PROJECT: P – TER (PRODUCTIVITY – TARGETED EXTENSIVE REVIEWERS | GRADE 12 | REVIEWER HANDOUT

SENIOR HIGHSCHOOL | AUF-IS

AUF HONOR CODE

On my honor as an Angelenean, who lives by the core values

of Mabuti, Magaling at May Malasakit sa Kapwa, I hereby pledge
honesty and integrity in all my academic tasks without receiving or
giving unauthorized assistance, thereby observing scholarly and
intellectual standards, rules on proper citation of sources, and
appropriate collection and use of data. So help me God.

REMINDER

This lecture is written for the purpose of guiding Angeleneans

as they prepare for any upcoming activity, quiz, or examination. We
still highly advise everyone to look up and review as well the
sources provided by the school and the teachers to prepare
better on any said assessments. Break a leg! :)

AUTHOR(S): (DIZON, C.A.), // TEMPLATE BY: SHS Council and BOGNOT, P.N.
PROJECT: P – TER (PRODUCTIVITY – TARGETED EXTENSIVE REVIEW) | GRADE 11 | LECTURE HANDOUT
SENIOR HIGHSCHOOL | AUF-IS | Made by : Patricia Ann | Notes from Uriel Racelis | Handout: SO

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
LESSON 2: DNA TECHNOLOGY
B. COMPONENTS OF THE DNA
● 5-carbon sugar (deoxyribose)
OUTLINE ● Nitrogenous bases
I. Introduction ○ Adenine
II. DNA ○ Thymine
III. Discovery of Restriction Enzymes ○ Cytosine
IV. DNA Technologies ○ Guanine
a. Recombinant DNA ● Phosphate group
b. DNA Cloning
c. DNA Libraries Fig. 1
d. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
e. Gel Electrophoresis
f. DNA Profiling
g. DNA Sequencing

I. INTRODUCTION
A. THE ANGELINA EFFECT
● Preventive Treatment Based on Genotype:
○ Genetic testing can identify inherited
mutations that increase disease risk.
● Case Study: Angelina Jolie
○ Discovered to have a BRCA1 mutation.
○ Mutation linked to an 87% lifetime risk of
breast cancer.
○ Underwent a double mastectomy, reducing
her risk to 5%.
● Impact: C. CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
○ Raised awareness of genetic testing and ● Describes the flow of genetic information within a
preventive measures. biological system. It states that DNA is transcribed into
○ Emphasized the role of genotype in RNA, which is then translated into proteins.
personalizing medical decisions. ● DNA Base Pairing:
● Would you want to know whether you have a high risk ○ Cytosine (C) pairs with Guanine (G)
of developing a dangerous health condition? Why? ○ Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T)
● RNA Base Pairing:
II. DNA (THE MOLECULE OF LIFE) ○ During transcription, Adenine (A) pairs with
● Stands for Deoxyribonucleic Acid Uracil (U) (instead of Thymine in RNA)
○ nucleotides - subunits of DNA ○ Cytosine (C) pairs with Guanine (G)
● A double-stranded helix structure that causes variation ○ Guanine (G) pairs with Cytosine (C)
among organisms ○ Thymine (T) pairs with Adenine (A)
● This process outlines how genetic instructions in DNA
are used to produce functional proteins that perform
A. TAKE NOTE
various roles in the cell.
● Trillions of cells make up the human body.
● Each cell contains: Fig. 2
○ 46 human chromosomes
○ 2 meters of DNA
○ 3 billion DNA subunits (the bases: A, T, C,
G)
○ Approximately 30,000 genes code for
proteins that perform most life functions.

COLLATED BY: (DIZON, C.A.), // PREPARED BY: (MS. ROCHELLE NUGUID), // TEMPLATE BY: SHS Council and BOGNOT, P.N. 1
PROJECT: P – TER (PRODUCTIVITY – TARGETED EXTENSIVE REVIEW) | GRADE 11 | LECTURE HANDOUT
SENIOR HIGHSCHOOL | AUF-IS | Made by : Patricia Ann | Notes from Uriel Racelis | Handout: SO

Fig. 3 ● If a gene, some restriction enzyme leaves the DNA with

uneven ends or sticky ends.
● If the gene we wish to insert and the plasmid are both cut
with the same enzyme, these sticky ends will be
complementary, meaning they will readily bond with one
another.
● In a follow-up reaction, gene fragments, cut plasmids, and
then an enzyme that connects DNA fragments are mixed
together.
● This so-called ligase enzyme attaches the sticky ends in
the solution to produce circular plasmids that now carry
the gene that codes for the desired protein.
○ NOTE: the efficiency of recombinant
techniques is not 100% and may lead to
plasmids with no inserts or multiple inserts.
III. DISCOVERY OF RESTRICTION ENZYME
● Werner Arber, Hamilton Smith, and Daniel Nathans IV. DNA TECHNOLOGY
discovered the defense mechanism of certain bacteria in ● Recombinant DNA
resisting infection by bacteriophages (viruses). ● DNA Cloning
● These scientists revealed that bacteria have restriction ● DNA Libraries
enzymes, which cut the DNA at specific nucleotide ● Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
sequences. ● Gel Electrophoresis
● DNA Profiling
A. RESTRICTION ENZYME ● DNA Sequencing
● Different restriction enzymes cut DNA at different sites.
● Each restriction enzyme recognizes a specific DNA QUESTION:
sequence, typically 4-6 base pairs long, and cuts the DNA ● Why is it possible for a gene from an organism to be
within that sequence. introduced in the genetic material of another
● For example, the enzyme EcoRI, which comes from the organism, and also be expressed?
human gut bacterium E. coli, recognizes the sequence ○ It is possible because the genetic code is
GAATTC and cuts the DNA between the guanine (G) universal, meaning the same DNA sequence
and adenine (A). codes for the same protein in different
organisms.
Fig. 4 ○ Genetic engineering allows foreign genes to
be inserted into another organism’s DNA,
where the gene can be transcribed and
translated into a protein using the host
organism’s cellular machinery.

