods were assigned
Berlin and has proved successful. Furthermore, experimen- to two groups. On the one hand, there was the classic cos-
tal investigations were carried out [77] in which ILC800 sur- metic treatment of exposed concrete surfaces using com-
faces with and without water-repellent treatment were mercially available fillers and concrete cones for closing tie
sprayed daily with water for a period of five months. The holes and, on the other hand, the finishing work and treat-
surfaces with the water-repellent treatment had significantly ment with the aim of achieving certain aesthetic objectives;
fewer surface shrinkage cracks, and the treatment also had the methods involved here were sanding, oiling, waxing,
a positive effect on the speed of carbonation (see Chap- painting, etc.
ter 7.2.1).

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 8.6 CONCRETE COSMETICS
6.3 Stripping Times AND
and AFTER-TREATMENT
­A fter-Treatment

Classic Concrete Cosmetics, Tie Holes, Such a filler should also be used for closing tie holes, al-
Concrete Pockets, etc. though the use of prefabricated concrete or plastic cones is
unavoidable in order to avoid shrinkage cracks.
As is the case with normal concrete surfaces, the surfaces
of exposed infra-lightweight concrete may also have to be Finishing Work and Treatment of Surfaces: Sanding,
improved using cosmetic processes. In addition to surface Oiling, and Waxing
damage resulting from wrongly inserted spacers or break-
age and spalling – which should and could really be pre- In addition to correcting blemishes in exposed concrete sur-
vented – the surfaces will have some unavoidable blemishes faces, it is also possible to apply finishing work to the sur-
caused by tie holes. This problem can be solved with numer- face of walls of infra-lightweight concrete in order to achieve
ous commercially available solutions. a certain appearance of the inside walls.

One classic method is the insertion of prefabricated plugs, The following finishing processes were tested:
or cones, that fill the tie holes. Different types of cone are
available for this purpose, but it is also possible to use com- Sanding the surface, which exposes the inner structure
nn
mercially available fillers. Painting the exposed surface with transparent lacquer as
nn
a subsequent sealing coating
The commercially available fillers for the finishing of concrete Oiling the exposed surface with rock oil or linseed oil
nn
surfaces were primarily developed for normal concrete mix- Waxing the exposed surface with hard wax or melted wax
nn
tures; they should therefore be adapted to infra-lightweight
concrete and also checked/adapted to ensure that the color Sanding Concrete Surfaces
matches that of the concrete. In view of the fact that the
color of infra-lightweight concrete is not quite the same as In order to expose the inner structure of the infra-lightweight
that of classic exposed concrete, the standard fillers mar- concrete it is necessary to remove the outer cement layer,
keted by manufacturers tend to deviate slightly in color, which is approximately 2 to 3 mm thick. Sanding can be car-
which would lead to an unsatisfactory result. When using ried out with relatively simple tools, such as orbital sanders.
filler for infra-lightweight concrete surfaces, the best results For the first pass, a relatively coarse grit of about P 40 is
are achieved with fillers that roughly have the same material recommended (as per DIN ISO 6344 [107]). For the final
composition as that of the infra-lightweight concrete. In par- pass a grit of P 240 is recommended, which leaves the
ticular, it is important to use the sand consisting of ground roughened surface relatively smooth and even. Any scored
expanded clay pellets, sieved to a grain diameter of 1 mm for expanded clay pellets are naturally cut open in the finishing
infra-lightweight concrete. As an option it is possible to re- process, and the inner structure can be seen.
place cement with a special filler compound in order to im-
prove the workability of the filler material. This means that this method is not at all suitable for openly
exposed external surfaces, because it would increase the
water absorption of the concrete.

Figure 8-15 Prefabricated concrete cones for tie hole

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 6 Practical Construction Aspects

Sanding and Painting

If it is intended to add an extra seal to the exposed in-

fra-lightweight concrete surface, several options are avail-
able. The first principle would be to choose a sealing method
that does not negatively affect the diffusiveness of the sur-
face. A suitable option is water-based parquet sealer, which
is normally used for flooring. This was applied by brush in
two thin coats. The sealer retains the natural wall structure.
However, the surface feels significantly smoother because
the open pores are partially closed. In addition, the surface
is given a silk-matt sheen.

Figure 8-16 Exposing the inner structure of ILC by sanding

Figure 8-17 Sealer is applied to the exposed inner structure using a water-based product

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 8.6 Concrete Cosmetics and After-Treatment

Sanding and Oiling Sanding and Waxing

A different effect was achieved in the tests in which the ex- As with the treatment with linseed oil, it is possible that
posed surface was treated with different kinds of oil. The oil changes in color occur when applying wax treatment; it
was applied by brush in two coats. It was observed that the causes the surface of the infra-lightweight concrete to turn
oils (here rock oil and linseed oil) caused pigments to be black. In this case, the hard wax used was applied in one
­released from the expanded clay additives. The surfaces be- coat using a cloth. The visual effect on the surface was sim-
came stained a deep black. This effect was observed in par- ilar to that after sanding. That said, the tests showed that
ticular with linseed oil. Besides the above, the surfaces have some of the wax penetrates the pores of the aggregates and
an agreeably velvety feel. forms unsightly pockets. This method would definitely ben-
efit from further testing.

Figure 8-18 Sealer applied to the exposed inner structure using linseed oil; the distinct change of color of the material is evident

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Infralight.indb 160 14.01.20 11:04
 9 Selected Buildings

9.1 Single-Family House in Infra-Lightweight Concrete, Berlin

9.2 Betonoase, Berlin
9.3 Single-Family House, Aiterbach
9.4 Small House I, Kaiserslautern Technical University

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 9 Selected Buildings

9.1 Single-Family House in Infra-Lightweight Concrete, Berlin

Architecture: C. Bonnen, A. Schlaich, Berlin
Structural design: M. Schlaich, L. Werner, Berlin

Figure 9-1 Single-family house in Berlin, garden facade (photo: Wilfried Dechau)

Key material parameters of the outside walls in monolithic The concrete used here has a dry bulk density of less than
infra-lightweight concrete: 800 kg/m³ for a wall thickness of 50 cm.

nnDry bulk density: 760 kg/m³ The building consists of two opposite load-bearing slabs in
nnAverage compressive strength: 7 MPa monolithic infra-lightweight concrete, which support the nor-
nnThermal conductivity λ10°,tr: 0.18 W/m · K mal concrete floor slabs. Both the outside and inside of the
nnExternal walls: 50 cm walls are finished in exposed concrete from floor to ceiling.
nnGlass-fiber reinforcement Connection details were deliberately kept straightforward, in
line with the logic of solid construction.
Infra-lightweight concrete was used for the first time in a
practical application in the construction of a private sin- The project demonstrates the great potential for the use of
gle-family house in Berlin. In the course of this project, initial this material when building with exposed concrete.
construction details such as the joint between the normal
concrete floor slabs and the infra-lightweight concrete walls
were developed and tested with a view to their application in
practice.

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 9.1 SINGLE-FAMILY
6.3HOUSE
Concrete
IN INFRA-LIGHTWEIGHT
Cosmetics and CONCRETE,
After-Treatment
BERLIN

Roof construction:
– Extensive roof greening
Single-layer system, 8 cm
– Roof damp-proofing:
root-resistant, min. 2.5 % fall
– Thermal insulation slabs
with fall: min. 2.5 %
– Vapor barrier
– Bitumen primer
– Reinforced concrete slab,
25 cm
– Ceiling plaster (optional),
10 mm, with shadow joint
along edges

Floor slab connection:

tenon in bearing
pockets, thermally
insulated

West wall

Garden External wall

construction:
lightweight concrete,
50 cm thick, exposed
quality inside and out

Floor construction:
Total height: 125 mm Lounge
Figure 9-2 Single-family house in Berlin, interior – Asphalt screed
(photo: Wilfried Dechau) – Underfloor heating
– Thermal / impact sound
insulation, heat-resistant
– PE membrane, 2 mm
– Reinforced concrete slab, above MSL

22 mm
– Thermal insulation board,
Floor above cellar:
5 cm semi-prefabricated
elements (e.g., Filigran)
Cellar floor and walls:
waterproof concrete
level at site boundary
above MSL Construction of cellar
walls:
West wall
– Lightweight concrete
external wall, 20 cm
to –2.245 from FFL
– Core insulation, 5 cm
– Waterproofing
– Waterproof concrete,
25 cm
Figure 9-4 Single-family
house in Berlin, section
through facade (source:
Figure 9-3 Single-family house in Berlin, first-floor plan C. Bonnen architect,
(source: C. Bonnen architect, schlaich bergermann partner) schlaich bergermann ­partner)

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 9 Selected Buildings

9.2 Betonoase, Berlin

Architecture: Gruber + Popp Architects, Berlin
Structural design: schlaich bergermann partner sbp GmbH, Berlin

Figure 9-5 Youth center in Berlin (photo: Alexander Blumhoff, Berlin)

Figure 9-6 Youth center in Berlin, cross section (source: Gruber + Popp Architects)

Key material parameters of the outside walls in monolithic years. In order to do justice to the complexity of the brief, the
infra-lightweight concrete: architects produced an understated design in terms of ap-
pearance and construction, which nevertheless has its in-
nnDry bulk density: 700 kg/m³ herent quality. The load-bearing single-story walls consist of
nnAverage compressive strength: 9.4 MPa monolithic infra-lightweight concrete. A special feature is the
nnThermal conductivity λ10°,tr: 0.166 W/m · K projecting concrete canopies, which are back-anchored to
nnExternal walls: 50 cm the concrete walls without additional decoupling details.
nnGalvanized steel reinforcements
In accordance with the client’s wishes, the new building is
The new leisure center for young people, Betonoase, was intended to exemplify the basic idea of sustainable building
constructed in Berlin Lichtenberg in 2017. The target group with optimized energy conservation.
for the venue are children and youths from eight to eighteen

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 9.2 BETONOASE, BERLIN

Roof construction:
– Extensive roof greening
– Vegetation layer, 7 cm
– Drainage layer, 3 cm
– Bitumen roofing membrane, DIN EN 13707
(V13), 2 mm
– Extruded polystyrene 025
– Bitumen roofing membrane, DIN EN 13707
(V13), 2 mm
– Concrete C 30 / 37, 32 cm, reinforcement
content: approx. 125 kg/m³

Floor construction:
– Asphalt screed in 2 layers, ground,
7 cm
– Mineral insulation (heat-resistant),
15 cm, PP membrane, ≥ 0.05 mm
– Floor slab, nonreinforced ­concrete
C16/20, 20 cm
– Extruded polystyrene 035, 20 cm
– Layer of gravel, 5 cm

Strip foundations:
– Concrete C16/20, 80 × 45 cm,
nonreinforced, normal compaction
of base of trench
– Extruded polystyrene 035, 5 cm

+–0.00 = 36.65 above MSL (prev. 36.75)

–0.39

–1.05

Figure 9-7 Youth center in Berlin, section through facade (source: Gruber + Popp Architects)

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 9 Selected Buildings

9.3 Single-Family House, Aiterbach

Architecture: Michael Thalmair, KPT Architects, Freising
Structural design: BauFrei Tragwerksplanung GbR, Marc Tremel, Munich

Figure 9-8 Single-family house in Aiterbach, view from the road (source: B. Callsen; K.-C. Thienel [13]; photo: Matthias Richter – Formkoalition)

Key material parameters of the outside walls in monolithic The house in Aiterbach, which was completed in 2016, ap-
infra-lightweight concrete: peals with the systematic application of exposed infra-light-
weight concrete. The basement in normal concrete and ex-
nnDry bulk density: 725 kg/m³ ternal insulation supports the far-projecting living part with a
nnAverage compressive strength: 12.2 MPa load-bearing monolithic external envelope in infra-lightweight
nnThermal conductivity λ10°,tr: 0.185 W/m · K concrete.
nnExternal walls: 50 cm
The concrete used here has a dry bulk density of 725 kg/m³
for a wall thickness of 50 cm. Both the outside and inside of
the walls are finished in exposed concrete from floor to ceil-
ing. The interior design is dominated by the interplay of nat-
ural wood surfaces and exposed concrete.

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 9.3 SINGLE-FAMILY
9.2 Betonoase,
HOUSE, AITERBACH
Berlin

Figure 9-9 Single-family house in Aiterbach, garden view (source: B. Callsen; K.-C. Thienel [13]; photo: Matthias Richter – Formkoalition)

Figure 9-10 Single-family house in Aiterbach, interior (photo: Matthias Richter – Formkoalition)

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 9 Selected Buildings

9.4 Small House I, Kaiserslautern Technical University

Faculty of Architecture: Department of Building Construction II and Design
Prof. Helmut Kleine-Kraneburg (project management)
Department of Civil Engineering: Chair of Solid Building Construction
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jürgen Schnell (project management)
Department of Building Materials: Prof. Dr.-Ing. Wolfgang Breit (project management)
Design: Sarah Dichter, Department of Building Construction II and Design

Figure 9-11 Small House I, exterior (source: Faculty of Architecture and Department of Civil Engineering at Kaiserslautern Technical University)

Key material parameters of the outside walls in monolithic Small House I is a project created in 2014 by different de-
infra-lightweight concrete: partments of the Faculties of Architecture and Civil Engineer-
ing of Kaiserslautern Technical University. The design of
nnDry bulk density: 650–700 kg/m³ Small House I is based on a student assignment for an im-
nnAverage compressive strength: 9.0 MPa promptu design. The introverted interior is surrounded by
nnThermal conductivity λ10°,tr: 0.15 W/m · K exposed concrete walls and lit from a fenestration band
nnExternal walls: 50 cm above.
nnGalvanized steel reinforcements
The building was erected as an experiment. For the purpose
of comparison, one of the four walls was built with core in-
sulation. The moisture penetration of the walls is measured
using multiring sensor electrodes near the edge and at the
core of the wall.

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 9.4 SMALL HOUSE I, KAISERSLAUTERN
6.3 Single-Family
TECHNICAL
House, UNIVERSITY
Aiterbach

Figure 9-13 Small House I, multiring sensor electrodes (MRSE) for

building monitoring (source: Faculty of Architecture and Department of
Civil Engineering at Kaiserslautern Technical University)

Figure 9-12 Small House I, clerestory fenestration (source: Faculty

of Architecture and Department of Civil Engineering, Kaiserslautern
Technical University)

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Infralight.indb 170 14.01.20 11:05
 10 Appendix

10.1 Calculation of Design Values – Examples

10.2 ω-tables with Design Values
10.3 Editors and Authors
10.4 Literature
10.5 Index of Figures
10.6 Index of Tables
10.7 Index of Keywords

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 10.1 Calculation of Design Values – Examples

10.1 Calculation of Design Values – Examples

10.1.1 Design Values of ILC Wall Section Concrete cover (as per Chapter 7.2.3):

Specification of Sample cnom = cmin + Δcdev = cmin + 10 mm ≥ dlargestgrain + 5 mm

The example taken is a wall section of ILC800 as per Table
whereby cmin ≥ ds,max, ds, max = 8 mm and
3.2 on the first floor of a six-story building (first floor + five
upper stories). The loads from the upper floors are trans- dlargestgrain = 6 mm (ILC800):
ferred via the upper walls and normal concrete floor slabs
cnom = 8 mm + 10 mm = 18 mm ≥ 6 mm + 5 mm = 11 mm
half resting on the wall in question. It is assumed that the
joint between the floor slab and the wall is not restrained. selected: cnom = 30 mm

Dimensions: 3 m × 3 m (b × h), wall thickness 0.5 m

nn d1 = 34 mm; d = 466 mm
Floor slab consisting of normal concrete supported by the
nn
wall to a depth of 25 cm, that is, eccentricity of 12.5 cm, Building materials
nonrestrained connection Concrete: ILC800 (as per Chapters 7.1.2 and 7.4.2)
Reinforcement: galvanized reinforcement steel
nn
The proportion of openings (windows, etc.) is approxi-
nn filck = 11 N/mm2
mately 33 percent.
filck 11
Below we show the calculation of the design values for the filcd = αilcc = 0.75 = 5.5 N/mm2
γ ilc 1.5
longitudinal force with a small eccentricity in the ultimate limit
state and the serviceability limit state.
filck 11
filcd,pl = αilcc,pl = 0.62 = 4.6 N/mm2
System γ ilc 1.5

2
= = = . = . filct = 0.87 N/mm2

3 · 0.53 Eilc = 3.900 N/mm2

I= = 0.03125 cm4
12
Steel: BSt500 (B500), galvanized

(In view of the fact that, initially, the calculation is carried out fy,k 500
fy,d = = = 435 N/mm2
for nonreinforced components, the use of nominal cross γs 1.15
section values as per Chapter 7.4.3 is deliberately omitted
and the effect of surface reinforcement is not taken into con-
Es = 200,000 N/mm2
sideration.)

I 0.03125 Loading
i= = = 0.1443 cm Self-weight (see Chapter 7.5.1): weight steel-reinforced
A 1.5
ILC800: 9.5 kN/m³

Self-weight per floor: gk = 9.5 · 0.5 · 3 = 14.3 kN/m

Load from normal concrete floor slab, span 6.5 m:

2
k = · . = .

