UNIT-1

STRUCTURAL MATERIALS

1.1 Different Types of Steel

Steel is classified by its composition: iron is fused with carbon and any number of other
elements to achieve a specific end. The four main types are:
 Carbon steel
 Stainless steel
 Alloy steel
 Tool steel
1. Carbon Steel
All steel contains carbon, but carbon steel is unique for a notable absence of other
elements in its makeup. Though it only contains 2% carbon or less by weight, its elemental
nature makes carbon steel a strong, durable material that is ideal for numerous uses.
Carbon steel is sometimes confused with cast iron, though it must contain less than 2%
carbon. Cast iron contains 2% to 3.5% carbon, giving it a rough texture and more brittle nature.
Even though carbon steel is composed of alloyed metals, it doesn’t have alloy classification
because of the lack of other alloying elements in its composition. This simplicity contributes to
carbon steel’s popularity — it accounts for about 90% of all steel production.
Types of Carbon Steel
Below the 2% carbon threshold, carbon steel can be grouped into three categories: low,
medium, and high carbon. Each type retains the inherent strength of carbon, but its useful
purpose will change as the carbon content increases.
 Low carbon: This is the most common and the least expensive type. It’s easy to form due to
its high ductility — its innate ability to be stretched under strain. Wires, bolts and pipes use
this type of steel.
 Medium carbon: Carbon content between 0.31% and 0.60% gives this variety a higher
strength and lower ductility than lower carbon varieties. Medium carbons are found in gears
and railroad tracks.
 High carbon: The toughest variety is more than 0.61% carbon and is often used to produce
brick nails and sharp cutting tools like trencher blades. They do not contain more than 2%
carbon.
Carbon steel’s relative adaptability and low cost make it an ideal choice for a variety
of construction projects, both large and small-scale.
2. Stainless Steel
This type is commonly known for its role in manufacturing medical equipment and
appliances, but its range of use is far greater than just the gas range in your kitchen. Chromium is
the alloy that sets stainless steel apart, lending the material its distinctive luster.
Chromium is more than a purely cosmetic addition, however: the element is oxidation-resistant
and will increase the metal’s longevity by preventing it from rusting. Typically, stainless steel
has a chromium content of more than 10.5% and sometimes contains up to 30% in certain
applications.
Types of Stainless Steel
Kitchen, medical and automotive applications are common, but stainless steel is highly valued
for other uses as well. It’s is grouped into four subcategories that each serve a different purpose.
 Martensitic alloys: Toughness is a hallmark of martensitic alloys, but they’re prone to
corrosion. They’re formed by a rapid-cooling process that makes them ideal for heat
treatment and are found in medical instruments, cutlery and pliers.
 Ferritic alloys: These are less-expensive steels with low amounts of carbon and nickel.
Automotive applications are common final destinations for ferritic alloys because of their
chromium-induced strength and sheen.
 Austenitic alloys: Austenitic alloys have higher chromium and nickel contents, improving
their resistance to corrosion and causing them to become non-magnetic. They’re present in
commercial kitchen appliances and are popular because they’re durable and easy to clean.
 Duplex alloys: A combination of austenitic and ferritic alloys results in a duplex alloy that
inherits the properties of both while doubling strength. They’re also ductile and corrosion-
resistant due to their fairly high chromium content.
3. Alloy Steel
The alloy type is iron fused with one of several other elements, each contributing its own
unique attributes to the final product. It’s true that all steels are alloys, but carbon and chromium
are specific alloys with names attributed to the type of metal they form.
Alloy steel as a grouping includes a diverse range of alloys with an equally diverse range of
properties. Shipping containers use a complex alloy that combines multiple elements to produce
a durable and lasting product. Silicon isn’t often thought of as a component of steel, but its
magnetic properties make it a perfect component of most large machinery. Aluminum is versatile
and used in revolutionary building materials that are both lightweight and extremely durable.
Some of the elements that combine with iron and carbon to produce alloys are also found in tool
steels — cobalt, tungsten and molybdenum, for example, are ultra-hard metals that are desired
for their impact resistance and cutting abilities.
Types of Alloy Steel
Some of the most common alloys include:
 Aluminum: Lightweight, heat-resistant steel that’s ductile and easy to work with and is often
used in hot exhaust systems and power generators.
 Copper: Corrosion-resistant steel that conducts heat very efficiently, making it a great choice
for electrical wiring and industrial heat exchangers.
 Manganese: Impact-resistant steel that’s extremely tough. It can be found in bulletproof
cabinets, anti-drill plates and high-strength safes.
 Molybdenum: Weldable, corrosion-resistant steel that performs under high pressure, making
it well-suited for underwater construction or oil and gas pipelines.
 Silicon: Soft-natured steel that’s malleable and highly magnetic, and creates strong permanent
magnets that are used in electrical transformers.
 Vanadium: High-impact steel that’s shock-absorbent and vibration-resistant, and often found
in automotive parts like springs and shocks.
4. Tool Steel
Tool steels are up-front about their business: they’re used to tool manufacturing
machinery. Tempering, the process of adding high heat, cooling quickly then heating again,
creates tool steel that’s extremely hard and heat-resistant. They’re usually used in high-impact
environments and are very abrasive.
Types of Tool Steel
 Air-hardening: The high chromium content in this steel allows it to be exposed to high
temperatures without distorting.
 Water-hardening: This steel is water-quenched during use; it’s the most affordable tooling
type and is used to make common tools.
 Oil-hardening: This oil-quenched steel is exceptionally wear-resistant from slipping, and is
used to produce knives and shears.
 High-speed: High-speed steel is highly abrasive and impact-resistant. It’s found in drill bits
and power saws.
 Hot-working: The name gives it away, but this steel can withstand extreme heat and is used
in forging and casting.
 Shock-resisting: Small amounts of carbon, silicon and molybdenum harden this steel and suit
it for punches and riveting tools.

1.2 MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF STEEL

The process of turning raw product into finished stainless steel is a lengthy one, but it can be
simplified into six steps. Let’s look at this incredible process.
Making the Iron
To create pure steel, the products that go into it- lime, coke and iron ore- must be made
into iron. These are all put into a blast furnace and melted down to create what is called molten
iron or hot metal. The iron still has many impurities at this point, and they will have to be
removed to ensure the metal is not brittle.
Primary Steel Making
To get the impurities out, the molten metal is infused with scrap steel. Oxygen will be
forced through the furnace as well, which gets out a lot of the carbon and other impurities. For
electric furnaces, electricity will be forced through the furnace and the same results can be
achieved. After this process has finished, we have raw steel.
Secondary Steel Making
The different grades of steel are used for different tasks. The grading is based on which
elements are still in the metal, such as carbon dioxide. A lot of the carbon will be removed, but
aluminium will take its place to create a Drawing Quality steel. To create structural steel, there is
more carbon left inside, and this gives the steel more tensile strength. Certain techniques can be
implemented to alter the level of impurities left, including:
 Stirring
 Raising or lowering the temperature
 Removing the gasses
 Ladle injection
When the process is over and the right grade has been achieved, the next step can begin.

Continual Casting
Next, the steel in its molten form is cast into cooling molds. This allows the steel to
become hard, and the steel is drawn out of there while it is still hot. Guided rollers are used to
pull it out and then the steel is cut into the desired lengths. It may be used for beams, billets,
slabs or other items, and when the parts are fully cooled they are sent elsewhere for primary
forging.
Primary Forging
In this step, the rough cast items are formed into shapes through a process called hot
rolling. This gets rid of defects in the shape and creates the desired quality of steel. This process
can be used to make seamless tubing, long and flat products and a variety of bespoke items.
Secondary Forming
To create the final shape of the steel there are a number of secondary techniques that can be
used, including:
 Coating
 Thermal treating
 Joining
 Pressing
 Drilling
 Machining
 Riveting
That is the entire process by which steel is formed. If you are creating project out of steel and
would like some professional advice about what technique to use or what type of steel to
implement then contact us. We can take your design plans and turn them into the products you
want to ensure the success of your project. Call us today for a free quote.
1.3 ALLOY STEEL
Alloy steel is a type of steel alloyed with more than one element (alloying elements) and
these are added to increase strength, hardness, wear resistance and toughness.
Benefits of alloy steel bars.
1. High tensile strength
With massive tensile strength and easy compressibility, alloy steel bars surpass their
carbon-steel counterparts by quite a few notches. It is usually smaller in size compared to
carbon-steel and finds application in a variety of projects.
2. Lightweight
Purchasing alloy steel bars from leading sellers will fetch you the products of highest
quality standards. And these steel bars will be extremely lightweight in nature. Car or vehicle
manufacturing units will reap the benefits of alloy steel as it has the power to create high-
performance car wheels.
On a rather surprising note, wheels manufactured out of alloy steel are sturdy and
lightweight at the same time. As the result, drivers find it easier to accelerate vehicles with
wheels of alloy steel compared to other metals.
3. Powerful parts
While working with alloy steel bars, you will not have to think before exerting pressure on
it. With increased strength and pressure-withstanding capabilities, high quality alloy steels are
much better options than the carbon-steel sheets or bars.
You can subject alloy steel parts to reversed and repeated loads, without having to think about
its shape.
4. Usable at high temperatures
Heavy engineering industries often work on projects demanding heavy welding and
pressure cutting. Needless to say, none other than top quality alloy steel bars will be able to
fulfill the needs of such projects.
You can use these bars at exceptionally high temperatures and cutting pressures, thus creating
the desired product.
5. Heat dissipation properties
Alloy steel bars possess a unique quality of dissipating heat uniformly. As the result, they
offer high-resistance against wear and tear. It is this particular property of the metal that
makes it one of the most preferred options in machine and equipment manufacturing plants.
6. Durable and tough
 Compared to the other steel variants, alloy steel offers unsurpassed durability and
optimum strength. Whether it’s for auto parts or machine manufacturing, no other metal can
match the versatility, cutting-edge features, and reliability of alloy steels.

