EARTH SCIENCE REVIEWER Agent of erosion transported each

sediment

a) Running Water – sediments that have

Weathering and Erosion been transported through running water
appear rounded and smooth and are
deposited in sorted piles.
 Weathering – the breakdown of rocks into b) Glaciers – sediments that have been
smaller pieces, called sediments. transported by glaciers appear
scratched, grooved, and are deposited in
 Erosion – the process where the sediments
completely unsorted piles, because they
are transported by wind, gravity, glaciers,
were dropped during melting.
man, and running water.
 boulders can only be transported by
 Deposition – the process whereby these glaciers
sediments are released by their transporting c) Wind – sediments that have been
agents (dropped). transported by wind are appear pitted
(random holes) and frosted (glazed look)
 Weathering breaks down the rocks, erosion and are deposited in sorted piles.
moves the particles, and deposition drops  only very small particles can be
the sediments in another location. transported by wind
d) Gravity – sediments that are
Four (4) factors that affect the rate of
transported by gravity are found in piles
weathering
at the bottom of cliffs or steep slopes.
1. Surface Area (exposure) - exposing  they appear angular and unsorted
more surface area will increase the rate e) Streams – flowing water will lift and
of weathering. carry small sediments such as silt and
sand.
f) Ocean Dynamics – tidal action and
waves carry away weathered materials.
g) Glaciers – glaciers are large ice fields
2. Particle Size – larger particles weather that slowly flow downhill over time.
slower and smaller particles weather at a  glacial ice drags rocky material that
faster rate. scours the surface it flows over
3. Chemical Composition (what a rock is  the glacier deposits debris as it melts
made of) – certain rocks and minerals h) Wind Transport of Sediments – wind
are naturally weaker than others, while will carry fine, dry sediments over long
others are more resistant (stronger). distances.
4. Climate – warmer, moister climates i) Transport by Gravity – when
have the most weathering. heat & water sediments are weathered they may be
speed up all chemical reactions. this is transported downward by gravity.
the most important factor in weathering.  the general term for this is mass
wasting
 when sediments are weathered they
Possible Agents of Erosion may be transported downward by
gravity as a slump
1. Running Water  loose sediments transported by
gravity are called scree
2. Glaciers
j) Deposition Formation – transported
3. Wind sediments are deposited in layers and
generate strata.
4. Gravity

5. Man

 Weathering has to happen before erosion.

 The rocks have to be broken into smaller
sediments before they can be eroded away.
Three ways (3) that running water can Five (5) ways that man can cause erosion
transport sediment
1. Forestry – all vegetation of removed,
1. Solution – the smallest particles of and without roots, the soil will erode
weathering are dissolved in the water away.
and they are transported in a solution. 2. Strip Mining – removing rock cover to
2. Suspension – clay sized/colloids are get to the resources below, which causes
carried along with the water molecules the loose sediments to erode away.
during erosion. 3. Construction – the clearing of land to
 they are neither at the bottom or on build buildings/houses also causes all
the top loose soil to erode away.
 they are suspended in the middle of 4. Improper Farming – not plowing the
the running water land at right angles to slopes causes soil
3. Saltation – solid sediments are rolled to erode away.
and bounces along the bottom of a river 5. Salting Highways – the salt is washed
stream because they are denser. off the road to the sides, where it
prevents vegetative growth along the
sides.
Factors that influence erosional rates
(speed) in running water and glacial ice  Most deposition happens in standing/still
bodies of water (oceans/lakes).
a) Slope (gradient) of the land – as  Deposition is caused by the slowing
slope increases, the water velocity down (loss of kinetic energy) of the
increases, the particle size that the agent of erosion.
water can carry also increases, therefore
the amount of erosion increases.
b) Volume (size of the water or Three (3) factors that influence the
glacier) – as the volume of the water or rate of sediment deposition
glacier increases, their velocities 1. Sediment size
increase, the particle size that they can 2. Sediment shape
carry also increases, therefore the 3. Sediment density
amount of erosion increases.
c) Position within the running water –
water is traveling faster around the  Delta – a fan shaped deposit that forms
outside of turns, therefore that is where at the mouth of a river/stream when it
more erosion occurs. enters a larger body of water.
 water is traveling slower on the  this is seen under the water
inside of turns, therefore deposition  the particles are horizontally sorted
occurs on the inside
 Alluvial Fan – a fan shaped deposit of
sediments that forms when a
stream/river flows out of a mountain on
to flat, dry plains.
 these are not under water and are
very visible. This only happens on
the land
 you can call it a “land delta”

