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Manufacturing
Technology
Materials, Processes,
and Equipment
Manufacturing
Technology
Materials, Processes,
and Equipment

Helmi A. Youssef
Hassan A. El-Hofy
Mahmoud H. Ahmed
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2012 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Version Date: 20110804

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4398-9708-9 (eBook - PDF)

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to
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 Little Drops of Water,
Little Grains of Sand,
Make the Mighty Ocean,
and the Pleasant Land

Julia Carney, 1845

Dedicated to our little angels

H. Youssef: To Youssef, Nour, Anorine, Fayrouz, and Yousra
H. El-Hofy: To Omar, Youssef, and Zaina
M. Ahmed: To Nada
Contents
Preface.............................................................................................................................................xxi
Acknowledgments ........................................................................................................................xxvii
Authors ..........................................................................................................................................xxix

Chapter 1 Introduction to Manufacturing Technology ................................................................. 1

1.1 Importance of Manufacturing Technology .......................................................1
1.2 Selection of Materials and Manufacturing Processes ....................................... 2
1.2.1 Selection of Materials for Manufacturing ............................................3
1.2.2 Selection of Manufacturing Processes .................................................3
1.2.3 Classification of Manufacturing Processes ..........................................3
1.3 Company Organization.................................................................................... 10
1.4 Role of Computers in Modern Manufacturing Technology ............................ 11
1.5 Planning for Manufacturing ............................................................................ 11
1.6 Accuracy of Manufacturing Processes ............................................................ 11
1.7 Economical and Environmental Considerations ............................................. 12
1.8 Health and Safety Aspects............................................................................... 13
1.9 Review Questions ............................................................................................ 13
Bibliography ............................................................................................................... 14

Chapter 2 Properties of Engineering Materials .......................................................................... 15

2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 15
2.2 Physical Properties .......................................................................................... 15
2.2.1 Density................................................................................................ 15
2.2.2 Thermal Properties............................................................................. 15
2.2.3 Electrical and Magnetic Properties .................................................... 17
2.2.4 Optical Properties............................................................................... 18
2.2.5 Chemical and Corrosion Properties ................................................... 18
2.3 Mechanical Properties ..................................................................................... 18
2.3.1 Strength .............................................................................................. 18
2.3.2 Ductility and Brittleness.....................................................................20
2.3.3 Toughness ........................................................................................... 21
2.3.4 Hardness ............................................................................................. 21
2.3.5 Fatigue ................................................................................................25
2.3.6 Creep .................................................................................................. 27
2.4 Manufacturing (Fabricating) Properties.......................................................... 29
2.4.1 Castability .......................................................................................... 29
2.4.2 Ductility, Malleability, Workability, and Formability........................ 29
2.4.3 Machinability ..................................................................................... 29
2.4.4 Grindability ........................................................................................ 29
2.4.5 Weldability ......................................................................................... 29
2.4.6 Heat Treatability ................................................................................. 30
2.5 Review Questions ............................................................................................ 30
2.6 Problems .......................................................................................................... 30
Bibliography ............................................................................................................... 31

vii
viii Contents

Chapter 3 Structure of Metals and Alloys .................................................................................. 33

3.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 33
3.2 Lattice Structure of Metals .............................................................................. 33
3.2.1 Space Lattices..................................................................................... 33
3.2.2 Allotropic (Polymorphic) Crystals (Changes in Crystal Structure)........38
3.2.3 Effect of Lattice Structure on Density of Metals ............................... 38
3.3 Imperfections in Lattice Structure ..................................................................40
3.3.1 Point Defects ......................................................................................40
3.3.2 Line Defects (Dislocations) ................................................................ 42
3.3.3 Surface or Planar Defects (Grain Boundaries) ................................... 42
3.3.4 Volume or Bulk Defects ..................................................................... 45
3.4 Solidification of Metals and Alloys ................................................................. 45
3.4.1 Solidification of Pure Metals and Alloys ...........................................46
3.4.2 Solid Solutions.................................................................................... 47
3.4.3 Phase Diagrams .................................................................................. 48
3.4.4 Iron–Carbon Phase Diagram ............................................................. 52
3.5 Review Questions ............................................................................................ 55
3.6 Problems .......................................................................................................... 56
Bibliography ............................................................................................................... 56

Chapter 4 Engineering Materials and Their Applications .......................................................... 57

4.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 57
4.2 Classification of Engineering Materials .......................................................... 58
4.3 Ferrous Metals and Alloys .............................................................................. 61
4.3.1 Steels and Steel Alloys ....................................................................... 61
4.3.2 Cast Irons ........................................................................................... 70
4.4 Nonferrous Metals and Alloys ........................................................................ 72
4.4.1 Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys ..................................................... 73
4.4.2 Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys ................................................... 74
4.4.3 Zinc and Zinc Alloys.......................................................................... 74
4.4.4 Lead, Tin, and Lead–Tin Alloys (White Metals) ............................... 75
4.4.5 Copper and Copper Alloys ................................................................. 75
4.4.6 Nickel and Nickel Alloys.................................................................... 77
4.4.7 Titanium and Titanium Alloys ........................................................... 77
4.4.8 Superalloys ......................................................................................... 78
4.4.9 Refractory Metals ............................................................................... 78
4.4.10 Noble Metals ...................................................................................... 79
4.5 Newly Born Engineering Materials.................................................................80
4.5.1 Nanomaterials ....................................................................................80
4.5.2 Amorphous Alloys ............................................................................. 83
4.5.3 Metal Foams .......................................................................................84
4.5.4 Shape Memory Alloys ........................................................................ 86
4.6 Review Questions ............................................................................................ 88
Bibliography ............................................................................................................... 89

Chapter 5 Heat Treatment of Metals and Alloys ........................................................................ 91

5.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 91
5.2 Heat Treatment of Steels ................................................................................. 91
5.2.1 Simplified Iron–Iron Carbide Equilibrium Diagram ......................... 91
Contents ix

5.2.2 Effect of Alloying Elements ...............................................................94

5.2.3 Time–Temperature–Transformation Diagram (T–T–T Diagram) ......96
5.3 Basic Heat Treatment Operations of Steels .....................................................99
5.3.1 Annealing Processes ..........................................................................99
5.3.2 Normalizing ..................................................................................... 102
5.3.3 Tempering......................................................................................... 103
5.3.4 Anticrack Hardening Techniques ..................................................... 104
5.3.5 Full-Depth Hardening (through Hardening) .................................... 106
5.3.6 Surface Hardening Techniques ........................................................ 108
5.4 Heat Treatment of Cast Iron .......................................................................... 122
5.5 Heat Treatment of Nonferrous Alloys and Stainless Steels
(Precipitation Hardening) .............................................................................. 123
5.6 Review Questions .......................................................................................... 125
Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 126

Chapter 6 Smelting of Metallic Materials................................................................................. 127

6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 127
6.2 Smelting of Ferrous Metals ........................................................................... 129
6.2.1 Blast Furnace .................................................................................... 129
6.2.2 Steel Refining Processes .................................................................. 132
6.2.3 Cast Iron Refining—Cupola Furnace .............................................. 140
6.3 Smelting and Extraction of Nonferrous Metals ............................................. 140
6.3.1 Aluminum ........................................................................................ 140
6.3.2 Copper .............................................................................................. 141
6.3.3 Titanium ........................................................................................... 143
6.3.4 Miscellaneous Metals ....................................................................... 144
6.4 Review Questions .......................................................................................... 146
Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 146

Chapter 7 Casting of Metallic Materials................................................................................... 147

7.1 Introduction and Classification ...................................................................... 147
7.2 Historical Development of Casting ............................................................... 147
7.3 Expendable Mold Casting Processes ............................................................. 149
7.3.1 Sand Casting..................................................................................... 149
7.3.2 Shell Molding ................................................................................... 155
7.3.3 Vacuum Molding .............................................................................. 155
7.3.4 Slurry Molding ................................................................................. 155
7.3.5 Plaster Molding ................................................................................ 156
7.3.6 Ceramic Molding ............................................................................. 156
7.3.7 Expendable Mold, Expendable Pattern Casting .............................. 156
7.4 Permanent Mold Castings.............................................................................. 158
7.4.1 Die Casting Processes ...................................................................... 158
7.4.2 Centrifugal Casting .......................................................................... 161
7.5 Melting Furnaces ........................................................................................... 163
7.5.1 Cupolas ............................................................................................. 163
7.5.2 Crucible Furnace .............................................................................. 165
7.6 Cleaning and Finishing of Castings .............................................................. 167
7.7 Quality of Castings ........................................................................................ 167
7.7.1 Methods of Inspection of Defects .................................................... 167
x Contents

7.8 Modeling of Casting ...................................................................................... 170

7.8.1 Fluidity ............................................................................................. 171
7.8.2 Fluid Flow through the Gating System ............................................ 171
7.8.3 Mold Filling Time ............................................................................ 172
7.8.4 Solidification Time ........................................................................... 172
7.9 Review Questions .......................................................................................... 173
7.10 Problems ........................................................................................................ 173
Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 174