1.4 ALUMINUM CHARACTERISTICS

Aluminum is lightweight, durable, malleable and corrosion-resistant. This metal is widely used
for components in the aerospace, transportation and construction industries.
 Non-corrosive
 Easily machined and cast
 Lightweight yet durable
 Non-magnetic and non-sparking
 Good heat and electrical conductor

The Physical Properties of Aluminum

Color and State Solid, nonmagnetic, non-lustrous, silvery-white with slight bluish tint.

Structure Aluminum has a face-centered cubic structure that is stable up to melting point.

Surface Aluminum surfaces can be highly reflective.

Hardness Commercially pure aluminum is soft. It is strengthened when alloyed and tempered.

Ductility High ductility. Aluminum can be beaten very thin.

Malleability High malleability. Aluminum is very capable of being shaped or bent.

Aluminum has a thermal expansion coefficient of 23.2. This is between zinc—which

Thermal Expansion
expands more—and steel, which expands half the range of aluminum.

Conductivity Good electrical and thermal conductor.

Corrosion Aluminum is corrosive resistant due to a self-protecting oxide layer.

Aluminum has a low density, measured by gravity in comparison to water, of 2.70.

Density
Compare this to the density of iron/steel which has a density of 7.87

Melting Point and Commercially pure aluminum has a melting point of approximately 1220°F and a
Boiling Point boiling point of approximately 4,478°F. These change once aluminum is alloyed.

The Chemical Properties of Aluminum

Occurrence Aluminum occurs as a compound, principally found in bauxite ore.

Oxidation Aluminum combines with oxygen to form aluminum oxide when exposed to moist air.

Pyrophorus When aluminum is in a powdered form it will catch fire easily if exposed to flame.

Ability to Hundreds of aluminum alloy compositions exist. Alloyed elements include: iron,
form alloys copper, manganese, silicon, magnesium, and zinc.

Reactivity
Aluminum reacts quickly with hot water.
with water

Reactivity
Reactive with sodium hydroxide.
with alkalis

Reactivity
Aluminum reacts with hot acids.
with acid
Advantages of Aluminum
Aluminium is the engineering material of choice for many applications. Properties that make
aluminium popular and/or suitable include:
 Light
 Strong
 High strength-to-weight ratio
 Resilient
 Ductile at low temperatures
 Corrosion resistant
 Non-toxic
 Heat conducting
 Reflective
 Electrically conducting
 Non-magnetic
 Non-sparking
 Non-combustible

1.5 COATING OF REINFORCEMENT

Coating of the reinforcement reduces the risk of corrosive attack in concrete and
two coating systems are widely applied to steel for this purpose; namely, fusion bonded epoxy
coatings and hot-dip galvanized coatings.
Why Corrosion Control of Reinforcement bars (Rebars) is necessary?
Corrosion control of steel reinforcement is necessary to prevent damage and failure of
concrete structures. Nearly 40% of failure of concrete structures is due to corrosion of embedded
steel reinforcement. There can be many causes for corrosion of reinforcement, but mostly it is
related to quality of concrete, environment and quality of construction practices.
Methods of Corrosion Control of Reinforcement in Concrete:
1. Cement-Polymer Composite Coated Rebars (CPCC)
Cement polymer coated rebars embedded in concrete are surrounded by an alkaline medium,
thus cement based coating is more compatible for reinforcement corrosion control. Two coats of
cement polymer are applied on rebar - Primer coat and Sealer coat. Products involved in
Cement Polymer Composite Coated rebar are:
 De-rusting Solution
 Alkaline Powder
  Phosphating Jelly
 Inhibitor Solution
 Sealing Solution
2. Fusion Bonded Epoxy Coated Rebars (FBEC)
Fusion bonded epoxy coated rebar is produced from 100% solid finely ground fused
powder particles. These particles melt to form a continuous adherent film when heated. There is
no passivating primer film provided in case of FBEC rebars. Fusion bonded epoxy coating
introduces a medium of weakness in the path of an intimate bond between rebar and alkaline
concrete. Extensive investigation carried out on 40 bridges in Florida Key in USA has revealed
that disbandment can occur easily in the FBEC rebars which lacked passivation layer of Ferrous
oxide (II) and is a precursor to corrosion. Higher coefficient of Thermal Expansion of fusion
bonded epoxies impose large thermal stresses in epoxy coating leading to its early failure
Epoxy coats the rebar in the following manner:
 Melts
 Flows
 Gels
 Cures
 Cools
 Adheres as coating
3. Corrosion Resistant Steel Deformed Rebars (CRSD)
Mechanism of resistance to corrosion begins with the formation of initial layer of
protective oxide or rust. (Hypo oxides). Unlike common rust on normal rebars, the CRSD rust is
passive, tenacious and self-renewing. The protective oxide is fine textured, tightly adherent and a
barrier to moisture, oxygen, carbon dioxide, Sulphur dioxide and chloride effectively preventing
further corrosion. Scale on normal bars of steel is coarse textured flaky oxide that does not
prevent moisture or oxygen from reaching the underlying bars and continuing the corrosion. As
corrosion resistance is in the chemistry of the grade, if the passive oxide layer gets removed
somehow, a new passive layer is formed immediately.
Comparison between Methods of Corrosion Control in Rebar:

Parameters CPCC FBEC CRSD

Thickness of
175 mm - 300 mm 300 mm - 675 mm No coating required
Coating

Type of
Protection to Extrinsic Extrinsic Intrinsic
rebar

Pretreatment is Pretreatment is
Pre- No pre-treatment
required before required before
treatment required
coating coating

Before coating the

Before coating the The surface of the
surface made little
Treatment to surface made little finished good is not
rough when some
surface rough when some disturbed or damaged at
damage is
damage is introduced. all.
introduced.

The whole process

Temperatur
is done at room 230°C - 400°C No treatment required
e treatment
temperature.

Modified mandrel
Special Modified mandrel Same as other TMT
diameter is
Bending diameter is specified rebars of Fe 500D
specified by Indian
requirement by Indian Standard grade
Standard

Defects
Holiday Effect Holliday Effect Nil
introduced

1.6 WOOD AND WOOD PRODUCT

The hard, fibrous substance composing most of the stem and branches of a tree or shrub,
and lying beneath the bark; the xylem.
Different Types of Wood & Their Uses
These three types are: softwoods, hardwoods, and engineered wood. Each of these
different wood types can be used in a number of different ways.
Softwoods
 Softwoods are the wood and lumber which are milled from conifer trees. Scientifically
known as Gymnosperms, Conifer trees are any trees which have needles and produce cones.
Examples of popular softwood trees used in woodworking, construction, and furniture are Pine,
Cedar, Fir, Spruce, and Redwood.
Hardwoods
Hardwoods come from any trees which do not produce needles or cones. These trees are
most commonly are known as deciduous trees, more scientifically known as angiosperms.
Hardwoods are trees which produces leaves and seeds.
Common hardwood species include oak, maple, cherry, mahogany, and walnut. Hardwood
species are not always necessarily stronger than softwoods, but many species are well known for
their beautiful and distinct wood grain patterns.
Engineered Wood: Manufactured Wood Products
The third type of wood you may encounter are engineered woods. Engineered wood does
not occur naturally in the environment but instead are manufactured.
These boards are generally made with wood which is manipulated to have certain qualities or
features. Also known as composite wood, these products are often made from the waste wood of
sawmills. Engineered wood is often treated through chemical or a heat process to produce a
wood product which can meet certain sizes that would be difficult to achieve from nature.
WOOD PRODUCT
In addition to well-known products such as lumber, furniture, and plywood, wood is the raw
material for wood-based panels, pulp and paper, and many chemical products.
LUMBER
Lumber, also known as timber, is wood that has been processed into beams and
planks, a stage in the process of wood production. Lumber is mainly used for structural purposes
but has many other uses as well. Lumber may be supplied either rough-sawn, or surfaced on one
or more of its faces
FURNITURE
Refers to movable objects intended to support various human activities such as seating
(e.g., Stools, Chairs, and sofas), eating (tables), storing items, eating and/or working with an
item, and sleeping (e.g., beds and hammocks). Furniture is also used to hold objects at a
convenient height for work (as horizontal surfaces above the ground, such as tables and desks),
or to store things (e.g., cupboards, shelves, and drawers). Furniture can be a product of design
and can be considered a form of decorative art.
Plywood is an engineered wood from the manufactured boards family which includes particle
board and oriented strand board (OSB). It is made from thin sheets of veneer peeled from
debarked wood. These thin layers, also called plies, are glued together in alternating right angles
to create a cross-grain pattern. This pattern adds strength and stability that resists shrinkage and
expansion caused by moisture.
PLYWOOD
Plywood is a popular choice in construction because of its strength and low cost. It is
used in areas hidden from view that offer support such as floors, walls, roofs and garages in
residential construction.

When used for roofing, plywood panels are covered and protected by other materials that keep
the elements at bay, including roof felt, underlayment, flashing and shingles. When used in
flooring, plywood creates a subfloor that supports hardwoods, tile and carpet floors.

