Paul Grey, Rosemarie Little, Robin Macpherson,

--___ John Etty and Graham Goodlad

= Second edition
erent 5
Doo Morales
Paul Grey, Rosemarie Little, Robin Macpherson,
John Etty and Graham Goodlad

Cambridge IGCSE® and O Level

Mistory
Option B: the 20th Century
Coursebook
Second edition

EE] CA MBRIDGE
QP UNIVERSITY PRESS
CAMBRIDGE
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Contents
How to use this book

Introductory chapters
Introduction Part1 Whatis the big picture of the 20th century?
Introduction Part2 The First World War: 1914-1918

Section A: Core content

Key Question 1: Were the peace treaties of 1919-1923 fair?
Key Question 2: To what extent was the League of Nations a success?
Key Question 3: Why had international peace collapsed by 1939?
Key Question 4: Who was to blame for the Cold War?
Key Question 5: How effectively did the USA contain the spread of communism?
Key Question 6: How secure was the USSR’s control over Eastern Europe, 1948-c.1989? 124
Mier
SiG)”
Ol
lO) Key Question 7: Why did events in the Gulf matter, c.1970-2000? 142

Section B: Depth studies

8 Depth study A: The First World War, 1914-1918 160
9 Depth study B: Germany, 1918-1945 184
10 Depth study C: Russia, 1905-1941 208
11 Depth study D: The USA, 1919-1941 236

12 Preparing
for assessment 258

Glossary 267
Acknowledgements 273
Index 276
How to use this book

Studying history is not simply about memorising facts Each chapter contains multiple Activities. These are a
and dates. Instead, you have to investigate events by mixture of individual and group tasks to help you develop
asking questions, considering different perspectives and your skills and practise applying your knowledge of a topic.
evaluating the evidence you find. The Cambridge IGCSE®
and O Level History courses encourage you to delve ACTIVITY P2.2
beyond simply asking ‘what?’, ‘where?’ and ‘when?’ to
explore ‘why?’ and even ‘what else might have happened?’ Look at Source P2C. Which countries suffered most
during the First World War in terms of loss of life and
The first two chapters in this book are an introduction to injured survivors? Create a list of five in rank order and
the material, providing an overview of the 20th Century and identify which alliance system each country belonged
the First World War. The rest of the book is divided into two to — Allied Powers or Central Powers.
sections: Core content and Depth studies. Section A: Core a

content addresses the seven Key Questions in turn. It is

Top tip boxes provide helpful advice.
important that you learn and understand all of the material

a3
in this section. Section B covers four depth studies. You will
only be studying one of the chapters in this section and your
TOP TIP
teacher will be able to tell you which one has been chosen.
Would you say that the 1914 system of alliances caused
It is important to read a variety of materials on a topic as well the war to break out, or did it just mean that once a
as the textbook. Additional reading is essential for enhancing war had started it was bound to get bigger and bigger?
Similarly, did Russia’s decision to mobilise in itself cause
your knowledge and enriching your learning experience. A the war to break out? Just because one historian argues
good historian does not rely on a single source! something doesn’t mean they are automatically right. See
if another historian says something different. Look at the
This book also contains a chapter which will help you to evidence for yourself.
prepare for assessment. Here, the structure of the IGCSE
and O Level assessments are discussed and the chapter
will help you to familarise yourself with different types of Fact file boxes contain useful background knowledge to
questions and sources. enhance your understanding.

Coursebook features
FACT FILE |
This book contains a number of features to help you work The Maginot Line was built to avoid a surprise attack from
through each of the topics. Germany and to give the alarm if an attack happened. The
government knew that it would take two to three weeks
Each Core content chapter begins with a set of Focus to mobilise the French Army and that the Line would give
points: important points for you to consider as you work it valuable time in the event of an attack. It was made of
through the chapter. fortifications, border guard posts and anti-tank rails. Not
all parts of the Maginot Line were equally strong. You can
Focus points see this in Sources 3G and 3H.
@ What were the motives and aims of the Big Three at Versailles?
Why did all the victors not get everything they wanted?
What was the impact of the peace treaty on Germany up to 1923?
What were the terms of the other peace treaties?
Could the treaties be justified at the time? Check your understanding boxes contain questions that
encourage you to reflect on what you have learned and to
ey term boxes ai the meaning of important terms quickly check your understanding of the topic.
rom the text. You can also find the definitions of these
th ys i at the back of the book.
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 1.1

@
olJoo 4,eae ‘Winning the peace’ is an expression that means
‘succeeding in the post-war period’. What circumstances in
Pacifism: opposition to violence and war.
1919 made this success so hard for the victors to achieve?
 How to use this book

Each Core content and Depth study chapter ends Summary points are a brief summary of the main point:
with Summary points, a Big Challenge and Exam-style in the chapter to help you revise.
questions.

Summary points

The Big Challenge is a short project that helps you to

review and consolidate your learning of the chapter.

The Big Challenge

With a partner, review the structure and Covenant of You won't have to change everything: much of the
the League of Nations: work of the League’s agencies was successful.
Having completed your review, do you think that the
¢ How could you make it more effective?
League was doomed to fail from the start or was it
* Ifyou were helping set up the League in the 1920s,
undermined by later events?
how would you deal with the League’s weaknesses?

Exam-style questions provide an opportunity to relate

your learning to the formal assessment and practise
writing longer answers.

Exam-style questions
1 Howdid Hitler go about revising the Treaty of Versailles between 1933 and 1936?

2 Was the Treaty of Versailles itself to blame for the outbreak of war in 1939 or was it the way it
was implemented that was at fault?

‘Lebensraum (living space) was the crucial factor in causing the war in 1939.’ How far do you
agree?

the war, appeasement kept the peace for longer

‘Instead of causing in the 1 ny far
idl (

you agree?

‘The Second World War was inevitable after: a) 1936, b) 1938, c) Marc
three dates, explain to what extent you agree with the statement.
 Digitized by the Internet Archive
In 2023

https://archive.org/details/historyoptiond200000paul
What is the big picture of the 20th century?
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

Source P1C: Brezhnev as a political leader, receiving

applause after giving a speech in October 1968.

Source P1A: Harry Patch during a ceremony in 2007 to

remember those who fought and died in the First World
War and the Second World War.

Source P1D: Brezhnev signing a treaty in Vienna in 1979.

i755
1
ee PATCH Sitting at the same table and also signing is the US’s
JUNE 1898 _ 95 hy

LASTmae SURVIVORAGED
oth
41
JULY 2009 president Carter.
OF THE +

Harry Patch (Sources P1A and P1B) and Leonid Ilyich

Brezhnev (Sources P1C and P1D) never met. Their lives
stretched across much of the 20th century and both
b ecame famous during their lifetimes.
H
arry was nota king, politician, business leader, film star
or great scientist; he was the son of a sto yemason who
worked as a plumber, an ordinary person who took part in
extraordinary events. He was born in the UK in 1898 and
ived for 111 years, 1 month, 1 week and 1 day. When he
died in 2009 he was the last of the soldier s who had fought
in the trenches during the First World Wa (1914-1918),
eonid was born in 1906. His home was Russia, which
Pa
ae
A)
ee)
Yh
was ruled by a tsar. While he was a boy, several
tae et ¢ nembers of the royal family were execut ed during
source P1B: The gravestone that marks the burial place of a period of political violence and the survivors fled from
Harry Patch he country The huge country changed f rom beinga
 P1: What is the big picture of the 20th century?

Latin America 3%
f =f: ity Sure : Africa 4.5% \ Others2.5% Asia Pacific
ales Russian word for emperor. é . USA 5% PS (including former
ray Soviet Asia)54% Europe
. Europe ; ; _ (including
(including —¥] n nL Russia)
Russia) ‘ ; 14%
monarchy to being a communist state. Leonid, the son of 25%
a metal worker, went into politics. By the time of his death
in 1982, he was the leader of the country, a superpower Africa 10%
during the years of the Cold War (1945-1989). In the years
that followed his death, that country changed again and
000million
¥% Latin America
broke apart into different, separate countries, something
Sm,

& Caribbean 8%
he could almost certainly never have expected. We will be
Middle East
turning to these topics in chapters 4 and 6.
+
& North Africa 6%
North America 5%
n this book you will learn about the key developments Others 3%
and events that Leonid Brezhnev and Harry Patch both
Source P1E: World population by region, 1900 and 2000.
ived through between 1901 and 2000. Most of the people
you meet in this story will be like Brezhnev, decision
makers; you will see Brezhnev’s name again (in chapter
6), but not Patch’s. However, don’t forget that in the
Study Sources P1E and P1F. What would you expect
background there are always a lot of people who, like
the consequences of the changes in population to have
Patch, had to live with the consequences of other, more
been: wouid the increase put pressure on resources and
powerful people’s decisions. drive the increase in technology? How would the political
This first chapter provides you with the ‘big picture’ of 20th- structures, which had been in place since the 18th and
century history. Many of the issues identified here will affect 19th centuries, cope? Would more people lead to more
your life as you make your way through the 21st century. wars, more extreme politics and more revolutions? Write

down a few predictions and later, when you have worked

through the book, see how many were right. You might
decide that the real causes of major events are the things
~ Whatdo Sources P1A, P1B, PIC and P1D tell us about the going on in the background, not the decisions taken by
20th century? What issues.
do the four photographs raise? individuals.

Life and death

Let’s start our big-picture overview of the century with
matters of life and death.

Between 1901 and 2000 people lived longer, healthier lives

than they had ever done before. Sources PIE, PIF and P1G
provide evidence of these developments.

For all but the richest few in the more developed, inyears
Age

industrialised countries in 1900, life expectancy was low.

The improvements in life expectancy in all the world’s
regions have been dramatic. But as historians, you
should think about what caused these developments
and what they in turn caused. The improvements were 1900 2000
largely the result of the development of cures for Baveloniog industrialee
common diseases and reduction in infant mortality rates. world world
However, you should note that the gap between the
Source P1F: A graph showing life expectancy across the
+h

industrialised and developing worlds at the end of the

century remained wide. 20th century.
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

factor to the outbreak of the Second World War, and

Wealth oil was vital to all sides during the course of that war.
World consumption rose from $1.5 trillion in 1900 to After it ended in 1945, there was a contest for control of
$4 trillion in 1950. It then grew rapidlyto $12 trillion in oil between international companies and developing
1975 and $24 trillion in 1998. However, the benefits have countries that were struggling to gain independence after
not been fairly distributed: poor countries have a much decades, or insome cases, centuries of European rule. Oil
maller share than they did in 1950. Recently, this has was an issue both in the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990
been combined with the increasing availability of mass and in the resulting international reaction, a topic we will
media, allowing more people to see more of the world. ook at in chapter 7. The United States, once the world’s
Even where standards of living have risen, the fact of such argest oil producer and still its largest consumer, has to
differences in prosperity between different groups is now import 60% of its oil supply today, weakening its position
more visible than ever before. as a Great Power.

n the first decades of the 2Qth century, the oil business

ACTIVITY P1.3
provided the industrialising world with a product called
‘kerosene’. This was used in oil lamps. Gasoline (petrol)
What do you imagine the consequences of changing was then only a by-product and of little value. However,
levels of wealth, continuing inequalities of wealth, and just when the invention of the light bulb seemed to mark
increasing media coverage have been or are now - or the end of the oil lamp and the oil industry, a new era
are likely to be soon? began with the development of the internal combustion
engine powered by gasoline. The oil industry had a new
market. In the 20th century, oil, together with natural gas,
took the place of coal as the most important power source
Energy for the industrial world.
World energy consumption
Oil is essential to our modern way of life. Oil (and natural
gas) are the essential ingredients in fertiliser, on which
world agriculture depends; oil makes it possible to
+ ™@ Nuclear
ia Hydro- transport food to the dependent megacities of the world;
electricity oil provides the plastics and chemicals that are the very
™@ Natural Gas foundations of your way of life.
Oil
Exajoules
year
per Bi Coal
BB Biofuels
ACTIVITY P1.4

1820 1840 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
What does Source P1G tell us about the modern world
Source P1G: A graph showing the consumption of various and sources of conflict? Would your familiar social order
forms of energy from 1820 to 2010. and civilisation collapse if the world’s oil wells suddenly
dried up?

Black gold
The impact of industrialisation
loday, oil is the world’s biggest business. Until an
lt source of energy is found in sufficient quantity ?
and growth
ilability and price of oil will have far-reaching People had a far more destructive effect on the global
nN the global economy. environment in the 20th century than in all the thousands
of years that preceded it.
of the First World War (1914-1918), where
fought, established the importance of * The release of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) into the
| combustion engine began to be atmosphere from the 1930s onwards caused holes in
orse and the coal-powered train. the ozone layer that protects the Earth from the Sun’s
oil was acontributorv ultraviolet radiation.
 P1: What is the big picture of the 20th century?

* About two-thirds of the effect of global warming As the empires broke up in the second half of the cer
comes from the emission of carbon dioxide from the the world’s diplomatic and military picture ch
burning offossil fuels. Over half the total increase in were now new powers to consider. But also, with the
carbon dioxide levels between 1750 and 1990 occurred decline of the old imperial powers —- Germany
after 1950, and others - the remaining two Great |
* About half the world’s tropical forests (which help (formerly Russia) and USA became even more important
slow climate change by absorbing carbon dioxide) and were known as ‘superpowers’. Now, every action by
were destroyed after 1950. About 75% of the clearance these two countries had consequences for everyone else.
provided land for agriculture. Peaceful international relations proved very hard to
achieve.

ACTIVITY P1.5
War and peace
How many of the conflicts studied in this book were
due to competition for resources? When you read about We often take for granted the idea that countries and
wars breaking out or peace treaties being signed, see nations are the same thing, and also that there is
what evidence there is that they were not just military something natural and permanent about them. For
and political affairs, but economic ones. example, during the Second World War, one popular
song declared that ‘there'll always be an England’. In
fact, all countries have come about through a process,
Who rules in the 20th century? and there is nothing inevitable about their make-up or
their borders. One key issue over many centuries was
In 1901, the peoples of Western Europe and North America the border between France and Germany. Although
seemed to have every reason to greet the 20th century few historians would want to say that this was what the
as the start of anew and happier era in the history First World War and the Second World War were fought
of humankind. Science and technology were already over, the fact is that countless wars had been fought
improving their standard of living and they dominated over this issue, pushing the border one way and then
the world with their trade, their finance and their military the other, depending on who won. Also, countries tend
power. Most of the western hemisphere, the continent of to be collections of groups, not of individuals. In any
Africa, the Indian subcontinent and much of Asia outside population there are likely to be different religious groups,
China had been either directly colonised by Europeans or different social classes, different languages and dialects,
deeply influenced by European culture. By the end ofthe and of course different genders. Inside each country
century, much of this had changed! the most powerful force holding together these diverse
European countries have lost their empires and therefore groups as they moved into the new century was that of
some oftheir importance. One ofthe factors that caused ‘nationalism’.
this was the cost involved in fighting two world wars: the For acentury the power ofthe state had increased.
First World War (1914-1918) and the Second World War Improved communications enabled governments to
(1939-1945). Europe (and several other parts of the world) increase their control over the administration, welfare
saw periods of savage fighting during the 20th century. and education oftheir citizens and allowed governments
The economic power of Europe meant that relationships to force citizens to serve in their armies. As the power of
between individual European countries affected the

{
(oo
rest of the world directly or indirectly. The existence of
their empires translated European wars into world wars.
Because European countries built up their industries, Empire: an area ofterritory usually comprising more than
towns and empires at different speeds, the balance of one country, ruled by a single monarch or government.
power changed within the continent. Britain was the Great Powers: countries with considerable military,
first to industrialise and during the 19th century was the diplomatic and economic power and influence.
most powerful of the group. By 1900, Germany had been USSR: Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, also known as
developing and growing, and was seen by Britain not just the Soviet Union.
as a competitor, but as a direct threat.
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

tate increased, so did the sense of being a ‘nation’. was truly terrible. The 19th century had seen a long
suld be seen in military parades and ceremonies, in period of peace in Europe and the idea of a new war, using
anthems and flags and patriotic symbols. Pride in ‘your’ new weapons, was looked on with concern. So much
ntry created a sense of common dignity and purpose. so that the leaders of Europe met in The Hague in 1899
the new century developed, appealingto nationalist to see what could be done to reduce the chances of war
feelings was the most powerful way any government could occurring. Another conference followed in ‘1907. A third
mobilise its citizens in a cause, perhaps most importantly such conference, scheduled for 1914, never took place.
in war. Talking and reaching agreement about weapons were
overtaken by the start of the First World War in 1914. There
During the 20th century other political ideologies
was still the widespread belief that even if war was terrible,
emerged. People could identify with others like
it remained the ultimate test of the fitness of a nation to
them and form groups. The group they chose
survive.
might indeed be a nation (for example, German
ationalism), but it might instead be a social class Another key aspect of wars jn the 20th century was not
or example, the Marxist ideology of the Soviet just who won and who lost but what happened next. We
Union), an ethnicity (different groups in the civil- begin by examining the situation at the end ofthe First
ights, apartheid and decolonisation disputes and World War in chapters 1 and 2, and the war’s longer-term
movements) or a religious faith (as we see today in consequences in chapter 3. But the aftermath of war is an
various Muslim political parties and insurgencies). important element in the later chapters as well. You may
As you will see, any of these forces, and indeed well come to conclude that however important winning
others, might cause or prevent enormous political a war might seem, ‘winning the peace’ is at least as
developments and wars. For one thing, people important and justSt as hard.
campaigning for change in their countries asked whose
country it really was. KEY TERM
i
To people in 1900, the prospect of war, with all the Soviet: & ussia
oa,
for
| ‘council’ or ‘com ;
destructive weapons that technology had made possible, 3 ei = MIE
1S
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

How did the First World War mobilised their armies first - Austria-Hungary because the
b k t? challenge from Serbia already existed, Russia because the
reak out: process was so cumbersome and took time.
Historians still debate the key causes ofthe First World
r (1914-1918) and who to blame for the catastrophe- EE
as did people at the time. Source P2A is a map showing
TOP TIP
we alliance ee es ayy Se Tabieinl SSN)Sec Would you say that the 1914 system ofalliances caused
for dragging the major powers into war because each the war to break out, or did it just mean that once a
government felt it had to stick by its agreement to support war had started it was bound to get bigger and bigger?
its alliance partner if it was attacked. Similarly, did Russia’s decision to mobilise in itself cause
the war to break out? Just because one historian argues
Others blame Germany for encouraging Austria-Hungary something doesn’t mean they are automatically right. See
to declare war on Serbia, despite knowing that Serbia’s if another historian says something different. Look at the
Slav population would be supported by the Russian evidence for yourself.
Empire. In fact, it was Austria-Hungary and then Russia that z

ATLANTIC Petrograd
OCEAN r &

Jutland

North
Sea

RUSSIA

"
Me se-Argonne™®y
Paris ® 4K
Marne

FRANCE
ROMANIA

Mediterranean Sea
| Some Major Battles
| of World War |
|
Ss
| [-] Allies, 1918
TS) Central Powers 0 200 400 miles
| [_] Neutral countries
tes
Le Batt 0 200 400 kilometers

2ource P2A: A map of Europe in 1914 showing the Allied Powers and the
Central Powers - the two sides that fought each
other in the First World War,
;
 P2: The First World War: 1914-1918

There were other causes too. Several European countries Tensions had been buildin
had developed large empires in Africa and Asia, while Balkans. In 1912 and 1913 there had been twc
Germany had not. Strong feelings of nationalism encouraged wars in the area.
competition with neighbouring countries. Another cause of
You can see in Source P2B D)
the ¢ ;
that was the naval arms race between Germany and Britain,
the First World Warin Europe. Whatever historians might arg
which created increasing tension and distrust. Ordinary
the winners of the First World Warin 1918 blamed the losers
citizens, military leaders and politicians expected some
Germany and the other Central Powers - for starting it
kind of war at some point. This expectation encouraged the
German and Austro-Hungarian governments to take risks in
ACTIVITY P2.1
1914, risks that added more threats to the fragile European
peace. There had not been a major European war for a Using Sources P2A and P2B, explain why the Central
hundred years, but in 1914 the tensions turned to war. Powers would not want to fight a war on two fronts.

1914
Europeans welcome war
28 June: Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife The conflict began in 1914 and many thought it would be
from the Austro-Hungarian Empire over by Christmas. It wasn’t. It was more than four years
were assassinated by a Serb nationalist, before the guns fell silent. Back in August 1914, huge
Gavrilo Princip. crowds welcomed the declarations of war in London, Paris
28 July: The Austrian government blamed the Berlin and St Petersburg. People across Europe sawit as a
Serbs and declared war on Serbia. This welcome opportunity to fight: some out of a sense of duty,
was an opportunity for the Austrians to some because of patriotism, and others to make things
end Serbian nationalism once and for right. Europeans had been prepared for war by the first
all. However, Serbia was bound by treaty mass newspapers and by years of intense nationalism that
with Russia. The Russian government placed country against country in bitter rivalry. It might well
announced a general mobilisation of its have been the most popular war in history when it started.
armyin its defence. A German politician looking back to the first weeks of war in
1914 said that the moment was like a ‘ringing opening chord
1 August: Germany, allied by treaty to Austria-
for an immortal song of sacrifice, loyalty and heroism’.
Hungary, saw the mobilisation as an act
of war against its friend and declared
war on Russia.
Be keene ote ee
Alliance: a collection of two or more countries that agree to
3 August: The German High Command had putin support the other/s if they are attacked by another country.
place the Schlieffen Plan to avoid war
Slavs: a number of ethnic groups of people in eastern and
on two fronts against both France and south-eastern Europe. They and their languages (e.g. Russian,
Russia. This was now triggered. If France Polish, Czech, Serbian) are related and many (though not all)
could be defeated quickly in six weeks, of them belong historically to the Orthodox Christian churches.
then German forces could turn east and Mobilisation: describes all the various actions that need
take on the Russians. It would take the to be taken to prepare for war, not just by the soldiers and
sailors but by the civilians as well.
Russian army all that time to get ready.
Central Powers: refers to the German and Austro-
4 August: The German army started to move Hungarian empires at the beginning of the First World War.
quickly through Belgium and France to The Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers later in 1914
reach Paris in six weeks. Belgium was a and in 1915, the Kingdom of Bulgaria also did so.
small country and its king asked Britain Patriotism: having strong support for your country.
for help. Standing by the 1839 treaty Immortal: uncying.
that guaranteed Belgian neutrality,
Britain declared war later on that day.
The First World War
ry \t ~+4 4,4 +h ,
In its scale and C Wa
Source P2B: The sequence of events and decisions that led 4; - nt fen mr Qn th
QIITere
to the start of the First World War in Europe.
Cambridge IGCSE andO Level History

tly calculated the numbers killed and wounded, but for

years about 5,000 men died on average every day, mostly
wounds inflicted by shellfire. Source P2C gives you the The numbers in Source P2C are what is called ‘raw
estimates of the dead and wounded from both sides. The data’, which means they are numbers with minimum
intense warfare was not confined to land. From the start, the context. It would help to do some research to put them
struggle at sea was fierce as each side tried to starve the other into context. Find out what the population of some of
by blockade. Air space became a zone of combat for the first the different countries was at the time of the 1914-1918
time. In 1914 the major powers had just over 100 planes each; war. Now calculate what percentage of that population
by the end of the war air forces had grown enormously. The the numbers of dead and wounded add up to in those
Royal Air Force had over 20,000 machines in 1918; but this was
cases. How different is your opinion of which countries
only one sign of the new importance oftechnologyin war. suffered most now? Historians often use numbers, such
as dates and statistics, in their analyses and arguments,
iu and you definitely should too. But always remember:
; numbers don’t tell their own story, they always need
Blockade: a form of economic warfare where one country _ contextualising and interpreting, and different historians
attempts to prevent goods being imported to its rival. The a :
will interpret them differently.
Royal Navy’s blockade in the Great War also ensured that
German ships could not get out of port.

Technology of death
Look at Source P2C. Which countries suffered most Source P2C shows vast numbers: how did so many people
during the First World War in terms of loss of life and die in four years of fighting? Movement on the battlefield
injured survivors? Create a list of five in rank order and was transformed. By 1914 petrol-driven engines were
identify which alliance system each country belonged available in quantity and by 1918 trucks and tractors
to — Allied Powers or Central Powers. were as important as horses to the soldiers in the field.

Country Wounded Missing

| Australia | 152,170 : 210,320
| Austria-Hu ngary | 922,000 3,600,000 : 855,283 | 5 oid 208

| Britain ied 658,700 2,032,150 | 359,150 j 3,050,000

| Canada 56,500 | ; 149,700 = ] 206,200

| Caribbean ine 1,000 3,000 - 4,000
| rance ieee i- 1,359,000 4,200,000 361,650 5,920,650
|Germany vel _ 1,600,000 4,065,000 i 103,000 7 5,168,000
|Greece 5,000 21,000 | 1,000 ] 27,000
India ee = ; 43,200 69,175 | 5,815 114,250
Italy aieees, © gee: 689,000 . 959,100 i . : Si 1,424,660 7
Japan ST eet 300 907 es 3 | 1,210
‘land a . 16,130 a 40,750 Bh init “ ii ‘ 56,880 |

| 7,00¢ 12,000 ||: Sl ere

50,00 400,000» ale ane | 650,000
58,480 | 189,955 14,290 | 262,725 |
source P2C: A list of countries involved in the First World War with the number of dead, wounded
and missing
 P2: The First World War: 1914-1918

Weapons got even more deadly. Soldiers were maimed or

killed by poison gas, flame-throwers and tanks. Machine CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING P2.1

guns were developed that were capable of firing 600 Look at Sources P2D, P2E and P2F. What connects all of them?
rounds a minute; new field guns could fire three or four
What other sources would you like to study to help you
times a minute at ranges of 10,000 yards, and heavier guns understand how so many people could be killed and injured?
could hit enemy targets six or seven miles away (Sources
P2D and P2E show heavy field guns and the effect they
had on the landscape). The scale of the battlefield, like the On the Home Front, civilian:
scale of dead and wounded, was so much bigger than ever and the spread of disease became mor
before. war went on anid each side tried t
urrender us ng the naval blockade. Undernc
and oppane hit children and older peop
the soldiers. The First World War
Home Front, for the first time in warfare
air. Source P2F shows you the |
raids carried out t by the G ermans using airships called
Zeppelins. Airships made about 5 g
Britain during the First World War. These killed 557 and
injured another 1,358 people. Aeroplanes carried out 27
raids resultingin 835 deaths.
eho Fm

Source P2D: A photo of part of the Western Front in France

in October 1917. Big field guns fired shells that scarred the
landscape and turned the surface to mud during the winter
months, making it impossible to advance any distance
against the enemy.

Source P2F: A photograph of the morning after a Zeppelin raid

on Surrey in the south of England on the 19th January 1915.

European war to global war

The First World War may have started as a European war!
Dut it soon spread.-
in soon after the start; Japan
he Ottoman Empire joinea the
and 1916, as stalemate dev

Source P2E: Both sides had heavy field guns like this one to
fire shells that scooped out holes in the landscape. Photo
from October 1917.
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

and Romania joined the Allies in 1916. Greece followed weapons. When human targets were not visible, the
Romania in 1917. In Europe only Spain, Switzerland, the explosive force of modern artillery could destroy the
Netherlands, Norway and Sweden remained neutral unseen enemy.
hroughout the four-year struggle. You have seen two photos that partly explain why the
The war wasn’t one struggle between only two sides; you war turned into a stalemate with miles of trenches
might say that there was a collection of different wars, larger stretching from the French coast to Switzerland.
and smaller, all being fought at the same time. In the Middle Another reason was that the land in France and Belgium
East, the British, French, Russians and Arabs all fought in a is mostly very flat, and it was easy for machine gunners
war against the Ottoman Empire. In East Asia, the Japanese to fire a stream of bullets to deadly effect; the best way
took the opportunity to strengthen their position in China. to take cover if you faced this was to dig a trench. Both
In Africa, there was fighting between different countries’ sides had machine guns so both developed trench
colonies. Finally, in April 1917, the USA became an Associated systems.
Power of the Allies. The war had truly become world-wide.

FACT FILE

|
FACT FILE
Additional allies Both sides in the war demonstrated an ability not only

|
The two alliance systems in 1914 did not mean that all to kill and wound their enemies but to conscript and |
countries were on one side or the other. Some countries organise their own people. Governments took action that
delayed their decisions until the war had started. Japan

||
they would never do in peace time. For example, in 1916
only joined the Allied Powers once Britain agreed that it the British government imposed conscription —- men
could take Germany’s Pacific territories — the Mariana, between the ages of 16 and 45 were made tojoin the
Caroline and Marshall Islands.
|
military. To ensure soldiers were properly equipped the
Romania joined the Allied Powers because the government managed the making and distribution of
i
government wanted to take Transylvania - which had a |boots, uniforms, mess tins, water bottles, barbed wire,
largely Romanian population — from Austria-Hungary. timber for building, picks, shovels, cooking utensils,
The Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers because sandbags and sacks. There never seemed to be enough
Germany wanted her as an ally. The Berlin-Baghdad Railway
had been a joint German-Ottoman project and the Germans
\ weapons and ammunition.
cS SEE NR RRR RE ERE adbcaicie eimasophidostotesanet ncieacticae etnias

wanted to extend it further to give them easier access to its

African colonies and to trade markets in India. To keep the
Ottoman Empire from joining the Allied Powers, Germany
encouraged Bulgaria to join the Central Powers.
Italy was a special case. At the start of the war, Italy was
part of the Central Powers. However, Italy refused to
commit troops arguing that the alliance was defensive and
Austria-Hungary had been the aggressor in its attack on
Serbia. Not only that, but Italy wanted Trentino, Fiume and
Dalmatia - all in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. So, in April
1915 it joined the Allied Powers and by the Treaty of London
was promised parts of South Tyrol and Dalmatia.

EAN A
a) AY
lefield, the quick war that was expected never
isteaa, both sides settled down to siege
AISOHY
IN Unprecedented scale. Military operations Source P2G: Women working in a British munitions factory
minated by the huge killing power of modern during the First World War,
 P2: The First World War: 1914-1918

Total war On 31 January 1917, Germany gamble

government was informed that the following day
The First World War was the first total war: whole societies
unrestricted submarine warfare would begin. The
were engaged in warfare. The mills, factories, mines
German decision was a direct threat to US interests
and furnaces of Europe worked as never before. So did
and the safety of its citizens. The German plan was
those of the USA and Japan. Everywhere, governments
this: if Great Britain could be defeated by starvation,
attempted to control materials, production and conscript
this would force France to give in before American
labour: thousands of women filled the gaps in industry
soldiers could arrive in large numbers from across the
and farming that men had left when they joined the Atlantic.
military. Much of this work was vital and dangerous as you
can see in Source P2G. Whether a civilian or a soldier, both For a couple of months it looked like the gamble might
were vulnerable in the First World War. be successful, but on 6 April 1917 the USA declared
war on Germany. The Allies could now be sure of
eventual victory if they could hold on long enough
for the US armies to reach France. That year did not
go well for the Allies. The new strategy followed by
German submarines sank many supply ships; and the
battle of Passchendaele cost another 300,000 dead
and wounded, while the battle line only moved about
FACT FILE five miles. Exhausted, the French army was shaken
Male attitudes towards women restricted what work by aseries of mutinies. Then military and political
women could or couldn’t do. Women had been working discipline in the Russian Empire collapsed, a Bolshevik
as servants for centuries. They had worked in factories government seized power and sued for peace with the
since the Industrial Revolution. In 1914 many were also Germans. Even so, once the submarine campaign failed
teachers, nurses or governesses looking after the children
to defeat Great Britain, it was only a matter of time in
of those rich enough to pay for their services. When
men became soldiers in 1914 there was a huge demand
1918 before the extra American soldiers and resources
for munitions and these had to be made in factories by arrived and would make a telling difference on the
women. Some of them paid with their lives while handling Western Front.
high-explosive material.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING P2.2

Why did the Allies win and the Is it accurate to say that the intervention of the USA:
a) shortened the war and b) resulted in victory for the
Central Powers lose? Allied Powers?
At the end of 1916, the German High Command concluded
that Germany would lose the war because of the impact of
the British blockade. It was preventing supplies getting to The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
Germany. Something had to be done quickly. In German
German hopes were raised by the news that the Russian
cities people were suffering; food riots and strikes were
Empire had pulled out of the war on the Eastern
becoming more frequent. To turn the direction of the
Front. The new Russian government led by Bolshevik
war, German submarines had to be used differently.
lf submarines could operate without restrictions and
torpedo both Allied shipping and the shipping of neutral
countries, like the USA, then Britain could be starved out | CULniniei TEA
of the war. Of course, if German submarines happened to Strategy: a plan intended to achieve an overall, long-term
sink any US (neutral) ships then this might bring the USA military aim.
into the war on the Allied side.
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

BARENTS SEA

German gains in the East

RUSSIA

.. Austro-Hungarian gains in the East

London Treaty of Brest-Litovsk Line

GERMANY

® Paris
Ottoman\gainsi

HUNGARY
RUMANIA

BULGARIA
CORSICA

pa cael sa eiey

MEDITERRANEAN SEA 06
eR
9

Source P2H: A map showing the territorial losses that Russia was forced to give up to the Central Powers in March
TOMS:

leader Lenin wanted an immediate peace treaty with

Germany. In March 1918, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk What happened to Germany?
was signed. You can see in Source P2H that the terms However, with US resources crossing
the Atlantic to
were very harsh on Russia. The Russians lost one support the Allied Powers, the end for the German war
million square miles of territory to the Germans, and effort was getting closer. A German Spring Offensive
with it went both one-third of their population and also in 1918 led to a breakthrough and it looked as though
significant resources such as oil, coal and iron. Finally, victory was possible for the Germans, but the cost of the
the Germans demanded 6 billion German gold marks operation, in deaths, injuries and materials, exhausted
in reparations. Lenin and the Bolsheviks had to sign the resources of the German army. The German army and
the treaty because the German and Austrian armies navy and the people back home were at the limit of what
» making further advances into Russian territory. they could take. Desertions multiplied as soldiers left
ing the peace in the East, Germans transferred their posts and headed home from the trenches. Sailors
thousands of soldiers to the Western Front. The Allies mutinied and refused to go to sea. The British blockade
fraid that the arrival of these troops would was hurting German civilians as well as soldiers by creating
military situation there. severe shortages of food, fuel and other essentials.
 P2: The First World War: 1914-1918

The German Supreme Army Command knew that defeat In Source P2I you can see an artist’s view of the signing of
was not far away. On 29 September 1918 it told Kaiser the Armistice. The terms under which the First World War
Wilhelm Ii that the military situation was hopeless. Some ended underline that it was the Central Powers who ‘lost’
believed that if, as head of state, he abdicated, the Allies and the Allied Powers who were the victors. Among other
could be persuaded to negotiate a peace settlement demands the Armistice stated that:
because the government could then argue that Germany
was reforming and was no longer a threat to the allies. * Hostilities will end at 11 am.
¢ There will be an immediate withdrawal of German
Once the Kaiser had abdicated on 9 November, political troops from France and Belgium and this includes the
power fell to German democratic politicians. Two days provinces of Alsace and Lorraine that had been part of
later, on 11 November, the Armistice to stop the fighting Germany since 1871.
was signed. The German generals wanted to save their
¢ All German submarines must be surrendered.
own honour and that of Germany so they made a plan to
e French, British and Italian prisoners of war must
shift the blame for the military disaster onto civilians. In
be released immediately. German prisoners of war
this way it would be the democratic politicians and new
will only be released after a peace treaty has been
chancellor, Friedrich Ebert, who the German people would
agreed.
see as responsible for the dishonourable defeat. German
¢ The following must be handed over to the Allied
people started to believe that their soldiers and generals
Powers: 25,000 machine guns, 1,700 aeroplanes and
had been ‘stabbed in the back’ by politicians, none of
whom had sacrificed anything for four years because they sana
had not joined the army. This judgement on Germany’s So, as the guns fell silent on 11 November, what
new government was a myth but it was made all the more happened next? At 11 am there were a few examples
believable by four other facts about the end ofthe war: of greetings exchanged between the two sides, but
in general, reactions were muted. A British corporal
¢ No foreign army had occupied any part of Germany
reported: “.. the Germans came from their trenches,
during the four years of fighting and the German army
bowed to us and then went away. That was it’.
had not been finally defeated in a battle.
Unsurprisingly, the dominant feeling was one of silence
¢ German citizens were angry that their king was no and emptiness after 52 exhausting months of war. The
longer head of the government and had been forced to Allied Powers had won the war, now could they win the
abdicate. peace?
¢ German newspapers had not published any reports that
the war was not going well for the Central Powers, so few
(including relatively few soldiers) had any insight into the KEY TERMS
true state ofaffairs.
* Germans believed that the Armistice would lead to
a fair peace because it was not a ‘surrender, just an
agreement to stop fighting. In fact, the terms of the
Armistice were harsh. No one who read them could be
in any doubt that Germany had come out ofthe war on
the ‘losing’ side.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING P2.3

Do you agree with the view that it was soldiers and

civilians that cost Germany the war, not its leaders?
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

ACTIVITY P2.4

Why do you think soldiers on the battlefield were

less excited at the news of the Armistice than the
civilians?
What problems faced the new German government in
1918 in trying to establish its authority and credibility
with the German public?

The situation in France

Source P2I: The Armistice is signed in a railway carriage Of all the countries involvectin the fighting on the
and peace broke out at 11 am on 11 November 1918. What Western Front, France suffered huge losses and
strikes you about the scene as depicted here? devastation.

d «Bruges
cepiuee® BE LaGel U
(8 miles) Ghent
Jan. 1915
, Passche daéle
Second Battle of
T&S] Ypres, April1915 | ¢
al e Lille > g
©
a Bassée
Festubert
Loos ons
‘Charleroi
attacks, |(Sept.—Oct.) yx
1915
,Cambrai
Bapaume Le Cate4au

Montdidier

Compiégne

AS
French attacks
in Champagne,
Feb-March 1915
and Sept.ONov.
1915 /\ Commerc
French attack, Jan. 1915
April 1915 ‘Strasbourg ,

NORTHWEST EUROPE, 1914

THI »oTABILIZED FRONT
»s and Change

Belfort |

Figure P2J: This map shows the main battlefield locations on the Western
Front. Note how much of the fighting took
place on French soil.
 P2: The First World War: 1914-1918

The data on French casualties sums up the impact ofthe As a result of the First World War, France’s entire north-
First World War on this one country: east was devastated. More than one thousand miles
of canals, seven million acres of land, half the roads in
Around 1,400,000 ofthe soldiers were killed, an average
the region, three thousand miles of railroads, and an
of 893 deaths per day. .
estimated 220,000 houses were destroyed. The estimated
More than 4,300,000 men were wounded, an average of
cost of the destruction was 34 billion francs; this was later
2745 per day; this includes:
revised to 55 billion francs.
* 1,100,000 disabled
* 300,000 mutilated ACTIVITY P2.5
* 42,000 blinded
* 15,000 with broken faces
The deaths of soldiers created 700,000 widows and more
than 1,000,000 orphans.
Between 81,000 and 97,000 men from the French
colonies were killed, including 26,000 Algerians.
Of France’s total population 1 out of 20 were killed.
18

Key Question 1: Were the peace treaties

of 1919-1923 fair? |

Focus points
M What were the motives and aims ofthe Big Three at Versailles?
@ Why did all the victors not get everything they wanted?
m= = What was the impact of the peace treaty on Germany up to 1923?
What were the terms of the other peace treaties?
Could the treaties be justified at the time?

7 -
te,
 1: Were the peace treaties of 1919-1923 fair?

(inquiry)
What is this enquiry about? The war had cost huge s
As historians, your challenge is to Study the treaties countries went bankrupt
and weigh up how fair they were. You will needto think countries like France an

about issues ofjustice. What does ‘fair’ mean? When you from the US. At the war’
consider the question about the treaties, make sure yOu in debt.

discuss how you are using the word ‘fair’. For example:
Allied Powers Cost in Dollars in 1914-1918
* Are you judging all the peace treaties to be fair orjust one?
* Were the peace treaties fair to the winners or the losers United States ‘aie tl
ake tetas

or both? =
Great Britain VIZ UUYU

* Isyour assessment of the ‘fairness’ of the peace treaties France $24,265,583,00C

affected by your views on the causes of the First World - +
Russia $22,293,950,000
War? If so, where does the blame lie?
* Isyour assessment based more on how badly a country Italy $12,413,998,000
was affected by the war?
You will also need to think about what the treaties were Central Powers Cost in Dollars in 1914-1918
for, what they were intended to achieve: Germany $37,775,000,000
* Punish the losers? Austria-Hungary $20,
* Prevent another similar war breaking out? Turkey
* Compensate the winners?
Bulgaria
Even though the Allied Powers had won the war, they did
not have an entirely free hand. These factors shaped their The peacemakers had to work quickly:
thinking and decisions:
The First World War had created conditions in which
¢ The loss of human life and destruction caused intense revolution could break out at any time just as it had
bitterness and an unwillingness to compromise. done in Russia.

Russia

Germany
Luxembourg
<2echoslovakig

France
Austria-Hungary 4
France
ae ro
ee
k
Switzerland Switzerland “os/. f
i) Bulgaria

Spain
Alsarka \\ :

Source 1A: Shows the map of European countries before the First World War and after all the treaties had been signed.
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

were dying from an epidemic of Spanish flu that and the different viewpoints and aims of thosere taking part.
‘ot across Europe, killing as many as the First World Added to this, Germany and Russia were not invited.
The delegations worked for six months to produce the
° 2 wasn’t just one peace treaty to agree on, there Treaty of Versailles, but this treaty only related to Germany,
re five — one for each of the Central Powers. It took the lead country of the Central Powers. Of all the
1923 for the last one to be put in place. countries that were represented at Paris, the leaders of the
US, Britain and France were the most important decision
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 1.1 makers. You can see a photo of the three leaders in
Source 1B. Known as ‘the Big Three’, each of these leaders
‘Winning the peace’ is an expression that means
had different motives and different aims when they arrived
‘succeeding in the post-war period’. What circumstances in
1919 made this success so hard for the victors to achieve? in Paris, but they were also under all sorts of pressure.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 1.2

ACTIVITY 1.1
Why do you think that Russia and Germany were not
Look at Source 1A. Identify those nationalities that invited to negotiate the Treaty ofVersailles?
would judge the peace treaties to be ‘fair’ and those Why did Russia end up as a loser, even though it had
who would say it was ‘unfair’. been one of the Allied Powers in 1914?
This enquiry is a challenge: think about what you mean Which of the Big Three was not a member of the Allied
by ‘fair’. You will reach your own conclusions about: Powers in 1914 when the war began?
e the motives and aims of the Big Three (Great Britain,
France and the US) when they met to discuss the
treaty for Germany.
20
e why the Big Three did not get everything they
wanted in the Treaty of Versailles.
e the impact ofthe treaty on Germany, from 1918 to
1923;
e whether people at the time thought the treaties
were fair; consider different countries in turn.

TOP TIP
Don’t be afraid of stating your own opinion. However, you
must show how you reached that opinion and that means
showing what the evidence is and how you’ve interpreted
that evidence.

1.1 What were the motives and

aims of the Big Three at Versailles?
your hands the future of the world, With these
the president of France opened the Paris Peace f te: =.
nw ee
18 January 1919. i <

ind their delegations from 32 countries

hat
yinat should
hould happen
han now
nN now that
tha the O Firstc World Source 1B: ° Georges ClemenceaPrime u, Ministerof France
: + 5

represented three- (middle in the photo), David Lloyd George, Prime Minister of
king the peace was Britain (left in the photo) and Woodrow Wilson, the president
blems to be solved of the United States of America (right in the photo) in 1919.
 1: Were the peace treaties of 1919-1923 fair?

Each of the Big Three had to take account of public

be weakened, but its people m
opinion in their own country because Clemenceau, Wilson
reconstruction that now needed to take piace. Keparal
and Lloyd George were democratical y elected leaders. must be paid, and on time. This was his second aim

* The popular press in the Allied countries wasa

major influence on public opinion. Newspapers
played a key role in stirring emotions and increasing FACT FILE
expectations as they had done during the war itself ‘Third invasion’: Clemenceau was referring to the two most
Hundreds of journalists went to Paris to report on the recent attacks on France by Germany: during the Franco-
negotiations. Prussian War in 1870 and the start of the First World War in
1914, both of which were within living memory. Alsace and
* During the war a numberof secret treaties and
Lorraine had been lost to Germany following the Franco-
agreements had been made. When these were revealed Prussian War of 1870-1871; demanding their return had
at the conference, they led to a lot of bitterness and been a prominent feature in French politics ever since.
argument. Every schoolchild had been taught about their loss.
* New lines had to be drawn on the maps of Europe and Anyone succeeding in regaining them would be a national
hero. It is impossible to overestimate the importance of
Asia, including the Middle East.
Alsace and Lorraine to French politics from the end of the
Franco-Prussian War to the end ofthe First World War.

ACTIVITY 1.2 ;

Use your knowledge and understanding about the First

World War from Chapter 02 to respond to these questions:
= Which one of the Big Three was under the most
Z pressure to meet the expectations of the public?
2 Why was this?
Which oO.ne of the Big Three was under the least
eto meet the expectations of the public?
Why was this? Knowing that the French public was behind him,
: ‘You hold in your ere the future of the world.’ Clemenceau demanded tough measures to hurt Germany.
When the president of France spoke these words, His aims included:
how far was this an accurate assessment ofthe |
importance of the Paris Peace Conference? * the disarmament of Germany's wks navy and air force
¢ high reparations
to pay for all the dar
France
e the return of the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine
The Big Three - what were their motives and
¢ the Saarland (an area around the river Saar) to be
aims?
vanded to France
Georges Clemenceau, Prime Minister of France
¢ the Rhineland (an area around the river Rhine) to be
Clemenceau was nicknamed ‘The Tiger’ for his aggressive
nade an independent state so that there was a ‘buffer’
style in political debates (see Source 1C). He took a tough,
between France and Germany
hard-line approach to peace-making with Germany. As a
¢ some German coloniesto be handed to France.
Frenchman, his motives were shaped by recent history.
He remembered the German invasions of France in 1870 However, Lloyd Geo
and 1914 and demanded a harsh treaty to ensure that Clemenceau’s motiv
France was made secure and Safe in the future. This was
his most important aim. Clemenceau once said that his
ACTIVITY 1.3
‘life hatred has been for Germany because ofwhat she
has done to France’. Germany was France’s neighbour Explain how Sources 1C and 1D convey the aims of
with no mountainsor rivers to mark the border between Clemenceau at the Paris Peace Conference. What tells
the two countries. From Clemenceau’s point of view, you that C was published in a French newspaper and D
Germany had to be weakened so that there would never is drawn by a German artist?
be a ‘third invasion’ of France. Not only should Germany
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

ACTIVITY 1.4

Draw a table like this one. Use it to record the motives

and aims of each ofthe Big Three in bullet points as you
move through this section. You can start the table with
Georges Clemenceau.

Leader Country Motives

Clemenceau France

Lloyd George | Great Britain

Wilson US

David Lloyd George, Prime Minister of Great

Britain
In Britain and France a majority of ‘ordinary people’
Pe wanted the peacemakers to put the blame for the war
y on Germany. Punishment would go together with the
} = Bee blame. Newspapers called for the Kaiser to be tried
LE TIGRE “Sepang sme si and executed. ‘Squeeze the German lemon until the
pips squeak’, wrote the First Lord of the Admiralty, Eric
Source 1C: Acartoon from a French newspaper published
Geddes. These emotional responses to the bloody
in 1919.
four-year war are quite understandable. After all, many
of those who perished were from Britain and the British
Empire; and those who survived often had the terrible
scars of war. In addition, the war had cost the Great
Powers the huge sum of £45,000 million and Europe’s
economies had been forced to switch from making goods
to serving military needs. In doing so they lost overseas
markets to their non-European competitors like Japan
and the US. In 1918 the result of the general election in
Britain returned the wartime government to power and
indicated that the voters were in no mood for a moderate
peace. Lloyd George could not ignore these voters.
Alongside this opinion, another developed. Some
wanted something other than a punishing peace for
Germany: never again should people have to endure
another war. They believed that the Paris Peace
Conference must try to prevent conflict by forming a new
international organisation to keep the peace in Europe
and the world.
During the election campaign of late 1918, Lloyd George
promised that he would make sure Germany paid the full
cost of the war. However, when he got to Paris in January
Source 1D: A cartoon of Georges Clemenceau published in 1919 he simply aimed for a moderate peace treaty —one
a German newspaper in 1919. Clemenceau is depicted as a that was in Britain’s interests. The British Prime Minister
vampire and Germany is the female figure in the bed. was motivated not by revenge but by national self-interest.
 1: Were the peace treaties of 1919-1923 fair?