Chapter 8 Fundamentals of Metal Forming.............................................................................. 175

8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 175
8.2 Simple Stresses and Strains ........................................................................... 175
8.2.1 Elastic Stresses and Strains .............................................................. 175
8.2.2 Plastic Stresses and Strains .............................................................. 177
8.2.3 True Stress and True Strain .............................................................. 178
8.2.4 Empirical Relations for Stress–Strain Curve ................................... 179
8.3 Two- and Three-Dimensional Stresses and Strains ...................................... 181
8.3.1 Principal Stresses and Strains .......................................................... 183
8.3.2 General Stress–Strain Relations in the Elastic Range ..................... 186
8.3.3 Some Special Conditions of Stress and Strain ................................. 187
8.4 Yield Criteria ................................................................................................. 189
8.5 General Plastic Stress–Strain Relations (Theory of Plasticity) ..................... 190
8.5.1 Plastic Work ..................................................................................... 191
8.6 Effect of Temperature on Plastic Deformation .............................................. 191
8.7 Cold, Warm, and Hot Forming ...................................................................... 193
8.7.1 Cold Forming ................................................................................... 193
8.7.2 Warm Forming ................................................................................. 194
8.7.3 Hot Forming ..................................................................................... 194
8.8 Effect of Strain Rate on Plastic Deformation ................................................ 194
8.9 Superplasticity ............................................................................................... 196
8.10 Effect of Friction and Lubrication in Metal Forming ................................... 197
8.11 Review Questions .......................................................................................... 198
8.12 Problems ........................................................................................................ 198
Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 199

Chapter 9 Bulk Forming of Metallic Materials ........................................................................ 201

9.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 201
9.2 Classification of Forming Processes .............................................................202
9.3 Forging Processes .......................................................................................... 203
9.3.1 Open-Die Forging ............................................................................ 203
9.3.2 Close-Die (Impression) Forging .......................................................207
9.3.3 Special Forging Processes ................................................................208
9.3.4 Forging Equipment ........................................................................... 210
9.3.5 Forging Defects ................................................................................ 212
9.3.6 Modeling of Forging Processes ........................................................ 213
9.4 Rolling Processes .......................................................................................... 219
9.4.1 Flat Rolling....................................................................................... 219
9.4.2 Section Rolling ................................................................................. 222
9.4.3 Tube Rolling ..................................................................................... 223
Contents xi

9.4.4 Special Rolling Processes ................................................................ 226

9.4.5 Rolling Defects ................................................................................. 227
9.4.6 Modeling of Flat Rolling .................................................................. 230
9.4.7 Determination of the Neutral Point .................................................. 234
9.5 Extrusion ....................................................................................................... 238
9.5.1 Classification of Extrusion Processes............................................... 239
9.5.2 Extrusion Equipment ........................................................................ 243
9.5.3 Extrusion Defects .............................................................................244
9.5.4 Modeling of Direct Extrusion ..........................................................244
9.6 Rod, Wire, and Tube Drawing .......................................................................248
9.6.1 Classification of Drawing Processes ................................................248
9.6.2 The Drawing Die .............................................................................. 251
9.6.3 Modeling of the Drawing Process .................................................... 251
9.7 Review Questions .......................................................................................... 255
9.8 Problems ........................................................................................................ 256
Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 257

Chapter 10 Sheet Metal Forming Processes ............................................................................... 259

10.1 Introduction and Classification ...................................................................... 259
10.2 Shearing Processes ........................................................................................ 259
10.2.1 Classification of Shearing Processes ................................................ 259
10.2.2 Shearing Mechanism ........................................................................ 261
10.3 Bending Processes .........................................................................................264
10.3.1 Bending Parameters .........................................................................264
10.3.2 Springback in Bending ..................................................................... 265
10.3.3 Residual Stresses in Bending ........................................................... 267
10.3.4 Bending Equipment .......................................................................... 268
10.4 Stretch Forming ............................................................................................. 270
10.4.1 Stretch Forming Machines and Accessories .................................... 271
10.5 Deep Drawing................................................................................................ 272
10.5.1 Blank Holding Pressure.................................................................... 273
10.5.2 Ironing .............................................................................................. 274
10.5.3 Deep Drawing Force ........................................................................ 274
10.5.4 Limiting Drawing Ratio ................................................................... 275
10.5.5 Effect of Anisotropy ......................................................................... 275
10.5.6 Redrawing ........................................................................................ 278
10.6 Rubber Pad Forming (Flexible-Die Forming) ............................................... 278
10.6.1 Rubber Pad Forming Techniques ..................................................... 279
10.7 Hydroforming (Fluid-Forming Processes) .................................................... 279
10.8 Spinning.........................................................................................................280
10.8.1 Conventional Spinning .....................................................................280
10.8.2 Flow Turning (Shear Spinning) ........................................................ 282
10.8.3 Tube Spinning .................................................................................. 282
10.9 Superplastic Forming of Sheets.....................................................................284
10.10 Blow Forming and Vacuum Forming ............................................................284
10.11 Thermoforming Methods .............................................................................. 285
10.11.1 Super Plastic Forming/Diffusion Bonding Process ......................... 285
10.12 Sheet Metal Formability ................................................................................ 285
10.12.1 Testing for Formability..................................................................... 285
10.12.2 Forming Limit Diagrams ................................................................. 288
xii Contents

10.13 Review Questions .......................................................................................... 290

10.14 Problems ........................................................................................................ 291
Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 292

Chapter 11 High-Velocity Forming and High-Energy-Rate Forming ........................................ 293

11.1 Introduction and Classification ...................................................................... 293
11.2 Characteristics of HVF and HERF Processes............................................... 293
11.3 High-Velocity Forming Machines ................................................................. 296
11.3.1 Pneumatic (Compressed Air) Hammer ............................................ 296
11.3.2 Compressed Gas Forming Hammer ................................................. 297
11.3.3 Gas Combustion High Speed Hammers........................................... 297
11.4 High-Energy-Rate Forming Processes .......................................................... 299
11.4.1 Explosive Forming ........................................................................... 299
11.4.2 Electromagnetic Forming................................................................. 305
11.4.3 Electrohydraulic Forming ................................................................309
11.5 Future of HVF and HERF ............................................................................. 312
11.6 Review Questions .......................................................................................... 313
11.7 Problems ........................................................................................................ 314
Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 314

Chapter 12 Powder Metallurgy and Processing of Ceramic Materials ...................................... 315

12.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 315
12.2 Historical Development of Powder Metallurgy ............................................. 316
12.3 Metal Powder Production .............................................................................. 318
12.3.1 Thermal/Mechanical Methods ......................................................... 318
12.3.2 Chemical Methods ........................................................................... 319
12.3.3 Electrodeposition .............................................................................. 320
12.4 Powder Metal Characterization ..................................................................... 320
12.4.1 Particle Geometric Features ............................................................. 320
12.4.2 Interparticle Friction and Flow Characteristics ............................... 321
12.4.3 Density and Packing ......................................................................... 321
12.4.4 Chemistry and Surface Films........................................................... 322
12.5 Blending and Mixing of Powders .................................................................. 322
12.6 Powder Compaction ....................................................................................... 323
12.6.1 Conventional Compaction ................................................................ 323
12.6.2 Isostatic Compaction ........................................................................ 324
12.6.3 Powder Injection Molding ............................................................... 325
12.6.4 Powder Rolling ................................................................................. 325
12.6.5 Powder Extrusion ............................................................................. 325
12.7 Sintering ........................................................................................................ 326
12.8 Secondary Operations ................................................................................... 327
12.9 Ceramic Materials ......................................................................................... 328
12.9.1 Traditional Ceramics ........................................................................ 329
12.9.2 Glasses and Glass Ceramics ............................................................. 331
12.9.3 Advanced (Engineering) Ceramics .................................................. 332
12.10 Ceramic Manufacturing Processes................................................................ 333
12.10.1 Chemical Vapor Deposition ............................................................. 333
12.10.2 Directed Metal Oxidation ................................................................ 334
12.10.3 Reaction Bonding ............................................................................. 334
Contents xiii

12.10.4 Sol-Gel Processing ........................................................................... 335

12.10.5 Polymer Pyrolysis ............................................................................ 336
12.10.6 Melt Casting ..................................................................................... 337
12.10.7 Ceramic Processing Using Powder Metallurgy ............................... 337
12.11 Review Questions .......................................................................................... 337
Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 338

Chapter 13 Polymeric Materials and Their Processing .............................................................. 339