Stainable and paintable plywood is ideal for shelving, cabinets and furniture. Outside the home,
plywood can be transformed into fencing materials, packaging materials, scaffolding, sheds and
shipping containers.
Common Types of Plywood
Sanded plywood features face and back (top and bottom) plies that are sanded in the
manufacturing process. It is used in places where it is visible, such as for cabinets, shelves and
paneling.
Hardwood plywood is made from hardwoods like birch, maple and oak. The plies are glued at
right angles to one another, making the plywood very strong and stable. It can be heavier than
other types of plywood. Use hardwood plywood for furniture and anything that requires a strong
load-bearing frame.
Plywood sheathing or structural plywood is designed for permanent structures. It is strong and
inexpensive, but unfinished, and therefore not suitable for places where it will show. It should be
covered by other types of materials. Use plywood sheathing for framing, beams, flooring and
bracing panels.
Project plywood panels are ready-to-use, pre-cut plywood boards designed for quick and easy
DIY projects. There are various types of wood, ply and plywood alternatives available. Use this
for planned DIY projects when you know the measurements. It’s a great material for beginner
DIYers.
Markerboard has plywood panels with a coated writing surface to use with dry erase markers
only. It is ideal for craft tables or finished markerboards.

UNIT-III

COMPOSITES

3.1 PLASTIC
It is a polymeric material that has the capability of being molded or shaped, usually by
the application of heat and pressure. This property of plasticity, often found in combination with
other special properties such as low density, low electrical conductivity, transparency, and
toughness, allows plastics to be made into a great variety of products.
TYPES OF PLASTIC
Below are 7 of the most popular and commonly used plastics:
 Acrylic or Polymethyl Methacrylate (PMMA)
 Polycarbonate (PC)
 Polyethylene (PE)
 Polypropylene (PP)
 Polyethylene Terephthalate (PETE or PET)
 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
 Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS)
1. Acrylic or Polymethyl Methacrylate (PMMA)
Well-known for its use in optical devices and products, acrylic is a transparent
thermoplastic used as a lightweight, shatter-resistant alternative to glass. Acrylic is typically used
in sheet form create products such as acrylic mirrors and acrylic plexiglass. The transparent
plastic can be made colored and fluorescent, abrasion-resistant, bullet-resistant, UV-tolerant,
non-glare, anti-static and many more. In addition to being than glass and polycarbonate
sheeting, acrylic is seventeen times more impact resistant than glass, easier to handle and
process, and has endless applications.
2. Polycarbonate (PC)
Tough, stable, and transparent, polycarbonate is an excellent engineering plastic that is as
clear as glass and two hundred and fifty times stronger. Thirty times stronger than acrylic, clear
polycarbonate sheets are also easily worked, molded, and thermo-formed or cold-formed.
Although extremely strong and impact-resistant, polycarbonate plastic possesses inherent design
flexibility. Unlike glass or acrylic, polycarbonate plastic sheets can be cut or cold-formed on site
without pre-forming and fabrication. Polycarbonate plastic is in a wide variety of products
including greenhouses, DVDs, sunglasses, police riot gear, and more.
3. Polyethylene (PE)
The most common plastic on earth, polyethylene can be manufactured in varying
densities. Each different density of polyethylene gives the final plastic unique physical
properties. As a result, polyethylene is in a wide variety of products.
Here are the four common polyethylene densities:
 Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE)
This density of polyethylene is ductile and used to make products like shopping bags, plastic
bags, clear food containers, disposable packaging, etc.
 Medium-Density Polyethylene (MDPE)
Possessing more polymer chains and, thus, greater density, MDPE is typically in gas pipes,
shrink film, carrier bags, screw closures, and more.
 High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE)
More rigid than both LDPE and MDPE, HDPE plastic sheeting is in products such as plastic
bottles, piping for water and sewer, snowboards, boats, and folding chairs.
 Ultra High Molecular Weight Polyethylene (UHMWPE)
UHMWPE is not much denser than HDPE. Compared to HDPE, this polyethylene plastic much
more abrasion resistant due to the extreme length of its polymer chains. Possessing high density
and low friction properties, UHMWPE is in military body armor, hydraulic seals and bearings,
biomaterial for hip, knee, and spine implants, and artificial ice skating rinks.
4. Polypropylene (PP)
This plastic material is a thermoplastic polymer and the world’s second-most widely
produced synthetic plastic. Its widespread use and popularity are undoubted because
polypropylene is one of the most flexible thermoplastics on the planet. Although PP is stronger
than PE, it still retains flexibility. It will not crack under repeated stress. Durable, flexible, heat
resistant, acid resistance, and cheap, polypropylene sheets are used to make laboratory
equipment, automotive parts, medical devices, and food containers. Just to name a few.
5. Polyethylene Terephthalate (PETE or PET)
The most common thermoplastic resin of the polyester family, PET is the fourth-most
produced synthetic plastic. Polyethylene Terephthalate has excellent chemical resistance to
organic materials and water and is easily recyclable. It is practically shatterproof and possesses
an impressive high strength to weight ratio. This plastic material is in fibers for clothing,
containers for foods and liquid, glass fiber for engineering resins, carbon nanotubes, and many
other products that we use on a daily basis.

6. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)

The third-most produced synthetic plastic polymer, PVC can be manufactured to possess
rigid or flexible properties. It is well-known for its ability to blend with other materials. For
example, expanded PVC sheets are a foamed polyvinyl chloride material that is ideal products
like kiosks, store displays, and exhibits. The rigid form of PVC is commonly in construction
materials, doors, windows, bottles, non-food packaging, and more. With the addition of
plasticizers such as phthalates, the softer and more flexible form of PVC is in plumbing products,
electrical cable insulation, clothing, medical tubing, and other similar products.
7. Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS)
 Created by polymerizing styrene and acrylonitrile in the presence of polybutadiene, ABS
is robust, flexible, glossy, highly processable, and impact resistant. It can be manufactured in a
range of thicknesses from 200 microns to 5mm with a maximum width of 1600mm. With a
relatively low manufacturing cost, ABS plastic sheeting is typically used in the automotive and
refrigeration industries but is also in products such as boxes, gauges, protective headgear,
luggage, and children’s toys.

3.2 MANUFACTURING PROCESS

The most common methods are:
 Plastic extrusion
 Injection moulding
 Rotational moulding
 Plastic extrusion & injection blow moulding
 Vacuum casting
 Thermoforming & Vacuum forming
  Compression moulding
PLASTIC EXTRUSION
During the plastic extrusion process, plastic powder or pellets are fed into the extrusion
machine via a hopper. The polymer is heated inside a barrel at a controlled temperature and a
screw pushes molten plastic through a metal die, which is then cooled to give the plastic a fixed,
continuous shape while being continuously pulled and formed into the final shape. The product
can be cut or trimmed to the desired length. This is one of the most common ways to
manufacture plastic products. The plastic extrusion process works well for high-volume
production of a wide range of products, including pipes, construction products such as
ventilation, door and window frames and seals.
INJECTION MOULDING
A hopper feeds the plastic polymer into a heated barrel and screw. The screw melts the
plastic and injects the liquid polymer into a temperature-controlled split mould tool that creates
the shape of the product. Injection moulding is used for high volume manufacturing and many
components can be manufactured in a short space of time, from tiny parts to large components
such as vehicle bumpers and bins. Unlike the extrusion process molten plastic is forced into a die
to form its final shape.
EXTRUSION AND INJECTION BLOW MOULDING
Very similar to the plastic extrusion and injection moulding processes, but air pressure
forces the hollow plastic to expand into the mould or extrusion shape, leaving the interior of the
object hollow. This process is used for the mass production of inexpensive containers such as
bottles, cups and beakers.
PLASTIC ROTATIONAL MOULDING
This is the second option for manufacturing hollow plastic products. During the process,
the plastic polymer is placed into the mould before heating. The closed mould enters a furnace
and rotates, which allows the plastic polymer to coat the entire inside of the mould evenly. The
heat melts the plastic into a single layer that conforms to the shape of the mould cavity while
leaving the interior of the final product hollow. A water spray cools the mould while still rotating
which solidifies the polymer. Rotation is stopped, the mould opened and the plastic part
removed. Suitable for short, economical production runs and is not suited for precision forming
due to finish of the part. It is ideal for making large, complex shapes with a uniform wall
thickness, e.g. large storage tanks for water, chemicals and fuel, crates, cooler boxes, bins,
bollards, canoes, toys and playground equipment.
VACUUM CASTING
 Method of making small functional plastic parts, especially high-quality prototypes, and
suitable for low-volume production. Vacuum casting is a highly versatile technology for
elastomers which uses a vacuum to pull the liquid raw material (e.g. Polyurathane resins, cast
nylon, waxes) into the mould. This process is used when air entrapment is a problem, if there are
elaborate details or recessed surfaces, or if the material is reinforced with fibre or wire (e.g.
glass-filled Nylon). The raw material is poured into the two-piece silicone mould and the
vacuum released. The mould is removed from the chamber and the casting is cured in the oven.
and mould then removed to release the casting. Mould can be reused.
THERMOFORMING
The process involves heating previously extruded plastic sheet at a pliable temperature
which is then stretched into a specific shape over a mould, then trimmed to create the required
product. The machines can make thousands of components quickly. Examples of products are
disposable cups, containers, lids, trays, blisters, various products for the food, medical, and
general retail industries. A simplified version of thermoforming is plastic vacuum forming.
COMPRESSION MOULDING
Generally used in thermoset polymers (irreversibly becomes rigid when heated). The raw
material is pre-heated and placed into an open mould cavity. The mould is closed with a top and
pressure is applied which forces the material into all areas of the mould. Heat and pressure are
maintained until the material has hardened. Once cured, the formed product can be removed.
This method of plastic moulding is used regularly in the manufacture of automotive parts such as
hoods, fenders, spoilers, as well as smaller more complex parts. It is also widely used to produce
sandwich structures such as a honeycomb or polymer foam.