He wanted to see the continuing growth and success of No more secret treaties: these had become an is
the British Empire. This meant that Lloyd George aimed to: when the Bolsheviks who had seized power in RusSSi<
* re-establish a balance of power in Europe so that no in 1917 published the previous regime's secret tre aties.
single Great Power could dominate the continent There should be no restrictions on ships sailing the
* return to trading patterns with Europe and the Empire that seas during peace or wartime.
had made Britain so wealthy before the First World War 3 Barriers to free trade between nations (such as quotas
* preserve British naval supremacy so it could guard the and tariffs) reflect and create an economic power
British Empire and its shipping lanes. struggle between countries. They should be dismantled.
fdecno :3h)
These aims were based on one important principle: for Armaments must be reduced in all countries to a level
Britain and Europe to recover economically, Germany needed only for defence so that countries would have
must be allowed to recover some of its pre-war economic insufficient military force for aggression.
strength. If the reparations bill was too high, it would take
(On) Disputes about colonies must be decided by taking
money out of the Germany economy that was needed for
account of the interests of the people in the colony
rebuilding and recovery.
and the governing country.
The First World War had transformed Britain’s economic
German troops must leave Russia.
position in the world. Britain had lost its place as the
world’s financial centre to the US. It had huge debts from Belgium’s independence must be restored.
fighting the war, most of them to the US. Even so, Lloyd The provinces of Alsace and Lorraine must be
George went to Paris with some things in his favour: the returned to France.
German fleet was in British hands; some of the German
The frontiers around Italy must be adjusted to match
colonies had been seized; and Germany, Britain’s biggest
the people’s nationality.
trade competitor, had been crippled.
The different ethnic groups must be given self-
determination in the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 1.3
Romania, Serbia and Montenegro should be restored;
Why was Lloyd George in such a difficult position even Serbia should have free and secure access to the sea.
after winning a general election in December 1918, which
The Turkish parts of the Ottoman Empire should form
should have made his job as peacemaker easier in Paris?
one country; other nationalities within the empire
should be allowed to form their own country.

Woodrow Wilson, President of the US An independent Poland should be created with access
The US declared war on Germany in April 1917. to the sea.
Immediately, president Wilson announced that he was A League of Nations should be formed in order to
joining France, Britain and Russia as an ‘Associated Power’ guarantee all countries independence and secure borders.
and not as an ally. Wilson wanted to stress the fact that
the US was different from the Allies: Britain and France KEY TERMS
were fighting for selfish motives, he argued, whereas the
US was fighting for world peace.
Wilson arrived in Paris with wish to punish. He was an
idealist and wanted the First World War really to have
been the war to end all wars that propaganda had earlier
declared it to be. He believed it was possible to achieve
this if nations worked together to eliminate the causes
of war. Published in January 1918, Wilson’s aims were
different from those of Clemenceau or Lloyd George.
The American president presented the Versailles peace
conference with his Fourteen Points on removing the
causes of war. This is a shortened version of them:
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

ne
ACTIVITY 1.5
FACT FILE
Study the causes ofwar identified by president Wilson. Poland had not been an independent country for a
1 Which ones seem to you most likely to cause major century. With their country split in three by three powerful
wars involving the Great Powers? neighbours, Poles had lived in the empires of Germany,
2 Which ones seem to you most likely to cause local Russia and Austria-Hungary. Implementing Wilson’s principle
of national self-determination was greatly helped by the fact
wars involving minor powers?
all three empires were defeated in the First World War, even
3 Given your own knowledge of history and the world though two had been on one side and one on the other.
today - and remembering what you read in the SE ————— nssss_«s\[l

introduction - what do you think are the key causes

of war?
ACTIVITY 1.6

1 Why were president wilson’s ideals so different from

the aims of both Clemenceau and Lloyd George?
2 Look back at the table you created. Identify which of
FACT FILE the Fourteen Points Clemenceau and Lloyd George
The League of Nations was the last of Wilson’s proposals would have agreed with. Which would have
but potentially it was his most important - it was certainly
disagreed with and why?
the most radical. He wanted to establish an organisation
that would include representatives from all countries 3 Complete the table you have on aims and motives.
in the world. The League would act to prevent disputes Which of the Big Three’s aims
do you think the
between countries developing into wars. German public would have thought would be most
favourable towards them? Explain why.

For the American president the principle of national

self-determination was key to the long-term stability What did the Treaty of Versailles say about
of Europe. Did Wilson mean the rights and liberties Germany?
of all small nations? Did the president really want any If there was to be a treaty, Wilson, Lloyd George and
people who called themselves a ‘nation’ to have their Clemenceau would have to compromise on their
own st ate? The public announcement of this principle demands. Eventually, after six months of negotiation and
and its emphasis in points 9, 10, 12 and 13 inspired bargaining, the treaty was ready. Unrepresented at the
nany different ethnic groups to seek representation negotiations, Germany was presented with a diktat, a
n Paris. dictated peace treaty.
oint 14 was the most important ideal that Wilson wanted
CVeney ate out of the destruction of the First World War. His What were the key points of the Treaty of
ague of Nations would have representatives from all Versailles?
countries in the world - big and small - and they would
Article 231 said that Germany and the other Central
neet together so that world peace could be achieved
Powers had to accept full responsibility for causing the
through negotiation no battle.
war in 1914. As a result, Germany would have to pay
reported that when he first read the president’s money and goods to France and Britain and the other
ciples Georges Clemenceau exclaimed: ‘Mr Wilson Allied Powers. The sum was not agreed at the Peace
e with his Fourteen Points; why, God Almighty Conference; instead, a Reparations Commission would
y Ten [Commandments}!’ Compared with make the decisions afterwards.
1 ideals, Clemenceau was only interested
in
To ensure it could not cause another war, the treaty said
. Lloyd George was that Germany:
eturned to | eae, how well he had
ference. ‘Not badly,’ he replied. ° s limited to 100,000 soldiers
* was excluded from the arms trade
* was limited
in the type and quantity of weapons
it could
hold
 1: Were the peace treaties of 1919-1923 fair?

%yfey
Germany lost North Schleswig given :
all her colonies. to Denmark. | = £
Danzig - a free city run by
S |the League of Nations

Eupen and Malmedy

annexed by
givento Belgium
Lithuania.

|Poland was given a ‘corridor |

|to the Baltic Sea, cutting off
New government met East Prussia from Germany. |
Demilitarised here - so Germany
zone. was called the
Weimar Republic. iPosen - rich farmland]
given to Poland.
L

Saar coalfields SILESIA

Paris given to France
°@ for 15 years. POLAND
Versailles
To France (which had lost this
land to Germany in 1871).

FRANCE Germany was forbidden

to unite with Austria.

Lal Terriotory lost by Germany to other countries

AUSTRIA 0 100 200km
], Terriotory lost by Germany to the League eSfe Se

Source 1E: The territorial changes that were made by the Treaty ofVersailles.

* could not make or stockpile chemical weapons,

armoured cars and tanks
* lostits airforce Diktat: a treaty ie)

negotiated but imposed, presented to the

¢ was limited to six battleships. Bint ineHecone

Germany kept the Rhineland, though the area Commission:

epee eee officials who tos
was to be demilitarised (you can see the area in
then produces a1
Source 1L). No German soldiers were to be stationed
: ; td is Demilitarisation: an area of land in which no soldiers and
there; instead, Allied troops would occupy it for 15 years. Suet.
4 N10 weapons are permitted.
However, Germany lost other territory (see Source 1E): ar se
‘ Plebiscite: a px G
g ON a, 4 isually held on the tha
¢ All colonies went to other Great Powers. Se pte Rei
generally left u dp
¢ Alsace and Lorraine were given to France. odecide). but ont sno
. nion with Austria (called Anschluss) was constitution. Some peorie usethe words ‘plet
2
orbidden ‘referendum’
SSUES as tho Ney mea an
, nake
a distinction, but both are a
° nder the 1918 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk Germany had ee Rear Te D :
, Of a cot 2 BS Spiv L Gs A b=:

taken territory from

ken territory trom Russia:
Rt the treaty ) was cancelled eA
vie Constitution: the main set of lawsb
and the area made into three newly independent states: Semedt cere CARINE DOW
Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. rights and freedoms
* Some territories were transferred following decisions
red hed al the Peace Co iferenc e, In others, tne

population voted in plebiscites

Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

colonies taken away, they were to be ruled on behalf

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 1.4
of the League of Nations by Great Britain and France.
What was the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and why do you This did not follow the principle of national self
think that it was cancelled by the Treaty of Versailles? determination.
Explain why Article 231 was of crucial importance in
Worse was to come for president Wilson. When he
shaping the rest of the Treaty of Versailles.
returned and presented the Treaty of Versailles to
Congress for their approval, the number of votes in favour
did not reach the necessary two-thirds majority needed.
1.2 Why did the victors not get Wilson’s dream of a new world order with the US leading
everything they wanted? the League of Nations was in tatters. He died a broken
man in 1924.
None of the Big Three left Paris entirely satisfied with
the treaty that the Germans signed on 28 June 1919 in the
Hall of Mirrors at the Palace ofVersailles, just outside Paris. ACTIVITY 1.7 :
The final document was full of compromises that each
of the Big Three had to make when negotiating with the Go back to your table and using three colours underline
others.
which of the Fourteen Points was fully met (green),
partly met (orange) or not met at all (red). You can then
use this for your revision.
The United States
President Wilson left Paris immediately after the treaty
had been signed and travelled back across the Atlantic to
the US. What parts of the Paris Peace Settlement pleased CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 1.5

president Wilson?
Why was president Wilson unable to implement all of his
« The League of Nations. All parties agreed that the Fourteen Points in the Paris Peace Settlement?
Covenant (Constitution) of the League should be
included in all of the five peace treaties.
¢ Disarmament. All the defeated Central Powers had to France
disarm. Clemenceau was reasonably satisfied with the outcomes
In line with Wilson’s principle of national self-determination: of the Paris Peace Conference:

¢ The Rhineland was to be demilitarised but would remain * Alsace-Lorraine, lost to Germany in 1871, was regained.
part of Germany, not become a separate state. This * The largest portion of reparations would go to France to
also meant that, in time, Germany could become an enable her to rebuild the areas devastated in the First
important trading partner with the US. World War and to pay off debts owed to Great Britain
* The collapse of the Austro-Hungarian, Russian and and the US.
German empires in 1918 enabled successor states to ¢ With the Rhineland as a buffer between the two
be created in Europe: Poland was restored; Hungary was countries, guarded by Allied troops, French security was
separated from Austria; Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia enhanced.
were created. « The articles of the Versailles treaty would ensure that
Germany would never be strong enough to start another
Wilson could view these as successes.
war.
In other ways, Wilson was disappointed that his aims * AnAnglo-American treaty committed the UK and US to
ained unfulfilled: support France if Germany invaded again. Unfortunately,
* Point 2 of the Fourteen Points was never going to be
this guarantee disappeared with the Congress vote |
eptableto Great Britain because her navy was key against the Treaty of Versailles. Britain would not help
ting the British Empire, so the principle of free France without US support.
yf eas was rejer ted. On balance then, in spite of the all the changes made,
* The British and French empires had both increased France was still not secure. This was Clemenceau’s biggest
t of the treaty. When Germany had her disappointment.
 1: Were the peace treaties of 1919-1923 fair?

ACTIVITY 1.8 KEY TERMS

Go back to your table and use the same three-colour

code as you have above. .

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 1.6

In spite of being on the winning side, France

lost the peace. Why wasn’t Clemenceau able to
obtain full satisfaction for France in the Treaty of
Versailles?

Britain
Lloyd George had limited aims at the Peace Conference TOP TIP
and he was pleased with the results. It was a difficult Lloyd George (Liberal), Clemenceau (Radical) and Wilson
balancing act to ensure British interests were not (Democrat) all came from the progressive wing ofpolitics,
damaged by a harsh peace. Too punitive a treaty and led reformist parties. You might have expected them
to agree on the political principles of the treaties that
would have meant years of slow economic recovery for
ended the First World War. Of course, they did agree about
Germany that would have hurt Britain as well as Europe. some things. That they disagreed about others reflected
With the reparations total to be fixed at some point in their different characters, but also their different political
the future, Lloyd George hoped that the fierce emotions circumstances at home. i
he witnessed in Paris would cool to allow a calmer,
more balanced approach to what Germany would be
asked to pay. CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 1.7

Britain's empire grew. Germany’s ex-colonies, including 1 Why did the Big Three have to take account of
public
British Togoland (now part of Ghana), the northern opinion when negotiating the Treaty ofVersailles? In
Cameroons (now part of Cameroon), German South-West which countries would public opinion welcome or
Africa (present-day Namibia) and German East Africa (now oppose the treaty?
part of Tanzania) all became mandates for Britain to 2 Atthe end of the Peace Conference, Clemenceau
manage on behalf of the League of Nations. said: ‘America is far away, protected by the ocean.
@ ritain’s naval supremacy was boosted when the Not even Napoleon himself could touch England.
Germans scuttled their fleet, sending it to the bottom You are both sheltered; we are not.’ What did he
mean? How secure was France as a result of the
of the sea at Scapa Flow in Scotland on 21 June 1919.
Treaty of Versailles?
The German Admiral did not want his ships to end up in
B itish hands. 3 Why would the German government and public
want to see the Allied Powers disarm? When Britain
In 1918 the press had already given Lloyd George the and France did not disarm, what effect did this have
unofficial title of the ‘man who won the war’. Now, in on Germans’ view of the Treaty of Versailles?
1919, he returned to London to an enthusiastic reception,
particularly in the House of Commons where the treaty
was approved by a huge majority of MPs. 1.3 What was the impact of the

Return to your table for the last time and use the three-
1923?
peace treaty on Germany up to

Germans responded to the Treaty of Versa

colour code as you compare the results for Britain with demonstrations and
Lloyd George’s aims. criticiern was:that the treat
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

KEY
a TERM a
Annihilation: comple
ry

sale NirAusiandsdevtscnen
f Protestieren
In general terms, Germans disliked four features of the
BERER Ges Gevaitrieten ung
_. PE te
Rach anseresPrivztticetine

; Treaty of Versailles:
* The peace treaty had been a diktat. There were no
negotiations. German politicians had little choice but
to sign it otherwise the naval blockade would have
continued.
* Germans felt bitter at being held responsible for causing
Source 1F: A photo of one of many demonstrations by the war. For them, Article 231 was a moral criticism of
German citizens once the details of the treaty had been the whole nation. Many were convinced by the intense
made public in May 1919. The placard reads: ‘We Germans, wartime propaganda that the enemy caused the war.
living outside Germany, are protesting against the peace After all, wasn’t Germany encircled by Russia and France
forced upon us and against the theft of our private property.’ in 1914?
¢ TheAllies had demanded reparations from Germany.
and Germans. You can see some of the objections in The exact sum was not fixed at Versailles. Germans read
Sources 1F and 1G. in their newspapers that they had to pay reparations,
but if their resources, such as the Saarland coal mines,
ACTIVITY 1.10 were going to be taken away from them, how could
they pay the reparations?
28 Look at Source 1F: « The tiny army of just 100,000 soldiers meant that
1_ Identify the age range of those who took part in the Germany was not able to defend itself against its now
demonstrations. What does this tell you about the much stronger neighbours, France and Poland.
impact of the treaty?
2 Read the translation of the placard in Source IF.
In which areas of post-1919 Europe could this ACTIVITY 1.11
demonstration have taken place?
1 Look back to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 1918)
3 Read Source 1G. To what extent does it support the in chapter 2. Compare this treaty that the Germans
photograph in relation to the impact of the treaty on imposed on the defeated Russia with the Treaty of
Germany? What does it add to your understanding of Versailles. Which one was the more punitive? Explain
the impact of the treaty? your judgement.
2 Inwhat ways could the Treaty of Versailles have been
The immediate effect of the signing was a blaze of a lot worse for Germany?
indignation in the German press and depression 3 Which parts of the Treaty of Versailles would have
among the people. In Berlin an atmosphere of gloom most upset:
settled on the city. Several newspapers appeared with ¢ aGerman now living in the newly created
black borders on their Versailles articles with headings Poland.
like ‘Peace with Annihilation’. The churches set aside
* aGerman mother whose son had died fighting in
6 July as a day of mourning. On 24 June a number of France.
German officers seized fifteen flags that had been
* aGerman politician who strongly supported
captured from the French in 1870 and publicly burned
Kaiser Wilhelm Il and the old political system.
them. There was mob violence in Berlin and Hamburg
throughout the week of the signing of the peace. * aGerman soldier who had to leave the army.

Source 1G: Part of a report in The New York Times, July 1919.
 1: Were the peace treaties of 1919-1923 fair?

armistice; Erzberger, theT man who is responsit

Versailles Treaty of Shame. Erzberger .-. has at last secur
the punishment suitab

Source 1H: This is a photo of German soldiers marching

back to Berlin from the front line in late 1918 following the
Armistice on 11 November.

What impact did the treaty have on German

politics?
The impact was deep and long-lasting. Look at Source 1H.
A few months later, most of these soldiers would have
been out of work because the Treaty of Versailles had
reduced the army to 100,000. Many of them joined the
Freikorps — bands of ex-servicemen. These unofficia
groups hated the Weimar politicians for signing the treaty
and wanted an opportunity to turn back the clock. In Source 1I: A photograph of Matthias Erzberger, finance
March 1920, under the command of Wolfgang Kapp, minister, murdered in 1921.
some of them staged a coup in the capital, Berlin. Their
aim was to overthrow the Weimar Republic and install a In June 1922, the same group that killed Erzberger
right-wing government to overturn the treaty. The Berlin assassinated Walter Rathenau, Foreign Minister (5
workers came out on strike and public services were 1J). Why? Because he had been involved in arrangir
stopped. The coup collapsed and the Weimar Republic Armistice and in trying to improve the Treaty of Ver
survived. This was only one example of how the treaty
affected politics in Germany. Other attempts to overthrow
or undermine the democratic government included:

* aright-wing take-over in the Bavarian Republic in May Right-wing: refers to a group or an individual that believes
1919. in an ordered society where discipline and tradition are

¢ the Munich or Beer Hall Putsch November 1923. \ aloe glue 9 sala ney WEEE pedi Te ee hear
of strong government. Right-wingers oppose socia
* Hundreds of murders of politicians and political activists. communism because they think that social inequality is
natural and desirable, and because both pose a threat tc
Even high-ranking members of the Weimar government
private property.
were not safe. In 1921 a right-wing gang called
Republic: a state with no monarchy.
Organisation Consul murdered Matthias Erzberger (the
Coup or Putsch: an attempt by a cgroup to take politica
Finance Minister; see Source 11!) while he was walking
power through force, including violence, not by winning an
in the Black Forest. It was not just extremists who were election. It puts political power into the hands of those with
delighted at his murder: one newspaper wrote that the power of armaments not arguments
Erzberger ‘had suffered the fate which the vast majority
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

The Weimar politicians who signed the Treaty had also

signed the Armistice, seven months earlier in November
1918, following the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm I.
Mistakenly, the German public now began to believe a
powerful myth - that the politicians and not the army
generals were to blame for the country’s humiliation
and downfall at the end of the War. To many, the Weimar
government was made up of cowards who had ‘stabbed
the Germany Army in the back’ by signing the Armistice;
and then the same cowards had let down the country by
signing, instead of resisting, the treaty of Versailles. For
these Germans, the men who signed the treaty seemed to
be no different from the ‘November Criminals’ who signed
the Armistice. 33

FACT FILE
The legend of the Dolchstoss was that the German army
had not been defeated at all, it had been betrayed -
‘stabbed in the back’. Large numbers of Germans, including
Source 1J: Walter Rathenau, foreign minister, assassinated many returning soldiers, came to believe this fiction. twas |
in June 1922. to prove enormously important in German politics, not
least because it made it look as through the armed forces
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 1.8 were honourable and trustworthy, while politicians were
liars and unpatriotic.
What do the murders of Erzberger and Rathenau tell you
about the stability of the Weimar democracy and the
level of public support it enjoyed?

The Treaty of Versailles had the unexpected consequence

TsFACT FILE |
Elections in themselves were not new: Germany had had |
of pushing together the Weimar Republic and the USSR.
them for decades. But Germany had never voted to be a
Both countries had been excluded from the Paris peace republic: the Kaiser had signed a document of abdication
negotiations. They had both lost in the First World War and left the country under pressure. Many mainstream |
(also the USSR was the first communist state), and neither politicians actively wanted the return of the royal family.
was allowed to join the new League of Nations. Since both Many citizens felt that the political structures had been
countries were isolated it made sense to try and build a imposed on the country by the very people who had
betrayed it at the end of the war. This was not going to
new friendship. Lhe Treaty of Rapallawas an agreement
result in success.
gned on 16 April, 1922. Under its terms each gave up all ne ve ernerene: cence Se 7 o
/
territorial and financial claims against the other following
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and the First World War. The Economic impact
vO governments also agreed to restore diplomatic
At Versailles the Germans signed a treaty that did not
and to ‘cooperate in a spirit of mutual goodwill in
include the total amount of reparations. This was because
ting the economic needs of both countries’.
the Allied Powers did not have sufficient time to calculate
the costs of four years of war and the bill for repairing war
ACTIVITY 1.12 damage. Nevertheless, Germany started to make some
payments immediately.
What do you think was the impact of so much political
violence in these early years of the Weimar Republic? n May 1921 the Reparations Commission announced
To what extent was the Versailles Treaty to blame for ts decision: Germany would have to pay £6.6 billion
the instability? Were there other factors? As a result of Versailles, Germany had lost all of her
colonies, 13% of her land, 26% of her coal deposit:
 1; Were the peace treaties of 1919-1923 fair?

and 75% of her iron ore deposits. Because of these behind this campai
losses the German government said it could not pay soldiers killed thirteen German wo
the reparations bill. as the ‘Bloody Easteron the Ruhr’. Over 140 Ge
The German economy was In
- “ye
poor condition after the
| lin shes
killed in clashes with
wi "7 French
French
Troqgnc
troops.
end of the First World War. Its government’s expenditure
was high but its income from taxes was low. There was
German Marks needed
a growing budget deficit that was resolved by borrowing
to buy one ounce of gold
and by printing money. This caused inflation. The
announcement of the reparation bill in May 1921 made Jan 1919 170.00
the situation worse, but it is important to remember that Sept 1919 499.00
prices in Germany were already increasing. You can see Jan 1920 1,340.00
this in Source 1K, sept 1920 1,201.00
Jan 1921 1,349.00
In December 1922 the Germans failed to deliver timber, Sept 1921 2,175.00
part of the reparations, on schedule. Then in January Jan 1922 3,976.00
1923 they failed again — this time on a delivery of coal. Raa eer sie
The Prime Minister of France, Raymond Poincaré, sent Sept 1923 269,439,000.00
the troops to make sure that the deliveries were made on 2 Oct. 1923 6,631,749,000.00
time. He saw this as a test case for the enforcement of the 9 Oct, 1923 24,868,950,000.00
whole of the Versailles Treaty. 16 Oct, 1923 84,969,072,000.00
23 Oct, 1923 1,160,552,882,000.00
30 Oct, 1923 1,347,070,000,000.00
5 Nov, 1923 8,700,000,000,000.00
30 Nov, 1923 87,000,000,000,000.00
Does Source 1K help you decide which factor worsened
the hyperinflation in 1923: a) the French invasion of the Source 1K: A table showing how inflation turned into
Ruhr, or b) the German government’s response to the hyperinflation during the period 1918 to 1923
invasion? What other evidence would help you justify in Germany.
your decision? In the opinion of the German middle class,
who was to blame for their loss of savings?
Occupied by Allied
troops after the
Armistice in 1918
Occupied by French
and Belgian troops
in January 1923

The crisis year when money died, 1923

The French and Belgians invaded the Ruhr (see Source
LL) in January 1923 to take for themselves what they were
owed under the reparations agreement. A total of 60,000
French and Belgian troops took control of all industries and
railways to seize resources instead of payments that were Source 1L: Occupation ofthe Ruhr Valley and the
now overdue. The Weimar government called for non- Rhineland. The map shows the different areas, large and
violent opposition across the region and Germans united small, which French and Belgian troops entered in force.
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 1.10

FACT FILE The boys playing in Source 1N have made a kite out
The Ruhr is a river in Germany that flows into the Rhine. of German paper money, which became increasingly
The region around it known in English just as ‘the Ruhr’)
worthless during 1923. How useful do you think this
was rich in coal and iron, making it the heart of Germany’s
industrial strength. Source 1L shows the areas of the Ruhr photograph is as evidence for historians? How does it
and the Rhineland. compare to Source 1M?

Resistance to the occupation did not remain non-violent

as the government had ordered. Saboteurs blew up
bridges and railway lines. Albert Leo Schlageter (1894-
1923) had been a decorated lieutenant in the First World
War whojoined the Freikorps, they took part in the Kapp
Putsch (1920) and later (1933) became merged in with the
azis. He led a group of nationalist saboteur operations
against the French occupation. Schlageter was caught,
tried and executed. The man accused of betraying him to
the French authorities was soon murdered.
ot only did the occupation prevent coal, iron and
steel from reaching the rest of Germany, it also reduced
government income from valuable foreign exports to the
Source 1M: A drawing of the moments before Schlageter world. To make matters worse, the German government’s
was executed by a French firing squad in May 1923. spending on the strikers increased rapidly, again funded
by the increased printing of money.
The government called for non-violent opposition: no By 1923, 300 paper mills and 2,000 printing businesses
one in the Ruhr should cooperate with the invaders. were working all day every day to keep up with demand
Government income fell as Germany’s industry for paper money. In the face of economic collapse, with
stopped in the Ruhr. During the occupation the high unemployment and hyperinflation, the strikes were
government continued to print money. Civil servants, eventually called off in September 1923 by the new
miners and others went on strike; all were paid by the coalition government, led by Gustav Stresemann. This
government using paper money that was losing its value. was followed by a state of emergency. Despite this, civil
Hyperinflation was taking hold and no one seemed able to unrest turned into riots and attempts to overthrow the
stop it. People’s savings were becoming worthless. Weimar Republic. Adolf Hitler attempted to take power in
the Beer Hall Putsch of November 1923 and a separatist
Rhenish Republic was proclaimed at Aachen in October
1923. Both coups were put down by forces loyal to
Stresemann’s government.

At this point, chancellor Stresemann and his Commissioner for

National Currency, Dr Schacht, set about restoring confidence
in anew currency. All the old currency was collected and
destroyed; in its place the Rentenmark was issued in
November. This dealt with the problem of hyperinflation,

Ni.
>
ft KEY TERM
, an Qs
eR Wt a
1 Os bas . 5 at a “he

Tee
Source 1N: A photograph of boys playing in a park with a
home-made kite using paper money.
 1: Were the peace treaties of 1919-1923 fair?

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 1:11

but all of the other treaties. These treaties had co
|
features:
Why would the hyperinflation result in: a) public distrust
of the government, and b) dislike of Weimar democracy? * awar guilt clause to support the claim for reparations
* reduction in military forces
* acceptance of the covenant (constitution) of the League
The effects of 1923 of Nations.
Although the French did succeed in their occupation ofthe
Ruhr, the Germans through their non-violent opposition Treaty of Saint-Germain with Austria,
in the Ruhr and the hyperinflation that wrecked their 10 September 1919
economy, won the sympathy of many. This led to a major The pre-war empire of Austria-Hungary was dissolved. It
revision of the reparations that had been demanded by lost 60% ofits 1914 territory. You can see thiisin Source 10.
the Treaty ofVersailles. Under heavy American financial ¢ TheAllied Powers assumed that the minorities wished
pressure, the French were forced to agree to the Dawes
to leave the Austro-Hungarian Empire. However, the
Plan of April 1924, which substantially lowered German
successor states (new countries created by the peace
reparations payments. It also allowed American banks settlement) now included significant numbers of
to make loans of800 million marks to the German German speakers. For example, 3 million Germans now
government. lived in the Sudetenland, part of Czechoslovakia.
* Article 88 of the Treaty forbade Austria to join with
Germany. Asa result the tee name of the new republic
ACTIVITY 1.13. ‘German-Austria’ had to be changed.
* Conscription was abolished and the new Austrian Army
el1: onan Gordonee wrote: ‘Millions of Germans
was limited to 30,000 soldiers.
; — who had passively accepted the change from
SS monarchy to the Weimar Republic suffered * Reparations were never set because Austria became
— deprivations that shattered their faith in the bankrupt before the total could be formally agreed.
democratic process and left them cynical and
~ alienated.’ Identify reasons why: a) many Germans Treaty of Trianon with Hungary, 4 June 1920
did not like Weimar democracy, and b) why Hungary was one of the successor states following the
politicians were not trusted. Paris Peace Conference. As you can see in Source 10, its
2 ‘The impact of the Treaty of Versailles until 1923 was territorial losses were dramatic. Not only was it landlocked,
exaggerated by the politicians but not by the German its population was now7.6 million, some 36% of the pre-
public.’ To what extent do you agree with this view? war kingdom’s population. At the same time, 3.3 million

3 Was the economic impact of the Treaty of Versailles ethnic Hungarians were now living outside the newly
greater than the political impact? created Hungary.

4 The Weimar Republic survived the crisis year of 1923. e Hungary's army was limited to 0 and its navy no
This seems to suggest that the impact of the Treaty longer existed.
of Versailles was short term. What evidence do you * Reparations had to be paid but the Hungarian economy
need to assess the accuracy of this opinion? was close to bankruptcyand, apart from some coal
deliveries, this new successor state paid nothing to the
Allies.
¢ Most Hungarians considered the Treaty of Trianon as an
1.4 What were the terms of the insult to their national honour.
other peace treaties?
All the Central Powers that had been Germany’s allies in ACTIVITY 1.14
the First World War had separate peace treaties. Historians
Identify which areas of Austria-Hungary were given to
use the phrase ‘Versailles Settlement’ or ‘Paris Peace
which countries after the treaty was signed.
Conference’ to describe not just the Treaty of Versailles,
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

a Kiev

GERMAN EMPIRE

UKRAINE
SOVIET UNION (1922)
GERMANY
(Weimar Republic)

Bern ‘ Sopron
Pp 16.11.1918 * Budapest

SWITZERLAND™= HUNGARY
Transylvania
1,12.1918
5 zeged Odessa
I 8 SN

@ Millan
Z b a Temesvar
ITALY on,
Croat
(Timisoara)
ROMANIA
Rijeka) code
Dissolution of Austria-Hungary
1: 8500000
0 100 200 300 Km « Bucharest

. Capital
—_— Austria-Hungary borders 1914
wee Borders after the Paris Peace
Conference, (1919/20)
Other borders 1914
SERBIA BULGARIA
The Kingdom of Hungary 1914
Bat The Austrian Empire 1914 Montenegro Sofia
Bosnia and Herzegovina 1914
BULGARIA
HUNGARY Countries after World War |
16.11.1918 Date of independence from
Austria- Hungary
2)
Source 10: The territorial changes that were made by the Treaty of Saint-Germain and the Treaty of Trianon broke up
Austria-Hungary. ad

Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria, 27 November ¢ The Allies were to control Ottoman finances including
1919 supervising
the national budget and total control over
Under the terms of this treaty: the Ottoman Bank.
¢ Bulgaria lost territory. Western Thrace was given to The Treaty of Sevres was rejected by Mustapha Kemal, the
Greece. This meant that Bulgaria was now cut off from leader of the Turkish nationalist movement. He and his
the Aegean Sea. Other areas were given to Yugoslavia supporters fought a war against the terms and managed
areeerania: to reclaim some of the lost territory. A new treaty was
e ts army was reduced to 20,000 men, it wasn’t allowed to
negotiated.
jave an air force and it had to pay £100m in reparations.
. lg ook the results of the oy are known as the Treaty of Lausanne with Turkey, 24 July 1923
Second National Catastrophe’. : ;
You can see in Source 1P a different looking Turkey from
Treaty of Sévres with Turkey, 10 August 1920 the one thatwarepreed al Sevies,
This treaty marked the tearing apart of the Ottoman Other terms included the following points:
“pire ;
* The boundaries of Greece, Bulgaria and Turkey were
¢ Theterms of the Treatyof Sévres were harsh. settled.
* Huge swathes of Ottoman terri
were
tory
awarded to * Turkey gave up its claimsto Cypr
Egypt,us,
Sudan, Syria
n, France, Greece and Italy. and Iraq.
fea ttoman army was red touce
50.700 men
dand it ¢ No reparati
demands were
on made.
rtorce ° Yo military restrictions were placed on Turkey’s army.
 1: Were the peace treaties of 1919-1923 fair?

BULGARIA 28
Demilitarised Region Black Sea

Regime of the Straits

Bosphoros
,
Hopa
Kocaeli
<a
Dardanelles Bursa
e Gemlik
Trabzon
OD
ee skisehir ANKARA Mount
e - oO
Erzurum Ararat
Balikesir cupnior
Lake
Manisa ANATOLIA Van
Van 7 IRAN
e Kayseri

«Konya Diyarbakir
Kahramanmaras | e7
1 g
Tigris

dana lL esanliurfa
Antalya Council of
icel
e
the Léagye of Nations —

SS iskende ae Franco-Turkish Agreement (1921)

IRAQ
35

Me Jiterranean Sea 2 Annexation of Cyprus

ee on by the Biitish(1914) SYRIA 0 50 100km

40 0 50 100mi 44

Source 1P: Turkey after the Treaty of Lausanne.

ACTIVITY 1.15 ACTIVITY 1.16

1 Which empires were broken up by the peace Sources 1Q, 1R, 1S, 1T and 1U are about the Treaty
settlement? of Versailles. You have to decide which category the
Which of president Wilson’s Fourteen Points were sources belong to: Too harsh, Fair or Not harsh enough.
followed in the break-up of empires and the creation To help you, draw a table like this one:
of the successor states?
Which of all the Central Powers suffered most from Which Too harsh, | Evidence Is this source
the peace settlement? source? Fair or Not | for your supported
harsh by your
Which of president Wilson’s Fourteen points can SiR
enough knowledge of
be identified in the treaties dealing. with Germany’s
the Versailles
former allies?
| Treaty?
What parts of the treaties (apart from Versailles)
would have angered: a) Weimar politicians; and
b) German ex-soldiers? Explain why.

1.5 Could the treaties bejustified Do not think of this treaty as merely a settlement with
at the time? _ Germany. It is a very severe settlement with Germany,
Once details of the Versailles Settleme t became public,. but there is nothing in it that she did not earn. Indeed,
politicians, leaders, so diers and ordina y citizens held she earned more than she can ever be able to pay for,
different views. Most d ebate focused o 1 the fairness and the punishment exacted of her is not a punishment
yarshness of the dif erent treaties, a though the
greater than she can bear, and it is absolutely

Versailles Treaty attracted most attention. The Versailles necessary in order that no other nation may ever plot
Settlement could be justified by the winners of the First such a thing against humanity and civilization.
World War; this was because it was the winners who wrote Source 1Q: Part of a speech by president Wilson delivered
it, not the ‘losers’ to the League of Nations in September 1919.
\
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

The criminal madness of this peace will drain

Germany’s national life-blood. It is a shameless
blow in the face of common-sense. It is inflicting the
deepest wounds on us Germans as our world lies in
wreckage about us.
Source 1U: Part of a speech made by a German Member of
Parliament in the Reichstag in 1919.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 1.12

1 How crucial was Article 231 (the war guilt clause) for
the Allies to justify the peace treaties?
2 Why would French leaders be concerned that British
attitudes were so mixed?
3 Why were both the French and the British concerned
—— when the US Senate rejected the Treaty ofVersailles?
Sa
—— 4 Study Sources 1R and IT: what contrasting views of
S \|frace f ree
+
>
ates [Ar
the Treaty of Versailles do they present?
ry The Tiger: “ Curiou f seem to hear @ child weeping !” al
/

Source 1R: This cartoon was published in the British

newspaper, the Daily Herald, 13 May 1919. Has the child to KEY TERM

the left just read the Treaty of Versailles?

This is not a peace treaty, it is an armistice

for twenty years.

Source 1S: Acomment by the French military leader, Marshall

Foch, at the ceremony to sign the Treaty of Versailles Review your learning
When the war ended, the Big Three came to Paris to write
a treaty without discussing it with Germany. President
Wilson’s Fourteen Points were used as the basis for the
treaty. Not one of the points mentioned reparations or
blame forstarting the war.
Lloyd George and Clemenceau did not agree with many
of the Fourteen Points, so the Treaty of Versailles was
a compromise. Other similar treaties were signed with
Germany's partners, the other Central Powers. The Treaty
of Versailles had serious political and economic effects on
Germany between 1918 and 1923.
Historians disagree about the treaties which ended the First
World War. Few think they were a triumph of diplomacy, but
while many criticise their faults and failures, others think
they were the best that could have been achieved by those
people in those circumstances. What do you think? Before
THE RECKONING.
you answer, think about the evidence. You could do this
by drawing up mind maps to assess the factors. Make sure
Source 1T: A British cartoon published in Punch magazine you can answer the five questions listed at the beginning
shortly after the Reparations Commission had announced of this chapter as Focus points; then you will have enough
the bill for Germany to pay: £6.6 billion. evidence for you to attempt Key Question 1.
 1: Were the peace treaties of 1919-1923 fair?

Summary points

Diktat The Treaty was not negotiated; there were no discussions. It was dictated to the
Germans.
Reparations Reparations imposed for all the damage that was caused during the First World War by Germany
and the
other Central Powers.

Armaments No airforce, army was restricted to 100,000, navy restricted to six ships, no submarines. Rhineland
to be
demilitarised and occupied by the Allies for fifteen years.
|war guilt Germany was held to be to blame for the war.
| Loss of Loss of territory reduced Germany’s size, population and economic resources, including the loss of all her
territory colonies.

When you think or write about this topic, these equally. In a different colour, write underneath each one
concepts/ideas will help: a brief definition.
Armistice Now draw lines to link any two concepts/ideas
Big Three that are related to one another. You get one point
blame for a correctly drawn line, but two points for
diktat writing on the line what the link is. There is no limit
on the number of lines (links) you can draw and
dolchstoss
lines from one concepts could connect with several
fair
others.
harsh
humiliation Your next challenge is to decide if the treaties were
fair or harsh. Before deciding, remember these points
justice
about the word ‘fair’:
national self-determination
negotiations Are you judging all the peace treaties to be fair
November criminals one?
plebiscites Were the peace treaties fair to the winners or the
losers or both?
reparations
Does your view of the causes of the First World War
revenge
affect your assessment of the ‘fairness’ of the pea
shame
treaties?
treaty
War Guilt Clause.

Work with a partner. Using a large piece of plain paper,

write out all the concepts listed, spacing them out
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

Exam-style questions
What was the impact on Germany of the Versailles Treaty and how did Germany react to it?

To what extent did Clemenceau get everything he wanted from the Paris Peace Conference
and the Versailles Treaty?

How far were Wilson’s, Lloyd George’s and Clemenceau’s aims in the Paris Peace Conference
compatible?

‘The treaties at the end of the First World War were certainly not fair but then there was no
possibility that they could have been fair.’ To what extent do you agree with this judgement?

What were the aims of Woodrow Wilson, Lloyd George and Georges Clemenceau (the Big
Three) at the Paris Peace Conference?

To what extent were the aims of the Big Three achieved at the Paris Peace Conference?

Describe the military restrictions imposed on Germany by the Treaty ofVersailles.

What political and economic problems did the Treaty of Versailles cause for Germany?

Explain why Germans felt humiliated by the Treaty of Versailles.

Which was more important in causing German dissatisfaction with the Treaty: reparations or
the war guilt clause?

To what extent was the Treaty of Versailles justifiable at the time?

Were all the Central Powers treated the same in the treaties that they had to sign?

mA
 39

Key Question 2: To what extent was the

League of Nations a success?
Focus points
How successful was the League in the 1920s?
How far did weaknesses in the League’s organisation make failure inevitable?
How far did the Depression make the work of the League more difficult?
How successful was the League in the 1930s?
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

What is this enquiry about? Focus question Judgement: | Evidence

to what from the case
ee desis
In all of the treaties that made up the Versailles
: canportthe
Settlement after the end of the First World War (see
deament
Chapter 1), president Wilson had insisted on the inclusion
of a reference to the League of Nations. This was to be the juee
organisation that ensured the 1914-1918 conflict really How far did the
had been ‘war to end all wars’. Depression make the
work of the League
Your challenge in this section is to decide to what extent ua
more difficult?
the League of Nations was a success. This means forming
an opinion. How successful was

i Se
the League in
the 1930s?

Given all this, what is

TOP TIP
When you have a question that begins with ‘To what vols overall judgement
extent ...? (or ‘How far ...?’) you are being asked to offer on the success of the
an opinion. You will need to present the evidence that League of Nations?
shows how you reached that opinion, of course. When you
offer your opinion you will need to indicate the ‘extent’.
This diagram showsa range of options: )
ACTIVITY 2.1
To what extent? H : =
Adapt the wording of the Top Tip diagram showing how
Fullextent Largeextent Someextent Smallextent No extent to express a range of opinions so that it suits a question
«| Pe that begins ‘How far ...?”. .

Where will your judgement lie on this spectrum? The Covenant of the League of Nations
What criteria should you use forjudging the League’s
effectiveness? Well, one criterion you can use to judge the
. . League is its Covenant that was agreed when it was set up.
Of course, making your judgement is only the final part of A Covenant is a set of rules setting out how members of an
the enquiry. First you need to collect evidence by studying organisation should behave. When you look at each Case
the investigations in this chapter so you can reach that Study decide which of the Articles was triggered. If the
judgement and justify it. Draw up a table like the following League was successful then the Articles were followed and
one and keep it handy for the different sections. the action resolved the dispute.

Focus question Judgement: | Evidence

KEY TERMS
to what from the case
extent? studies to |
support the
judgement
 2: To what extent was the League of Nations a success?

Section of the The action League members In this chapter, we will look at some of these exami
Covenant should take of intervention. Each time, you will need to cons
Articles 8 and 9 extent of the League’s success.
Members must promote
disarmament so that countries will
only have sufficient military strength Collective security
to maintain national security. This concept was essential for the League to maint
Article 10 Any member who is attacked wil peace: acting together, members could place eco
‘>
LU
) )

have the support Be of all League and/or military pressure on aggressors. There were three
members.
Article 11 Any member can ask the League e) 1 Moral disapproval: The Council would meet to condemn
for help if it fears attack. any act of aggression. The aggressor would cease its
1 | military actions knowing that the world was w atching.
Articles 12 to 15 Disputes will be settled by a
process: investigation of the 2 Economic sanctions: If moral disapproval failed, then
issue, discussion in the League, the Council could exert pressure using economic
then putting the issue before an sanctions against the aggressor. This could mean a
international court, or goingto trade boycott and refusing credit.
arbitration. 3 ilitary sanctions: If economic sanctions did not work,
Members pledge not to go to war then the Council could use military sanctions. This
until three months have passed might involve sending military help to the victim of
from the date at which the dispute the attack.
was brought to the League’s Collective security sounds like a sensible way to stop war,
attention. but remember the US was not a member of the League. Two
Articles 16 Members agree to take prompt other problems restricted the collective security approach:
action against anyone going
e First, all decisions taken by the Council or the Assembly
to war. Such an attack will be
had to be unanimous. A majority of the members was
seen as an act of war against all
not enough to take action.
other Members. It could lead to
economic sanctions such as the
cutting of trade links and, possibly,
ak
Ed ele el
military action of some kind.
Eo

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 2.1

Identify the difficulties that you would expect the League

to face in trying to use these articles to stop conflict.
ACTIVITY 2.2

Here is a list of some crises and conflicts where the League To meet the challenge of this enquiry you will need to
of Nations intervened or attempted to intervene: keep a record of your judgements as you learn about
what the League tried to do, its successes and its failures.
« Vilnius 1920
You can use this table to help you organise your enquiry.
¢ Upper Silesia 1921
« Aland Islands 1921 Where | When What was the | Why was
was the | was the | result: success/ | that the
¢ Corfu 1923
crisis? crisis? | failure/mixed? |outcome?
¢ Greece vs Bulgaria 1925 + + —

« Japanese invasion of Manchuria 1931 + 4 — + a

« |talian invasion of Abyssinia 1935

« Japanese invasion of China 1937
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

* Second, the League did not have its own army so Results for the League ofNations:
mposing military sanctions would prove difficult.
Successes |Concerns
Member states would have to send soldiers and
resources; this would take time and there was no The development This dispute raised an
uarantee that members would do so. of autonomy was important question in
important and Swedish relation to president
2.1 How successful was the customs were preserved. Wilson’s principle of
t was onlya formality national self-determination.
League in the 1920s? that the people ofthe How far should the principle
In its first ten years the League dealt with thirty disputes Aland Islands were be applied?
between states. Now we need to look at some specific Finnish citizens. x
examples.
Finland had preserved
its borders so there was |
Case study A: The Aland Islands no precedent which
The map in Figure 2.1 shows the Aland Islands. They are might lead to countless
located between Sweden and Finland and both countries other ethic claims thus
claimed them. Although 95% of the population was ethnic destroyiné'the Paris
Swedes, the islands belonged to Finland. In June 1920, Peace Settlement.
the dispute was referred to the Council of the League
of Nations. The League ordered an investigation of the
issue that scrutinised the claims and counter-claims. Th O CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 2.2
conclusion was that the island should stay under Finland’s
Why didn’t the Aland Islands dispute turn into a war?
rule. This was because to award the Aland Islands to
Sweden would set a dangerous precedent - other Swedish
communities living in Finland might make similar claims.
Outside the area, other minority groups in Europe might
want to do the same.
Alongside the decision to leave the Islands in Finnish
hands, the League’s report recommended that the Swedes
should have more autonomy to preserve their traditions
and customs; for example, the Swedish language should
be taught in schools.
These decisions by the League meant that Finland
maintained its borders but that the Swedes could pursue
their lives keeping their Swedish customs. It was the first
European international agreement concluded directly
through the League.

KEY TERMS
Figure 2.1: The Aland Islands.
Minority: : a recognisable groupof
0peae an eae
sneu: culture or ethnicityis different fr m that
ofmost
ry people (themajjority)
inacountry or region. } ) Case Study B: The Corfu Incident, 1923
Autonomy: ‘the independence of an individual, or a group The map in Figure 2.2 shows Greece and its neighbours
or a region to make>decisions forit
itself without always asking in the 1920s. An Italian, General Tellini, and four of
permission, e.g. from a central government. _ “ his assistants, who had been marking out the new
border between Albania and Greece for the
 2: To what extent was the League of Nations a success?

KEY TERM
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 2.3

Why didn’t the Corfu Incident turn into a war?

Conference of Ambassadors, were murdered. The Greek

authorities were unable to arrest anyone for the murder
so in August 1923, Benito Mussolini, the Italian leader,
ordered the occupation ofthe Greek island of Corfu to
force the Greek government to compensate Italy for
General Tellini’s death.

Greece appealed to the Council of the League of Nations.

Italy argued that their occupation was not an act of
war. Robert Cecil (representing Britain on the Council)
disputed this. He wanted to take a hard line against the
Italians; he wanted sanctions to be imposed on Italy and
a British naval presence off the coast of Corfu. However,
the British government did not share Cecil’s views; it did
not want to damage trade relations with Italy. Instead,
the Council decided to send a commission to the
Albanian-Greek border to investigate Tellini’s death. The
commission reported that it could find no evidence that
Greece had failed to investigate the murder properly. On Figure 2.2: Map of Greece showing Corfu and the border
25 September, the Conference of Ambassadors met to with Bulgaria in 1925.
considerthe report. As a result of Italian pressure, Greece
was made to pay 50 million lire as compensation. Two
days later, the Italians began evacuating Corfu. Case Study C: Greco-Bulgarian confrontation,
1925 | |
Results for the League of Nations:
On 19 October, on the Greek border with Bulgaria
Successes |Concerns _ (see Figure 2.2) some soldiers were playing a game of

to the Council when it war, but this injustice was two Greek border guards and the retreat of others from
felt it was not being fairly | not punished by the other their posts. News of this incident reached the Greek
5 5)
treated by the Conference | Great Powers. eo Ben but the bobial. eg xagge (ap)Qa w | Qa
oover § tw e <aggerat 2 )
Ww OQ

of Ambassadors. it appear that the Bulgarians had launched an invasion.

‘
r T As a consequence, Greece ordered an attack on Bulgaria
taly and Greece did not The League of Nations Theeilea iad’ FOreIoreNiistermnfocnechthe iereeeent

go to war and Italian ee WS Inpeouvenmentt of the Council of the League of Nations. He telegraphed
forces did not stay in in the final settlement Parclee ty GG Militany actin Whenthe Counce:
Greek territory for long. of the crisis. It appeared eaNeeueiad Boreiaae ae withabeawanichin their owe
that the Conference of
borders. British, French and Italian officials went to the
Ambassadors was more
site to confirm that the Council’s instructions had be«
important.
obeyed. The confrontation wa
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

A commission visited the area for three days. It found that

Greek troops had taken crops and cattle as they retreated.
In December 1925, the League’s Council awarded
compensation worth 30 million Bulgaria levas. Greece
pald.