13.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 339
13.2 Historical Development of Polymeric Materials ........................................... 339
13.3 Polymerization ...............................................................................................340
13.3.1 Polymerization Reactions .................................................................340
13.3.2 Degree of Polymerization and Molecular Weight ............................ 342
13.3.3 Forms of Polymer Chains................................................................. 342
13.3.4 Copolymers ......................................................................................344
13.3.5 Crystallinity in Polymers .................................................................344
13.3.6 Glass-Transition Temperature and Melting Point of Polymers ........ 345
13.4 Thermoplastic Polymers (Thermoplastics TP) ..............................................346
13.4.1 Thermomechanical Properties of Thermoplastics ...........................346
13.4.2 Major Families of Thermoplastics ...................................................348
13.5 Thermosetting Polymers (Thermosets) ......................................................... 352
13.5.1 General Characteristics of Thermosets ............................................ 352
13.5.2 Major Families of Thermosets ......................................................... 352
13.6 Elastomers ..................................................................................................... 354
13.7 Thermoplastic Elastomers ............................................................................. 356
13.8 Processing of Polymeric Materials ................................................................ 357
13.8.1 Extrusion .......................................................................................... 357
13.8.2 Calendering ......................................................................................364
13.8.3 Spinning of Fibers ............................................................................ 365
13.8.4 Injection Molding ............................................................................. 366
13.8.5 Blow Molding ................................................................................... 370
13.8.6 Rotational Molding........................................................................... 371
13.8.7 Compression Molding ...................................................................... 372
13.8.8 Transfer Molding .............................................................................. 373
13.8.9 Thermoforming ................................................................................ 374
13.8.10 Casting Processes ............................................................................. 376
13.8.11 Foam Processing .............................................................................. 377
13.8.12 Joining of Plastics ............................................................................. 379
13.9 Review Questions .......................................................................................... 381
13.10 Problems ........................................................................................................ 381
Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 381

Chapter 14 Composite Materials and Their Fabrication Processes ............................................ 383

14.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 383
14.2 Classification and Characteristics of Composites ......................................... 383
14.3 Fiber-Reinforced Composites ........................................................................ 384
14.3.1 Fibers and Whiskers ......................................................................... 384
14.3.2 Matrix Materials............................................................................... 386
14.4 Particulate Composite Materials ................................................................... 387
xiv Contents

14.5 Laminated Composite Materials ................................................................... 388

14.5.1 Bimetals............................................................................................ 389
14.5.2 Clad Metals ...................................................................................... 389
14.5.3 Sandwich and Honeycomb Structures.............................................. 390
14.5.4 Laminate Glass................................................................................. 390
14.5.5 Polymeric-Based Laminates ............................................................ 391
14.6 Combinations of Composite Materials .......................................................... 391
14.7 Fabrication of Composite Materials .............................................................. 391
14.8 Molding Processes ......................................................................................... 394
14.8.1 Contact Molding ............................................................................... 395
14.8.2 Compression Molding ...................................................................... 395
14.8.3 Vacuum Molding .............................................................................. 396
14.8.4 Liquid Composite Molding .............................................................. 397
14.8.5 Molding by Foam Injection .............................................................. 398
14.8.6 Centrifugal Molding of Tubes .......................................................... 398
14.9 Prepreg Fabrication ....................................................................................... 398
14.10 Filament Winding .......................................................................................... 399
14.11 Pultrusion....................................................................................................... 401
14.12 Review Questions ..........................................................................................403
14.13 Problems ........................................................................................................404
Bibliography .............................................................................................................404

Chapter 15 Fundamentals of Traditional Machining Processes .................................................405

15.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................405
15.2 Basics of Chipping Processes ........................................................................405
15.2.1 Elements and Kinematics of a Chipping Process ............................407
15.2.2 Geometry of a Single-Edge Tool ......................................................408
15.2.3 Chip Formation–Characteristic Types of Chips–Chip Breakers ......... 412
15.2.4 Mechanics of the Chipping Process ................................................. 417
15.2.5 Cutting Tool Materials ..................................................................... 427
15.2.6 Tool Wear and Tool Life................................................................... 439
15.2.7 Machining Economy ........................................................................444
15.2.8 Machinability ...................................................................................448
15.2.9 Cutting Fluids ................................................................................... 450
15.2.10 Thermal Aspect in Metal Cutting .................................................... 452
15.3 Basics of Abrasion Processes ........................................................................ 454
15.3.1 Grinding ........................................................................................... 455
15.3.2 Honing ..............................................................................................464
15.3.3 Superfinishing (Microfinishing).......................................................466
15.3.4 Lapping.............................................................................................466
15.4 Review Questions .......................................................................................... 467
15.5 Problems ........................................................................................................469
Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 470

Chapter 16 Machine Tools for Traditional Machining ............................................................... 471

16.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 471
16.2 General Purpose Machine Tools ................................................................... 471
16.2.1 Machine Tools for Cutting Cylindrical Surfaces ............................. 471
16.2.2 Machine Tools for Cutting Flat Surfaces ......................................... 489
Contents xv

16.2.3 Grinding Machines...........................................................................504

16.2.4 Microfinishing Machines ................................................................. 510
16.3 Special Purpose Machine Tools .................................................................... 512
16.3.1 Thread Cutting Machines................................................................. 512
16.3.2 Gear Cutting Machines ................................................................... 516
16.4 Review Questions .......................................................................................... 529
16.5 Problems ........................................................................................................ 530
Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 530

Chapter 17 Fundamentals of Nontraditional Machining Process............................................... 533

17.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 533
17.2 Classification of Nontraditional Machining Processes ................................. 534
17.3 Jet Machining ................................................................................................ 534
17.3.1 Abrasive Jet Machining .................................................................... 534
17.3.2 Water Jet Machining ........................................................................ 537
17.3.3 Abrasive Water Jet Machining .........................................................540
17.4 Ultrasonic Machining .................................................................................... 543
17.4.1 USM Equipment ...............................................................................544
17.4.2 Process Capabilities ......................................................................... 547
17.5 Chemical Machining ..................................................................................... 548
17.5.1 Chemical Milling ............................................................................. 548
17.5.2 Photochemical Machining .............................................................. 551
17.6 Electrochemical Machining .......................................................................... 553
17.6.1 Elements of the ECM Process .......................................................... 554
17.6.2 ECM Equipment............................................................................... 555
17.6.3 Process Capabilities ......................................................................... 556
17.7 Electrochemical Grinding ............................................................................. 559
17.8 Electric Discharge Machining ....................................................................... 560
17.8.1 Electric Discharge Sinking (Conventional EDM) ............................ 560
17.8.2 Electrical Discharge Milling ............................................................ 566
17.8.3 Electric Discharge Wire Cutting ...................................................... 567
17.9 Electron Beam Machining............................................................................. 568
17.9.1 EBM Equipment ............................................................................... 569
17.9.2 Process Capabilities ......................................................................... 570
17.10 Laser Beam Machining ................................................................................. 571
17.10.1 LBM Equipment ............................................................................... 573
17.10.2 Applications and Capabilities........................................................... 575
17.11 Plasma Arc Cutting ....................................................................................... 576
17.11.1 Plasma Arc Cutting Systems ............................................................ 576
17.11.2 Applications and Capabilities of PAC .............................................. 578
17.12 Concluding Characteristics of NTMPS ......................................................... 578
17.13 Review Questions .......................................................................................... 584
17.14 Problems ........................................................................................................ 585
Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 586

Chapter 18 Numerical Control of Machine Tools....................................................................... 587

18.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 587
18.1.1 Economics of CNC........................................................................... 589
18.1.2 Advantages of CNC .......................................................................... 590
xvi Contents

18.1.3 Disadvantages of CNC ..................................................................... 590

18.1.4 NC System Components................................................................... 590
18.2 NC Concepts .................................................................................................. 591
18.2.1 Machine Tool Axes .......................................................................... 591
18.2.2 Point Location .................................................................................. 591
18.2.3 Absolute and Incremental Positioning ............................................. 593
18.3 Movements in CNC Systems ......................................................................... 594
18.4 Control of NC Machine Tools ....................................................................... 595
18.5 CNC Machine Tools ...................................................................................... 596
18.6 Input Units .....................................................................................................600
18.7 CNC Instructions ........................................................................................... 601
18.8 Program Format ............................................................................................602
18.8.1 Fixed Block Format ..........................................................................602
18.8.2 TAB Sequential Format ...................................................................603
18.8.3 Word Address Format ......................................................................603
18.9 Features of CNC Systems ..............................................................................605
18.10 Part Programming .........................................................................................608
18.10.1 Manual Part Programming ..............................................................608
18.10.2 Computer-Assisted Part Programming ............................................ 613
18.10.3 CAD/CAM Part Programming ........................................................ 614
18.11 Review Questions .......................................................................................... 616
18.12 Problems ........................................................................................................ 616
Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 618

Chapter 19 Industrial Robots and Hexapods .............................................................................. 619