3.3 POLYMER
A polymer is a substance or material consisting of very large molecules, or
macromolecules, composed of many repeating subunits.
Advantage of reinforced polymer
Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (FRP) composites offer five major benefits for any infrastructure
project:
 Faster installation time
 Lightweight material
  Resistance to corrosion & very little maintenance
 Cost savings
 Design flexibility
Faster Installation Time
Infrastructure projects have the potential to disrupt public life, so it is vital to complete
them as efficiently as possible. Prefabricated FRP components allow crews to quickly install
each part more rapidly during times of lighter traffic. Many major infrastructure projects can
benefit from this, including cantilever sidewalks, pedestrian bridges, and rail platforms.
Lightweight Material
FRP components are over eight times lighter than precast concrete. This means that they are
significantly safer and easier to work with, cheaper to transport, and require less equipment to
install or remove.
Resistance to Corrosion & Little Maintenance Requirement
The durability of FRP makes it ideal for heavy-duty usage in almost every climate. This
material is highly resistant to water, salt and chemical corrosion—FRP structures can last nearly
100 years with little need for maintenance or costly rebuilds. Even structures with significant
foot traffic, such as pedestrian bridges and cantilever sidewalks, can last upwards of 75 years
with little maintenance when constructed with FRP materials.
Due to their corrosion resistance, these materials are also ideal for use in waterfront applications.
FRP is not susceptible to insects, mold, or mildew, and it will not deteriorate in harsh weather
conditions, even if it is subjected to high-energy impacts.
Rail platforms are another type of infrastructure that can greatly benefit from utilizing FRP
panels. Platforms in outdoor stations will encounter harsh weather conditions, heavy foot traffic,
and exposure to chemicals aimed at melting snow and ice. While this can drastically reduce the
life of concrete panels, FRP panels resist corrosion for decades longer while helping to keep
passengers and employees safe.

Cost Savings
High-quality FRP components from Composite Advantage are specifically built to increase
profitability and long-term savings. There are a number of factors that contribute to the cost
savings of FRP:
 Superior durability
 Low maintenance requirements
 Resistance to water and chemical corrosion
 Enhanced service life
 Rapid and affordable installation
 Versatile design capabilities
Besides always delivering long term savings, there are many projects in which the installed
acquisition cost of FRP products is lower than traditional materials.
Design Flexibility
FRP is ideal for any type of job that requires customization, as it is engineered to meet
exact specifications. Regardless of complexity, designers can create panels of all different sizes
and shapes. This allows for aesthetic versatility, as there is a range of possible colors. It is also
possible to add functional features to facilitate a smooth and easy installation process

3.4 TYPES OF FRP

Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) composite is defined as a polymer that is reinforced
with fibre. It represents a class of materials that fall into a category referred to as composite
materials.
Components of Composite Materials
1. Fibres
The choice of fibre frequently controls the properties of composite materials. Carbon,
Glass, and Aramid are three major types of fibres which are used in construction.
2. Matrices
The matrix should transfer forces between the fibres and protect the fibres form
detrimental effects. Thermosetting resins (thermosets) are almost exclusively used. Vinylester
and epoxy are the most common matrices.
Types of Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP)
1. Glass Fibre Reinforced Polymer (GFRP)
Glass fibres are basically made by mixing silica sand, limestone, folic acid and other
minor ingredients. The mix is heated until it melts at about 1260°C.
The molten glass is then allowed to flow through fine holes in a platinum plate. The glass strands
are cooled, gathered and wound. The fibres are drawn to increase directional strength. The fibres
are then woven into various forms for use in composites.
Based on an aluminium lime borosilicate composition, glass produced fibres are considered as
the predominant reinforcement for polymer matrix composites due to their high electrical
insulating properties, low susceptibility to moisture and high mechanical properties.
Glass is generally a good impact resistant fibre but weighs more than carbon or aramid. Glass
fibres have excellent characteristics equal to or better than steel in certain forms.

2. Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymer (CFRP)

Carbon fibres have a high modulus of elasticity, 200-800 GPa. The ultimate elongation is
0.3-2.5 % where the lower elongation corresponds to the higher stiffness and vice versa.
Carbon fibres do not absorb water and are resistant to many chemical solutions. They withstand
fatigue excellently and neither corrode nor show any creep or relaxation.
3. Aramid Fibre Reinforced Polymer (AFRP)
Aramid is the short form for aromatic polyamide. A well-known trademark of aramid
fibres is Kevlar but there does exist other brands as well such as Twaron, Technora and SVM.
The modulii of the fibres are 70-200 GPa with an ultimate elongation of 1.5-5% depending on
the quality. Aramid has a high fracture energy and is therefore used for helmets and bullet-proof
garments.
They are sensitive to elevated temperatures, moisture and ultraviolet radiation and therefore not
widely used in civil engineering applications. Finally, Aramid fibres do have problems with
relaxation and stress corrosion.

3.5 APPLICATIONS OF FRP

1. Carbon FRPs are used in prestressed concrete for applications where high resistance to
corrosion and electromagnetic transparency of CFRP are important.
2. CFRP composites are employed for underwater piping and structural parts
of offshore platform. Added to that, FRP declines the risk of fire.
3. Carbon fibre reinforced polymers are used to manufacture underwater pipes for great
depth because it provides a significantly increased buoyancy (due to its low density)
compared to steel.
4. The stairways and walkways are also made of composites for weight saving and
corrosion resistance.
5. It is used in high-performance hybrid structures.
6. FRP bars are used as internal reinforcement for concrete structures.
7. FRP bars, sheets, and strips are used for strengthening of various structures constructed
from concrete, masonry, timber, and even steel.
8. FRPs are employed for seismic retrofitting.
9. Fibre reinforced polymers are used in the construction of special structures requiring
electrical neutrality.
10. The high energy absorption of aramid fibre reinforced polymer (AFRP) composites
makes them suitable for strengthening engineering structures subjected to dynamic and
impact loading.
3.6 BITUMEN MATERIALS
“Bitumen is a material obtained by fractional distillation of crude petroleum as an end
product.”
According to IS: 334-1951, bitumen is a non-crystalline solid or viscous material having
adhesive properties, derived from petroleum either by natural or refinery process. During this
process, smaller amounts of crude oil like kerosene, fuel oil, spirit and lubricating oil evaporate.
Bituminous materials were used for the construction of roads, preserving timber and for
waterproofing stone walls. Nowadays, they are extensively used for surfacing of road and airport
pavements.
Properties of Bitumen
 It is dark black or brown in colour.
 Usually solid at normal temperatures and becomes liquid on heating.
 Consists of components like carbon (87%), oxygen (2%) and hydrogen (11%).
 It becomes soft at 30°C to 100°C. • Good resistance to acid and not soluble in water.
 It is susceptive to oxidation, forming blisters and cracks.
Types of Bitumen
Bitumen is available in the following forms:
Plastic bitumen:
It is used for filling cracks in masonry and stopping leakages, etc., as it is thinner and a
suitable filter in plastic form
Bitumen emulsion:
It is a mixture of bitumen, water and an emulsifying agent, which is in liquid form
formed in aqueous medium and stabilizing agents. There are three varieties of bitumen emulsion,
namely, slow setting (SS), medium setting (MS) and rapid setting (RS) depending upon the
stability provided by the emulsifying agent.
Straight run bitumen:
It refers to bitumen distilled to a definite viscosity, to use without further treatment like
heating. It is achieved by controlling the temperature and the rate of flow during processing
Blown bitumen:
It is produced by heating until it becomes a liquid and then passing air under pressure by
which all the volatile compounds in it can be forced out. It is in solid form and has a high
softening point so that if exposed directly to the sunlight for a long time, it does not melt
Residual bitumen:
 It is obtained as a residue during distillation of high-resin petroleum which is a solid
substance at normal temperature.
Cutback bitumen:
In this type of bitumen, viscosity has been reduced by adding other petroleum distillates
like gasoline, kerosene and high-boiling point light oil. They are available in three groups,
namely rapid curing (RC) cutbacks - contains gasoline, Medium curing (MC) cutback - contains
kerosene, Slow curing (SC) cutback - contains light oil. They are mainly used for soil
stabilization, and for road construction works.
Penetration grade:
It is the basic form of bitumen that is semi-solid at ambient temperature and requires to
be heated to make it fluid before applications such as for waterproofing roof surfaces.
General Properties of Bitumen
 Most bitumens are colloidal in nature.
 Bitumen are thermoplastics.
 They have no specific melting, boiling or freezing point.
 Bitumens are insoluble in water.
 They are highly impermeable to the passage of water.
 They are generally hydrophobic. ...
 Bitumen oxidises slowly.