At this point, a Polish general marched into Vilnius with

Results for the League of Nations his soldiers. Was he secretly supported by the Polish
government? We can’t be sure. Lithuania was not a
Successes
member ofthe League but it was still able to raise the
The Council’s demand to end military action as a first matter with the Assembly of the League. Initially, there was
step was obeyed. a plan to send an international police force to the city; but
The Council then investigated the reasons for the neutral Switzerland forbade police units from crossing its
incident and reported them. In the past, small border territory. SS

incidents like this had started wars. The League’s final effort to resolve the problem was a
eport by Belgian representative, Paul Hymans, on 21
On this occasion, the ‘successes’ aren't really balanced
September 1921. It recommended that both Lithuanian
by ‘concerns’. However, the success does need to be
and Polish languages were granted official status; that
put into context. It may have looked for a time as though
all minorities in Lithuania should have equal rights
Greece and Bulgaria were about to go to war, but in fact
to education, religion, language and association; and
neither was in a position to conduct a serious military
that steps be taken to align the two countries’ foreign,
campaign. Both countries had domestic difficulties:
economic and foreign policies.
Greece was struggling with one million refugees from
Turkey; Bulgaria had been mostly demilitarised. This The Hymans Plan was a delicate balancing act, but both
does not take away from the achievement of the League, sides rejected cit. In January 1922, the League issued
but it does contextualise that success. Furthermore, a public statement saying that it had exhausted all
neither Greece nor Bulgaria was allied to a Great Power possibilities. So the occupation of Vilnius was allowed to
who could have acted to support one of them. This continue. In March 1923, the Conference of Ambassadors
alone was likely to have prevented the war from growing recognised Vilnius as part of Poland.
in importance and involving friends and neighbours, a
prospect which was the great fear of any diplomat who
remembered August 1914. Results for the League of Nations

Successes |Concerns

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 2.4 Left with a difficult Some contemporaries

issue by the Paris were outraged at the Polish
Why didn’t the Greco-Bulgarian dispute turn into a war? peacemakers, the takeover of Vilnius. The Polish
League had responded | government must have known
with an innovative about the general’s actions
Case Study D: Vilnius proposal - even ifitwas | and the League should have
The population of the city of Vilnius included ejected. invoked Article 16.
Poles, Jews and Lithuanians. After the First World The Vilnius issue made Poland had a strong
War it was recognised as part of Lithuania. However,
\
headlines around the elationship with France, so
the Treaty of Versailles had left Lithuania’s border with world, but in the event a country was allowed to
land unclear, so Poland brought the issue there was no war. benefit from aggression.
Council of the League (we explain the structure
Je in section ‘How successful was the
”). The League sent a commission
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 2.5
drew up a provisional border and
heir agreement on 30 September Why didn’t the dispute over Vilnius turn into a war?
 2: To what extent was the League of Nations a success?

2.2 How far did weaknesses in

; : :
Look back over the findings of your enquiry into case the League s organisation make
studies and the table you drew up (in section on — failu re inevitable?
‘collective security’). Compare the different disputes.
What patterns to you see in terms of differences in the The new international organi
natureofthe disputes? How far do you think these the Secretariat, Assembly and the Cour = oO oO '®) fab) NO Me

These are the functions of each one.

explain why they led to different results?

The administration of the League of Nations, numberi

from different countries. They worked throughout the year
the Council’s decisions.

The Secretary General was chief of the Secretariat. T|

General was a British diplomat, Sir Eric Drummond

It included experts to offer advice on disputes. It performed a

administrative tasks: organising conferences, monit
circulating reports.

The Assembly met once a year.

Every member of the League had one vote; it was a kind of international
parliament. Major decisions had to be reached UNdANIMOUSIY.
nanim ~|

dee pede Assembly It admitted new members.

of Nations

It elected non-permanent members of the Council.

to a global audience. This was important because what ha

government leaders.

The Council was the decision-making part of the League. When a crisis
developed it had to decide on action based on a ur isi

Council

en it started the Council’s permanent mem

Italy and Japan.
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

rom tl e very beginning the organisation of the League

several weaknesses. First, it was established by
Treaty of Versailles; the treaty had many flaws but
he League was supposed to enforce it. The Germans
hated the treaty and the Italians and Japanese disliked
parts of it, so the League was not fully supported.
Second, the Assembly could only make a decision by a
unanimous vote, and on the Council, all the permanent
members had a veto. When there was a crisis, it was
very hard to agree on what to do. Even when decisions
were made the League had no army to enforce them.
Its main ‘weapons’ were moral condemnation and Source 2A: A photograph from 1936 of the Council of the
economic sanctions — and these were not effective League of Nations meeting.
‘punishments’ for aggression. Third, the League had no
army of its own to ensure its decisions were followed
through. This was of particular importance when the ° KEY TERM
League faced serious challenges in the 1930s from Italy
(in Abyssinia) and from Japan (in Manchuria). Fourth,
the League’s membership did not include all countries
that had the economic and military potential to
cause trouble. Details of this weakness are in the next Who joined and who left the League?
section.
Was the League seriously weakened as a peacekeeping
Despite these weaknesses, the League could have been organisation by its membership? Both the Assembly and
made a force for peace if the Great Powers had wished. the Council were weakened because not all of the Great
The articles of the covenant of the League provided for Powers were members. Let’s look at these in turn.
economic and military sanctions against the aggressors.
The League failed because the leading powers never United States of America
wanted a durable peace. Although president Wilson was a key supporter of the
League, the American Congress voted three times
The League of Nations was always run on very little
money. Between 1921 and 1927 it cost just $4 million per between November 1919 and March 1920 not to join. Many
year. Britain was the biggest contributor ($550,000 per Congressmen were worried that American involvement in
year), while others contributed what they could. Given the League would lead to American involvement in future
So little funding, when crises arose the League had to wars. American soldiers had died fighting in the First
issue Calls for extra money. Sometimes it took a long time World War and there was no enthusiasm to do that again.
for governments to respond, so time and again the League So, despite it having been an American president who
turned to charities like the American Red Cross or Save the wanted its creation, the US did not join the League at all.
Children to react quickly to humanitarian disasters.
Germany
The Allied Powers at the Paris Peace Conference refused
to allow Germany to join the League when it started. The
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 2.6
argument was that it had to show that it was a reformed
In which part of the League were all the members Germany with a peaceful approach to international
represented? relations. In 1926 Germany did join and became a
Did ‘small powers’ have equal status with ‘Great Powers’? permanent member of the Council. However, Adolf Hitler
Why couldn't all members be part of the Council of the Saw the League as a club for ‘winners’ in the First World
Leagi je? War and in 1933 he took the decision to take Germany out
of the League.
 2: To what extent was the League of Nations a success?

Soviet Union
How successful was the work of the League
This great power was not invited to join the League
agencies?
because it was communist. Communists sought to
The League of Nations was established to try and
overthrow capitalism. This frightened the othex, capitalist,
keep peace in the world. To support this central air
League members. The Soviet Union was not interested in
it undertook other activities that would help to make
joining what looked like a capitalist club run by the very
the world better and safer. The League’s agencies and
powers - Britain, France, US and Japan - who had invaded
commissions tried to do pA about the Soren.
the Soviet Union during its Civil War (1918-1920) ina
economic problems of disease, pove
failed attempt to determine the country’s future. By 1934,
prisoners of warand refugees - humanitarian issues.
it was clear that the Soviet Union was no longer an threat
Through its actions, the Le
ae ue started to show the world
to capitalist countries and it was admitted to the League. It
how international cooperation could encourage peace
was expelled in 1939 for invading Finland at the start of the
through the Aarts he man f
Second World War.
How successful was the Lea Je in retation to these one
activities?

As you read each investigation, with a partner decide

Capitalism: an economic and social system in which whereabouts on the History Spectrum would you put each
property is privately owned, the role of the state is small and League activity and why. The Spectrum is a line on which
people enjoy freedom of expression, of religion and have a you can record your judgements. You can see this in the
choice of political party to elect as the government. introductory section to this chapter.
Communism: an economic and social system in which property
and economic activity are controlled by the state. In communist
countries, people have few rights and freedoms: religion is
banned and the media is censored. Everyone works for the state. Exploitation: a process in which a person or group is
treated unfairly at work; it may be the result of, e.g. their age
Civil war: a war in one country between two or more sides
from within that country. or ethnicity making them weak in negotiations, leading to
overwork and underpayment.

Japan The International Labour Organization

Japan was one ofthe original members of the League
and had a permanent seat on the Council. However, it
left in 1933 following criticism over its invasion of
Manchuria.

Italy
This great power was one ofthe original members.
However, it left the League in 1937 following the economic
sanctions that the League put in place because Italy had
invaded Abyssinia.

Britain and France

These were the only two Great Powers who remained
members during the League's existence. Reluctantly, these
Source 2B: A photo of child labourers in a coal mine, United
two had to carry most of the responsibility for making the
States, c.1912.
League work. Britain was anxious about its empire, and
France was most worried about the border with Germany. TheInternational Labout Organization (ILO) was cre
In the official circles of these Great Powers, the League of 1919. It fought for social justice. The working conditions that
Nations, however, was an afterthought. people experienced
tn
had to be safe, healthy
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

This included issues about hours of wot ~and the 5) prostitution. Its main success was ending slavery in the
rotection of women, children and the elderly. Th e|LO mandates. The League secured a commitment from
could make recommendations to national governments Abyssinia to end slavery as a condition of membership in
about labour matters. These would appear in the form of 1923, and worked with Liberia to abolish forced labour
conventions that would be agreed by the ILO’s a qnual and intertribal slavery. Records were kept to control
conference. If accepted at that point, the convent ions had slavery, prostitution and the trafficking of women and
to be presented to national parliaments within one year by children. Partly as a result of pressure brought by the
League members. Little by little, an international network League of Nations, Afghanistan abolished slavery in 1923,
of labour laws and regulation had started to deve op, and Iraq in 1924, Nepal in 1926, Transjordan and Persia in 1929,
by. 1939 the work of the ILO had agreed 67 conventions. For Bahrain in 1937 and Abyssinia in 1942.
example, the ILO’s efforts to regulate child labour resulted
in children only working an 8-hour day in the Persian carpet
industry and their rooms being properly ventilate d. The
ILO successfully restricted the addition of lead to paint and
convinced several countries to adopt an 8-hour working
day and 48-hour wor ing week. It also campaigned to end
child labour, increase the rights of women in the workplace,
and make ship-owners liable for accidents involvi ng
seamen. After the death of the League, the ILO be came an

agency of the United Nations jn 1946.

Convention: an agreement that does not have the force of

law so its implementation depends on ‘trust’. Source 2C: A photograph of child labour in Cameroon
Agency: an organisation which acts on behalf of oth Cis: taken in 1919.
Within the League different agencies focused on specific
issues under the authority of the Council.
United Nations: an international membership organisation
for states founded in 1946 to promote development, peace
and human rights, it replaced the League of Nations Eradicate: to abolish or get rid of.
Intertribal: an activity that is carried out between tribes of
people rather than different countries.
Trafficking: the buying and selling of people or drugs.
ACTIVITY 2.4

Study carefully the photo of child labour in Source 2B or

Commission for Refugees
2C taken before the ILO was formed.
Led by Fridtjof Nansen (Source 2E), a Norwegian explorer,
1 What issues can you see that the ILO would be
the Commission for Refugees was established on 27 June
concerned about?
1921 to look after the interests of refugees, including
2 ThelLO’s conventions did not have the force of law. overseeing their return to their home country and, when
Does this mean that the efforts of ILO staff were necessary, resettlement. At the end of the First World War,
wasted?
there were between two to three million ex-prisoners of
3 Child labour still exists in the world today. What does war from various nations dispersed throughout Russia.
this tell you about the difficulties of the ILO’s work? Within two years the Commission had helped 425,000
And how will this affect your judgement about the of them to return home. It established camps in Turkey
effectiveness of the League’s agencies? in 1922 to support the country in dealing with a refugee
crisis, helping to prevent disease and hunger. Working
in very difficult circumstances and with a tiny budget,
Slavery Commission Nansen and his staff used imaginative methods to look
Commission aimed to eradicate slavery after these people. They set up camps where they were
vorld. and ¢ halleng e forced 1eeded; they taught new skills to refugees and provided
 2: To what extent was the League of Nations a success?

them with identity papers, such as the Nansen passport, nutrition needed tot
as a means of identification for stateless people. You can the leadership of Ludwig Raichme
see a Nansen passport in the photograph in Source 2D. Organization became one of its most successf
Nansen isn’t forgotten. Each year, the United Nations gives
It established links with countries not b
the Nansen Refugee Award to men and women who have
League, such as the US, Germany and the S
done outstanding work assisting refugees. provide an information service
advice on public health matters. For example, it support
Soviet Union in trying to prevent a typhus epidemic in th
early 1920s by organising a public information campaig
on health and sanitation. Eventually, by 1923, the worst
was Over.
The Health Committee reduced the incidence of
leprosy and began an international campaign to
eliminate mosquitoes, so in turn reducing the spread
malaria and yellow fever. Research institutes based
in London, Copenhagen and Singapore
wait developed
internationally accepted vaccines for diphtheria, tetanus
and tuberculosis. After the Second World War it became
the World Health Organization — part of today’s United
Nations.

Source 2D: Asample

Nansen passport.

Leprosy: a contagious disease that affects the skin and tt

nervous system. oe

ACTIVITY 2.5

Go back to your table and make a judgement about the

extent of League success in dealing with humanitarian
issues. Make sure you include evidence to support
your view.

ACTIVITY 2.6
Source 2E: Fridtjof Nansen with Greek refugees in Thrace,
Greece, 1922.
What does the word ‘inevitable’ in the title of this
section mean? Some historians think the League was
going to fail from the start, others disagree. Look at
The Health Organization Sources 2B and 2C, and the table in the section ‘How
The First World War and its aftermath ensured that disease far did weaknesses in the League’s organisation make
became an international matter. Four years of conflict failure inevitable?’ that describes the functions of each
had wrecked public health systems and marching armies part of the League. Can you decide if its failure was
had carried nfections with them as well as their guns. The inevitable, given its starting point?
wartime shortages left populations short of the necessary
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 27 al

Y FACT FILE
| Wall Street is the name given to the US market for stocks
Given what you now know about membership ofthe
and shares of companies. People bought lots of shares in
League of Nations, identify the difficulties that the
the 1920s because their investments always seemed to be
League faced in its role as peace-keeper.
| making a good profit. This boom ended in October 1929
Britain and France were members ofthe League, but with the Crash; prices dropped suddenly and sharply.
nou Gen commitment do you think they putintotne Many lost all their investments. The Wall Street Crash did
eieanizations | not cause the Great Depression in the US but it did make
| it worse.
"Scone Se SES ER EE ESA SAAS ESE

2.3 How far did the Depression

make the work of the League 25200 ==, ee
more difficult? (estimated)
20.00% % US unemployment
What was the Great Depression?
During the 1920s, the US’s economy grew very quickly; by 15.00%
1928 the production of goods and food reached a point
where the demand for both was satisfied completely. vane
Suddenly, with overproduction and falling demand, the
capitalist economies broke down. The Great Depression
5.00%
was a series of connected economic changes that hit the
world’s countries from 1929 and lasted well into the 1930s.
0.00%
Where order books for cars and household products 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960
had once been full, the 1930s saw a severe reduction in
Figure 2.3: This graph shows the sudden and massive rise
demand and cuts in production and trade soon followed.
in unemployment in the US during the Great Depression.
Factories closed, farmers went bankrupt and millions lost
their jobs and joined long lines of the unemployed. To
make matters worse the banking system failed and people
lost their money. What link is there between Figure 2.3 and what you can
Starting in the US, it spread to Europe and beyond. Across see in Source 2F? = :
Europe, the numbers of unemployed rose dramatically. : .
Many US banks had lent money to businesses in European
The League of Nations was supposed to maintain the peace
countries; when the Wall Street Crash happened the
of the world by organising collective action on the part of its
lenders wanted their money back.
members to prevent war. Working collectively to keep the
peace was hard enough in the 1920s: what difference did
the Great Depression make to its peacekeeping function?
Whether League members or not, all governments were
tested by the impact of the Great Depression on the
people who elected them - and this applied to both Great
Powers and small powers. Politicians now prioritised
dealing with unemployment, suffering and poverty.
Dealing with anything that was happening in another
country came second.

KEY TERM

Source 2F: A photograph of the Frank Tengle family at the

time of the Great Depression in the state of Alabama in 1935.
 2: To what extent was the League of Nations a success?

ACTIVITY 2.8 |

The following list outlines the key consequences of the materials was vital. In 1931 the Japanese army took
Great Depression on the League: . the first steps in creating an empire that would benefit
A Democratic governments came under pressure to Japan economically.
cut spending and balance their budgets. Rearming
Put A, B and C in order of importance for League
was no longer important; democracies had to help
members given the following problems:
their citizens before they paid for soldiers, guns and
planes. As a result, League members lacked the military | Two small powers dispute the ownership of a
strength to confront aggressors. small section of their common border. Both are
threatening to use force and they have significant
B Asworld markets for goods and food shrank, the
trade links with the Great Powers in Europe.
League’s strategy of imposing economic sanctions
on aggressors was not viewed favourably. Stopping ll A Great Power run by a dictator starts to rearm and
trade with a small power would be bad enough, but threatens to ignore important treaty obligations.
with a Great Power sanctions would lead to deeper IIl_ Astrong Great Power invades a weaker Great Power.
economic problems and make governments even more 2 Peacekeeping in the 1920s had not been easy for the
unpopular. new League of Nations. What judgement will you make
C Some democratic governments were replaced by to answer the question ‘how far’? Before you think
dictatorships. These dictatorships were aggressive about your own judgement, bear in mind these points.
and very nationalistic. For example, in Germany, ¢ The phrase ‘work of the League’ does not mean just
extremist parties became more popular, the Nazis peacekeeping; it includes humanitarian activities too.
came to power and democracy collapsed. Hitler ¢ In general, small and Great Powers behave in ways
_ promised German voters that he would rip up the that benefit their own interests.
_ Treaty of Versailles. In Japan, the military took over
« The League’s various agencies were only funded by
governing the country. To the generals, Japan’s survival
its members, principally the Great Powers.
depended on its trade; finding new markets and raw

2.4 How successful was the Case Study A: the Disarmament Comersote
League in the 1930s? In the years beforethe outbreak of tneFirst World War, an
al ‘ms race had taken place — for exan iple, there had been
Much of the humanitarian work by the League’s agencies a race between Germanya nd Britain to build warships
continued to be effective in the 1930s. However, the called Dreadnoughts. Man) y thought that it was a
impact of the Great Depression created new problems f the 1914-1918 conflict. With tne war over, disarmament
ort
to solve in relation to peacekeeping. By the end of the —<fas thought to be a key issue in maintaining world peace
1930s the League could not prevent a second world esident Wilson certainly thought so, it wa F hi
war from starting. In this sense it failed in its primary Fourteen Points (See chapter3, sectior
purpose. After the 1939 German invasion of Poland, the ai the Peace Settlement, disarmament was a feature of the
League did not meet again until April 1946. Its existence i
reeaties — but itwas only tne tosers wWno wer
came to an end when its assets were transferred to the 7
newly formed United Nations organi sation, based in New he League arranged
o
5 a conference to meet in Geneva
=
D etween 1932- 1934.
ee) High hopes of t
York City.

Three key events made it obvious to the world that the

League was ineffective when faced with countries that
pursued national rather than international interests. Dreadnought: named after HMS Dreadnought (aBritish
battleship launched in 1906), was a type of battleship that _
¢ the failure of the Disarmament Conference
was so fast, and so heavily armed and armoured, that no
e the Japanese invasion of Manchuria other type of battleship could match it.
e the ltalian invasion cf Abyssinia.
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

this priority were disappointed very quickly because of Case Study B: Japanese aggression
the fears of individual countries and their reluctance to in Manchuria, 1931
trust one another. France was willing to disarm, but only if The Great Depression meant that Japan’s exports were
guarantees were given by Britain and the US. Neither was finding fewer customers and so earning less income.
willing to give them. Japan was not self-sufficient in food, so needed this
Hitler’s plan was for reaarmament, not disarmament. income for vital imports.
Arguing that France was not serious about disarmament, Since 1905, the Japanese had controlled Korea and ee
the Germans withdrew from the conference and shortly further trading rights that extended over the border into

afterwards left the League. the interior of Manchuria in north-east China (see the map
If any progress was goingto be made, all the major in Source 21). This is an area rich in minerals, farmland and
countries had to take part and by 1934, it was clear that forestry. Taking over Manchuria would help the Japanese
this was not going to happen. In 1935, Hitler announced economy because it would provide a source of food and
his violation of the disarmament clauses in the Treaty of raw materials and land forthe surplus population to settle.
Versailles. From now on, Germany rearmed very quickly, To protect their trading rights, Japanese soldiers were
and soon after Italian and Japanese rearmament followed. allowed along the route of the South Manchurian Railway.
On 10 September 1931, Robert Cecil, the British
KEY TERMS
representative on the League of Nations Council told the
Assembly that he believed there was little prospect of a
war over Manchuria. On 18 September, a bomb exploded
on the South Manchurian Railway. The explosion was not
that big because later a train passed the spot safely, but it
had happened on a section of territory occupied by Japan’s
Kwantung Army. The Japanese had every right to be there
because of the 1905 Treaty of Portsmouth. However,
"MY FRIENDS, WE HAVE FAILED.
WE JUST COULDN'T CONTROL immediately after the explosion, part of the Kwantung
YOUR_ WARLIKE” PASSIONS. *
Army moved quickly to take over the town of Mukden. The
‘Mukden Railway Incident’ was an artificial crisis designed to
provide a reason to react with force (Source 2H).
China appealed to the League and the Council members
(apart from Japan) demanded that Japanese troops
promise to withdraw to the railway zone by 16 November.

Source 2G: This cartoon appeared in a British newspaper

on 23rd May 1934, towards the end of the Disarmament
Conference.

ACTIVITY 2.9

1 What is the cartoonist’s view of the Disarmament

Conference in Source 2G?
2 Towhat extent is there evidence in this section to
support this view?
3 What other factors that are not illustrated in the
cartoon caused the failure of the work of the
conference? Source 2H: A photograph showing a Japanese soldier
in Manchuria, 1931.
 2: To what extent was the League of Nations a success?

what was really happening a

led by Lord Lytton too e end of F
journey east, by which time Japan had a =

Beijinge
Lus|

Lytton’s investigation was thoro

completed until September 1932. The report concluded
Source 21: Japan invades Manchuria, 1931. that the original position of Manchuria was not satisfact
and that a full discussion about the future of the region wa
The Japanese representative at the League said that
needed after the crisis had been resolved. Ly
troops would be withdrawn when the time was right.
that most people living in Manchuria did not [op 'S) /

This was a further deception. Chinchow was taken by

O

the Manchukuo regime and saw themselves as Chinese.

the Japanese in December 1931 and Shanghai was
Therefore, it would be necessary to establish Manchuria as
threatened in January, the following year. This was taken
an independent part of the Chinese state. All of these points
very seriously by the western European countries because
they had major business interests there. China now
ACTIVITY 2.10
requested an investigation and asked for the Assembly
to consider the situation. These complex circumstances Below are seven ways to start a sentence about the
were made worse by Britain’s attitude towards Japan: League and the 1931 Manchuria crisis, plus one way to
Japan had genuine grievances against China that had end that sentence. Put the beginnings with the end: how
to be addressed alongside the Mukden Railway Incident many of the resulting statements do you agree with?
and Britain had a longstanding friendly relationship with
Japan. However, doing nothing was not an option for the [he Great Depression seriously affected Japan
League. The League did not have its own arn
The US and the Soviet Union were not members of
the League ...

FACT FILE . The British were concerned about¢ their friendshit

Chinese is written using a different script and the way of with Japan ...
spelling Chinese names in the alphabet has changed over ne Japanese military tried to solve its economic
time. Chinchow is a town now spelled ‘Shenyang’, while problems by extending its empire ...
Mukden is now spelled Jinzhou’. This can sometimes i
make looking places up confusing. We’ve used the spelling
Japan left the League ...
of names that was current at the time of the events we're The Lytton Commission did not recommend tough
discussing. } action against Japan...
y,
ee
... 80 the League failed to stop the Japanese
It was impossible for the League to ignore the fact that a invasion of Manchuria.
large area of China had been occupied illegally (see the
map in Source 2). Members representing small states were The crisis was complicated. You might think all of the
particularly concerned and wanted the League to stop a statements are at least a bit true. Now convert those
great power acting as an aggressor. sentences into short paragraphs - start with the same
phrases as before, but this time add a bit of detail and in
The Lytton Commission each case, this time end with the words ‘and that is part
In December 1931, the Council decided to create a of why the League failed to stop the Japanese invasion
commission of enquiry to travel to the Far East and find out
of Manchuria’.
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

firmed by a vote taken in the Assembly: 42 votes

3. Which of points a) to f) would have been most
1. As aresult of the vote, on 27 March 1933, Japan
significant for i) small powers facing aggression
nounced that it was leaving the League of Nations. Bad
from other small powers; and ii) for political leaders
feeling between China and Japan continued until Japan
thinking of expanding their borders and building an
unched further hostilities
in the summer of 1937. Japan
empire? Briefly explain your answer in each case.
{ not stop building its empire. Its aggression played a
a_ Thedifficulties of applying collective security
S|gnificant role in starting the war in the Pacific in December
procedures were Clearly on display for the world
1941. Is it possible this war could have been prevented if the
to see.
League had been able to stop Japan in 1931?
b Japan was a Great Power; other Great Powers
were very careful in the way that they handled
the aggression in Manchuria.
c_ |tcould be difficult to identify a clear aggressor.
d League procedures could be long; it took nine
months for the Lytton Commission to start its
work and finish with its report.
e Manchuria was different from other crises the
League had faced. The scale of the aggression
was greater and the consequences more serious.
f The only result of the Manchuria crisis was a
commission of inquiry; there were no sanctions
and no threat of military action.
Source 2J: A British cartoon from 19th January 1933
e about the League of Nations’ reaction to the invasion of

Bopcnasia tymaben Case Study D: The Abyssinian Crisis, 1935-1936

Like Japan, Italy was a member of the League Council,
and just like Japan, Italy had ambitions forterritory.
Benito Mussolini, the Italian dictator (called || Duce), was a
ascist (see Source 2L). His ambitions were rooted in Italy’s
history; he wanted to create a new Roman empire and
make Italy ‘great, respected and feared’.
taly’s interest in Abyssinia was long-standing. In
1896, Italy had attempted an invasion, but failed.
Once Mussolini took power in the 1920s, the dream of
conquering Abyssinia was back. You can see in the map in
ET ES Source 2M how close the Italian colony of Somaliland is to
aS ——— Abyssinia. By 1932, invasion plans had been completed.
Source 2K: A British cartoon from 24th November 1932 pileaca seat eI ROUT ee i ti oes
Stour the (cavue of Natlons: reaction (othe! ytion II 2 oh er region betwee ne two countries. During the
Report skirmish, about thirty Italians and three times as many
1
Abyssinians died. Mussolini demanded compensatio
for the loss of life. With the tension increasing, other
sreat Powers started to get involved. They did so without
G)

Sources 2J and 2K are both cartoons from a British reference to the League or its procedures. Selfish motives
newspaper of the time of the Manchuria Crisis. drove the great power leaders: they were anxious to build
1_ Explain the criticism which Source 2J is makingof a strong buffer against Hitler’s Germany. Britain and
the League of Nations. France wanted to build friendly relatior S with Mussolini
2 Explain the criticism which Source 2K is making of because this would counter the threat from Hitler’s
the Lytton Commission and its report. Germany, which had by this point left the League and
|
DeLPUN rearming
 2: To what extent was the League of Nations a success?

The Italian invasion was unprovoked agg

League promptly condemned it and oS
Sanctions. Many emotional speeches e f
debat on es
the crisis. One dele the Asse
that ‘grea or small,
t strons O
or coloured, let us neverf day we b
somebody’s Abyssinia’. Sanctions included preve 2
the sale of armaments and other war materials anc
cutting creditto the Italian government and Italian firms

The sanctions failed to hurt Italy’s economy. Why

Because oil and coal, which were essential for runnir
the war, were not on the list of prohibited trade.The Suez
Canal, the main supply route for the Italian army, was kept
open by its owner, Britain, who fear
British colonies like Malta and Gibraltar t e Italian nav)

Britain and France now made a secret deal with Mussolini.

The Hoare-Laval Plan stated that Italy would receive
two-thirds of Abyssinia in return for stopping the war. This
amounted to 60,000 square miles of Abyssinian territory. In
exchange, some 3,000 square miles of Somaliland would
be given to Abyssinia to provide an outlet to the sea.
To begin with, the plan was secret, but the press found
out and Hoare was forced to resign as British Foreign
Secretary.
Source 2L: A photo of Mussolini in April 1934 stirring the
; ; : n January 1936, Mussolini appointed a new commander
Italian crowds with dreams of a new Roman empire.
who launched a fresh attack. This time, Italian troops
nade greater progress, not least because they were
using mustard gas. This time, the League was agair
considering imposing an embargo on oil, however France
ejected the idea. By this time, Europe was becoming
nore and more concerned about Hitler’s actions; in March
1936 he violated the Treaty of Versailles by remilitarising
the Rhineland. The Italians were left alone and overran
Abyssinia; the capital was taken on 5 May.

Mustard gas: a chemical weapon that was used during the

AC First World War. It causes large blisters on exposed skin and
Addis Ababa @ BO lungs.
ABYSSINIA Embargo: a partial or complete end to trade with a country.
> It isan example of a trade sanction.

The Emperor of Abyssinia, Haile Selassie, travelled to

Geneva to give an emotional speech to the Assemb
on 30 June. With great dignity, his outra
chemical weapons against his peop
to the world. But with the war nearly o
Source 2M:
A map showing the Italian invasion of Abyssinia. members had little wish for maintain
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

| _ Lin | Wd in December 1937

ibandoned in July, and inDecember 19. CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 2.8
vithdrew
lrew from the League.
1 Compare the two crises - Manchuria and Abyssinia —
The consequences
then consider what were the main differences and
similarities between them. Did the League perform
)
aS asion on which the League actually
better in one crisis than the other? ;
sunched a full-scale security action. It went beyond . .
2 ‘Great Powers always act in their own interests. To
O ns to the imposition of
what extent do Manchuria and Abyssinia illustrate
onomic sanctions. The problem for the Great Powers
this statement?
was that their increasing anxiety about Germany meant
they had to keep a working relationship with Mussolini.
he policy ) that France and Britain Ppursued was not
consistent: they wavered between working within the
\ Review your learning
League and independent action outside it. To Mussolini, Historians disagree about the track record of the
Erance and Britain looked wee C used >ther , i es, os ; es
France and Britain looked weak and contused. To othe! League of Nations, its strengths and weakness,
League members it was clear that the procedures had not
successes and failures. You should assess the
saved a League member from complete destruction and
evidence, weigh it up and make up your own mind.
0 it was not to be trusted. Make sure you can answer the four questions listed at
After Abyssinia, the League and collective security were the beginning of this chapter as Focus points; then you
sidelined more and more from the pursuit of international will have enough evidence for you to attempt
security by small and Great Powers. Key Question 2.

ACTIVITY 2.12

Page 10 CENTRAL 3000 The Evening Stgndard Friday, February 15, 1935 1 Study this British cartoon in Source
. 2N carefully. The figure in the middle
JHE LEAGUE 2 PAH! THE LEAGUE IS CONTEMPTIBLE! is Italian dictator Benito Mussolini.
THE LEAGUE CAN DO NOTHING |
The female figure to the right
| represents Western Civilisation.
To what extent does the cartoon
A ala confirm the mnemonic in the
Summary points, explaining the
reasons for the League's failure?
2 ‘The League did not really fail in
the 1930s, rather it was sidelined,
as politicians chose increasingly
to work beyond its corridors. The
Covenant was not applied, its
spirit was not honoured and the
principles of universality were not
taken seriously’ (Martyn Housden,
a SELF-PORTRAIT. “(CopyrightinAll Conntrien) historian). To what extent does
Source 2N: A British cartoon published in 1935. Mussolini, the Italian leader, Martyn Housden agree with the
is the larger figure and Low, the cartoonist, is commenting on the fact that cartoonist and the mnemonic?
Italy was a member of the League of Nations.
 2: To what extent was the League of Nations a success?

Summary points WAS DUMB

W - Weak
A -— Abyssinia
S - Structure
~~)

D — Depression
U — Unsuccessful
M — Manchuria
B - Bullies

The Big Challenge

With a partner, review the structure and Covenant of You won't have to change everything: much of the
the League of Nations: work ofthe League’s agencies was successful.
* How could you make it more effective? ing completed
Having com jour review,
your view, do
do you you thinthink
k tthat 3 the
* Ifyou were helping set up the League in the 1920s, League was doomed to fail from the start or was it
undermined by later events?
how would you deal with the League’s weaknesses?

Exam-style questions
1 ‘The organisation and structure of the League were very significant ir
failure” Do you agree?

‘If the League of Nations had been supported by the US and an arm
have been very effective in preventing wars.’ How far do you agree’

When it started, what did the League hope to achieve? What were the differing
Council and Assembly of the League of Nations?

In 1939 the Second World War began. Does this mean that the

‘Great power disagreement caused the failure of the League an

extent do you agree with this judgement?
58
*

Key Question 3: Why had international

peace collapsed by 1939?

Focus points
What were the long-term consequences ofthe peace treaties of 1919-1923?
What were the consequences ofthe failures of the League in the 1930s?
How far was Hitler’s foreign policy to blame for the outbreak of war in 1939?
Was the policy of appeasement justified?
How important was the Nazi-Soviet Pact?
Why did Britain and France declare war on Germany in September 1939?

Bf | wd
 3: Why had international peace collapsed by 1939?

What is this enquiry about?

In this chapter you will investigate the collapse of the Look at the map in Figure 3.1 and the dates showing the
international order in the 1930s. You will look at the development ofthe Japanese empire in the 1930s and
militarism and nationalism of Japan, Italy and Germany, 1940s.
and the response of other countries.
1 You know that the League of Nations failed to stop
You need to understand events from the perspective of Japan invading Manchuria in 1931. Was it possible to
the decision-makers at the time. If you succeed, then it stop Japan after 1931? If so, when?
will be an easier task to explain the outbreak of a second 2 Which ofthese factors might have had sufficient
world war only twenty years after the first. impact to stop the spread of the Japanese
In contrast to the peaceful 1920s, the 1930s saw Siang?
developments that eventually led to the outbreak of war * the end of the Great Depression and the return of
in 1939. Although it is called the Second World War there normal trading conditions
were in fact two wars: one that broke out in Europe in * the USSR joining the League of Nations
September 1939 and one that started in 1931 with the * the USjoining
the League of Nations.
Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Try to keep in mind this
distinction. Here are two maps to help you.

q
Sea of 4q
SOVIET UNION Okhotsk BM Japanese Empire in 1870
Kuril Is. [SS Acquisitions until 1932
(1875)
Bea Additional Occupation by 1937
5 outhern y)
/ Sakhalin Sexa Additional Occupation by 1938

_. MANCHURIA ate! Additional Occupation by 1939

/(1905, 1932 puppet state) ¢ ey Additional Occupation by 1940
eS | Additional Occupation by 1942

e Vladivostok [___] Demilitarized Zone of

the Tangku Truce (1933)
Sea of Japan

protectorate,

Tsushing a a
trait —

Ningpo
& RYUKYU IS.
INDIA Nanchang (1972-1879)
s East China Sea

GI my rata
“Hong Kong (1895)
Canton
(1937) Pacific Ocean

(1942),
Philippine Sea

Andamah
Sea 4 saat SE ae ical South China Sea N “PHILIPPINES Yap
= oor (1914)
Gulf of * MAB Saigon
oh
a
Mi. yte Ss
Thailand & #5)
Sulu Se
emer
os
» Palau
. (1914)
a Natuna Besargrunei
mca a :
ingapore eae
my, (1942) 5) ‘ae Celebes Sea
i R A} me

Figure 3.1: Japanese aggression in the Far East during the 1930s.
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

NORWAY
ag Under German control ’ SWEDEN
September 1, 1939

Under Italian control

September 1, 1939

——
: :
Maginot Line
North Sea
:
R Baltic
Sea JTHUANIA
Danzig
German concentration GREAT
¢ >

camps, 1939 BRITAIN 7). Sachsenhausen

i POLISH CORRIDOR
GERMANY |
= eno POLAND
‘BELG. x
(ehineiana
LUX.& Se 1936 CZECHOSLOVAKIA
st S
em 938 mm +H
backoe Mauthausen
Atlantic

mee FRANCE ‘SWITz..__ AUSTRIA HUNGARY

ox A Dok March 1938
ROMANIA

Black Sea

Q
o V SAR

Mediterranean Sea

Figure 3.2: German and Italian aggression in the late 1930s. Note the purple arrows indicate German expansion and the
green indicate Italian expansion.

ACTIVITY 3.2

Use the Fact File and the maps in Figures 3.1-3.3 to

help you, as well as the Sources 3A-3F to answer the
following questions: aS:
1 What aspects of nationalism and militarism can you =
see portrayed in Sources 3A, 3B, 3C, 3D, 3E and 3F?
2 What evidence can you find on the maps and from Og
your own knowledge that nationalism and militarism
seem to have led to successes for Japan, Italy and
Germany in the 1930s?
3 In Germany and Japan, governments became much
more militaristic and nationalistic following the
impact of the Great Depression. Why do you think
this happened? Figure 3.3: The map shows Italy in dark green; the Italian
4 Why would the growth of nationalism and militarism Empire in light green in 1939; and the dark grey areas are
endanger the international peace during the 1930s? additional conquests made during the early part of the
Second World War.
 3: Why had international peace collapsed by 1939?

FACT FILE
Japan was one ofthe few parts of the world not to
have been colonised by European settlers or conquered
by a European army. Its rulers carefully studied Europe
and modernised. They already had a strongly
developed warrior ethic. Building on this they created
a modern army and navy, and defeated Russia in a war
Source 3A: A propaganda
in 1905.
poster from the Nazi
Party, which governed
Germany after 1933. The
s caption reads: ‘Long Live
Growing strength of Germany, Italy and Japan
Germany!’

together, in spite of
them apart. The Rome-Berlin Axis was made
in 1936 and Japan joined a year
Comintern Pact. As you have seen, all three g

Source 3B: A photograph ofthe Italian leader, Benito

Mussolini, surrounded by officers from the Italian army.

Source 3C: Unlike German cities during World War Il,

Madrid and other Spanish cities did not have well
prepared bomb shelters. In this photo by Robert Capa
taken during the Spanish Civil War in 1937 a mother
scans the sky for German or Italian bombers. Her
daughter is less concerned because her mother is
holding her hand. Robert Capa wrote that ‘Nowhere Source 3D: Propaganda poster from 1939, praising the virtues
is there safety for anyone in this war. The women of ‘Germans buy German Products; German Labour, German
stay behind, but the death, the ingenious death from Products, and German Production.’ Hitler wanted the German
the skies finds them out.’ economy to become self-sufficient: this is called ‘autarky’
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

>m common cause in reaching beyond their frontiers to

create empires in Europe (Germany) in Africa and south-
TOP TIP
east Europe (Italy) and in the Far East (Japan). The key to
r orowino friendship was that their imperial ambitions
Three countries are key to understanding the collapse
growing of peace in the 1930s: Japan, Germany and Italy. The
did not clash so they we re not in competition. Look back governments of all three were committed to two policies:
at tne maps On pp. 59=60. Nationalism is a belief that encourages people to identify
strongly with their country. Support for the nation
Successful invasions and empire building demand
becomes a duty and more important than any concern for
support from the general public, economies adapted
the welfare of the individual. A nationalist government’s
for war, and strong armies, navies a nd air forces. Look main aim is the making the nation more powerful, and
at the Table 3.1. What similarities and differences are with that sometimes richer and bigger.
there between Germany, Italy and Japan in the 1930s Militarism is the belief that a country should maintain a
bearing in mind what you know about nationalism strong army, navy and air force and be prepared to use it
and militarism? aggressively to defend or promote national interests. It
also suggests the glorification of military ideals such as
duty, order, loyalty and obedience.

Table 3.1: The growing threat to peace during the 1930s.

Country Military strength and spending during 1930s. Alliances and policies.

Germany Hitler introduced conscription in March Wanted to scrap Versailles and find Lebensraum for growing German
Dictatorship 1935. The German army grew from population.
led by Hitler 100,000 to 300,000. By 1939 103 divisions Left the League of Nations in September 1933.
and the Nazis. were ready for war. In addition, there Supported the Nationalist rebels in the Spanish Civil War, 1936-9. Used this
argely were 3,000 planes in the airforce. Hitler’s conflict to test new techniques in aerial bombing.
supported by government increased spending on Signed treaty with Sources 3C and D. Italy in October 1936 to create
he German armaments: in 1933 it was 5 billion RM*; the ‘Rome-Berlin Axis’.
dublic. this grew to 10 billion in 1936 and to 16 In May 1939 Hitler signed the ‘Pact of Steel’, a military alliance with

nf
billion in 1938.
ie
Italy.
;
Italy Tanks were of poor quality and the Italian | Wanted to rebuild the Roman Empire and find space forItaly’s surplus
Dictatorship artillery dated from the First World War. population; wanted to break out of the Mediterranean ‘prison’ where
led by Army had 200,000 France and Britain had several key military bases.
Mussolini and troops. Infantry were only lightly armed Left the League of ations in December 1937.
the Fascists. and lacked sufficient motor transport. Played a crucial role in supplying free weapons and materials as well as
Largely Italy had the fourth largest navy in the soldiers to the Nationalist rebels in the Spanish Civil War, 1936-9.
supported world; it had several battleships but no Signed treaty with Germany in October 1936 to create the ‘Rome-
by the Italian aircraft carriers. Berlin Axis’. Italy increasingly dependent on Germany for coal following
public. Government spent a third of its entire the sanctions imposed on Italy by the League after Mussolini invaded
Mussolini takes budget on the military; by 1940 it reached Abyssinia.
control of the 40%. However, a lot of this went to help In May 1939 signed the Pact of Steel, a military alliance with Germany.
army, navy and General Franco, leader of the Nationalist
air force. rebels in Spain.

Japan In 1931 the Japanese army had 198,880 assive population increase but food and other raw materials had to be
Dictat yrship troops; by 1937 this had grown to 300,000 imported. Wanted to acquire an empire to ensure supply of raw materials
€ dd by the and had reached that Japan needed and to challenge the British, French and Dutch empires
| military. 1.7 million by 1941. in the Far East. 55% of Japanese oil is supplied by the US. Left the League
In 1941, the Imperial Japanese Navy had of Nations in March 1933. Withdrew from the 1936 Second London
10 battleships, 10 aircraft carriers, 38 Disarmament Conference because US and GB refused to treat Japan as their
cruisers (heavy and light), 112 destroyers, equal.
65 submarines. In September 1940 Japan signed the Tripartite Pact with Germany
By 1941, the Japanese air force had 1,500 and Italy. Called the Axis powers, the three become allies and promise
ombat aircraft. to provide mutual assistance should any one of them suffer attack by any
nation not already involved in the war. The Pact also formally recognized
the two spheres of influence: ‘the new order in | urope’ will be led by
Germany and Italy while Japan was ‘overlord of Greater East Asia’.
 3: Why had international peace collapsed by 1939?

3.1 What were the long-term

consequences of the peace
treaties of 1919-1923?
In Chapter 3 you learnt about the Paris Peace Conferer
tne decisions had been made it was time to implement tt
However, this is easier said than done. Italy and Germar
very dissatisfied with the settlem

Italy
taly had joined
the Allied Powers in April 1915 and
been promised territorial rewards for doing so. H
the Adriatic port of Fiume was not given to Italy, nor did
taly gain enough of Germany’s colonies. The Italians felt
they hadn’t got
=
what theyJ y

Germany
The Versailles Treaty had taken from Germany 25,000
square miles ofterritory and 7 million people. However,
the terms did not leave Germany with nothing. The
country still had considerable economic resources and
no part of Germany had been destroyed in the same way
that France had been on the Western Front. Germany
night have been disarmed but it still had the resources
Source 3E: A photograph of a Japanese military parade O produce modern replacements at later. As early as
during the 1930s. 1925, just seven years after the end of the First World War,
Germany’s steel production was twice that of Britain.
Furthermore, on its eastern border lay a c CcO = +
of relatively weak successor states. To add a final
humiliation, the principle of national self
seemed to apply to everyone except the
union with German-speaking Austria was forbidder

During the 1920s, many political parties in Germany

wanted to revise the Treaty of Versailles. However, on
man in particular did not want it revised; he wanted it
destroyed. His name was Adolf Hitler.

FACT FILE

Hitler was born in the multicultural Austro-Hungarian

Empire. Austria’s Germans had been a dominant political
force there, but other people such as the Czechs had been :
campaigning for greater autonomy long before the Paris
Peace Conference. Hitler (like many other Germans), did
not take seriously the countries created by Wilson and the
Source 3F: A photograph of young Germans waiting to others who had imposed the Versailles Treaty: they were
welcome Adolf Hitler. artificial and did not deserve to exist.
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

Hitler’s foreign policy Depression took hold, this changed and many started to

Tearing up the treaties of Versailles and Saint-Germain was think that the Germans had been treated too harshly. The
Hitler’s foreign policy aim in the 1930s. His demands, his emergence ofthe Nazi Party led by Hitler was viewed in
actions and his motives all came from the ‘diktat’ peace. Britain as an understandable response to the punitive
Look at the map of Germany in the previous section. You
Versailles Treaty. If the treaty was unfair, many felt that it
n see the key actions between 1933 and 1939 were: was the duty of the British government to help Germany in
achieving the peaceful revision of the treaty. After all, the
1936 — The start of German rearmament and the British were partly responsible for what was in it.
remilitarisation of the Rhineland.
French politicians and public, however, believed that
1938 - The Anschluss (union) with Austria. the Treaty of Versailles had not been tough enough on
1938 - The transfer of Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia. the Germans. To protect themselves they had wanted a
treaty that would permanently weaken Germany. By the
1939 - The invasion of Prague, the capital of Czechoslovakia.
mid-1930s it was clear that Hitler was seeking to wreck the
1939 — The seizure of Memel. peace settlement. The French decided on two strategies:
first, they built the very expensive Maginot Line, a row
1939 - The claims made over Danzig and the Polish Corridor.
of forts on the border, to stop another German invasion;
second, they worked with the British in achieving a
ACTIVITY 3.3
peaceful revision of the treaty.
1 What three elements of the peace treaties could be
exploited by Hitlerto build up fierce nationalism
among the German people?
2 Why was militarism popular with many sections of
the German population?
SS 3 Why do you think Hitler started his programme
of changes to the Treaty of Versailles with the
remilitarisation of the Rhineland?

a FACT FILE

If you look at the map of Czechoslovakia in Figure 3.4 you

can see the Sudetenland on its western border. Most of
the people living there were Germans (3.5 million), and
it contained valuable raw materials. When the country Source 3G: The Maginot Line circa 1940. You can see
had been created by the Paris Peace Conference, the anti-tank rails protruding from the ground.
border had been created with the natural defences of the
mountains in mind. Accordingly, many of the country’s
military defences had been located there. Once the
Sudetenland had been taken Germany, there was very
little to protect Czechoslovakia from invasion.
ap FACT FILE
The Maginot Line was built to avoid a surprise attack from
Germany and to give the alarm if an attack happened. The
government knew that it would take two to three weeks
Impact of the treaty on British and French to mobilise the French Army and that the Line would give
ey it valuable time in the event of an attack. It was made of
fortifications, border guard posts and anti-tank rails. Not
n the years after 1919, the British government and public all parts of the Maginot Line were equally strong. You can
( largely please
ve ith the punitive aspects see this in Sources 3G and 3H.
ity of Versailles: As the 1 ete ed and the
 3: Why had international peace collapsed by 1939?

GERMAN ANNEXATION OF
Warta
THE SUDETENLAND 1938
0 100
MILES

Germany

kow
CZECHOSLOVAKIA Se

</ CZECHOSLOVAKIA
a Di
Danube Banska

GERMANY
a
: (AUSTRIA)
Y ;
* Satu Mare
Debrecen / Romania Figure 3.4: A map showing the territory
/ Oradea
© Dej of Czechoslovakia annexed by
Germany in 1938.

3.2 What were the consequences

of the failures of the League in the
1930s?
You have already studied the impact of the new
organisation called the League of Nations, set up after
the end of the First World War. The League’s failures in the
1930s had a significant impact on the actions of Japan
Italy and Germany - the three countries with governments
that were both nationalistic and militaristic as well as
being dictatorships.

Source 3H: A photo Suan part of the Maginot |

Line in Manchuria
November 1939. It was a series of expensive fortifications In 1931, the Japanese invasion of Manchuria w
that were built on the Franco-German border to keep the the first time the League of Nations had seeksa
Germans out. challenge from a great power. If the League had met
the challenge and the Japanese had been stopped
this would have beena deterrent to other Great
Powers like Italy and Germany. However, with the world
1 Whydo you think the Maginot Line shown in
ooking on, the League’s failure to silence the Japanese
Sources 3G and 3H appears to be in two sections,
guns showed not only Japan itself, but also Hitler and
weak fortifications and strong fortifications?
ee f scales Mussolini
that the Leaguewas incapable
2 What does this defence system tell you about Frenc of stoppingan aggressive country from making
attitudes towards: a) Britain and b) the League of :
erritorial gains
Nations?
3 What does the Maginot Line tell you about the long-
term consequences of the peace treaties? ¢
4 Howdid changing British attitudes towards the
Versailles Treaty make it more likely that Hitler’s Deterrent: an action that puts off or deters a country from
demands would be met in the 1930s? being aggressive towards others.
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

ft KEY TERMS
Abyssinia
Hitler and Mussolini were delighted at the outcome "Pact: ie ty, awritten a ee
the Far East. The League couldn’t take effective action yates na pe way.
and it was proving impossible to put international pea
tegs
v Soviet-led organisation tha was
nterests ahead of national interests. This meant that communist ideolo ‘in countri
further aggressive behaviour from Italy was extremely oe etUnion we
likely and that Hitler would soon be furthering his policy of a
carat
seen ne to cali —nana
destroying the Treaty of Versailles. The Italian conquest of _aponentbyeninein to: leloft demands.

Abyssinia in 1935 was humiliating for the League because

the Great Powers - France and Britain - were shown to be
playing a double game: they supported the application of
sanctions while at the same time negotiating behind the
back of the League with the aggressor, Italy, in the form of
the Hoare-Laval Pact.
As time went on it was harder and harder for Britain and
France to keep Italy on their side, detached from Hitler’s
Germany. Italy withdrew from the League in 1937. In
September 1937, Mussolini visited Berlin. In November
of the same year, Italy signed the Anti-Comintern Pact
with Germany and Japan to present a united front against
Soviet communism - an ideology all three countries
hated.