 Cross-Bedding – a situation where layers

of sediments are deposited at angles to
one another as a result of a change of
direction of the erosional agent.
Earth’s Internal Heat Sources 3. Gravitational pressure
 The more a person descend into
Earth’s interior, the amount of
 Earth was formed about 4.6 billion years pressure increases due to the force
ago and continue to serve as habitat to pressing on an area caused by the
diverse organisms. weight of an overlying rocks.
 Its biotic components remain alive due  The pressure near the center is
to proper regulation of internal heat. considered to be 3 to 4 million times
 It has massive amount of heat that the pressure of atmosphere at sea
varies from its layer. level.
 The heat increases from the crust down  Again, because rocks are good
to the inner core due to several reasons. insulators, the escape of heat from
Earth’s surface is less than the heat
Sources of Internal Heat
generated from internal gravitational
1. Primordial heat of the planet attraction or squeezing of rock, so
remains from its early stage heat builds up within.
 The Earth was formed from the  At high temperature, the material
process of accretion wherein gasses beneath will melt towards the central
and dust of cloud was attracted by part of the earth.
gravitational energy.  This molten material under
 When these masses compacted it tremendous pressure conditions
formed planetesimals. In the process, acquires the property of a solid and
due to the collision of these masses, is probably in a plastic state.
heat was generated.
 This process formed the earliest
stage of planet Earth which is molten 4. Dense core material in the center of
in state and heat is trapped in the the planet.
core of the planet.  Due to increase in pressure and
2. Heat from the decay of radioactive presence of heavier materials
elements towards the earth’s center, the
 Earth is considered as thermal density of earth’s layers also
engine since its main source of increases.
internal heat come from the  Obviously, the materials of the
produced decay of some naturally innermost part of the earth are very
occurring isotopes from its interior. dense.
 This process is known as radioactive  The inner core as the inner most
decay by which the spontaneous layer is composed primarily of iron
breakdown of an atomic nucleus and nickel which contributes to the
causes the release of energy and density in the core that ranges
matter from the nucleus. between 12,600-13,000 kg/m3.
 Some of the isotopes are Potassium –
40, Uranium - 235, Uranium - 238 Definitions
and Thorium - 232. This process of ACCRETION --- the process of how
radioactive decay which emits heat Earth was formed wherein gasses and
energy as one of the products dust cloud were attracted by
prevents the Earth from completely gravitational energy.
cooling off. PLANETISIMAL --- a compacted mass
formed from gasses and dust cloud.
PRIMORDIAL HEAT --- the internal heat
source from Earth’s early formation
stage.
RADIOACTIVE --- an element that is
capable of producing radiation.
RADIOACTIVE DECAY --- a
spontaneous breakdown of an atomic
nucleus resulting in the release of
energy and matter from the nucleus
 PRESSURE --- it increases due to the
force pressing on an area because of the
weight of an overlying rocks.
INNER CORE --- Earth’s inner most
layer that is composed primarily of iron
and nickel.

Magmatism
How is magma formed?

 Magma – composed of semi-liquid hot  The magma present in the lower crust
molten rocks located beneath the Earth, and upper mantle of the Earth is formed
specifically in the melted mantle rock and or generated through the process of
oceanic plate. partial melting.
 In this process, different minerals in rock
 This molten state, when solidified, melt at different temperature and
creates igneous rocks found on the pressure.
surface of the Earth.  Another factor being considered in this
process is the addition of volatile
The Difference between Magma and Lava materials such as water and carbon
dioxide,
 Magma and lava are both molten rocks.
 However, they differ in location.
 Magma is found in the magma chamber Process of Partial Melting
of the volcano while lava is found on the
surface of earth once the volcano
erupts.