GLASS
Glass is a non-crystalline, often transparent amorphous solid that has widespread
practical, technological, and decorative use in, for example, window panes, tableware, and
optics. Glass is most often formed by rapid cooling (quenching) of the molten form; some
glasses such as volcanic glass are naturally occurring.
TYPES OF GLASS
Float glass
Float glass is made using a ‘floating technique’ to create a uniform thickness and superior
even appearance. By floating glass on molten metal to create this level finish, float glass is
perfectly created for large window panes, double glazing and other applications with further
processing. This type of glass is commonly used in multi-story office developments as it gives a
modern and stylish look in comparison to if opaque building materials were more dominant.
Toughened glass
 Toughened glass is created using a specific cooling technique to create counteracting
stresses, meaning that the glass will shatter in the event of trauma, rather than crack or break into
shards, to make it safe and less likely to cause injury. This makes it perfect for a variety of
applications such as glass doors, tables, exterior glass barriers, shelves etc.
Painted glass
The painting of glass is usually carried out for aesthetic reasons, whether for decoration
or for privacy. Painted glass can be used for a number of applications, including a feature wall,
as a table surface, as a kitchen splashback, for shelving, along corridor walls and large
doors, as well as many others. Painted glass is stylish and simple yet hugely effective in
improving the design and outlook of interiors. We offer the popular Lacobel range of painted
glass which can be tailored to suit individual design requirements.
Patterned glass
Patterned glass can come in a variety of forms, such as sandblasted glass, but is usually
created through the application of irregular heat across the surface to generate an even pattern.
The purpose of glass is often for privacy in bathroom windows and doors, but can also be
used for decorative installations. The benefit of patterned glass for many applications is that it
can be both practical in providing a barrier but also aesthetically pleasing. A range of different
patterns and levels of opacity are available from us here at Carlen Glass.
Solar control glass
Adding solar control glass to a home or commercial building can be a great way to
improve energy efficiency by minimising the need for air conditioning or heating and therefore
reducing energy bills. This glass is designed to work with the weather outside, so that it keeps
heat out during periods of hot weather, but keeps heat inside during colder weather. This means
that more natural light can be allowed into a building using skylights, conservatory structures
and french windows without compromising energy efficiency or increasing the need for climate
control.

Laminated glass
Laminate glass is designed to remain intact in the event of impact or trauma to the
surface, making it ideal for a range of safety installations such as bulletproof glass, burglar-
proof shop fronts and balustrades. It made using multiple layers to reinforce the structure and
to ensure that any cracked or disjointed pieces will stay in place should any damage occur.
 UNIT-V

SMART AND INTELLIGENT MATERIALS

SMART MATERIALS
 Basically it’s a material that reacts quickly to a stimulus in a specific manner.
 The change in the material can also be reversible, as a change in stimulus can bring the
material back to its previous state.
Types of Smart Materials
Piezoelectrics:
Piezoelectric materials convert electrical energy to mechanical energy, and vice versa.
They offer a wide range of utility and can be used as actuators (provide a voltage to create
motion), sensors, such as many accelerometers, and energy harvesters since the charge generated
from motion can be harvested and stored. Common applications for piezo materials are BBQ
igniters and actuators for inkjet printer heads. Midé has successfully commercialized energy
harvesters, haptic actuators, piezo valve actuators, and flow control devices.
Shape Memory Alloys:
The most commonly available Shape Memory Alloy is Nitinol, which was originally
developed by the Naval Ordinance Laboratory. SMA’s have the ability to change phase as a
function of temperature, and in that process generate a force or motion. They are capable of
relatively high energy but move slowly. Typically applications include morphing structures,
thermal triggers, and some high strain energy absorbing applications. Advanced materials still
under development include magnetically activated shape memory alloys.
Magnetostrictive:
Similar to piezoelectric materials that respond to changes in electrical fields, this class of
materials responds to changes in magnetic fields and can perform as an actuator, or sensor if
deformed. While they can work well, they exhibit a large hysteresis which must be compensated
when using the material in sensor applications.
Shape Memory Polymers:
Shape Memory Polymers (SMP) are similar to Shape Memory Alloys except the obvious
fact they are made from a polymer matrix. They possess much greater recoverable strains than
the alloys, but typically under lower forces. Morphing structures has been the area of greatest use
to date for SMP’s.

Hydrogels:
Hydrogels can be tailored to absorb and hold water, or other liquids, under certain
environmental conditions. Hydrogels have been around for a long time, specifically in disposable
diapers. A key feature however are the gels can be tailored chemically to respond to different
stimuli. Midé has also patented a method to embed the gels into foam which enables systems to
be built with the gels, such as the Hydrogel Activated Bulkhead Shaft Seals.
Electroactive Polymers:
There are many forms of electroactive polymers and many are still being refined. They
have great potential as the flexibility of how they can be used provide advantages over some of
the metals and ceramics mentioned above. Most typically applications include energy harvesting
and sensing (see Stretchsense development kit) however some researchers are looking at high
voltage, low current actuators.
Bi-Component Fibers:
 Adaptive thermal insulation can enable smart clothing that can change its thermal
properties based on the environment. Midé has developed bi-component fiber technology where
two different materials are co-extruded together to enable shape change depending on ambient
temperature.

SPECIAL FEATURES AND APPLICATIONS OF SMART MATERIALS

Materials science is a constant supply of news about new discoveries that could
revolutionise our future. We review some of the most amazing materials from recent years
below:
 Synthetic spider web. This material is not only five times stronger than steel, but also
has great elasticity. Its potential uses include: bulletproof clothing, artificial skin for
burns or waterproof adhesives.
 Shrilk. Its main component is chitin, a carbohydrate found in krill shells. It was created
by researchers from Harvard University and is considered the ideal substitute for
plastic — since its decomposition time is only two weeks and it also works as a stimulant
for plant growth —.
 Graphene. Its potential uses are almost unlimited: batteries with more
autonomy, cheaper photovoltaic solar cells faster computers, flexible electronic devices,
more resistant buildings, bionic limbs, etc. All this is possible thanks to their multiple
properties.
 Metamaterials. They are manufactured in the laboratory with unusual physical
properties not found in nature and are the subject of research in fields such as the
military, optics or telephony. They can, for example, bend electromagnetic waves of light
creating negative refractive indices.
 XPL. It is a silicone-based polymer that adheres to the dermis like a second skin. Created
by scientists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), it replicates the
appearance of young, healthy skin by rejuvenating the look of the wearer.
In addition, there are other materials that have made headlines in recent years. These
include stanene, which could be the super condenser of the future; silicone, which many compare
to graphene; vanadium dioxide, with an ability to transit electricity without emitting heat, which
promises to revolutionise electronics; and thermochromic cement and self-repairing
concrete, intended to increase the energy efficiency of housing and the life span of buildings
respectively.
One of the areas of research where materials science has advanced most in recent years is in the
development of new materials for use in 3D printing, which is already used in sectors as
diverse as design, medicine, architecture and food. The most widely used
are thermoplastics, especially polylactic acid (PLA) and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS),
which are used in mobile phone casings, toys and car bodies. Smart materials are also starting to
be printed thanks to 4D printers

General Applications:
 Aerospace
 Mass transit
 Marine
 Automotive
 Computers and other electronic devices
 Consumer goods applications
 Civil engineering
 Medical equipment applications
 Rotating machinery applications

NANO CONCRETE
WHAT IS NANO CONCRETE?
A concrete made with portland cement particles that are less than 500nm as a
cementing agent. Nano concrete is concrete made by filling the pores in conventional concrte
using nano particals of size less than 500 nm.Currently cement particle sizes range from a few
nano-meters to a maximum of about 100 micro meters.
WHY NANOTECHNOLOGY FOR CONCRETE?
a) Improves the materials’ bulk properties.
b) Ability to control or manipulate materials at the atomic scale. Nano scale attack on
ASR (Alkali Silicate Reaction)
c) To obtain thinner final products and faster setting time.
d) It is having cost effectiveness.
 e) Lowered levels of environmental contamination.
NANO MATERIALS
Following are the nano matrials which are used in concrete to improve the Nano
structures.
1. Carbon Nanotubes.
2. Nano-silica.
3. Polycarboxylates.
1. Carbon Nanotubes
Carbon nanotubes are molecular-scale tubes of graphitic carbon with outstanding
properties. They can be several millimeters in length and can have one “layer” or wall (single
walled nanotube) or more than one wall (multi walled nanotube)
Properties of carbon nano tube-
 CNT are also highly flexible.
 Mechanically, CNT appear to be the strongest material.
 The smaller diameters.
 Stiffest and strongest fibers.
2. Nano-silica
It is the first nano product that replaced the micro silica. Advancement made by the study
of concrete at nano scale has proved nano silica much better than silica used in conventional
concrete.

Properties of nanosilica-
 It increases strength and durability of concrete.
 High workability with reduced water/cement ratio.
 Use of super plasticizing additives is unnecessary.
 Fills up all the micro pores and micro spaces.
3. Polycarboxylates-
Polycarboxylates or Polymer based concrete admixtures are High Range Water Reducing
admixture (HRWR).Low dosage-reduce water as much as high dosage of conventional
admixtures. Higher dosage-produce Self Compacting Concrete (SCC). This admixture type is
very suitable for underwater anti-washout concrete.
Properties of Polycarboxylates-
 Resistance to compression - 40 to 90MPa in 1day. Resistance to compression from 70 a
100MPa (or more) in 28 days.
  Produces high resistance even with low addition (1 to 1.5 % of the cements weight) and
gives self compacting characteristics with higher proportions (2.5 %).

NANO CONCRETE ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGE

Advantages
 Reduce cost.
 Higher-strength compares to conventional concrete.
 Good workability because the water-cement ratio is very low.
 Saving of cement up to 35%.
 Nanoparticles can fill even micro void.
 Nanoparticles enhance the hydration process.
Disadvantages
 Rare availability of nano materials.
 Rare availability of equipment to produce nano concrete.