The League’s failure

Source 3l: The appeasers at the Munich Conference in
Britain and France had never been entirely supportive
September 1938: from the left, British Prime Minister,
of the League of Nations. It was now obvious to
Neville Chamberlain and French Prime Minister, Edouard
both governments that collective security through
Daladier, with Hitler and then Mussolini centre and right.
the League was finished - an alternative had to be found.
Some sort of deterrent was needed to stop Germany
and Italy from further aggression. Could Britain and The British and French leaders met with Hitler and Mussolini
France rearm? in September 1938 to decide a response to Hitler’s demand
to take over the Sudetenland, part of Czechoslovakia. The
During the Great Depression military spending'had not
Czech government was not invited to the meeting, but told
been a government priority. Instead, France and Britain
afterwards that it should hand over the Sudetenland to
had hoped for the success of collective security. Public
Germany. Without allies, the Czech leaders agreed.
opinion in both countries was against rearmament, the
ordinary citizen had more faith in the League than the
politicians had.
3.3 How far was Hitler’s foreign
policy to blame for the outbreak
Did the failure of the League result in
appeasement?
of war in 1939?
By 1936 it seemed to the British and French governments Most historians would agree that Hitler’s foreign policy was
they had to start rearming. Both recognised that largely to blame. This does not mean that other causes
vould take several years for the plans to achieve full do not count; after all, Hitler acted, but other countries
iment and readiness for a big war, if and when it reacted. Historians are divided on whether Hitler had
meantime, Neville Chamberlain, the British a long-standing plan to go to war, or whether he saw
Minister, and French Prime Minister, Edouard opportunities when they arose and used them shrewdly.
N line with the dictator Ss between Between 1933 and the early part of 1936, Hitler had been
aw
)

|/ appeasement chancellor of Germany without showing

any military
 3: Why had international peace collapsed by 1939?

aggression. However, in the next three years he confused Hitler’s future demands for the union with Austria and
other European leaders: What did he want? What were his the taking of the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia.
intentions?

Hitler had three foreign policy aims, but this still\doesn’t

mean he was planning for war. FACT FILE

* To create a German Reich in which all German-speaking Reich is the German word for ‘empire’. In English, we
tend to call Hitler’s Germany the ‘Third Reich’, which is
people lived.
a curious half translation of Dritte Reich (Third Empire).
* To destroy the treaty of Versailles and restore German The German expression was coined to show Nazi rule
pride and power. as following two earlier German empires. The German
* Toseek Lebensraum in the east. state under Nazi rule largely called itself the Deutsches
| Reich (German Empire), just as it had done both under an
emperor and as a republic.
1935 - Saar Plebiscite
Hitler’s three aims could not all be achieved at once. His
first priority was to destroy the Treaty of Versailles and his
strategy was to chip away at the terms of the treaty and FACT FILE
see what the British and French reaction would be. The Lebensraum is a German word for ‘living space’. Hitler
first step was in line with the terms ofthe treaty and not an argued that Germany was justified in forcing the people to
attack on it. In 1919 in Paris the treaty had taken the Saar its east out of the way to allow the country to grow in size
to fit its growing population. It may sound outrageous to
from Germany and put it under the control of the League
declare you're going, for example, to push all the Poles out
of Nations for fifteen years (see ‘What were the key points of Poland and give their land to your own people. But this
of the Treaty of Versailles?’ section in Chapter 1). The year was not very different from what had been agreed in the
1935 marked the end of League control and the timing of 1918 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. Besides, the process might
a plebiscite - a vote by Saarlanders to decide whether to look to the Germans not very different from what other
become part of France, retain their separate status under European countries had been doing in their colonies in
places such as Africa and the Americas.
the League or rejoin Germany.
The result of the plebiscite was very important because
the Saar contained coalfields, factories and railway
The Rhineland
stations. A fierce campaign to rejoin Germany was
In 1936, Hitler focused his attention on the Rhineland -
fought by Nazi supporters living in the Saar. Opponents
see Source 3J. It was still part of Germany but it had
were intimidated and there was violence. However,
been demilitarised by the Treaty of Versailles. German
League observers confirmed that the voting was fair and
pride was further hurt because French, British and
free; in January 1935 90.3% voted to return the Saar to
American troops were stationed there for fifteen years to
Germany, 9% wanted to retain their status and 0.4% to
ensure that no German invasion of France could happen
become part of France. On 1 March the Saar officially
again. Don't forget that French and Belgian troops had
rejoined Germany and stage 1 of unifying all Germans was
entered the Ruhr in 1923 and marched through the
complete.
Rhineland to get there.
The remilitarisation of the Rhineland took place in 1936.
Effects of the Saar plebiscite
Was this the first step to a planned war or was it an
1 The fact that the League had not complained about
opportunity that Hitler took for himself and for Germany?
the violence during the campaign and invalidated the
In March 1936, two divisions of German troops marched
vote demonstrated weakness.
into the Rhineland. Hitler predicted that neither France
2 The huge majority in favour of rejoining Germany told nor Britain would do anything. He was right. Why?
the world how Germans felt about the treaty and that
The French and British leaders recognised that the
they were determined to tear it up.
Rhineland was really part of Germany. Neither wanted to
3. Theresult was a boost for Hitler and his regime. It was risk peace. Not only that, but once German en me Ln aese
LrOODS wert

the first step in bringing all Germans into one greater place, Hitler followed up his surprise move wit!
Germany, the Third Reich, and it set a precedent for even suggesting a non-aggression pact.
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

between left-wing and right-wing beliefs and values.

Hitler and Mussolini saw the fighting in Spain as an
ideal opportunity to test out military equipment that
nad only seen action on the training ground. Look at
Sources 3N and 30 you can see the sort of support both
taly and Germany gave to the Nationalists, who had
ebelled against the democratically elected left-leaning
government. While the German and Italian governments
helped the Nationalists, the Soviet Union (communist)
helped the Republican side. Britain and France stayed
out of the conflict, fearing that it might spread beyond
Spain to the rest of Europe, although ‘volunteers’
crossed to Spain to join the Republican side.
Nearly three years of savage fighting followed; 270,000
people died. The Nationalists, led by General Franco,
eventually won and he established a Fascist dictatorship
that lasted until his death in 1975.
Although Franco kept Spain neutral during the
Second World War and refused to become Hitler’s
Source 3J: Amap showing the position of the Rhineland.
ally, the Civil War was still important in Hitler’s plans
The area was demilitarised after the Treaty of Versailles.
for the rest of Europe. The dive-bombing that the
Luftwaffe inflicted on Spanish towns like Guernica was
The 48 hours after the march were the most vital in providing practice for Hitler’s air force
a nerve-racking in my life. If the French troops had (see Sources 3N and 30); in time, dive-bombing would
(challenged) us we would have had to withdraw with develop into the strategy called Blitzkreig (lightening
our tails between our legs ... the resources would attack) and be used in the Second World War. Not
have been wholly inadequate for even moderate only this, but Mussolini and Hitler became closer in
resistance. spite of British and French efforts to keep them
apart. The success of the Nationalists in the Civil War
Source 3K: Hitler commented years later on the
boosted Hitler’s confidence about the potential impact
remilitarisation of the Rhineland.
of his rearmament programme for the German army,
navy and the Luftwaffe, in particular (see Source 3N).
+

Hitler has got away with it! France is not marching. It was during the Civil War that Hitler was able to achieve
Instead, it is appealing to the League of Nations. success in Austria (1938) and Czechoslovakia (1938-9) -
Oh, the stupidity of the French. | learnt today that this time without starting a war.
the German troops were under strict orders to beat

any way.
a hasty retreat if the French army opposed them in

1 What do Sources 3K and 3L suggest would have

Source 3L: William Shirer was an American journalist
happened ifthe French had challenged the German
working in Berlin in 1936.
divisions?

The Spanishea Civil

At
al
War,Sigel 1936-1939 co
What lessons did Hitler take f hi
Ena ?
Hitler knew that there was a serious financial crisis
| panisn Civil War (1936-9) was a conflict that
in France and that elections were taking place in six
the ideological divide that existed in
weeks’ time. Does this provide evidence that Hitler
fascism versus Communism.
was a ‘planner’ or an ‘opportunist’?
rsus dictatorship.
It was a clash
 3: Why had international peace collapsed by 1939?

Source 30: May 1937: A photo of the Spanish city of

Guernica after the German Luftwaffe had finished its attack

|wynntaas contra 7
using dive-bombing techniques.

INVASION ITALIANA The Union with Austria (Anschluss), 1938

i The Treaty of Versailles in 1919 prohibited the union of

u make Germany weaker not stronger f wing the end

; of the First World War. As n t Austriar poke German,
Source 3M: A propaganda poster published by the ae ee HON cin Pr ry dey age jo
this decision ran counter to the princip
Republican government in 1937. The text reads: ‘Stand up EM aa
self-determination
against the Italian invasion of Spain’.
Fourteen Points. and
all German-speaking people in one Reich. B
Treaty of Versailles was being w
with a population of 7 million, in
= Ve Third Reich was key to Hitler’s foreigr
a and France pursued the policy of appeasement ar
considered Austria Was too Ta
+
aly was next door to Austria.
\
In 1934, |
1is army on alert to prevent an ear
but by 1938 Hitler was stronger and their re
close! than four years earlier.

Tne Anschluss was a striking example of H a

combine ‘consistency of aim and patienc p 3
with opportunism and improvisation in execution’. T
Start with, Hitler was regularly speaking at

then,
he was patient — het t :
Dut was warned off b S 1 3
years. During this time
the CO\ ernment Tom \

Source 3N: A photo of German Stukas from the Legion of Anschluss wa

Condor. rtunit
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

chancellor Schuschnigg of Austria wanted to restrict What next? In order to legitimise the takeover of Austria,
he activities of the Nazis in his country. He asked Hitler Hitler organised a plebiscite in early April to prove to
for help. Hitler seized this opp ortunity. He demanded
+
the world that the Anschluss was what people wanted.
a series of conditions that would turn Austria into a Austrians voted by a large majority to join the Third Reich;
German-controlled state. On 9 March Schuschnigg tried you can see one ofthe ballot papers in Source 3k.
to regain the initiative from Hitler by calling a referendum
that asked Austrians to vote for a ‘free and German,
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 3.1
independent and social, Chris tian and united Austria’.
When news ofthe planned ref erendum reached Hitler he Did Hitler plan the Anschluss or did it fall into his hands
demanded Schuschnigg’s resi gnation and changed his because he seized an opportunity to take it?
policy of ‘gradual absorption’ to ‘immediate invasion’ on
12 March. This shows Hitler’s ability to improvise at short
notice: his tactic changed fron n replacing Schuschnigg
with Seyss-Inquart, a leading Austrian Nazi, to immediate
incorporation of Austria intothe Reich.
The Anschluss was over in day s and was largely welcomed
by Austrians themselves as yo ucan see in Source 3Q. For
Hitler this was another key part of the Versailles Treaty torn
up, and without adverse react ion from Britain or
France - both just protested b ecause they thought there
was little they could do without Italy’s help.
Hitler had used his army beyo nd Germany’s frontiers for
the very first time. He was imn yensely popular in Germany
because he had expanded Ge rman territory as well as
increasing the population and resources of the Third Reich.
The Fuhrer’s confidence in his abilities and the perceived
weakness of Germany’s oppor yents reached new heights. Source 3Q: A photo taken at the time of the Anschluss in
March 1938. Here Austrian girls welcome some of the first
German soldiers to reach Vienna.

Golfsabjtimmung und Grofdeutidher Reichstag

Stimmgettel
Bift Du mit der am 13, Marg 1938 pollgogenen

Wiederdereinigung Ofterreids mit Dem Deutfdhen Reid

einverftanden und flimm{t Du fiir die Lifte unferes Silhrers

Wdolf Hitler?
Ja

Nein

Source 3P: A British cartoon by David Low, published

in 1938 after the Anschluss. Br itain is shown at the end
-
carrying a basket representing the British Empire. The Source 3R: This is a voting ballot slip from 10 April 1938. The
quote reads ‘Why should we take a stand about someone text says “Do you agree with the reunification of Austria
pushing someone else when it’s all so far away...’ Is Low with the German Reich that was enacted on 13 March 1938.
critical of the Anschluss or of Britain’s response to it? Why and do you vote for the party of our leader Adolf Hitler?”
does Low call his cartoon ‘Increasing Pressure’? The large circle is labelled “Yes”, the smaller “No”,
 3: Why had international peace collapsed by 1939?

ACTIVITY 3.6 Until late May 1938, Hitler had no immediate plan for
attacking Czechoslovakia. a 28 MarchMarch Konrad
Ko Henk.
e
1 What links together sources 3P, 3Q and 3R? the coi eee Sudetten Germans, was told by Hit
2 Why is the response to the Anschluss so diffarent in to make demands for'h ‘home rule’ for the Sudetens.
sources 3P and 3Q? This would, of course, |
3 Whatcan you see in source 3R that suggests eoveMiment Pecause tt 44 =
the plebiscite was not a fair process? Would a country. On 20-21 May Hitter Waseulpr n that
fairer process have changed the result of the the Czechs had partially mobilised its army in response
plebiscite? to rumours of an imminent German attack. The rumours
were untrue but instead of putting him off, H
determined to ‘smash Czechoslovakia’ by 1 October, but
With Austria now incorporated into his Reich, Hitler still he still was careful in case world opinion turned against
wanted to appear ‘reasonable’ in his new demanas. him. So, throughout the summer of 1938, Hitler continued
Wasn't it reasonable to want the 3.5 million Germans living to encourage the Sudeten Germans to agitate for ‘home
in the Sudetenland to join the Reich? After all, it was next ule’. By early September, he had secretly finalised his
to Germany (see Figure 3.5) and the Sudeten Germans plans for small-scale military action against the Czechs.
were saying that they suffered discrimination at the hands Then, Hitler made his move.
of the Czech government in the capital, Prague. Hitler On 12 September, Hitler made a east bitterly attacking
had other reasons to hate Czechoslovakia: the country Czechoslovakia and this sparked a Sudeten uprising.
was very new because it had been created in 1919 as Believing a war was coming, the British Prime Minister,
part of the Paris Peace Settlement; to keep its frontiers Neville Chamberlain, met Hitler at Berchtesgaden on 15
secure, the Czech government had made alliances with September. In their discussions, Hitler emphasized his
both France and the Soviet Union; and Czechoslovakia desire for Anglo-German friendship and cooperation; but
was a democracy -something Hitler hated just as much he also threatened war if the issue of Sudeten Germans
as the Treaty of Versailles. So, how did Hitler approach was not resolved. It was at this point that Chamberlain
the Sudentenland, given his aim to form a union of all said he was ready toa a ee to the peaceful cession of the
Germans? Sudetenland to Germany, provided that the British, French
and Czech gover rnments aagre et
At their second meeting on 22 September at Bad
Godesberg, Chamberlain reported that he had secured
the approval of the three governments to the proposal.
However, he now faced new demands from Hitler: the
NETHERLANDS 4 ) Sudetenland was to be occupied by German troops
) immediately. Chamberlain was horrified at Hitler’s change
of mind and he returned to London to prepare Britain for
war. The British navy and the French army were instructed
BELGIUM \
to mobilise.

» ae Att CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 3.2

FRANCE < ,
SWITZERLAND — What were the differences and similarities between this
crisis and the Anschluss?

It was at this point that Hitler realized he was very close te

a war with Britain and France that he did not want at th
time. He therefore agreed tc
Figure 3.5: Map showing the position of the Sudetenland, to be held at Munich, as sugge i
part of Czechoslovakia in 1938. Mussolini. Neville Chamberlain (Britain), Ec
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

France), Mussolini (Italy) and Hitler (Germany) met on ofthe |Arguments against the
Arguments in favour
29 September 1938 (Source 31). All four agreed these Agreement Agreement
ts: the area Ce he d be given
suladlaneiogsieurse anemia i ane Britain was not ready to If war had broken out
to Germany over a ten-day period; in any area where ; ae
the popul tion was mixed, plebiscites would be held to fight a war in September aua lel Gea ae
pest : 1938 and Chamberlain possible that Britain and
determine what would happen; the four leaders would
knew this. France might have been
guarantee the remaining part of Czechoslovakia once supported by the USSR.
Polish and Hungarian claims had been satisfied.
Weer h te aie The Sudetenland was If war had started, Britain
when eCzec AONUMA NUS cHeLiSetS MISS with t : populated by Germans Arid Rh ancaA oul ene
Munich Agreement it had little choice but to agree to it, ; :
eae zit seach) Pelle ee and therefore a war in the backing of the 36
Bee aa nadink ui eatin ua abtiha 1938 would have been divisions of the Czech
else could they do? If they turned down the agreement ; ok ratte
. : against the principle army fighting behind their
it would mean the Czech army facing the much stronger i
; of national self- ‘| strong defences on the
German forces and the serious loss of Czech lives. Ec,
determination. frontier.
Aiter ine Munich Agreement had been Senet) Prime | The British Empire was iG eee ee
Minister emeenee. a to see ie and invited him = Rilke clisehinc! BCiealren accent ue ee
ee ie fasonseisae a High harming : in wanting to fight a war example ofthe policy of
everything t ee to promote the peace o Hes i in 1938. appeasement.
to resolve any differences by peaceful means. With Hitler’s ee rat
signature and his own on this ‘piece of paper’, Chamberlain Britain's air defences were | Britain and France,
returned to London thinking he had saved Europe from war. not ready and an attack two Great Powers, had
by the Luftwaffe could abandoned a small power,
mean defeat. Czechoslovakia to its fate.

3.4 Was the policy of appeasement

justified?
Source 3T is a photo of the England football team shortly
before kick-off in the Berlin Olympic Stadium, taken while
England was playing Germany on 14 May 1938. Hitler
: a\

wasn't present. Every single player is giving the Nazi

‘, De \

| Ve \ salute. Why?

| Py 1‘ CS = : ‘ 1
STEPPING STONES TO GLORY,

Source 3S: A cartoon by David Low soon after the Munich

Agreement was signed at the end of September 1938.

ACTIVITY 3.7

What would Neville Chamberlain say about the

cartoon in Source 3S? What would Hitler say about
the cartoon?

mMeENT caus ed ( ontroversy in 1938 and it

nce. What are the arguments on both Source 3T: The England football team in the Berlin Olympic
ate? Stadium, May 1938.
 3: Why had international peace collapsed by 1939?

The answer is that British Foreign Office ordered the

team to salute. Only two months earlier, Hitler had ACTIVITY 3.9

annexed Austria. Now your skills are needed to untangle the arguments
about appeasement and weigh up the evidence. Then,
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 3.3 you can make your own judgement about whether or
not appeasement was justified.
What messages did the salute shown in Source 37 send to:
Here are some arguments in favour of appeasement
a) the German public, b) Hitler and c) the British public?
that people at the time might have made:

(Quite
cau = A ‘Hitler is nelping the western
Foreign Office: the UK government department that
manages relationships with other countries.
y

From 1936 onwards, the British and French governments

pursued a policy of appeasement in relation to Hitler and
his demands. Ever since the end of the Second World
War, this policy and its supporters have been sharply
criticised for not standing up to dictators such as Hitler
and Mussolini. Appeasement has been seen as cowardly
and weak. With every success against the appeasers,
Hitler’s confidence increased and he made new
demands. The event that came to symbolise the awful
cost of appeasement was the Munich Crisis of September
1938 that you have already studied. And yet, the policy
of appeasement was developed by intelligent leaders
B ‘US mustn't be dragged
and the policy made sense to them and many ordinary
another European war. France
people during the late 1930s.
and Britain needn’t think they
can rely on support from the
ACTIVITY 3.8 ; US. lf Britain and France want
to stand up to Germany that’s
Look at these views of people at the time:
Neville Chamberlain called the Munich Agreement
‘peace with honour’.
Winston Churchill said in the House of Commons that
‘we have suffered a total and unmitigated defeat. You
will find that in a period oftime Czechoslovakia will be
engulfed in the Nazi regime.’
1 Which of these views do you think would be
supported by the Czech government? C WOE COUIG OFT

Germany if the
2 Which ofthese views do you think would have
looked right to most British people at the time?
At the time, Britain’s air defences were incomplete. This
made the country very vulnerable to an attack by the
Luftwaffe. How does this fact alter your views on:
1 the Munich Agreement?
2 Hitler’s planning for war?
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

B ‘The policy puts too much

D ‘Thehorrors of the First trust in Hitler’s promises. The
World War must not be agreements are based on
repeated. That war was the assumption that Hitler
fought to end war, not to and Mussolini can be trusted
start another.’ and will act rationally: they
can’t and won't.’

‘The Treaty of Versailles

was unfair. If the wrongs ‘Appeasement is allowing
are put right, Germany will Germany to grow too strong.
be satisfied and become a Germany is much stronger
peaceful nation again.’ than both France and
Britain.’

F ‘France is not ready for D ‘Appeasement frightens

74 a war against Hitler. Stalin and the Soviet Union.
Britain must accept a Hitler is making no secret
compromise’. of his plansto expand
eastwards. The policy of
appeasement sends the
message to the Soviet Union
that Britain and France will
1 Which of these arguments do you think affected not stand in his way.’
French and British public opinion the most?
2 Which of these arguments do you think affected
French and British political leaders the most?
3 Which of these arguments do you think helped Hitler
the most? ‘Chamberlain is a nice man
but he doesn’t understand
Now here are some different arguments, this time
Hitler. Ifthe German leader
against appeasement, that people at the time might
hasn’t let the Versailles Treaty
have made:
stand in his way, why would
he be held back by any new
A ‘The policy encourages treaties and agreements?’
Hitler to become aggressive.
Each gamble he takes Which of these arguments do you think affected
ind gets away with Is
French and British public opinion the most?
wing him to takea
Which of these arguments do you think affected
French and British political leaders the most?
Which of these arguments do you think helped Hitler
the most?
 3: Why had international peace collapsed by 1939?

ACTIVITY 3.10 :

Here are three types of evidence to analyse: cartoons,

contemporary comment and historians’ verdicts,
1 Which of Sources 3U, 3V and 3W are in favour of
appeasement and which are not? Explain with
reference to the sources.
2 Is there anything you read in Sources 3X and 3Y that
puzzles or surprises you?
3 Which cartoon seems to match Source 3X the closest?
Compare the historians’ views in Sources 3Z and 3AA.
To what extent do they disagree about appeasement?

Source 3W: A British cartoon by David Low, published in

March 1939.

The German visit was from my point of view a great

success, because it achieved its objective, that
of creating an atmosphere in which it is possible
to discuss with Germany the practical questions
involved in a European settlement. Both Hitler and
Goering [Commander-in-Chief of the Luftwaffe] said
separately, and emphatically, that they had no desire
or intention of making war ... Of course, they want
to dominate eastern Europe; they want as closea
union as possible with Austria as they can get without
incorporating her into the Reich.

Source 3X: This is part of a memorandum written by Neville

Chamberlain, British Prime Minister, in November 1937.

The following special reasons make me confident.

There is no actual rearmament in England, just
propaganda. The construction programme for the
Source 3U: A Soviet cartoon from 1939 showing Hitler’s
navy for 1938 has not yet been fulfilled. Little has
‘war machine’ being pointed towards the USSR by two
been done on land. England will only be able to send
police officers, one French and one British. CCCP is Russian
a maximum of three divisions to the continent. A
for the USSR.
little has been done for the Air Force, but it is only a
beginning. France lacks men due to the decline in the
birth rate. Little has been done for rearmament. The
enemy had another hope, that Russia would become
our enemy after the conquest of Poland. Our enemies
are little worms, | saw them at Munich.

Source 3Y: Part of a speech made by Hitler to his military

Source 3V: This cartoon commanders, 27 August 1939.
published in an American
newspaper shortly after Appeasement was far more than a weak ... policy
the Munich Agreement of concession to potential aggressors. It was...
had been signed in consistent with the main lines of British foreign
September 1938. policy going back to the nineteenth century.
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

‘Appeasement’... meant a policy of adjustment and ACTIVITY 3.11

accommodation of conflicting interests broadly to
conform with Britain’s unique position in world affairs. Study Sources 3S and 3W. Who and what is being
It involved no preconceived plan of action, it rested portrayed? What is the cartoonist David Low saying
upon a number of political and moral assumptions about relations between Germany and Britain?
about the virtue of compromise and peace. It involved
using the instruments of British power - trading
It should not therefore be surprising that in mid-August
and financial strength and a wealth of diplomatic
1939, when peace was fragile, the British-French-Soviet
experience - to their fullest advantage. military negotiations collapsed because of Poland’s fear of
Source 3Z: British historian, R. J. Overy, wrote this in 1987. allowing Soviet troops to cross its territory in the event of
an attack on Germany.
Timidity was the main feature of French political
From Hitler’s point of view it was an urgent priority that
leadership. At the critical moments - in March 1936
his next move against Potand would not meet with
and September 1938 - leaders steered away from any
Soviet opposition. Security for the Soviet frontier was
suggestion of constraining Germany by force. This
Stalin’s purpose. So, after just one day of negotiations,
timidity had three main causes. Firstly, there was the
the Nazi-Soviet Pact was agreed. Viewed from the
caution of the military chiefs. Early in 1936 before
outside, the Pact took the form of a non-aggression treaty
Hitler walked into the Rhineland, Marshal Gamelin
lasting ten years. Secretly, however, it divided the lands
thought that France could not fight Germany with
between Germany and the Soviet Union into ‘spheres
any certainty of victory. Secondly, French public
of influence’: the western half of Poland was Germany’s;
opinion was deeply divided and the lack of national
the rest of Poland plus Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania fell
unity prevented a forceful response to Hitler’s moves.
into the Soviet sphere. Hitler received secret approval
Thirdly, from September 1935 onwards, military and
for his ambitions for Danzig and the ‘Polish Corridor’.
political leaders were convinced that France could not
Stalin regained some territory lost at the end ofthe First
fight Germany unless assured of British help. British
World War, but also some time in which to build up for a
help was considered vital for the protection of French
future war. After all, British, French and Soviet leaders all
shipping and supplies in the Mediterranean.
suspected that war with Germany was inevitable and their
Source 3AA: British historian Anthony Adamthwaite, efforts to avoid it were in part efforts to postpone it until
wrote this in 1977. they were ready.

3.5 How important was the ACTIVITY 3.12

Nazi-Soviet pact?
Historian A.J.P. Taylor wrote that ‘it is difficult to
Of all the consequences of the Munich Agreement, few see what other course the Soviet Union could have
were as important as the damage it caused the relationship followed’. Was it the fault of the western powers that
between the Soviet Union and the British and French. Stalin decided a pact with Hitler was the only possible
For ten years or more there had been a feeling of distrust. course of action?
Stalin suspected that the appeasers secretly preferred an Is it fairtosay that French and British attitudes towards
accommodation with Germany than with the Soviet Union.
the USSR made war with Germany inevitable in 1939?
In London and Paris, political leaders were suspicious
that Stalin was secretly supporting communists in other
countries and encouraging revolutions on the Russian
del. They also wondered how strong the Soviet Union’s
itary was: in the 1930s Stalin had been afraid of his own
3.6 Why did Britain and France
ad
,
many« declare war on Germany in
h Aor
Aore¢ mont
1P] \~
fas made without any reference September 1939?
t inte nded to give Hitle if
The last seven days in August 1939 were frantic. Could
POLIT
fUUTI eastern Europe? Stalin the French and British persuade Poland to give up Danzig
it he could not trust the western powers and as Hitler demanded? The Poles had seen the fate of
Czechoslovakia and refused. No one in London or Paris
 3: Why had international peace collapsed by 19397

wanted a repeat of Munich. Maybe Chamberlain and undertaking has been received, and that, cor
Daladier now, at this late hour, recognised the futility of this country is at war with Germany.
appeasement. In September 1939, a general war started in
the end because each side thought the other was bluffing. To Hitler’s surprise, he was now at war with Britair
Hitler said to his generals: ‘the men | met at Munich are France. He had believed that the western powers would
not the kind to start another world war’. He was wrong. behave exactly as they h
Daladier and Chamberlain had no wish to start a war. But of the peace settlement.
Germany was working towards being the most powerful e328 a,
country in Europe, able to get its own way in everything. |
France and Britain couldn’t accept this.
It had been possible to argue that the takeover of Austria
and the Sudetenland was in line with the Wilsonian
principle of self-determination. Hitler’s actions over
Czechoslovakia in March 1939 was a different matter and
the 1 September 1939 invasion of Poland was clearly pure
expansionism.

It took Britain and France two days to issue an ultimatum

demanding German withdrawal from Poland. British
Prime Minister Chamberlain, announced on the radio
(Source 3BB): ‘This morning the British ambassador in
Berlin handed the German government a final note, that
unless we heard by 11 o'clock that they were prepared to Source 3BB: With appeasement in pieces, the British Prime
withdraw at once from Poland, then a state of war would Minister, Neville Chamberlain (seen here in a BBC studio),
exist between us. | have to tell you now that no such spoke to the nation from Downing Street on 3 September 1939.

SOVIET UNION

Figure 3.6: Europe at War: 1939.

You can see the German expansion
leadingto the outbreak of war in
September. Once the Germans
attacked Poland from the west, the
Soviet Union attacked it from the
east.
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

because it did not stop Italy or Japan invading Abyssinia

ACTIVITY 3.13
and China. The Disarmament Conference the League
lf Britain and France had not declared war on 3 sponsored did not succeed.
September 1939 what do you think might have been the Hitler’s demand that Germany throw aside the Treaty
consequences? of Versailles made him popular. As Britain and France
Suppose Hitler had only acted to bring all Germans gave in to his demands, Hitler treated them both with
together within one country in the 1930s — in line with contempt and did not believe they would go to war over
the principle of national self-determination. Would that Poland.
limited aim have been acceptable to France and Britain
so that peace would have been secured? After the Germans occupied Prague, Britain and France
promised to support Poland. Attempts to draw in the
Soviet Union to oppose Hitler’s aggression failed.
Historians disagree about the events in the 1930s and
the 1939 outbreak of the Second World War. You need
The series of peace treaties following the First World War to assess the factors, weigh them up and decide
resulted in a range of problems. There was dissatisfaction yourself. Make sure you can answer the six questions
in Italy, Germany and Japan. Germany was not disarmed listed at the beginning of this chapter as Focus points;
properly so that it could not start another war. The new then you will have enough evidence for you to attempt
League of Nations could not provide collective security Key Question 3.

The 1930s is a complicated period. To help you learn, you need a structure like the one below. Copy out the table and, using the
knowledge built up during this study, add examples.
1930s

fae
League of Nations Britain and France Germany Japan and Italy

From 1931, lost its

|
France defended by
|
Hitler aims to tear up the Both defy the League of
authority, prestige the Maginot Line, Treaty of Versailles and seeks Nations during the 1930s
due to from the Great Britain by the Channel. ‘living space’ for Germans. Bit undermining collective
Powers lack of Following 1935 policy of by bit he creates a German security. Both leave the
support appeasement is followed Reich. He creates alliances League of Nations and
in relation to Italy and with Japan, Italy and the start to build their empires.
Germany. Soviet Union. Japan is at war with
China after the invasion of
; Manchuria in 1931.
Examples include:
Examples include: Examples include: Hitler miscalculates when
Britain and France support
Poland.

After March 1939, Examples include: Examples include:

appeasement is
abandoned, Poland’s
neutrality is guaranteed.

Examples include:
 3: Why had international peace collapsed by 1939?

The Big Challenge

You need to be able to explain why war broke out in that when you draw an arrow the first ust exp
1939. On a piece of plain A4 paper draw the diagram the second box. So, in the picture below, what is v
below. When you have drawn it, look at the centre box in Box A must explain what is writt
and then the other boxes around it. Your challenge is to draw as many arrows as you like. When )
draw arrows from one box to another box, with the final the arrows write on them what the link is.
arrow pointing towards the middle box. The only rule is

The growth of nationalism and

militarism in countries ruled
by dictators
_ The impact of the Great Hitler’s policy and actions
Depression during the 1930s

... so the British and French

governments

_ The failures of the League Sea Sane The policy of

of Nations appeasement

The long-term effects of the

es peace treaties, 1919-1923

Now write a short paragraph explaining and justifying whichever sentences you've just created.

Exam-style questions
1 Howdid Hitler go about revising
the Treaty of Versailles between 1

2 Was the Treaty ofVersailles itself to blame for the out

was implemented that was at fault?

‘Lebensraum (living space) was the crucial factor in causing the war in 1939.’
agree?

‘Instead of causing
the war, appeasement kept the peace for longer in the ]
you agree?

‘The Second World War was inevitable after: a) 193

three dates, explain to what extent you agree with th
Chapter4 —
Key Question 4: Who was to blame
for the Cold War? |

Why did the USA-USSR alliance begin to break down in 1945?

How had the USSR gained control of Eastern Europe by 1948?
How did the USA react to Soviet expansionism?
What were the consequences ofthe Berlin Blockade?
Who was the more to blame for starting the Cold War: the USA or the USSR?
 4: Who was to blame for the Cold War?

What is this enquiry about? 4.1 Why did the USA-USSR alliance
In this chapter you will investigate the deterioration of begin to break down in 1945?
the wartime alliance between the USA and the USSR. You
will discover that the problems in the alliance were visible
What was the Cold War?
during the war itself. As historians, you will need to The Cold War was a military stand-off between the USSR
evaluate the responsibilities of both countries for post-war and its allies and the USA and its allies. Beginning in the
hostility, see their actions in context (or indeed ina range mid-1940s, it ran until the beginning of the 1990s. The
of different contexts), and then reach a decision about reason for calling it ‘cold’ was that it was not directly
‘blame’. fought. Instead, there was a competition to be the most
powerfully armed and the most successful in space
Ask yourself: exploration: the ‘arms race’ and the ‘space race’.
e Was the USA to blame? However, a series of small wars were also fought
between the superpowers allies and client states. Despite
e Was the USSR to blame?
a direct war never breaking out, the constant military
* Were they both to blame?
threat experienced by both sides was as much of a
¢ Was neitherto blame?
continual influence on political decision-making, as an
Reaching a judgement is an important part of the enquiry ?
actual war.
but it’s only the last stage. First you need to collect The Cold War divided most of Europe into two hostile
evidence in order to reach that judgement, but also in political and military alliances (Source 4A): NATO in
order to show how you reached it. Western Europe from 1949 and the Warsaw Pact in
Eastern Europe from 1955. The old German capital Berlin
t KEY TERM was Split in two by a wall.

Pact: was signedin 1955 as a response to NATO.

ACTIVITY 4.1
defensive military alliance of Eastern European
: Hurgary, Czechoslovakia, East Germany and Poland
Study Source 4A. Identify the countries on the map
were all.
members. However, the main decisions were made
8 by the USSR. Be 38 that are likely to cause tension between the two
superpowers. Explain your choices.

Draw up a table like the one below and keep it handy for
the different sections.

Focus re ‘| How did it happen and whose fault Evidence from the case studies to
question was it? support the judgement.
Why did the USA-USSR alliance begin
to break down in 1945?
How had the USSR gained control of
Eastern Europe by 1948?
How did the USA react to Soviet
expansionism?

[—-

What were the consequences of the

Berlin Blockade?

Who was the more to blame for

starting the Cold War: the USA or the
USSR? _
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

250 500 Miles

250 500 Kilometers

Atlantic
Ocean

USA and Canada

are also part of NATO

SOVIET
. UNION
ce EAST :
germany POLAND
Senet _ WEST
LUXEMBOURG” GERMANY Ce,
FRANCE $1391 million ~ °SLovaKia
$2754 million AUSTRIA
Beers “SWITZERLAND AUSTRIA WunGapy
ROMANIA

GAL
ssymitiion SPAIN

Source 4A: A map showing the two

no, Ee opposing military alliances NATO and
RETE , RHODES} the Warsaw Pact in Europe. Away from
a Europe, the USA and Canada were also
ee NATO members, while in 1963 Mongolia
— aaa asked to join the Warsaw Pact. Albania left
the Warsaw Pact in 1968.

ACTIVITY 4.2

Look at Source 4B. Which countries made up the Grand

Alliance? What is the Alliance’s key purpose? What
message does Source 4B convey about the Grand
Alliance? Use details in the poster to support your
answer.

What was the ‘Grand Alliance’ and why did it

begin to break down in 1945?
ERSTE EIT In June 1941 the Germans invaded the Soviet Union.
Source 4B: A Soviet poster produced in 1942 showing the This gave the USSR and Great Britain a common enemy.
Grand Alliance choking Hitler. At the very top of the poster When the Japanese bombed the USA naval base of Pear|
it says: ‘He (Hitler) won’t get out of this noose’; the Soviet Harbor in December 1941, the USA entered the war. The
noose says: ‘Alliance between the USSR, Britain and the Grand Alliance’s objective was to defeat the Axis allies:
USA’; the USA and British nooses say ‘Agreement’ and Nazi Germany, Italy and Japan.
Partnership’.
 4: Who was to blame for the Cold War?

Ideological differences
The USA and the USSR were governed differently:

* the USA was a capitalist democracy with voting rights

and multi-party elections ;
* the USSR was a communist one-party state with no
opposition.

Leaders in the USA and in Britain believed that the

Soviets wanted to spread communism beyond the
USSR borders into central and eastern Europe and into
Asia. Stalin suspected the West of wanting Hitler’s army
tto weaken the Soviet Union. After a , in 1918 western
countries had invaded the Soviet Union in an attempt to
kill communism. In the 1930s, Britain and France made
no attempt to work with the Soviet Union to stop Nazi
aggression in Europe. Stalin thought that the capitalist
countries would look for any opportunity to bring an end
to Soviet communism.

Wartime disagreements
Winning the war against Hitler meant working together
in partnership. To a large extent the Grand Alliance did
So, but there were strains and stresses that eroded its
effectiveness. THE WAY OF A STORK

Source 4C: A US cartoon published about Lend-Lease in

Lend-Lease January 1941.
To help the Soviet Union, the USA government began
sending it supplies. Under a system called Lend-Lease,
ACTIVITY 4.3
the USA loaned military equipment for the duration of the
war at no charge. By 1945, the USA had sent the Soviet Look at Source 4C. What is the impression of the Lend-
Union supplies valued at nearly $11 billion. About 25% of Lease scheme given by the cartoonist? Make a list of the
this aid was in the form of munitions and 75% consisted items that the bird is carrying. Why has the cartoonist
of industrial equipment, raw materials and food. The drawn the Statue of Liberty in the background?
USSR was highly dependent on rail transportation, but the
war had nearly closed down rail equipment production;
only 92 trains were produced. Under Lend-Lease, 2,000
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 4.1
locomotives and 11,000 wagons were supplied. Similarly,
the Soviet air force received 18,700 aircraft from the USA - Think back to the 1930s and the Second World War. Why
about 14% of Soviet aircraft production. would the relationship between the USA and USSR be
hesitant following events in the late 1930s and 1940?
Find out what kinds of goods the USA sent to the USSR
FACT FILE and which other countries received them.
Lend-Lease was intended to be what it sounds like: a
loan. After the end of the Second World War, no one was
certain how much the USSR would pay for the wartime Tensions in the Grand Alliance: USA, USSR
supplies, nor how or when. A large amount of Soviet gold
and Britain
had already been shipped to the USA. Materials lost in
fighting were written off as a shared wartime loss. Some As early as 1942, Stalin wanted the USA and B
further repayment was made, though the disagreement invade western Europe to re
about how much was owing continued for several years. Army in the east. It didn’t happen imme
Preside ant f rank n r) vVelano Roos:
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

ry
ront but it was repeatedly postponed. Instead of Wartime and post-war conferences
, glo-American invasion of German-occupied France, By late 1943 things were looking better for the Grand
Britain and the USA sent troops to North Africa and Italy, Alliance. With the end of the war closer, the leaders
\ying the invasion of Europe itself until 6 June 1944. considered what kind of peace the Grand Alliance wanted.

The most important disagreement, however, was over

The Tehran Conference 1943
the opening of a Second Front in the West. Although
The Big Three (Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin) met
Stalin only grumbled when the invasion was postponed
in November 1943. At Tehran, Stalin got what he
until 1943, he exploded the following year when the
wanted — a date (June 1944) for the Anglo-American
invasion was postponed again until June of 1944.
invasion of German-occupied France. In addition, there
In retaliation, Stalin recalled his ambassadors from
was agreement that, at the end of the war, the USSR
London and Washington and fears soon arose that the
could restore its 1918 border with Poland, while Poland
Soviets might seek a separate peace with Germany.
would be compensated by its western border moving
Source 4D: From the website US Department of State. further west at the expense of Germany. You can see this
in Source 4F.

This man is your FRIEND

uaNA
“utH

Neisse R.

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

He fights forFREEDOM
HUNGARY _-
Gdansk

Source 4E: This poster was produced by the US government

in 1942. It shows a uniformed Soviet soldier. USSR -

@ Brest Litovsk
prwnct”

. ve
ACTIVITY 4.4
Wsan.
>

Why do Sources 4B, 4C and 4E suggest a different sort .

of relationship between the Grand Alliance partners so3eS Polish va

from Source 4D? Do the different impressions mean that 1938 frontier elvov
CZECHOSLOVAKIA
some of the sources B to E are more reliable than others
for the historian trying to assess the strength of the HUNGARY
[eornatral—~

Lic “=
Grand Alliance? Source 4F: Amap showing the borders of 1938 Poland and
What does Source 4D tell you about: a) the USA and then, as a result of the Tehran agreement, the moving of
JSSR? its western border with Germany, so that it now runs along
the Oder-Neisse rivers. |
 4: Who was to blame for the Cold War?

The Yalta Conference, February 1945 acr

3 Airing id
ACTIVIT Y 4.5
The war in Europe was in its final Stages when Rooseve
lt,
Stalin and Churchill met at Yalta. By this time the Red
Army had occupied nearly all of central and Eastern
Europe. The issues that had emerged at Tehran -
especially those regarding Poland - now needed
solutions. This table sets out what was achieved and what
was left undone.

> TOP TIP

The five steps that the Grand Alliance agreed should
happen in Germany once peace came were:

* demilitarisation (disbanding the armed forces)

* de-Nazification (removing all former Nazis from
positions of power)
* democratisation (restoring free elections anda : Serr ne) eens ae
multiparty system) TROUBLE WITH SOME OF THE PIECES

* de-industrialisation (reducing Germany’s heavy Source 4G: Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill depicted
industry)
assembling a jigsaw puzzle of Europe at the Yalta
* decentralisation (taking power away from central
Conference in February 1945.
government).

Places and Agreements : Remaining tension

problems
Germany 1 Germany (and Berlin) to be temporarily divided into _| The division of Germany was only
Soviet, American, British and French occupation temporary; a future conference would
zones. its future.
decide
2 Germany to pay $20 billion reparations, 50% to the | Stalin wanted more reparations from
USSR. Germany than was agreed, because of t
/ -..,;, |destruction of so much of the USSR.
3 The implementation of the 5 steps (see Top Tips) in
all four zones after its defeat; war crimes trials for
z captured Nazis. [
Poland 1 New Soviet-Polish borders give Poland German 1 The West rejected Soviet demands
territory in the west as compensation for territory that Germans now in Poland should be
in the east surrendered to USSR. | repatriated to Germany.

2 Early elections. 2 Stalin wanted a Polish government t

would be friendly to the Soviet Union
He supported the ‘Lublin Poles’ (mos
|} communist) while FDR and Churchi
| backed the ‘London Poles
non-communist
Eastern Europe Early elections in all east European countries Stalin wanted gove
liberated from Nazi Germany’s control by the Soviet USSR, and was worried that free
Red Army. would not prod
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

Placesand _| Agreements Remaining tension

problems a
Ending the war Stalin agreed to join the war against Japan once
; |Germany had been defeated. In return, the USSR
| would receive South Sakhalin and the Kurile Islands.
| United Nations The creation of the United Nations - with a five- Stalin wanted all Soviet republics to
| Organisation (UN) |member Security Council - to replace the League of | have seats in the proposed UN’s General
Nations at the end of the war. Assembly, but the USA and Britain only
| agreed to three.
\C+
It was not a question of what we would let the experience of foreign affairs, but took a more hard-line
Russians do, but what we could get the Russians to do. attitude towards the Soviet Union’s security fears. In
April, he met with the Sowet Foreign Minister, Molotov,
Source 4H: Future Secretary of State James Byrnes commented and lectured him on the importance of sticking to
on the Yalta Conference that began on 4 February 1945. agreements. Molotov complained that he had never
been spoken to so rudely at an official meeting. Truman
To this day, many of Roosevelt’s most vehement replied: ‘Carry out your agreements and you won't get
detractors accuse him of ‘handing over’ Eastern talked to like that. In May 1945, after Germany’s surrender,
Europe and Northeast Asia to the Soviet Union at
President Truman abruptly ended the Lend-Lease
Yalta despite the fact that the Soviets did make many
scheme to the USSR. This was a serious blow to the
substantial concessions.
war-devastated Soviet Union. As a result, relations had
Source 41: Office of the Historian. USA Department of State. deteriorated still further by the time the Allies met at
6 Potsdam in July 1945.
‘spheres of influence’ kept coming up in our In the UK, Clement Attlee, who had been deputy prime
discussions because the occupying forces had the minister in a wartime coalition government, replaced
power in the areas where their arms were present and Churchill as British prime minister after a general election
each knew that the other could not force things to an in July.
issue ... the Russians had the power in Eastern Europe
... and that the only practicable course was to use @
what influence we had to improve the situation.
FACT FILE }

Source 4J: Taken from discussions held between US Harry S. Truman (1884-1972) was the 33rd President
politicians and President Roosevelt before he left to attend gue panne Aer Pe ae he
cee f i grew up on his family’s
ily’ farm . When President Roosevelt
e Yalta Conference in February 1945 died in April 1945, the job of leadership passed to Vice- |
_ President Truman. Close to the end of the Second World
ACTIVITY 4.6 War, Truman approved the use of atomic weapons against |
Japan, to force a surrender without the need for an
1 What is the message ofthe cartoon in Source 4G? invasion and massive loss of American lives; that decision
2. To what extentisthe message supported by remains controversial. After the war, Truman assisted in
evidence fronGourecsunen anda? the founding of the United Nations, issued the Truman
. . Doctrine to contain communism, and passed the
3 Source 4| suggests that some historians have $13 billion Marshall Plan to rebuild Europe.
been critical of President Roosevelt’s actions at
the Yalta Conference. What alternatives were left
open to Roosevelt and Churchill in February 1945? The Potsdam Conference, July-August 1945
At the Potsdam Conference, the Allies were represented by
Truman, Stalin and Attlee. It soon became clear that. with
What changed between February Germany beaten and Japan on the verge of defeat, under
and July 1945? ?
Truman’s leadership the USA attitude hardened towards
: . a ,

A, Roosevelt died in April and was replaced by the USSR. Potsdam saw agreement on some plans for the
. Truman. Truman had little future, but no relaxation of tension.
 4: Who was to blame for the Cold War?

Places and Agreements. Remaining tension

problems
Germany 1 Division of the country and the capital, 1 Inthe end the Soviets were
Berlin, into four zones. reparations.
2 Paymentof reparations confirmed, but
amount was reduced and industrial goods zone implementing this separately; the Soviets were
had to come from each power’s own zone. worried that former Nazis could return to pov (ap)
The USSR had to provide agricultural the western zones.
goods from its zone in return for industria | . :
3 The West wanted a quick economic recovery for
goods from the three western zones.
Germany, but Stalin wanted to keep Germany weak.
3 Decision on the ‘Five Ds’ and war crimes
4 Stalin was concerned about the impact of the
trials was confirmed.
capitalist western zones on the eastern zone.
Poland Stalin agreed to let more ‘London Poles’ Although Stalin agreed to allow more ‘London Poles’
(non-communists) join the ‘Lublin Poles’ to join the existing government, Truman’s request for
government (mostly communist) already in elections in Poland was turned down.
hte | place.
| =
Eastern Europe | 1 The USSR would take land from Germany, The USA was concerned about growing Soviet control
Romania and Czechoslovakia; the three in Eastern Europe - Poland, Hungary, Romania,
Baltic republics (Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria and Czechoslovakia.
Estonia) would become part of the USSR.

2 Germans living in Poland, Hungary and

Czechoslovakia would be moved to
Germany.
The war Following Germany’s surrender in May 1945, 1 Truman decided to use the new atomic bombs on
the USSR had been preparing to attack Japan, partly to keep the USSR out of the Pacific War. |
Japan, as agreed at Yalta.
2 Truman refused to allow the USSR a role in the post-
Truman informed Stalin that the USA had war occupation of Japan.
developed a new and powerful weapon, the
3 Truman refused to share atomic secrets with the
atomic bomb.
USSR. Stalin immediately ordered the Soviet atomic
weapon programme to be accelerated, so starting
the nuclear arms race.
i
ie

United Nations | 1 UN was formally created. As the Cold War developed, both East and West |
increasingly used their power ofveto to block or delay
2 The USA, the USSR, Britain, France and
UN actions that didn’t suit them.
China would be the five permanent
members of the Security Council, each
with a veto.