Formation and Movement

 Magmatism is a process under the

earth’s crust where formation and
movement of magma occur.
 These happen in the lower part of the
Earth’s crust and in the upper portion of Melting in the mantle requires one of
the mantle, known as asthenosphere. three possible events to occur

1. AN INCREASE IN TEMPERATURE
 Conduction in mantle happens when
heat is transferred from hotter
molten rocks to the Earth’s cold
crust.
 This process is known as heat
transfer.
 As magma rises, it is often hot
enough to melt the rock it touches.
 It happens at convergent boundaries,
Composition of Magma where tectonic plates are crashing
together.
 Rocks are composed of minerals.
 These rocks start to melt once the
temperature in the lower crust and
upper mantle increases or exceeds
the melting point of minerals.
 The temperature of mantle is around
1200 degrees Celsius.
 Rock minerals such as quartz and
feldspar begin to partially melt at
around 650-850 degrees Celsius.

2. A DECREASE OF PRESSURE
  Mantle rocks remain solid when
exposed to high pressure.
 However, during convection, these What Happens During Metamorphism?
rocks tend to go upward (shallower  Minerals React to Form New Minerals
level) and the pressure is reduced.  Minerals Change Form
 This triggers the melting of magma.  New Materials Are Added
 This is known as decompression (Metasomatism)
melting.  Recrystallization
 This process occurs at the Mid-Ocean
Ridge, an underwater mountain
system

Metamorphic Agents and Changes

3. ADDITION OF VOLATILES
 When water or carbon dioxide is Temperature: typically, the most important
added to hot rocks, flux melting factor in metamorphism
occurs.
 The melting points of minerals within
the rocks decrease.
 If a rock is already close to its
melting point, the effect of adding
these volatiles can be enough to
trigger partial melting.
 It occurs around subduction zones.

Metamorphism

Metamorphism - the change that takes place  Pressure just like heat, also increases with
within a body of rock as a result of it being depth, and the buried rocks are subjected to
subjected to conditions that are different from the force or stress.
those in which it is formed.  Heat and pressure cause physical changes
to buried rocks.
 It is from the Greek word “meta” means  Chemically active fluids enhanced the
change and “morphe” means form. metamorphic process.
 By the action of heat alone (Contact)  Usually, the common fluid which helps the
chemical activity is water containing ions in
 By the action of heat and pressure in solution.
combination (Regional)  As the rocks buried deeply, the water is
forced out of the rock and becomes
available to aid in chemical reactions.
Neometamorphism – a metamorphic process
that results in the formation of new minerals
Stress

Stress - conventionally defined as a force

TYPES OF METAMORPHISM
acting on some area
1. Contact
 Stress is defined as a force (F) acting on
 Around intrusions
some area (A).
 Shallow: 0-6 km
 In the form of an equation this becomes
 Low pressure
A O where s is stress. Newton’s first and
 Local heat source
second laws of motion provide key
2. Regional
ingredients for an understanding of
 Wide areas
force, the principal parameter
 5-20 km, sometimes 30+
 High pressure
 Usually accompanied by deformation
and mountain building TYPES OF STRESS
 1. Compressional Stress  thickest layer of the Earth
 causes the rocks to push or (making up 70% of the Earth’s
squeeze against one another mass)
 can cause either horizontal or  the hot material (magma) in the
vertical orientation mantle rises to the top of the
 causes reverse faults mantle, cools, then sinks,
reheats, and rises again
 these convection currents cause
changes in the Earth’s surface