CASE STUDIES OF SMART MATERIALS FOR CIVIL STRUCTURES

 Three case studies intending to apply smart materials to civil structures are
presented. The first one is a study of response control using piezoelectric
actuators. Actuators are inserted into the bottom of a column to produce a bending
moment force.
 A control algorithm using the model matching method is introduced, and this
algorithm is checked in shaking table tests of a four story frame. The second one
is damage sensing of a structural member, using electric resistance characteristics
of shape memory alloys.
 The relationship between electrical resistance and strain of shape memory alloy
wire is studied and the maximum strain of the specimen which is regarded as a
structural member is estimated. The third one is an energy dissipation device
using super-elastic characteristics of a shape memory alloy.
  A basic energy dissipation device model using nitinol wire is proposed. The
energy dissipation capacity is investigated by device tests, and an analytical
model is constructed based on the test results.
 Research on smart or intelligent material systems has been going on for over a
decade. But it has been mainly in the field of mechanical engineering or focused
on space structures.
 Recently the study of smart materials to apply to civil engineering has become a
hot issue. To list some of these studies, health monitoring of members, self-
repairing, actuating structural members are of interest.
 These aim to make the structures more highly characterized by using new
technology and to make structural performance higher by using smart materials.
We, also, are studying the possibility of applying smart materials to civil
structures from the viewpoints of structural control and multifunctioned structural
members.
 Three cases from our studies are introduced in this Case study . The first one is
the usage of piezoelectric actuators for structural control, the second one is shape
memory alloys as damage sensors and the third one is shape memory alloys as
energy dissipating devices.

Background
 There have been many studies on active vibration control using piezoelectric
actuators. But those are focused on space structure or light and flexible structures.
This study is intended to research the possibility of applying piezoelectric actuators to
civil structures. In this study we have cooperated with Professor Dr Takafumi Fujita,
Dr Takayoshi Kamada of the Institute of Industrial Science, University of Tokyo,
Takayoshi Hatayama, Takeo Arikabe of Sumitomo Heavy Industrial Research and
Development Center and Dr Nobuyoshi Murai and Kohtaro Tohyama of the Research
and Development Institute, Takenaka Corp. [3].
The properties of a piezoelectric actuator
 Piezoelectric actuators (PZT) have many advantages. They are compact, have high
response velocity, high accuracy and act with little energy. PZT yields elongation
with loaded voltage. We extracted force from PZT by restricting its elongation.
Figure 2 shows the relations among loaded voltage, produced force and elongation of
 PZT whose dimension is 25 (W ) × 25 (D) × 36 (H ) mm3. Figure 3 shows the
relation between elongation and frequency of loaded voltage. 2.3.
Bending moment control
 The authors planned to obtain a bending moment by setting four piezoelectric actuators at
the bottom of H shaped columns as in figures 4 and 5. In advance, the piezoelectric
actuator is loaded with biased voltage, for example 50 V, thus it is enabled to become
either longer or shorter from a biased position length with changing voltage. Four PZTs
work as two pairs, and bending moment is caused by the motion where one pair lengthens
and the other pair shortens at the same time. PZTs are pre-compressed at 1 tonf each by a
bolting mechanism to extract larger force from them
 Relationships among tensile stress, strain and electrical resistance of SMA wire are
shown in figures 15 and 16. As shown in figure 16, electrical resistance, on the whole,
increases in proportion to strain up to the large strain of 8.0%. In general, the gage factor
is defined as the ratio of increase in electrical resistance against strain. This value
expresses the detection sensitivity of strain. When the gage factor of SMA is calculated, it
becomes approximately 3.42 up to 8.0% in strain, indicating a higher value than that of
general alloy materials which is approximately 2.0%. This means that it is possible to
estimate the strain throughout a broad range with good sensitivity by measuring the
electrical resistance of SMA.
 The possibility of applying smart materials to civil structures. Piezoelectric actuators
show their high performance as the actuators for structural control. We are able to know
the maximum strain that indicates damage of a structural member from the electrical
resistance of shape memory alloy.
 The super-elastic effect of shape memory alloy proves the ability as energy dissipating
devices. But these materials are very limited in their capacity or usage to be applied to
real civil structures for the time being.
 It needs larger piezoelectric actuators for structural control of real structures, with
actuating force over 30 tonf, for example and it is hard to provide higher loading voltage
on larger actuators, too.
 We have not found the 2details to use the shape memory alloys as sensors in real
structural members because the shape memory alloys which we can get now are too small
for energy dissipating devices.
 Nevertheless those smart materials have new characteristics which present structural
materials do not have and make us assert that they will lead to smart structures. The
 innovation of these materials is greatly expected, and those innovated materials will be
real smart materials for civil structures

UNIT-II

NON STRUCTURAL MATERIALS, ASSOCESSORIES AND FINISHES

WATERPROOFING
Waterproofing is the formation of an impervious barrier over surfaces of foundations,
roofs, walls, and other structural members. The function of the impermeable barrier is to prevent
water penetrations. The building surfaces are made water-resistant and sometimes waterproof.
Waterproofing Methods
1. Cementitious Waterproofing
2. Liquid Waterproofing Membrane
3. Bituminous Membrane
4. Bituminous Coating
5. Polyurethane Liquid Membrane
1. Cementitious Waterproofing
 Cementitious waterproofing is the easiest method of waterproofing in construction. The
materials for cementitious waterproofing are readily available from suppliers of masonry
products. And they are easy to mix and apply.
The applications of the cementitious waterproofing technique are in the internal wet areas, such
as toilets. That is why it does not go through the contract and expansion process
Applications of Cementitious Waterproofing
1. Water treatment plants
2. Sewage treatment facilities
3. Bridges
4. Dams
5. Railway and subway systems
6. Marine cargo ports and docks
7. River locks/channels
8. Parking structures
9. Tunnels
2. Liquid Waterproofing Membrane
The liquid membrane consists of a primer coat and two topcoats. The application of the
coatings is by spray, roller, or trowel. The liquid layer is thin and offers more flexibility than the
cementitious types of waterproofing.
The liquid cures into a rubbery coating on the wall. The elongation properties of the coat can
reach as high as 280%. The durability of the waterproofing coating depends on what type of
polymer the manufacturer used for the making of the liquid waterproofing
Liquid waterproofing membrane can be of a spray-applied liquid layer composed of polymer-
modified asphalt. Polyurethane liquid membranes in separate grades for trowel, roller, or spray
are also available from various manufacturers.
3. Bituminous Coating Waterproofing
Bituminous coating (asphalt coating) is made of bitumen based materials. It is a flexible
protective coat based on its formulation and polymerization grade. The flexibility and protection
against water can be influenced by the polymer grade and reinforcement of fiber.
The most common applications of bituminous coatings include areas that are beneath screed wet.
It is an excellent protective coating and waterproofing agent, especially on surfaces such as
concrete foundations.
It is not suitable for exposure to sunlight unless it is modified with a more flexible material such
as polyurethane or acrylic-based polymers.
4. Bituminous Membrane Waterproofing
Bituminous membrane waterproofing is a popular method used for low-sloped roofs due
to their proven performance. The bituminous waterproofing membrane has a torch on the layer
and self-adhesive membrane.
Self-adhesive compounds comprise asphalt, polymers, and filler; additionally, certain resins and
oils may be added to improve adhesion characteristics. The self-adhesive type has a low shelf life
as bonding properties of the membrane reduces with time.
Torch on membrane has exposed and covered types. The exposed layer often has granular
mineral aggregate to withstand the wear and tear of the weathering. For the other kind of
membrane, the contractor needs to apply one protective screed to prevent the puncture of the
membrane.
5. Polyurethane Liquid Membrane Waterproofing
Polyurethane liquid membrane method of waterproofing is used for the flat roof area and
posed to weathering. This waterproofing method is expensive.
Polyurethane Liquid Membrane can offer higher flexibility. Polyurethane is very
sensitive to moisture content. Therefore before application, one has to be very careful evaluating
the moisture content of the concrete slab, otherwise peeling or de-bonding of membranes may
happen after some time.

Benefits of roof waterproofing.

 Improves Structure Durability.
 Reduces Cost of Repairs.
 Offers Energy Efficiency.
 Prevents the Onset of Health Concerns.
 Improves the Life of Interior Work and Furniture.
 Durability.
 Bonding Strength.
 Drying Time.
FLOOR FINISHES
A floor finish is a liquid which is applied to a resilient tile floor and dries to a hard,
durable and smooth film. This film is about the thickness of waxed paper and is expected to
protect and extend the life of the floor while providing an attractive appearance and slip resistant
surface.
CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF FLOORING
• It should be durable
• It should be easy to clean
• Noiseless
• Have Good Appearance
• Free from dampness
• Fire Resistant
• Low Maintenance cost

What Does Polymer Flooring Mean?

Polymer flooring refers to a type of surface pavement that is produced with the use of
epoxy systems. These systems are comprised of resins, hardeners and other chemicals. Due to
this, polymer flooring is highly corrosion resistant and is used as a protective mechanism on
corrosion-susceptible materials installed in high moisture environments.
Polymer flooring properties
 durability and strength – the polymer floor is not scratched and resistant to mechanical
damage;
 flexibility;
 high tightness;
 no joints;
 easy to clean;
 high resistance to acids and detergents;
 Electrostatic – dust and other contaminants are not attracted to the surface of the polymer
floor.
Different Types of Polymer Floor Coatings
 Polyaspartic – Quick drying and one of the hardest finishes on the market, polyaspartic
flooring is a good choice for areas where moisture is an issue. It is also perfect for
businesses who can’t afford to be offline for very long.
 Epoxy – Epoxy has one of the widest ranges for a polymer floor finish. It is flexible,
glossy, and easy to mix with pigment. These attributes make it one of the most versatile
choices for a polymer floor.
 Concrete Epoxy – One of the most popular choices for concrete is concrete epoxy.
Concrete epoxy combines the strength and flexibility to create a system for high impact
 resistance and low maintenance. Concrete epoxy also is able to fill and “heal” concrete
cracks for a smoother, stronger floor.
 Urethane – Urethane, or polyurethane floor coating, is highly impact and scratch
resistant, in addition to being one of the most traditionally-used floor coating products on
the market. It is very flexible, so it is often used by veterinary offices, prisons, and
walkways. It is also one of the most economical polymer floor choices available.
 MMA – Methyl Methacrylate (MMA) is known for its ability to perform well under
extreme thermal duress. Not only is it very flexible, which allows it to maintain structure
in areas where there are extreme thermal cycles, but it can be installed in areas up to -20°
C. It also dries very quickly.
 Fiber-Reinforced Coating – Fiber-reinforced coatings are often used to support
structures like water tanks and ship parts. In these polymer coatings, a resin is infused
with fiber, creating a compound is very strong and flexible. It is also very water-resistant
and lightweight.
PAINT
Paint is any pigmented liquid, liquefiable, or solid mastic composition that, after
application to a substrate in a thin layer, converts to a solid film. It is most commonly used to
protect, color, or provide texture.