FACT FILE Veto: the right to stop a bill from becoming law. 4
Germany had used Poland as an invasion route into
Russia/USSR in 1914 and 1941. Stalin believed it
was vital that the USSR should be able to control
At Yalta, Roosevelt and Churchill had agreed that the
Poland (and other Eastern European states) after the
Soviet Union would receive back from Poland the land it
Second World War - or at least ensure that a friendly
government ruled it. had seized at the end of the Russo—Polish War in 1921
(a Sar SS Se German territory would go toto Poland ir
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

There remained serious differences over how Poland What was the Soviet attitude
should be governed. Stalin broke the promise of free to peace-making?
elections, but FDR and Churchill could do little about Stalin’s foreign policy was shaped by the severe losses and
t: the Red Army’s occupation created political reality. devastation that the Soviet Union had twice suffered (see
Officials advising the president concluded that as it was Sources 4K and 4L). He had to make sure that the Soviet
not possible to change the situation in Eastern Europe, Union would not be invaded again. As 11 million Soviet troops
Soviet power had to be contained elsewhere. marched westwards pushing back the retreating German
At Potsdam, Truman argued that the USSR should take army, Stalin wanted to take advantage ofthe military situation
reparations from its zone of Germany. As this was mainly in Europe to strengthen Soviet influence and prevent another
rural and poorer than the industrial western zones, Stalin invasion from the West. To do this, the Red Army held on to as
objected. Eventually, it was agreed that the USSR could much of Eastern Europe as possible. Stalin wanted a buffer
also have 25% of the machinery from the three western zone between the Soviet Union and Germany. In addition,
zones, but only if the USSR sent 60% ofthe value of these he believed that the USSR should receive reparations that
industrial goods to the West in the form of raw materials matched its losses. On top ofall this, Stalin was looking for
(especially coal). The Soviets demanded German coal from financial assistance to repair his country.
the western zones, but the Americans wanted it to help in
the economic recovery of western Europe. About 30 million soldiers and civilians died
Further disagreement occurred because the Soviets 25 million homes destroyed
were treating their eastern zone of Germany as if it was 31,000 factories destroyed
part of the USSR. German factories were dismantled
84,000 schools destroyed
and moved to the Soviet Union. Stalin wanted to punish
10.5 million made refugees
the Germans and take their resources. Although some
‘eparations had been delivered, the Soviets were not 17 million cattle killed
supplying food in return as agreed. The USA argued 100,000 state farms destroyed.
that no more reparations should leave their zone until
Source 4K: This table shows features of the devastation
the Soviets exported the food, clothing, timber and
that the Second World War caused in the Soviet Union.
yachinery that were needed. The Soviets refused. The
difficulties in implementing and interpreting the Yalta
and Potsdam agreements was a significant cause of the | |1940 |1942 |1944 |1945
Cold War.
Bread (in millions 24 12.1 10 11
he leaders of the Grand Alliance decided to set up the | of tons
Allied Control Council to run Germany, and to divide the eat (in thousands TAT toy 516 | 624
capital, Berlin (which was deep within the Soviet zone) of tons
— = alt ells
into four zones. Demilitarisation and the other steps -
Butter (in thousands 228 ddd. LOGiealeley,
were taken to ensure that, even when reunited, Germany
of tons
would not be a threat, a point about which the USSR felt
Clothing items 183 54 47 50
especially strongly.
(in millions) =F
|
= ate

What were the aims and attitudes of the Big Three as they
= — © — — 4

Shoes, pairs 21 Beal 67.4 |66.1 |}

gathered around the conference table? How much power (in millions)
and influence did each of the leaders have?
Source 4L: This table shows the comparison of output by
the Soviet economy and the impact of the war.
ACTIVITY 4.7

At the Yalta and Potsdam conferences, four main areas ? KEY TERM

of disagreement began to emerge: Germany, Poland,

economic reconstruction and nuclear weapons. Whose
fault were these disagreements? Use your table to
capture the evidence for either side.
 4: Who was to blame for the Cold War?

ACTIVITY 4.8 The US government failed to

Union’s concerns with secur
1 Looking at Sources 4J,4Kand 4L - why was it so hard for Harbor was the only serious damage on US
the people and government of the USA to understand bombs fell on American soil - nothing to co
Stalin’s point of view in the peace-making process? the Soviet experience. The USA sa ery So
2 Put some ofthe data in Sources 4K and 4Linto words. Not as cp DUl aS Part OF an expansior
What strikes you as particularly significant? believed that every communist word or deed
3 Which data in Source 4K helps to explain the output the world was parttof Stalin's master pla
figures in Source L?

What was the USA attitude towards

peace-making?
Roosevelt (FDR), Stalin and Churchill shared certain objectives.
All wanted to limit the powe of Germany
r and prevent another
war. The Allies wanted cooperation to continue in peacetime.
They wanted a world organisation for maintaining peace to
replace the League of Nations; the United Nations was set up
in New York towards the end of 1945.
However, FDR wanted to break up empires and spheres of
influence. He believed that all states should have the right
to self-determination. In addition, he hoped democracy
would flourish so people could enjoy free elections and
free speech. For Truman, the lesson of the 1930s’ policy of Source 4M: A photograph showing the destruction wrought
appeasing Hitler was that democracies had to stand up to by the atomic bomb the USA dropped on Hiroshima on
dictators. His approach was containment: Soviet influence 6 August 1945; a second nuclear bomb was dropped on
and power must be contained by the USA and its allies. Nagasaki on 9 August.

( porns mae
Containment: keeping the USSR within certain boundaries
an borders, preventing them from advancing their power
andinfluence.

Truman’s thinking was influenced by economic

considerations, too. The USA wanted to prevent any
repeat of th e Great Dep ession, and believed free trade
was the me ans to do th is. Individual countries should
agree that| nports coul d not be restricted by tariffs and
quotas. Att Ne 1944 Bretton Woods Confe ‘ence, plans
were laid fo a World Ba nk so that countries who were
committed to free trade policies could borrow money
to invest (e.g. in infrastructure projects such as roads
and bric ges). These developments suited US interests “WHY CAN'T WE WORK TOCETHER IN MUTUAL TRUST § CONFIDENCE?
well. Be ween 1940 and 1944 output f ‘om US industry
Source 4N: A British cartoon published in November 1945
increased by 90%. The US economy needed a revival in
shows President Truman asking the question of Attlee and
Europe o ensure a market for Americar n goods. Policy
Stalin.
makers in Washing ston were concerned that when the war
on nded t rere WOL uld be a collapse in demand.
Truman and the atomic bomb
Both the spread of communism and the closing of markets Although the A es reacned

to free trac le had to be opposed.

Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 4.2

N
| North Sea 1 Identify the issues that kept the Grand Alliance
o- 2
together and the issues that caused tension between
them.
2 Which issue was more important in causing the
break-up of the Grand Alliance: Germany or Poland?
Explain your answer.

4.2 How had the USSR gained

control of Eastern Europe
by 1948? |
“SWITZERLAND When Germany surrendered in 1945, there were 11 million
Red Army soldiers in Eastern Europe. These soldiers had
KEY pushed the Germans out of Poland, Romania, Hungary,
Zones of occupation
oe United States fea) France YUGOSLAVIA Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria. When the war ended, many
(GG Great Britain [7] Soviet Union 200 Miles of £ the soldiers stayed in place.
Stalin did not achieve control over Eastern Europe
Source 40: A map showing the division of Germany into immediately. In different countries he took different
four zones of occupation after the Second World War. actions and moved at different paces. In general, there
were two phases:
when the USA exploded the world’s first atomic bombs 1 1944-1947: Stalin and his advisers worked with the
on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan. This weapon was a local politicians to set up coalition governments in
new threat to the Soviets. The US Secretary of War, Henry which communists served alongside people from
Stimson, argued that the Soviet Union should be offered other parties.
an atomic partnership if some concessions on Eastern
Europe were made. However, Truman and his Secretary 2 1948-1949: ‘people’s republics’ emerged,
of State, James Byrne, saw the atomic bomb as a way of one-party communist dictatorships under the
ending the war against Japan without Soviet assistance. rule of Moscow.
This would prevent any Sovietdemands for influencein
Asia, a region seen as vital to USA interests. Czechoslovakia
The Czechoslovaks were positive towards the Soviet
ACTIVITY 4.9
Union; many still felt betrayed by Britain and France when
What is the message of the cartoon in Source 4N? they gave in to Hitler’s demands at the Munich Conference
How does the photograph in Source 4M inform your in 1938.
understanding of the cartoon? Dr Edvard Benes had been president ofthe exile Czech
What do you think explains Stalin’s attitude towards government in London. He flew to Moscow and signed a
Germany in Source 4P? treaty of friendship. When he returned to Prague it was
with a Moscow-approved coalition government. Members
of the Czech Communist Party ran the ministries of the
Even after the defeat of Germany, the danger of war/
interior and information.
invasion will continue to exist. Germany is a great
state with large industry ... it shall never accept its The communists emerged from a relatively free and fair
defeat and will continue to be dangerous. election in May 1946 as the largest party with 31% of the
vote, Communists took control of key departments such
Source 4P: Part of a speech made on the eve ofthe Yalta as law and order; this enabled them to arrest political
Conference, 28 January 1945, by Stalin. opponents. 1e Czechoslovak Communists became
 4: Who was to blame for the Cold War?

popular partly because they drove the remaining for the communists and their allies. Show trials were used
German population (many had already fled) out of to eliminate political opponents. In December 1947, King
Czechoslovakia and allowed Czechs to move into these
Michael was forced to abdicate.
areas.
.

To force new elections in February 1948, all of the non- Bulgaria

communist ministers resigned. New elections were In Bulgaria (Germany’s former ally), a coalition containing
blocked and the vacancies in government were filled with communists was formed called the Fatherland Front.
communists. Foreign Minister Jan Masaryk, a popular non- Gradually, this government was purged ofanti-communist
communist politician and son of the country’s founding rivals. In 1946 the monarchy was abolished. In 1947 a
president, was murdered in March 1948. new constitution was implemented that destroyed any
opposition to the communists.
Hungary
Hungary had been a wartime German ally. Most Yugoslavia
Hungarians were strongly anti-communist. In the election Yugoslavia was not part of the Soviet Empire. Josip
of November 1945, communists won only 17% of the vote. Broz (known as Tito) was a communist but he led the
They were given one government post - Ministry of the liberation of his country from the Nazis. Stalin was
Interior. Communists used the secret police to persecute tempted to invade Yugoslavia once Tito showed he was
non-communists. In 1947, falsified elections gave not going to be controlled from Moscow, but decided
communists control of a coalition government. In 1948 against it because of Tito’s immense popularity.
the Communist Party merged with the Social Democratic Yugoslavia remained an independent, communist country
Party and took power. throughout the Cold War.

Poland lran
Poles and Russians had a history of conflict. In London Although Stalin established a secure sphere of influence in
there was a Polish government in exile. In Poland itself the the Soviet Bloc by the end of 1948, he was not successful
Soviet Union created a government in the city of Lublin. A everywhere. In 1946, he broke an agreement with the
compromise government was formed in June 1945, but it British to leave oil-rich Iran six months after the end of the
was mainly the same as Lublin government. war. It was only after pressure from the USA and the United
Nations Security Council that Soviet troops left.
Elections were held in January 1947. The election
was stage-managed to give the impression that the
government had the backing of the people; an alliance of Turkey
left-wing parties, including the communists, were said to In Turkey, Stalin demanded a naval base for the Soviet
have won 80% of the vote, but there is evidence that the Union on the Dardanelles, a narrow strait linking the
real figure (even after the intimidation of rival parties) was Black Sea and the Mediterranean. The Soviets sent
more likely 50% or less. A coalition government made up ships to the area to increase pressure on the Turkish
of several parties ruled Poland; the Communist Party had government. However, when Stalin found out that
five positions in a cabinet of 24. However, these included the USA and the British were supporting Turkey, he
the important roles in charge of security, economy and reconsidered.
education. Opposition politicians were arrested, locked up

:
ee(CR
or even murdered.

Romania Exile: a person who has been forced out of or escaped their
own country; also the process of driving out or fleeing; also
Romania was another wartime German ally. Soviet
the state of being in a foreign country against your will.
troops remained in place once the Germans had been
Soviet Bloc: the group of east-European states that were
pushed back. A coalition government was formed in 1945;
aligned with the Soviet Union, taking their political direction
important posts were reserved for communists. There was from Moscow. It is also sometimes called the Communist
a gradual takeover of the police and security services. In Bloc orthe Eastern Bloc.
1946 falsified elections produced an overwhelming victory
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

ACTIVITY 4.10

1 What is being shown in Source 4Q and what does it

mean?
2 Look back at Source 4A. What was it about
Yugoslavia’s geographical position that may have
helped it stay outside the Soviet empire?

oo Ps 6 Wot)
\\ \\\o
\
Ho
2° \ ° \\Wie\
* ° \\ (3 \

4.3 How did the USA react

*6
of,
°

to Soviet expansionism?
°
°
°
°
°

Some historians argue that Truman played a significant

°

ole in worsening USA-Soviet relations, particularly in

the way he reacted to Soviet expansionism in Eastern
Europe.

Truman’s policy towards the USSR

The president’s policy towards the USSR was very different
Source 4Q: A British cartoon from March 1946 showing to that of his predecessor, FDR. Where FDR had been
Winston Churchill, the British wartime Prime Minister, flexible, Truman was hard-line; where FDR got on well with
taking a look at developments in Eastern Europe. Stalin, Truman was more cautious.

Truman appointed Averell Harriman as the US

Ambassador to the Soviet Union; Harriman did not trust
the Soviet leadership. Lend-Lease aid to the Soviet
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 4.3 Union was suddenly ended on 11 May 1945. All of this set
the tone for the final conference of the war at Potsdam,
1 What were Stalin’s motives in building the Soviet bloc
outside Berlin.
in Eastern Europe?
2 On the evidence you have seen so far, which of the The Potsdam conference started late because Truman
countries that made up Eastern Europe was: a) wanted to learn the results of the test explosion of the
easiest to control and b) hardest to control in the world’s first atomic bomb. While the Americans had
period 1945-1948? shared this secret development with Britain, they had kept
3. Which of these words describe the way that Stalin it from Stalin. Now Truman told Stalin that the USA had a
gained control of Eastern Europe by 1948? Which> new, powerful weapon. Stalin nodded: ‘Use it well.’
countries do they apply to? He knew about the bomb already, because Soviet spies
e violence inside the Manhattan Project were passing
e threats back information to scientists working on a Russian
¢ democratic elections version. The atomic bomb did not make Stalin more
flexible over Eastern Europe; the gradual Soviet takeover
¢ popular support
went on.
e illegal and undemocratic methods
Some historians argue that one of the reasons Truman
* propaganda
took the controversial decision to drop the atomic bomb
e cautious
and careful. on Japan was because he wanted to show Stalin the
4 Why wasn’t it possible for the United States President immense destructive power that the USA possessed. First
Harry Truman to influence or intervene in events
Hiroshima and then Nagasaki were completely destroyed
behind the Iron Curtain?
in August 1945 (see Source R). The war in the Pacific was
over, but the Cold War had just begun.
 4: Who was to blame for the Cold War?

re ie The N ew vork Gimes. LATE CITYEDITION

Wy TEhs, WAR
by The Hew
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VOL._XeIV “No. 31972, T wo ee
ene ee ee NEW YORK, TUESDAY, AUGUST 7, 1948. THREE CENTS
wre pitt

FIRST ATOMIC BOMB DROPPED ON JAPAN;

MISSILE IS EQUAL TO 20,000 TONS OF TNT;
TRUMAN WARNS FOE OF A ‘RAIN OF RUIN’
HRAMW.JOHNSON, Jet Plane Explosion Kills KY(SHV (ITY RAZBDREPORTBY BRITAIN Steel Tower ‘Vaporized’ —\B\\ AGE USHERED
REPUBLICANDEAN Major Bong, Top U.S. Ace In Trial of Mighty Bomb
Kenney's Planes BlastBy God’s Mercy’ We _ . = + _,Day of Atomic Energy
F ter oO wre apanese ra crentiats we-. ruc. as indin, as “3
INTHE SENATE, DIES * ue po shite ihe shes"| Tarumizu in Record Beat Nazis to Bomb, i reas ae aa bd: ya Si * Hailed by President
Isolatjonist Helped Prevent ‘Shooting Star’ as a Test Pilot Blow From Okinawa Churchill Says Cloud Bore 40,000 Feet Into Sky Revealing Weapon
U. S. Entry Into League—
Opposed World Charter
we
BURBAN ve ROCKET SITE IS SEEN/ROOSEVELT AID CITED _., HIROSHIMA IS TARGET
CALIFORNIA EX-GOVERNOR
125 B-29's Hit Japan's Raiders Wrecked Norsem= res «ons won ‘Impenetrable’ Cloud of
Ran for Vice President With « Toyokawa Naval Arsenal Laboratory in Race for ° « Dust Hides City After
Theodore Roosevelt in 12
—In Washington Since "17 Single Bomb Strikes

Continwnd
an Page 5 Coleman I

a be = ORS nNAOcuNeD CHINESE WIN MORE. = ATOnn in TRAINS CANCELED

ie OP TAKINGAWALK OPIAVASONCOAST INSHIDDEN CITIES’ IN STRICKEN AREA=:
a ea low =Company'—MoGoldrick secs Southwest of Canton—Big | «
corecy on Weapon So Great Traffic Around Hiroshima Is » Source 4R: The front page
sre That Not Even Workers | Disrupted— Japanese Stitt |
| Only pacualy Aided — | Aroa Open for Landing Knew of Their Product Sift Havoc by Split Atoms
= of The New York Times,
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yen Nt Antenna atl sciheonit roopa Nave broken into|} wsinGtoe haT-masminner miesgta eos -YAugust 1945,

The Grand Alliance leaders never met again after Potsdam.

To discuss the details of the four zones of occupation and
reparations, the Foreign Ministers met later on in the year.
The Grand Alliance had not yet broken up but agreements
about the future of Europe, were proving increasingly
difficult to make.

ACTIVITY 4.11 .

Study Sources 4R and 4S:

What do they tell you about US attitudes towards the
Soviet Union?
Think back to Stalin’s takeover of Eastern Europe. Does
the poster in Source 4T exaggerate what happens when
communists rule a country?

There isn’t a doubt in my mind that Russia intends an

invasion of Turkey and the seizure of the Black Sea
Straits to the Mediterranean. Unless Russia is faced
with an iron fist and strong language another
war is inthe making. Only one language do they
understand - how many divisions (soldiers) have you?
I’m tired of babying the Soviets.

Source 4S: President Truman criticises his Secretary of State

Byrnes for being too trusting of Stalin, December 1945. Source 4T: An American poster published in 1947.
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

Stalin presented his views to me. He said that whoever ACTIVITY 4.12
occupies a territory also imposes on it his own system.
Someone expressed doubt that the Germans would be 1 Read Source 4U. Given what you know about the First
able to recuperate within fifty years. Stalin disagreed. No, World War and the Second World War, how accurate
was Stalin’s judgement about Germany?
they will recover very quickly. It is a highly industrialised
country with a very skilled workforce. Give them twelve 2 Why would the British and Americans think that the
recovery of Germany was a good development and
to fifteen years and they'll be on their feet again...
not a negative one?
Source 4U: A record of a discussion held with Stalin by a 3 Look at Source 4T. Why is the image of USA-Soviet
Yugoslavian communist in 1944. relations so different from Sources 3E and 3V?

Truman’s advisers wondered what Stalin intentions were

in Eastern Europe. In February 1946, some commentators Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest and Sofia ... all
interpreted a speech by Stalin as a threat of war. are subject in one formor another, not only to Soviet
George Kennan worked in the American embassy in influence but to a high measure of control from Moscow.
Moscow. Kennan sent a now-famous ‘Long Telegram’ to
Washington later that month, describing his worries. He The Communist parties, which were very small in all
explained that Russia’s hostility towards the outside world these Eastern European countries, have been raised
was centuries old. The Soviet rulers assumed that one to pre-eminence and power far beyond their numbers
day, capitalism and communism would fight. Stalin would and are seeking everywhere to obtain totalitarian
constantly seek to extend Russian power. The USA should control. Police governments are prevailing in nearly
resist with a policy of containment. every case, and so far, except in Czechoslovakia, there
is no true democracy.
Just a few weeks later, in March 1946, Churchill was invited
by Truman to make a speech. This was called the Iron Source 4W: Part of Churchill’s speech made at Fulton,
Curtain speech. Missouri in March 1946.

After the Soviet Union refused to withdraw from Iran six

months after the end of the Second World War, it was
Truman’s pressure and disguised military threat to the
Soviets that made Stalin withdraw the Red Army soldiers.
American magazine Newsweek warned that ‘the Soviet
government has made up its mind that capitalism must
be destroyed if communism is to live’. Truman’s ‘iron
fist’ approach seemed to be supported by an analysis of
intelligence data — the Clifford Report concluded that the
Soviet Union was expansionist and was targeting Greece
and Turkey to gain access to the Mediterranean Sea.
Source 4V: A photo of Soviet and American soldiers meeting
ACTIVITY 4.13
at the River Elbe, in May 1945 as the two countries’ armies,
advancing from west and east, meet in the middle of Europe. Study Source 4W. Both Churchill’s speech and Kennan’s
Long Telegram became famous and they were certainly
A shadow has fallen upon the scenes so lately lighted read in Moscow. Put together, what do you think was the
by the allied victory. Nobody knows what Soviet reaction of the Soviet leadership? Which of statements
Russia and its communist international organisation
would have upset them the most? Why?
intends to do in the immediate future.

From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, What finally ended the Grand Alliance?
an iron curtain has descended across the continent. In 1946, it seemed to Britain and the USA that communism
Behind that line lie ali the capitals of the ancient states was on the march everywhere. In France and Italy, the
of Central and Eastern Europe - Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, communist parties were popular and likely to do well in
 4: Who was to blame for the Cold War?

mnlections. In Greece, a civil war was raging with the British

supporting one side and Yugoslav leader Tito the other.
Stalin kept the Soviet Union away from the Greek conflict.
For one thing, he had agreed that Greece would be part
of the western allies’ sphere of influence: for another, he
wanted the fighting in Europe to be over,

In February 1947, an urgent telegram arrived at the White

House: the British government could no longer afford
to intervene in Greece and Turkey. It would withdraw its
soldiers soon. The White House panicked. Truman and
his advisers could see Greece turning communist unless
something was done, and done quickly.

Truman Doctrine

At the present moment in world history, nearly every

ee
nation must choose between alternative ways of life.
The choice is too often not a free one. One way of life is Source 4Y: A US cartoon showing Stalin’s reaction to news
based on the will of the majority and is distinguished of the Truman Doctrine.
by free institutions, guarantees of individual liberty,
freedom of speech and religion and freedom from
political oppression. The second way of tife is based
upon the will of the minority forcibly imposed on
the majority. It relies upon terror and oppression, a
controlled press and radio, fixed elections and the
suppression of personal freedoms. | believe it must be
the policy of the United States to support free peoples
who are resisting subjugation by armed minorities or
by outside pressures. The seeds of totalitarian regimes
are nurtured by misery and want. They grow in the evil
soil of poverty and strife. The free peoples of the world
look to us for support in maintaining their freedoms.

Source 4X: On 12 March 1947, President Truman addressed

Congress. His speech signalled a turning point in American
foreign policy and set the scene for the next four decades of
Cold War conflict. This became known as the Truman Doctrine.

ACTIVITY 4.14

1 Look back at Source 4A: what does it add to your

understanding of Congress accepting the Truman
Doctrine and voting for financial aid to Greece and THE MARSHALL TREE

Turkey?
Source 4Z: A cartoon illustrating attitudes towards the
2 Look at Source 4X. Why didn’t President Truman name
Marshall Plan in 1948.
the Soviet Union in his speech?
3 Source 4Y suggests that Stalin did not like President
Congress
é voted for an immediate
Truman’s Doctrine. Why has the cartoonist put
to Greece and Turkey witho
Truman’s statement in a pipe? What reasons would
Stalin have for disliking the Doctrine? Doctrine, the USA re\

Congress refused t
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History -

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Source 4AA: A British cartoon published in Punch magazine on 18 June 1947.

Nations. Now the country had an open-ended commitment Yergin argues that after the crisis in Greece, ‘American leaders
to fight communism anywhere in the world. Historian Daniel Saw a Russian mastermind at work in every local crisis’.

ACTIVITY 4.15 FACT FILE

The purpose of Cominform was to coordinate actions
Study Source 4Z. Using details from the image, describe between the various communist parties under Soviet
what the cartoon is depicting and what its message direction. It was a Soviet-dominated organisation of
is. Does it seem to you to offer a fair and balanced communist parties founded in September 1947 ata
comment? conference in Poland. Soviet leader, Josef Stalin, called
the conference in response to signs that some East
Study Source 4AA. To what developments is the cartoon European governments were thinking ofjoining the
referring? Is the cartoon an accurate representation of Marshall Plan. After realising Stalin’s opposition to this
those developments? move, none of them did.
 4: Who was to blame for the Cold War?

Marshall Plan
The Truman Doctrine was closely followed by the d_ the post-war economic problems in Europe
necessary economic aid. It was not possible for the US e Kennan’s Long Telegram
President to introduce a new policy without the necessary f =Churchill’s Iron Curtain speech.
resources to back it up.
The new resources were announced by Secretary of State
George Marshall in June 1947. The European Recovery 4.4 What were the
Programme, or ‘Marshall Plan’ as it is almost always consequences of the Berlin
called, was intended to help Europe recover economically
and so prevent the growth of communism. A total of
Blockade?
$13.3 billion was invested in Europe between 1948 and The Grand Alliance was finally broken by the
1953. The Plan was offered to all European countries — developments in 1947. A Cold War had broken out in full
capitalist and communist alike. The USSR rejected the public view.
idea ofoffering help to Germany, as it broke the Potsdam
agreement of July 1945. Suspicious of America’s motives, What to do with Germany?
they refused to take part and instructed their allies in the
After the First World War, German delegates had to sign
Soviet Bloc to refuse also. All complied obediently. the Treaty of Versailles. After the Second World War no
such treaty was drafted and no one from Germany was
How did the Soviet Union react? required to sign it. Why was this?
Stalin was not upset by the Truman Doctrine, but was
The question of what to do with Germany split the Grand
concerned by the Marshall Plan. The plan was against
Alliance. There was broad agreement that:
Soviet interests. If any east European country accepted
the invitation, their economy would be tied to that of the e The country would be divided into four zones, each
USA. In turn, this would undermine Soviet control. Stalin administered by an ally — France, UK, USA, USSR. A
could not allow this to happen. conference would then agree Germany's future shape
and nature.
In response to the Marshall Plan, Stalin convened a
e Berlin, the capital, would also be divided into
meeting of Communist Party leaders in September 1947.
At that conference, the leaders were left in no doubt about
four zones.
the threat to communism created by the Plan. The Soviet e The Soviet Union could take reparations from
response was the creation of Cominform (Communist Germany.
Information Bureau). e Poland’s border would be moved to the west to the
ne

Oder-Neisse River.
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 4.4 ¢ The Grand Alliance agreed to de-Nazify, demilitarise and
democratise Germany.
1 Why do you think some countries did not receive any
Marshall Aid? ¢ Governing Germany would be the job of the Allied
Control Council. This would decide matters that affected
2 The Soviets called Marshall Aid ‘dollar imperialism’.
the whole country.
What do you think they meant?
3 The list below gives factors that resulted in the Meetings did take place to discuss in greater detail the
Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan. Rank them in future of Germany; for example, the London Conference
order of significance and explain your decisions. between September and October in 1945. However,
Va ideological differences each time the Foreign Ministers met there were more
b_ fear of another Great Depression disagreements — there were very few joint decisions.
c_ the British decision to withdraw from Turkey and This was because each side took a different approach to
Greece Germany.
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

The contrasting views and aims ofthe western allies and the USSR

Aimsof Britain, France and the USA Aims of the Soviet Union
and
|The western governments remembered the lessons from | The Soviet Union remembered the invasions in 1914
soon recover and
the end of the First World War: a humiliating and punitive | 1941. Germany was defeated but it would
| peace treaty would only create resentment and lead to the | pose a future threat to Soviet security. It had to be punished
wish for revenge. and weakened economically so that it would not have the
| | resources to start another war.
"The German economy was vital for the whole of Europe Germany had to be stripped of its industrial resources and
"and the USA saw it as a good market for American goods. | the equipment taken back to the Soviet Union to help its
Therefore, it was important that it recovered and the USA | economy rebuild itself. Reparations amounting to $20 billion
could help by giving it Marshall Aid. were to be taken by, or given to, the Soviet Union.

The Grand Alliance splits apart, 1947-1948 The western response had to be carefully thought out.
n 1945, the USA had turned down a Soviet request for The wrong move could spark a war. Only a year earlier,
a loan to cover the cost of occupying the eastern zone ta resident Truman had publicly stated his Doctrine:
in Germany. The London conference had resulted in d oing nothing would mean the American policy was
deadlock about the future of Germany. meaningless. However, if he tried to use force to open
oe the roads and railways, this might provoke a militar
n January 1947, Britain and the USA created a single Y eae y
eh» Pe Ua! response.
economic unit called the Bizone (or ‘Bizonia’) out oftheir
respective German zones. The French added their zone Britain, the USA and France jointly agreed not to give in
a year later: Trizone. Stalin was worried that the western and promised to supply the West Berliners with supplies
| powers were no longer interested in agreeing on the future from the air. Over the next eleven months, the three
for the whole of Germany. airports in West Berlin had regular landings by aircraft full
of coal, food and fuel for the isolated citizens. Children
The Moscow Conference of Foreign Ministers met forty-
who fell ill were flown out of the city so they could
three times in March 1947; once again no agreements were
have medical help in the West. By 1949, planes were
nade. In March 1947, the three western powers agreed to
landing every 90 seconds in a constant queue of airlifted
unite their zones politically, that is, into one government
supplies; in all, 277,000 flights over eleven months fed
for all three zones.
the city. Although the airlift appeared to be an entirely
The USA decided to make Marshall Aid available to the unselfish act, you should note that West Berlin was a
western zones of Germany. Stalin reacted by stopping and nest of espionage and intelligence gathering. Losing
searching all freight shipments into West Berlin. such a wonderful base in East Germany would harm
In June 1948, the western powers introduced a brand new opportunities for spying and reduce the impact of western
currency for use in all four German zones. The Soviets propaganda broadcasts by radio.
refused to allow this in their eastern zone. What could Stalin do? His advisers had misjudged the
West. The six weeks projected deadline came and went.
The Berlin Blockade and the Berlin airlift He dared not shoot down any plane for fear of sparking a
military response. Instead, the Soviets tried to block radio
Stalin reacted to the new currency by cutting off West
Berlin by water, road and rail; then, he turned off the gas signals. This had little effect. In the end, Stalin lifted the
and electricity. He hoped to force the western powers out blockade in May 1949.
of the city so he could bring the entire city under Soviet The Berlin Blockade transformed the West’s public
rule. His advisers told Stalin that they thought the West perception of Berlin from being a supporter of Nazism
Berliners and the western powers would surrender after to being the symbolic island of freedom and
four to six weeks because they could not survive without democracy. The city from now on had to be protected
sentials like fuel and food. whatev
theer
cost.
 4: Who was to blame for the Cold War?

Source 4CC: A photo of supplies arriving by plane for the

THE BIRD WATCHER West Berliners during the Berlin Blockade.

Source 4BB: A British cartoon from 1948 showing the Berlin

Airlift and Stalin. he mignt launch an invasion of western Europe. So, in
April 1949, west European governments asked the USA
for
i a military
ary commitment to Europe. agreed tcto
Sidi Truman agree
ACTIVITY 4.16
join and lead the North Atlantic Treaty Organization or
Look at Sources 4BB and 4CC. Why didn’t Stalin issue orders NATO. This was a significant change pubs ican foreign
to shoot down the planes before they reached West Berliners? policy and underlined the genuine fearof the USSR and
ls Source 4BB a pro-western cartoon or a pro-Soviet of communism that existed in the USA a in western
one? Use details to explain your answer. Europe. Along with the USA, eleven other countries
became members: Britain, France, Canada, Italy,
Denmark, Iceland, Norway, Portugal, Belgium, Holland
The blockade was over, but it had signalled the end of the and Luxembourg. This new organisation had one central
Grand Alliance. The division of Europe was now complete purpose: an armed attack against one or more of them
and lasted for over forty years. The Iron Curtain was in would be considered an attack on all. This was collective
place. Truman wrote this: security.
; he western powers stopped
The Berlin Blockade was a move to test our Once NATO was in place, t oe
5 : é é : waiting for the Soviets to agreeon the future of German
capacity and will to resist. This action and the a af
: Instead, in May 1949, uh1e formal unification ofthe western
previous attempts to take over Greece and
; zones took place: the Trizone was now the Federal
Turkey were part of a Russian plan to probe for =
: aie a Republic of Germany (West Germany). A new constitutio
soft spots in the Western Allies’ positions all , mre
; ‘ was agreed and national elect tions were held in August
around their own perimeter. : , Sig tet
1949. Konrad RGeneuce leader of the right-wing Christian
Democrats, became the first Chancellor (Prime Min
Formation of NATO of West Germany. Although responsibility for the interna
Politicians in western Europe were worried that Stalin development of FRG was now in Adenauer’s hands, the
would continue to look for weaknesses to exploit and to country’s foreign policy was still controlled by the v
follow his expansionist policies. The fear remained that powers until 1951.
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

of collective security behind NATO was now in place for

a oe Eastern Europe.
Federal: a ‘federation’ is a group ofseas
Republic’ a collection of what hadhistorically been The Warsaw Pact central command was dominated by
independent German-speaking cou ntries hada entral_ the Soviet Union. The commander-in-chief was always a
government, which was basedin Bonn. 4 Sieh Soviet army officer. The same can be said ofthe deputy
and the three branches of the armed forces: army, navy
and air force. These military developments tightened
West Berlin was not part of West Germany so British, further the Soviet Union’s control of Eastern Europe.
French and American soldiers remained there to defend
the city from an attack.
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 4.5
The Soviets reacted quickly to the creation of West
Germany. In October 1949, the new German Democratic 1 ‘Noone wanted Germany to be divided after 1945,
Republic (East Germany) was announced. East Berlin was but it still happened. What were the key factors that
part of East Germany and became the country’s capital. resulted in a divided Germany by 1949?
All government responsibilities were in the hands ofthe 2 ‘Fear’ is the key to understanding the Berlin Blockade
communist Socialist Unity Party created in 1946 by the and its failure. Do you agree with this explanation of
forced merger of the Social Democratic Party and the the Blockade?
German Communist Party in the Soviet Zone. 3 Historian Mary Fulbrook wrote: ‘It is conceivable that
Germany could have remained united, as a neutral
Although the USSR did not immediately create a military
power (as was the case with Austria), with the lron Curtain
alliance to oppose NATO, it did tighten its control over running along a different frontier’ What would need to
its satellite states. In January 1949, the Council for have been different for this outcometo have happened?
Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) was created to
coordinate the development of the national economies
100
of each of the Soviet Bloc countries. Each of the east
European economies would develop along similar lines to 4.5 Who was the more to blame
that of the Soviet Union.
for starting the Cold War: the USA
n August 1949, the Soviet Union successfully tested
or the USSR?
its first atomic bomb. Now, the USA no longer had a
nonopoly on atomic weapons. The nuclear arms race had Ifyou look back to the section ‘What was the Cold War?’
Degun and would continue throughout the Cold War. you will remember that two different views of the Cold
War were given: one blamed the Cold War on the USSR,
The Berlin Blockade was the first Cold War crisis. Both
the other on the USA. In this section you will have the
sides had survived without any military force being used.
opportunity to make a final judgement. Perhaps you think
ow that each side possessed nuclear weapons, great
that both superpowers were to blame or that one was
care had to be taken not to provoke the enemy into firing
more to blame than the other. Whatever your judgement
them. In this sense, although the blockade was a crisis,
you will need to back it up with evidence.
it actually stabilised the superpower relationship. The
Situat ion in Berlin now settled down. This section will sum up the arguments and evidence on
both sides and leave you to decide.
1 May 1955, West Germany joined NATO with the
condition that it could have no biological, chemical or
tomic weapons. Britain and the USA promised to base In what ways was the USSR to blame for the
troops in West Germany. Cold War?
Communism was an ideology that was naturally
Formation of the Warsaw Pact expansionist. The USSR view of the future was that
| ponse from the Soviet Bloc to these developments communism could not coexist with capitalism, one or
rn Europe was to create a central command for the other had to die. From the West’s point of view, Stalin
es. On 14 May 1955, eight communist intended to impose communism on as many countries as
ed to unify their armed forces. The principle possible.
 4: Who was to blame for the Cold War?

Evidence
Stalin did not stick to the Yalta agreement. Between
February 1945 and July when the Potsdam conference
Stalin’s suspicions of the West were confirmed by
took place, communist governments were installed in
examples of wartime secrecy. The USA had not shared the
Poland and Romania. By the end of 1948, communists
atomic bomb with its Grand Alliance partner. In addition,
controlled all of Eastern Europe.
Britain and the USA had refused to open a second front to
Stalin did not appreciate the importance that Truman relieve the pressure on the Red Army fighting the Germans
and Churchill placed on free elections for the liberated in the east.
countries. Democracy was not important in Stalin’s peace-
In April 1945, President Roosevelt died. His successor, Harry
making, he wanted friendly governments bordering the
Truman, took a harder line with the Soviets in discussions
USSR.
and stopped the Lend-Lease loans to the USSR.
The creation of COMECON made sure that each part of the
Taken together, Sources 4U and 4DD explain why Stalin
Soviet Bloc followed the same economic model as the
was so concerned about security for the USSR. A revived
Soviet Union. The establishment of COMINFORM is evidence
Germany was a nightmare for Stalin; Germany had to be
that he intended to undermine capitalist countries through
crushed and kept neutral.
national communist parties.
ACTIVITY 4.17
Stalin’s personality
The personality of the Soviet leader was a significant What evidence can you see in Source 4EE that could be
used to defend Stalin from the charge that he was to
factor in bringing about the Cold War. He was obsessed
blame for starting the Cold War?
with nis-Coumtry s security and defence and was paranoid
about his own safety. He could not allow liberated
countries to be anti-Soviet.
101
In what ways was the USA to blame for the
Although Stalin had advisers and listened to their advice Cold War?
he made the final decisions about Soviet foreign policy.
He was also the one leader who was a constant; in other Argument 1: ‘Dollar Imperialism’ was the motive
countries, leaders came and went. He was in power for USA involvement in Europe.
during the Second World War, he attended the wartime The economy in the USA had recovered from the Great
conferences and he saw the division of Europe by an Iron Depression during the Second World War. In fact, it did
Curtain. more than recover, it doubled in size. President Truman
and his advisers were worried that, once peace arrived
and the US military forces came home, there would be
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 4.6
another economic slump. To stop another depression, it
Now you have read the evidence, put it in rank order is argued that the USA needed to have a European market
of importance to show that the USSR was to blame for for the goods it was producing.
starting the Cold War.
Evidence
The USA ended its Lend-Lease arrangements with
How can Stalin’s role in the Cold War the USSR in 1945; ships that were on their way to the
be defended?
The role of the USSR and of Stalin in particular can be Stalin had no warning of this. Marshall Aid was really
defended using the following evidence. designed to ensure the recovery of a i
free-market Europe so that Europeans could buy
Some historians argue that the West did not fully
American goods.
appreciate the Soviet Union’s security concerns at the end
of the war. Russia had been invaded three times in fifty The creation of Bizonia and then Trizonia was a clear
years (1914, 1918 and 1941). Furthermore, Stalin believed breach of the Potsdam agreement and was ana ?
that the West’s policy of appeasement in the 1930s introduce capitalism across the whole of Gs
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

World War II Deaths

12 24
0

| | | |
| | | |
| Axis Military | Axis Civilians 4%
13%
Allied
Forces

Allied Military
25%

0 12 24
M Military deaths (millions) @® Total deaths (millions)
® Civilian deaths (millions) ™ Total deaths as % of 1939 population

Source 4DD: A table showing the comparisons of deaths by country during the Second World War.

Argument 2: President Truman did not trust the bases stretching far beyond the boundaries of the
Soviets’ words or deeds. United States, through the arms race, and through the
Truman had been confrontational with the USSR after creation of ever newer types of weapons.
Roosevelt died in April 1945 and this soured Soviet-US
relations. He believed having and using the atomic bomb Source 4EE: Part of the ‘Novikov Telegram’ sent by the
would make it easier to impose his will on the Soviet Soviet Ambassador to the USA, Nikolai Novikov on
Union. This is one of the reasons he ordered the bombs to 27 September 1946.
be dropped. The Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan were
How can the role of the USA be defended?
seen by the USSR as provocative and designed to isolate
the USSR. Why wasn’t their enormous wartime sacrifice The role of the USA and of President Truman in particular
being properly rewarded? can be defended using the following evidence.
Stalin’s dismissive attitude towards the ‘London Poles’
The foreign policy of the USA is characterized by a illustrated his wish to break the wartime agreements.
striving for world supremacy. The Truman Doctrine was a defensive and not an
The real meaning of the many statements by President offensive reaction to the developments in Greece
Truman and others is that the United States has the mw id Turkey. West European governments invited and
right to lead the world. All the forces of American welcomed the Marshall Plan. They had a choice and
diplomacy - the army, the air force, the navy, industry, made it freely to join the European Recovery Programme.
and science - are enlisted in the service of this policy. This is in contrast to Stalin’s forcible takeover of Eastern
[They have established] a system of naval and air Europe by 1948.
 4: Who was to blame for the Cold War?

ACTIVITY 4.18 :

Now you have read the evidence, put it in rank order

of importance to show that Truman was to blame for
starting the Cold War.
What evidence can you see in Sources 4FF and 4GG that
could be used to defend Truman from the charge that
he was to blame for starting the Cold War?

1Hi
r 3
LAA -_
yyw 2 “i *® “JG
t

Source 4GG: A USA cartoon from March 1948 showing the

Soviet ‘bear’ approaching a desperate Western Europe.

103
Review your ver ntDE
The Cold War lasted approximately 45 years. It came after
the Second World War ended when the two superpowers
were the only Great Powers left after the most deadly war
in history, with the UK and France, Japan and Germany
severely weakened. From 1941 to 1945 the USA and USSR
Source 4FF: A pro-western poster to celebrate the Marshall were SAE with Great Britain ir
Plan and its impact. Although all three partners agreed on some broad aspects
of the peace, they disagreed about the detail. In spite of
conference reat Hakaea the Cold War b
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 4.7 .
of their conflicting objectives and priorities. Trust no longer
1 President Truman was under pressure at the start of existed; the Grand Al= iance shatter
the Cold War. Congress and public opinion after the there was hostility; instead of «
war swung against the Soviet Union. Why did Truman mistrust; instead of open dis
have to take account of other views, but Stalin did
not? Historians disagree about the causes of the Co
you need to assess the factors, weigh then
2 Why was the Soviet Union affected more badly by the
war than the USA? up your own mind about the key questio
3 ‘Truman and not Stalin was more to blame for
support your argument with evidence
starting the Cold War.’ How far do you agree with this can answer the five questions listed at Z
view? this chapter as Focus points; t
evidence for you to «
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

» The USSR and the USA were allies in the Second World War, » Each side misunderstood the views and needs of the other,
with Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy and militarist Japan as both felt threatened.
common enemies. « The USSR succeeded in holding on to the territories taken
Being in the Grand Alliance didn’t mean the members during the defeat of Germany.
agreed about more than the importance ofdefeating the « The USA was determined to contain the USSR,
enemy. preventing it from pushing its power and influence
Even during the war there were disputes. any further.

« Once the enemy was defeated, the motive for cooperating - East Europe would be regarded as a Soviet victory, but the
disappeared, and soon cooperation did too. Berlin Blockade and airlift were a USA victory.

The Big Challenge

You need to be able to explain why a Cold War Write a paragraph explaining why you chose that order,
broke out. particularly drawing attention to the cause you think
is the most important. If you and your partner reached
First, with a partner, discuss what you think the year
different conclusions and put the items in different
was in which you think the Cold War began. Write a
orders, summarise their opinion and explain why you
short paragraph explaining your choice. If your partner
disagree with it.
disagrees with you, summarise both their opinion and
why you disagree with it. Third, discuss why it was a ‘cold’ not a ‘hot’ war: how
did the crises not lead to a Third World War? Write a
1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 paragraph explaining what you think and why you
Second, discuss with your partner why the Cold War think it. As before, discuss your partner’s opinions and
broke out. Below is a list of possible causes. Put them in how far you agree or disagree with them. Remember,
order of importance. this is a speculative activity, but you still need to put
forward evidence. The point is that what happens in
Ideological differences history should not be regarded as inevitable. Thinking
Security needs about what didn’t happen (and why) can support our
understanding of what did (and why).
Economic opportunities

Disagreements over German and Poland

Personalities of Stalin and Truman

Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan.

 4: Who was to blame for the Cold War?

Exam-style questions
What was agreed and what was left undecided at the Yalta Conference in February 1945?

What role did ideological differences play in starting the Cold War

How significant was George Kennan’s Long Telegram in shaping Truman’s decision to
contain communism?

Following the Potsdam Conference, what caused an increase in tension between the Soviet
Union and the West?

What methods did Stalin use to take over Eastern Europe between 1945 and 1948?

What was the Truman Doctrine and why was it important in ending the Grand Alliance?

What was the Marshall Plan and why was it important in ending the Grand Alliance?

‘It was Stalin’s fear of what the western powers were doing in their German zones that made
him Blockade Berlin.’ How far do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer.

Why was NATO formed in 1949?

10 ‘The start of the Cold War can be blamed on the Soviet Union in general and on Stalin in
particular’. To what extent do you agree with this view?
Chapter 5 | |
Key Question 5: How effectivelydid the
USA contain the spread of communism?

M Case study 1: USA and events in Korea, 1950-1953

M Case study 2: USA and events in Cuba, 1959-1962
™ Case study 3: American involvementin Vietnam
 5: How effectively did the USA contain the spread of communism?

What is this enquiry about?

FACT FILE )
When Lenin’s Bolshevik party came to power in Russia
Chairman Mao
in 1917 it was not well received internationally. The USA In the Chinese Revolution of 1949, the communists
was one of several powers who sent troops to fight in under Mao Zedong defeated the US-backed Nationalists
the Russian Civil War (1918-1921) hoping to destroy the led by Chiang Kai-Shek. This came at the end of an
new communist regime. This failed, and no American intense civil war from 1945 to 1949 in which Chiang
received significant amounts of support from President
president would recognise the communist government
Truman. However, his forces were poorly led and corrupt
in Moscow until Franklin Delano Roosevelt in 1933. The commanders even sold their new weapons to Mao’s men.
need to unite to fight fascism during the Second World The victory raised fears in Washington as China was a
War meant the two powers then became allies in 1941. member of the UN Security Council. It increased the
This was a temporary alliance: events after 1945 showed possibility of communism spreading in Asia.
that the relationship between the world’s two remaining | Communist forces were also fighting for control of
| Indochina and the Philippines.
superpowers could not remain friendly.
From 1950 to 1973 there were many tests of the policy
of containment, but three major examples stand out:
the Korean War, the Cuban Missile Crisis and the war (OI
in Vietnam. This chapter assesses the results of these UN Security Council: the main decision-making body of
interventions and asks you to reach a judgement about the UN for military and security matters. It has 15 members
the success ofthe policy of containment. After studying in total, 5 permanent and 10 temporary. The 5permanent
members are the USA, Britain, China, France and Russia _
these three examples you will need to return to this (previously the USS R). At Stalin’s insistence, each permanent
question. To reach a judgement you will need to: member had the power of veto, which meant they could
block any measure.
¢ Understand the cause and consequence of each i pry ‘ = aS BTS TY,
event.
* Evaluate American policy and strategy - what were The result of Truman’s investigation was National Security
they trying to achieve and how close did they come to Council report 68 (or ‘NSC 68’), which outlined four
success? options:
¢ Assess whether the threat of communism had
1 Continue with the USA's existing policies.
increased or decreased after a quarter of a century of
containment. 2 Fight a preventative war to block Soviet expansion.
3. Withdraw behind the shield of ‘fortress USA’ and do
nothing about the expansion of communism around
5.1 Case study 1: USA and events the world.
in Korea, 1950-1953
4 Start a programme of massive rearmament to surpass
Background to a crisis the forces available to communism.
In January 1950, President Truman ordered a review ofthe
Truman chose the fourth option. USA armed forces had
USA's foreign policy. This was in response to the increasing
been run down since 1945, but now they were to be
level of threat that developed in 1948 and 1949. Several
expanded. Containment was to be put forcefully into
incidents had raised concerns about the global spread of
practice. This remained American policy until the end of
communism:
the Vietnam War.
* 1948: Czechoslovakia was taken over by a communist
government. What caused the Korean War?
* 1948-1949: the Berlin Blockade brought the two From 1910 to 1945 Korea had been ruled as a colony
superpowers close to conflict. by Japan. Young Koreans were taught at school in the
* 1949: the communists finally won the Chinese civil war Japanese language and all political opposition was
under Mao. banned. Koreans were used as conscripts as the Japanese
* 1949: the USSR produced a nuclear weapon, at least waged war from 1937 to 1945. When the war ended Korea
three years in advance of American estimates. was liberated by Soviet troops in the North and Amer
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

) troops in the South. As in Germany, the country was Korean communists in the North were led by Kim
divided and ruled by occupying forces. The dividing line ll-sung. During the Second World War he was in Moscow
was the 38th parallel. and was trained for leadership by Stalin. In the South,
anti-communists led by Syngman Rhee were installed as
the new government by the Americans. All foreign troops
ACTIVITY 5.1
withdrew in 1949 after agreement was reached in the UN.
The National Security Council (NSC) was founded in However, fighting soon broke out between northern and
1947. Its role was to assist the State Department and southern forces along the border.
the president in making decisions about foreign policy.
in groups, put yourself in the position of Truman’s NSC
advisers. Debate these questions and prepare your ACTIVITY 5.2
recommendations:
Look at Source 5A. Research Kim Il-sung online. Why
1 Whichof the four developments in 1948/1949 posed
was he a popular leaderin the North? What leadership
the greatest threat to American security? Which was
qualities did he have?
the least threatening? Give reasons for your selections.
2 Which ofthe four options presented to Truman in
NSC 68 would you recommend? Give reasons for
your decision.
Now debate your choices with the other groups. After
hearing their opinions are you still happy with your
choices?