2. Tensional Stress 3. Core

 opposite of compression a) Outer Core
 forces the rocks to pull apart  molten (liquid) metal that is
 a rock that has experienced such about 4,700°C (8,500°F)
type of stress tends to be  located about 1,800 miles
narrower and elongated than its beneath the crust and is about
original shape 1,400 miles thick
 causes normal faults  composed of the melted metals
nickel and iron
3. Sheer Stress b) Inner Core
 forces from opposite direction, in  solid sphere composed mostly of
which forces run parallel to each iron
other  it is believed to be as hot as
 the scale of shear stress can vary 6,650°C (12,000°F)
from few cm to hundreds of  heat in the core is probably
meters generated by the radioactive
 causes strike-slip faults decay of uranium and other
elements
 it is solid because of the pressure
Stress in Plate Tectonics from the outer core, mantle, and
crust compressing it
 Plate movement generates stress in the tremendously
rocks at plate boundaries.
 At converging plate boundaries rocks are
squeezed (compression)
 At diverging plate boundaries, they are
stretched (tension or extension)

Layers of the Earth

THREE MAIN LAYERS OF THE EARTH

1. Crust
 thinnest layer of the Earth that
ranges from only 2 miles in some
areas of the ocean floor to 75  The lithosphere (crust and upper mantle) is
miles deep under mountains divided into separate plates which move
 made up of large amounts of very slowly in response to the
silicon and aluminum “convecting” part of the mantle
 two types of crust: oceanic crust  The asthenosphere (“weak sphere”) is a
and continental crust soft layer of the mantle on which pieces of
 composed of plates on which the the lithosphere move
continents and oceans rest  It is made of solid rock that, like putty, flows
very slowly
2. Mantle
 solid but capable of flow (like hot
asphalt or fudge) Temperature increases as depth increases
 Density and pressure increase as depth  the continents, especially South
increases America and Africa, seemed to fit
Temperature, density and pressure together like a puzzle
increases as depth increases
The earth is layered with a lithosphere 2. Fossil Evidence
(crust and uppermost mantle), convecting  plant and animal fossils were found
mantle, and a dense metallic core. on different continents
 this would lead people to believe that
the continents were once joined
 fossils are remains of living things
that lived long ago
 similar fossils have been discovered
in matching coastlines on different
continents
Continental Drift Theory

3. Rock Evidence
Theory of Continental Drift
 huge belts of rocks found in Africa
and South America were identical
 not only were they the same, but
Alfred Wegener they would match up (age, thickness,
 found evidence for PANGAEA and types) if the continents were put
proposed the theory of continental drift together
 one of several people who thought the  matching mountains: the
continents looked like they fit together, Appalachian Mountains that
so he proposed the continental drift disappear off the coast of
theory in 1912 Newfoundland match mountains in
 a meteorologist and astronomer so the British Isles and Scandinavia
needless to say other scientists thought which are comparable in age and
he was out of his field of study structure
 some mountain ranges on different
continents seem to match
PANGAEA
4. Glacier Evidence
 name given to the single landmass  there is proof that glaciers moved
that was present 200 million years from Africa, through the Atlantic
ago Ocean, and then on towards South
America
1. Laurasia - was the name given to the  this would be much easier if the
northern part of Pangaea Atlantic Ocean were not there
2. Gondwanaland - was the name given
to the southern part of Pangaea 5. Climate Evidence
 climatic evidence such as glaciers in
areas that are now close to the
Continental Drift equator
 warm weather plants have been
 theory that continents were once part of
found in the Arctic but it’s not warm
a single landmass that broke apart and
there
have moved to their present locations
 glacier deposits have been
 can drift apart from one another and
discovered in tropical and desert
have done so in the past
location but it’s not cold there
 the continents had to have been at
different locations in the geological
5 PIECES OF EVIDENCE TO PROVE past
CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY
 Satellites used to measure the movement of
continents
1. Puzzle Pieces

Seafloor Spreading
Sea-Floor Spreading - Harry Hess in the EVIDENCES OF SEAFLOOR SPREADING
1960’s; the process that continually adds new
material to the ocean floor while pushing older 1. Evidence from Molten Material -
rocks away from the ridge rocks shaped like pillows (rock pillows)
show that molten material has erupted
again and again from cracks along the
mid-ocean ridge and cooled quickly

2. Evidence from Magnetic Stripes -

rocks that make up the ocean floor lie in
a pattern of magnetized stripes which
hold a record of the reversals in Earth’s
magnetic field