TYPES OF PAINT

OIL PAINT:
The base of this paint is white lead and is usually applied in three coats i.e. primer,
undercoat, and finish. This kind of paint is available in two finishes such as matt and glossy.
Being durable and affordable, oil paint is one of the most popular choices and is easy to apply
and clean. You can commonly use this paint on walls, doors, windows, and metal objects as well.
n spite of having various benefits, these also have some disadvantages. Oil paint is not suitable
for humid conditions and takes more time to dry completely.
ENAMEL PAINT:
This kind of pain has lead or zinc to varnish. You can get them in various colors with
added pigmentations. This is a form of hard and glossy coating ad easy to clean. Talking about
durability, enamel paints are very long-lasting, waterproof, and chemically resistant, to offer
good coverage and color retention.
Enamel paints are used for various applications such as:
 Interior and exterior of walls
 Wood, doors, and flooring
 Windows
 Stairs
 Concrete, plaster, glass, metals
However, these are slow drying paints and require a titanium coating before application.
EMULSION PAINT:
This type of paint uses binding materials such as polyvinyl acetate and polystyrene and
also contains driers like cobalt and manganese. These are available on different bases such as
water or oil and their pigments are used to make different shades of emulsion paints.
Emulsion paints dry fast and are hardened in nature and you can easily clean the surfaces with
water. These paints are durable, offer good color retention, and alkali resistance. You can use
this kind of paint for walls, ceilings, and masonry work.
CEMENT PAINT:
You can get this kind of paint in powder form. It is easy to mix with water to achieve nice
paint consistency. Cement paint has white or colored cement as the base and also contains
pigments, accelerators, and other additives. This is a durable and waterproof kind of paint type
and commonly used in rough applications.

BITUMINOUS PAINT:
It is made from dissolved asphalt or tar and available in black color. This paint is
waterproof and alkali-resistant. However, if your place is exposed to the sun, this paint is not
suitable for you as it deteriorates in sunlight.
This paint is used in underwater ironworks, concrete foundations, wooden surfaces, and iron
pipes to provide rust resistance.
ALUMINIUM PAINT:
It is made by mixing aluminium particles with oil varnish. This paint is corrosion-
resistant, electricity, and weather resistant also. Aluminum paint is used on metals and wood, gas
tanks, oil tanks, water pipes, and radiators.
ANTI-CORROSIVE PAINT:
 As the name suggests, this type of paint is chemical resistant and made from linseed oil,
zinc chrome, and fine sand. You can get this in black color and this is durable in nature. It is easy
o pockets and used for metallic surfaces and pipes.

ACOUSTIC MATERIALS
When the sound intensity is more, then it gives the great trouble or nuisance to the
particular area like auditorium, cinema hall, studio, recreation center, entertainment hall, college
reading hall. Hence it is very important to make that area or room to be sound proof by using a
suitable material called as ‘Acoustic material’. It is measured in decibles (db).
Properties of Acoustic Material
 Sound energy is captured and adsorbed.
 It has a low reflection and high absorption of sound.
 Higher density improves the sound absorption efficiency at lower frequencies.
 Higher density material helps to maintain a low flammability performance. Hence
acoustic material should have higher density.
 It controls the sound and noise levels from machinery and other sources for
environmental amelioration and regulatory compliance.
 Acoustic material reduces the energy of sound waves as they pass through.
 It suppresses echoes, reverberation, resonance and reflection.
Uses of Acoustic Material
 Acoustic materials can be used for noise reduction and noise absorption.
 It makes the sound more audible which is clear to listen without any disturbances.
 It suppresses echoes, reverberation, reflection and resonance.
 Important specifications for noise reduction and noise absorption products include noise
attenuation and noise reduction coefficient.
 A vinyl acoustic barrier blocks controls airborne noise (street traffic, voices, music) from
passing through a wall ceiling or floor.
 Acoustic foam and acoustic ceiling tiles absorb sound so as to minimize echo and
reverboration within a room.
 Sound proof doors and windows are designed to reduce the transmission of sound.
 Building techniques such as double wall construction or cavity wall construction and
staggering wall studs can improve the sound proofing of a room.
 A sound proof wall (treated by a accurate material) can incorporate sound proofing and
acoustic materials to meet desired sound transmission class (STC) values.
DIFFERENT ACOUSTIC TREATMENT MATERIAL
1. Acoustic Glass Mineral Wool
Our acoustic glass mineral wool panels offer a lightweight solution for highly
customizable sound absorption. Mineral wool is made from natural rock materials that have been
spun into a glassy fibrous structure. Each of our panels offers consistent sound absorption. They
can be cut to fit any budget or room size. Our glass mineral wool panels feature the following:
 Completely made-to-order for perfection every time
 Available in 1-inch or 2-inch thickness
 Made from safe materials
Benefits include:
 Lightweight
 Easy to install
 Budget-friendly
 Customizable and highly versatile
 Reduces unwanted reverberations
 Provides energy efficiency in any space
 Naturally fire-resistant
2. Acoustic Foam
If you’re looking for an affordable, easy way to improve sound quality, acoustic foam is
the answer. Acoustic foam is extremely easy to install in any space with a peel-and-stick
backing. It’s perfect for dampening sound within a commercial or residential area, and you can
use it to help keep sound out. Some of our acoustic foam options include:
 Polyester film-facing panels:
 Reinforced aluminum-facing panels:
 Acoustic foam panels in varying colors:
 Udderly Quiet™ fabric-covered foam panels:
 Fire-rated foam panels
APPLICATIONS
 Auditoriums

 Engine compartments
 Gun ranges
 Gymnasiums

 Manufacturing facilities
 Medical facilities
  Offices

 Recording studios
 Theatres

 Utility rooms
 Workshops

Acoustic foam benefits include:

 Keeps sound out
 Reduces reverb
 Improves acoustics
 Affordable

3. Echo Absorber™ Acoustic Cotton

Our Echo Absorber™ panels and baffles are among our best sound-absorbing materials.
Made of 80-percent recycled materials, the natural fiber panels aren’t just great at controlling
sounds. They’re also resistant to mold, mildew and flames, as well as suited to temporary or
permanent installations. These light-weight materials are easy to install, just like the rest of our
products, and they provide tremendous value for the cost.
You can choose the right thickness or pack size for your needs. Options include:
 Echo Absorber acoustics panel natural blend:
 Echo Absorber acoustics panel packs:
This sound-absorbing material is perfect for:
 Auditoriums
 Call centers
 Conference rooms
 Computer rooms
 Gymnasiums
 Offices
 Studios
 Theaters
 Warehouses
Acoustic cotton benefits include:
 Cost-effective
 Meets most building codes
 Fungi, mold, mildew and flame resistance
 Environmentally-friendly
4. Acoustic Partitions
An acoustic partition offers the ideal sound-absorbing solution when you want to divide a
room into smaller spaces and save yourself the time, cost and trouble of remodeling. Our free-
standing acoustic partitions are lightweight and easy to move around whenever you want to
change the layout of a room or turn any space into a quiet, private area. They’re available in a
range of colors to fit into the style of an office, restaurant or school.
Acoustic partitions are perfect for use in:
 Conference spaces
 Hotels
 Offices
 Restaurants
 Study rooms
 Anywhere you want to divide a space and enjoy quality sound
Benefits include:
 Flexibility
 Absorbs background noise
 Offers a temporary sound solution
 Customization options
 Improves privacy
 Superior sound absorption
 Exceptional quality
 Easy to install and move around
 Available in endless fabric options to match any decor
5. Hanging Baffles
Do you need sound absorption but have very little wall space? Hanging baffles solve the
problem for you. You can hang baffles from the ceiling to create soundproofing insulation just
about anywhere. They capture and redirect sound while blending into the surroundings. You can
also add a touch of art to the ceiling with a custom covering, or you can choose fabric from over
1,000 options. Here’s our selection of hanging baffles worth considering for discreet sound
absorption options:
 Udderly Quiet acoustic baffle 250 series:
 Udderly Quiet acoustic baffle 200 series
 Echo Absorber hanging baffle natural series:
 Echo Absorber hanging baffle pack:
  Udderly Quiet Class A anechoic hanging baffles:
Hanging baffles are the perfect sound-absorbing material for:
 Auditoriums
 Gymnasiums
 Gun ranges
 Call centers
 Offices
 Industrial facilities
 Anywhere with limited wall space
The baffles are easily installed with medium or light-duty chains and hooks. Udderly Quiet
installations work well in all types of residential, retail, commercial and government
applications. Because they’re suspended in air, you don’t have to worry about acoustic backing
or modifying the walls of your space.
Hanging baffles offer the following benefits:
 Excellent soundproofing using out-of-the-way ceiling space
 Easy to install
 Made of quality, durable materials
 Designed to improve sound quality in spaces of all sizes
6. Quiet Board™ Water Resistant Panels
If you’re looking for water- or stain-resistant acoustic materials that absorb sound, check
out Quiet Board™. At Soundproof Cow, we’re proud to offer this option to a wide range of
clientele. The temporary acoustic panels absorb and block sound in any area where a washable
material is necessary.
These panels are perfect for sound absorption in messy or moist areas such as:
 Arenas
 Car washes
 Dog kennels
 Food preparation areas
 Gymnasiums
 Indoor swimming pools
 Laboratories
 Medical facilities
 Rooftop enclosures
 Skating rinks
  Under the floor or as a ceiling tile
With Quiet Board panels, you’ll enjoy the following benefits:
 Highly durable, water-resistant material
 Strong resistance against chemicals, bacteria and fungi
 Impact resistance
 Washable
 Excellent value for soundproofing and sound absorption
 Lightweight and easy to install
 Can be easily cut or trimmed
 Can be custom-shaped for a fun look