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 5.1

1 Look at the map in Figure 5.1. What challenges were

posed by containing communism in this region?
2 Onwhat basis could we make a judgement about the
success or failure of the policy in the Korean War?

Source 5A: A huge statue of Kim Il-sung in Pyongyang,

North Korea. He was succeeded by his son and grandson,
who continued to develop his cult of personality.

Kim Il-sung was keen to reunite Korea under his leadership

but knew that conquering the South would require
outside assistance. He approached Stalin in early 1949
but his proposal for an invasion was rejected as the Berlin
Blockade was still going on. A year later and Stalin’s mood
was different. The development of nuclear weapons and
the Chinese revolution made an invasion of the South
= uch easier. He gave Kim Il-sung his support; on 25 June

1950 the North launched a full-scale invasion of the South.

Source 5D shows a western view of Stalin’s role and how
the USSR presented it.
Figure 5.1: Amap of the Korean peninsular, showing the It was a formidable force numbering 200,000 troops
38th parallel, which divided North Korea from South 10,000 of whom had been specially trained in the USSR.
Korea. Note how close both capitals, Pyongyang and Another 40,000 had gained experience fighting in the
Seoul, are to the border. Note also how small is the area Chinese Civil War 1945-1949, These soldiers were also
of Pusan, to which the South retreated, and how bold supplied with Soviet equipment such as T-34 tanks.
MacArthur’s counter-attack on Inchon was. Southern forces were ill-equipped, poorly trained and
 5: How effectively did the USA contain the spread of communism?

numbered no more than 100,000. They were soon retreat

ing Korea is asmall country, thousands of miles away,
as the North Koreans poured over the 38th parallel. The
but what is happening there is important to every
Capital city, Seoul, was taken swiftly, and all Korea was
American.
occupied, except for Pusan in the far south (see Figure 5.1).
On Sunday, June 25th, Communist forces attacked the
Republic of Korea.
American reactions to the invasion
of South Korea This attack has made it clear, beyond all doubt,
that the international Communist movement
Although the invasion cameasa Surprise, the USA had
is willing to use armed invasion to conquer
been watching events closely in the Korean peninsula.
independent nations. An act of aggression such as
Experience of directly running South Korean affairs
this creates a very real danger to the security of all
from 1945 to 1948 had not been easy. Rhee was elected
president in 1948, however, the South was deeply divided free nations.
politically and Rhee ruled as a dictator. In April 1950 he The attack upon Korea was an outright breach ofthe
performed poorly in elections due to corruption in his peace and a violation of the Charter of the United
government. While the USA had been quite happy to Nations. By their actions in Korea, Communist leaders
withdraw their forces from 1948 to 1949, the changing have demonstrated their contempt for the basic moral
events In Asia made them reconsider giving strong principles on which the United Nations is founded.
support to Rhee as the best hope for containment. This is a direct challenge to the efforts of the free
nations to build the kind of world in which men can
A second reason for US interest in Asia concerned the
live in freedom and peace.
reaction to the Chinese revolution of October 1949. Mao
was now in power in China but the USA refused to accept This challenge has been presented squarely. We must
this; they continued to recognise Chiang Kai-shek as the meet it squarely ...
rightful leader. He had lost the civil war and escaped
to Taiwan in 1949. Events at the United Nations took a Source 5B: Truman’s televised speech on 19 July 1950.
surprising turn in January 1950 when the USSR refused
to attend the Security Council over the failure to accept CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 5.3
Mao’s government. They were still refusing to attend
Security Council meetings in June when South Korea was Look at Source 5B. Was Truman right in claiming that
events in Korea were ‘important to every American’? In
invaded. This gave the Americans a unique opportunity to
what ways does this source add support to the policy of
use the UN to establish a coalition of powers against the containment?
spread of communism.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 5.2

The course of the war, 1950-1953
Consider the motives for US involvement in Korea. Which The events of any war can often seem confusing so it helps
of the two reasons for the USA entering the war was more to break them down into clear phases.
significant and why?

Phase 1: liberating the South

President Truman appealed to the UN to come to the aid The early success of the northern forces saw Rhee’s army
of Rhee. The response was remarkably quick (see Source surrounded in Pusan. Even the American forces who had
5C). On 27 June it ordered member nations to support landed early had been unable to do much to prevent this.
the South. Truman sent American forces from Japan led They were told they would be back in J (a8) wi
by General Douglas MacArthur, a US general from the weeks and not to pack much equipm
Second World War Pacific campaign with a formidable found themselves in a heavy t
reputation. Another fourteen nations contributed to the was to launch a bold amphibious landing further north
UN army and five sent medical support. This was the first that would allow him to cut off the northern army
time that the UN had gathered an international army and September, he landed his forces at
it was determined to show that it was stronger and more of the pen nsula (see F eure 5.]
capable than its predecessor, the League of Nations. task as there was a Sea wa
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

for landing the boats. Despite this he managed to get his combat jet of the period and caused considerable panic
on land and defeated the communist troops. By in Washington. By the end of November it was obvious
October they had retaken Seoul and reached the that MacArthur’s men were suffering heavy casualties and
38th paralle
3| were in retreat. In January 1951 Chinese forces recaptured
Seoul.
As this offensive continued, Truman was asked repeatedly
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 5.4
at press conferences whether he would agree to the
Look at Figure 5.1. What were the intentions of use of nuclear weapons. He had authorised their use on
MacArthur's strategy? Japan so would he do so again? He refused to rule it out
categorically, which caused considerable alarm with his
UN allies. British Prime Minister Attlee flew to Washington
Phase 2: ‘rollback’ - the UN invasion of the North in December 1950 to tell Truman of his opposition.
The original mission had been completed. The South Accepting international concerns, Truman clearly stated
had been freed from communist forces, which meant that he would not use nuclear weapons.
that containment had been achieved. Yet MacArthur
was keen to move beyond the 38th parallel and roll back Phase 4: stalemate and peace talks
communism — and not just in North Korea but perhaps A UN counter-attack in early spring managed to halt the
also in China. He saw this as a great opportunity not only Chinese forces at the 38th parallel. As the original plan
to prevent communism from spreading but also to make it had been to liberate South Korea up to this line Truman
disappearin Asia. considered peace talks. Itwas clear that MacArthur
Truman was less enthusiastic, but when he arrived in disagreed and he publicly criticised the president. Truman
Korea to meet MacArthur it was clear which man was took the significant decision to sack MacArthur. This was
in control. MacArthur accepted a medal from Truman deeply unpopular with the American public and Truman
110 decided not to run for the presidency again in 1952. Under
but declined to meet the President for lunch to discuss
strategy. Instead, he got back to work to prepare his the new commander, General Ridgeway, American strategy
invasion of the North. Despite the Chinese warning that switched to defence and a Chinese offensive was successfully
they would get involved, MacArthur sent his forces across fought back, with heavy casualties being inflicted.
the border and pushed onwards throughout late October.
n November, the Chinese responded by sending 500,000
troops, whom they called ‘volunteers’ across the Yalu
River, which marks the border with North Korea.

ACTIVITY 5.3

Assessing change and continuity: Did this mark a in MEMORY ons

continuation of containment (as MacArthur thought) TEAGUE +tNATIONS

Lex
or was it a significant change to the policy (as Truman
thought)?

Phase 3: the Chinese counter-attack

t was at this point that UN forces began to struggle. The
hinese were less well armed but had superior numbers.
e cold conditions caused guns to jam, which removed
idvantage the UN soldiers had in terms of equipment. Source 5C: A cartoon from June 1950. President Truman
1 also te ape,support from Russian MiG-15s which and the United Nations are rushing to take part in the
ter than American planes, could fly higher and had Korean War in support of South Korea. Both are flying over
wer, It wi Tae ete the most feared the grave of the League of Nations.
 5: How effectively did the USA contain the spread of communism?

The Chinese took over the r u

improve conditions but also to pr
Why has the cartoonist in Source 5C drawn President of UN soldiers. Eventually, in September 1953 there was
Truman in such a hurry? How does this cartoon convey an exchange of 77,000 communist fighters for 12,700
the differences between the League of Nations and the
troops in Operation Big Switch.
United Nations in respect of peacekeeping?
The end of the war
As peace talks dragged on in 1952 and 1953 there
In July 1951 the two sides sat down to discuss peace
seemed no likely end to the war. Truman’s replacement |
terms. The main disagreement was the issue of prisoners
as president in January 1953 was Dwight ‘Ike’
of war (POWs). As there had been so much movement
a Second World War general. He promised to end the
of troops up and down the Korean peninsula large
numbers had been captured on both sides. Approximately
after a power struggle Nikita nrusncnev took his place ir
130,000 communist soldiers were held in the South and
the USSR. With new leaders in place it was more possible
they had been given the option to remain there. Halfof
O OFee — GQ fav) L2yr(e) cS = jad) iq?)jad)(@)D = PF ap) = Pe a" O (4p) ye fev) ry) = (a0) ra) D Mm re) Va) (ap) o
them accepted. In the North conditions were appalling ss 5
on 27 July 1953, which was accepted by all sides - except
as halfofUS POWs died in the winter of 1950/1951.
Syngman Rhee. The international involvement in the
fighting was brought to a close but there has never been a
peace treaty between North and South, so technically the
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 5.5
war is not yet over.
The Korean War is often called the ‘forgotten war’. How
can we explain this? What evidence in this section would The most tragic consequence was the horrific loss of
support this view? Study Source 5E. Describe how it life. Seoul and Pyongyang were both extensively
represents the soldiers. What does this tell you about the amaged <and the
damaged is civilian casualties
sabahial were 3 million
petal -
way in which the American public viewed the war after it around 10% of the total population. Other losses DY
was over? country were:

e North Korea: 406,000 combat deaths

e South Korea: 217,000 combat deaths
¢ China: 500,000 combat deaths
¢ USA: 36,914 combat deaths and illness, with another
7,800 still unaccounted for
¢ UN: 3,000-4,000 deaths, including 686 British
with 1,102 missing in action. the highest number o
coalition forces after the USA.

Weapons such as napalm were used, which had

catastrophic human and ecological results. Chinese
casualties were high, but arguably M aO Was the

power in China and ended a period of more than a

century of Chinese defeats at the hands of western
powers.

BELIEVE IT OR KNOUT

Source 5D: A Punch cartoon published in June 1950.

Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

valuable sugar and oil industries. From 1933 they supported

the corrupt dictator Batista, but he was overthrown in
1959 by Fidel Castro. Castro came to power along with
colleagues such as his brother Raul and the famous
revolutionary Ernesto ‘Che’ Guevara. Castro’s followers
were a mixture of communists and Cuban nationalists, but
they were all hostile to American influence on their island.

FACT FILE
Fidel Castro (pictured in Source 5F) led the 1959 Cuban
Revolution. He adored legendary Cuban nationalist Jose
Source 5E: The Korean War memorial in Washington DC. Marti but had also read Karl Marx. He was the son of a
wealthy farmer and studied law before becoming a full-
time revolutionary. His rise to power involved one ofthe
ACTIVITY 5.5 great guerrilla campaigns of the 20th century: his 300
men defeated 10,000 regular soldiers in the Sierra Maestra
The USA spent $67 billion on the war and in addition to mountains. He ruled Cuba for almost half a century.
combat deaths over 100,000 soldiers were injured. Were
these costs justified to contain communism?

i hiaiieieeeemea
5.2 Case study 2: The Cuban Mutually Assured Destruction: concept putforward by ;
the Secretary of Defence Robert ae }aspeech in| a
Missile Crisis, 1959-1962 1962. Atthis pointtheUSA had 25,000 nuclear weapons and
Khrushchev and Eisenhower got on better than Stalin and the USSR had about valf rau logic was that neith
Truman when they met in 1955, the first meeting betweer side would risk war due Pineviigble death d ‘conc
for all. : 2 3 -
ie and American leaders since 1945. Yet the arms race
and spy networks developed to such a point that neither
side could trust the other. Major incidents made relations
worse. The U2 incident (see ‘Causes of the Missile Crisis’)
showed the extent of spying, while the Berlin Wall became
an icon of the Cold War (see Key Question 6).

Technology played an important

— role in raising tension.
In 1957, the Soviets put the first satellite (called Sputnik)
rH}

into space and they also developed long-range nuclear

missiles called ICBMs. In 1959 the USA developed
Polaris missiles which could be launched from
submarines. The underlying theory of the arms and
techn ee ‘ace was Mutually Assured Destruction
(MAD). Neither side would start a nuclear war because
launc he weapons would ensure that both sides would
be destroyed. Thi: ; gave little comfort to civilians around
Source SF: Fidel Castro (centre) with his guerrilla PRS in
the world.
the Sierra Maestra in 1958.

The USA’s reaction to the Cuban Revolution This revolution was troubling for Washington, given
1959-1961 cuba’s strategic and economic significance. Castro let the
the USA defeated theSpanish in a short war that USA keep its base at Guantanamo Bay and guaranteed
effective control over Cuba.A
Vee this, American the safety of Americans in Cuba. However, he wanted
id taken over trade
on the island and owned to show Cuba’s new freedom from American control so
{ |
d and natural wealth — particularly th in 1960 he signed a trade agreement with Moscow and
 5: How effectively did the USA contain the spread of communism?

received weapons
as well. This led to a series of ‘tit-for-tat’
Causes ofthe Missile Crisis
measures:
The introduction of
VU nuclear weapons
IUCIE to Cuba was de
* Castro nationalised $1 billion of American investmen by Khrushchevinthe summer of 1962. As part of NATO, the
in Cuba, includinoil
g refineries. : USA had put strategic nuclear wea y and Turke\
* Eisenhower started a trade embargo, which included These were so close to the USSR that little response time
sugar, Cuba’s most valuable export. The USSR agreed to would be possibleif missile was launched. Khrushche
buy sugar from Cuba to save its economy. wanted to counter this threatae Pracing nuclear missiles
* The USA announced it would not buy oil from Cuba. Dae ea 2) tle iOun ve 4e8 Bi iciol Ce
Again, the USSR bought the oil instead, even though it ee be eae on ee sean Use : 4 oe :
was very inconvenient to send Soviet ships to Havana. nea arrange fer the shipment and installation of the
Castro had never been a member of the Cuban
Communist Party, however, when he met Khrushchev at September 1962, Kennedy warned the USSR that
the UN in 1960 they embraced like old friends and he now DEINLIG DIVE xnav) yt oe ee
called himself a ‘good Marxist-Leninist’. eee es ae Cee aa oreanes
gave his word that this would not happen. On 14
The CIA's response was to train a group of 1,400 Cuban exiles October, a U2 spy plane flew over Cuba and took
to invade the island and overthrow Castro. The USA mistakenly pictures of missile silos. Two days later Kennedy was
believed that Castro was unpopulaand r poorly armed. In shown the conclusive proof tha st Khrushchev | id
April 1961, the Cuban exiles landed at the Bay of Pigs but were broken his word. After the Bay of Pigs embarrassment,
easily defeated (see Source 5G). Castro had 20,000 soldiers Kennedy was reluctant to rely on his military chiefs
supported by Soviet tanks. By this time Eisenhower had alone so he formed a special team called Ex-Comm to
been replaced by John F. Kennedy so the defeat was hugely provide him with advice. He knew that 20 Soviet ships
embarrassing for the new president. When he met Khrushchev carrying nuclear missiles were on the way to Cuba.
at the Vienna Summit in June 1961 the relationship between 113
the two superpowers was at an all-time low.

CIA: Central Intelligence Agency. It was founded in 1947

by the National Security Act. Its mission statement was to
collect, evaluate and share intelligence relating to national
security.
Ex-Comm: ‘the Executive Committee of the National
Security Council’ It included the usual NSC people but
Kennedy also invited significant non-military figures: his
brother Robert Kennedy (the Attorney-General); Theodore
Sorensen (White House Counsel); Truman’s Secretary of
State Dean Acheson; and former ambassador to the USSR
Tommy Thompson, who knew Khrushchev personally.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 5.6

What were Kennedy’s motives for turn

=~ with its extra advisers? What different p
the latter bring?
Source 5G: Castro’s soldiers celebrate their victory at the Bay of
Pigs in April 1961. They are sitting in a boat captured from the
ClA-trained invaders. Notice the weapons they are carrying. ACTIVITY 5.7

ACTIVITY 5.6 Look at Figure 5.2 and the cities that were within range
of Soviet missiles. What effect would this have on
Select facts from this section to create a flow-diagram Kennedy during the crisis? Now consider Khrushchev’s
showing the main developments in Cuba from 1959 position. What could he have asked for in return for
to 1961. removing the nuclear threat?
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

The week ofcrisis

CANADA

Atlantic
Ocean

The Threat of
Cuban Missiles,
1962
Medium-range
ballistic missiles
~1000 miles
Intermediate-range
ballistic missiles
~2000 miles Figure 5.2: Amap showing the range
Soviet missile sites of medium- and intermediate-range
wmntdtnieanUS naval blockade nuclear missiles if launched from Cuba
250 500 km
at the United States.

114 Here are the key events of the crucial week: 27 October: a U 2 spy plane was shot down over
Cuba and the pi ot killed. Kennedy was urged
21 October: USA informed Britain about the discovery
to start an invasion but he delayed. Khrushchev
of missile silos. Ke nnedy broke the news in a TV address
made a second offer in another letter to Kennedy:
to the nation.
he demanded that the USA remove missiles from
* 22 October: Kennedy ordered a naval blockade of
Turkey in exchange for removal of the Cuban
Cuba. Khrushchev publicly denied that there were
missiles. Kennedy responded to Khrushchev’s first
missiles on Cuba.
offer, ignoring the second. Robert Kennedy met with
* 23 October: Khrushchev sent a letter stating that
USSR ambassador Anatoly Dobrynin. No official deal
Soviet ships would attempt to sail through the USA
would be done, but the USA would guarantee not
blockade.
to invade Cuba again and remove Turkish missiles
¢ 24 October: Soviet ships carrying warheads turned back
in the ‘near future’. The USSR couldn’t reveal that
before the USA blockade. However, some missiles and
this was done in exchange for the removal of Cuban
warheads made it to Cuba before the blockade was in missiles.
place. The USA threatened an invasion; Castro called for
a * 28 October: Khrushchev accepted these terms, ending
a nuclear strike from the USSR. ie
* 25 October: there was a clash in the UN between
Adlai Stevenson and Valerian Zorin. The USA provided
photographic evidence of the missile si tes (see
Source 5H). ACTIVITY 5.8

* 26 October: Khrushchev’s first offer was made in Look at the time-line of events and identify the moment
a letter to Kennedy: the missiles would be withdrawn you think was the key turning point. Then compare your
ifthe US A promised not to invade Cuba.2) This was the choice with your partner. Justify to each other what you
first Soviet admission that missiles actually existed think the most vital moment was.
nN Cuba
 5: How effectively did the USA contain the spread of communism?

ACTIVITY 5.9

Kennedy chose a blockade but what would have

happened if any of the other four options were pursued?
Debate in groups whether the best option was taken.

Ultimately Khrushchev backed down, even though hs

later claimed it was a triumph for him persona
Cuba. Others in Moscow did not share this view — he was
deposed by Leonid Brezhnev in 1964. Kennedy managed
to resist his military advisers, who called for air stril ;
and invasion, but took a huge risk in doing so
Source 5H: The famous battle at the UN between settlement terms looked much better for him, though in
ambassadors Adlai Stevenson and Valerian Zorin on 25th reality the USA had a less powerful position than before
October 1962. Stevenson humiliated Zorin by producing the crisis: Castro was still in power and they lost their
aerial reconnaissance pictures of the missile sites proving Turkish missile sites. Yet to US and world opinion, he
that the Soviets had been lying. What effect did this successfully stood up to Khrushchev and saved everyone
revelation have on the development ofthe crisis? from a nuclear war.

Analysis
Kennedy had five realistic options: HERBLOCK’S CARTOON
1 Don’t react: the USA had more nuclear weapons “Let’s Get A Lock For This Thing”
and the Turkish site gave them the same advantage.
AD meant that nothing essentially had changed.
However, this would be a sign of weakness after the
Bay of Pigs.
2 Surgical air attack: the aerial destruction of all the
missile silos. However, Soviet engineers would be
killed and if one silo remained it could still be used to
counter-attack.

3 Invasion by the US army: this would remove the

missiles, and communism, altogether. However, a
similar Soviet response (for example in Berlin) might
be expected.
4 Use diplomacy: the UN could provide a forum for
discussions but Khrushchev still denied that the
missiles existed. Again, it might look like weakness.
[Onl Blockade: it could prevent warheads arriving, and
avoid hot war. However, it might trigger a similar
Soviet response (a repeat of the Berlin Blockade?).
Also, some missiles were already in Cuba and could be
working within a week. Source 51: An American cartoon showing Kennedy and
, tee Khrushchev during the Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962.
Kennedy chose a blockade (publicly called a ‘quarantine
to make it sound healthy and less like an act of
aggression) as this struck a balance between appearing The crisis began over Cuba but
to be weak and using violence. This option was still not negotiations to end it. O
-
guaranteed to work. to launchhan
a nucleasar atta
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

sot out of decision-making afterwards. When 5.3 Case study 3: The war in
Vietnam, 1961-1975
vas his language about Khrushchev. It took some time to Background: the French war in Vietnam
pair relations between Havana and Moscow.
re De

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 5.7

What role did Castro play in the outbreak ofthe crisis?

Study Source 51. What view is the cartoonist taking of
the Cuban Missile Crisis and what message are they
communicatingto the American reader?

ine aiermatn of the crisis

OT Tne ¢

The Cuban Missile Crisis was the closest that the two
superpowers came to a nuclear war. A hotline was
set up between the White House and the Kremlin to Source 5J: The Vietnam War Memorial in Washington DC. It
improve communications in the event of a future crisis.
lists the names of all the US soldiers killed in action.
In August 1963 they signed the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
where both promised not to test any more nuclear
ACTIVITY 5.11
weapons. This didn’t reduce their stockpiles but it did
stop the arms race. Khrushchev didn’t survive much Look at Source 5J. If Korea is the forgotten war, then
onger in power but Fidel Castro did —- he only stepped Vietnam is one of the most well-known conflicts - but
116 down as Cuba’s leader in 2008 and was succeeded by a painful one for Americans to recall. Compare and
Raul Castro. Kennedy was assassinated in November contrast this memorial to Source 5E. Which do you think
1963 and his successor was the Vice-President Lyndon is more effective and why?
3aines Johnson (or ‘LBJ’).

From the 1860s, France controlled the colony of Indo-China,

ACTIVITY 5.10
which comprised Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos. After the
Had the USA contained communism? Or had it avoided French defeat by the Nazis in 1940 they lost control of Indo-
a nuclear catastrophe at the cost of preventing the China to Japan. At the end of the war the communist leader
spread of communism? Write a paragraph debating Ho Chi Minh (see Source 5K) announced that Vietnam was
these issues and come to a conclusion about the independent. However, the French regained control, which
success of containment in 1962. Remember to give a soon led to war. From 1946 to 1954 French losses reached
clear justification for your answer. 72,000 men, which was actually more than the USA later.
The Chinese revolution of 1949 made matters worse as Mao
supplied arms to the North Vietnamese forces, the Viet Minh.

@ TOP TIP
a
The film 13 Days is a film about the American government FACT FILE
during the period of the missile crisis. lt was based not Born Nguyen That Thanh in 1890, Ho Chi Minh travelled widely
on the account of events given by Robert Kennedy, from and helped to found the French Communist Party. He also
whose book the film takes its name, but in fact from trained in Moscow and China and founded the Viet Minh in
an entirely different book. It does use information not 1941 to fight the Japanese. It was at this point that he changed
available to a previous film, The Missiles of October, but his name to Ho Chi Minh which means ‘bringer of light’. He
its choice of a political adviser as the film’s hero was fought the French from 1946 and was made President of North
controversial, as participants in the crisis denied he had Vietnam in 1954. He supported the Viet Cong in their fight
been involved in the decision-making. It is worth watching against the Americans until he died in 1969. When the Viet
but bear in mind the issues with historical accuracy. Cong captured Saigon they renamed it Ho Chi Minh City. His
body was embalmed and is on public display there (Source 5k),
 5: How effectively did the USA contain the spread of communism?

known as the Viet Cong, They w

anti-government forces, including Budd , patrio
communists. They used guerrilla tactics, operatin
a complex network of tunnels and underground
that even included whole hospitals. Even if tt
could find an entrance they
many were booby-trapped.
waged war against President Diem’s government and w
supplied through the Ho Chi Minh Trail. This ran throug!
neighbouring Laos and Cambodia and ia)
weapons and supplies to be secretly brought sc
North Vietnam and China.

\Vig tine Rf.

ACTIVITY 5.13
Source 5K: Ho Chi Minh’s body was publicly displayed after
his death in 1969, adding to his cult of personality. Look at Figure 5.3 and use the internet to learn more
about the Ho Chi Minh Trail. Select five key facts that
Despite being given $2.6 billion by the USA in aid from 1950 demonstrate its significance in the Viet Cong’s success
to 1954 the French were unsuccessful in Vietnam. They in the war.
withdrew after a heavy defeat at Dien Bien Phu in March
1954. They had controlled the towns but Ho Chi Minh’s
guerrilla forces controlled the north and the countryside. CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 5.8
Peace was signed through the 1954 Geneva Agreements.
Look at Source 5L. What similarities do you find between
The main points set out in the peace treaty were:
the personalities or careers of Diem and Syngman Rhee?
¢ Indo-China would be divided into four: North and South Why did the USA back these two men?
Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia.
¢ North Vietnam was divided from the South at the 17°N
Kennedy’s first foreign policy action on becoming
line of latitude. Northern forces were to withdraw from
president in 1961 was in Laos because the communist
the South.
group Pathet Lao were trying to overthrow the monarchy
¢ All foreign troops would withdraw from Indo-China. The Viet Minh and the Pathet Lao had worked together
¢ Elections would be held in 1956. to fight the French. Eisenhower told Kennedy the country
e An international commission would ensure that the was like ‘a cork in a bottle’; once it popped, the whole
settlement was respected. |

Several nations (including the USSR, China and Britain) ) 1

signed the agreements, but the USA refused. In 1956 Viet Minh and Viet Cong: names were given by western
Eisenhower persuaded President Diem not to hold politicians and journalists to Vietnamese communist
elections because evidence suggested the communists forces. The former is a contraction of ‘Vietnamese’ and ‘Ho
would win. Chi Minh’, while the latter is a contraction of a Vietnamese
expression for ‘Vietnamese communists.
Geneva Agreements 1954: the main points set out in the
ACTIVITY 5.12
peace treaty on Indo-China.
Why did Eisenhower refuse to sign the Geneva Tactics: manoeuvring troops and weapons in battle in
Agreements? Try to work out which points would have order to achieve a short-term military aim.
been problematic for containment. Guerrilla: ‘little war’ in Spanish. A guerrilla war is one in
which small groups use raids, assassinations and sabotage
against larger armies. Guerrilla fighters are hard for their
Reasons for American involvement enemies to identify; the Viet Cong would use children and
old people to pass messages and hide weapons. Fidel Castro
Civil war soon broke out and in 1960 the National and Che Guevara were also expert guerrilla fighters.
Liberation Front was created in South Vietnam, thereafte:
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

In South Vietnam 16,000 military advisers were sent to

Vientiane LAOS *
help Diem, including the specially formed Green Berets,
e
a unit of special forces similar to the marines or the
British SAS. Yet in 1963, Buddhist protests against the
Nakhon Phanom e
government began. Kennedy had tired of Diem especially
after an embarrassing defeat at Ap Bac. In November
1963 the CIA helped stage an internal coup which
ended in the bloody execution of Diem and his advisers.
Coincidentally, Kennedy was also assassinated later that
month.

SOUTH
VIETNAM

——— RRS ee

Figure 5.3: The Ho Chi Minh Trail which the North used to Palen
118 send Viet Cong fighters and supplies to support them into
Source 5M: A Buddhist monk self-immolating in protest at
the South.
Diem’s religious policies in 1963. He was sitting in the lotus
position in the central square in Saigon as he burned to
region could fall to communism. The CIA therefore trained death. Diem was a strict Catholic and refused to let anyone
an anti-communist force and supplies were flown in from celebrate Buddha’s birthday.
Thailand (by ‘Air America’). Aerial bombing began and
continued heavily until 1975.
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 5.9

Look at Source 5M. What do you think the monk’s

motives were for doing this and what were the intended
consequences?

Johnson and increasing US involvement

Lyndon B. Johnson (president 1963-1969) succeeded
Kennedy. He was a firm believer in the Domino Theory.

KEY TERM
Source 5L: President Ngo Dinh Diem at a parade in New
York in 1957. He was from a noble family and served as a Domino Theory: ifone country fell tocommunism, so v
minister to the Emperor Bao Dai. He removed the emperor its neighbours and their neighbours in turn ~ falling like a|
in 1954 and worked with the USA. However he was astrict
of dominoes. The theory was first outlined t
autocrat and gave powerful positions to his family. He was
1954 at a press briefing on Vietnam. The
was the ‘falling domino principle’
notoriously corrupt and often rejected American advice. na'Be
 5: How effectively did the USA contain the spread of communism?

The next presidential election was due in November 1964,

Tne USA was NOW INVOLVE If
So he was also under political pressure to be seen being victory were:
tough on communism. In August, before the election,
he was given the opportunity to expand American * Heavy use of de frlal Dom \

involvement in the war through the Gulf of Tonkin incident, strongholds. Chemical(a) weapons such 2
when a USA warship was alleged to have come under Agent Orange were \
North Vietnamese fire. Congress gave the president useful hiding places for the enemy.
authority to send more military power to Vietnam. ¢ ‘Search and destroy’ missions. Combat units v
out into the countryside
to locate Viet Cong weapon

Source 50: Children fleeing the village of Trang Bang after a

napalm bombingin 1972.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 5.10

Vietnam is often called the ‘first media war’ as

reporters and TV crews followed troops and reported
U.S. Imperialism, Get Out of South Viet Nam! without restriction. Look at Sources 5M and 50. What
L’impérialisme américain hors du Sud-Vietnam! impact would these have on public opinion
iFuera el imperialismo norteamericano del Sur de Vietnam! and why?

Source 5N: This poster was published in 1963.

What does this poster suggest about the war that the
ACTIVITY 5.14
Americans were involved in and the people they were
fighting against? Discuss in groups the legacy of war reporting since
Vietnam. It what ways did it change the way war is
fought as a consequence? Keep this in mind when you
study the Gulf War.
American tactics
In 1965 the Viet Cong attacked the US base at Pleiku.
American bombing intensified through Operation Rolling
Thunder. The Viet Cong were still being supplied by the
USSR and China through the port of Haiphong as the
i FACT FILE
The little girl running naked at the front centre of
USA were afraid to bomb it for fear of hitting Soviet ships.
the photograph in Source 50 was called Phan Thi
These supplies were taken via the Ho Chi Minh Trail. Kim Phuc; she was nine years old. She later converted
Johnson was advised to send ground troops by to Christianity and went to live in Canada.
General Westmoreland. Despite his reluctance, he agreed.
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

replaced the Cambodian ruler with Lon Nol, who became

This photograph came to symbolise the horror of war a corrupt leader and was deeply unpopular.
in Vietnam. It shows the effects of napalm; the children
are running away from a bombed village and the
young girl’s clothes have been burned off. Such images
shocked world opinion and caused massive anti-war
protests in the USA.

The year 1968 was a vital one in the war. Despite the US
government claiming that victory was close, the North
Vietnamese Army became more heavily involved. The Tet
Offensive (launched on ‘Tet’, the Vietnamese New Year)
saw Viet Cong troops almost capture the US embassy
in Saigon. Although it failed, the offensive showed
Westmoreland’s claim that the Viet Cong were close
to defeat was innacurate. Anti-war protests in the USA
increased after this, especially when the My Lai massacre Source 5P: The aftermath of the Kent State University
was revealed in 1969. The consequence of this dramatic protests in May 1970.
year was that Johnson announced to the American
people that he would not seek re-election as president.
ACTIVITY 5.15

In May 1970, a protest against Nixon’s expansion of

the war into Cambodia took place at Kent State
120
FACT FILE University. The governor of Ohio sent in the National
My Lai massacre Guard and they opened fire on the crowd. Four
In March 1968, Charlie Company was sent on a ‘search
students died. A later investigation called the use of
and destroy’ mission to the small village of My Lai.
arms ‘unnecessary, unwarranted, and inexcusable’.
They slaughtered 374 men, women and children (plus
their livestock) and burned the village down. No Viet Over 500 universities were shut down afterwards as
Cong were found. It only ended when a USA helicopter protests escalated. What impact do you think (a) the
pilot called Hugh Thompson landed and threatened to events at Kent State University and (b) Source 5P had
shoot the American soldiers unless they stopped. The on public opinion in the USA in 1970? Take into account
incident was kept secret for a year but when it became issues around age, ethnicity, social class and education.
public knowledge an investigation was launched. Of
the 14 men charged only the commanding officer Lt
William Calley was found guilty. He was sentenced to
life in prison for this war crime but was pardoned by
President Nixon in 1974.

The new president, Richard Nixon, promised to end

the war but didn’t want to withdraw in a humiliating
fashion. His policy of Vietnamisation reduced USA
troop numbers Ha ntly. In 1970 he extended the
bombing into Cambodia. He did this without telling
whic = increased public criticism when it was
d. During nationwide protests (which escalated
yuUblic knowledge), four students
t Kent State University by the Ohio National on
. RC, y
eterans were protesting Source 5Q: Boxer Muhammad Ali (born Cassius Clay) in 1966
their medals. Nixon also pointing to a newspaper headline about anti-war protests.
 5: How effectively did the USA contain the spread of communism?

ACTIVITY 5.16

Look at Source 5Q. Research the actions of Muhammad Ali

in this period. He was a fierce critic of the war in Vietnam.
What did he do and how significant was his opposition in
shaping public opinion?

Peace talks did make progress in 1972 as they were led by

Nixon's National Security Adviser, Henry Kissinger. To force
the hand of the North, Nixon launched the heaviest aerial
bombardments yet, Operation Linebacker | and II. He also
made a secret promise to the South that the USA would
support them if they were invaded again by the North. Effects of the Vietnam War
Again, Congress was not told this. These were just some of the consequences of the war:
In January 1973, a peace treaty was signed, with US
* South Vietnam lost 2.5 million civilians.
troops withdrawing from Vietnam. The South would
¢ 300,000 citizens of South Vietnam were tortured in ‘re-
have to fend for itself - especially as Nixon was forced
education camps’ after the war.
to resign in 1974 over the Watergate scandal. The
* North Vietnam lost 650,000 men and the Viet Cong lost
North invaded the South in March 1974 and won a
1 million.
decisive victory in April 1975. When they seized the
* The USA lost 58,220 men.
capital, Saigon, they entered the US embassy, forcing
¢ 1.5m people escaped Vietnam in boats in 1975-1990,
helicopters to evacuate staff. It was a profoundly
heading for Hong Kong and Australia.
humiliating moment for the USA and marked their
total defeat in Vietnam. Cambodia and Laos also fell to * Vietnam's economy was destroyed by bombing.
communism the same month. Use of chemical weapons massively increased cancer
rates and led to babies being deformed at birth.
* Many US soldiers became drug addicts. By 1971 four
times more men were treated for drug addiction than
combat wounds.
* Congress passed the War Powers Act to restrict the
president's ability to send troops abroad.
* Communism in Cambodia under Pol Pot led to
mass murder during 1975-1979 in which more than
2 million people were killed, almost one-third of the
population.

Why did the Americans lose the war?

There are two broad reasons for the American defeat
in Vietnam. They both contributed significantly to the
Source 5R: An American official punches a Vietnamese man withdrawal of troops in 1973 though historia
to prevent overcrowding on the helicopter airlifting staff out which cause was more significan
of the country in April 1975, after the fall of the US embassy. 1 Military factors: the Viet Cong were too well organise
and difficult to identify. The Ho Chi Minh Trail kep
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 5.11 them supplied and they dressed like villagers and
farmers so they blended in with civilians. T
Why did the USA lose the war in Vietnam? Which factors
also been fighting the Japanese and the Fr
were most significant?
with the same guerrilla tactics s
What does Source 5R tell you about the end of American
experienced, unlike Americ
involvement in the Vietnam War?
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

ordinary soldiers didn’t build up much experience. ACTIVITY 5.17

Modern technology was of little use in Vietnam and
was probably counter-productive as it cost the USA What had once ae French isle:China Sele fall
political support. to communism but does this mean that containment — es
failed? After all, the dominoes didn’t fall beyond ee2S
2 Domestic factors: the public was increasingly region as the Americans had feared. It couldbeargued
against the war and as propaganda was so that the severity of the war did at least prevent the Cold —
important in the Cold War the USA could not War spreading any further. Compare the war in Vietnam |
afford to be seen to be killing innocent civilians. to the one in Korea. Which one was more effective in _
Protests like Kent State University divided the terms of containment and why? Make a list of reasons
nation and Johnson and Nixon became figures of for each war then come to age:
hate, leaving office with their reputations in pieces.
As early as 1966 more than the half the US public
disapproved of the conflict. No president could keep
on fighting when the media was showing the horrific
pe ts 5.18
nature of the war through TV, photographs and
articles. Use thebullet Boints re to make
aspider diagram _
What of containment? A third factor in the American with these states: U orth Vietnam, South Vietnam,
withdrawal was that Vietnam became less strategically Cambodia and Laos well as the consequences
add
important as the domino theory was proved to be
in the key leaders a events which caused them. This
will be useful for rev
incorrect. Cambodia and Laos fell to communism but
Thailand and the Philippines did not. In the late 1960s the
USSR and China argued and there was even the possibility
of war between them. Nixon’s policy of détente (meaning
122
‘relaxation’) improved relations with the USSR and China
Review your learning
so whatever happened in Vietnam seemed to have less How effectively did the USA contain the spread of
disastrous consequences than might have been imagined Communism: this is the key question that links the three
in the 1960s. examples you have studied.

Summary points
 5: How effectively did the USA contain the spread of communism?

The Big Challenge

For each example of Korea, Cuba and Vietnam,develop When you feel confident that you know the main fe
a set of revision notes. Use the heading ‘Key features’. of the three examples, link them together. The over
Make sure that you know the order ofevents, the main question is about containment. Can you answer t
individuals and the key concepts in each example. Try
to keep these notes short; there is a lot of information ¢ What were the USA's aims in each conflict? In wh
to learn so we're trying to focus on the most important ways were they trying to contain communism?
basics to begin with. Concentrate on things which you Which president was most successful in containing
think everyone should know. For example, ‘domino SUIS. Truman, Eisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson
theory’ is a vital concept, but knowing that 300,000 BOW
South Vietnamese suffered in camps after the war What specific examples can you give which show that
is more expert level knowledge. Keep to the core containment was successful?
information for just now. What were the main failures of the policy?

Exam-style questions
1 What was the domino theory?

2 Describe the causes of the Korean War.

3 What were the main features of the agreement reached after the Cuban Missile
4 Why were the Viet Cong so difficult for the Americans to fight against?

5 Why did Truman get involved in the Korean War?

6 Why did Khrushchev decide to put nuclear missiles in Cuba?

7 The ‘USA lost the war in Vietnam because of poor military strategy.’ How far do you agre
with this statement?

8 To what extent was the Cuban Missile Crisis a success for Kennedy?

9 ‘The Korean War was a success for Truman’s policy of containment.’ How far do you agree
with this statement?
Key Question 6: How secure was the USSR’
control over Eastern Europe, 1948-c.1989?

Focus points
@ = Why was there opposition to Soviet control in Hungary in 1956 and Czechoslovakia in 1968, and how did the
USSR react
to this opposition?
How similar were events in Hungary in 1956 and in Czechoslovakia in 1968?
Why was the Berlin Wall built in 1961?
What was the significance of ‘Solidarity’ in Poland for the decline of Soviet influence in Eastern Europe?
How far was Gorbachev personally responsible for the collapse of Soviet control over Eastern
Europe?

VON GROSS BERLIN

SOME
 6: How secure was the USSR’s control over Eastern Europe, 1948-c
.1989?

What is this enquiry about?

This enquiry looks at what happened in Eastern Europe
after Stalin had established a buffer zone up to 1949. It
is important to remember that all the states within this
buffer zone had suffered greatly under Nazi occupation.
some communist leaders had escaped because they
knew they would be executed if found by the Nazis. They
spent the war in Moscow and knew Stalin personally. He
therefore wanted them to be in power when the Red Army
defeated the Nazis in 1945.
Hitler's forces were defeated by two key groups:

1 Local partisans, which were resistance movements

that often included communists, like Tito’s group in
Yugoslavia,
Source 6A: Josef Tito, leader of Yugoslavia in May 1970.
2 The Red Army of the USSR, which played a decisive role.
What impression do you get from this photo? How did his
To understand the events covered in this enquiry we need public image differ from Stalin’s?
to keep in mind differing perspectives:

* Many communists believed Moscow offered the best

source of protection after the atrocities of the Nazi EASTERN BLOC
occupation. There was also widespread gratitude to the MEMBERS
Soviets. Satellite
* Others on the left believed that their country should be ia] states
fully independent without taking orders from the USSR, Oo USSR-aligned
and found inspiration in Yugoslavia’s leader, Josef Tito. until 1948
¢ Athird group wanted to ally with the US and the West. [iy Ussr-aligned
until 1960
What happened between 1949 and 1989 was a complex
interplay between these three perspectives.

Soviet power seemed too strong to be challenged

successfully, a viewpoint reinforced by events in Budapest
and Prague. Why was this? Another vital question
surrounds Berlin. Why was this one city so politically GERMANY
and strategically important? Finally, if Soviet power was
indeed so strong then why did it collapse in the 1980s? CZECHOSLOVAKIA
Was Poland the main cause ofthis collapse? Was one
man — Mikhail Gorbachev — primarily responsible for the
end of communist rule in Eastern Europe? HUNGARY

FACT FILE
Josef Tito was born Josef Broz in what is now Croatia; he | YUGOSLAVIA BULGARIA
led partisan resistance to the Nazis. Tito was acommunist |
but he believed in being independent. He resisted Stalin’s
demands and formed the non-aligned movement in the
Cold War with Nehru of India and Nasser of Egypt. This
group of nations refused to side with either the US or the
Soviet Union. Tito ruled Yugoslavia until his death in 1980.
Figure 6.1: A map of Eastern Europe in 1949.
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

Rakosi remained General Secretary of the Hungarian

ACTIVITY 6.1
Communist Party while Nagy was Prime Minister. It seemed
The term ‘geopolitics’ refers to the impact that that Rakosi had won when he managed to remove Nagy
geography has on international politics. With a partner from office in 1955.
discuss the map of the buffer zone in Figure 6.1. Why
was it so vital to the Soviets? Which sections of the Q@
buffer zone were most important to overall security? TOP TIP
Think about such issues as the position of the countries Organising information is a key skill. Keep an electronic
and the length of their borders. | document with the names ofthe key people. For each one
add a single sentence saying who they are and refer back
to this as you read through the chapter. It will help you
recall information on the leading individuals.
6.1 Why was there opposition to
Soviet control in Hungary in 1956 Causes of opposition in 1956
and Czechoslovakia in 1968, and While this power struggle was going on in Budapest a
how did the USSR react to this similar one was going on in Moscow. After Stalin died in
opposition? 1953, Nikita Khrushchev competed with other powerful
figures for control of the government. In early 1956 it
The situation in Hungary was Clear that Khrushchev had won. He made a famous
t
here were several reasons why Hungary was resistant to secret speech against Stalin in February 1956 in which he
Soviet control in 1945. It was a strongly religious nation criticised the dictator’s rule and admitted that mistakes
and the Catholic church was a very powerful institution. had been made. This created a problem for all the Stalinist
H ungary was also a joint partner in the Austro-Hungarian governments in Eastern Europe: would they be able to ~
E mpire from 1867 to 1918. Hungarians were nationalistic continue as they had before?
a nd preferred to be the rulers not the ruled.
4 ne Red Army occupied Hungary in the Second World @ se ae a i a
War but the Communist Party lost the election of 1945. | FACTFILE
W talin rigged elections in 1947 to ensure that he controlled Nikita Khrushchev
the government. His main ally in Hungary was Matyas Khrushchev joined the Bolsheviks in 1918 and was a
Rakosi. He was a firm communist who spent the Second ' Stalin loyalist in the 1930s. He joined the Politburo in
i 1939 and i i
World War in the USSR.oe He now led the government and ed bei. es oe ee a Pe
win control of theCommunist Party after a long power
persecuted
. all opposition ruthlessly. For example, in 1949 struggle following Stalin’s death. He led the USSR during a |
he imprisoned Cardinal Mindszenty who was head ofthe critical period in the Cold War before being removed from |
Hungarian Catholic Church. He also executed the foreign powerin 1964. He was the only Soviet leaderto die during
minister Laszl6 Rajk in 1949. Rajk was a communist but was the Cold War and not be buried at the Kremlin. i

critical of Stalin’s attempts to control Hungary. In Rakosi’s $$$ $

show trials, modelled on those of Stalin in the 1930s,
around 100,000 Hungarians were sent to labour camps. KEY TERM
_ :
Rakosi’s position was weakened when Stalin died in 1953. here <hrus
That year there were anti-communist demonstrations
in East Berlin that were crushed by the police and the
army. The USSR also withdrew troops from Austria,
stationed there since the end of the Second World War.
Consequently, many saw this as a sign that communism
Vas being relaxed in Europe.

ost his position as Prime Minister to fellow

munist Imry Nagy. Nagy had participated in the 1917
k Revolution and also spent the Second World War
er, unlike Rakosi he was not a Stalinist
ay DOWEPY < trugele began bec ause
 6: How secure was the USSR’s control over Eastern Europe, 1948-c.1989?

Hungarian students had demonstrated in sympathy with

the protestors in Poland. As ever ts gathered momentum ACTIVITY 6.2

Rakosi was removed in July 1956 but his replacement

Compare Sources 6B and 6C. Which of these images
was another Stalinist called Erné Gerd. However, Gerd
would have been more concerning for the USSR?
was unable to control a campaign within the Hunga ian Debate this as a class and come to a conclusion based
Communist Party to correct the errors of the purges in on what you have read about the events of 1956.
1949. There was a state funeral for Rajk on 6 October, which
became a public demonstration. Up to 200,000 people
took to the streets of Budapest to protest against almost Khrushchev surrounded Bi
a decade of Stalinist control by Moscow. Three weeks later soldiers but seemed to prefer a peacef
students rioted and tore down a statue of Stalin (see Source He allowed Nagy to become prime minister
6C). The police tried to restore order but Hungarian soldiers reforms were passed. Nagy promised fr
took the side of the protestors. The situation was critical. democratic electio NS
Nc and
ana

prisoners such as Cardinal Mindszenty. However

unlike the situation in Poland, Hungarians
Raila co
~—UU

not be pacified by these gains. They were encou

by broadcasts coming fr om Radio Free Europe
based in Munich. They were being told to
carry on the fight and we
western powers (especially the US
help.

Radio Free Europe: founded in 1950 to provide

radio broadcasts for people living in communist
countries in Eastern Europe. It was funded by the
US Congress and assisted by the CIA. It reached tens
of millions of people and broadcast in 15 different
languages.

Nagy had to decide whether tc

or back calls for more reform. On 1 November hs
took a fateful step. He anno
leave the Warsaw Pact and asked the Unit
tor help.

The Government of the Hungarian People’s Republic

has received trustworthy reports of the entrance of
new Soviet military units into Hungary. The president
of the Council of Ministers ... objected to the entrance
of new military units into Hungary. He demanded the
immediate and fast withdrawal of the Soviet units.
He announced to the Soviet ambassador that the

>
Hungarian government was withdrawing from the
Warsaw Pact, simultaneously declaring Hungary’s
neutrality, and that it was turning to the United

yi a -
Nations and asking the four Great Powers to help
protect its neutrality.
Sources 6B and 6C: A 15-year-old Hungarian girl armed with
a machine gun, and rebels dismantling the statue of Stalin Source 6D: From a telegram issued by Imre Nagy to all

in October 1956. foreign embassies in Hungary on 1 November 1956

 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

However, communists struggled to maintain popularity.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 6.1
Czechoslovakia was hit by the harsh economic conditions
What would the consequences of the announcement of the winter of 1946/1947. When new elections were
in Source 6D be for the USSR and how might it have due to be held in 1948 it was clear that communists
affected the buffer zone? would struggle. Stalin ordered a complete takeove
of government by force. Two weeks later the foreign
minister Jan Masaryk died in mysterious circumstances.
Soviet response Prime Minister Klement Gottwald - a strong ally of
This went too far for Khrushchev. At dawn on Moscow — blamed the West for his alleged suicide. He then
4 November he sent in 200,000 men and 4,000 tanks. introduced a Soviet-style constitution and banned all
Fighting in Budapest lasted for a week. It is impossible to forms of political opposition.
know the death total for certain. The Soviets lost around
700 soldiers and estimates on Hungarian deaths range Q- sere
from 3,000 to 30,000. Although the world was shocked | FACT FILE \
it was distracted by events in Egypt where the UK and Jan Masaryk was the son of Czechoslovakia’s founder,
France were involved in the Suez Crisis. The promise | Tomas Masaryk. He was a popular liberal and the only
non-communist left in the government. He was definitely
of aid on Radio Free Europe proved false and Nagy was
under huge pressure at the time of his death but there
removed from power. He was replaced by Janos Kadar | were many unusual aspects of his apparent suicide. For
who went on to rule the country for the next three | example, the doctor who examined him died two weeks
decades. In 1958 Nagy and his colleagues were executed later -again as the result ofan apparent suicide. 5
in secret. Like Rajk he was eventually given a full public " seeeepreen sia pop ce ee
funeral, but not until 1989 when communism was
collapsing in Hungary. CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 6.2
128 Explain the reasons why events in Czechoslovakia
f KEY TERM contributed to the development of the Cold War up
to 1948.