BASIS OF DNA RECOMBINATION

● All cells follow the same physical and chemical laws.

A. DNA RECOMBINATION
● It is done when a piece of DNA is combined with
another DNA from another source for practical purposes.
● This is the first stage of DNA Cloning.

Fig. 5

Sticky ends are fragment of DNA (often produced by a

staggered cut on the DNA using restriction enzymes) in which
the terminal portion has a stretch of unpaired nucleotides

STEPS
● Using genetic engineering, create cells that produce
proteins that they normally do not produce.
● Circular pieces of DNA called plasmids, found inside
bacterial cells, can be engineered to make such proteins,
such as human insulin, by inserting the gene that codes
for that protein.
● Special enzymes called restriction enzymes, which
recognize, bind to, and cut specific DNA sequences, are B. DNA CLONING
used to open up a plasmid in preparation for the insertion. ● Set of methods that uses living cells to mass-produce
targeted DNA fragments

COLLATED BY: (DIZON, C.A.), // PREPARED BY: (MS. ROCHELLE NUGUID), // TEMPLATE BY: SHS Council and BOGNOT, P.N. 2
PROJECT: P – TER (PRODUCTIVITY – TARGETED EXTENSIVE REVIEW) | GRADE 11 | LECTURE HANDOUT
SENIOR HIGHSCHOOL | AUF-IS | Made by : Patricia Ann | Notes from Uriel Racelis | Handout: SO

GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISM (GMO)

Fig. 6
● GMO are organisms whose genetic material has
been altered using genetic engineering techniques.
○ Flavr Savr tomatoes
■ Reason: These tomatoes were
genetically modified to include a
gene that slows down the ripening
process, extending their shelf life
and reducing spoilage during
transportation and storage.

BT TECHNOLOGY
● Gene for Bt toxic protein was incorporated into
crop plants, which enables plants to produce the
toxin.

Fig. 8

C. DNA LIBRARIES
● A collection of DNA fragments that have been cloned
into vectors so that researchers can identify and isolate
the DNA fragments that interest them for further study.

HOW DID THEY MAKE INSULIN FROM

RECOMBINANT DNA?
Higher yield depending on infestation, up to 40% in field tests.
Fig. 7
Fig. 9

Fig. 10

GENETIC ENGINEERING
● It is a process of making changes on the genetic code D. POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (PCR)
of an organism. ● A method widely used to rapidly mass-produce
● GMOs or transgenic organisms (millions to billions) copies of a specific DNA sample.
● Applications: ○ DENATURING - DNA is heated to separate
○ Agriculture ○ ANNEALING - DNA is cooled to attach
○ Medicine primers (short nucleic acid sequence that
○ Food Industry provides a starting point for DNA synthesis)
○ EXTENDING - DNA is heated and new
strand is made by Taq polymerase (enzyme

COLLATED BY: (DIZON, C.A.), // PREPARED BY: (MS. ROCHELLE NUGUID), // TEMPLATE BY: SHS Council and BOGNOT, P.N. 3
PROJECT: P – TER (PRODUCTIVITY – TARGETED EXTENSIVE REVIEW) | GRADE 11 | LECTURE HANDOUT
SENIOR HIGHSCHOOL | AUF-IS | Made by : Patricia Ann | Notes from Uriel Racelis | Handout: SO

involved in the attachment of nucleotides to Fig. 13

synthesize DNA)
● The process involves three main steps:
denaturation, where the DNA is heated to separate
its strands; annealing, where primers bind to the
DNA sequence of interest; and extension, where the
enzyme Taq polymerase adds nucleotides to build
new DNA strands. These steps are repeated
multiple times, doubling the amount of DNA with
each cycle, allowing scientists to generate enough
DNA for analysis. PCR is crucial in fields such as
genetic research, forensics, and medical diagnostics.

Fig. 11

G. DNA SEQUENCING
● It is a laboratory technique used to determine the
exact sequence of bases (A, C, G, and T) in a DNA
molecule to investigate the functions of genes.

HUMAN GENOME PROJECT (HGP)

● Was an international research initiative that spanned 13
years, from 1990 to 2003, with a budget of approximately
$3 billion.
● Its primary goals were to identify the complete set of
human genes, determine their functions, and make this
information accessible for further biological study.
E. GEL ELECTROPHORESIS
● It is a method used to separate DNA fragments GENE THERAPY
○ An electric voltage is applied to the gel. ● It involves the transfer of a gene into an individuals
○ The negatively charged DNA molecules body cells, with the intent to correct a genetic disorder
move toward the positive end of the gel. or treat a disease.
Fig. 12 Fig. 14

F. DNA PROFILING Fig. 15

● It is a technique used to distinguish between
individuals of the same species using only samples of
their DNA.
○ Anna Anderson claimed to be Grand
Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna of Russia.
■ In the 1980s, after her death, DNA
profiling was conducted on her
tissue samples.
■ The results revealed that she had
no biological relation to the
Romanovs.

The following information on this handout is referred

from the recommended references and textbooks.
Please review them as well.
Thank you and Goodluck!

COLLATED BY: (DIZON, C.A.), // PREPARED BY: (MS. ROCHELLE NUGUID), // TEMPLATE BY: SHS Council and BOGNOT, P.N. 4