NON STRUCTURAL MATERIAL

Non-structural items include things like doors, cabinet sets, flooring, trim, windows
and other finishing materials. In contrast, structural deconstruction requires more integral
components of a building, like load-bearing walls, to be systematically dismantled.
What are non-structural elements of a building?
Examples of non-structural elements include components such as mechanical and
electrical plant, ducting, pipework, cable trays, and suspended ceilings, light non-load bearing
partitions, and cladding systems such as brick veneer
CLASSIFICATION OF NON-STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
NSEs can be listed under three groups based on their use and function, namely
(a) Contents of buildings: Items required for functionally enabling the use of spaces, such as (i)
furniture and minor items, e.g., storage shelves, (ii) facilities and equipment, e.g., refrigerators,
washing machines, gas cylinders, TVs, multi-level material stacks, false ceilings, generators and
motors, and (iii) door and window panels and frames, large-panel glass panes with frames (as
windows or infill walling material), and other partitions within the buildings;
(b) Appendages to buildings: Items projecting out of the buildings or attached to their exterior
surfaces, either horizontally or vertically, such as chimneys projecting out from buildings, glass
or stone cladding used as façades, parapets, small water tanks rested on top of buildings,
sunshades, advertisement hoardings affixed to the vertical face of the building or anchored on
top of building, and small communication antennas mounted atop buildings. Thus, some of these
are architectural elements, while the rest are functional; and
(c) Services and utilities: Items required for facilitating essential activities in the buildings, such
as plumbing lines (e.g., water supply mains, gas pipelines, sewage pipelines, and rainwater drain
pipes), electricity cables, and telecommunication wires from outside to inside of building and
within the building, air-conditioning ducts, elevators, fire hydrant systems (including water pipes
through the buildings).

DRY WALL
Drywall is a high performance light-weight partition system consisting of GI
steel frame encased with gypsum plasterboards on either side attached through self-drilling
drywall screws. The joints are then taped and finished with gypsum jointing compound
Advantages of a Drywall:
1. A work of installing a drywall is faster and rapid as compared to the plaster, thus it has
lesser energy cost as compared to any other method.
2. Installing drywalls is comparatively heavy, but the used of lifting machines save a large
time. Similarly the ceiling panels can also be installed in no time with the help of lifters/
machines.
 3. The durability of the drywall is not satisfactory; however the strength of the drywalls is
amazing. The drywalls also support and sustain the walls.
4. Due to the presence of Calcium Sulfate plus water (CaSo4+H2O), a dry wall become
resistant to the fire.
5. It is cost effective. It consumes lesser cost as compared to plaster or other method of
paving and smoothing the walls and ceiling.
6. The purpose of a drywall may be permanent as well temporary. If a drywall is installed
on walls and ceiling, it will remain over there permanently. In case if the drywall is
installed instead of a partition wall, it will serve as a temporary purpose. It can be
dismantled, cut, changed and modified as per desire.
7. In drywall walls and ceiling, recessed lighting can be installed. Apart from lighting, any
other equipment like clothe hangers, mirrors, paintings and other similar things can easily
be hung with a drywall with ease.
Disadvantages of the Drywall:
1. A drywall is not resistant to water, it can absorb water, and the absorbed water can pass
and sink through it. Therefore, the ceilings with drywall can not resist water to seep
through it. Moreover, a damp drywall can allow mold infestation. We can even make a
drywall water resistant, if fiberglass is used instead the paper.
2. The surface of the drywall will be prone to damage, if it is not plastered.
3. The experts of drywall must be committed, because if the finished is not done well, and
the joints are not attached properly, the drywall will be vulnerable.
4. Installation of drywall spreads a lot of dust, therefore, the room should be prepared before
the work starts. Or else the dust will spread all through the house.
5. The disadvantage of a drywall is still fixable. Keeping in view the above advantage, the
minor disadvantage can be avoided, as they are less serious, before the significance of
pros of a drywall.
 DRY WALL

6 Common types of drywall

There are several types of drywall, usually differentiated by the color of the paper
surrounding the drywall. The variations are created by different paper types and the addition of
chemicals to the slurry.
1. Regular drywall
Regular drywall, often called white board, is the most common type used in ceilings and
walls in homes and commercial projects. The most common thickness for residential use is ½
inch. The most common drywall sheet size is 4’ x 8’, but it’s also available in lengths up to 16’
for high ceilings. Home improvement stores sell 2’ x 2’ drywall sizes for smaller repairs and to
make the sheets easier to carry.

2. Mold-resistant drywall
Mold-resistant drywall, often called green board, is made with a paper backing thicker
than regular drywall and coated with wax for extra moisture resistance. It also comes with a
fiberglass mesh that is non-organic, removing the food necessary for mold to grow (called
paperless drywall). Mold-resistant drywall is most often used in bathrooms, kitchens, laundry
rooms and as a tile backer. A mold-resistant mud is also available. Note that moisture-resistant
drywall is not the same as mold-resistant.
3. Plasterboard
Plasterboard, or blue board, is used as a base for plaster applications, much like the lath
in lath and plaster walls. Plasterboard requires a thin coat or coats of plaster to be installed over
the entire surface. The face paper is absorptive, allowing the plaster finish coat to stick to the
drywall better. It’s used in older homes to give the look of lath and plaster.
4. Soundproof drywall
While all drywall has some soundproofing qualities, soundproof drywall adds additional
wood fiber, gypsum, and polymers to increase the sound transmission class (STC) above that of
regular drywall. STC is a rating similar to the Richter scale that measures the amount of noise a
material can stop. Soundproof drywall is used when additional soundproofing is required, such
as between living spaces and shared walls. It is denser than regular drywall and can be more
difficult to work with.
5. Fire-resistant drywall
Specialized fire-resistant drywall is used in garages and basements, around equipment
that might cause a fire. It contains fiberglass, which slows the progress of fire and doesn’t burn
as fast as regular gypsum. There are two types of fire-resistant drywall: Type X and Type C.
Type X gives up to one hour of protection from fire and is 5/8” thick. It can be used in multiple
layers to provide greater protection if needed. Type C is the same as Type X, but doesn’t shrink
when burning. It’s used primarily in ceilings to keep them from collapsing during a fire.
6. VOC-absorbing drywall
A relatively new product, VOC-absorbing drywall captures chemicals and other volatile
organic compounds and traps them within the drywall, making them inert. These chemicals come
from other building materials, as well as cleaning products we use every day. The drywall works
even after being painted or covered with a light wall covering for up to 75 years

TILES
Tiles in building construction are thin plates or elements used to cover surfaces like
roofs, floors, and walls.
Types of Tiles based on Application
 There is a different type of tiles used in building construction which are unique to the type of
surface where it must be applied. Following are the types of tiles based on surface of application:
 Roofing tiles,
 Flooring tiles,
 Wall tiles, and
 Partition tiles.
Based on material and manufacture, following are the types of tiles used in building
construction:
 Ceramic tiles or non-porcelain tiles, and
 Porcelain tiles
Floor Tiles
As the name suggests, floor tiles are used for the flooring of the buildings in Civil
Engineering. These are also tiles are generally square or rectangular but nowadays many other
shapes an available in the market. These tiles are flat tiles. The floor tiles are available in many
sizes but they have a thickness between 12 mm to 50 mm. The floor tiles should be hard enough
to resist wear and tear due to load. These should be well burnt and free from pebbles, grit, and
any other unwanted material. These should have a uniform texture.

Advantages of Floor Tiles

1. As they are light in weight so it is very easy to work with them.
2. They are available in a variety of colors and shapes.
3. Polishing is not required on floor tiles so the time of polishing is saved the floor is
available just after the completion of the work.
4. They are scratch proof and having damp-proof properties.

Wall Tiles
The tiles used to fix on the walls of the structure are known as (Best tile)wall tiles. They
are nearly the same as that of floor tiles but they have less compressive are also available in a
number of colors, sizes, and shapes. They are very much decorative and also used where the
chances of dampness are high.

Roofing Tiles
 Roofing tiles are used for the covering of a structure. They are mainly used on sloping
roofs. Roofing tiles are a good alternative to plain galvanized iron corrugated sheets and timber.
The roofing tiles used should be leak-proof, easy to handle, and hard enough. The fixing of these
tiles should be easy and durable.
Various types of roof tiles are available in the market. A few common varieties are as follows.
(a) Allahabad Tiles
(b) Mangalore Tiles
(c) Flat Tiles
(d) Corrugated Tiles
(e) Pot Tiles