Masaryk’s death encouraged the United States Congress

to support the Marshall Plan. Washington realised that if
Czechoslovakia could fall under communist control then
so might all other major European states. The Prague
government was denied Marshall Aid by Stalin, which
caused resentment over the loss of independence.
The situation in Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia was a new nation, created out of the
Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1919. It was economically the Given what you know about the consequences of
strongest of the Eastern European countries as it had Masaryk’s death, do you think it was ordered by the
well-developed industries and had prospered between Soviets? Or did he really commit suicide? Have a class
the First and Second World Wars. However, it was discussion and vote on which explanation seems most
weakened by the Munich Treaty of 1938, in which Hitler likely.
gained the Sudetenland. He then broke this agreement
in 1939 when he invaded and captured Prague. The Pe :
Czechs were very unhappy that they had been Causes of opposition to Soviet Rule
abandoned by the western powers so this helped to Despite these issues there was little disturbance in
create a strong communist underground movement. Czechoslovakia. Poland, Hungary and East Germany
After the war they won nearly a majority in the elections had all shown their discontent from 1953 to 1956 in the
of 1946. Though not in power, communists were given period after Stalin died but Czechoslovak protests were
rol of the police and army after pressure on the new more restrained. The poet and playwright Vaclav Havel
mant-from Moscow wrote anti-totalitarian plays in the 1960s and was twice
 6: How secure was the USSR’s control over Eastern Europe, 1948-c.1989?

imprisoned for his outspoken political views. Attitudes returned to politics in 1989 when communist rule collapsed
hardened in the mid-1960s because the economy was in Czechoslovakia.
clearly failing. Housing was poor, wages were low and
attempts at reform by the government all failed. ;
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 6.3
Complaints against the government became more
Compare and contrast the events of 1956 and 1968. Why
prominent in 1966. Reformist groups wanted change but
was there less violence in Prague than there had been in
they were careful to learn the lessons of the Hungarian
Budapest?
uprising of 1956. Their aim was not to end communism,
but relax it. Throughout 1967, student protests were held,
which demanded the removal from power of communist ACTIVITY 6.4
party leader Antonin Novotny (leader since Gottwald’s
death in 1953). In January 1968, Novotny was replaced as
First Secretary of the Communist Party by the reformer
Alexander Dubéek.

There were two main domestic consequences:

Prague Spring 1968
In April 1968, Dubéek introduced a number of reforms 1 Anestimated 150,000 people managed to escape the
starting a period known as the Prague Spring. He described country into Austria and Germany during the Soviet
his policies as ‘socialism with a human face’. The leader of invasion as security temporarily collapsed on the
the USSR since Khrushchev was removed in 1964 was Leonid border.
Brezhnev. Dubéek tried to make it clear that he did not intend 2 Alone protest was made by a student called Jan
to end communism or leave the Warsaw Pact. However, his Palach. He died after setting fire to himself in
reforms were extensive and included the following: Wenceslas Square.
¢ Freedom of speech — newspapers could criticise the Externally there two main consequences:
government.
1 The Chinese were furious with Brezhnev. They had
* Czechoslovaks were allowed to travel abroad to visit
disapproved of the Hungarian invasion of 1956 and
countries beyond the Iron Curtain.
this made the relationship with Beijing even worse.
* Businesses could run themselves, rather than being told Shots were exchanged along the Chinese-Soviet
what to produce by the government. border and the following years saw tension increase
¢ Workers’ councils could be formed, similar to trade unions. almost to the point of war.
¢ Anew parliament was to be freely elected.
2 The crushing of the Prague Spring gave rise to
Brezhnev’s reaction was predictably negative. In July 1968 the Brezhnev Doctrine. When this doctrine was
senior Soviet leaders visited Prague and warned Dubéek eventually abandoned by Mikhail Gorbachev it was a
about the possible consequences of his reforms. Military critical factor in the end of the Cold War.
preparations were being made, just as they had been in
1956 over Hungary.
KEY TERMS
Soviet invasion and its consequences
Much like Imry Nagy, Dubéek was emboldened by domestic
support for his reforms. He turned to Romania (led by
Nicolai Ceausescu) and Yugoslavia (led by Joseph Tito).
Both men were willingto stand up to Moscow and Dubcek
hoped that they could unite against Brezhnev. This was a
clear miscalculation. In August Brezhnev carried out his
threat and sent in 200,000 troops and 2,000 tanks to capture
Prague. There was far less violence than in Budapest in
1956 - 72 protestors were killed — but the government was
toppled. Dubéek was arrested but wasn’t executed. He
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 6.4 ACTIVITY 6.5

Interpret the message of the cartoon in Source 6E. How Make a table like this:
this? 4
Herblock convey
4 Similarities Differences
ahs
between 1956 | between 1956
and 1968 and 1968
“She Might Haye Invaded Russia” Causes

Events

Consequences

Write down one example in each box to show

similarities and differences between the Hungarian
uprising and the Prague Spring in their causes, main
events and their consequences. You can keep the
reasons brief, but base them on what you've read so
far. When you've finished read on to see if your reasons
match the ones in the sections that follow.

between Gottwald and Masaryk in 1948, and then in

1967/1968 between Novotny and Dubéek.
Both countries had reason to resent direct control by
Moscow. Hungary was very religious and nationalistic.
Czechoslovakia had a strong economy and a developed
sense of capitalism.

Differences in causes
Source 6E: A cartoon from September 1968 by Herblock of Hungary was a reaction to events in the USSR (the death
the Washington Post showing Brezhnev (right) crushing the of Stalin) and in Poland. What began as a sympathy
Prague Spring. protest for the Poles developed into demands for their
own freedom. In Prague the causes were economic
6.2 How similar were events weakness and poor standard of living, not events
° ° ° elsewhere.
In Hungary in 1956 and in
Czechoslovakia in 1968? oietwo events were separated by 12 years - the
ungarians still thought that they could leave the
Historians often take two different examples and Warsaw Pact (and communism) once Stalin had died. The
study them side by side to identify similarities and Czechoslovaks knew in 1968 that this wasn’t possible so
differences. This is called a comparative analysis. In their aims were less radical. They also knew there would
this section we'll do a comparative analysis of events in be no outside support given American involvement in
Hungary and Czechoslovakia. Before reading on, look Vietnam.
Ley G
Ly 6. ie

Similarities in events
Similarities in causes n both cases there was an alliance of reform-minded
th cases there was a battle to control the government communists and those who were more nationalistic.
n leaders who were close to Moscow and leaders 30th groups agreed that their country should have more
mpathetic to public opinion. In Hungary thi: reedom from Moscow. Also, students were central to the
Rakosi and Nagy. In Czechoslovakia it was rotests in both Budapest and Prague,
 6: How secure was the USSR’s control over Eastern Europe, 1948-c
.1989?

The USSR allowed the situation to develop up to a point,

then used lethal force to crush opposition. Khrushchev ACTIVITY 6.7

and Brezhnev were alike in that they couldn’t allow a

Now look back on your table from the last activity.
breach in the buffer zone so used violent methods to
assert Moscow’s authority. 1 Were your similarities and differences the same as in
the text?
Differences in events 2 Given what you now know of the two events, which
The Prague Spring was perhaps less of a threat than do you think is stronger: the similarities or the
differences? Write a paragraph explaining your answer.
Nagy’s reforms. Dubéek never threatened to leave the
Warsaw Pact. Nagy, on the other hand, would have and

a
appealed to the United Nations.
The Hungarians believed that they would get outside
TOP TIP
support because of Radio Free Europe. This meant that
The comparative analysis method works very well for
there was far more violence and consequently deaths in
other aspects of the Cold War. Try using it for learning
Hungary than in Czechoslovakia. about the wars in Korea and Vietnam in Key Question 5.

ACTIVITY 6.6 : | must say, | am convinced that you must share some
of the blame for your present situation.
Evaluatthee role of the US in Hungary and
_ Czechoslovakia. Could more have been done? What Source 6F: An extract from an open letter written by Vaclav
would the consequences have been in each case? Havel to Alexander Dubcek, dated August 1969.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 6.5

Similarities in consequences
Is Havel’s analysis in Source 6F fair? Could the same be
In each case the events led to a strengthening of said for Nagy in Hungary?
Moscow’s control over the buffer zone while the
authority of the West was weakened. The US failed to
support the Hungarians in 1956 in part because ofthe
6.3 Why was the Berlin Wall built
Suez Crisis and they failed to support the Czechoslovaks
in 1968 due to Vietnam. (Fear of starting a third world in 1961?
war was also an issue, of course.) The consequence of When Eisenhower was inaugurated as president in 195
this was that opponents of communism knew took a more relaxed attitude to Berlin than Tr
they would have to do things for themselves in visit to Britain in 1956, Khrushchev told the media: ‘You do
the future. not like Communism. We do not like capitalism. TI
Both countries had to wait until the late 1980s before they only one way out - peaceful co-existence.’
could again show opposition to communism. Eisenhower was hopeful of working with Khrushchev to
decrease Cold War rivalry if they could find a solution
over Berlin. However, events in the late 1950s meant that
Differences in consequences tension actually increased.
The number of deaths in Budapest was far higher than
in Prague. This applies also to the leaders: Nagy was Inter-Continental Ballistic Missiles
executed, Dubcek was not.
Hungary in 1956 showed Khrushchev’s brutal side. T
Interestingly, Brezhnev used Warsaw Pact forces in West had no idea how to handle him as he was J
Prague whereas Khrushchev used USSR forces in unpredictable. At the UN in 1960 he famously
Budapest. Moscow was aware in the late 1960s that they British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan several tin
had to show a united eastern European stance against during a speech by slamming his fists on th
opposition. a week later he interrupted. and ins
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

delegate by taking off his shoe and hammering the desk Eisenhower’s idea. He became the first Soviet leader to
with it. This behaviour was worrying with the development visit the US when he arrived for a tour in September 1959.
of Inter-Continental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs) in the arms The trip was a great success so the two men agreed to
race. Any political crisis could have more serious military meet again for talks in Paris in 1960.
effects than perhaps was the case in the late 1940s.
Eom
U2 Incident
The KGB (a secret police force and Soviet government spy
agency) was aware of U2 flights over Soviet territory but
the planes flew too high to be shot down. In May 1960,
new Soviet S-75 anti-aircraft defences damaged a U2
plane. The American pilot, Gary Powers, parachuted to
the ground and was captured. At first Eisenhower denied
that the plane was spying. The official line was that it was
a weather plane that had'gone off-track. Khrushchev then
had Gary Powers paraded on Soviet TV, exposing the lie.
Eisenhower admitted the truth but refused to apologise.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 6.6

Look at Sources 6H and 6I. How would you have handled -

the incident if you were in Eisenhower’s position?

The Paris summit was cancelled by Khrushchev.

Eisenhower had served his second term as president and
the election of 1960 was won by John F. Kennedy. He had
Source 6G: A photo from May 1959 of one of the US ICBMs promised to take a tougher line with Moscow.
surrounded by American school children.
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 6.7

The situation in East Germany Who was more to blame for the breakdown of relations
East Germany’s population had fallen to 17 million by from 1958 to 1961, the US or USSR?
1961, which meant it was the only Eastern European
country to have a decreasing population. Approximately
2.8 million people had escaped from the communist
world by going to West Berlin up to 1961, as there was
no physical separation of the zones. This included many Inter-continental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs): rockets first
skilled workers and intellectuals so this was harming the developed by the USSR in 1958 to carry explosives, including
East German economy (so costing the USSR money). nuclear explosives. The US followed in 1959 (pictured
in Source 6G) and in 1962 developed the sophisticated
Khrushchev therefore made finding a solution a priority.
Minuteman missile. They have a range of over 3,500 miles
Eisenhower didn’t want to be put in the same situation as so they can cross continents. Previously nuclear bombs (like
Truman, where a crisis over Berlin could escalate into a the ones used on Japan in 1945) had to be dropped from
planes.
major war. In November 1958 Khrushchev demanded that
Berlin be evacuated by foreign military powers within six U2: developed by Lockheed for the CIA and missions began
in 1956. They could reach heights of 70,000 feet (twice the
nths. Eisenhower responded with a different proposal;
height flown by passenger aircraft) and their cameras could
erlin should be controlled by the United Nations and get a clear image of a piece of ground that was only 76 cm
Ith sides should withdraw. in width. The USSR could detect the planes on radar but
couldn’t shoot them down as they were too high up. They
would reduce the possibility of conflict, it
therefore developed S-75 missiles that could reach a higher
the Soviet problem of emigration to the West altitude, as the US found out in 1960.
Yet Khrushchev was still keen to discuss
 6: How secure was the USSR’s control over Eastern Europe, 1948-c.1989?

a stampede. Over 1,01 ve defecting

through West Berlin.

Building the Berlin Wall

Khrushchev chaired a meeting of Warsaw Pact leaders in
Moscow, including East Germany’s communist leader Walter
Ulbricht. Ulbricht was instructed to build a wall around West
Berlin (keeping its citizens penned in), but not to cut off
western access to the city. Overnight on Sunday 13 August
workers began putting up barbed wire and concrete pi lars
as Soviet tanks stood close by. By the time the news reached
Washington, the city was already physically separated.

Many West Berliners had been out in the East that night,
in nightclubs or visiting family. They were forbidden to
return nome so were stranded. Many tried to swim across
the river or even jump from buildings to get back to West
Berlin. Three days later the barbed wire was replaced with
a concrete wall about 6 feet high. West Berliners coulc
Sources 6H and 61:A U2 spy plane, and the wreckage of : : Basel ays ws
visit the East if they had a special visa. There were seven
the U2 shot down over the USSR in May 1960. The US
checkpoints at which they could cross. East Berline
government claimed it was a weather plane.
could visit the West with special permission too, but they
could only pass at the point where
}
the US and Soviet
Kennedy and Khrushchev: the Vienna zones met - Checkpoint Charlie (Source 64).
summit 1961
The relationship between Kennedy and Khrushchev was
more like the early days of the Cold War. They were due to OU ARE LEAVING |
.

meet for the first time at the Vienna summit in June 1961. THE AMERICAN SECTOR
Just before this meeting,
the CIA failed in an attempted | Bbl BbIESHMAETE U3 |

:
invasion of Cuba to overthrow Fidel Castro’s government
(see Chapter 5, Case Study 2). The same month, the AMEPHKAHCKOIO CEKTOPA ;|
Soviets had another major propaganda victory when Yuri VO U S SORTE Z
Gagarin became the first man in space. DU SECTEUR AMERICAIN
Vienna marked one of the lowest points in the US-Soviet SIE VERLASSEN-DEN AMERIKANISCHEN SEKTOR el
relationship. Khrushchev attacked Kennedy over Berlin. Sc "> a ee Tou
He banged his fist on the table and shouted: ‘| want
peace but if you want war that is your problem!’ Kennedy
responded: ‘If that’s true, it’s going to be a cold winter.’
Straight after the meeting Kennedy increased US military
spending by $3.25 billio if
On 25 July, Kennedy addressed the American nation in a
televised speech. He warned: ‘We seek peace but we shall
not surrender.’ With so much tension and fear over Berlin,
the movement of people to the west of the city became Source 6J: The famous sign at Checkpoint Charlie in 1956.
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

ACTIVITY 6.8

Consider the impact that the Wall had on the daily lives
of Berliners.

The Wall ran for 103 miles around the perimeter of West
Berlin. It separated families, and even the underground
ail network was shut down. The sewers were blocked
and booby-trapped to stop people from escaping through
them. Over time the Wall became more heavily fortified.
There were electric fences, guard towers with snipers,
andmines and many other features. The Soviets called it
the ‘Anti-Fascist Defence Wall’ because it was supposedly
protecting them from future German or western
aggression.

e TOP TIP
German news outlet Die Welt produced an excellent
animation of the Wall, which can be found on YouTube.
The video is called ‘Walled In!’

aot US response and the crisis of October

Despite pressure from the Mayor of West Berlin, Wil y Source 6L: Peter Fechter’s body inno man’s land,

Brandt, Kennedy didn’t act. The Soviets hadn’t completely 17 August 1962.
cut off the city (as they had in 1948) and no clear act of
aggression had taken place. He did reappoint the main
figure of the airlift, General Clay, and 1,500 US troops were However, a crisis erupted in October after a trivial incident.
sent along the Autobahn from West Germany to increase An American official and his wife were denied entry to
the garrison. They weren't stopped by the Soviets. In East Berlin where they were due to see a play. General
oublic Kennedy spoke in support of West Berliners but in Clay was outraged and sent tanks to Checkpoint Charlie.
drivate he wasn't willing to risk war. Soon Soviet tanks appeared as well. A short distance
separated them, with gun barrels pointed at one another
for 16 hours. At the height of the crisis Kennedy managed
to send word to Khrushchev that he would withdraw if
the Soviets did. They agreed, so the crisis passed, but the
world had come close to war over Berlin — again.

ACTIVITY 6.9

Look at Source 6K and compare it to the Berlin

Blockade of 1948/9. Was this a more serious incident?
Give reasons for your answer,

Peter Fechter, an 18-year-old, was the first casualty

Source 6K: Tanks from the two superpowers face each as he was shot trying to jump over the barbed wire
other across the street during the crisis of October 1961. (Source 6L). As he was in no man’s land, East German
 6: How secure was the USSR’s control over Eastern Europe, 1948-c.1989?

soldiers waited for orders as to what to do. In full view growing. In 1970 Gomulka was replaced by Ed
of observers on both sides, he bled to death.
after protests about rising bread prices. The p
By 1989, 171 people had been killed trying to escape had grown to 35 million by 1979 so huge
across the Wall. However, the most famous photograph assistance was needed; $3bn per year was give
was of the first ever defector over the barbed wire in
Source 6M,
In summer 1980 there was a lar
over food prices, which led to 4
KEY TERM
soldiers. Gierek was removed
Kania. However, wages remained low, food was in short

where Soviet troops entered in 1979 and stayec

decade.

Stalin, Khrushchev and Brezhnev are travelling ina

train. The train breaks down.

‘Fix it!’ orders Stalin.

They repair it but still the train doesn’t move.

‘Shoot everyone!’ orders Stalin. They shoot everyone

but still the train doesn’t budge.
Stalin dies.

‘Rehabilitate everyone!’ orders Krushchev.

They are rehabilitated, but still the train won’t go.

Source 6M: East German border guard Hans Conrad
Khrushchev is removed.
Schumann spontaneously jumped the fence on 15 August
1961 - the day before construction began on the Wall. ‘Close the curtains,’ orders Brezhnev, ‘and pretend
we’re moving!’

ACTIVITY 6.10 Source 6N: A Russian joke about the different Soviet leaders.

Study Sources 6L and 6M. How might the Soviet Union

explain these incidents? Relate your answer to the CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 6.8
Soviet name for the Berlin Wall: the ‘Anti-Fascist
Defence Wall’. What can we infer from Source 6N about the leadership
style of Stalin, Khrushchev and Brezhnev?

6.4 What was the significance Solidarity (‘Solidarnosc’), 1980-1989

of ‘Solidarity’ in Poland for the The situation was more complicated for Moscow to
decline of Soviet influence in control than it had been for Hungary or Czechoslovakia
This was for four major reasons:
Eastern Europe?
1 Thesolution in 1956 and 1968 was to change the
Poland was problematic for the USSR. It was the largest
leaders; Gomulka and Giereka han hoon ror

country in the buffer zone with a population of 26 million

problems continued.
when Stalin died. The population was 95% Catholic so
» aren “7 ' wac alen ctriiccling in the 108
resisted the communist idea that religion was a myth. £ The Soviet economy Was also s Ive » Ds

Protests in 1956 brought Wladyslaw Gomulka to power a problem madem

and he ruled until 1970. However, the economy wasn't in Afghanistan.
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

1978, Archbishop of Krakow Karol Wojtylta was was flooded by riot police. The miners on strike were below
lected Pope John Paul ll, the first Polish Pope. He ground so they all drowned. He also imprisoned Watesa and
isited Poland in 1979 to emotional scenes; around the other leaders of Solidarity. All of these measures failed to
2 million people lined the streets of Warsaw to break the movement. Watesa was released following public
elcome him. pressure and in 1983 he was awarded the Nobel Peace
Prize. In 1984 the government faced a significant crisis over
ql IS RON Re eee tye a priest called Jerzy Popietuszko who had links to Solidarity.
US. He was far more aggressive towards communism
He had been beaten to death in jail by police; 250,000
and raised hopes in Eastern Europe that he might do
people attended his funeral.
more than previous presidents.

S S

Source 6P: Lech Watesa is thrown in the air in celebration

Source 60: Pope John Paul II visits Poland in 1979 for an
after the first Solidarity congress in 1981.
8-day tour.

In 1988 a nationwide campaign of strikes paralysed

Poland’s economy. Jaruzelski had failed to get popular
support for his economic reforms and now the mood
Look at Source 60. What does this tell us about
across Europe was changing. Free elections were finally
communist control in Poland in 1979? Research Pope
held in Pol 1989. Solidari
John Paul Il’s role in the Cold War online. Write a OS oR SOUR IEE: act oe
ents) ae seats in the Senate. Jaruzelski was forced to bring them
paragraph summarising his importance in undermining ae 0 a t ;
Soviet authority in Eastern Europe. in : IS Seminar me ne bisieh SUSE HET communist
regimes collapsing across Eastern Europe, Lech Watesa
was elected as president of Poland.
Following the strikes in the summer a new trade union
called Solidarity was formed in Gdansk by a local ACTIVITY 6.12
electrician called Lech Watesa (Source 6P); it soon had
9 million members. The government banned Solidarity Selecting evidence: Choose three facts from this section
but the Polish Supreme Court declared in November that which you feel best illustrate the problems in Poland
it was a legal organisation. The government had to come Ba none Why die yourchoose these! Compas your
to an agreement with Solidarity; trade unions and the SlecHon whe Cal ie oh ee
sht to strike were allowed, as well as increases in pay and
is was an amazing victory for Polish workers. “ri Pi en eee 4
inter, Brezhnev considered sending in troops
p er 1968. Instead,
he decided To analyse y the
L reasons
ASC for rot
Solidarity’s
lidarity s uccess
SS WWwe can
e in Praguein
is
1d appoint a military ruler who could
organise
yrganise the
the information
information |into two cate pories:
es

power: General Jaruzelski. 1 Internal factors

declared martial law and took serious a_ The cost of living was too high - especially food
ne in Upper Silesia prices = and aid from the USSR actually prevented
 6: How secure was the USSR’s control over Eastern Europe, 1948-c.1989?

he economy from growing as there was no

incentive to try new methods. 6.5 How far was Gorbachev
b Lech Walesa proved to be a formidable opponent
personally responsible for the
onO aruzelski, and Pope John Paul Il was‘a hero collapse of Soviet control over
in Poland. Many Poles attribute the collapse of Eastern Europe?
communism to the power of Catholicism.
c [ne extent of support for Solidarity and its
organisation were vital. Events in 1956 and
1968 were quite uncoordinated in comparison,
nd with 9 million members - a quarter of the
a)

population - the government couldn’t arrest

everyone involved.
2 External factors

a Poles also received strong backing from Ronald

Reagan and British Prime Minister Margaret
Thatcher. She visited a shipyard in Gdansk in 1988
during the strike campaign.
b Solidarity was seen in a similar light to other great Source 6Q: Mikhail Gorbachev meeting workers in Moscow
freedom movements ofthe period. The main one in 1985.
was the ANC in South Africa, so Nelson Mandela
and Watesa were often mentioned in the same ACTIVITY 6.14
context by the medi iad)
What does Source 6Q suggest about Gorbachev's
c The USSR had a crisis of leadership in the early leadership style compared to previous Soviet leaders
1980s. Brezhnev died in 1982 and was followed by like Stalin and Brezhnev?
two leaders in quick succession. Yuri Andropov died
in 1984 and Konstantin Chernenko died in 1985.
There was no question of Moscow sending in the As was the case with Polanc
military to impose order, especially with soldiers experiencing economic problems ir
committed in Afghanistan from 1979 to 1989. Corruption became a serious issue under Br
and the old system of planning econom
ACTIVITY 6.13
five-year plans was heavily critic
methods and innovation at a time when ths
1 Using the factors above, make a mind map showing was seeing huge change as microchip techr
the interrelationship of the reasons for Solidarity’s introduced. Th S
SUCCESS, leader Mikhail Gorbachev, who came tc
2 Which do you think was more important: the internal a period of significant change began.
or external factors? designed to modernise and im|
3 Finally, research Lech Watesa online and write a instead it collapsed by 1991. Was ith
brief biography of him. Was he more influential in situation already past the poin
Poland than Pope John Paul II? Give reasons for your
answer.
ee
Five-year plans: the basis for communist economies.
These involved the government deciding what was needed
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 6.9 by the population and then setting targets for production.
There was no private business and little incentive to create
Why did Solidarity prove more difficult to contain for the new products.
USSR than events in 1956 or 1968?
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

Gorbachev’s reforms Consequences in Eastern Europe

Two major reforms were introduced by Gorbachev: At a meeting with Eastern European leaders in March
1989 Gorbachev confirmed that he was abandoning the
Perestroika~ this means ‘restructuring. The aim was
Brezhnev Doctrine. This meant that these states would
to breathe life into the economy and encourage new
have to find their own solutions for dealing with domestic
ideas. Workers could set up their own businesses from
opposition. As with Khrushchev’s ‘secret speech’ in
1986 as central planning was abolished.
1956, expectations had been raised and soon there were
2 Glasnost =this means ‘openness... This allowed greater challenges. Hungary opened its borders to allow free
freedom of speech and an end to punishing critics of movement into Austria, breaching the Iron Curtain, and
the government. In 1986 the prominent critic Andrei Solidarity won the Polish elections. The most striking
Sakharov, a famous physicist, was released from protest was the ‘Baltic Chain’, formed on “Black Ribbon
prison. An elected parliament called the Congress of Day’ on 23 August 1989, an international day of protest
People’s Deputies was also introduced. against human rights violations in the USSR. The cities of
This had a huge impact on Soviet life. Criticism poured out Tallinn, Riga and Vilnius Were linked together by a
and party leaders at all levels were challenged for their 675 kilometre human chain of2 million people. It was a
corruption and incompetence. clear challenge to Soviet authority.

Gorbachev also changed the USSR’s foreign policy. He

met president Reagan at summits in Geneva in 1985
and Reykjavik in 1986. These meetings, which included
Margaret Thatcher, focused on reducing weapons
stockpiles and ending the war in Afghanistan. In 1987
the Intermediate Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty was signed,
which led to 2,692 missiles being destroyed by 1991.
138
However, the most crucial step for Eastern Europe was
Gorbachev's speech to the United Nations in December
1998 (Source 6R). He announced massive cuts in Soviet
weapons and forces stationed in Eastern Europe. This
signalled the end of the Brezhnev Doctrine.

The relations between the Soviet Union and the

United States of America have a history of five and Source 6S: The Baltic Chain in August 1989 was an example
a half decades. As the world changed, so did the of non-violent protest.
nature, role and place of those relations in world
politics. For too long a time they developed along the
lines of confrontation and sometimes animosity -
ACTIVITY 6.15
either overt or covert. But in the last few years the
entire world could breathe a sigh of relief thanks to Compare the Baltic Chain protest shown in Source 6S to
the changes for the better in the substance and the those in Hungary in 1956 (Sources 6B and 6C). Why was
atmosphere of the relationship between Moscow and the non-violent protest more effective as a means of
Washington. criticising the USSR?

Source 6R: From Gorbachev’s speech to the United Nations

on 7 December 1988. The moment which symbolised the end of the Cold
War took place in Berlin. The hard-line East German
communist leader Erich Honecker was removed in
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 6.10
October 1989. Reforms were being considered by the
Why did relations improve between Moscow and new leader Egon Krenz such as allowing East Germans
Vashington in the 1980s? Make a list of reasons and put to emigrate permanently. In a day of confusion on
in order of importance 9 November a press conference was held where an
official suddenly announced that Berliners could move
 6: How secure was the USSR’s control over Eastern Europe, 1948-c.1989?

across the checkpoints without a passport or permit.

He had misread the document he had been given, and ACTIVITY 6.16

the consequence was enormous. That night 2 million

Reagan’s supporters claim he ended the Cold War by
Berliners flooded the checkpoints and crossed the defeating the USSR in the arms race. His critics say he
divide. Bemused soldiers watched as they started to pull risked a ‘Second Cold War’. Which interpretation do you
the wall down. Twenty-eight years of separation ended agree with and why?
overnight.
Demonstrations in Czechoslovakia that month brought
about a peaceful change known as the ‘Velvet Revolution’ Reagan's stance has been described by some historians
(or the ‘Gentle Revolution’). Vaclav Havel was elected as a ‘Second Cold War’ as the relationship with the Soviets
president in 1990. In Hungary, Kadar had resigned in 1988 deteriorated so suddenly and sharply. At the end of 1983
and with the border opened to Austria in 1989 the collapse a Korean passenger jet was shot down by Soviet planes
of communism soon followed. A centre-right government when it accidently entered their air space. American
criticism was so hostile that some in Moscow thought they
was formed in 1990.
might launch a nuclear attack. Relations had not been this

€
tense since 1962.

When Gorbachev came to power Reagan maintained his

TOP TIP attitude but was persuaded to talk to the new leader by
There are some excellent films about life in Germany UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher.
before and after the fall of the Berlin Wall. In particular,
Goodbye Lenin and The Lives of Others have been critically
| am cautiously optimistic. | like Mr. Gorbachev. We
acclaimed. They are recommended viewing if you want to
understand the beliefs and feelings of ordinary people in
can do business together. We both believe in our
East Germany. own political systems. He firmly believes in his;
| firmly believe in mine. We are never going to
change one another. So that is not in doubt, but we
have two great interests in common: that we should
Role of Ronald Reagan both do everything we can to see that war never
Events seemed to accelerate after 1985 when Gorbachev starts again ... And secondly, | think we both
came to power. However, there were longer-term causes believe that they are the more likely to succeed if
that can be attributed to US president Reagan. He was we can build up confidence in one another and trust
elected in 1980 and took a totally different stance against in one another.
communism.
Source 6T: Margaret Thatcher in a TV interview in 1984. She
Reagan ended the period of relaxed relations with Moscow met Gorbachev just before he came to power.
(known as détente). The US boycotted the Moscow
Olympics in 1980, so the Soviets boycotted the Los Although they met in summits, Reagan opened up the
Angeles Olympics in 1984. Reagan called the Soviet Union issue of Berlin by visiting the city in June 1987. He gave
the ‘evil empire’ in a speech in 1983. a speech in which he issued a dramatic challenge to
He believed the Cold War could be won by massively Gorbachev (see Source 6U).
increasing weapons spending beyond the limits that
the Soviets could afford. From 1981 to 1986 he There is one sign the Soviets can make that would be
increased the US’s defence spending from $179 billion unmistakable, that would advance dramatically the
to $370 billion. Part of this was the ambitious Strategic cause of freedom and peace. General
Defence Initiative (SDI). SDI would have created satellites Secretary Gorbachev, if you seek peace, if you
to shoot down ICBMs in flight. The media called it ‘the seek prosperity for the Soviet Union and Eastern
Star Wars’ programme because it sounded like science Europe, if you seek liberalisation: Come here to this
fiction and many have doubted whether it was even gate! Mr Gorbachev, open this gate! Mr Gorbachev,
possible. If it was it would have made all Soviet ICBMs tear down this wall!
obsolete. The USSR did not have the money to keep
pace with this. Source 6U: Reagan’s speech in Berlin, 12 June 1987.
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

ACTIVITY 6.17 Review your learning

Go back to the focus points listed at the
Read Source 6T and then research Margaret Thatcher’s
beginning of this chapter. You should have a good
role in the Cold War online. Compare and contrast
S nderstanding of the three main countries covered
her views with those of Reagan and Gorbachev. How
significant was she in ending the Cold War? n this chapter: Hungary, Czechoslovakia and
Poland. You should also have a good idea of the
d ifferent Soviet rulers: Khrushchev, Brezhnev and
|CHECK UNDERSTANDING 6.11]
YOURUNDERSTANDING Gorbachev. Use your knowledge of these to answer the
CHECK YOUR 6.11
questions.
Did the thaw in relations start from the Soviet side or
from the West?
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 6.12

This chapter contains a targe number of names of

Communism collapsed across Eastern Europe in 1990. The
political leaders. Make a list of all the important
effects spread inside Russia too, where communism ended ;
leg people for each country covered. Write one
in December 1991 as the USSR disintegrated into the sentence for each one stating who they were, like
separate republics that made up the union. Gorbachev's this example:
reputation inside and outside Russia could scarcely be
different. He won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1990 and was Country Name Who they were
hailed as a great statesman around the world. Yet when he
Czechoslovakia | Alexander | Communist reformer
stood for election to be president of Russia in 1996 he won
Dubcek and Prime Minister
only 0.5% of the vote, coming 7th.
who led the Prague
Spring.
140
When you’ve finished your list, make a flashcard for each
Who do you think had a greater impact on ending one and test yourselfon these regularly so that you can
communism in Eastern Europe, Gorbachev or Reagan? recall them more easily.
Write a paragraph on each leader giving evidence as to
why they were responsible, then reach a decision on
who had the more significant impact and why.

The Big Challenge

Selecting and deploying information bender Leadership Major Us
Make a list of reasons why each of the three countries style and events. presidents
might be a problem for Moscow: aims when they |they had

* Hungary . were in to deal

¢« Czechoslovakia
* Poland. Khrushchev *

Think about political reasons, economic reasons and Eau,

other factors like size of population. Gorbachev
Now complete this table for the three Soviet leaders:
This summary should help you understand the
importance of context. What challenges did they face?
What limits were there when taking actions?
 6: How secure was the USSR’s control over Eastern Europe, 1948-c.1989?

Summary points

Exam-style questions
Describe the main events in Hungary in 1956.

What were the main features of the Prague Spring?

What reforms did Gorbachev introduce in the Soviet Union?

Why was there opposition to communist control in Hungary?

Why was Solidarity so popular in Poland?

Why did Reagan’s policies cause problems for Soviet leaders?

‘Opposition to Soviet rule in Hungary was not a serious threat to Moscow.’ How far do you
agree with this statement?

How far was Gorbachev responsible for the end of communist control over Eastern Europe?

‘Events in Poland were the main reason why Soviet authority collapsed in Eastern Europe.’
How far do you agree with this statement?
Key Question 7: Why did events in the
Gulf matter, c.1970-2000?

Focus points
M@ Why was Saddam Hussein able to come to power in Iraq?
What was the nature of Saddam Hussein’s rule in lraq?
Why was there a revolution in Iran in 1979?
What were the causes and consequences of the Iran-Iraq War, 1980-1988?
Why did the First Gulf War take place?
 7: Why did events in the Gulf matter, c.1970-2000?

What is this enquiry about? - Analyse the causes of war and identify the
consequences.
Just as the map of Europe was redrawn in the aftermath
« Assess the impact wars in the Gulf had on the rest of the
of the First World War, so the map of the Middle East
also changed dramatically. The Ottoman Empire was
region and the wider world. |
partitioned and one of new the states created was Iraq.
ACTIVITY 7.1
The state of Persia survived a period of partial occupation
and the overthrow of the ruling monarch and the Study Figure 7.1 and contrast the situation in the *
establishment of anew royal family, which would remain Middle East before and after the First World War.What
in power until the 1970s. These neighbouring countries _ are the main differences? What effects wouldthese
would develop a rivalry with profound consequences for ie S {iNelol Paani ote ate TY ed adh ote ee
have on people who lived in the Middle East? What 1
the region and the world. The rise of Saddam Hussein consequences can you foresee? OST
and Ayatollah Khomeini in the late 1970s led to regional Pan Het wet re

warfare and political change whose effects are still being

felt today. It was also an important component of the Cold 7.1 Why was Saddam Hussein able
War as these conflicts drew in the superpowers of USA and
the USSR. In this chapter you will explore these questions:
to come to power in Iraq?
The development of Iraq from 1920 to 1958
» Why did the regimes of Iraq and Iran change in the late In 1920, the British took three provinces of the eastern
1970s? Ottoman Empire —- Mosul, Baghdad and Basra - and
* Evaluate the role played by oil in the development of created a new country called Iraq. A monarch, King Faisal |,
these states. was put on the throne in 1921 and expected to run this

‘\ russian \ Post-WWI Middle East (1923)

—\ EMPIRE \
Ph “Thilisi \
Elisabethpol

-Tabriz|

Zanjan-
‘ ehran
+Teh
-Qom
«Kermanshah Q
Ore. -Estahan ; Mandate
PERSIA __ of Palestine
Tanta. Kuwait
~Cairos Suez
Independent Saudi Arabia
Bani Suwayt -
Al Minya + sAlJawt + Shiraz

Asyut +
EGYPT
ARABIA

ANGLO-
EGYPTIAN
SUDAN

ans, Figure 7.1: The map left shows the extent of the
Ottoman Empire in 1914. The map on the right
ABYSSINIA shows how this had changed by 1923 with new
states being created in the Middle East.
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

new state. This was easier said than done. There were
TOP TIP
several reasons why Iraq was difficult to rule:
When researching online you may find different spellings
The population was 80% Arabian and spoke Arabic, but of names. This is because Arabic script and the alphabets
20% were Kurdish and spoke a different language. you are familiar with are different. For example, you might
see Hussein spelt as Husayn. Either is fine, as long as you
Shia Muslims were slightly in the majority but the
are consistent and stick to the one spelling when writing
government was dominated by Sunnis. This often an answer.
led to tensions, especially as neighbouring Iran was
approximately 95% Shia.

KEY TERMS CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 7.1

Why were the British unpopular in Iraq? Make a list of

reasons into a mind map. Think about the ways in which
these reasons were inte™connected.

The rise of the Ba’ath Party 1958 to 1968

The new government was led by Brigadier Abd al-Karim
Qasim. The army had been inspired by pan-Arabism,
a doctrine that aimed to unite all Arabs and end
interference by western powers in the Middle East.
This was fuelled by the rise of Gamal Abdel Nasser who
became president of Egypt in 1954. In 1956 he stood up
to Britain, France and Israel during the Suez Crisis, which
« Oil had been discovered but was controlled by the lraq made him a hero in the Arab world. Arab nationalism
Petroleum Company (IPC). This was a foreign firm and became a powerful force in the Middle East in the 1960s
the British had the majority share. Some 95% of Iraq’s and appealed to many Iraqis.
oil revenue went to the British, French and Americans.
- lraq’s borders were established by the British but CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 7.2
were unsatisfactory for two reasons. First, there was
continual conflict with Iran over their common frontier. What would be the benefits and problems posed by the
Second, in the south the lragis had little access to the military regime in Iraq?
Gulf. Their coastline was only 36 miles long. The single
port, Basra, was 50 miles inland and was accessed via
The Ba’ath Party had been founded in Syria in 1947 by
the Shatt-al-Arab strait. Kuwait had greater access to
Michel Aflag and truly represented pan-Arabism. It wanted
the sea and also had joint control of the Rumaila oil
to establish a united, secular Arab state. Their slogan was
field. Many in Iraq felt that Kuwait should have been
‘unity, freedom, socialism’. The Ba’ath Party in Iraq pushed
included in their country. They blamed the British for
for greater Arab nationalism in the 1960s and soon came
deliberately limiting their influence in the Gulf.
to oppose the new government, whose military leaders
Although Britain granted independence to Iraq in 1932, the were believed to rule in their own interests and not that of
all Arabs.
London government kept control of oil, Iraq’s defence and
foreign policy. In 1941 a rebellion was launched by Rashed
Ali but was soon crushed. Britain occupied the country KEY TERMS
during the war from 1941-1945 and kept the monarchy in
power afterwards. This British support for the king only
made his government unpopular and it was overthrown
in a military coup in 1958. The young King Faisal Il, Crown
Prince Abdullah and the Prime Minister Nuri al-Sa’id were
among many who were killed in the violence.
 7: Why did events in the Gulf matter, c.1970-2000?

In 1963 the Ba’athists overthrew and executed Qasim, but

the British and had taken part
they lost power to Colonel Abd al-Salam Arif. He died in a This seems to have had a strong effect on Saddan
plane crash in 1966 and power passed to his brother, Abd
development. In 1957 hej
al-Rahman Arif. The Ba’ath Party was banned, but was
to escape to Cairo in 1959 after being part of an
secretly reorganised by Ahmad Hasan al-Bakr. Al-Bakr assassinate Qasim. He was jailed after the Ba’athist cc ;
came from Tikrit and he promoted his young relative of 1963 failed but managed to escape from prison. Wher ;
Saddam Hussein, who came from the same town (see al-Bakr reorganised the party, Saddam was made Deputy
source 7A). In 1968 they rose up against the government Secretary General, and soon took control of the m
and this time were successful in holding on to power. They the security network of the government in 1968.
secured their position by removing potential enemies
in the army and putting trusted Ba’athists in positions Saddam was an admirer of Stalin and had a reputation for
of political power. The most important body was the being ruthless. He trusted few people and those that he
Revolutionary Command Council (RCC), which made all did were usually from Tikrit. He worked well with al-
in the early 1970s but by the time he became President
the key decisions and could also make laws. Al-Bakr was
the chairman and Saddam was made deputy in 1969. in 1979 their relationship was more difficult. Al-Bakr
resigned on health grounds but it has been speculated
that Saddam threatened to remove him by force if he
didn’t quit. Saddam consolidated his power by purging his
enemies in the armed forces and the party. He we IS NOW
President, Secretary General of the Ba’ath Party, Chairman
of the RCC, and head of the armed forces. It had taken
over a decade but he was now the undisputed ruler of Iraq.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 7.4

What characteristics did Saddam Hussein possess that

enabled him to take control of Iraq?

ACTIVITY 7.2

Make a timeline of Saddam’s rise to power. In pairs

choose the five most important events. Why did you
select these events over others? Make sure you can
justify your answer.

7.2 What was the nature of

Source 7A: Al-Bakr (right) pictured with Saddam Hussein in
1978. Saddam called him ‘the father leader’.
Saddam Hussein’s rule in Iraq?
Government and propaganda under Saddam
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 7.3
The main institutions of government in Iraq were:

t ne Revolutionary Command Council (RCC

What were the main beliefs of the Ba’ath Party?
t 1e Ba’ath Party
» the Republican Guard
Saddam Hussein’s rise to power t re army
Although Saddam Hussein did not become president of Iraq t ie National Assembly.
until 1979, it was clear that he was the most powerful figure
in the new government from as early as 1970. Born in 1937, |
Saddam was from a poor background in Tikrit. His father Republican Guard: formed in 1969, they were the elite
was a shepherd and appears to have died before his son troops of the Iraqi state. They were separate from the army.
was born, so Saddam was raised by an uncle who hated
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

e Ba’athists were not the only political party as the CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 7.5
communists also had a reasonable following. Elections
e National Assembly were first held in 1980 and the Look at Source 7B. What message is the poster trying
Ba’athists won three-quarters of the seats, but Kurd and to convey and what techniques does the artist use to
Shia parties were also represented. However, the National do so?
Assembly possessed no real power. Its only purpose
was to provide Saddam with a place to make speeches.
The communists were allowed to exist just to keep the The economy and oil .
USSR happy as Iraq’s main international ally. Saddam The 35 years that Saddam was in power from 1968 to
alone made the major decisions and often purged the 2003 can be divided into three clear phases. The first
government and army ofthose he believed disloyal. After period up to 1980 was a time of great Piso and
becoming president in 1979 he had 66 leading figures tried, economic and social progress. The wars with Iran and
with 22 sentenced to death. The video footage oftheir Kuwait during 1980-1991 destroyed the economy and
executions was circulated around the party as a warning. plunged the nation into debt. The final phase, 1991-2003,
was marked by stagnation made harder by international
On the model of Stalin, Saddam developed a cult of sanctions imposed by the United Nations over weapons
personality. State propaganda called him al-batal (the production.
hero) and al-mufakir (the thinker). lragis joked that the real
population of the country was 28 million - 14 million Iraqis The government nationalised the oil industry in 1972 to
and 14 million statues of Saddam. Propaganda was promoted end foreign control of it. The timing of this was incredibly
in the main newspaper al-Thawra and all TV stations were fortunate as a war in 1973 between Egypt and Israel
owned by the Ministry of Culture and Information. Posters ed to OPEC blocking sales of oil to Europe and USA.
were made showing leaders from the region’s ancient past, Consequently, oil prices rose sharply. When the Baath
such as Nebuchadnezzar, shaking hands with Saddam and Party came to power, Iraq’s annual oil revenue was less
146 looking up to him. Ancient cities such as Babylon and Nineveh than $500 million. By 1979 it reached $26 billion. This
were the subjects of archaeological digs to link the new had a significant impact on the average income of
regime to the glorious past. each person. It rose from $382 per year when oil was
nationalised to $2,726 by the end of the decade. Car
ownership also went up by over 150%. Some Gulf states,
including Kuwait, were producing more than OPEC
Draw a diagram showing the structure of Iraq’s allowed, which lowered the cost of oil worldwide. Iraq
government and society. Cover all the key institutions and argued that for every $1 drop in the price of a barrel of oil
try to show the order of importance. Try to remember all they lost $1 billion per year.
the key terms so that you can use them in an answer.

KEY TERMS
=i

This massive increase in finance was used to develop

public services and help ordinary people. Taxes were
reduced and pensions improved. However, war in the
1980s was a disaster, leaving Iraq $100 billion in debt. The
Source 7B: A propaganda image of Saddam Hussein Gulf War in 1990-1991 made the situation worse through
on display in 2002. restrictions on Iraq’s trade, After the Gulf War, Ir aq’s ortied
 7: Why did events in the Gulf matter, c.1970-2000?

domestic product (GDP) stood at $28bn per year. By 1999

children and adults were forced to attend Specia
it had only increased slightly to $31bn. The boom of the
schools for at least two years. Although the campaig
1970s was now just a memory.
didn’t meet its targets, it taught 2 million people basic
reading and writing. UNESCO commended Iraq for
The complete emancipation of women from the ties
this success. Secondary school attendance increased
which held them back in the past, during the ages
by two-thirds and university places nearly doubled
of despotism and ignorance, is a basic aim of the
All this was seriously disrupted by the wars of the 1980s
Party and the Revolution. Women make up one half
and there was little money for education after 1991.
of society. Our society will remain backward and in
chains unless its women are liberated, enlightened
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 7.7
and educated.
How successful were the reforms of the 1970s?
Source 7C: Extract from a speech delivered by Saddam
Hussein at the Third Conference of the General Federation
of Iraq Women, 17 April 1971.
KEY TERM
Social change: women, farmers j
Ey

and education =
The 1970s was a positive time for many. The Ba’ath Party
was secular and believed women should be educated and
have important jobs in society (see Source 7C). By 1980 half
of all teachers and dentists were female, as were one-third
of university students and doctors. The law was changed TOP TIP

to end forced marriage and make divorce easier. However, There are a lot of facts and numbers to recall, especially
when looking at economic history. Don’t try to remember
this progress didn’t last. As Saddam’s ideology changed in them all at once. Build up a list with two or three facts that
the 1990s he relied more on tribal support to maintain his you can memorise, then add to this list gradually. It might
regime. This meant that old-fashioned customs became help to organise the numbers, for example put them in
more important than progressive ideas. A law was passed order of smallest to largest or separate into facts like
allowing families to kill women they believed to be guilty percentages or money.
of adultery. This was based on the ancient tribal principle
of ‘erasing dishonour with blood’. Women were forbidden
to travel abroad unless accompanied by a male relative on
Relations with the Shi’ites and Kurds
their father’s side of the family. Saddam was a Sunni Arab who worried constantly
about the loyalty of ordinary Iraqis. Although he didn’t
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 7.6 persecute the Kurds and the Shia immediately, they
suffered increasingly as time passed. The Kurds had
How far did Saddam live up to his promise to improve the been allowed a great deal of cultural and administrative
position of women in Iraq, which he made in Source 7C? freedom after Saddam made a deal with them in 1970,
but when he failed to keep these promises they rebelled
in 1974. They were helped by the Shah of Iran but when a
The poorest members of Iraqi society were usually farmers
treaty was agreed with the Iranians in 1975 at needs it
and agricultural workers, including many Shia in the south.
the Kurds in a difficult situation. They agreed a ceasefire
In 1958 as much as 55% of Iraq’s farmland was owned
but it was clear that Saddam didn’t trust them. In 1988 at
by the richest 1%. In 1970, the government set limits on
the end of the war with Iran he used chemical weapons
property ownership with surplus land taken away and given
on the Kurdish town ofHalabja killing 5,000. When he
to poorer farmers. Over 250,000 benefited from this reform.
was defeated in the GulfV War the Kurds rose in rebellion
Money made from oil was used to build roads, hospitals
but received no international support. Again, the
and electric power stations. These changes were important
bombed aind as many as 2 million escaped over t
in building support for Saddam in the early years of his rule.
border to Iran and Turkey. T
Education was a major priority. In 1978, a campaign return by the enforcement of
was launched to end illiteracy within three years. All parallel, by the Americans and the Brit
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

ACTIVITY 7.5

Draw a table showing the positive and negative Saddam faced opposition from various groups
elements of change in Iraq. throughout his period in power. What were the main
reasons for this?
Positive |Negative

L
In groups, discuss whether or not Iraqi society made
progress overall under Saddam Hussein. In the debate
give evidence to support your arguments.
lran under the Pahlavis 1926-1953
The final dynasty to rule Iran was the Pahlavis. After the First
World War an army officer called Reza Khan seized power in
Shia protests against Saddam began in 1977 and increased Tehran and was crowned as Reza Shah in 1926. He began to
in 1979. A group called al-Da’wa (‘Islamic Call’) were active modernise a country that was still mainly peasant-based and
in protests, so Saddam ordered the execution of the ad little industry or education. Reza Shah was secular and
eading Shi'ite cleric Mohammad Baagir al-Sadr and had his estricted religious influence. He removed Arabic words from
sister killed. This was a significant cause of the war with the Persian language (Farsi), ended the wearing of veils by
ran as Ayatollah Khomeini accused Saddam's government women and established Tehran University. In 1935 he ordered
of being un-Islamic and called on Iraqis to remove hin that the country was to be known as Iran and not Persia.
om power. Shi'ites remained loyal during the war with
Oil had been discovered by the British in 1908 and they
an yet after the Gulf War they had tired of Saddam’s
jad a contract that entitled them to keep 84% of all profits.
ule and rose in rebellion. As witthe Kurds there was no
international support so Saddam sent his loyal Republican
Reza Shah struggled to renegotiate this deal and during
the Second World War it was feared that Nazi Germany
Guard to deal with the rebels. Some 30,000 were killec
and another 70,000 fled across the border to Iran. A ‘no-fly
night occupy Iran’s oil fields. Britain feared a repeat of the
zone’ was imposed below the 33rd parallel which restored events inlraq in 1941. With the Soviets they deposed Reza
some safety, but the damage was done. Shah and installed his young son Muhammad Reza Shah
as king. Iran was militarily occupied from 1941 to 1945, with
American troops arriving in 1942.