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 10 Appendix

Live loads for habitable rooms, including allowance for par- Calculation for the serviceability limit state (as per Chapter 7.6)
titions: Stress limitation (as per Chapter 7.6.1)
Limitation of concrete compression stresses when exposed
qk = (1.5 + 1.2) kN/m2 ⋅ 6.5 m / 2 = 8.8 kN/m to quasi-permanent load combination:

qd = 1.35 ⋅ 32.5 + 1.5 ⋅ 8.8 = 57 kN/m NEd,perm 1,335 kN N

σc = = 0.89
= ≤ 0.45 ⋅ filck
c ⋅ mm2
From floor slabs and self-weight of ILC, taking into account N
= 0.45 ⋅ 11 = 4.95
the proportion of openings (33 percent or 0.33) of all six floors: mm2
pd = ((1.35 ⋅ 14.3 + 57) ⋅ 6) / (1 − 0.33) = 686.7 kN/m
Regarding the limitation of steel stresses, see the section
pd,char = ((14.3 + 32.5 + 8.8) ⋅ 6) / (1 − 0.33) = 500.4 kN/m “Limitation of Deformation.”
pd,perm = ((14.3 + 32.5 + 0.3 ⋅ 8.8) ⋅ 6) / (1 − 0.33)
Minimum reinforcement—central restraint in thicker building
= 444.9 kN/m
components (uas per Chapter 7.6.2)
Internal force variables = fct,eff ⋅ A i,eff / σs ≥ k ⋅ fct,eff ⋅ A i,ct / fyk
A s,min
Ed = d = . ⋅ = ,
fct,eff = filctm = 0.87 MPa; σs = 200 MPa (selected)
Ed,char = d,char = . ⋅ = ,
h / d1 = 500 / 34 = 15; heff = 0.1 h + 2.0 d1 = 0.118 m
Ed,perm = d,perm = . ⋅ = ,
A c,eff = heff ⋅ 1 m/m = 0.118 m2 /m;
Calculation for the ultimate limit state (as per Chapter 7.5)
Calculation of longitudinal compressive force with small Es 200,000
αs = = = 51.3
eccentricity (as per Chapter 7.5.2) Eilcm 3,900
Nonreinforced walls:
selected: As = 6.7 cm² / m (diameter 8, spacing 7.5 cm)
l0 = β ⋅ lw = 1.0 ⋅ 3 = 3
0.118 m2 6.7 cm2
whereby β = 1.0 for walls restrained on two sides A i,eff = A c,eff + ( α s − 1) ⋅ A s = + (51.3 − 1) ⋅
m m
= 0.152 m2 /m;

i,ct = ct + αs − ⋅ s = . ⋅ . ⋅ + . −
that is, slenderness limit not exceeded . 2
⋅ = 0.284 m2 /m
e tot = e 0 + ei + e 2 = 0.125 + 0.008 + 0 = 0.133 m m
= . whereby =
whereby e0 = 0.125 m; approximately ei = l0/400 = 0.008;
eccentricity creep e2 = 0 for λ < 25 (see [31]) cm2
A s,min = 0.87 ⋅ 0.152 / 200 = 6.6
m
0.133
e tot / h = = 0.27 ≤ 0.4
0.5 0.284 cm2
≥ k ⋅ fct,eff ⋅ A i,ct / fyk = 0.604 ⋅ 0.87 ⋅ = 2.98
φ = 1.14 ⋅ (1 − 2 ⋅ e tot / hw ) − 0.02 ⋅ l0 / hw 500 m
= 1.14 ⋅ (1 − 2 ⋅ 0.133 / 0.5) − 0.02 ⋅ 3 / 0.5 = 0.414 cm2 cm2
A s,min = 6.6 < As,selected = 6.7 (Ø8, spacing 7.5 cm)
NRd,λ = b ⋅ hw ⋅ filcd,pl ⋅ φ = 3 ⋅ 0.5 ⋅ 4.6 ⋅ 0.414 = 2,826 kN m m

N Ed = 2,060 kN < NRd,λ = 2,826 kN

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 10.1 Calculation of Design Values – Examples

Minimum reinforcement for construction purposes σs f 0.6 ⋅ σs

εsm − εcm = − βt ⋅ ct,eff ⋅ (1 + α s ⋅ ρi,eff ) ≥
(see Chapter 7.8.2) Es Es ⋅ ρi,eff Es
Vertical reinforcement:
ds = 8 mm; fct,eff = filctm = 0.87 MPa
MN
Ed = , < . ⋅ ilcd ⋅ c = . ⋅ . ⋅ ⋅ .
m2 Es 200,000
= 2,475 kN αs = = = 51.3
Eilcm 3,900

l = 20.8 ≤ 25, that is, does not exceed slenderness limit h / d1 = 500 / 34 = 15; heff = 0.1 h + 2.0 d1 = 0.118 m

NEd 2,060 ! A c,eff = heff ⋅ 1 m/m = 0.118 m2 /m;

A sv,min = 0.15 = 0.15 ⋅ = 7,1 cm2 ≥ 0.0015 A c
fyd 43.5
0.118 m2 6.7 cm2
cm2 A i,eff = A c,eff + ( α s − 1) ⋅ A s = + (51.3 − 1) ⋅
= 0.0015 ⋅ 0.5 m ⋅ 3 m = 22.5 cm2 → 3.75 per page m m
m = 0.152 m2 /m
Horizontal reinforcement: As 6.7 cm2 /m
ρi,eff = = = 0.0044
A i,eff 0.152 m2 /m
cm2
A sh,min = 0.2 ⋅ A sv,min = 0.2 ⋅ 3.75 cm2 = 0.75 per page
m ⎛ σ − σsr;0.95 ⎞
Stahlbewehrung: β t = 0.5 ⋅ ⎜ 1 − s ⎟ ; 0 < β t < 0.5
⎜ fy − σsr;0.95 ⎟
→ Minimum reinforcement of 6.7 cm²/m for central restraint ⎝ ⎠
applicable!
In view of the fact that the calculation of crack width here is
cm2 based on internal restraint, it is permitted to determine the
A sv = 5.29 ⋅ 3 m ⋅ 2 = 31.7 cm2 < 0.02 ⋅ A c
m difference in elongation with σs = σsr (steel stress in condi-
= 0.02 ⋅ 3 m ⋅ 0.5 m = 300 cm2 tion II during initial formation of crack). This means that βt =
0.5 is used here.
→ No stirrups required.
σs = σsr = filctm ⋅ A i,eff / A s = 0.87 ⋅ 0.152 / 6.7
Selected: = 197 MPa ≈ 200 MPa

vertical: diameter 8 mm, spacing 13 cm:

(s.a., selected for minimum reinforcement for central restraint)
Asv = 3.87 cm²/m each side
horizontal: diameter 8 mm, spacing 7.5 cm: 197 0.87
εsm − εcm = − 0,5 ⋅
Ash = 6.7 cm²/m each side 200,000 200,000 ⋅ 0.0044
⋅ (1 + 51.3 ⋅ 0.0044) = 0.000379
Crack width limitation (as per Chapter 7.6.2) ! 0.6 ⋅ σs 0.6 ⋅ 197
Exposure class XC4, corrosion-resistant reinforcement: ≥ = = 0.000591
Es 200,000
wk,max = 0.4 mm
8 ! 197 ⋅ 8
Selected for aesthetic reasons: wk,max = 0.3 mm sr,max = = 505 mm ≤ = 503 mm
3.6 ⋅ 0.0044 3.6 ⋅ 0.87
=
w k sr,max ⋅ ( εsm − εcm ) w k = sr,max ⋅ ( εsm − εcm ) = 503 ⋅ 0.000591 = 0.30 ≤ w k,max
ds σs ⋅ ds = 0.3 mm
sr,max = ≤
3.6 ⋅ ρi,eff 3.6 ⋅ fct,eff

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 10 Appendix

Determining the creep coefficient (as per Chapter 7.4.4) cm2

The calculation is carried out for t = ∞ with a relative h­umid- whereby As = 2 ⋅ 3.87 ⋅ 3 m = 23.2 cm2
m
ity of RH = 50 percent (interior). Loading starts after
t0 = 28 days. A i,eff = 0.5 ⋅ 3 m2 + (251 − 1) ⋅ 23.2 cm2 = 2.08 m2
ϕ( ∞,t0 ) =
ϕ0 NEd,perm 1,335 kN
εc ( t,t0 ) = = = 0.80 mm/m
ϕ0 =ϕRH β fcm β( t0 ) Eilc,eff ⋅ A i,eff 798 MN 2 ⋅ 2.08 m2
m
Ac 2 ⋅ 0.5 ⋅ 3.0 Compression due to shrinkage:
h0 = 2 ⋅ = = 429 mm
u 2 ⋅ 0.5 + 2 ⋅ 3
α1, α 2 =1 Assumed shrinkage rate of ILC800 (see Chapter 7.4.4):
εilcs = 1.5 mm/m
⎛ ⎛ RH ⎞ ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ 50 ⎞ ⎞
⎜ ⎜ 1− ⎟ ⎟ ⎜ ⎜ 1− ⎟
ϕRH = ⎜1+ ⎜
RH 0 ⎟
α1 ⎟ α 2 = ⎜ 1 + ⎜ 100 ⎟⎟ 1⎟ 1 = 1.66 A n = A c − A sv = 0.5 ⋅ 3 m2 − 23.2 cm2 = 1.498 m2
1/3
⎜ ⎜ 0.1⋅ h0 ⎟ ⎟ 1/3
⎜⎜ ⎜⎜ 0.1 ⋅ 429 ⎟⎟ ⎟⎟
⎜ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ An mm 1.498
⎝ ⎝ ⎠ ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ ⎠ ⎠ Δεs,s = εilcs ⋅ = 1.5 ⋅ = 1.08 mm/m
A i,eff m 2.08
16.8 16.8
βfcm = 0.5
= = 4.67
fcm 13.00.5 Total compression:
mm mm
εges = εc ( t,t0 ) + Δεs,s = 0.80 + 1.08 = 1.88 mm/m
m m

α = –1 for CEM III/A N – 32.5 LH/NA Over the height of 3 m the component is shortened by:
1 1 mm
β( t ) = = = 0.50 ges = εges ⋅ = . ⋅ = . < selected max
0
0.1 + t0.2
0.eff 0.1 + 240.2 m
= 30 mm
ϕ( ∞,t ) = ϕ0 = ϕRH β fcm β( t ) = 1.66 ⋅ 4.67 ⋅ 0.50 = 3.88
0 0
Limitation of steel stress:
Eilcm 3,900 N
Eeff,ilc( ∞,t ) = = = 798
0
1 + ϕ( ∞,t ) 1 + 3.88 mm 2 Even though the wall is considered an unreinforced compo-
0
nent in the ultimate limit state, we are here also calculating
Limitation of vertical deformation (as per Chapter 7.6.3) the stress of the steel reinforcement when exposed to rare
Selected requirement: load combinations, because the reinforcement is used for
calculating the deformation. In accordance with Chap-
wmax = story height/100 = 3 m/100 = 3 cm
ter 7.6.3, the load component of the reinforcements is cal-
(see Chapter 7.6.3)
culated as follows:
Compression taking into account creep:
α s,eff ⋅ A sv
Fs = εs ⋅ Es ⋅ A sv = NEd,char ⋅
Eilcm 3,900 N A i,eff
Eeff,ilc = = = 798 2
1 + ϕ( t,t ) 1 + 3.88 mm 251⋅ 23.2 cm2
0
=1,501 kN ⋅ = 420 kN
200,000 2.08 m2
α s,eff = E s / Eilc,eff = = 251
798 Fs 420 kN kN kN
σs = = 2
= 18.1 2 ≤ 0.8 ⋅ fyk = 40
A i,eff= A c + ( α s,eff − 1) ⋅ A sv A s 23.2 cm cm cm2

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 10.1 Calculation of Design Values – Examples

10.1.2 Design Values of ILC Beam Ii,y = Ic,y + A c Δzi2 + ( α s − 1) ⋅ A s ⋅ zis2 = 520,833.33 + 2,500 ⋅ 2.42
+(51.3 − 1) ⋅ 6.78 ⋅ (18.0)2 = 645,728.35 cm4
Specification of Sample
The example chosen here is a beam of ILC800 as per Ta-
ble 3.2 exposed to a distributed load and calculated for the Building materials
ultimate limit state and the serviceability limit state. Concrete: ILC800 (nach Kap. 7.4.2)

System filck = 11 N/mm2

A beam on two posts. filck 11
filcd = αilcc = 0.75 = 5.5 N/mm2
b = 50 cm; h = 50 cm; l = 3 m γ ilc 1.5

Concrete cover (as per Chapter 7.2.3): filct = 0.87 N/mm2

cnom = cmin + Δcdev = cmin + 10 mm ≥ ddlargestgrain + 5 mm
Eilc = 3,900 N/mm2
whereby cmin ≥ ds,max, ds, max = 12 mm und ddlargestgrain =
6 mm (ILC800): Steel: BSt500, galvanized
cnom = 12 mm + 10 mm = 22 mm ≥ 6 mm + 5 mm = 11 mm
fyk 500
selected: cnom = 30 mm fyd = = = 435 N/mm2
γs 1.15
Nominal cross section values as per Chapter 7.4.3: Es = 200,000 N/mm2

Longitudinal reinforcement, assumed: As = 6.78 cm² Loading (as per Chapter 7.5.1)
(6 ∅ 12) Self-weight:
Weight of ILC800 with steel reinforcement: 9.5 kN/m³
A n = A c − A s = (50 ⋅ 50) − 6.78 = 2,493 cm2
Es 200,000 k = . ⋅ . ⋅ . = .
αs = = = 51.3
Eilc 3,900 Imposed loads::

A i = A c + ( α s − 1) ⋅ A s = (50 ⋅ 50) + (51.3 − 1) ⋅ 6.78 = 2,841 cm2 From normal concrete floor slab, span 6.5 m:
gk = 10 kN/m2 ⋅ 6.5 m / 2 = 32.5 kN/m
Assumption: dstirrup = 10 mm
Live loads from habitable rooms, including allowance for
dstirrup partition walls:

( α s − 1) ⋅ A s ⋅ z cs (51.3 − 1) ⋅ 6.78 ⋅ 20.4

Δzi = = = 2.4 cm qd = 1.35 ⋅ 32.5 + 1.5 ⋅ 8.8 = 57 kN/m
Ai 2,841
zis = z cs − Δzi = 20.4 − 2.4 = 18.0 cm From floor slabs and self-weight:

h pd = 1.35 ⋅ 2.38 + 57 = 60.2 kN/m

zi,max,s = − Δzi = 25 − 2.4 = 22.6 cm
2 pd,char = 2.38 + 32.5 + 8.8 = 43.7 kN/m
50 ⋅ 503
Ic,y = = 520,833.33 cm4 pd,perm = 2.38 + 32.5 + 0.3 ⋅ 8.8 = 37.5 kN/m
12

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 10 Appendix

Internal force variables, ultimate limit state Shear force resistance VlRd,c of components without shear
N=0 force reinforcement (assuming not required):
ρ 800
pdl η1 = 0.4 + 0.6 ⋅ = 0.4 + 0.6 ⋅ = 0.618
Q= = 90.3 kN 2,200 2,200
2
⎡ 0.15 ⎤
p l2 VlRd,c = ⎢ ⋅ k ⋅ η1 ⋅ (100 ⋅ ρl ⋅ filck )1/3 + 0.12 ⋅ σcp ⎥
M = d = 67.73 kNm ⎣ γc ⎦
8
⋅ bw ⋅ d ≥ (v l,min ⋅ η1 + 0.12 ⋅ σcp ) ⋅ bw ⋅ d
Internal force variables, serviceability limit state
N=0 k = 1 + 200 / d = 1 + 200 / 454 = 1.66 ≤ 2.0
3 1 1 1
pd,perml
Qperm = = 56.28 kN v l,min = 0.035 ⋅ k 2 ⋅ filck
2 = 0.035 ⋅ 1.66 3 ⋅ 112 = 0.137
2
6.78
pd,charl2 ρl = A sl / bw ⋅ d = = 0.0030
Mchar = = 49.16 kNm 50 ⋅ 45.4
8
pd,perml2
Mperm = = 42.21 kNm
8
Calculation for ultimate limit state (as per Chapter 7.5)
Calculation: bending (as per Chapter 7.5.3)
Concrete cover: 3 cm; ds = 12 mm; d = 45.4 cm → VlRd,c = 34.7 kN ≤ 63.0 = VEd

Reinforcement (bottom layer): Shear force reinforcement is required!