19.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 619
19.2 Industrial Robots ........................................................................................... 620
19.2.1 Robots and Robotics ......................................................................... 620
19.2.2 Major Components of an Industrial Robot ....................................... 621
19.2.3 Types of Robot Manipulators ........................................................... 622
19.2.4 Drive Systems (Actuators) ................................................................ 624
19.2.5 Controllers ........................................................................................ 624
19.2.6 Programming of Robots ................................................................... 626
19.2.7 Robot Characteristics ....................................................................... 627
19.2.8 Applications of Industrial Robots in Manufacturing ....................... 628
19.2.9 Robot Economics ............................................................................. 631
19.2.10 Recent and Future Developments of Industrial Robots ................... 632
19.3 Hexapods ....................................................................................................... 632
19.3.1 Historical Background ..................................................................... 632
19.3.2 Hexapod Mechanism ........................................................................ 632
19.3.3 Constructional Features of Hexapods .............................................. 634
19.3.4 Hexapod Elements ............................................................................ 635
19.3.5 Hexapod Characteristics................................................................... 639
19.3.6 Manufacturing Applications of Hexapods ...................................... 641
19.4 Review Questions .......................................................................................... 642
19.5 Problems ........................................................................................................ 643
Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 643
Contents xvii

Chapter 20 Surface Technology .................................................................................................. 645

20.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 645
20.2 Surface Smoothing ........................................................................................ 645
20.2.1 Mechanical Smoothing .................................................................... 645
20.2.2 Electropolishing ............................................................................... 647
20.3 Surface Cleaning ........................................................................................... 647
20.3.1 Peen Cleaning................................................................................... 647
20.3.2 Barrel Tumbling and Vibratory Finishing........................................ 649
20.3.3 Ultrasonic Cleaning ......................................................................... 651
20.3.4 Chemical Cleaning ........................................................................... 653
20.4 Surface Protection ......................................................................................... 655
20.4.1 Sacrificial Protection (Cathodic or Galvanic Protection) ................. 655
20.4.2 Direct Protection .............................................................................. 655
20.5 Roll Burnishing and Ballizing....................................................................... 669
20.6 Deburring ...................................................................................................... 670
20.7 Review Questions .......................................................................................... 671
20.8 Problems ........................................................................................................ 671
Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 671

Chapter 21 Joining Processes ..................................................................................................... 673

21.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 673
21.2 Fusion Welding .............................................................................................. 673
21.2.1 Gas Welding ..................................................................................... 678
21.2.2 Thermit Welding .............................................................................. 682
21.2.3 Electric Arc Welding ........................................................................ 683
21.2.4 Resistance Welding .......................................................................... 697
21.2.5 High-Energy Beam Welding ............................................................700
21.3 Solid-State Welding ....................................................................................... 702
21.3.1 Cold Welding .................................................................................... 702
21.3.2 Diffusion Welding ............................................................................ 703
21.3.3 Explosion Welding ........................................................................... 703
21.3.4 Forge Welding .................................................................................. 703
21.3.5 Friction Welding ............................................................................... 704
21.3.6 Hot Pressure Welding ....................................................................... 706
21.3.7 Roll Welding..................................................................................... 706
21.3.8 Ultrasonic Welding........................................................................... 706
21.4 Solid–Liquid State Welding .......................................................................... 707
21.4.1 Brazing ............................................................................................. 707
21.4.2 Soldering .......................................................................................... 709
21.4.3 Adhesive Bonding ............................................................................ 710
21.5 Welding of Plastics ........................................................................................ 712
21.6 Metallurgy of Welded Joints ......................................................................... 712
21.7 Welding Defects ............................................................................................ 712
21.8 Welding Quality Control ............................................................................... 714
21.8.1 Nondestructive Testing ..................................................................... 714
21.8.2 Destructive Testing ........................................................................... 716
xviii Contents

21.9 Mechanical Joining ....................................................................................... 716

21.10 Review Questions .......................................................................................... 719
21.11 Problems ........................................................................................................ 719
Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 720

Chapter 22 Advanced Manufacturing Techniques ..................................................................... 721

22.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 721
22.2 Near Net Shape Manufacturing ..................................................................... 721
22.2.1 Metal Injection Molding................................................................... 721
22.2.2 Rapid Prototyping ............................................................................ 721
22.3 Microfabrication Technology ........................................................................ 726
22.3.1 Microcutting Operations .................................................................. 726
22.3.2 Microfinishing Operations ............................................................... 726
22.3.3 Nonconventional Micromachining ................................................... 726
22.4 Nanotechnology ............................................................................................. 729
22.4.1 Applications of Nanotechnology ...................................................... 730
22.5 Semiconductor Device Fabrication................................................................ 733
22.5.1 Wafer Fabrication ............................................................................. 734
22.5.2 Testing, Assembly, and Packaging ................................................... 736
22.6 Sustainable and Green Manufacturing .......................................................... 736
22.7 Review Questions .......................................................................................... 737
Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 737

Chapter 23 Materials, Processes, and Design for Manufacturing .............................................. 739

23.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 739
23.2 Function, Material, Process, and Shape Interaction ...................................... 741
23.3 Manufacturing Process Capabilities.............................................................. 742
23.4 Process Selection Factors .............................................................................. 742
23.5 Manufacturing Process Selection .................................................................. 746
23.5.1 Process Information Maps ............................................................... 746
23.5.2 Elimination and Ranking Strategy................................................... 747
23.6 Design for Manufacturing ............................................................................. 749
23.6.1 Design for Casting ............................................................................ 751
23.6.2 Design for Sheet Metal Forming ...................................................... 754
23.6.3 Design for Die Forging..................................................................... 757
23.6.4 Design for Machining....................................................................... 758
23.6.5 Design for Welding........................................................................... 760
23.6.6 Design for Assembly ........................................................................ 762
23.6.7 Design for Environment ................................................................... 764
23.7 Review Questions .......................................................................................... 765
Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 765

Chapter 24 Quality Control......................................................................................................... 767

24.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 767
24.2 Statistical Quality Control ............................................................................. 767
24.2.1 Statistical Principles ......................................................................... 768
24.2.2 Statistical Process Control ............................................................... 771
24.2.3 Control Charts .................................................................................. 772
Contents xix

24.2.4 Control Limits and Specifications .................................................... 775

24.2.5 Process Capability ............................................................................ 776
24.2.6 Acceptance Sampling and Control ................................................... 778
24.3 Total Quality Control .................................................................................... 779
24.4 The ISO 9000 Standard ................................................................................. 779
24.5 Dimensional Control ..................................................................................... 780
24.5.1 Interchangeability ............................................................................. 780
24.5.2 Tolerance .......................................................................................... 781
24.5.3 Fits .................................................................................................... 786
24.5.4 Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing ...................................... 788
24.6 Measuring Quality Characteristics................................................................ 790
24.7 Measuring Tools and Equipment ................................................................... 790
24.7.1 Limit Gauges .................................................................................... 791
24.7.2 Dimensional Measurements ............................................................. 793
24.7.3 Angular Measurements ....................................................................802
24.7.4 Geometrical Measurements..............................................................804
24.8 Coordinate-Measuring Machine ...................................................................806
24.9 Surface Measurements ..................................................................................807
24.10 Nondestructive Testing and Inspection ......................................................... 811
24.11 Destructive Testing ........................................................................................ 812
24.12 Review Questions .......................................................................................... 812
24.13 Problems ........................................................................................................ 813
Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 813

Chapter 25 Automation in Manufacturing Technology .............................................................. 815

25.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 815
25.2 Mechanization versus Automation ................................................................ 815
25.3 Automation and Production Quantity............................................................ 817
25.4 Necessity for Introducing Automation .......................................................... 819
25.5 Manufacturing Systems ................................................................................. 820
25.6 Flexible Manufacturing Systems ................................................................... 826
25.6.1 Elements of FMS .............................................................................. 827
25.6.2 Features and Characteristics of FMS ............................................... 828
25.6.3 New Developments in FMS Technology .......................................... 829
25.7 Computer Integrated Manufacturing ............................................................. 829
25.7.1 Computer-Aided Design ................................................................... 831
25.7.2 Computer-Aided Process Planning .................................................. 832
25.7.3 Computer-Aided Manufacturing ...................................................... 832
25.8 Integrated Manufacturing Production System-Lean Production .................. 833
25.8.1 Steps for Implementing IMPS (Lean Production) ........................... 834
25.8.2 JIT Production .................................................................................. 834
25.9 Adaptive Control ........................................................................................... 836
25.10 Smart Manufacturing and Artificial Intelligence .......................................... 838
25.10.1 Expert Systems ................................................................................. 838
25.10.2 Machine Vision ................................................................................ 839
25.10.3 Artificial Neural Networks .............................................................. 839
25.10.4 Natural Language Systems............................................................... 839
25.10.5 Fuzzy Logic (Fuzzy Models) ........................................................... 839
25.11 Factory of Future ...........................................................................................840
25.12 Concluding Remarks Related to Automated Manufacturing ........................840
xx Contents

25.13 Review Questions .......................................................................................... 841

Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 842

Chapter 26 Health and Safety Aspects in Manufacturing .......................................................... 843