3. Evidence from Drilling Samples -

core samples from the ocean floor show
that older rocks are found farther from
the ridge; youngest rocks are in the
center of the ridge

Subduction - process by which the ocean floor How the seafloor got its stripes
sinks beneath a deep-ocean trench and back
into the mantle; allows part of the ocean floor to
sink back into the mantle

 Recycling process taking place – as more

magma rises, the present sea floor is
pushed aside
 At plate boundaries, the cold and denser
rock sinks and melts, becoming magma
once again
Mid-Ocean Ridge - the longest chain of  Paleomagnetism is a proof that supports sea
mountains in the world; these are divergent floor spreading
plate boundaries  Earth is a giant magnet
 It tells us how far from the poles rocks were
when they formed by looking at the angle of
their magnetic field
 Ocean floor moves like a conveyor belt
carrying continents with it
 New ocean floor forms along cracks in the
ocean crust as molten material erupts from The Earth acts like a giant magnet
the mantle spreading out and pushing older because of its metallic core
rocks to the sides of the crack
 New ocean floor is continually added by the
process of sea-floor spreading

Deep-Ocean Trench - occurs at subduction

zones; deep underwater canyons form where
oceanic crust bends downward
  edge of continental crust
 submarine canyons, larger than canyons on
land
 not eroded by rivers directly (too deep), but
by slurry of sediment

Continental Rise
 Magnetic reversal when rock layers where
examined with a magnetization that did not  gentler gradient and relief
agree with its normal polarity  sediment from land piled on ocean crust

Sonar - a device that bounces sound waves off Transform

under-water objects and then records the  the fracture zone that forms at transform
echoes of these sound waves | the time it takes plate boundaries
for the echo to arrive indicates the distance to
the object Abyssal Plain

 The Pacific Ocean is getting smaller and the  an underwater plain on the deep ocean
Atlantic Ocean is getting bigger. floor, usually found at depths between 3000
meter and 6000 meters (sediment from land
buries abyssal hills)

Mid Ocean Ridge

Ocean Basins
 an underwater mountain range formed by
Ocean basins are those areas found under the plate tectonics
sea
Guyot
 they can be relatively inactive areas
where deposits of sediment slowly  an isolate underwater volcanic mountain
collect or active areas where tectonic with a flat top more than 2 below the
plates meet surface of the sea.

Trench

OCEAN BASIN STRUCTURE  type of excavation or depression in the

ground that is generally deep than it is wide,
band narrow compared with its length
(collision of plates, deeper places in ocean)

Seamount

 an underwater mountain formed by volcanic

activity

Evolution of an Ocean Basin

(A)
Continental Shelf o Continental rifting begins when the crust
 smooth, gently dipping (less than 0.1 is up arched and stretched, so that
degrees) normal faults (red) develop.
 land surface during low stand of sea level o Continental sediment (yellow)
 glacial ice melted and flooded portion of accumulates in the depressions of the
continent down-dropped blocks, and basaltic
magma is injected into the rift system.
Submarine Canyon o Flood basalt (gray) can be extruded over
 any of a class of narrow steep-sided valleys large areas of the rift zone during this
that cut into continental slopes and rises of phase.
the oceans (B)
Continental Slope o Rifting continues, and the continents
 steep (more than 4 degrees), rough separate enough for a narrow arm of the
topography ocean to invade the rift zone.
 o The injection of basaltic magma  Boundaries where the earth's tectonic plates
continues and begins to develop new are moving apart.
oceanic crust (green).  For most part, these boundaries are located
on the ocean floors, where they form a
(C) continuous chain of volcanic mountains and
o As the continents separate, new oceanic rift called mid-ocean ridges that extend
crust and new lithosphere are formed in throughout the earth's oceans.
the rift zone, and the ocean basin  Mid-Atlantic Ridge is good example which
becomes wider. runs down the middle of the Atlantic Ocean.
o Remnants of continental sediment can  As the plates move apart, magma wells up
to fill the space between them, and this is
be preserved in the down-dropped
why divergent plate boundaries are the sites
blocks.
of volcanic activity.
 It is also a set where the earth's crust is
growing (Pavico and Faraon, 2007, 194).