MEds 6,773
μEds = = = 0.119 Shear force resistance VlRd,max for components with required
b d2 filcd 50 ⋅ 45.42 ⋅ 0.55 shear force reinforcement:
ω = 0.1303 z = ζ ⋅ d = 0.9131⋅ 45.4 = 41.5 cm
1 1 νl = 0.75 ⋅ η1 = 0.75 ⋅ 0.618 = 0.464
A s1,erf = ( ω b d filcd ) = ⋅ 0.1303 ⋅ 50 ⋅ 45.4 ⋅ 0.55
σs1d 43.5 cot θ + cot α
VlRd,max = α cw ⋅ νl ⋅ fcd ⋅ bw ⋅ z ⋅
= 3.74 cm2 (1 + cot2 θ)
1.2 + 0
A s1,erf < A s,vorh = 6.78 cm2 = 1.0 ⋅ 0.464 ⋅ 5.5 ⋅ 500 ⋅ 415 ⋅
1 + 1.22

Ductile behavior of component (as per Chapter 7.3), limita- VlRd,max = 260.4 kN ≥ 63.0 kN = VEd
tion of the respective compression zone height:
ξlim = x/d ≤ 0.35 Load-bearing capacity adequate!
= a sw ⋅ fywd ⋅ z ⋅ (cot θ + cot α ) ⋅ sin α
VRd,s
x
ξ= = 0.2607 ≤ ξlim = 0.35
d VEd,w 63.0
a sw = = = 2.91 cm2 /m
→ No confinement of the bending compression zone required. cot θ ⋅ fyd ⋅ z 1.2 ⋅ 43.5 ⋅ 0.415

Calculation: shear force (as per Chapter 7.5.4) Calculation for serviceability limit state (as per Chapter 7.6)
Shear force at distance d from bearing (direct support): Determination of creep coefficient (as per Chapter 7.4.4)
The creep coefficient is calculated for t = ∞. The relative hu-
VEd = 90.3 kN − 0.454 m ⋅ 60.2 kN/m = 63.0 kN midity RH of the interior is assumed to be 50 percent. Only

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 10.1 Calculation of Design Values – Examples

the top side of the beam is covered. Loading starts after t0 x ∞ = ξ∞ ⋅ d = 0.692 ⋅ 45.4 = 31.4 cm
= 28 days.
x∞ 31.4
ϕ( ∞, t0 ) = ϕ0 z∞ = d − = 45.4 − = 34.9 cm
3 3
ϕ0 =ϕRH β fcm β( t0 )
2 Mperm 2 ⋅ 42.21
σc = =
A 2 ⋅ 0.5 ⋅ 0.5 b x ∞z∞ 0,5 ⋅ 0.314 ⋅ 0.349
h0 = 2 ⋅ c = = 333 mm
u 3 ⋅ 0.5 N N
= 1.54 ≤ 0.45filc,k = 4.95
α1, α 2 =1 mm2 mm2
⎛ ⎛ RH ⎞ ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ 50 ⎞ ⎞ Mchar 49.16 N N
⎜ ⎜ 1− σs = = = 208 ≤ 400 = 0.8 ⋅ fy,k
RH ⎟ ⎟ ⎜ ⎜ 1− ⎟ ⎟ z ∞ A s 0.349 ⋅ 6.78 mm2 mm2
ϕRH ⎜
= 1+ ⎜ 0 ⎟
⎟ α1 α 2 = ⎜ 1 + ⎜ 100 ⎟ 1⎟ 1 = 1.72
1/3
⎜ ⎜ 0.1⋅ h0 ⎟ ⎟ 1/3
⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎜ 0.1⋅ 333 ⎟ ⎟⎟ Minimum reinforcement for components subject to bending
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎝ ⎠ ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ ⎠ ⎠
A s,min σs =k c k filct A i,ct
16.8 16.8
βfcm = 0.5 = = 4.67 = . (purely bending)
fcm 13.00.5 c

= . =
h
ds = 12 mm; hcr = = 0.25 m
α = –1 for CEM III/A N – 32.5 LH/NA 2
2
1 1 = . ⋅ ⋅ = . ⋅ . ⋅ . = .
β( t 0 ) = = = 0.50 ct
0.1 + t0,eff 0.1 + 240.2
0.2
2 2
i,ct = ct + αs − ⋅ s = . + . − ⋅ .
ϕ( ∞, t0 ) = ϕ0 = ϕRH β fcm β( t0 ) = 1.72 ⋅ 4.67 ⋅ 0.50 = 4.04 = 0.159 m2
Eilcm 3.900 N
Eeff,ilc( t,t0 ) = = = 774 (u  
see Chapter 7.6.2)
1 + ϕ( t,t0 ) 1 + 4.04 mm2
σs = 160 N/mm² (selected for wk = 3 mm)
Limitation of stresses (as per Chapter 7.6.1)
Limit diameter d*s = 41 mm as per [31], Table 5.97a
σc ≤ 0.45filc,k = 0.45 ⋅ 11 = 4.95 N/mm2
A i,ct 0.159
Final creep coefficient ϕ( ∞,t0 ) = 4.04 A s,min = k c k filct = 0.4 ⋅ 0.604 ⋅ 0.87 ⋅ = 2.09 cm2
σs 160
Eilcm 3,900 N
Eeff,ilc( t,t0 ) = = = 774
1 + ϕ( t,t0 ) 1 + 4.04 mm2 A s,min = 2.09 cm2 < A s,vorh = 6.78 cm2

Es 200,000 k c ⋅ k ⋅ hcr fct,eff f

α e,∞ = = = 258.4 ds = ds* ⋅ ⋅ ≥ ds* ⋅ ct,eff
Eeff,ilc( t,t0 ) 774 4 ⋅ (h − d) fct0 fct0

6.78 0.4 ⋅ 0.604 ⋅ 25 0.87 ! 0.87

ρl = A sl / bw ⋅ d = = 0.0030 ds = 41⋅ ⋅ = . ≥ ⋅
50 ⋅ 45.4 4 ⋅ (50 − 45.4) 2.9 2.9
= 12.3 mm
α e,∞ ⋅ ρl = 258.4 ⋅ 0.0030 = 0.775
ds = 12:3 mm > ds,vorh = 12 mm
ξ∞ = α e,∞ ⋅ ρl ⋅ (2 + α e,∞ ⋅ ρl ) − α e,∞ ⋅ ρl
= 0.775 ⋅ (2 + 0.775) − 0.775 = 0.692 → To be checked using direct calculation of crack widths.

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 10 Appendix

Limitation of crack widths (as per Chapter 7.6.2) These calculations are deliberately carried out with αe rather
Exposure class XC4, corrosion-resistant reinforcement: than with αe,∞. This does not take into account a reduction
in the crack width due to tensile creep, and is therefore on
w k,max = 0.4 mm
the safe side.
178.1 0.87
Selected for aesthetic reasons: wk,max = 0.3 mm ( εsm − εcm ) = − 0.466 ⋅
200,000 200,000 ⋅ 0.0073
=
w k sr,max (εsm − εcm ) 0.6 ⋅ 178.1
⋅ (1 + 51.3 ⋅ 0.0073) ≥
h 50 200,000
= = 10:87
d1 4.6 !
= 0.000509 ≥ 0.000534
heff = 0.05 h + 2.0 ⋅ d1 = 0.05 ⋅ 50 + 2.0 ⋅ 4.6 = 11.7 cm
w k = sr,max (εsm − εcm ) = 455 mm ⋅ 0.000534
A c,eff = heff ⋅ b = 11.7 ⋅ 50 = 585 cm2 = 0.24 mm < w k,max
2 2
A i,eff = A c,eff + ( α s − 1) ⋅ A s = 585 + (51.3 − 1) ⋅ 6.78 The calculation of the crack width shows that the conditions
m m
for As,existing = 6.78 cm² are met. However, it is not possible
= 926 cm2
to reduce the reinforcement to 5 instead of 6 of ∅12, for
As 6.78 example, because the maximum crack width would be ex-
ρi,eff = = = 0.0073
A i,eff 926 ceeded.

fct,eff = filctm = 0.87 MPa Effects of shrinkage (as per Chapter 7.6.4)
Mperm Shrinkage rate used for ILC800 (usee Chapter 7.4.4):
42.21
σs = = = 178.1 N/mm2 εilcs = 1.5 mm/m
z∞A s 0.349 ⋅ 6.78
Es 200,000
ds σs ds α s,∞ = α e,∞ = = = 258.4
sr,max = ≤ Eeff,ilc( t,t0 ) 774
3.6 ρi,eff 3.6 fct,eff
Ncs = εilcs ⋅ Es ⋅ A s = 1.5 mm/m ⋅ 200,000 ⋅ 6.78 = 203.4 kN
12 178.1⋅ 12
sr,max = = 455 mm ≤ = 682 mm
3.6 ⋅ 0.0073 3.6 ⋅ 0.87 Mcs = Ncs ⋅ zi,s = 203.3 ⋅ 0.180 = 36.6 kNm
926
σsr;0.95 = 1.3 ⋅ filctm ⋅ A i,eff / A s = 1.3 ⋅ 0.87 ⋅ = 154.5 N/mm2 Deflection due to load (as per Chapter 7.6.4), creep,
6.78 and shrinkage (as per Chapter 7.6.4)
⎛ Limit values:
σ − σsr;0.95 ⎞ ⎛ 178.1 − 154.5 ⎞
βt = 0.5 ⋅ ⎜⎜ 1 − s ⎟⎟ = 0.5 ⋅ ⎜ 1 − ⎟ = 0.466
⎝ fyk − σ sr;0.95 ⎠ ⎝ 500 − 154.5 ⎠ (general)
σs f 0.6 σs
( εsm − εcm ) = − βt ⋅ ct,eff ⋅ (1 + α e ⋅ ρi,eff ) ≥ l 3,000
Es Es ⋅ ρi,eff Es w≤ = = 6 mm (interior fit-out)
500 500
Es 200,000
α e bzw. α s = = = 51.3 Beam on two posts:
Eilc 3,900

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 10.1 Calculation of Design Values – Examples

Ii,s Eeff,ilc( t,t0 ) = 774 N/mm2

M=
cr,i filctm ⋅
zi,max,s
kN
EIʹʹ = 77.4 ⋅ 856,003.75 cm4 = 6,625.5 kNm2
zi,max,s = 22.6 cm cm2

Ii,s = Ii,y = 645,728.35 cm4 kN

EIi = 77.4 ⋅ 645,728.35 cm4 = 4 997.9 kNm2
cm2
filctm = 0.87 N/mm2
⎛M ⎛M M ⎞⎞
w = k ⋅ ⎜⎜ − β t ⋅ ⎜ cr,i − cr,i ⎟ ⎟⎟ ⋅ l2eff
Ii,s 645,728.35
Mcr,i = filctm ⋅ = 0.087 ⋅ = 24.9 kNm ⎝ EI´´ ⎝ EI´´ EIi ⎠ ⎠
zi,max,s 22.6 5 ⎛ 78.4 ⎛ 24.9 24.9 ⎞ ⎞ 2
= ⋅ ⎜⎜ − 0,174 ⋅ ⎜ − ⎟ ⎟⎟ ⋅ 3
I´´ =α s ⋅ A s1 ⋅ z s ⋅ (d − x) 48 ⎝ 6,625.5 ⎝ 6,625.5 4,997.9⎠ ⎠
= 11.3 mm
α s = α e,eff = 258.4
⎧ l
A s1 = 6.78 cm2 ⎪⎪≤ f = 12 mm = 250
w = 11.3 mm ⎨
z s = z ∞ = 34.9 cm ⎪ ≤ w = 6 mm = l
⎪⎩ 500
d = 45.4 cm
x = x ∞ = 31.4 cm → The requirements relating to maximum sagging f are met.
However, with a view to complying with the maximum
I´´ = 258.4 ⋅ 6.78 ⋅ 34.9 ⋅ (45.4 − 31.4) = 856,003.75 cm4 deflection w for fit-out, it is recommended to increase the
height of the component.
⎛ M − 1.3 ⋅ Mcr,i ⎞
βt = 0.5 ⋅ ⎜⎜ 1 − ⎟⎟
⎝ My − 1.3 ⋅ Mcr,i ⎠
My = fyd ⋅ A s ⋅ z s = 43.5 ⋅ 6.78 ⋅ 34.9 = 102.9 KNm

Moment from load and shrinkage:

M = Mperm + Mcs = 42.21 + 36.6 = 78.8 kNm

⎛ M − 1.3 ⋅ Mcr,i ⎞ ⎛ 78.8 − 1.3 ⋅ 24.9 ⎞

βt = 0.5 ⋅ ⎜⎜ 1 − ⎟⎟ = 0.5 ⋅ ⎜ 1 − ⎟
⎝ M y − 1.3 ⋅ Mcr,i ⎠ ⎝ 102.9 − 1.3 ⋅ 24.9 ⎠
= 0.171

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 10 Appendix

10.2 ω-tables with Design Values

ILC600 steel reinforcement (ST)

μEds ω1 ξ = x/d ζ = z/d εc2 [%] εs1 [%] σsd [MPa] αR ka

0 0 0 1 0 2.50 434.8 0 0.333
0.010 0.0101 0.0432 0.9856 – 0.11 2.50 434.8 0.235 0.333
0.015 0.0153 0.0527 0.9824 – 0.14 2.50 434.8 0.290 0.333
0.020 0.0204 0.0608 0.9797 – 0.16 2.50 434.8 0.336 0.333
0.025 0.0256 0.0677 0.9774 – 0.18 2.50 434.8 0.378 0.333
0.030 0.0308 0.0739 0.9754 – 0.20 2.50 434.8 0.416 0.333
0.035 0.0360 0.0797 0.9734 – 0.22 2.50 434.8 0.451 0.333
0.040 0.0412 0.0851 0.9716 – 0.23 2.50 434.8 0.484 0.333
0.045 0.0464 0.0929 0.9690 – 0.24 2.34 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.050 0.0518 0.1036 0.9655 – 0.24 2.08 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.055 0.0572 0.1144 0.9619 – 0.24 1.86 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.060 0.0626 0.1252 0.9583 – 0.24 1.68 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.065 0.0681 0.1362 0.9546 – 0.24 1.52 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.070 0.0736 0.1472 0.9509 – 0.24 1.39 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.075 0.0792 0.1584 0.9472 – 0.24 1.28 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.080 0.0848 0.1696 0.9435 – 0.24 1.18 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.085 0.0905 0.1809 0.9397 – 0.24 1.09 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.090 0.0962 0.1923 0.9359 – 0.24 1.01 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.095 0.1019 0.2039 0.9320 – 0.24 0.94 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.100 0.1077 0.2155 0.9282 – 0.24 0.87 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.105 0.1136 0.2272 0.9243 – 0.24 0.82 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.110 0.1195 0.2390 0.9203 – 0.24 0.76 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.115 0.1255 0.2510 0.9163 – 0.24 0.72 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.120 0.1315 0.2631 0.9123 – 0.24 0.67 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.125 0.1376 0.2753 0.9082 – 0.24 0.63 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.130 0.1438 0.2876 0.9041 – 0.24 0.59 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.135 0.1500 0.3000 0.9000 – 0.24 0.56 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.140 0.1563 0.3126 0.8958 – 0.24 0.53 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.145 0.1626 0.3253 0.8916 – 0.24 0.50 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.150 0.1691 0.3381 0.8873 – 0.24 0.47 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.155 0.1755 0.3511 0.8830 – 0.24 0.44 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.160 0.1821 0.3642 0.8786 – 0.24 0.42 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.165 0.1888 0.3775 0.8742 – 0.24 0.40 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.170 0.1955 0.3909 0.8697 – 0.24 0.37 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.175 0.2023 0.4046 0.8651 – 0.24 0.35 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.180 0.2092 0.4183 0.8606 – 0.24 0.33 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.185 0.2161 0.4323 0.8559 – 0.24 0.32 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.190 0.2232 0.4464 0.8512 – 0.24 0.30 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.195 0.2304 0.4608 0.8464 – 0.24 0.28 434.8 0.500 0.333

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 10.2 10.2 ω-TABLES WITHVON
BEMESSUNGSHILFE-ω-TABELLEN DESIGN VALUES
A. HÜCKLER

μEds ω1 ξ = x/d ζ = z/d εc2 [%] εs1 [%] σsd [MPa] αR ka

0.200 0.2377 0.4753 0.8416 – 0.24 0.26 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.205 0.2450 0.4900 0.8367 – 0.24 0.25 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.210 0.2525 0.5050 0.8317 – 0.24 0.24 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.215 0.2601 0.5202 0.8266 – 0.24 0.22 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.220 0.2678 0.5356 0.8215 – 0.24 0.21 361.9 0.500 0.333
0.225 0.2757 0.5513 0.8162 – 0.24 0.20 339.7 0.500 0.333
0.230 0.2836 0.5673 0.8109 – 0.24 0.18 318.4 0.500 0.333
0.235 0.2917 0.5835 0.8055 – 0.24 0.17 298.0 0.500 0.333
0.240 0.3000 0.6000 0.8000 – 0.24 0.16 278.3 0.500 0.333
0.245 0.3084 0.6168 0.7944 – 0.24 0.15 259.3 0.500 0.333
0.250 0.3170 0.6340 0.7887 – 0.24 0.14 241.0 0.500 0.333
0.255 0.3257 0.6515 0.7828 – 0.24 0.13 223.3 0.500 0.333
0.260 0.3347 0.6693 0.7769 – 0.24 0.12 206.2 0.500 0.333
0.265 0.3438 0.6876 0.7708 – 0.24 0.11 189.6 0.500 0.333
0.270 0.3531 0.7063 0.7646 – 0.24 0.10 173.6 0.500 0.333
0.275 0.3627 0.7254 0.7582 – 0.24 0.09 158.0 0.500 0.333
0.280 0.3725 0.7450 0.7517 – 0.24 0.08 142.9 0.500 0.333
0.285 0.3826 0.7652 0.7449 – 0.24 0.07 128.1 0.500 0.333
0.290 0.3929 0.7859 0.7380 – 0.24 0.07 113.7 0.500 0.333
0.295 0.4036 0.8072 0.7309 – 0.24 0.06 99.7 0.500 0.333
0.300 0.4146 0.8292 0.7236 – 0.24 0.05 86.0 0.500 0.333
0.305 0.4260 0.8519 0.7160 – 0.24 0.04 72.5 0.500 0.333
0.310 0.4378 0.8755 0.7082 – 0.24 0.03 59.4 0.500 0.333
0.315 0.4500 0.9000 0.7000 – 0.24 0.03 46.4 0.500 0.333
0.320 0.4628 0.9255 0.6915 – 0.24 0.02 33.6 0.500 0.333
0.325 0.4761 0.9523 0.6826 – 0.24 0.01 20.9 0.500 0.333
0.330 0.4902 0.9804 0.6732 – 0.24 0 8.4 0.500 0.333
0.335 0.5051 1.0101 0.6633 – 0.24 0 -4.2 0.500 0.333
0.340 0.5209 1.0417 0.6528 – 0.24 – 0.01 -16.7 0.500 0.333
0.345 0.5379 1.0757 0.6414 – 0.24 – 0.02 -29.4 0.500 0.333
0.350 0.5564 1.1127 0.6291 – 0.24 – 0.02 -42.3 0.500 0.333
0.355 0.5768 1.1536 0.6155 – 0.24 – 0.03 -55.6 0.500 0.333
0.360 0.6000 1.2000 0.6000 – 0.24 – 0.04 -69.6 0.500 0.333
0.365 0.6275 1.2551 0.5816 – 0.24 – 0.05 -84.8 0.500 0.333
0.370 0.6634 1.3268 0.5577 – 0.24 – 0.06 -102.8 0.500 0.333