26.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 843
26.2 Health and Safety at Work.............................................................................844
26.3 Sources of Manufacturing Hazards ............................................................... 845
26.3.1 Hazards Due to Manual Handling ................................................... 845
26.3.2 Hazards Due to Hand-Held Tools .................................................... 845
26.3.3 Mechanical Machining..................................................................... 847
26.3.4 Electrical Hazards ............................................................................ 847
26.3.5 Noise Hazards ..................................................................................848
26.3.6 Vibration Hazards ............................................................................ 849
26.3.7 Chemical Hazards ............................................................................ 849
26.3.8 Fire Hazards ..................................................................................... 851
26.3.9 Hazards Due to Workplace Stress .................................................... 851
26.4 Personal Protective Equipment...................................................................... 852
26.5 Hazards of Manufacturing Operations .......................................................... 853
26.5.1 Melting of Metals ............................................................................. 853
26.5.2 Sand Casting..................................................................................... 855
26.5.3 Metal-Forming Operations............................................................... 859
26.5.4 Machining Operations ...................................................................... 862
26.5.5 Welding ............................................................................................ 870
26.6 Review Questions .......................................................................................... 874
Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 874
Appendix A: List of Symbols ...................................................................................................... 877
Appendix B: Greek Letters ......................................................................................................... 881
Appendix C: List of Acronyms ................................................................................................... 883
Index .................................................................................................................................................. 891
Preface
This textbook provides comprehensive knowledge and insight into various aspects of manufactur-
ing technology, processes, materials, tooling, and equipment. Its main objective is to introduce the
grand spectrum of manufacturing technology to individuals who will be involved in the design and
manufacturing of finished products, to provide them with the basic information on manufacturing
technologies. The text material is presented mainly in descriptive manner, where the emphasis is on
the fundamentals of the process, its capabilities, typical applications, advantages, and limitations.
Mathematical modeling and equations are used only when they enhance the basic understanding of
with which the material deals.
The book has been written specifically for undergraduates in mechanical, industrial, manufactur-
ing, and materials engineering disciplines of the second to fourth levels to cover complete courses
of manufacturing technology taught in engineering colleges and institutions all over the world. It
also covers the needs of production and manufacturing engineers and technologists participating
in related industries where it is expected to be part of their professional library. Additionally, the
book can be used by students in other disciplines concerned with design and manufacturing, such
as automotive and aerospace engineering.
The book is a fundamental textbook that covers all of the manufacturing processes, materials,
and equipment used to convert raw materials to a final product. It presents the materials used in
manufacturing processes. The book also presents heat treatment processes, smelting of metals, and
other technological processes such as casting, forming, powder metallurgy, joining, and surface
technology. Manufacturing processes for polymers, ceramics, and composites are also covered.
The book also covers traditional, nontraditional, and advanced manufacturing technologies and
applications. It sheds light on modern manufacturing technologies. In this regard, numerical con-
trol, industrial robots, and hexapods are covered. Product quality control, automation in manufac-
turing, and health, safety, and environmental aspects in manufacturing are also discussed.
The book is written in 26 chapters and 3 appendices having the following titles:

1. Introduction to Manufacturing Technology

2. Properties of Engineering Materials
3. Structure of Metals and Alloys
4. Engineering Materials and Their Applications
5. Heat Treatment of Metals and Alloys
6. Smelting of Metallic Materials
7. Casting of Metallic Materials
8. Fundamentals of Metal Forming
9. Bulk Forming of Metallic Materials
10. Sheet Metal Forming Processes
11. High-Velocity Forming and High-Energy-Rate Forming
12. Powder Metallurgy and Processing of Ceramic Materials
13. Polymeric Materials and Their Processing
14. Composite Materials and Their Fabrication Processes
15. Fundamentals of Traditional Machining Processes
16. Machine Tools for Traditional Machining
17. Fundamentals of Nontraditional Machining Processes
18. Numerical Control of Machine Tools
19. Industrial Robots and Hexapods

xxi
xxii Preface

20. Surface Technology

21. Joining Processes
22. Advanced Manufacturing Techniques
23. Materials, Processes, and Design for Manufacturing
24. Quality Control
25. Automation in Manufacturing Technology
26. Health and Safety Aspects in Manufacturing
Appendix A: List of Symbols
Appendix B: Greek Letters
Appendix C: List of Acronyms

OUTLINE OF THE BOOK

The following topics are covered by individual chapters of the book:
Chapter 1 presents a general classification showing the importance of manufacturing technology,
its attainable accuracy, and economical considerations.
Chapter 2 presents the physical, mechanical, and fabricating properties of engineering
materials.
Chapter 3 presents the structures of metals and alloys. The lattice structures and imperfections
(point, line, surface, and volume defects) are presented. The solidification of pure metals and alloys
along with the related phase diagrams and lever rule are described. The iron–carbon phase diagram
is also considered.
Engineering materials are classified and discussed in Chapter 4, which deals mainly with ferrous
and nonferrous metals and alloys. Steels and alloy steels are classified according to AISI and DIN
standards. They are categorized according to their applications. The production of common types
of cast iron is presented. Nonferrous metals and alloys, in addition to superalloys, refractory and
noble metals, are surveyed. Newly developed materials, such as nanomaterials, metal foams, amor-
phous alloys, and shape memory alloys (SMAs) are also presented. Non-metallic materials such as
polymers, ceramics, and composites are discussed in subsequent chapters.
Chapter 5 covers the basics of heat treatment operations of metals and alloys. The heat treatment
of steels and alloy steels, such as annealing, normalizing, tempering, austempering, martempering,
hardening, and surface hardening techniques are described. Also, the heat treatment operations of
cast iron and the precipitation hardening of nonferrous alloys are considered.
Chapter 6 deals with smelting, extraction, and refining technologies of metals. Smelting and
refining of ferrous metals using blast furnaces and steel refining furnaces are described. The tech-
nology of continuous casting is presented. Smelting and extraction processes of some important
nonferrous metals are also covered.
Chapter 7 presents casting of metallic materials. It covers a wide variety of processes adopted by
industry, including sand casting using different molding techniques, investment casting, permanent
mold casting, and centrifugal casting. The furnaces used in foundries are also introduced. The basic
relations controlling the process variables are presented as an introduction for process modeling.
Chapter 8 presents both the mechanical and metallurgical fundamentals of the plastic deforma-
tion of metals as a prelude to the next two chapters dealing with bulk forming and sheet forming
of metallic materials. Mechanical fundamentals cover the analysis of the limiting forces, stresses,
strains, and strain rates involved in the metal flow during the process as well as the associated
work hardening. Metallurgical aspects include the effect of temperature and plastic deformation on
the crystal structure of the material, and accordingly, on the resulting mechanical properties. The
effects of friction and lubrication on the forming process are also included.
Chapter 9 introduces plastic forming processes for bulk metallic materials, including forging,
rolling, extrusion, and drawing. The different techniques adopted in these processes are discussed,
emphasizing the applications, advantages and limitations of each, as well as the utilized equipment
Preface xxiii

and tooling. Modeling of these processes is also included by using simple mathematical relations
based on the element equilibrium approach to train students on estimating the limiting stresses,
strains, strain rates, forces, and consumed power. These calculations are applied in designing the
required dies and selecting the right capacity for equipment. Solved examples are given to support
appreciation of how to apply the driven and commonly used mathematical relations.
Chapter 10 presents sheet metal forming processes, including shearing, bending, deep drawing,
spinning, and superplastic forming of sheet blanks. Similar to Chapter 9, a variety of techniques
involved in these processes are discussed, stressing the applications, tooling, and equipment as well
as the advantages and limitations of each. The limiting characteristics of sheet metals such as the
spring back, anisotropy, limiting-drawing ratio, and residual stresses are discussed to a reasonable
depth to convey the limits of sheet processing. The chapter ends with an introduction of the techno-
logical characteristic of sheet formability, the standard tests for its measurement, and the forming
limit diagrams for determining the limiting conditions for sheet forming applications.
Chapter 11 introduces the nonconventional family of forming processes based on developing
high-velocity forming hammers (high-velocity forming, HVF) or adopting other physical techniques
for sudden release of energy (high–energy rate forming, HERF). The presented processes include
high velocity forming, explosive forming, electromagnetic forming, and electrohydraulic forming.
The principles, equipment and tooling, applications, advantages and limitations are discussed for
each process. The basic mathematical relations serving the objectives of process understanding are
presented without details that are beyond the scope of the book.
Chapter 12 presents powder metallurgy as an alternative manufacturing technique that was first
developed to form high precision (net shape) metallic products. The procedure involves producing
metals first in the form of powder using different methods, and then consolidating powders into a
solid form by the application of pressure (compaction), and heat (sintering) at a temperature below
the melting point of the main constituent. Powder metallurgy was later adopted as a major process
for manufacturing advanced ceramic products using the same steps. Therefore, it is crucial in this
chapter to introduce ceramic materials and discuss the methods used in their manufacture, includ-
ing powder metallurgy procedures.
Chapter 13 presents polymeric materials and their processing techniques. The definition and
polymerization reactions are first introduced. Due to the different nature and thermomechanical
behavior of polymers compared to metals, their structure and properties are discussed for the three
classes of polymeric materials, namely, thermoplastics, thermosettings and elastomers. The pre-
sented manufacturing processes include extrusion, calendaring, spinning, injection molding, com-
pression molding, transfer molding, thermoforming, casting, foaming, and joining of plastics.
Chapter 14 introduces composite materials, their classes and the main characteristics of their
constituents, emphasizing their applications. Then their major manufacturing processes are pre-
sented. These processes include the different types of molding, prepeg fabrication, filament wind-
ing, and pultrusion.
The fundamentals of traditional machining are presented in Chapter 15. The mechanics and
kinematics of chipping processes are investigated. Tool geometry, tool material, tool life, machin-
ing economy, and machinability are discussed. This chapter also considers the thermal aspects of
chipping operations. The basics of abrasion processes, such as grinding, honing, superfinishing, and
lapping along with mechanics and kinematics of the grinding operation are considered.
Chapter 16 presents the general purpose machine tools used for cutting cylindrical surfaces
such as lathe, boring, and drilling machines. Additionally machine tools used for cutting flat sur-
faces such as shapers, planers, and slotters, and milling and broaching machines are given. It
presents surface and cylindrical grinding machines as well as honing, superfinishing, and lapping
machines normally used for microfinishing operations. Machines used for thread and gear cutting
and finishing are also described.
Chapter 17 describes the fundamentals of nontraditional machining processes. Mechanical non-
traditional machining is represented by jet machining and ultrasonic machining (USM). Chemical
xxiv Preface