Movement of Plates and Formation of

Folds and Faults
Transform Boundary

THREE TYPES OF BOUNDARIES  It is also called as strike slip fault boundary,

the plates slide past each other horizontally.
Convergent Boundary  This is a type of boundary that cuts through
 The heavier oceanic crust sinks below the California, the well-known San Andreas
lighter continental crust. Fault.
 It happens along convergent boundaries  The San Andreas fault zone, which is about
where plates are moving toward each other 1300 km long and is tens of kilometer wide,
and sometimes one plate sink under another slice through two thirds of the length of
(subduction). California.
 Marianas Trench marks where the fast-  Along with it, the Pacific Plate has been for
moving Pacific Plate converges against the 10 million years, at an average rate of about
slower moving Philippine Plate. 5cm/yr (Pavico and Faraon, 2007, 193).
 This boundary is often sitting of major
volcanoes such as Mount Fuji in Japan.
 In a collision of two pieces of oceanic crust, Faults and Folds
the result is a chain of volcanic islands, of
 Folding and faulting are two features seen in
which Indonesia is a prime example.
collision mountains.
 Where oceanic crust collides with a plate
 These features occur when stresses are
carrying continent, the result is a chain of
greater than the strength of the rock and
volcanoes on the continent such as the
the rock deforms.
Cascade of volcanic chain in Pacific
 Scientist noted that when stress is applied
Northwest of the US and the Andes
to rocks they first respond by deforming
Mountains of South America.
elastically (bending).
 When two continental crusts collide, the
 Once the elastic limit is reached then one of
result is a range of mountains such as
two things happen depending if the rock is
Himalayan Mountain (Pavico and Faraon,
in a deep Earth environment or a surface
2007, 193-194).
environment.
Deep Earth – plastic deformation;
resulting in folding or flow.
Divergent Boundary Surface – plastic deformation to
elastic limit and then fracture.
What is a Fold?

 A fold is a bent rock layer or series of layers

that were originally horizontal and 2. Reverse Faults (dip-slip) - fault in
subsequently deformed. which the material above the fault plane
 Due to compression forces. moves up in relation to the material
 They are most visible in rocks that have below
layers.  formed by compression
 hanging wall moves upward in
relation to the foot wall
TYPES OF FOLDS

 The two most common types of folds

are, anticlines and synclines.

1. Anticlines - the up-folding and/or

arching of sedimentary layers
 caused by compressional forces
 crust moves upward forming a hill
 referred to as an up-fold

2. Synclines - down-folds or troughs.

 caused by compressional forces
 crust moves downward forming a valley

3. Monocline - the simplest type of fold, 3. Transform Fault (strike-slip) - a

this fold involves a slight bend in major strike-slip fault that cuts through
otherwise parallel layers of rock, there the lithosphere and accommodates
is a single slope motion between two plates.
 caused by shearing forces
4. Limbs - side part of a syncline or  two plates slide side by side
anticline  no vertical movement

5. Fold Axis - point where limbs change

angle of dip

6. Strike - direction of fold (axis)

7. Dip - angle of limb with the horizontal

4. Thrust Fault (dip-slip)
 caused by compressional forces
What is a Fault?  hanging wall moves up over foot wall
 low angle reverse fault
 Faults are a break in a rock mass along
which movement has occurred.
 When the stresses overcome the internal
strength of the rock, resulting in a fracture.

TYPES OF FAULTS Graben - a valley formed by the downward

displacement of a fault-bounded block
1. Normal Faults (dip-slip) - fault in
which the rock above the fault plane has  produced when tensional stresses result
moved down relative to the rock below in the subsidence of a block of rock
 formed by tension  caused by tensional forces
 hanging wall drops in relation to
the foot wall
  Principle of Uniformitarianism - the
current geologic processes, such as
Horst - an elongated, uplifted block of crust volcanism, erosion, and weathering are the
bounded by faults same processes that were at work in the
 development of two reverse faults past
causing a block of rock to be pushed up  this idea was refined by other
 an uplifted block of crust bounded by geologists that although the process
two normal faults of the past and the present are the
 caused by tensional forces same, the rates of this process may
vary over time
 the Earth’s history was studied using
the different records of past events
preserved in rocks

How are rock layers formed?