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 10 Appendix

ILC650 steel reinforcement (ST)

μEds ω1 ξ = x/d ζ = z/d εc2 [%] εs1 [%] σsd [MPa] αR ka

0 0 0 1 0 2.50 434.8 0 0.333
0.010 0.0102 0.0457 0.9848 – 0.12 2.50 434.8 0.222 0.333
0.015 0.0153 0.0558 0.9814 – 0.15 2.50 434.8 0.274 0.333
0.020 0.0204 0.0643 0.9786 – 0.17 2.50 434.8 0.318 0.333
0.025 0.0256 0.0716 0.9761 – 0.19 2.50 434.8 0.358 0.333
0.030 0.0308 0.0783 0.9739 – 0.21 2.50 434.8 0.394 0.333
0.035 0.0360 0.0843 0.9719 – 0.23 2.50 434.8 0.427 0.333
0.040 0.0412 0.0900 0.9700 – 0.25 2.50 434.8 0.458 0.333
0.045 0.0465 0.0952 0.9683 – 0.26 2.50 434.8 0.488 0.333
0.050 0.0518 0.1036 0.9655 – 0.27 2.34 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.055 0.0572 0.1144 0.9619 – 0.27 2.09 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.060 0.0626 0.1252 0.9583 – 0.27 1.89 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.065 0.0681 0.1362 0.9546 – 0.27 1.71 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.070 0.0736 0.1472 0.9509 – 0.27 1.56 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.075 0.0792 0.1584 0.9472 – 0.27 1.43 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.080 0.0848 0.1696 0.9435 – 0.27 1.32 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.085 0.0905 0.1809 0.9397 – 0.27 1.22 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.090 0.0962 0.1923 0.9359 – 0.27 1.13 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.095 0.1019 0.2039 0.9320 – 0.27 1.05 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.100 0.1077 0.2155 0.9282 – 0.27 0.98 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.105 0.1136 0.2272 0.9243 – 0.27 0.92 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.110 0.1195 0.2390 0.9203 – 0.27 0.86 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.115 0.1255 0.2510 0.9163 – 0.27 0.81 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.120 0.1315 0.2631 0.9123 – 0.27 0.76 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.125 0.1376 0.2753 0.9082 – 0.27 0.71 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.130 0.1438 0.2876 0.9041 – 0.27 0.67 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.135 0.1500 0.3000 0.9000 – 0.27 0.63 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.140 0.1563 0.3126 0.8958 – 0.27 0.59 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.145 0.1626 0.3253 0.8916 – 0.27 0.56 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.150 0.1691 0.3381 0.8873 – 0.27 0.53 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.155 0.1755 0.3511 0.8830 – 0.27 0.50 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.160 0.1821 0.3642 0.8786 – 0.27 0.47 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.165 0.1888 0.3775 0.8742 – 0.27 0.45 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.170 0.1955 0.3909 0.8697 – 0.27 0.42 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.175 0.2023 0.4046 0.8651 – 0.27 0.40 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.180 0.2092 0.4183 0.8606 – 0.27 0.38 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.185 0.2161 0.4323 0.8559 – 0.27 0.35 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.190 0.2232 0.4464 0.8512 – 0.27 0.33 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.195 0.2304 0.4608 0.8464 – 0.27 0.32 434.8 0.500 0.333

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BEMESSUNGSHILFE-ω-TABELLEN DESIGN VALUES
A. HÜCKLER

μEds ω1 ξ = x/d ζ = z/d εc2 [%] εs1 [%] σsd [MPa] αR ka

0.200 0.2377 0.4753 0.8416 – 0.27 0.30 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.205 0.2450 0.4900 0.8367 – 0.27 0.28 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.210 0.2525 0.5050 0.8317 – 0.27 0.26 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.215 0.2601 0.5202 0.8266 – 0.27 0.25 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.220 0.2678 0.5356 0.8215 – 0.27 0.23 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.225 0.2757 0.5513 0.8162 – 0.27 0.22 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.230 0.2836 0.5673 0.8109 – 0.27 0.21 358.2 0.500 0.333
0.235 0.2917 0.5835 0.8055 – 0.27 0.19 335.2 0.500 0.333
0.240 0.3000 0.6000 0.8000 – 0.27 0.18 313.0 0.500 0.333
0.245 0.3084 0.6168 0.7944 – 0.27 0.17 291.7 0.500 0.333
0.250 0.3170 0.6340 0.7887 – 0.27 0.16 271.1 0.500 0.333
0.255 0.3257 0.6515 0.7828 – 0.27 0.14 251.2 0.500 0.333
0.260 0.3347 0.6693 0.7769 – 0.27 0.13 232.0 0.500 0.333
0.265 0.3438 0.6876 0.7708 – 0.27 0.12 213.3 0.500 0.333
0.270 0.3531 0.7063 0.7646 – 0.27 0.11 195.3 0.500 0.333
0.275 0.3627 0.7254 0.7582 – 0.27 0.10 177.8 0.500 0.333
0.280 0.3725 0.7450 0.7517 – 0.27 0.09 160.7 0.500 0.333
0.285 0.3826 0.7652 0.7449 – 0.27 0.08 144.1 0.500 0.333
0.290 0.3929 0.7859 0.7380 – 0.27 0.07 128.0 0.500 0.333
0.295 0.4036 0.8072 0.7309 – 0.27 0.06 112.2 0.500 0.333
0.300 0.4146 0.8292 0.7236 – 0.27 0.06 96.7 0.500 0.333
0.305 0.4260 0.8519 0.7160 – 0.27 0.05 81.6 0.500 0.333
0.310 0.4378 0.8755 0.7082 – 0.27 0.04 66.8 0.500 0.333
0.315 0.4500 0.9000 0.7000 – 0.27 0.03 52.2 0.500 0.333
0.320 0.4628 0.9255 0.6915 – 0.27 0.02 37.8 0.500 0.333
0.325 0.4761 0.9523 0.6826 – 0.27 0.01 23.5 0.500 0.333
0.330 0.4902 0.9804 0.6732 – 0.27 0.01 9.4 0.500 0.333
0.335 0.5051 1.0101 0.6633 – 0.27 0 – 4.7 0.500 0.333
0.340 0.5209 1.0417 0.6528 – 0.27 – 0.01 –18.8 0.500 0.333
0.345 0.5379 1.0757 0.6414 – 0.27 – 0.02 – 33.1 0.500 0.333
0.350 0.5564 1.1127 0.6291 – 0.27 – 0.03 – 47.6 0.500 0.333
0.355 0.5768 1.1536 0.6155 – 0.27 – 0.04 – 62.5 0.500 0.333
0.360 0.6000 1.2000 0.6000 – 0.27 – 0.05 – 78.3 0.500 0.333
0.365 0.6275 1.2551 0.5816 – 0.27 – 0.05 – 95.4 0.500 0.333
0.370 0.6634 1.3268 0.5577 – 0.27 – 0.07 –115.7 0.500 0.333

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ILC700 steel reinforcement (ST)

μEds ω1 ξ = x/d ζ = z/d εc2 [%] εs1 [%] σsd [MPa] αR ka

0 0 0 1 0 2.50 434.8 0 0.333
0.010 0.0102 0.0482 0.9839 – 0.13 2.50 434.8 0.211 0.333
0.015 0.0153 0.0588 0.9804 – 0.16 2.50 434.8 0.260 0.333
0.020 0.0205 0.0677 0.9774 – 0.18 2.50 434.8 0.302 0.333
0.025 0.0256 0.0754 0.9749 – 0.20 2.50 434.8 0.340 0.333
0.030 0.0308 0.0824 0.9725 – 0.22 2.50 434.8 0.375 0.333
0.035 0.0361 0.0888 0.9704 – 0.24 2.50 434.8 0.406 0.333
0.040 0.0413 0.0947 0.9684 – 0.26 2.50 434.8 0.436 0.333
0.045 0.0466 0.1002 0.9666 – 0.28 2.50 434.8 0.465 0.333
0.050 0.0518 0.1055 0.9648 – 0.29 2.50 434.8 0.491 0.333
0.055 0.0572 0.1144 0.9619 – 0.30 2.32 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.060 0.0626 0.1252 0.9583 – 0.30 2.10 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.065 0.0681 0.1362 0.9546 – 0.30 1.90 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.070 0.0736 0.1472 0.9509 – 0.30 1.74 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.075 0.0792 0.1584 0.9472 – 0.30 1.59 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.080 0.0848 0.1696 0.9435 – 0.30 1.47 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.085 0.0905 0.1809 0.9397 – 0.30 1.36 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.090 0.0962 0.1923 0.9359 – 0.30 1.26 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.095 0.1019 0.2039 0.9320 – 0.30 1.17 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.100 0.1077 0.2155 0.9282 – 0.30 1.09 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.105 0.1136 0.2272 0.9243 – 0.30 1.02 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.110 0.1195 0.2390 0.9203 – 0.30 0.95 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.115 0.1255 0.2510 0.9163 – 0.30 0.90 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.120 0.1315 0.2631 0.9123 – 0.30 0.84 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.125 0.1376 0.2753 0.9082 – 0.30 0.79 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.130 0.1438 0.2876 0.9041 – 0.30 0.74 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.135 0.1500 0.3000 0.9000 – 0.30 0.70 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.140 0.1563 0.3126 0.8958 – 0.30 0.66 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.145 0.1626 0.3253 0.8916 – 0.30 0.62 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.150 0.1691 0.3381 0.8873 – 0.30 0.59 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.155 0.1755 0.3511 0.8830 – 0.30 0.55 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.160 0.1821 0.3642 0.8786 – 0.30 0.52 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.165 0.1888 0.3775 0.8742 – 0.30 0.49 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.170 0.1955 0.3909 0.8697 – 0.30 0.47 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.175 0.2023 0.4046 0.8651 – 0.30 0.44 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.180 0.2092 0.4183 0.8606 – 0.30 0.42 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.185 0.2161 0.4323 0.8559 – 0.30 0.39 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.190 0.2232 0.4464 0.8512 – 0.30 0.37 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.195 0.2304 0.4608 0.8464 – 0.30 0.35 434.8 0.500 0.333

186

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 10.2 10.2 ω-TABLES WITHVON
BEMESSUNGSHILFE-ω-TABELLEN DESIGN VALUES
A. HÜCKLER

μEds ω1 ξ = x/d ζ = z/d εc2 [%] εs1 [%] σsd [MPa] αR ka

0.200 0.2377 0.4753 0.8416 – 0.3 0.33 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.205 0.2450 0.4900 0.8367 – 0.3 0.31 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.210 0.2525 0.5050 0.8317 – 0.3 0.29 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.215 0.2601 0.5202 0.8266 – 0.3 0.28 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.220 0.2678 0.5356 0.8215 – 0.3 0.26 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.225 0.2757 0.5513 0.8162 – 0.3 0.24 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.230 0.2836 0.5673 0.8109 – 0.3 0.23 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.235 0.2917 0.5835 0.8055 – 0.3 0.21 372.4 0.500 0.333
0.240 0.3000 0.6000 0.8000 – 0.3 0.20 347.8 0.500 0.333
0.245 0.3084 0.6168 0.7944 – 0.3 0.19 324.1 0.500 0.333
0.250 0.3170 0.6340 0.7887 – 0.3 0.17 301.2 0.500 0.333
0.255 0.3257 0.6515 0.7828 – 0.3 0.16 279.1 0.500 0.333
0.260 0.3347 0.6693 0.7769 – 0.3 0.15 257.7 0.500 0.333
0.265 0.3438 0.6876 0.7708 – 0.3 0.14 237.0 0.500 0.333
0.270 0.3531 0.7063 0.7646 – 0.3 0.12 217.0 0.500 0.333
0.275 0.3627 0.7254 0.7582 – 0.3 0.11 197.5 0.500 0.333
0.280 0.3725 0.7450 0.7517 – 0.3 0.10 178.6 0.500 0.333
0.285 0.3826 0.7652 0.7449 – 0.3 0.09 160.1 0.500 0.333
0.290 0.3929 0.7859 0.7380 – 0.3 0.08 142.2 0.500 0.333
0.295 0.4036 0.8072 0.7309 – 0.3 0.07 124.6 0.500 0.333
0.300 0.4146 0.8292 0.7236 – 0.3 0.06 107.5 0.500 0.333
0.305 0.4260 0.8519 0.7160 – 0.3 0.05 90.7 0.500 0.333
0.310 0.4378 0.8755 0.7082 – 0.3 0.04 74.2 0.500 0.333
0.315 0.4500 0.9000 0.7000 – 0.3 0.03 58.0 0.500 0.333
0.320 0.4628 0.9255 0.6915 – 0.3 0.02 42.0 0.500 0.333
0.325 0.4761 0.9523 0.6826 – 0.3 0.02 26.1 0.500 0.333
0.330 0.4902 0.9804 0.6732 – 0.3 0.01 10.4 0.500 0.333
0.335 0.5051 1.0101 0.6633 – 0.3 0 – 5.2 0.500 0.333
0.340 0.5209 1.0417 0.6528 – 0.3 – 0.01 – 20.9 0.500 0.333
0.345 0.5379 1.0757 0.6414 – 0.3 – 0.02 – 36.7 0.500 0.333
0.350 0.5564 1.1127 0.6291 – 0.3 – 0.03 – 52.8 0.500 0.333
0.355 0.5768 1.1536 0.6155 – 0.3 – 0.04 – 69.5 0.500 0.333
0.360 0.6000 1.2000 0.6000 – 0.3 – 0.05 – 87.0 0.500 0.333
0.365 0.6275 1.2551 0.5816 – 0.3 – 0.06 –106.0 0.500 0.333
0.370 0.6634 1.3268 0.5577 – 0.3 – 0.07 –128.5 0.500 0.333

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 10 Appendix

ILC750 steel reinforcement (ST)

μEds ω1 ξ = x/d ζ = z/d εc2 [%] εs1 [%] σsd [MPa] αR ka

0 0 0 1 0 2.50 434.8 0 0.333
0.010 0.0102 0.0497 0.9834 – 0.13 2.50 434.8 0.204 0.333
0.015 0.0153 0.0606 0.9798 – 0.16 2.50 434.8 0.253 0.333
0.020 0.0205 0.0698 0.9767 – 0.19 2.50 434.8 0.293 0.333
0.025 0.0257 0.0778 0.9741 – 0.21 2.50 434.8 0.330 0.333
0.030 0.0309 0.0850 0.9717 – 0.23 2.50 434.8 0.363 0.333
0.035 0.0361 0.0916 0.9695 – 0.25 2.50 434.8 0.394 0.333
0.040 0.0413 0.0977 0.9674 – 0.27 2.50 434.8 0.423 0.333
0.045 0.0466 0.1034 0.9655 – 0.29 2.50 434.8 0.451 0.333
0.050 0.0519 0.1088 0.9637 – 0.31 2.50 434.8 0.477 0.333
0.055 0.0572 0.1144 0.9619 – 0.32 2.48 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.060 0.0626 0.1252 0.9583 – 0.32 2.24 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.065 0.0681 0.1362 0.9546 – 0.32 2.03 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.070 0.0736 0.1472 0.9509 – 0.32 1.85 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.075 0.0792 0.1584 0.9472 – 0.32 1.70 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.080 0.0848 0.1696 0.9435 – 0.32 1.57 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.085 0.0905 0.1809 0.9397 – 0.32 1.45 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.090 0.0962 0.1923 0.9359 – 0.32 1.34 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.095 0.1019 0.2039 0.9320 – 0.32 1.25 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.100 0.1077 0.2155 0.9282 – 0.32 1.17 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.105 0.1136 0.2272 0.9243 – 0.32 1.09 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.110 0.1195 0.2390 0.9203 – 0.32 1.02 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.115 0.1255 0.2510 0.9163 – 0.32 0.95 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.120 0.1315 0.2631 0.9123 – 0.32 0.90 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.125 0.1376 0.2753 0.9082 – 0.32 0.84 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.130 0.1438 0.2876 0.9041 – 0.32 0.79 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.135 0.1500 0.3000 0.9000 – 0.32 0.75 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.140 0.1563 0.3126 0.8958 – 0.32 0.70 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.145 0.1626 0.3253 0.8916 – 0.32 0.66 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.150 0.1691 0.3381 0.8873 – 0.32 0.63 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.155 0.1755 0.3511 0.8830 – 0.32 0.59 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.160 0.1821 0.3642 0.8786 – 0.32 0.56 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.165 0.1888 0.3775 0.8742 – 0.32 0.53 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.170 0.1955 0.3909 0.8697 – 0.32 0.50 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.175 0.2023 0.4046 0.8651 – 0.32 0.47 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.180 0.2092 0.4183 0.8606 – 0.32 0.44 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.185 0.2161 0.4323 0.8559 – 0.32 0.42 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.190 0.2232 0.4464 0.8512 – 0.32 0.40 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.195 0.2304 0.4608 0.8464 – 0.32 0.37 434.8 0.500 0.333