milling, spray etching, electrochemical machining (ECM), and electrochemical grinding (ECG)
are also described, along with the thermal nontraditional processes represented by electrodischarge
machining (EDM), electrodischarge wire cutting (EDWC), ED-milling, laser beam machining
(LBM), electron beam machining (EBM), and plasma beam machining (PBM). Related machines
and equipment, their elements, and accuracies are given.
Chapter 18 provides the CNC concepts, movements in CNC systems, control of CNC machine
tools, types of CNC machines, and features of CNC systems. It provides the fundamentals of part
programming using manual, computer-assisted, and CAD/CAM methods.
Chapter 19 introduces robotics and hexapods and their role in manufacturing technology. The
basic elements of industrial robots and hexapods are examined. The economical features and char-
acteristics of robots and hexapods are presented.
Chapter 20 presents the different surface technologies, which include smoothing, cleaning, pro-
tection, deburring, and roll burnishing and ballizing. The surface protection methods are sacrificial
and direct protection. The latter comprises conversion coating, electroplating, organic coatings,
vaporized metal coating (PVD and CVD), metalizing and cladding, all of which are presented in
this chapter.
Chapter 21 covers fusion welding operations such as gas welding, thermit welding, and meth-
ods of electric arc welding. Methods of resistance spot, projection, seam, and flash welding are
introduced. High energy beam welding by electron and laser beams are given. The chapter covers
the metallurgy of welded joints, welding defects, and welding quality control. Solid state and solid-
liquid state welding techniques, in addition to welding of plastics and mechanical joining, are also
explained.
Chapter 22 describes the concept of near net shape manufacturing, microfabrication technol-
ogy, and nanotechnology. Semiconductor device fabrication, testing, assembly, and packaging are
explained. It also introduces the concept of sustainable and green manufacturing.
Function, material, process, and shape interaction are given in Chapter 23. Manufacturing pro-
cess capabilities and their selection through process information maps and elimination and ranking
strategy are given. Design for manufacturing is presented by setting design rules and recommen-
dations for many manufacturing technologies such as casting, sheet metal forming, die forging,
machining and welding, as well as assembly operations and design for environment.
Chapter 24 introduces the principles of statistical quality control, control charts, control limits
and specifications, process capability as well as acceptance sampling. Concepts of total quality con-
trol and the ISO 9000 Standard are also covered. Dimensional control, interchangeability, tolerance
and fit are discussed. Measuring tools and equipment commonly used for measuring quality charac-
teristics such as limit gauges and those used for dimensional, angular, and geometric measurements
are described. Surface measurements, nondestructive testing and inspection, and destructive testing
are introduced.
In Chapter 25, automation in manufacturing technology is presented. The difference between
automation and mechanization is clearly defined. The necessity of adopting automation in manu-
facturing is discussed. Automation is realized in the form of MSs, FMSs, CAD, CAM, CAPP, CIM,
lean production, AC, AI, CNC, robotics, and hexapods.
Chapter 26 covers the issues of health and safety at work, different sources of manufacturing
hazards, and necessary personal protective equipment. It focuses on the different hazards associ-
ated with several manufacturing processes such as melting of metals, sand casting, welding, metal
forming operations, and machining by traditional and nontraditional techniques.
Many solved examples are introduced in the text to make students aware of the importance of the
relevant topics. At the end of each chapter, review questions and problems are provided. Individuals
desiring additional information on specific items of the book are directed to the various references
listed at the end of each chapter.
Preface xxv

ADVANTAGES OF THE BOOK

• Introduces new trends in surface hardening technology
• Introduces the newly developed materials such as nanomaterials, memory shape materi-
als, amorphous alloys, metal foams, advanced ceramics, and composite materials. It also
introduces smart materials and strategic engineering materials
• Provides selection guidelines for engineering materials and manufacturing processes
• Presents the principles of design for manufacturing
• Presents the principles of CNC, robotics, and hexapods as well as their application in
manufacturing technology
• Covers the fundamentals of traditional and nontraditional machining processes
• Presents nontraditional forming processes such as high velocity and high energy rate
forming
• Presents the technologies of surface treatment
• Presents the ultrasonic technology and its applications in manufacturing industries.
• Introduces the safe technologies for manufacturing toxic materials such as beryllium and
asbestos
• Provides the new trends in centrifugal casting
• Presents nano- and micromachining technologies
• Explains the concept and environmental aspects of manufacturing and clean factories
• Explains the principles of near-net shape and net-shape processing and rapid prototyping
• Presents the surface characteristics due to manufacturing processes
• Introduces the recently developed advanced ceramics and their latest processing
techniques
• Presents novel composite materials and their fabrication
• Introduces the superplastic phenomenon in some metallic alloys and the related superplas-
tic forming processes
• Cover the manufacturing topic in a simple and descriptive way.
• Covers new topics that are not mentioned in earlier books.
• Presents engineering materials, processes, tools, and equipment used in manufacturing.
• Covers the basic as well as the most recent advanced manufacturing technologies.
Acknowledgments
Many individuals have contributed to the development of this textbook. It is a pleasure to express our
deep gratitude to Professor E. M. Abdel-Rasoul, Mansoura University, Egypt, for supplying valu-
able materials during the preparation of this book. The assistance of Nagham Elberishi, Production
Engineering Department, Alexandria University, and Saeid Teileb of the Lord Alexandria Razor
Company for their valuable AutoCAD drawings is greatly appreciated. Thanks and apologies to
others whose contributions have been overlooked.
We appreciate very much permission from many publishers to reproduce illustrations and tabu-
lated data from a number of authors as well as the courtesy of many industrial companies that
provided photographs and drawings of their products to be included in the book. Their generous
cooperation is a mark of sincere interest in enhancing the level of engineering education. The cred-
its for all such great help are provided in the captions under the corresponding illustrations.
We would like to acknowledge with thanks the dedication and continued help of the editorial
board and production staff of CRC Press for their effort in ensuring that the book is as well designed
as possible.
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Another Random Scribd Document
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 The Project Gutenberg eBook of Short stories
from Life: The 81 prize stories in "Life's" Shortest
Story Contest
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
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Title: Short stories from Life: The 81 prize stories in "Life's" Shortest
Story Contest

Author of introduction, etc.: Thomas L. Masson

Release date: May 15, 2022 [eBook #68085]

Language: English

Original publication: United States: Doubleday, Page & Company,

1916

Credits: Roger Frank and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team

at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from
images generously made available by The Internet Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SHORT

STORIES FROM LIFE: THE 81 PRIZE STORIES IN "LIFE'S"
SHORTEST STORY CONTEST ***
 Short Stories From Life
The 81 Prize Stories in “Life’s”
Shortest Story Contest
With an Introduction by
Thomas L. Masson
Managing Editor of “Life”

Garden City New York

Doubleday, Page & Company
1916
Copyright, 1916, by
Doubleday, Page & Company
All rights reserved, including that of
translation into foreign languages,
including the Scandinavian