 Stratified rocks, also known as derivatives

THREE PARTS OF FAULTS
rock, maybe fragmental or crystalline.
1. Hanging Wall - the top part of the rock  These rocks are products of sedimentary
above the fault planE processes.
 These are made of visible layers of
2. Foot Wall - the bottom part of the rock sediments.
below the fault plane  The formation on rock layers depend on its
stratigraphy and stratification.
3. Fault Plane - the surface that separates
the two moving pieces

Stratified Rocks

Sedimentary Rocks
What is stratigraphy?
 layered or stratified rocks formed at or near
the earth's surface in response to the  It is the branch of geology that deals with
processes of weathering, erosion, the description, correlation, and
transportation and deposition interpretation of stratified sediments and
 generally stratified, fine-grained or stratified rocks on and within the Earth.
composed of fragments of older rocks from  It is the study of the rock layers (strata).
which these were derived, such as pebbles,  It will give you clues to the location of
sand, angular fragments of older rocks, ancient seas, mountains, plateaus and
broken shells, rounded mineral grains and plains.
alteration minerals such as clays

What is stratification?
\
 It is also known as bedding, which is the
layering that happens in sedimentary and
igneous rocks formed at the surface of the
Earth that comes from lava flows or other
volcanic activity.
 It is expressed by rock layers (units) of a
general tabular or lenticular form that differ
in rock type.

 James Hutton - concluded that there are As early as the mid 1600’s, Danish scientist
forces that changes the landscape of the Nicholas Steno studied the relative
Earth in the past position of sedimentary rocks.
 this conclusion is based on his Sedimentary rocks are formed particle by
observation in the geological particle, bed by bed, and the layers are
processes that were taking place in piled one on top of the other.
his farm These rock layers are also called strata.
  is the process of determining
exactly how old rocks are
Stratigraphic laws  found using radiometric dating
 Basic principles that all geologists use in
decoding or deciphering the spatial and 2. Radiometric Dating
temporal relationships of rock layers.  measuring the amounts of parent
 These includes the following: Original and daughter materials in a rock
Horizontality, Lateral Continuity, and knowing the half-life, a
Superposition, Cross Cutting, Law of geologist calculates the age of a
Inclusions and the Law of Faunal rock
Succession  geologists must decide what
isotope to use
 must have an appropriate half-life
 a technique used to date materials
such as rocks or carbon, in which
trace radioactive impurities were
selectively incorporated when they
were formed

3. Relative Dating
 is the science of determining the
relative order of past events (the
age of an object in comparison to
another), without necessarily
determining their absolute age,
(estimated age)
 found by using the age of things
around it
 used to determine the order of
events and the relative age by
examining the position of rocks in a
sequence
THREE TYPES OF UNCOMFORMITIES

1. Disconformity
 it originates from horizontal Laws of Relative Age Dating
sedimentary rock layers that is lifted
and the top layers eroded
 new sediments are deposited when Law of Superposition
they are submerged beneath
freshwater or saltwater  In an undisturbed layer of rock, the oldest
rocks are on the bottom and the rocks
2. Angular Unconformity become younger toward the top.
 it originates from horizontally  Sediments are deposited in horizontal
parallel strata of sedimentary rock layers, so the oldest one would be on the
that are deposited on tilted and bottom.
eroded layers  Sometimes layers flip, so geologists must
 it produced an angular discordance use other clues to determine if this has
with underlying horizontal layers happened.

3. Non-conformity
 It originates between sedimentary
rocks, metamorphic or igneous rock
when sedimentary rock lies and
was deposited on the pre- existing
and eroded metamorphic or
igneous rock.

How the age of rocks determined?

1. Absolute Dating