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 10.2 10.2 ω-TABLES WITHVON
BEMESSUNGSHILFE-ω-TABELLEN DESIGN VALUES
A. HÜCKLER

μEds ω1 ξ = x/d ζ = z/d εc2 [%] εs1 [%] σsd [MPa] αR ka

0.200 0.2377 0.4753 0.8416 – 0.32 0.35 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.205 0.2450 0.4900 0.8367 – 0.32 0.33 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.210 0.2525 0.5050 0.8317 – 0.32 0.31 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.215 0.2601 0.5202 0.8266 – 0.32 0.30 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.220 0.2678 0.5356 0.8215 – 0.32 0.28 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.225 0.2757 0.5513 0.8162 – 0.32 0.26 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.230 0.2836 0.5673 0.8109 – 0.32 0.24 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.235 0.2917 0.5835 0.8055 – 0.32 0.23 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.240 0.3000 0.6000 0.8000 – 0.32 0.21 371.0 0.500 0.333
0.245 0.3084 0.6168 0.7944 – 0.32 0.20 345.7 0.500 0.333
0.250 0.3170 0.6340 0.7887 – 0.32 0.18 321.3 0.500 0.333
0.255 0.3257 0.6515 0.7828 – 0.32 0.17 297.7 0.500 0.333
0.260 0.3347 0.6693 0.7769 – 0.32 0.16 274.9 0.500 0.333
0.265 0.3438 0.6876 0.7708 – 0.32 0.15 252.9 0.500 0.333
0.270 0.3531 0.7063 0.7646 – 0.32 0.13 231.4 0.500 0.333
0.275 0.3627 0.7254 0.7582 – 0.32 0.12 210.7 0.500 0.333
0.280 0.3725 0.7450 0.7517 – 0.32 0.11 190.5 0.500 0.333
0.285 0.3826 0.7652 0.7449 – 0.32 0.10 170.8 0.500 0.333
0.290 0.3929 0.7859 0.7380 – 0.32 0.09 151.6 0.500 0.333
0.295 0.4036 0.8072 0.7309 – 0.32 0.08 132.9 0.500 0.333
0.300 0.4146 0.8292 0.7236 – 0.32 0.07 114.6 0.500 0.333
0.305 0.4260 0.8519 0.7160 – 0.32 0.06 96.7 0.500 0.333
0.310 0.4378 0.8755 0.7082 – 0.32 0.05 79.1 0.500 0.333
0.315 0.4500 0.9000 0.7000 – 0.32 0.04 61.8 0.500 0.333
0.320 0.4628 0.9255 0.6915 – 0.32 0.03 44.8 0.500 0.333
0.325 0.4761 0.9523 0.6826 – 0.32 0.02 27.9 0.500 0.333
0.330 0.4902 0.9804 0.6732 – 0.32 0.01 11.1 0.500 0.333
0.335 0.5051 1.0101 0.6633 – 0.32 0 – 5.6 0.500 0.333
0.340 0.5209 1.0417 0.6528 – 0.32 – 0.01 –22.3 0.500 0.333
0.345 0.5379 1.0757 0.6414 – 0.32 – 0.02 – 39.2 0.500 0.333
0.350 0.5564 1.1127 0.6291 – 0.32 – 0.03 – 56.4 0.500 0.333
0.355 0.5768 1.1536 0.6155 – 0.32 – 0.04 –74.1 0.500 0.333
0.360 0.6000 1.2000 0.6000 – 0.32 – 0.05 – 92.8 0.500 0.333
0.365 0.6275 1.2551 0.5816 – 0.32 – 0.07 –113.1 0.500 0.333
0.370 0.6634 1.3268 0.5577 – 0.32 – 0.08 –137.1 0.500 0.333

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 10 Appendix

ILC800 steel reinforcement (ST)

μEds ω1 ξ = x/d ζ = z/d εc2 [%] εs1 [%] σsd [MPa] αR ka

0 0 0 1 0 2.50 434.8 0 0.333
0.010 0.0102 0.0520 0.9827 – 0.14 2.50 434.8 0.196 0.333
0.015 0.0153 0.0633 0.9789 – 0.17 2.50 434.8 0.242 0.333
0.020 0.0205 0.0729 0.9757 – 0.20 2.50 434.8 0.281 0.333
0.025 0.0257 0.0812 0.9729 – 0.22 2.50 434.8 0.316 0.333
0.030 0.0309 0.0887 0.9704 – 0.24 2.50 434.8 0.349 0.333
0.035 0.0362 0.0957 0.9681 – 0.26 2.50 434.8 0.378 0.333
0.040 0.0414 0.1020 0.9660 – 0.28 2.50 434.8 0.406 0.333
0.045 0.0467 0.1080 0.9640 – 0.30 2.50 434.8 0.432 0.333
0.050 0.0520 0.1135 0.9622 – 0.32 2.50 434.8 0.458 0.333
0.055 0.0573 0.1189 0.9604 – 0.34 2.50 434.8 0.481 0.333
0.060 0.0626 0.1252 0.9583 – 0.35 2.44 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.065 0.0681 0.1362 0.9546 – 0.35 2.22 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.070 0.0736 0.1472 0.9509 – 0.35 2.03 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.075 0.0792 0.1584 0.9472 – 0.35 1.86 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.080 0.0848 0.1696 0.9435 – 0.35 1.71 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.085 0.0905 0.1809 0.9397 – 0.35 1.58 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.090 0.0962 0.1923 0.9359 – 0.35 1.47 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.095 0.1019 0.2039 0.9320 – 0.35 1.37 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.100 0.1077 0.2155 0.9282 – 0.35 1.27 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.105 0.1136 0.2272 0.9243 – 0.35 1.19 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.110 0.1195 0.2390 0.9203 – 0.35 1.11 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.115 0.1255 0.2510 0.9163 – 0.35 1.04 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.120 0.1315 0.2631 0.9123 – 0.35 0.98 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.125 0.1376 0.2753 0.9082 – 0.35 0.92 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.130 0.1438 0.2876 0.9041 – 0.35 0.87 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.135 0.1500 0.3000 0.9000 – 0.35 0.82 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.140 0.1563 0.3126 0.8958 – 0.35 0.77 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.145 0.1626 0.3253 0.8916 – 0.35 0.73 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.150 0.1691 0.3381 0.8873 – 0.35 0.69 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.155 0.1755 0.3511 0.8830 – 0.35 0.65 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.160 0.1821 0.3642 0.8786 – 0.35 0.61 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.165 0.1888 0.3775 0.8742 – 0.35 0.58 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.170 0.1955 0.3909 0.8697 – 0.35 0.55 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.175 0.2023 0.4046 0.8651 – 0.35 0.52 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.180 0.2092 0.4183 0.8606 – 0.35 0.49 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.185 0.2161 0.4323 0.8559 – 0.35 0.46 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.190 0.2232 0.4464 0.8512 – 0.35 0.43 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.195 0.2304 0.4608 0.8464 – 0.35 0.41 434.8 0.500 0.333

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BEMESSUNGSHILFE-ω-TABELLEN DESIGN VALUES
A. HÜCKLER

μEds ω1 ξ = x/d ζ = z/d εc2 [%] εs1 [%] σsd [MPa] αR ka

0.200 0.2377 0.4753 0.8416 – 0.35 0.39 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.205 0.2450 0.4900 0.8367 – 0.35 0.36 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.210 0.2525 0.5050 0.8317 – 0.35 0.34 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.215 0.2601 0.5202 0.8266 – 0.35 0.32 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.220 0.2678 0.5356 0.8215 – 0.35 0.30 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.225 0.2757 0.5513 0.8162 – 0.35 0.28 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.230 0.2836 0.5673 0.8109 – 0.35 0.27 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.235 0.2917 0.5835 0.8055 – 0.35 0.25 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.240 0.3000 0.6000 0.8000 – 0.35 0.23 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.245 0.3084 0.6168 0.7944 – 0.35 0.22 434.8 0.500 0.333
0.250 0.3170 0.6340 0.7887 – 0.35 0.20 351.4 0.500 0.333
0.255 0.3257 0.6515 0.7828 – 0.35 0.19 325.6 0.500 0.333
0.260 0.3347 0.6693 0.7769 – 0.35 0.17 300.7 0.500 0.333
0.265 0.3438 0.6876 0.7708 – 0.35 0.16 276.6 0.500 0.333
0.270 0.3531 0.7063 0.7646 – 0.35 0.15 253.1 0.500 0.333
0.275 0.3627 0.7254 0.7582 – 0.35 0.13 230.4 0.500 0.333
0.280 0.3725 0.7450 0.7517 – 0.35 0.12 208.3 0.500 0.333
0.285 0.3826 0.7652 0.7449 – 0.35 0.11 186.8 0.500 0.333
0.290 0.3929 0.7859 0.7380 – 0.35 0.10 165.9 0.500 0.333
0.295 0.4036 0.8072 0.7309 – 0.35 0.08 145.4 0.500 0.333
0.300 0.4146 0.8292 0.7236 – 0.35 0.07 125.4 0.500 0.333
0.305 0.4260 0.8519 0.7160 – 0.35 0.06 105.8 0.500 0.333
0.310 0.4378 0.8755 0.7082 – 0.35 0.05 86.6 0.500 0.333
0.315 0.4500 0.9000 0.7000 – 0.35 0.04 67.6 0.500 0.333
0.320 0.4628 0.9255 0.6915 – 0.35 0.03 49.0 0.500 0.333
0.325 0.4761 0.9523 0.6826 – 0.35 0.02 30.5 0.500 0.333
0.330 0.4902 0.9804 0.6732 – 0.35 0.01 12.2 0.500 0.333
0.335 0.5051 1.0101 0.6633 – 0.35 0 – 6.1 0.500 0.333
0.340 0.5209 1.0417 0.6528 – 0.35 – 0.01 – 24.4 0.500 0.333
0.345 0.5379 1.0757 0.6414 – 0.35 – 0.02 – 42.9 0.500 0.333
0.350 0.5564 1.1127 0.6291 – 0.35 – 0.04 – 61.7 0.500 0.333
0.355 0.5768 1.1536 0.6155 – 0.35 – 0.05 – 81.0 0.500 0.333
0.360 0.6000 1.2000 0.6000 – 0.35 – 0.06 –101.4 0.500 0.333
0.365 0.6275 1.2551 0.5816 – 0.35 – 0.07 –123.7 0.500 0.333
0.370 0.6634 1.3268 0.5577 – 0.35 – 0.09 –149.9 0.500 0.333

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 10 Appendix

ILC600 glass-fiber reinforcement (GF)

μEdf ω1 ξ = x/d ζ = z/d εc2 [%] εf1 [%] σfd [MPa] αR ka

0 0 0 1 0 0.74 444.0 0 0.333
0.010 0.0103 0.0781 0.9740 – 0.06 0.74 444.0 0.131 0.333
0.015 0.0155 0.0954 0.9682 – 0.08 0.74 444.0 0.162 0.333
0.020 0.0208 0.1096 0.9635 – 0.09 0.74 444.0 0.189 0.333
0.025 0.0261 0.1219 0.9594 – 0.10 0.74 444.0 0.214 0.333
0.030 0.0314 0.1329 0.9557 – 0.11 0.74 444.0 0.236 0.333
0.035 0.0367 0.1427 0.9524 – 0.12 0.74 444.0 0.257 0.333
0.040 0.0421 0.1521 0.9493 – 0.13 0.74 444.0 0.277 0.333
0.045 0.0475 0.1609 0.9464 – 0.14 0.74 444.0 0.296 0.333
0.050 0.0530 0.1690 0.9437 – 0.15 0.74 444.0 0.314 0.333
0.055 0.0584 0.1766 0.9411 – 0.16 0.74 444.0 0.331 0.333
0.060 0.0639 0.1839 0.9387 – 0.17 0.74 444.0 0.347 0.333
0.065 0.0694 0.1908 0.9364 – 0.17 0.74 444.0 0.364 0.333
0.070 0.0749 0.1975 0.9342 – 0.18 0.74 444.0 0.379 0.333
0.075 0.0805 0.2038 0.9321 – 0.19 0.74 444.0 0.395 0.333
0.080 0.0860 0.2098 0.9301 – 0.20 0.74 444.0 0.410 0.333
0.085 0.0916 0.2158 0.9281 – 0.20 0.74 444.0 0.424 0.333
0.090 0.0972 0.2215 0.9262 – 0.21 0.74 444.0 0.438 0.333
0.095 0.1028 0.2269 0.9244 – 0.22 0.74 444.0 0.453 0.333
0.100 0.1084 0.2323 0.9226 – 0.22 0.74 444.0 0.467 0.333
0.105 0.1140 0.2375 0.9208 – 0.23 0.74 444.0 0.480 0.333
0.110 0.1197 0.2425 0.9192 – 0.24 0.74 444.0 0.493 0.333
0.115 0.1255 0.2510 0.9163 – 0.24 0.72 430.0 0.500 0.333
0.120 0.1315 0.2631 0.9123 – 0.24 0.67 403.0 0.500 0.333
0.125 0.1376 0.2753 0.9082 – 0.24 0.63 379.0 0.500 0.333
0.130 0.1438 0.2876 0.9041 – 0.24 0.59 357.0 0.500 0.333
0.135 0.1500 0.3000 0.9000 – 0.24 0.56 336.0 0.500 0.333
0.140 0.1563 0.3126 0.8958 – 0.24 0.53 317.0 0.500 0.333
0.145 0.1626 0.3253 0.8916 – 0.24 0.50 299.0 0.500 0.333
0.150 0.1691 0.3381 0.8873 – 0.24 0.47 282.0 0.500 0.333
0.155 0.1755 0.3511 0.8830 – 0.24 0.44 266.0 0.500 0.333
0.160 0.1821 0.3642 0.8786 – 0.24 0.42 251.0 0.500 0.333
0.165 0.1888 0.3775 0.8742 – 0.24 0.40 237.0 0.500 0.333
0.170 0.1955 0.3909 0.8697 – 0.24 0.37 224.0 0.500 0.333
0.175 0.2023 0.4046 0.8651 – 0.24 0.35 212.0 0.500 0.333
0.180 0.2092 0.4183 0.8606 – 0.24 0.33 200.0 0.500 0.333
0.185 0.2161 0.4323 0.8559 – 0.24 0.32 189.0 0.500 0.333
0.190 0.2232 0.4464 0.8512 – 0.24 0.30 179.0 0.500 0.333
0.195 0.2304 0.4608 0.8464 – 0.24 0.28 169.0 0.500 0.333

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 10.2 10.2 ω-TABLES WITHVON
BEMESSUNGSHILFE-ω-TABELLEN DESIGN VALUES
A. HÜCKLER