COPYRIGHT, 1916, BY THE LIFE PUBLISHING COMPANY

CONTENTS
Introduction
By Thomas L. Masson
Thicker Than Water (First Prize)
By Ralph Henry Barbour and George Randolph Osborne
The Answer (Second Prize)
By Harry Stillwell Edwards
Her Memory (Third Prize Divided)
By Dwight M. Wiley
Business and Ethics (Third Prize Divided)
By Redfield Ingalls
N. B.
By Joseph Hall
The Clearest Call
By Brevard Mays Connor
Greater Love Hath No Man
By Selwyn Grattan
The Gretchen Plan
By William Johnston
The Glory of War
By M. B. Levick
The Aviator
By Hornell Hart
Loyalty
By Clarence Herbert New
Moses Comes to Burning Bush
By W. T. Larned
North of Fifty-three
By Mary Woodbury Caswell
The Old Things
By Jessie Anderson Chase
The Forced March
By Hornell Hart
Approximating the Ultimate with Aunt Sarah
By Charles Earl Gaymon
The Horse Heaver
By Lyman Bryson
The Ego of the Metropolis
By Thomas T. Hoyne
The Gay Deceiver
By Howard P. Stephenson
In Cold Blood
By Joseph Hall
Housework—and the Man
By Freeman Tilden
His Journey’s End
By Ruth Sterry
Food for Thought
By Harriet Lummis Smith
Hope
 By Edward Thomas Noonan
Collusion
By Lincoln Steffens
Faithful to the End
By Clair W. Perry
Arletta
By Margaret Ade
Which?
By Joseph Hall
What the Vandals Leave
By Herbert Riley Howe
Ben. T. Allen, Atty., vs. Himself
By William H. Hamby
The Joke on Preston
By Lewis Allen
The Idyl
By Joseph F. Whelan
Withheld
By Ella B. Argo
Up and Down
By Bertha Lowry Gwynne
Patches
By Francis E. Norris
The Arm at Gravelotte
By William Almon Wolff
The Bad Man
By Harry C. Goodwin
Nemesis
By Mary Clark
The Black Door
By Gordon Seagrove
The Man Who Told
By John Cutler
The Unanswered Call
By Thomas T. Hayne
The Women in the Case
By Mary Sams Cooke
The Cat That Came Back
By Virginia West
“Solitaire” Bill
By Arthur Felix McEachern
Just a Pal
By Elsie D. Knisely
When “Kultur” Was Beaten
By Lieutenant X
Presumption of Innocence
By Lyman Bryson
A Mexican Vivandière
By H. C. Washburn
Mother’s Birthday Present
By Carrie Seever
Red Blood or Blue
By E. Montgomery
Impulsive Mr. Jiggs
By Roger Brown
Tomaso and Me
By Graham Clark
The Old Grove Crossing
By Albert H. Coggins
Lost and Found
By John Kendrick Bangs
You Never Can Tell
By “B. MacArthur”
The Escape
By A. Leslie Goodwin
Two Letters, a Telegram, and a Finale
By H. S. Haskins
The Intruder
By Reginald Barlow
Molten Metal
By Hornell Hart
The Winner’s Loss
By Elliott Flower
The Recoil of the Gun
 By Marian Parker
“Man May Love”
By Robert Sharp
One Way—and Another
By Noble May
The Black Patch
By Randolph Hartley
A Shipboard Romance
By Lewis Allen
The Coward
By Philip Francis Cook
The Heart of a Burglar
By Jane Dahl
The Reward
By Herbert Heron
The First Girl
By Louise Pond Jewell
A Sophistry of Art
By Eugene Smith
The Message in the Air
By B. R. Stevens
In a Garden
By Catherine Runscomb
A Clever Catch
By Lloyd F. Loux
Strictly Business
By Lincoln Steffens
The Advent of the Majority
By Stella Wynne Herron
The Night Nurse
By Will S. Gidley
Why the Trench Was Lost
By Charles F. Pietsch
The King of the Pledgers
By H. R. R. Hertzberg
A Po-lice-man
By Lincoln Steffens
The Quest of the V. C.
By A. Byers Fletcher
Somewhere in Belgium
By Percy Godfrey Savage
 INTRODUCTION
By Thomas L. Masson
Managing Editor of Life

It was at a luncheon party that the idea of Life’s Short Story

Contest was first suggested by Mr. Lincoln Steffens. He propounded
this interesting query:

“How short can a short story be and still be a short story?”

It was thereupon determined to discover, if possible, a practical

answer to this interesting question. The columns of Life were thrown
open to contributors for many months, prizes aggregating $1,750
were offered and eighty-one short stories were published. This book
contains these stories, including the four prize winners.
The contest cost in round numbers a little less than $12,000. Over
thirty thousand manuscripts were received. They came from all over
the world—from sufferers on hospital cots, from literary toilers in the
Philippines, from Europe, Asia, and Africa, and from every State in
the Union. One manuscript was sent from a trench at the French
battle front, where the story had been written between hand
grenades. Every kind of story was represented, the war story and the
love story being the leaders. Every kind of writing was represented,
from the short compound of trite banalities to the terse, dramatic,
carefully wrought out climax. Back of many of these efforts the
spectral forms of Guy de Maupassant and O. Henry hovered in
sardonic triumph. Tragedy predominated. The light touch was few
and far between. But it was still there, as the stories published show.
 Here let me pay a just tribute to the readers who, with almost
superhuman courage, struggled through these thirty thousand
manuscripts. In the beginning they were a noble band of highly
intelligent and cultivated men and women, with strong constitutions,
ready and willing to face literature in any form. I understand that
many of them survived the contest. This speaks well for the virility of
our American stock. Theirs was a noble and enduring toil, and theirs
will be a noble and enduring fame. Without them this book now might
contain twenty-nine thousand nine hundred and eleven poor stories
instead of eighty-one good ones. To those among them who still live,
a long life and, let us hope, an ultimate recovery!
Naturally, in the method of securing the stories, there had to be
some way of getting the contributors to make them as short as
possible. Mr. Steffens’ ingenious suggestion admirably attained this
end. First, a limit of fifteen hundred words was placed upon all
stories submitted, no story longer than this being admitted to the
contest. For each story accepted the contributor was paid, not for
what he wrote, but for what he did not write. That is to say, he was
paid at the rate of ten cents a word for the difference between what
he wrote and fifteen hundred words. If his story, for example,
happened to be 1,500 words in length, he got nothing. If it was 1,490
words he got one dollar. If there had been a story only ten words
long, the author would have received $149. To be accurate, the
longest story actually accepted for the contest was 1,495 words, for
which the author received fifty cents, and the shortest was 76 words,
for which the author received $142.40. The interested reader will be
able to discover the identity of these two stories by examining the
stories in the book. At the original luncheon party a large part of the
warm discussion that took place turned on how short a story could
be made and still come within the definition of a short story. It was
really a question as to when is a story not a story, but only an
anecdote. When a story is a story, is it a combination of plot,
character, and setting or is it determined by only one of these three
elements? Must it end when you have ended it or must it suggest
something beyond the reading? I shall not attempt to answer these
questions. The definition of the short story should be relegated to the
realm of “What is Humor?” “Who is the mother of the chickens?” and
“How Old is Ann?” If you really wish to vary the monotony of your
intellectual life and get it away from “Who Wrote Shakespeare?” or
“Who killed Jack Robinson?” start a discussion as to what a short
story is. It has long been my private opinion that the best short story
in the world is the story of Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves, but I have
no doubt that, should I venture this assertion in the company of
others, there would be one to ask: “What has that to do with the price
of oil now?”
But in order that the reader may have some idea of the method
adopted in judging the stories which were finally selected, it may be
well to give what I may term a composite definition of what a short
story is, gathered from the various opinions offered when the contest
was originally under discussion by the judges. This definition is not
intended to be complete or final. It is not the cohesive opinion of one
individual, but only a number of rather off-hand opinions which are of
undoubted psychological interest as bearing upon the final decisions.
A short story must contain at least two characters, for otherwise
there would be no contrast or struggle. A situation must be depicted
in which there are two opposing forces.
A short story must be a picture out of real life which gives the
reader a definite sensation, such as he gets upon looking at a
masterpiece of painting. While it must be complete in itself, the art of
it lies in what it suggests to the reader beyond its own limits. That is
to say, it must convey an idea much larger than itself. This is the
open sesame to the golden principle. (This is well illustrated in the
story that took the first prize.)
Every short story must of necessity deal with human beings, either
directly or indirectly. It must reveal in the briefest manner possible—
as it were, like a lightning flash—a situation that carries the reader
beyond it. It is, therefore, inevitable that the supreme test of the short
story lies in its climax. The climax must gather up everything that has
gone before, and perhaps by only one word epitomize the whole
situation in such a way as to produce in the reader a sense of
revelation—just as if he were the sole spectator of a supremely
interesting human mystery now suddenly made plain.
The technique of the short story should be such that no word in its
vocabulary will suggest triteness or the fatal thought that the author
is dependent upon others for his phrasing. When, for example, we
read “With a glad cry she threw her arms about him” “A hoarse shout
went up from the vast throng” “He flicked the ashes,” we know at
once that the author is only dealing in echoes.
These were some of the general considerations which governed
the readers and judges, but it would be unfair to say that there were
not other considerations which came up later on. In a number of
instances, manuscripts which were interesting and well written, and
even longer than others that were accepted for the contest, were
rejected because it was felt that they were not really stories, but
more in the nature of descriptive sketches.
So far as the practical method pursued was concerned, it will not
be amiss to state briefly how the work was carried on.
It was deemed best, on general principles, to let the authors of the
stories have a hand in the matter, the editors feeling frankly that they
preferred a disinterested method which would relieve them in a
measure from the fullest responsibility. The conditions were therefore
made to read that:

“The editors of ‘Life’ will first select out of all the stories
published, the twelve which are, in their judgment, the best. The
authors of these twelve stories will then be asked to become
judges of the whole contest, which will then include all the
stories published. These twelve authors will decide which are
the best three stories, in the order of their merit, to be awarded
the prizes. In case for any reason any one or more of these
twelve authors should be unable to act as a judge, then the
contest will be decided by the rest.
“Each of these twelve judges will, of course, if he so wishes,
vote for his own story first, so that the final result may probably
be determined by the combined second, third, and fourth
choices of all the judges. This, however, will not affect the result.
In case of a division among the judges, the Editors of ‘Life’ will
cast the deciding vote.”