μEdf ω1 ξ = x/d ζ = z/d εc2 [%] εf1 [%] σfd [MPa] αR ka

0.200 0.2377 0.4753 0.8416 – 0.24 0.26 159.0 0.500 0.333
0.205 0.2450 0.4900 0.8367 – 0.24 0.25 150.0 0.500 0.333
0.210 0.2525 0.5050 0.8317 – 0.24 0.24 141.0 0.500 0.333
0.215 0.2601 0.5202 0.8266 – 0.24 0.22 133.0 0.500 0.333
0.220 0.2678 0.5356 0.8215 – 0.24 0.21 125.0 0.500 0.333
0.225 0.2757 0.5513 0.8162 – 0.24 0.20 117.0 0.500 0.333
0.230 0.2836 0.5673 0.8109 – 0.24 0.18 110.0 0.500 0.333
0.235 0.2917 0.5835 0.8055 – 0.24 0.17 103.0 0.500 0.333
0.240 0.3000 0.6000 0.8000 – 0.24 0.16 96.0 0.500 0.333
0.245 0.3084 0.6168 0.7944 – 0.24 0.15 89.0 0.500 0.333
0.250 0.3170 0.6340 0.7887 – 0.24 0.14 83.0 0.500 0.333
0.255 0.3257 0.6515 0.7828 – 0.24 0.13 77.0 0.500 0.333
0.260 0.3347 0.6693 0.7769 – 0.24 0.12 71.0 0.500 0.333
0.265 0.3438 0.6876 0.7708 – 0.24 0.11 65.0 0.500 0.333
0.270 0.3531 0.7063 0.7646 – 0.24 0.10 60.0 0.500 0.333
0.275 0.3627 0.7254 0.7582 – 0.24 0.09 55.0 0.500 0.333
0.280 0.3725 0.7450 0.7517 – 0.24 0.08 49.0 0.500 0.333
0.285 0.3826 0.7652 0.7449 – 0.24 0.07 44.0 0.500 0.333
0.290 0.3929 0.7859 0.7380 – 0.24 0.07 39.0 0.500 0.333
0.295 0.4036 0.8072 0.7309 – 0.24 0.06 34.0 0.500 0.333
0.300 0.4146 0.8292 0.7236 – 0.24 0.05 30.0 0.500 0.333
0.305 0.4260 0.8519 0.7160 – 0.24 0.04 25.0 0.500 0.333
0.310 0.4378 0.8755 0.7082 – 0.24 0.03 20.0 0.500 0.333
0.315 0.4500 0.9000 0.7000 – 0.24 0.03 16.0 0.500 0.333
0.320 0.4628 0.9255 0.6915 – 0.24 0.02 12.0 0.500 0.333
0.325 0.4761 0.9523 0.6826 – 0.24 0.01 7.0 0.500 0.333
0.330 0.4902 0.9804 0.6732 – 0.24 0 3.0 0.500 0.333
0.335 0.5051 1.0101 0.6633 – 0.24 0 –1.0 0.500 0.333
0.340 0.5209 1.0417 0.6528 – 0.24 – 0.01 – 6.0 0.500 0.333
0.345 0.5379 1.0757 0.6414 – 0.24 – 0.02 –10.0 0.500 0.333
0.350 0.5564 1.1127 0.6291 – 0.24 – 0.02 –15.0 0.500 0.333
0.355 0.5768 1.1536 0.6155 – 0.24 – 0.03 –19.0 0.500 0.333
0.360 0.6000 1.2000 0.6000 – 0.24 – 0.04 – 24.0 0.500 0.333
0.365 0.6275 1.2551 0.5816 – 0.24 – 0.05 – 29.0 0.500 0.333
0.370 0.6634 1.3268 0.5577 – 0.24 – 0.06 – 35.0 0.500 0.333

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 10 Appendix

ILC650 glass-fiber reinforcement (GF)

μEdf ω1 ξ = x/d ζ = z/d εc2 [%] εf1 [%] σfd [MPa] αR ka

0 0 0 1 0 0.74 444.0 0 0.333
0.010 0.0103 0.0829 0.9724 – 0.07 0.74 444.0 0.124 0.333
0.015 0.0155 0.1008 0.9664 – 0.08 0.74 444.0 0.154 0.333
0.020 0.0208 0.1159 0.9614 – 0.10 0.74 444.0 0.179 0.333
0.025 0.0261 0.1290 0.9570 – 0.11 0.74 444.0 0.203 0.333
0.030 0.0315 0.1405 0.9532 – 0.12 0.74 444.0 0.224 0.333
0.035 0.0369 0.1511 0.9496 – 0.13 0.74 444.0 0.244 0.333
0.040 0.0423 0.1607 0.9464 – 0.14 0.74 444.0 0.263 0.333
0.045 0.0477 0.1699 0.9434 – 0.15 0.74 444.0 0.281 0.333
0.050 0.0532 0.1785 0.9405 – 0.16 0.74 444.0 0.298 0.333
0.055 0.0586 0.1866 0.9378 – 0.17 0.74 444.0 0.314 0.333
0.060 0.0642 0.1942 0.9353 – 0.18 0.74 444.0 0.330 0.333
0.065 0.0697 0.2014 0.9329 – 0.19 0.74 444.0 0.346 0.333
0.070 0.0752 0.2084 0.9305 – 0.19 0.74 444.0 0.361 0.333
0.075 0.0808 0.2151 0.9283 – 0.20 0.74 444.0 0.376 0.333
0.080 0.0864 0.2215 0.9262 – 0.21 0.74 444.0 0.390 0.333
0.085 0.0920 0.2277 0.9241 – 0.22 0.74 444.0 0.404 0.333
0.090 0.0976 0.2335 0.9222 – 0.23 0.74 444.0 0.418 0.333
0.095 0.1032 0.2394 0.9202 – 0.23 0.74 444.0 0.431 0.333
0.100 0.1089 0.2450 0.9183 – 0.24 0.74 444.0 0.445 0.333
0.105 0.1146 0.2502 0.9166 – 0.25 0.74 444.0 0.458 0.333
0.110 0.1202 0.2555 0.9148 – 0.25 0.74 444.0 0.471 0.333
0.115 0.1260 0.2609 0.9130 – 0.26 0.74 444.0 0.483 0.333
0.120 0.1317 0.2656 0.9115 – 0.27 0.74 444.0 0.496 0.333
0.125 0.1376 0.2753 0.9082 – 0.27 0.71 426.5 0.500 0.333
0.130 0.1438 0.2876 0.9041 – 0.27 0.67 401.4 0.500 0.333
0.135 0.1500 0.3000 0.9000 – 0.27 0.63 378.0 0.500 0.333
0.140 0.1563 0.3126 0.8958 – 0.27 0.59 356.3 0.500 0.333
0.145 0.1626 0.3253 0.8916 – 0.27 0.56 336.1 0.500 0.333
0.150 0.1691 0.3381 0.8873 – 0.27 0.53 317.1 0.500 0.333
0.155 0.1755 0.3511 0.8830 – 0.27 0.50 299.4 0.500 0.333
0.160 0.1821 0.3642 0.8786 – 0.27 0.47 282.8 0.500 0.333
0.165 0.1888 0.3775 0.8742 – 0.27 0.45 267.1 0.500 0.333
0.170 0.1955 0.3909 0.8697 – 0.27 0.42 252.4 0.500 0.333
0.175 0.2023 0.4046 0.8651 – 0.27 0.40 238.4 0.500 0.333
0.180 0.2092 0.4183 0.8606 – 0.27 0.38 225.2 0.500 0.333
0.185 0.2161 0.4323 0.8559 – 0.27 0.35 212.7 0.500 0.333
0.190 0.2232 0.4464 0.8512 – 0.27 0.33 200.9 0.500 0.333
0.195 0.2304 0.4608 0.8464 – 0.27 0.32 189.6 0.500 0.333

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 10.2 10.2 ω-TABLES WITHVON
BEMESSUNGSHILFE-ω-TABELLEN DESIGN VALUES
A. HÜCKLER

μEdf ω1 ξ = x/d ζ = z/d εc2 [%] εf1 [%] σfd [MPa] αR ka

0.200 0.2377 0.4753 0.8416 – 0.27 0.30 178.8 0.500 0.333
0.205 0.2450 0.4900 0.8367 – 0.27 0.28 168.6 0.500 0.333
0.210 0.2525 0.5050 0.8317 – 0.27 0.26 158.8 0.500 0.333
0.215 0.2601 0.5202 0.8266 – 0.27 0.25 149.4 0.500 0.333
0.220 0.2678 0.5356 0.8215 – 0.27 0.23 140.4 0.500 0.333
0.225 0.2757 0.5513 0.8162 – 0.27 0.22 131.8 0.500 0.333
0.230 0.2836 0.5673 0.8109 – 0.27 0.21 123.6 0.500 0.333
0.235 0.2917 0.5835 0.8055 – 0.27 0.19 115.6 0.500 0.333
0.240 0.3000 0.6000 0.8000 – 0.27 0.18 108.0 0.500 0.333
0.245 0.3084 0.6168 0.7944 – 0.27 0.17 100.6 0.500 0.333
0.250 0.3170 0.6340 0.7887 – 0.27 0.16 93.5 0.500 0.333
0.255 0.3257 0.6515 0.7828 – 0.27 0.14 86.7 0.500 0.333
0.260 0.3347 0.6693 0.7769 – 0.27 0.13 80.0 0.500 0.333
0.265 0.3438 0.6876 0.7708 – 0.27 0.12 73.6 0.500 0.333
0.270 0.3531 0.7063 0.7646 – 0.27 0.11 67.4 0.500 0.333
0.275 0.3627 0.7254 0.7582 – 0.27 0.10 61.3 0.500 0.333
0.280 0.3725 0.7450 0.7517 – 0.27 0.09 55.4 0.500 0.333
0.285 0.3826 0.7652 0.7449 – 0.27 0.08 49.7 0.500 0.333
0.290 0.3929 0.7859 0.7380 – 0.27 0.07 44.1 0.500 0.333
0.295 0.4036 0.8072 0.7309 – 0.27 0.06 38.7 0.500 0.333
0.300 0.4146 0.8292 0.7236 – 0.27 0.06 33.4 0.500 0.333
0.305 0.4260 0.8519 0.7160 – 0.27 0.05 28.2 0.500 0.333
0.310 0.4378 0.8755 0.7082 – 0.27 0.04 23.0 0.500 0.333
0.315 0.4500 0.9000 0.7000 – 0.27 0.03 18.0 0.500 0.333
0.320 0.4628 0.9255 0.6915 – 0.27 0.02 13.0 0.500 0.333
0.325 0.4761 0.9523 0.6826 – 0.27 0.01 8.1 0.500 0.333
0.330 0.4902 0.9804 0.6732 – 0.27 0.01 3.2 0.500 0.333
0.335 0.5051 1.0101 0.6633 – 0.27 0 –1.6 0.500 0.333
0.340 0.5209 1.0417 0.6528 – 0.27 – 0.01 – 6.5 0.500 0.333
0.345 0.5379 1.0757 0.6414 – 0.27 – 0.02 –11.4 0.500 0.333
0.350 0.5564 1.1127 0.6291 – 0.27 – 0.03 –16.4 0.500 0.333
0.355 0.5768 1.1536 0.6155 – 0.27 – 0.04 – 21.6 0.500 0.333
0.360 0.6000 1.2000 0.6000 – 0.27 – 0.05 – 27.0 0.500 0.333
0.365 0.6275 1.2551 0.5816 – 0.27 – 0.05 – 32.9 0.500 0.333
0.370 0.6634 1.3268 0.5577 – 0.27 – 0.07 – 39.9 0.500 0.333

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 10 Appendix

ILC700 glass-fiber reinforcement (GF)

μEdf ω1 ξ = x/d ζ = z/d εc2 [%] εf1 [%] σfd [MPa] αR ka

0 0 0 1 0 0.74 444.0 0 0.333
0.010 0.0103 0.0872 0.9709 – 0.07 0.74 444.0 0.118 0.333
0.015 0.0156 0.1062 0.9646 – 0.09 0.74 444.0 0.146 0.333
0.020 0.0208 0.1219 0.9594 – 0.10 0.74 444.0 0.171 0.333
0.025 0.0262 0.1357 0.9548 – 0.12 0.74 444.0 0.193 0.333
0.030 0.0316 0.1477 0.9508 – 0.13 0.74 444.0 0.214 0.333
0.035 0.0370 0.1588 0.9471 – 0.14 0.74 444.0 0.233 0.333
0.040 0.0424 0.1690 0.9437 – 0.15 0.74 444.0 0.251 0.333
0.045 0.0478 0.1783 0.9406 – 0.16 0.74 444.0 0.268 0.333
0.050 0.0533 0.1874 0.9375 – 0.17 0.74 444.0 0.285 0.333
0.055 0.0588 0.1958 0.9347 – 0.18 0.74 444.0 0.300 0.333
0.060 0.0644 0.2038 0.9321 – 0.19 0.74 444.0 0.316 0.333
0.065 0.0699 0.2114 0.9295 – 0.20 0.74 444.0 0.331 0.333
0.070 0.0755 0.2189 0.9270 – 0.21 0.74 444.0 0.345 0.333
0.075 0.0811 0.2256 0.9248 – 0.22 0.74 444.0 0.359 0.333
0.080 0.0867 0.2323 0.9226 – 0.22 0.74 444.0 0.373 0.333
0.085 0.0923 0.2387 0.9204 – 0.23 0.74 444.0 0.387 0.333
0.090 0.0980 0.2449 0.9184 – 0.24 0.74 444.0 0.400 0.333
0.095 0.1037 0.2507 0.9164 – 0.25 0.74 444.0 0.413 0.333
0.100 0.1094 0.2567 0.9144 – 0.26 0.74 444.0 0.426 0.333
0.105 0.1151 0.2623 0.9126 – 0.26 0.74 444.0 0.439 0.333
0.110 0.1208 0.2676 0.9108 – 0.27 0.74 444.0 0.451 0.333
0.115 0.1265 0.2730 0.9090 – 0.28 0.74 444.0 0.463 0.333
0.120 0.1323 0.2782 0.9073 – 0.29 0.74 444.0 0.475 0.333
0.125 0.1380 0.2833 0.9056 – 0.29 0.74 444.0 0.487 0.333
0.130 0.1438 0.2881 0.9040 – 0.30 0.74 444.0 0.499 0.333
0.135 0.1500 0.3000 0.9000 – 0.30 0.70 420.0 0.500 0.333
0.140 0.1563 0.3126 0.8958 – 0.30 0.66 395.9 0.500 0.333
0.145 0.1626 0.3253 0.8916 – 0.30 0.62 373.4 0.500 0.333
0.150 0.1691 0.3381 0.8873 – 0.30 0.59 352.4 0.500 0.333
0.155 0.1755 0.3511 0.8830 – 0.30 0.55 332.7 0.500 0.333
0.160 0.1821 0.3642 0.8786 – 0.30 0.52 314.2 0.500 0.333
0.165 0.1888 0.3775 0.8742 – 0.30 0.49 296.8 0.500 0.333
0.170 0.1955 0.3909 0.8697 – 0.30 0.47 280.4 0.500 0.333
0.175 0.2023 0.4046 0.8651 – 0.30 0.44 264.9 0.500 0.333
0.180 0.2092 0.4183 0.8606 – 0.30 0.42 250.3 0.500 0.333
0.185 0.2161 0.4323 0.8559 – 0.30 0.39 236.4 0.500 0.333
0.190 0.2232 0.4464 0.8512 – 0.30 0.37 223.2 0.500 0.333
0.195 0.2304 0.4608 0.8464 – 0.30 0.35 210.7 0.500 0.333

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 10.2 10.2 ω-TABLES WITHVON
BEMESSUNGSHILFE-ω-TABELLEN DESIGN VALUES
A. HÜCKLER

μEdf ω1 ξ = x/d ζ = z/d εc2 [%] εf1 [%] σfd [MPa] αR ka

0.200 0.2377 0.4753 0.8416 – 0.3 0.33 198.7 0.500 0.333
0.205 0.2450 0.4900 0.8367 – 0.3 0.31 187.3 0.500 0.333
0.210 0.2525 0.5050 0.8317 – 0.3 0.29 176.4 0.500 0.333
0.215 0.2601 0.5202 0.8266 – 0.3 0.28 166.0 0.500 0.333
0.220 0.2678 0.5356 0.8215 – 0.3 0.26 156.0 0.500 0.333
0.225 0.2757 0.5513 0.8162 – 0.3 0.24 146.5 0.500 0.333
0.230 0.2836 0.5673 0.8109 – 0.3 0.23 137.3 0.500 0.333
0.235 0.2917 0.5835 0.8055 – 0.3 0.21 128.5 0.500 0.333
0.240 0.3000 0.6000 0.8000 – 0.3 0.20 120.0 0.500 0.333
0.245 0.3084 0.6168 0.7944 – 0.3 0.19 111.8 0.500 0.333
0.250 0.3170 0.6340 0.7887 – 0.3 0.17 103.9 0.500 0.333
0.255 0.3257 0.6515 0.7828 – 0.3 0.16 96.3 0.500 0.333
0.260 0.3347 0.6693 0.7769 – 0.3 0.15 88.9 0.500 0.333
0.265 0.3438 0.6876 0.7708 – 0.3 0.14 81.8 0.500 0.333
0.270 0.3531 0.7063 0.7646 – 0.3 0.12 74.9 0.500 0.333
0.275 0.3627 0.7254 0.7582 – 0.3 0.11 68.1 0.500 0.333
0.280 0.3725 0.7450 0.7517 – 0.3 0.10 61.6 0.500 0.333
0.285 0.3826 0.7652 0.7449 – 0.3 0.09 55.2 0.500 0.333
0.290 0.3929 0.7859 0.7380 – 0.3 0.08 49.0 0.500 0.333
0.295 0.4036 0.8072 0.7309 – 0.3 0.07 43.0 0.500 0.333
0.300 0.4146 0.8292 0.7236 – 0.3 0.06 37.1 0.500 0.333
0.305 0.4260 0.8519 0.7160 – 0.3 0.05 31.3 0.500 0.333
0.310 0.4378 0.8755 0.7082 – 0.3 0.04 25.6 0.500 0.333
0.315 0.4500 0.9000 0.7000 – 0.3 0.03 20.0 0.500 0.333
0.320 0.4628 0.9255 0.6915 – 0.3 0.02 14.5 0.500 0.333
0.325 0.4761 0.9523 0.6826 – 0.3 0.02 9.0 0.500 0.333
0.330 0.4902 0.9804 0.6732 – 0.3 0.01 3.6 0.500 0.333
0.335 0.5051 1.0101 0.6633 – 0.3 0 –1.8 0.500 0.333
0.340 0.5209 1.0417 0.6528 – 0.3 – 0.01 – 7.2 0.500 0.333
0.345 0.5379 1.0757 0.6414 – 0.3 – 0.02 –12.7 0.500 0.333
0.350 0.5564 1.1127 0.6291 – 0.3 – 0.03 –18.2 0.500 0.333
0.355 0.5768 1.1536 0.6155 – 0.3 – 0.04 – 24.0 0.500 0.333
0.360 0.6000 1.2000 0.6000 – 0.3 – 0.05 – 30.0 0.500 0.333
0.365 0.6275 1.2551 0.5816 – 0.3 – 0.06 – 36.6 0.500 0.333
0.370 0.6634 1.3268 0.5577 – 0.3 – 0.07 – 44.3 0.500 0.333

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 10 Appendix

ILC750 glass-fiber reinforcement (GF)

μEdf ω1 ξ = x/d ζ = z/d εc2 [%] εf1 [%] σfd [MPa] αR ka

0 0 0 1 0 0.74 444.0 0 0.333
0.010 0.0103 0.0899 0.9700 – 0.07 0.74 444.0 0.115 0.333
0.015 0.0156 0.1095 0.9635 – 0.09 0.74 444.0 0.142 0.333
0.020 0.0209 0.1257 0.9581 – 0.11 0.74 444.0 0.166 0.333
0.025 0.0262 0.1399 0.9534 – 0.12 0.74 444.0 0.187 0.333
0.030 0.0316 0.1523 0.9492 – 0.13 0.74 444.0 0.207 0.333
0.035 0.0370 0.1637 0.9454 – 0.14 0.74 444.0 0.226 0.333
0.040 0.0425 0.1742 0.9419 – 0.16 0.74 444.0 0.244 0.333
0.045 0.0479 0.1836 0.9388 – 0.17 0.74 444.0 0.261 0.333
0.050 0.0534 0.1930 0.9357 – 0.18 0.74 444.0 0.277 0.333
0.055 0.0590 0.2017 0.9328 – 0.19 0.74 444.0 0.292 0.333
0.060 0.0645 0.2099 0.9300 – 0.20 0.74 444.0 0.307 0.333
0.065 0.0701 0.2175 0.9275 – 0.21 0.74 444.0 0.322 0.333
0.070 0.0757 0.2252 0.9249 – 0.22 0.74 444.0 0.336 0.333
0.075 0.0813 0.2323 0.9226 – 0.22 0.74 444.0 0.350 0.333
0.080 0.0869 0.2391 0.9203 – 0.23 0.74 444.0 0.364 0.333
0.085 0.0926 0.2457 0.9181 – 0.24 0.74 444.0 0.377 0.333
0.090 0.0983 0.2521 0.9160 – 0.25 0.74 444.0 0.390 0.333
0.095 0.1039 0.2582 0.9139 – 0.26 0.74 444.0 0.403 0.333
0.100 0.1096 0.2640 0.912 – 0.27 0.74 444.0 0.415 0.333
0.105 0.1154 0.2699 0.9100 – 0.27 0.74 444.0 0.428 0.333
0.110 0.1211 0.2755 0.9082 – 0.28 0.74 444.0 0.440 0.333
0.115 0.1269 0.2807 0.9064 – 0.29 0.74 444.0 0.452 0.333
0.120 0.1326 0.2861 0.9046 – 0.30 0.74 444.0 0.464 0.333
0.125 0.1384 0.2913 0.9029 – 0.30 0.74 444.0 0.475 0.333
0.130 0.1443 0.2964 0.9012 – 0.31 0.74 444.0 0.487 0.333
0.135 0.1501 0.3012 0.8996 – 0.32 0.74 444.0 0.498 0.333
0.140 0.1563 0.3126 0.8958 – 0.32 0.70 422.3 0.500 0.333
0.145 0.1626 0.3253 0.8916 – 0.32 0.66 398.3 0.500 0.333
0.150 0.1691 0.3381 0.8873 – 0.32 0.63 375.9 0.500 0.333
0.155 0.1755 0.3511 0.8830 – 0.32 0.59 354.9 0.500 0.333
0.160 0.1821 0.3642 0.8786 – 0.32 0.56 335.2 0.500 0.333
0.165 0.1888 0.3775 0.8742 – 0.32 0.53 316.6 0.500 0.333
0.170 0.1955 0.3909 0.8697 – 0.32 0.50 299.1 0.500 0.333
0.175 0.2023 0.4046 0.8651 – 0.32 0.47 282.6 0.500 0.333
0.180 0.2092 0.4183 0.8606 – 0.32 0.44 267.0 0.500 0.333
0.185 0.2161 0.4323 0.8559 – 0.32 0.42 252.1 0.500 0.333
0.190 0.2232 0.4464 0.8512 – 0.32 0.40 238.1 0.500 0.333
0.195 0.2304 0.4608 0.8464 – 0.32 0.37 224.7 0.500 0.333

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 10.2 10.2 ω-TABLES WITHVON
BEMESSUNGSHILFE-ω-TABELLEN DESIGN VALUES
A. HÜCKLER

μEdf ω1 ξ = x/d ζ = z/d εc2 [%] εf1 [%] σfd [MPa] αR ka

0.200 0.2377 0.4753 0.8416 – 0.32 0.35 212.0 0.500 0.333
0.205 0.2450 0.4900 0.8367 – 0.32 0.33 199.8 0.500 0.333
0.210 0.2525 0.5050 0.8317 – 0.32 0.31 188.2 0.500 0.333
0.215 0.2601 0.5202 0.8266 – 0.32 0.30 177.1 0.500 0.333
0.220 0.2678 0.5356 0.8215 – 0.32 0.28 166.5 0.500 0.333
0.225 0.2757 0.5513 0.8162 – 0.32 0.26 156.3 0.500 0.333
0.230 0.2836 0.5673 0.8109 – 0.32 0.24 146.5 0.500 0.333
0.235 0.2917 0.5835 0.8055 – 0.32 0.23 137.1 0.500 0.333
0.240 0.3000 0.6000 0.8000 – 0.32 0.21 128.0 0.500 0.333
0.245 0.3084 0.6168 0.7944 – 0.32 0.20 119.3 0.500 0.333
0.250 0.3170 0.6340 0.7887 – 0.32 0.18 110.9 0.500 0.333
0.255 0.3257 0.6515 0.7828 – 0.32 0.17 102.7 0.500 0.333
0.260 0.3347 0.6693 0.7769 – 0.32 0.16 94.9 0.500 0.333
0.265 0.3438 0.6876 0.7708 – 0.32 0.15 87.2 0.500 0.333
0.270 0.3531 0.7063 0.7646 – 0.32 0.13 79.8 0.500 0.333
0.275 0.3627 0.7254 0.7582 – 0.32 0.12 72.7 0.500 0.333
0.280 0.3725 0.7450 0.7517 – 0.32 0.11 65.7 0.500 0.333
0.285 0.3826 0.7652 0.7449 – 0.32 0.10 58.9 0.500 0.333
0.290 0.3929 0.7859 0.7380 – 0.32 0.09 52.3 0.500 0.333
0.295 0.4036 0.8072 0.7309 – 0.32 0.08 45.9 0.500 0.333
0.300 0.4146 0.8292 0.7236 – 0.32 0.07 39.6 0.500 0.333
0.305 0.4260 0.8519 0.7160 – 0.32 0.06 33.4 0.500 0.333
0.310 0.4378 0.8755 0.7082 – 0.32 0.05 27.3 0.500 0.333
0.315 0.4500 0.9000 0.7000 – 0.32 0.04 21.3 0.500 0.333
0.320 0.4628 0.9255 0.6915 – 0.32 0.03 15.4 0.500 0.333
0.325 0.4761 0.9523 0.6826 – 0.32 0.02 9.6 0.500 0.333
0.330 0.4902 0.9804 0.6732 – 0.32 0.01 3.8 0.500 0.333
0.335 0.5051 1.0101 0.6633 – 0.32 0 –1.9 0.500 0.333
0.340 0.5209 1.0417 0.6528 – 0.32 – 0.01 – 7.7 0.500 0.333
0.345 0.5379 1.0757 0.6414 – 0.32 – 0.02 –13.5 0.500 0.333
0.350 0.5564 1.1127 0.6291 – 0.32 – 0.03 –19.4 0.500 0.333
0.355 0.5768 1.1536 0.6155 – 0.32 – 0.04 – 25.6 0.500 0.333
0.360 0.6000 1.2000 0.6000 – 0.32 – 0.05 – 32.0 0.500 0.333
0.365 0.6275 1.2551 0.5816 – 0.32 – 0.07 – 39.0 0.500 0.333
0.370 0.6634 1.3268 0.5577 – 0.32 – 0.08 – 47.3 0.500 0.333

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 10 Appendix

ILC800 glass-fiber reinforcement (GF)

μEdf ω1 ξ = x/d ζ = z/d εc2 [%] εf1 [%] σfd [MPa] αR ka

0 0 0 1 0 0.74 444.0 0 0.333
0.010 0.0103 0.0938 0.9687 – 0.08 0.74 444.0 0.110 0.333
0.015 0.0156 0.1147 0.9618 – 0.10 0.74 444.0 0.136 0.333
0.020 0.0209 0.1307 0.9564 – 0.11 0.74 444.0 0.160 0.333
0.025 0.0263 0.1460 0.9513 – 0.13 0.74 444.0 0.180 0.333
0.030 0.0317 0.1584 0.9472 – 0.14 0.74 444.0 0.200 0.333
0.035 0.0371 0.1710 0.9430 – 0.15 0.74 444.0 0.217 0.333
0.040 0.0426 0.1812 0.9396 – 0.16 0.74 444.0 0.235 0.333
0.045 0.0481 0.1915 0.9362 – 0.18 0.74 444.0 0.251 0.333
0.050 0.0536 0.2015 0.9328 – 0.19 0.74 444.0 0.266 0.333
0.055 0.0592 0.2105 0.9298 – 0.20 0.74 444.0 0.281 0.333
0.060 0.0647 0.2186 0.9271 – 0.21 0.74 444.0 0.296 0.333
0.065 0.0703 0.2268 0.9244 – 0.22 0.74 444.0 0.310 0.333
0.070 0.0759 0.2344 0.9219 – 0.23 0.74 444.0 0.324 0.333
0.075 0.0816 0.2421 0.9193 – 0.24 0.74 444.0 0.337 0.333
0.080 0.0873 0.2493 0.9169 – 0.25 0.74 444.0 0.350 0.333
0.085 0.0929 0.2560 0.9147 – 0.25 0.74 444.0 0.363 0.333
0.090 0.0986 0.2623 0.9126 – 0.26 0.74 444.0 0.376 0.333
0.095 0.1044 0.2690 0.9103 – 0.27 0.74 444.0 0.388 0.333
0.100 0.1101 0.2753 0.9082 – 0.28 0.74 444.0 0.400 0.333
0.105 0.1158 0.2805 0.9065 – 0.29 0.74 444.0 0.413 0.333
0.110 0.1216 0.2861 0.9046 – 0.30 0.74 444.0 0.425 0.333
0.115 0.1274 0.2922 0.9026 – 0.31 0.74 444.0 0.436 0.333
0.120 0.1332 0.2973 0.9009 – 0.31 0.74 444.0 0.448 0.333
0.125 0.1390 0.3029 0.8990 – 0.32 0.74 444.0 0.459 0.333
0.130 0.1449 0.3083 0.8972 – 0.33 0.74 444.0 0.470 0.333
0.135 0.1507 0.3127 0.8958 – 0.34 0.74 444.0 0.482 0.333
0.140 0.1566 0.3176 0.8941 – 0.34 0.74 444.0 0.493 0.333
0.145 0.1626 0.3253 0.8916 – 0.35 0.73 435.6 0.500 0.333
0.150 0.1691 0.3381 0.8873 – 0.35 0.69 411.1 0.500 0.333
0.155 0.1755 0.3511 0.8830 – 0.35 0.65 388.1 0.500 0.333
0.160 0.1821 0.3642 0.8786 – 0.35 0.61 366.6 0.500 0.333
0.165 0.1888 0.3775 0.8742 – 0.35 0.58 346.3 0.500 0.333
0.170 0.1955 0.3909 0.8697 – 0.35 0.55 327.2 0.500 0.333
0.175 0.2023 0.4046 0.8651 – 0.35 0.52 309.1 0.500 0.333
0.180 0.2092 0.4183 0.8606 – 0.35 0.49 292.0 0.500 0.333
0.185 0.2161 0.4323 0.8559 – 0.35 0.46 275.8 0.500 0.333
0.190 0.2232 0.4464 0.8512 – 0.35 0.43 260.4 0.500 0.333
0.195 0.2304 0.4608 0.8464 – 0.35 0.41 245.8 0.500 0.333

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 10.2 10.2 ω-TABLES WITHVON
BEMESSUNGSHILFE-ω-TABELLEN DESIGN VALUES
A. HÜCKLER

μEdf ω1 ξ = x/d ζ = z/d εc2 [%] εf1 [%] σfd [MPa] αR ka

0.200 0.2377 0.4753 0.8416 – 0.35 0.39 231.8 0.500 0.333
0.205 0.2450 0.4900 0.8367 – 0.35 0.36 218.5 0.500 0.333
0.210 0.2525 0.5050 0.8317 – 0.35 0.34 205.8 0.500 0.333
0.215 0.2601 0.5202 0.8266 – 0.35 0.32 193.7 0.500 0.333
0.220 0.2678 0.5356 0.8215 – 0.35 0.30 182.1 0.500 0.333
0.225 0.2757 0.5513 0.8162 – 0.35 0.28 170.9 0.500 0.333
0.230 0.2836 0.5673 0.8109 – 0.35 0.27 160.2 0.500 0.333
0.235 0.2917 0.5835 0.8055 – 0.35 0.25 149.9 0.500 0.333
0.240 0.3000 0.6000 0.8000 – 0.35 0.23 140.0 0.500 0.333
0.245 0.3084 0.6168 0.7944 – 0.35 0.22 130.5 0.500 0.333
0.250 0.3170 0.6340 0.7887 – 0.35 0.20 121.2 0.500 0.333
0.255 0.3257 0.6515 0.7828 – 0.35 0.19 112.3 0.500 0.333
0.260 0.3347 0.6693 0.7769 – 0.35 0.17 103.7 0.500 0.333
0.265 0.3438 0.6876 0.7708 – 0.35 0.16 95.4 0.500 0.333
0.270 0.3531 0.7063 0.7646 – 0.35 0.15 87.3 0.500 0.333
0.275 0.3627 0.7254 0.7582 – 0.35 0.13 79.5 0.500 0.333
0.280 0.3725 0.7450 0.7517 – 0.35 0.12 71.9 0.500 0.333
0.285 0.3826 0.7652 0.7449 – 0.35 0.11 64.5 0.500 0.333
0.290 0.3929 0.7859 0.7380 – 0.35 0.10 57.2 0.500 0.333
0.295 0.4036 0.8072 0.7309 – 0.35 0.08 50.2 0.500 0.333
0.300 0.4146 0.8292 0.7236 – 0.35 0.07 43.3 0.500 0.333
0.305 0.4260 0.8519 0.7160 – 0.35 0.06 36.5 0.500 0.333
0.310 0.4378 0.8755 0.7082 – 0.35 0.05 29.9 0.500 0.333
0.315 0.4500 0.9000 0.7000 – 0.35 0.04 23.3 0.500 0.333
0.320 0.4628 0.9255 0.6915 – 0.35 0.03 16.9 0.500 0.333
0.325 0.4761 0.9523 0.6826 – 0.35 0.02 10.5 0.500 0.333
0.330 0.4902 0.9804 0.6732 – 0.35 0.01 4.2 0.500 0.333
0.335 0.5051 1.0101 0.6633 – 0.35 0 – 2.1 0.500 0.333
0.340 0.5209 1.0417 0.6528 – 0.35 – 0.01 – 8.4 0.500 0.333
0.345 0.5379 1.0757 0.6414 – 0.35 – 0.02 –14.8 0.500 0.333
0.350 0.5564 1.1127 0.6291 – 0.35 – 0.04 – 21.3 0.500 0.333
0.355 0.5768 1.1536 0.6155 – 0.35 – 0.05 – 28.0 0.500 0.333
0.360 0.6000 1.2000 0.6000 – 0.35 – 0.06 – 35.0 0.500 0.333
0.365 0.6275 1.2551 0.5816 – 0.35 – 0.07 – 42.7 0.500 0.333
0.370 0.6634 1.3268 0.5577 – 0.35 – 0.09 – 51.7 0.500 0.333

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 10 Appendix

10.3 Editors and Authors

Prof. Dr. sc. techn. Mike Schlaich studied civil engineering

and received his doctorate from the ETH Zurich. He is a
managing partner of the consulting engineers schlaich ber-
germann partner (sbp GmbH), headquartered in Stuttgart.
Since 2004 he has been a professor at Berlin Technical Uni-
versity, Institute of Civil Engineering, Chair of Conceptual
and Structural Design, and since 2005 he has been an au-
thorized checking engineer for structural calculations. He is
involved in the design and implementation of buildings and
bridges worldwide. In 2015 Schlaich received the Gold
Medal from the Institution of Structural Engineers, London.
He is a member of the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sci-
ences and Humanities (BBAW).