This method worked well and was fully justified by the final result.
As the manuscripts were received they were registered according to
a careful clerical system and turned over to the readers, who were
from five to seven in number, including three women. The rule was
that each story should be read independently by at least two
readers, their verdicts separately recorded. If they were unanimous
in rejecting a story, it was returned. If they were agreed upon its
merits, or if they were at all doubtful, it was then passed up to the
five members of Life’s editorial staff. It was read and reread by them,
and the individual comments of each editor recorded independently.
By this sifting process, each story was subjected to a final process of
discussion and elimination. The stories, as accepted, were paid for
on the basis of ten cents a word for all the words under 1,500 which
the story did not contain and were published in Life. From the
authors of the eighty-one stories published, the editors selected the
following twelve judges, each one of whom consented to serve:

Herbert Heron, Carmel, Cal.

J. H. Ranxom, Houston, Texas.
Ralph Henry Barbour, Manchester, Mass.
Clarence Herbert New, Brooklyn, N. Y.
William Johnston, New York City.
Graham Clark, New York City.
Mrs. Elsie D. Knisely, Everett, Wash.
Mrs. Jane Dahl, San Francisco, Cal.
Selwyn Grattan, New York City.
E. L. Smith, Ft. Worth, Texas.
Herbert Riley Howe, Sioux Falls, S. Dak.
Miss Ruth Sterry, Los Angeles, Cal.

These judges, independently of each other, sent in their opinions,

several of them not voting for their own stories as the first prize,
although this was allowable under the rules. There was no difficulty
on their part in awarding the first prize of one thousand dollars and
the second prize of five hundred dollars. In the case of the third prize
there was such a division of opinion that the editors, under the rule of
the competition that gave them the final decision, determined that it
would be fair to divide the third prize between two competitors who
had received the same number of the judges’ votes.
 The prize winners were as follows:
FIRST PRIZE
Ralph Henry Barbour of Manchester, Mass., and George
Randolph Osborne of Cambridge, Mass., joint authors of
“Thicker Than Water.”
SECOND PRIZE
Harry Stillwell Edwards of Macon, Georgia, author of “The
Answer.”
THIRD PRIZE
Dwight M. Wiley of Princeton, Ill., author of “Her Memory,”
and Redfield Ingalls of New York City, author of “Business
and Ethics.” This prize was divided.

This book is now offered to the public in the confident hope and
the firm belief that it will be found a valuable contribution to the
literature of short fiction, in addition to the interest it also merits
because of the stories themselves.
One final point should be emphasized. This book is not, in the
very nature of the case, a book of uniform literary style; it is not the
polished expression of the highest literary art. It is the best of thirty
thousand attempts to write a short story, by all sorts and conditions
of minds—a fair proportion of them amateurs, a fair proportion
writers of considerable experience, and a small proportion
excellently skilled craftsmen. In their final selection of these stories,
the readers and judges were governed, not so much by the question
“Is this superfine literary art?” as they were by the question “Is this
interesting?” By this touchstone the book certainly justifies its
existence.
T. L. M.
 N. B.
By Joseph Hall

Lieutenant Ludwig Kreusler glanced hurriedly through the mail

that had accumulated during the month that the X-8 had been away
from base. At the bottom of the pile he found the letter he had been
seeking and his eyes brightened. It was a fat letter, addressed in
feminine handwriting, and its original postmark was Washington, D.
C., U. S. A.
“His Excellency will see you, sir.” The orderly had entered quietly
and stood at attention.
With a slightly impatient shrug the Lieutenant shoved the letters
into his pocket and left the room.
He found Admiral Von Herpitz, the wizard of the sea, at his desk.
As the young man entered the old Admiral rose and came forward.
This unusual mark of favour somewhat embarrassed the young
officer until the old man, placing both huge hands upon his
shoulders, looked into his eyes.
“Excellent.”
The one word conveyed a volume of praise, gratification. The old
sea dog was known as a silent man. Censure was more frequent
from him than applause.
The Lieutenant could find no word. The situation was for him
embarrassing in the extreme. He, like Herpitz, was a man of actions,
and words confused him.
“These English,” the old Admiral spoke grimly, “we will teach them.
Have you seen the reports? They are having quite a little panic in
America also over the Seronica. Two hundred of the passengers lost
were American.”
A file of papers lay on the table. Kreusler ran through them
hurriedly. The Berlin journals gave the sinking of the Seronica great
headlines followed by columns of sheer joy. The London and Paris
and some of the New York sheets called the exploit a crime and its
perpetrators pirates. But they all gave it utter and undivided thought.
The X-8 had become the horror craft of the world. Berlin figuratively
carried her young commander on her shoulders. He found himself
the hero of the hour.
“You have done well for the Fatherland,” Von Herpitz repeated as
the Lieutenant was going out.
In his own cabin Kreusler forgot the Seronica and the X-8. The fat
letter with the Washington postmark absorbed him.
Two years, ending with the outbreak of the great war, Kreusler
had been naval attaché to the German embassy at Washington. He
had been popular in the society of the American capital. He was
highly educated, a profound scientist, an original thinker, and an
adaptable and interesting dinner guest. Dorothy Washburn, the
youngest daughter of the Senator from Oregon, had made her début
in Washington during the second winter of Kreusler’s presence
there. The two had met. They were exact opposites; he tall, severe,
blond, thoughtfully serious; she, small, dark, vivacious, bubbling with
the joy of life. Love was inevitable.
The fat letter was engrossing. It breathed in every line and word
and syllable the fine love this wonder woman gave him. One
paragraph was most astounding. It read:
“To be near thee, loved one, I have arranged, through the
gracious kindness of our friends, to come to Berlin as a nurse. Just
when is as yet uncertain, but come I will, fear not, as quickly as may
be. Dost long for me, to see me, dearest heart, as I for thee? Well,
soon perhaps that may not be so far away. Couldst not thou arrange
to be wounded—only slightly, of course, my love—so that I might
attend thee?”
The letter ended with tender love messages and assurances of
devotion. The last sheet bore a single word, “Over,” and on the
reverse side a woman’s most important news, a postscript. This
read:
“P. S. Arrangements have been completed. Everything is settled.
Even my father has consented, knowing of my great love. I sail next
week.”
And then:
“N. B. The ship on which I sail is the Seronica.”
 THE CLEAREST CALL
By Brevard Mays Connor

“Don’t worry,” said the great surgeon. “She will pull through. She
has a fine constitution.”
“She will pull through because you are handling the case,” the
nurse murmured, with an admiring glance.
“She will pull through,” agreed the Reverend Paul Templeton,
“because I shall pray.”
He did not see the ironical glance which passed between nurse
and doctor, materialists both. He had stooped and kissed his wife,
who lay on the wheeled table that was to carry her to the operating
room. She was asleep, for the narcotic had taken immediate effect.
For a moment he hung over her and then he moved aside. When
the door of the operating room had closed on the wheeled table with
its sheeted burden he stepped out on the little upper balcony
beneath the stars, knelt, and earnestly addressed himself to his
Maker.
A distant clock struck eight. The operation would take an hour....
Humbly he prayed, but with superb confidence. He had lived a
blameless life, and his efforts were in behalf of a life equally
blameless. It was inconceivable that he who had given all and asked
nothing should be refused this, his first request. It was even more
inconceivable that his wife, who was so worthy of pardon, should be
condemned. Humbly he prayed, but not without assurance of a
friendly Auditor.
It was a sweet May night, satin-soft, blossom-scented. The south
wind was whispering confidences to the elms; the stars were
unutterably benign. Surely God was in His heaven, thought the
Reverend Paul Templeton.
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