Prof. Regine Leibinger studied architecture at Berlin Techni-

cal University and Harvard University, USA. Since 1993 she
has managed, together with Frank Barkow, the practice of
Barkow Leibinger in Berlin. From 2006 to 2016, Regine
Leibinger was a professor for building construction and de-
sign at Berlin Technical University. She is currently a guest
professor at Princeton University, School of Architecture,
USA. She has also taught at the Architectural Association in
London and at the Harvard Graduate School of Design in
Boston, USA. Numerous projects at home and abroad have
been awarded prizes.

Dipl.-Ing. Dipl.-Wirt. Ing. Claudia Lösch studied structural

engineering and industrial engineering and management in
Karlsruhe, London, and Aachen. After several years working
in a medium-sized engineering practice, she worked abroad
as a consultant engineer in environmental protection tech-
nology. Since 2014 she has been a scientific staff member
at Berlin Technical University, Chair of Conceptual and
Structural Design and carries out research on infra-light-
weight concrete.

Dipl.-Ing. Philip Rieseberg studied architecture at Berlin

Technical University and at the Ecole Nationale Supérieure
d’Architecture, Paris. Since 2008 he has managed, together
with Tarek Massalme and Jan-Oliver Kunze, the practice of
MARS Architects in Berlin. Since 2014 he has been a scien-
tific staff member at Berlin Technical University, Chair of
Building Construction and Design, and carries out research
on infra-lightweight concrete.

202

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 10.4 Literature

10.4 Literature

[1] Schlaich, Mike, and Mohamed El Zareef. “Infraleicht- [12] Schlaich, Mike, Claudia Lösch, and Alex Hückler.
beton,” Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 103, no. 3 (2008): “Infraleichtbeton – Stand 2015.” In Betonbauwerke
175–82. für die Zukunft: Hintergründe, Auslegungen, Praxis-
beispiele Tagungsband zur 11. Tagung “Betonbau-
[2] Schlaich, Mike, and Alex Hückler. “Infraleichtbeton teile” am 19. März 2015 in Leipzig, edited by Klaus
2.0,” Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 107, no. 11 (2012): Holschemacher, 93–104. Berlin: Beuth, 2015.
757–66.
[13] Callsen, Björn, and Karl-Christian Thienel.
[3] Bosold, Diethelm, and Matthais Beck. Zement-Merk- “­Besondere Aspekte bei der Entwicklung und
blatt Betontechnik B13: Leichtbeton (2014). ­Ausführung eines hochwärmedämmenden Hoch­
leistungs-Leichtbetons mit sehr niedriger Beton-
[4] Thienel, Karl-Christian. “Sonderbetone: Gefügedich-
rohdichte,” Beton (April 2017): 128–34.
ter und haufwerksporiger Leichtbeton, winter semes-
ter 2015.” Institute of Construction Materials, Faculty [14] Breit, Wolfgang, Joachim Schulze, Christian Heese,
of Structural Engineering and Surveying, Bundeswehr and Bianca Bund. Hochwärmedämmende, mono­
University Munich, 2015. lithische Sichtbetonaußenteile aus Architekturleicht-
beton. Forschungsinitiative ZukunftBau 2894.
[5] DIN EN 206: Concrete – Specification, Performance,
­Stuttgart: Fraunhofer IRB Publishers, 2014.
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 10.5 Index of Figures

10.5 Index of Figures

Unless stated otherwise, all figures (photos, drawings, ren- Chapter 4

derings) were supplied by the Chair of Conceptual and
Structural Design of Prof. Dr. sc. techn. Mike Schlaich and Figure 4–0 Philip Rieseberg, Chair of Building Construc-
that of Building Construction and Design of Prof. Regine tion and Design, TU Berlin
Leibinger of Berlin Technical University. Figures 4–1 Philip Rieseberg, Lukas Specks, Dimitra
to 4–5 Megas, Chair of Building Construction and
Design, TU Berlin
Figure 0–0 Photo: Jan-Oliver Kunze
Figure 4–6 Photo: Claudia Lösch, Philip Rieseberg
Chapter 1
Figure 4–7 Johann Friedrich Geist and Klaus Kürvers.
Figure 1–0 Photo: Jan-Oliver Kunze Das Berliner Mietshaus 1862–1945. Munich:
Prestel, 1984.
Chapter 2
Figures 4–8 Philip Rieseberg, Lukas Specks, Dimitra
Figure 2–0 Photo: Jan-Oliver Kunze to 4–10 Megas, Chair of Building Construction and
Design, TU Berlin
Figure 2–1 Mike Schlaich and Mohamed El Zareef, “Infra-
leichtbeton,” Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 103, Figure 4–11 Photo: Philip Rieseberg
no. 3 (2008), p. 175.
Figure 4–12 Philip Rieseberg, Lukas Specks, Dimitra
Figure 2–2 Photo: Mike Schlaich Megas, Chair of Building Construction and
Design, TU Berlin
Figure 2–3 Photo: Hans Joosten
Figure 4–13 Anne Lacaton and Jean Philippe Vassal;
Figure 2–4 Photo: Mike Schlaich
Photo: Frédéric Druot, Christophe Hutin
Figure 2–5 Photo: Cengiz Dicleli
Figure 4–14 Anne Lacaton and Jean Philippe Vassal;
Figure 2–6 Mike Schlaich and Alex Hückler, “Infraleicht- photo: Philippe Ruault
beton: Die Entwicklung zum Hochleistungs­
Figures 4–15 Philip Rieseberg, Lukas Specks, Dimitra
leichtbeton,” in Massivbau im Wandel: Fest-
to 4–19 Megas, Chair of Building Construction and
schrift zum 60. Geburstag von Josef Hegger.
Design, TU Berlin
Berlin: Ernst & Sohn, 2014 ([9], based on
[10]), p. 181. Figure 4–20 Philip Rieseberg, Chair of Building Construc-
tion and Design, TU Berlin
Figure 2–7 Photo: Yoshito Isono
Figure 4–21 Photo: Edward Beierle
Figure 2–8 Photo: Mike Schlaich
Figure 4–22 Bruno, Fioretti; Marquez Architects; photo:
Figure 2–9 Barkow Leibinger Architects
Christoph Rokitta
Figure 2–10 Architettura civile, plate 4, Torino, 1737
Figure 4–23 Barkow Leibinger Architects; schlaich berger-
Figure 2–11 Photo Margherita Spiluttini, © Architektur­ mann partner
zentrum Wien, collection
Figure 4–24 Barkow Leibinger Architects; Chair of Building
Chapter 3 Construction and Design, TU Berlin

Figure 3–0 Photo: Jan-Oliver Kunze Figure 4–25 Photo: Jan-Oliver Kunze

Figure 3–1 Photo: Alexander Hückler Figure 4–26 Barkow Leibinger Architects

209

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 10 Appendix

Figure 4–27 Philip Rieseberg, Lukas Specks, Dimitra Figure 6–7 Regine Leibinger, Mike Schlaich, Claudia
Megas, Chair of Building Construction and Lösch, Philip Rieseberg, and Matthias
Design, TU Berlin ­Ballestrem. Infraleichtbeton im Geschoss-
wohnungsbau (INBIG). Forschungsinitiative
Chapter 5 ZukunftBau 3018. Stuttgart: Fraunhofer IRB
Publishers, 2017 [27], p. 107.
Figure 5–0 Photo: Jan-Oliver Kunze
Figure 6–8 Regine Leibinger, Mike Schlaich, Claudia
Details 5–1 Philip Rieseberg, Lukas Specks, Dimitra
Lösch, Philip Rieseberg, and Matthias
to 5–18 Megas, Chair of Building Construction and
­Ballestrem. Infraleichtbeton im Geschoss-
Design, TU Berlin
wohnungsbau (INBIG). Forschungsinitiative
Chapter 6 ZukunftBau 3018. Stuttgart: Fraunhofer IRB
Publishers, 2017 [27], p. 115.
Figure 6–0 Photo: Jan-Oliver Kunze
Figure 6–9 Claudia Lösch, based on [51]
Figures 6–1 Claudia Lösch
and 6–2 Chapter 7

Figure 6–3 K. Brecht, “Wassereindringtiefe und Frost/ Figure 7–0 Photo: Alexander Hückler
Frost-Tausalz-Widerstand von Infraleicht-
Figure 7–1 P. Reiter, “Korrosionsschutz der Stahlbeweh-
beton.” Master’s thesis, Berlin Technical
rung bei Bauteilen aus Infraleichtbeton,”
University, Institute for Civil Engineering, Chair
student assignment, Berlin Technical Univer-
of Conceptual and Structural Design, Berlin,
sity, Institute of Civil Engineering, Chair of
2016 [32], p. 48.
Conceptual and Structural Design, Berlin,
Figure 6–4 Regine Leibinger, Mike Schlaich, Claudia 2014 [75], p. 5.
Lösch, Philip Rieseberg, and Matthias Balles-
Figure 7–2 Photo: Philipp Reiter
trem. Infraleichtbeton im Geschoss-
wohnungsbau (INBIG). Forschungsinitiative Figure 7–3 Photo: Jan-Oliver Kunze
ZukunftBau 3018. Stuttgart: Fraunhofer IRB
Publishers, 2017 [27], p. 134. Figure 7–4 Claudia Lösch, based on [21]

Figure 6–5 Regine Leibinger, Mike Schlaich, Claudia Figure 7–5 Alexander Hückler [22]
Lösch, Philip Rieseberg, and Matthias Balles-
trem. Infraleichtbeton im Geschoss- Figure 7–6 Photo: Alexander Hückler
wohnungsbau (INBIG). Forschungsinitiative
Figure 7–7 Claudia Lösch
ZukunftBau 3018. Stuttgart: Fraunhofer IRB
Publishers, 2017 [27], p. 87. Figure 7–8 Alex Hückler,“Trag- und Verformungsverhalten
von biegebeanspruchten Bauteilen aus Infra-
Figure 6–6 Regine Leibinger, Mike Schlaich, Claudia
leichtbeton (ILC),” doctoral thesis, Berlin
Lösch, Philip Rieseberg, and Matthias
Technical University, Institute of Civil Engi-
­Ballestrem. Infraleichtbeton im Geschoss-
neering, Chair of Conceptual and Structural
wohnungsbau (INBIG). Forschungsinitiative
Design, Berlin, 2016, p. 189.
ZukunftBau 3018. Stuttgart: Fraunhofer IRB
Publishers, 2017 [27], p. 86.

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 10.5 Index of Figures

Chapter 8

Figure 8–0 Photo: Jan-Oliver Kunze

Figure 8–1 Regine Leibinger, Mike Schlaich, Claudia

Lösch, Philip Rieseberg, and Matthias Balles-
trem. Infraleichtbeton im Geschoss-
wohnungsbau (INBIG). Forschungsinitiative
ZukunftBau 3018. Stuttgart: Fraunhofer IRB
Publishers, 2017 [27], pp. 146 and 147.

Figure 8–2 Photo: Philip Rieseberg

Figures 8–3 Photo: Jan-Oliver Kunze

to 8–9

Figures 8–10 Photo: Lukas Specks

and 8–11

Figures 8–12 Photo: Minh Duc Pahm

to 8–14

Figure 8–15 Photo: Jenny Sarah Loebel

Figures 8–16 Photo: Jan-Oliver Kunze

to 8–18

Chapter 9

Figure 9–0 Photo: Jan-Oliver Kunze

Figures 9–1 Photo: Wilfried Dechau

and 9–2

Figures 9–3 C. Bonnen Architect, schlaich bergermann

and 9–4 partner

Figures 9–5 Photo: Alexander Blumhoff

Figures 9–6 Gruber + Popp Architects

to 9–7

Figures 9–8 Bjorn Callsen and Karl-Christian Thienel [13];

to 9–10 Photo: Matthias Richter – Formkoalition

Figures 9–11 Faculty of Architecture and Department of

to 9–13 Civil Engineering at Kaiserslautern Technical
University

Chapter 10

Figure 10–0 Photo: Jan-Oliver Kunze

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 10 Appendix

10.6 Index of Tables

Chapter 3 Table 7–3: Claudia Lösch

Table 3–1: Alex Hückler, “Trag- und Verformungsverh- Table 7–4: Claudia Lösch, based on [21]
alten von biegebeanspruchten Bauteilen aus
Infraleichtbeton (ILC),” doctoral thesis, Berlin Table 7–5: Claudia Lösch, based on [21]
Technical University, Institute of Civil Engi-
Table 7–6: Claudia Lösch
neering, Chair of Conceptual and Structural
Design, Berlin, 2016 [21], p. 72.

Table 3–2: Claudia Lösch, based on [21, 22]

Chapter 6

Table 6–1: Regine Leibinger, Mike Schlaich, Claudia

Lösch, Philip Rieseberg, and Matthias
­Ballestrem. Infraleichtbeton im Geschoss-
wohnungsbau (INBIG). Forschungsinitiative
ZukunftBau 3018. Stuttgart: Fraunhofer IRB
Publishers, 2017 [27], p. 48.

Table 6–2: Claudia Lösch

Table 6–3: Claudia Lösch, based on [32]

Table 6–4: Claudia Lösch, based on [37]

Table 6–5: Claudia Lösch, based on [32]

Table 6–6: Claudia Lösch, based on [31, 41, 42]

Table 6–7: Claudia Lösch, based on [31, 43]

Table 6–8: Claudia Lösch, based on [24, 31]

Table 6–9: Claudia Lösch, based on [47]

Table 6–10: Claudia Lösch, based on [47, 49]

Table 6–11: Regine Leibinger, Mike Schlaich, Claudia

Lösch, Philip Rieseberg, and Matthias
­Ballestrem. Infraleichtbeton im Geschoss-
wohnungsbau (INBIG). Forschungsinitiative
ZukunftBau 3018. Stuttgart: Fraunhofer IRB
Publishers, 2017 [27], p. 83.

Table 6–12: Max Bauer, based on [27]

Chapter 7

Table 7–1: Claudia Lösch, based on [24, 25]

Table 7–2: Claudia Lösch, based on [21]

212

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 10.7 Index

10.7 Index

A exposed to weather 156

after-treatment 155 exposure class 96
air void content 28, 154 exposure to the weather 97

B F
balcony 36, 64ff. facade 40
Baroque 21 fatigue strength coefficient 119
bar wall 51 finishing treatment 156
bending 129 fire safety, fire protection 101
bonding behavior 142 flat roof 86ff.
building component floor slab connection 60ff.
–– slender 122 formwork 146ff.
–– nonreinforced 119 framework model 128
building component behavior, ductile 122 freeform 40
Building Energy Act 94 foundations 78
building height 34 foundation slab 79, 81
bulk density class 26
G
C general building control approval 113
carbonation 112, 120, 156 global warming potential 111
color additives 153 GRP reinforcements 121
compaction 28, 154 GWP (global warming potential) 111
composite creep 125
concrete cover 122 H
concrete surface mark 154 heat capacity, specific 99
corrosion behavior 120 high-rise building 49
cosmetic treatment of concrete 156f. hydration heat 28
costs 112
creep 139 I
creep coefficient 124 INBIG 11, 18
cross section value, notional 123 individual building control approval 112, 114, 118
infill building 38
D insulating concrete 14
deflection 136, 140f. interaction diagram 129
deformation 135, 141
deformation model 137 L
degree of shrinkage 126 life cycle costs 113
dimension of opening 35 lightweight concrete 14
discontinuity area 128 –– dense structure 14
driving rain 100 –– porous particulate 14
drop height 154 limitation of crack width 133
dry bulk density 27 linear buildings 43
ductility 141 load assumption 126
load-bearing capability 126
E loggia 52
eco-balance 110 longitudinal compressive force 127
Energy Conservation Directive (EnEV) 94

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 10 APPENDIX

M T
material safety coefficient 119 temperature development 28
minimum concrete cover 101 tension stiffening 139
minimum reinforcement 133f., 143 thermal bridge 108ff.
mixing process 154 thermal bridge loss coefficient 108
modulus of elasticity 27 thermal insulation, active 104
thermal insulation, in summer 104
N thermal transmittance coefficient 95
number of stories 92f. timber construction 44
torsion 132
O
object, epistemic 20 U
U-value 93, 94
P
parapet 86ff. V
poché 21, 46 villa (freestanding residence) 45
pressure from uneven distribution 128
proportion of window area 52 W
wall, nonreinforced 127
R wall construction 58
reinforcements 121 water absorption 97
relative humidity 107 water-repellent treatment 100, 120, 156
research 18 water vapor diffusion 99
resistance to frost and thawing 96 water penetration depth 97
window connection 68ff.
S
sanding 157ff.
self-compacting 28
self-weight 126
service life 112f.
shear force 132
silica fume 27, 110
simulation
–– hygric 107
–– thermal 104
single-family house 45, 162, 166
sizing diagram, general 131
slenderness 129
slump flow 27
solidity coefficient 125f., 129, 134
sound insulation 102
sound insulation value 43, 102f.
standard 118
stress-strain curve 123
stripping time 155
story 34
serviceability 119, 133
surface design 146

214

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Infralight.indb 215 14.01.20 11:05
 Translation from German into English: Hartwin Busch
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