Oil made Iran a crucial territory in the Cold War. Growing

American influence provoked a reaction in 1950 from the
National Front led by Mohammad Mossadeq. He became

Source 7D: The Shah (centre) pictured in 1950. He was

Figure 7.2: The no-fly zones established to protect the Kurds known as the ‘suitcase ruler’ because he packed his bags
in the north and the Shia in the south. The northern line is and fled in 1953, only to return a few days later. In his early
the 36th Parallel and the southern line is the 33rd Parallel.
years he struggled for authority.
 7; Why did events in the Gulf matter, c.1970-2000?

Prime Minister in 1951 and nationalised the oil industry.

lehran became a city of 4.5 ) €
However, Britain and USA led a boycott of Iranian oil and the
Iranian population was und pe ofl
CIA helped to depose Mossadegq in 1953. The Shah temporarily
the Shah was a figure of ridicule. He was out of touct
fled to Italy but was restored to power (see Source 7D). ordinary Iranians as he travelled everywhere by Nelicopter.
He staged an elaborate propaganda celebration in 1971 |
Government and reform under the Shah
Persepolis to mark 2,500 years of Iranian monarchy (see
1953-1971 ources 7E and 7F). It cost at least $100 million. Images
The Shah was backed by the Americans but there was UT
Or oadcast on television of the Shah and his foreign
a strong communist party, called the Tudeh, which was n ipping champagne in huge m
supported by the USSR. The National Front was outlawed =a)nany ordinary Iranians live

and restrictions were placed on free speech. Finally, the increasing his authority it did a great deal of damage.
ulama hadn't supported the coup of 1953 as they disliked
Mossadeq and the Tudeh’s secular views, but in the 1960s
ACTIVITY 7.6
they became the most serious opposition group.
The Shah took personal control of the country, aided by What similarities do you notice in the development of
increased oil revenues. A new deal was made with Britain Iraq and Iran? Make a list of common features. Which
and the USA that gave Iran 50% of oil proceeds. This was state made more progress up to 1979?

used to expand the military and fund reforms. Politically,

there were elections to the Majlis (parliament) where two
Official parties were allowed to debate issues. However,
they were puppet organisations and Iranians knew them as
the ‘Yes’ and ‘Yes sir’ parties. The Tudeh were banned and
political opponents were ruthlessly pursued by the secret
police, SAVAK.

President Kennedy pressurised the Shah in the early 1960s

to relax political control, so in 1963 he started the ‘White
Revolution’ (so-called because it was meant to transform
the country without bloodshed). The three aims were land
reform, education and women’s rights. There was some
success as 2 million peasants became landowners for the
first time. A literacy corps was created of 100,000 students Source 7E: The tented city built at Persepolis in 1971 to hold
who went to villages to teach peasants to read and write. the Shah’s celebrations.
Women gained some additional rights under a reform
of family law, for example, their husbands needed to ask
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 7.8
their consent to take another wife. Average annual income
per person increased from $200 in 1963 to around $2,000 What did the Shah hope to achieve with the 1971
by the end of the Shabh’s reign. Persepolis celebrations?

Religious opposition
The Shah’s major critic was Ruhollah Khomein
1902 into a respected family, he trained as a religious
scholar.He rose to the level of ayatollah in 1961 <
suddenly gained fame in 1963 by preaching against
the government. He was arrested by SAVAK after
raid in which several of his supporters we
Demonstrations broke out
However, the White Revolution’s benefits were unevenly
spread. The increase in wealth came mainly from oil, especially
after 1973. Improved health care caused a population boom:
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

interference. In 1971 he published The Government ofthe

FACT FILE Islamic Jurist in which he argued that religious scholars
should run the country. He continued to promote this idea
— in the 1970s as an alternative to the Shah.

[i [= RS [= PO L [S The British imperialists penetrated the countries

D'APRES L'CEUVRE ORIGINALEDEMARJANE SATRAPI of the East more than 300 years ago. Being
a ; knowledgeable about all aspects of these countries,
they drew up elaborate plans for assuming control of
them. Then came the new imperialists, the Americans
and others. They allied themselves with the British
and took part in the execution oftheir plans.

Source 7G: An extract from the writings of Ayatollah

Khomeini.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 7.9

What role did foreign influence play in the revolution?

Was it the most important cause?
What role in Iranian history is Khomeini attributingto
western countries in Source 7G?

CHIARA MASTROIANNI © CATHERINE DENEUVE © DANIELLE DARRIEUX * SIMON ABKARIAN * GABRIELLE LOP

= 9 | From protest to revolution

150 — In the 1970s the Shah spent his enormous oil revenueon
Source 7F: Poster of the 2007 film adaptation of weapons. Between 1972 and 1976 he spent $10 billion on
Marjane Satrapi’s book, Persepolis. US-made equipment and Iran had the fifth largest army
in the world. However, this spending led to increasing
Graphic novel Persepolis by Marjane Satrapi covers the
costs of living as prices rose rapidly. In 1977 Jimmy Carter
causes and consequences ofthe revolution against the
became US president. He urged the Shah to end political
Shah. It is an excellent book to read to understand the
context of this period and was made into a film. oppression, so activists were released from jail and some
freedom of speech was allowed. This led to an outpouring
of criticism, especially when Ali Shari’ati died in London.
He was an immensely popular figure and was believed to
continued to preach against the Iranian government from
have been murdered by SAVAK.
the holy Shia city of Najaf.
Ayatollah Khomeini found agreement with many Iranians
because of the great inequality of wealth. He told
government to aid the poor before the White Revolution Ear bi |
began so it looked as if the Shah was only responding to Aue palieni es POPU a ea cule’ ass
DR Hath eee Se eee, ae at the Sorbonne in Paris but was frequently imprisoned
eae after he returned to teach in Iran. He left for London in
hich increased dramatically in the 1960s and 1970s. 1975 but was assassinated there in 1977. Only Khomeini
Nearly one million Americans are estimated to have could rival his political influence.
his period and 50,000 became permanent : seen —— aa ee a 4
They mainly worked in defence because the
sovernment sold so many weapons to the Shah. In January 1978, the government attacked Khomeini
y rarely mixed with Iranians and lived in in anewspaper article. This led to mass protests in his
lran was covered in advertising for home cityof Qom, which the military crushed. killing
showed Hollywood films n any. The customary 40-day mourning period ended;
offensive to Khomeini because with further protests, and the same thing happened,
e Tree Of western Approximately 100 protestors
were killed in Tabri:;
 7: Why did events in the Gulf matter, c.1970-2000?

Incredibly, this happened twice more despite the

SPIRITUAL LEADER
government realising that it created a cycle of protests
|
that were highly emotive.
At this point a decision was made to deal with the
inflation problem. The timing was poor. Over the
summer of 1978 government spending cuts caused high
unemployment, which only added to the sense of crisis.
On 8 September a mass demonstration in Tehran ended
in the worst violence so far. The military killed several
ie undred people on ‘Black Friday’. Khomein
i was still in
raq but it had become unsafe for him there. Saddam “ There is no reason
why ¢ criminal should
Hussein apparently offered to assassinate him but the btssong:in the First
Shah declined. Instead, Khomeini left for France staying place... Once his identit
is established,heshould
just outside Paris where he was interviewed by the be killed right away,*
world’s media. —Khomes int _-

In December 1978 the ten days of Muharram offered

another chance to protest. The government didn’t dare
attack demonstrators during this holy period. Around
2 million people filled the streets of Tehran carrying
pictures of Khomeini. The Shah, who was ill with cancer,
was powerless to stop these events. His illness wasn’t
publicly known but he refused to launch any more
attacks on his own people. He left Iran with his family in
January 1979.
Source 7H: An American cartoon from 1979. Why was the
reaction in the USA to Khomeini so negative?
? KEY TERM

Islamic calendar is CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 7.10

slimsremember the
le of Kerbala. Itis an emotional i What can we infer from Source 7H about Iran In 1979?
asts f rten days.
ye

7.4 What were the causes and

The following month Khomeini returned from France. consequences of the Iran-Iraq
His press officer commented later that they didn’t War, 1980-1988?
know if they would be killed'on the tarmac when they
landed or welcomed as heroes. In fact, millions came The causes of the war
out to celebrate. This revolution marked the end of There were three principal causes of the war:
foreign influence over Iran and the beginning of a period « the dispute over the Shatt al-Arab waterwa
of government by radical religious leaders. It sent
- the issue of Kurdish resistance in the north of Ira
shockwaves throughout the Middle East and the wider
- therise to powero yvatollan Knome
world.
lran and Iraq agreed a deal in 1937 about the Shatt al-Arab
waterway. This channel of water is vital as it pro
ACTIVITY 7.7
only accessto the Gulf. After the Ba’ath Part
How can we explain the Iranian revolution of 1979? Draw the Shah ended this agreement in 19
a table showing the mistakes made by the Shah and support to Kurdish rebe
the reasons why Khomeini was popular. Which side was two sides met at Algiers and agreed

more important in causing the revolution? favourable

to Iran. 1
return ¢
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

tollah Khomeini cat ne to power Saddam Gulf, but desperate defence saw them hold on to the
: was initially friendly towards the new government. Shatt al-Arab.
He hoped they could maintai n the Algiers Agreement and
not interfere in each other’s < ffairs. However, Khomeini f KEY TERMS
attacked Saddam for being ‘un-Islamic’ and resumed
support for the Kurds. He cal ed on Iraq’s Shia population
to overthrow the Ba’athist government. Saddam
responded by expelling 100,0 00 Shiites and dumping
them over the border into Ira Al
Diplomatic relations were end ed and in the summer of 1980
poth sides started shelling each other across the border. In
September both rejected the Algiers Agreement. Iraq made
he first move by bombing Iranian airfields and sending
thousands of troops across 400 miles of border in what they
hoped would be a quick victory. Saddam had gambled that
he lranian revolution had caused chaos in their military
and thought this was the perfect time to strike.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 7.11

For Iran, 1986 was the high point of the war. Economic
Which of the three main causes of the war was most costs and mounting casualties restricted their capability
important and why? to attack, whereas Saddam received support from abroad
(see the section on ‘foreign involvement’). He also allowed
his generals more freedom to make decisions after they
152 The war on the ground threatened to rebel against him. The war ended with
Saddam had limited objectives so he used only half of his successful Iraqi operations to relieve Fao and a brief
armed forces. He had to maintain the western border with invasion of Iranian territory.
Syria as war had nearly broken out there in the mid-1970s.

The resistance shown by the Iranian Revolutionary

Guard was impressive and the brutal battle over
Khorramshahr in the south gave an indication of what was
to come. As winter began bot h sides settled down to a war
/ attrition.
lran made the most ofthis pe riod to reorganise and launch
devastating attacks in 1981, lifting the siege of the key
oil town of Abadan. Saddam withdrew his forces behind
the border in 1982 and asked for peace talks. This was
ignored as Khomeini’s main a im was to topple Saddam’s
government; he hoped Shi'ites in Iraq would welcome
lranian forces. However, Iraq’s Shia population was Arabic
ind didn’t speak Farsi so they stayed loyal to Saddam. Source 7: Iranian soldiers in a trench with machine guns
fensives continued from 1983 to 1985 bu and gas masksiin January 1987.
to break Iraqi lines. Their main objective was to
Basra but Saddam used chemical weapons ACTIVITY 7.8
sarin gas to defend against assaults. Both sides
Many historians have made comparisons with the First
tt 11985. Fo rlraq this was the first time
World War (See Source 71). Using the information in this
e since the early monthsof
section, consider which aspects of the war were similar to
S fir ally made a breakthrough
f
1914-1918 and which were different. What does this suggest
I 10 Peninsul 1 as well a:
about the nature of the fighting in the Iran-Iraq War?
iost cut off Iraq from the
 7: Why did events in the Gulf matter, c.1970-2000?

The war at sea force was functional but less sophisticated. As fore gr
As the ground war stalemate continued, Saddam intervention increased it benefited Iraq more thar
switched the focus to the Gulf in 1984 to attack Iranian through the supply of spare parts.
shipping. This expanded the regional importance of the
In 1984 ‘the War of the Cities’ began. Each side bombed
war as Iran threatened to close the Straits of Hormuz to
the other’s key cities hopingto we ivil
all international shipping if they were prevented from
Iraq used Soviet-made Scud missiles and they also
exporting oil. One-fifth of the world’s oil travels through
attacked sites of economic value such as oil fields at
this channel. Saddam therefore increased attacks on ships
Kirkuk and the Sirri Islands.
going to and from Kharg Island, Iran’s major oil refinery.
Iran responded by attacking ships from Kuwait and Saudi By 1988 Iraq had aerial superiority and attacked Tehran,
Arabia as they were Saddam’s biggest financial backers. causing the city to be evacuated. Saddam also ordered
This became known as ‘the Tanker War’. three chemical attacks on the Kurds in the north, causing
horrific scenes in Halabja where 5,000 died and another
In 1987 the Kuwaitis and Saudis appealed to the USA for
10,000 were wounded inhaling poison gas. Aerial warfare
help. Their ships were allowed to fly USA flags as a convoy
caused enormous civilian and economic damage but was
system evolved which was reminiscent of the Second World
insufficient to win the war overall.
War. The American navy was drawn into conflict and shot
down an Iranian passenger plane headingto Dubai, killing
290 civilians. It had been mistaken for an Iranian fighter
plane. The Iranians could not match US naval power in the
( (oo
War of the Cities: five major attacks on urban areas during
Gulf and this made the war unwinnable by 1988.
the Iran-Iraq War. The aim of destroying civilian morale failed
= re - — . to do its job, much as in the Second World War. Instead, it
Tigris\ pers
only intensified hatred for the enemy on both sides and may
Doonan a IRAQ even have prolonged the war.
, (cme
eas Ly

. = \

. Shatt =~ |
al-Arab
KUWAIT € \
eR CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 7.13
: ay. Strait of |
NG= Persian
j : “os Po =—, Hormuz Consider the impact of the war on civilian lives. How
Ss < arr | would it have changed their opinions of their leaders?
Me: a4 3 q me \ |
9) ai
pana J iii tGulf
es =“at OMAN.
‘gna wad
fh \ Gulfof
‘ QATAR : if iis\ Oman Foreign involvement
GE Sa” es a
UNITED ARAB = Both sides had problematic relations with the outside
phere
ARABIA
EMIRATES
ey OMAN | world when the war began. However, by 1984 it was clear
that most world powers preferred an Iraqi victory. The
Figure 7.3: Amap of the Gulf showing neighbouring states
USSR provided substantial aid to Saddam. In 1983 they
and the Shatt al-Arab straits. sent $2 billion of equipment including the latest T-72 tanks
and MiG-29 planes. The French also sold him $5.6 billion
of weapons. Iraq’s most important financial backers were
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 7.12
the Gulf monarchies of Kuwait and Saudi Arabia, who
The Strait of Hormuz separating Iran and Oman is one of provided tens of billions of dollars in loans.
the most economically important waterways in the world. In 1979, an attack on the American emb
Why would closing the strait help Iran and hurt Iraq? to hostages being held for over a year. Supy
was the lesser of two evils for President Ronald Reagan.
Diplomatic ties with Baghdad had been cut in 1967 but
The war in the air now the USA embassy was restored so they provided
lran had planes supplied by the USA to the Shah. However, with intelligence and financial aid. This support sustained
the withdrawal of American advisers and mechanics lraq through a war in which they were mostly
meant many of these were unserviceable. The Iraqi ait defensive.
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

ran’s religious radicalism worried most

Gulf states but The extent of foreign involvement shows how crucial the
they weren’t completely isolated. Turkey sold supplies to war was for the Middle East and the wider world. Yet the
both sides. Countries backed Iran if they either resented international opportunism ofselling weapons meant that
Saddam (such as Libya and Syria) or the Americans (such the conflict lasted much longer than it might otherwise
as North Korea). Others (such as South Africa and Taiwan) have done.
were happy to sell weapons to anyone that could afford to
buy. The most incredible example of arms sales actually Peace and the consequences of the war
came from the Americans. In return for the release of US Saddam offered peace talks in 1982 but Khomeini was
hostages in Lebanon they sold Iran weapons, despite
esolute in calling for an end to the Ba’athist regime. A
supporting Saddam. The ‘Iran-Contra Scandal’ caused a
UN peace proposal known as Resolution 598 was put
great controversy when it was exposed (see Source 7J).
forward in July 1987. Khomeini initially rejected it but
a year later the Iranian leadership finally accepted the
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 7.14 terms of a ceasefire. Khomeini stunned Iranians when his
message was read out on radio accepting an end to the
How influential was foreign involvement in the outcome
of the war?
fighting. It was a humiliating climb-down but there was
no alternative. Even so, it took until 1990 to achieve a final
peace deal and prisoners of war were not fully exchanged
until 2003.
IT DIDN'T
HAPPEN Accepting the resolution was truly bitter and tragic
issue for everyone, particularly me ... Death and
martyrdom would have been more bearable to me
.... How unhappy | am because | have survived and
have drunk the poisoned chalice of accepting the
IT HAPPENED ez resolution.
BUT | DIPN'T
Source 7K: Khomeini’s radio address to the Iranian people
announcing the end ofthe war.

| MIGHT HAVE “CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 7.15

KNOWN, BuT
| DON'T Read Source 7K. Why do you think Khomeini rejected
REMEMBER
peace in 1982 but accepted the ceasefire in 1988?

Casualties were extensive. This was in part due to

{ JUST >, Iranian tactics of using ‘human waves’ which were often
REMEMBERED [pot
— | KNEW, BUT [4 unsupported by air or artillery support. From 1982
THE LAWS Don'T} pO Khomeini even allowed boys aged 12-18 to join a militia
called the Basij (see Source 7L). The admission forms
were called ‘passports to paradise’. Huge numbers were
slaughtered as they went into battle with little training
WAIT=1 JUST (Be or weapons and in some cases were even used to clear
THOUGHT OF
SOMETHING vit< minefields by walking into them. Reliab e figures are
ONSTIRERBLOCK
ELSE — We “ hard to find but the Iraqi go vernment claimed they lost
250,000 lives and the Irania 1 official tol now stands at
Source 7J: An American cartoon drawn in 1987 showing 190,000. Other estimates c aim the joint total was ove!
President Reagan making up excuses for the ‘Iran-Contra’ 1 million, and it is possible that a quarter of Iraqi losses
weapons deal. were civilians killed by thei OWN govern ment.
 7: Why did events in the Gulf matter, c.1970-2000?

a}
Al-Amarah °
“Upp,

[} Limit of tragi advance, 1980 Figure 7.4: A map of the conflict

EJ Limit of tranian advance, 1985 showing the main areas of advances
¥ lraqi chemical attack and the sites of chemical attacks
by Iraq.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 7.16 * —|raq owed $100 billion in loans.

- The country’s infrastructure had been heavily damaged
Look at the map in Figure 7.4 and think about why with rebuilding costs estimated to be even higher than
Saddam resorted to using chemical weapons. What were its debt.
the long-term consequences of this?
* The army had one million men. There would be no jobs
for these men if they were demobilised.

Saddam argued that Iraq had been defending all Arab

States from Iran so they should cancel his debts. This was
Source 7L: A young Iranian refused by the Gulf Cooperation Council. Saddam was
member of the Basij in particularly hostile to Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates
January 1986. lraqi officers and Saudi Arabia. There was also a dispute about oil
reported that they had to production. The price had dropped from its peak of $41
force their men to carry per barrel in 1982 to just $18 due to overproduction by
on firing when they were the Gulf monarchies. OPEC set a maximum production
shooting at young boys. limit to try to keep the price at $22 per barrel but Kuwait
Later interviews showed and others were ignoring this. Adding to the tension,
that these young boys Saddam claimed that Kuwait was stealing oil from the
were encouraged by TV shared Rumaila oil field so it owed him $10 billion. To
adverts to fight and many pressure them he surrounded Kuwait’s borders with his
thought it was a game. armed forces.

7.5 Why did the First Gulf War take

place?
Causes of the Gulf War Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC): founded in 1981,
and consists of six Arab states that surround the Gulf.
There were two principal causes for the First Gulf War: These states had loaned substantial sums to Saddam
economic and political. The Iran-Iraq War had left to fight Iran.
Saddam with significant financial problems:
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

This was all linked to longer-term political issues Our opinion is that you should have the opportunity
between the two states. When Iraq became a country to rebuild your country. But we have no opinion
in 1920 they refused to recognise Kuwait. They felt on the Arab-Arab conflicts, like your border
that the border was unfair as Kuwait had much better disagreement with Kuwait ... We hope you can solve
access to the Gulf and only accepted the situation in this problem using any suitable methods ... via
1963. After making their financial demands in 1990, President Mubarak. All that we hope is that these
a meeting was arranged between the two in Jeddah, issues are solved quickly.
Saudi Arabia. Kuwait offered $9 billion in compensation.
This might seem like a fair compromise but in Arabian Source 7M: Quote from US Ambassador April Glasnie,
politics it was a calculated snub; Saddam could not get taken from the transcript of her discussion with Saddam
everything he wanted. Although he promised Egyptian Hussein on July 25, 1990, before the invasion of Kuwait.
president Hosni Mubarak and US ambassador April
The defence of Saudi Arabia was called ‘Operation Desert
Glasnie that he wouldn’t attack, Saddam wouldn't
Shield’. Saddam’s army in Kuwait numbered 500,000 men,
accept any loss of face and ordered his forces to invade
so vastly outnumbered Saudi Arabia’s forces. The UN
on 2 August 1990.
Security Council set a deadline for Iraq to withdraw by 15
January. In the meantime 250,000 US troops were sent
ACTIVITY 7.9 to the Arabian peninsula. By November they numbered
400,000. Saddam refused to negotiate with the Kuwaiti
An Egyptian diplomat said, ‘The invasion is a black and royal family who had fled to Saudi Arabia and he didn't
white situation. But the reasons for the invasion are take the UN warnings seriously. When the deadline expired
not so black and white. What do you think he meant?
on 15 January he was fully prepared for war. He believed
In pairs look at the causes of the war and try to decide
that America’s experience in Vietnam would make them
which was more important, the long term or the short
eluctant to engage in warfare. Just as in 1980 over Iran, he
156
term.
miscalculated.

ACTIVITY 7.10 s
Operation Desert Shield
nitially, USA President Bush didn’t condemn the attack Consider the build-up to the war from Iraq’s
but British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher was more perspective. Was Saddam justified in thinking there
outspoken. The alarm was also raised by Iraq’s troops would be little reaction to his invasion of Kuwait?
10W being positioned on the Saudi Arabian border.
Having taken over Kuwait Saddam was in control of 20%
Operation Desert Storm
of the world’s oil production. If he invaded Saudi Arabia
At 3 a.m. local time on 17 January, Operation Desert
too it would jump to 40%. This was unacceptable to the
western powers and when King Fahd of Saudi Arabia was
Storm began. The first stage involved aerial bombing
under ‘Operation Instant Thunder’ as 1,000 sorties
shown pictures of the Iraqi build-up of forces he agreed
to allow foreign troops to be deployed in his country. A were launched on the first night. The aim was to
UN resolution condemned the invasion and a coalition
of 32 nations agreed to take action if Iraq refused to t KEY TERM
withdraw. i hl i}

Sortie: an aeroplane, shi

specific mission. —

(ia
eee a disrupt communications, attack strategic sites and hit
UN Resolution: a decision taken by the United Nations
the Iraqi ground forces. The effect was devastating.
that is meant to be binding on its members. Twelve
resolutions were passed during the Gulf War, starting with American technology was far in advance of the Iraqis,
Resolution 660, which condemned the attack. particularly the F-117A stealth bomber, which was
undetectable by radar,
 7: Why did events in the Gulf matter, c.1970-2000?

The coalition forces were two-thirds American but many

Arab states such as Egypt and Syria were involved in
small but symbolically important numbers. Saddam
knew the best way to undermine the coalition was to
broaden the war to include Israel. He therefore launched
Scud missiles, which many feared had chemical warheads
at Tel Aviv and Haifa. While citizens of those cities were
issued with gas masks the Americans persuaded Prime
Minister Yitzhak Shamir not to respond. This held the
coalition together.

FUNNY, INTELLIGENT, SADDAM ALL

|
{
Pahd’s Army goes Source 70: General ‘Stormin’ Norman Schwarzkopf posing for
lo war... = |
a picture for a profile of him in Life magazine, 1991. The media
were captivated by his charisma and success during the war,
which earned him the nickname ‘Storming’ or ‘Stormin’ Norman.
Source 7N: The cover of a

Whyhad international
British magazine in 1990.

opinion of Saddam Hussein The war was played out through the media. CNN
changed so much from became famous through their coverage of it. Look at
1988 to 1990? Source 70, and research General Schwarzkopf and
consider his role as leader of the coalition forces.
eae Evaluate the relative importance of:
ACTIVITY 7.11
, < e his knowledge ofthe Middle East
~ Look at Source 7N. Write one sentence showing British ¢ his relationship with the media
reaction to Saddam Hussein at these moments in time:
¢ his military strategy.
_* 1979-o0n becoming president

pe 1960 ~on starting war withiran The Iraqi air force had been neutralised and six USA
¢ 1990 - on invading Kuwait aircraft carriers patrolled the Gulf. This left the war on
e 1991 -on defeating him
in the First Gulf War the ground. This was much more difficult as Saddam
¢ 2000 - after the imposition of sanctions and had half a million experienced soldiers in Kuwait and the
arguments over weapons development conditions were difficult.
The coalition leader, Gener:
How can you explain the changing British attitude
towards Iraq in this period? 1,500 tanks to Iraq's western border under cover while
making it look as if his main assault would come ir
south of Kuwait. Iraqi forces were |
‘aqi
The war wasn’t entirely one-sided. Iraqi forces caught
forces c the As they
As they fell back
ack iin
n retre e to escape on the
retreat h they tried
coalition by surprise when they attacked Saudi Arabia on main road north. The ‘highway of
29 January. The Battle ofAl Khafji was short and ended bombed from the air with 2,000 vehicle
in defeat, but a huge mistake was made on 13 February British jou rnatist Sald it was one

when two stealth bombers hit a civilian shelter. Before this harassments of a retreating arm
. c Tie . ictor >f\yartare’
the media had been shown video footage of incredibly history of warfare
accurate air attacks. Now 400 civilians were dead.
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

could be produced for two years. The environmental

impact was appalling. Two of the largest oil spills ever
oe ==

seen seeped into the Gulf. The government had to pay

$20 billion for Operation Desert Storm and another
$65 billion to rebuild the country. Saudi Arabia’s costs
amounted to $55 bil ion.

Given that the war lasted only 42 days the death total for
the Iraqis was dreadfu |. Best estimates suggest that 82,000
soldiers and 7,000 civi ians lost their lives. In comparison the
coalition lost 139 sold iers, of whom 79 were Americans.

Source 7P: The Highway of Death in the aftermath ofthe

attacks in February 1991.

ACTIVITY 7.13

What types of vehicles can you see in Source 7P? What

does this tell us about the flight of Iraqi soldiers?

The end of the war

The ground war lasted only 100 hours. A ceasefire was Source 7Q: Kuwait’s oil fields burning after being set alight
158 accepted on 3 March. However, the tragedy was not over. by retreating Iraqi forces.
Retreating Iraqi soldiers in the south started a rebellion
as they felt abandoned by their government. Saddam's CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 7.17
Republican Guard crushed this uprising with some
severity. A Kurdish rebellion in the north was also brutally Look at Source 7Q. What were the human and
suppressed. As planes dropped bombs around 2 million environmental consequences ofthe war? Draw a diagram
people fled for the borders. An estimated 20,000 died from showing how these two effects were interlinked. |
exposure in the harsh mountain conditions.

f lraq’s financial positon was weak after the war with

ran, it was now catastrophic. As part of the UN ceasefire, Review your learning
chemical and biological weapons had to be destroyed
You should be able to identify the changes in both Iran and
yefore economic sanctions were lifted. Saddam made life
lraq up to 1979. Was war unavoidable? Could Khomeini and
difficult for the weapons inspectors so the sanctions were
Saddam have lived as neighbours? The war of 1980-1988
naintained. This hurt ordinary people; infant mortality
was So destructive that it had significant impact on the
ncreased five-fold. Iraq wasn’t allowed to import chlorine
wider region, especially the economy. Oil was instrumental
because it could be made into poison gas, but this meant
in this as it tied the wider world to the Middle East. The
water couldn't be treated. Raw sewage was dumped into
invasion of Kuwait threatened Saudi Arabia and raised the
the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Throughout the 1990s
unwelcome possibility of Saddam controlling up to 40% of
oning was imposed on essential items.
the world’s oil supply. This was also a post-Cold War order
For Kuwait the financial losses were enormous. in which the USA believed it could reshape the politics of
lhe Iraqi forces set fire to 85% of Kuwait’s oil wells he region. The full consequences of this realignment have
Source /Q) as they retreated, which meant no oil yet to be seen.
The Big Challenge
Think first about the two revolutions. Compare.and What were the consequences? It helps to draw up a
contrast the rise to power of Saddam Hussein and table like this for your revision:
Ayatollah Khomeini. Are there any similarities? What
was different about the two events? Think about causes Event Consequence
as being economic, political and cultural in nature. An |
important element to consider is ideology: what did
each leader believe and why were their beliefs popular? In each column put down the key events. For causes,
How did these beliefs differ from the regimes that they try to think of two or three factors. Could you writ
replaced? Paragraph on each one? For the event simply write
down four or five of the most important things that
Now think about the two wars. What were the main happened so you cover the core information. A brief
Causes? Try to identify two or three factors that caused timeline would do. For consequences, do the same as
each war. Again, think about similarities and differences. you did for causes; identify two or three main things
Did Saddam need to go to war in 1980 and 1990? What that happened as a result of the wars. Could you write a
was the impact of each war on the civilian population? paragraph for each one?

e Saddam Hussein rose to power as a consequence of ¢ As Ayatollah Khomeini believed that Iraq was ‘un-Islamic’
pan-Arab nationalism spreading; the Ba’ath Party went under Saddam, the two states went to war over a border
through a series of changes in the 1960s and by 1979 he dispute. This lasted for eight years and was devastating
became the undisputed leader of the country. for both countries.
e Saddam’s state was progressivein the 1970s, at war in the ¢ The First Gulf War was a consequence ofthe Iran-Iraq War.
1980s and regressive in the 1990s. Throughout this period Heavily indebted, Saddam sought to ease his financial
it was a Strict dictatorship. problems by invading Kuwait, stoking decades-old
« lran underwent a revolution in 1979 as a result of rivalries between the two states.
rising religious opposition to western culture and the
unpopularity of the Shah’s government.

Discuss these questions with a partner, make notes and then ask another pair to mark them
for you. Then choose one for a full exam-style answer.

1 Describe the main events that led to the Iranian Revolution.

2 Why did Saddam Hussein come to power in Iraq?

3 ‘Neither side can claim victory in the Iran-Iraq War. How far do you agree with this
statement? Explain your answer.

4 What was Operation Desert Storm?

5 Why did Saddam Hussein invade Kuwait?

6 ‘Modern technology was the main reason tor the coalition

do you agree with this statement? Explain yo
 arse
Chapter 8
Depth Study A on ) LL.Irs t
_—a World Wa i;
1914 -1918
 8: Depth Study A: The First World War, 1914-1918

What is this depth study about? 8.1 Why was the war not over
Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of the by December 1914?
Austro-Hungarian Empire, was assassinated in Sarajevo
on 28 June 1914, sparking an international crisis. By Focus points
August 1914, all Europe’s major countries were at war. ¢ How was the Schlieffen Plan intended to work?
Most people seem to have thought it would ‘be over by * How important was Belgium’s reaction to the Schlieffen
Christmas’, and men volunteered to fight worldwide. In Plan?
fact, the war was not won until 1918. Your challenge is to * How successful was the British Expeditionary Force (BEF)?
understand why winning the war took so long. * Why did both sides introduce trenches?
In August 1914, there were two alliances:
| How was the Schlieffen Plan intended to |
Triple Entente, Triple Alliance, work? |
The Allies The Central Powers Germany’s Schlieffen Plan was important in shaping the
Britain and Empire Germany and Empire war. The German Chief of Staff, Count Alfred von Schlieffen,
France and Empire Austria-Hungary and Empire designed the plan in 1905. Germany was worried about
Russian Empire fighting France and Russia at the same time, after they
ne
ae became allies in 1894, and Schlieffen’s plan was Germany’s;
ee he response to the threat of awar on two fronts.
Montenegro
5, * Schlieffen assumed that Russia was dangerous but
Belgium v2 Z
G at would take six weeks to mobilise.
Bpel) * Germany had to defeat France before Russia’s army
Later, other powers joined the war: mobilised.
* Ten per cent of the German army was kept to defend
Italy (from April 1915) The Ottoman Empire (from against a Russian advance in the east.
poy 1914) ¢ Anarmy of 1.5 millionmen (90% of the German army)
Portugal (1916) Bulgaria (from October 1915) would move by rail through Belgium, Luxembourg and
Romania (1916) | the Netherlands, to invade France. Germany’s northern
Greece (1917) forces would be eight times stronger than its southern
Grred statesifrom ones, since they had further to travel.
April 1917) * The army would swing around the French army, encircle
Paris and France would collapse.

eS CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 8.1

TOP TIP
The Schlieffen Plan looked good on paper.
The official name of Austria-Hungary from 1868 was the
Austrian-Hungarian Monarchy/Empire, but was often 1 What were the key assumptions on which it was
called the ‘Dual Monarchy’ in English. Historians tend to based?
call it ‘Austria-Hungary’, but you may encounter other 2 What could potentially go wrong?
names.

The key questions we will be examining are: Timeline

1 Why was the war not over by December 1914? 28 June Gavrilo Princip assassinated Archduke
Franz Ferdinand.
2 Why was there stalemate on the Western Front? ; fire
14 July Germany promised unlimited support
3. Howimportant were other fronts? fo Austria,
4 Why did Germany ask for an armistice in 1918?
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

withdrawn to defend against the French. He also altered the

23 July Austria gave Serbia an ultimatum, invasion plan to take a more direct route through Belgium.
demanding to be allowed to deal with
the assassination. Russian mobilisation
25 July Serbia, with Russian support, rejected The Russian army mobilised first, and it attacked Germany
almost all of the ultimatum. Austria within two weeks. The Germans were caught by surprise.
mobilised against Serbia. Two German army corps were sent to fight the Russians.
30 July Russia mobilised against Germany and
Austria.
How important was Belgium’s reaction to the
1 August Germany declared war on Russia.
Schlieffen Plan?
The German army met much stronger opposition in Belgium
2 August Germany invaded Luxembourg and
than expected. The Belgian army was outnumbered, but
demanded free passage through
German forces took thirteen days to capture the key fortress
Belgium.
town of Liege. Brussels was occupied on 20 August, but
3 August Germany declared war on France and the Belgians destroyed bridges, flooded the land, put up
SS
=e
invaded Belgium. Since 1839, Belgium’s barricades and blocked roads. The German invasion was
neutrality had been guaranteed by slowed down because of exhaustion, supply problems and
Britain. casualties. The Belgian defence also delayed the Germans so
4 August Britain declared war on Germany. much that the BEF arrived in time to fight the Battle of Mons.
6 August Austria declared war on Russia.
12 August Britain and France both declared war on
How successful was the British Expeditionary
Austria. Force (BEF)?
The Schlieffen Plan assumed that Britain would not
protect Belgium. The Belgian government appealed to
ACTIVITY 8.1 Britain for help when Germany declared war, and Britain
sent its army — the BEF - immediately.
1 Study the timeline. Of the countries that became
involved in the crisis in July 1914, which was most to
blame for the outbreak of the war? Explain your answer.
FACT FILE
2 Study the table comparing the alliances on the
The BEF was designed to defend the Empire. It was |
previous page and answer the following questions.
only 120,000 soldiers, but they were highly trained,
Explain your answers fully. experienced professionals, led by General French.
a_ Select and explain the strengths and weaknesses Kaiser Wilhelm reportedly called them ‘General French’s
of both alliances in 1914. contemptible little army’, and the BEF nicknamed
themselves ‘The Old Contemptibles’.
b Compare the similarities and differences between
the two alliances in 1914. Which side was stronger?
c¢ Why did Britain feel threatened by Germany in The BEF fought the Germans at Mons on 23 August: 70,000
the years before 1914? British with 300 heavy guns faced 160,000 Germans with
d Why did Germany believe she was threatened by 600 guns. Despite the BEF performing well, the Germans
the Triple Entente? pushed forward and the British retreated south of the
River Marne, outside Paris.

When Russia mobilised in support of Serbia on 30 July, the However, the BEF and the Belgians slowed the German
erman war plan was already starting to go wrong. There army advance, making the Schlieffen Plan impossible
ire various reasons why the plan failed, but two of them to achieve. Nevertheless, by the end of August, Moltke
irred before the Germans invaded Belgium. elieved that the war was almost won. The Belgians were
defeated. The British were in retreat. France had put its own
Modifications to the plan lan 17 into effect and it had failed. However, after Moltke
ed in 1906, and the plan
was changed by ound his forces were no longer strong enough to encircle
ve j
On Moltke Tw YGIVISION , were
aris, he swung them south-east to pursue the BEF.
 8: Depth Study A; The First World War, 1914-1918

At the Battle of the Marne, 5-12 September 1914, the BEF and
outside the town of Ypres. Th
150,000 French soldiers counter-attacked as the Germans in France and Brussels in Belgium. T ‘ G
prepared to attack Paris. The Germans were close to victory, to capture the ports of Dunk rh , Cala d Bou
and were only defeated when 6,000 French reserve troops The Germans attacked the BEF, the French and Belg
were brought to the front line from Paris in 600 taxis. Cavalry and machine guns failed to break throug ;
losses on both sides at Mons, and now Ypres. meant that
the BEF had been almost wiped out. Now the Brit
to rely on volunteers.

8.2 Why was there stalemate on

the Western Front?
Focus points |
Source 8A: French reserve soldiers being brought to the
front line in taxis in September 1914.
* Why did the war become bogged down in the trenches: |
* What was living and fighting in the trenches like?
* How important were new developments such as tanks,
ACTIVITY 8.2 : : :
machine guns, aircraft and gas?
Study and interpret Source 8A. Pictures of crowds of ¢ What was the significance of the battles of Verdun and
civilians watching taxis transporting soldiers to the front the Somme?
line were published in France during the war. Why do
you think images like this were published? Why did the war become bogged down in the
trenches?
The failure of the Schlieffen Plan
Beginning on 8 September, another French attack forced era Nal eh? we
the Germans to retreat 40 miles, and the Germans dug in ata
to the north of the River Aisne. The Battle of the Marne
was a Strategic victory for tne Allies, who pushed back
the Germans and captured lost ground amid heavy
losses on both sides. The Schlieffen Plan had failed.

Why did both sides introduce trenches?

After the Germans retreated to the River Aisne, they dug a
Figure 8.1: A diagram of a typical trench from the Western
system of defensive trenches. In late September 1914, the
Front.
Allied armies tried unsuccessfully to force the Germans
back. Three months of mobile warfare followed as the two
What began as a war of movement now b
sides fought as they moved north. The Germans wanted to
of attrition. Trench warfare developed, as both sides dug
capture the Channel ports and cut off supplies from Britain.
trenches to shelter from enemy fire.
2 )

This became known as the ‘race to the sea’. During this

period of intense fighting and worsening weather, exhausted By 1915 it was clear that defence was easier than attac}
soldiers began to dig defensive trenches. Over time these The trenches were easily defended with machin
stretched 470 km from the English Channel to Switzerland The Germans dug in especially d J
trenches strong because they had alread
The First Battle of Ypres enemy territory
At the First Battle of Ypres (19 October-22 November 1914), the Allies, who ne S
the BEF held a 35-mile-long salient (bulge) alonga ridge
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

Hooge, near Ypres. Elsewhere, they could be a kilometre

srt. Here there was relative safety, or even boredom.

On neither side did the generals understand the new nature

of warfare. Many British commanders believed that cavalry
breakthroughs would win the war. Until 1918 the major
battles on the Western Front involved vast numbers of men
climbing out of the trenches and walking straight towards the
enemy guns. These rarely achieved significant breakthroughs.
Generals also ignored or misused new weapons, such as
gas and tanks, which were often unreliable. Even in August
1918, when the British army used tanks, 75% broke down
within four days.
Source 8C: German soldiers in 1916 in a trench with a
What was living and fightingin the machine gun.
trenches like?
Soldiers did not spend all their time fighting in the Conditions in Western Front trenches varied a great deal.
trenches. They were organised into platoons of 60 men and Trenches in northern France were dug in chalky ground.
each platoon was supposed to spend 4 days in the front In Belgium, especially at Ypres where lots of fighting took
ine, before being relieved by replacements. They then place, the ground was wet. Generally, German trenches were
spent 4 days in a reserve trench, and finally 4 days resting, dug on higher ground and so could be deeper than Allied
behind the front line. In practice, some soldiers stayed in trenches. The big dangers of living in the trenches were:
the front line for longer than 2 weeks before being relieved.
Rats: they thrived in the poor conditions of dead bodies,
discarded food and other waste.
¢ Lice: these tiny insects lived in soldiers’ clothing and
sucked their blood.
¢ Disease: not washing for days or weeks, limited toilet facilities
and little fresh water meant that disease was very common.
There were 6,000 British dysentery cases, and over 15,000
cases of kidney infection on the Western Front in 1917.
* The weather: In Flanders, after heavy rain, trenches
flooded. At Passchendaele in 1917, thousands of men
disappeared in the mud. Wet weather also brought
trench foot, a condition that led to gangrene. There
were 70,000 cases of trench foot in British trenches in
1917. In winter, frostbite affected thousands. In summer,
heat made the smell caused by decaying bodies, horse
Source 8B: Men of the Lancashire Fusiliers in a flooded manure and soldiers’ latrines unbearable.
British trench near Messines in Belgium, January 1917. ¢ Shell shock: this term was later used for those who
suffered mental breakdowns.
* Boredom: during the long wait between major battles,
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 8.2
trench life was tedious.

Compare the diagram in Figure 8.1 with the photographs

KEY TERMS
n Sources
8B and 8C of trenches
on the Western Front. Par ——
Vhat differences do you notice? Contrast Sources 8B and | tai ne a medical cc
8C: what do the differences suggest about (a) British and ; , )

German trenches or (b) the different circumstances in /3

h the photographs were taken?
 8: Depth Study A: The First World War, 1914-1918

NO MANS CAND FLANDERS FICLD FRANCE Hf

Source 8D: No Man’s Land in France after the end of the war in 1919.

A soldier's daily routine was generally repetitive, but there that it was one of our own men hanging on the wire.
was always the threat of enemy attack. Half an hour before Nobody could do anything for him; two men had
dawn, all soldiers had to ‘stand to’ - stand on guard on the already tried to save him, only to be shot themselves.
firestep (see Figure 8.1) in case of enemy attack. Du ing
|
the day, soldiers took it in turns to keep watch while others Source 8F: An account of trench warfare by a German
collected supplies, rebuilt trenches or fortified defences. soldier who served on the Western Front.
Platoons stood down at dusk, but were in action again at
night. Sentries stood on duty, or went out into no man’s ACTIVITY 8.3
and to listening posts, to repair barbed wire or on raiding
Study and interpret Source 8F. How useful is this account
parties. Both sides used ‘star shells’ to illuminate no man’s
for an historian studying trench warfare? What do Sources
and at night,3) while snipers and machine gunners fired at
8D and 8E tell us about the fighting on the Western Front?
anything that moved.

In most Western Front batt

used heavy artillery to bombard the
This was intended to destroy barbed wire defences,
destroy enemy trenches, kill many soldiers and
survivors morale. These bombardments might last fc
several days, but when they stopped
would go ‘over the top’. Thousands of men would ad
on enemy trenches, carrying rifles, with bayonets fixed
onto the barrel so that the weapon could be fired and then
used as a Spear.

Artillery bombardments were often unsuccessful: shelling

was not accurate, many shells did not exp
wire and bunkers were not usually destroyed by high
explosive shells. German bunkers wer
with concrete after 1916 and they could be
Source 8E: An aerial view of the Loos-Hulluch trench underground. Defending soldiers fired rifles and n
system, July 1917. uns at the attacking troops.
bove the ground, spraying deadly
One night we heard the cry of someone in excruciating ball bearings across the batt
pain; then all was quiet again. Someone in his anything else on the Western Front. Thos¢
death agony, we thought. But an hour later the cry across no man’s land often got tangled
came again. It never ceased the whole night. Nor which made them easy targets for

the following night. Naked and inarticulate the cry

persisted. We could not tell whether it came from the
throat of German or Frenchman. Later we learned
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

How important were new developments such

as tanks, machine guns, aircraft and gas?
Tanks
Tanks had been developed in secret by the British and
code-named ‘water tanks’. Tanks were first used by the
Allies at the Battle of Flers in September 1916. Of the 59
tanks in France, only 49 were serviceable. Ofthese, 17
broke down before they reached the battlefield, but the
ht of the tanks caused panic in the German trenches.
[he first tanks were slow, unreliable, frequently got stuck,
and were dangerous for their own crews (see Source 8G).

The head of the Tank Corps, Colonel John Fuller, persuaded

the British Commander-in-Chief
Sir Douglas Haig (see
Source 80) to supply another 1,000 tanks. He argued that Source 8H: German machine-gun crew in January 1916. This
the main job of the tank was to break through barbed wire, crew is operating
the Maxim 08 gun, the German army's
destroy enemy machine-gun posts and clear the way for standard weapon.
the following infantry. At times this worked, such as at the
Battle of Amiens in 1918, where 430 tanks supported by Aircraft
soldiers and aircraft broke through the German front line. Allied generals initially doubted the usefulness of
Despite heavy losses (only six tanks remained in service fragile biplanes and triplanes, and the main role of
after five days), breakthrough was achieved. The tank was aircraft was to observe enemy troops. Without radios,
crucial to the Allied victories in 1918, and the German however, messages could not be passed on immediately.
Commander, Ludendorff, considered the tank to be the When enemy planes began to observe the front line, :
German army’s most dangerous enemy. fighter aircraft were sent up to scare them away. Early
in the war, pilots fired pistols
a
at each other in mid-air; in
1915 machine guns were mounted on the upper wings
of biplanes. In October 1915 the Germans developed
a reliable synchronised machine gun that enabled the
pilot to point his plane at the enemy and fire a machine
gun through the propeller. By July 1916, however,
mproved British planes like Sopwiths and the SE5
enabled the Royal Flying Corps to take control.

Source 8G: British Mark V tank in action in August 1918.

Machine guns
The machine gun was the most important defensive weapon
f the war (see Sources 8C and 8H). Each gun could fire
400-600 rounds of ammunition per minute and was deadly
it a range of over a kilometre. They caused around one-third
battlefield casualties during the war. The Germans were
equipped with eight machine guns per battalion, but the
tish had only two per battalion. Early models were large
nd required a team of 3-6 gunners
to operate. Source 81: ‘The Raid’, a composite photograph by Frank
var, the British Lewis and Vickers machine Hurley, an official photographer who spent several months
ighing 9-14 kg) were more mobile, meaning at Ypres with the Australian army in 1917-1918. This
fensive weapon: photograph is created out of twelve separate images.
 8: Depth Study A: The First World War, 1914-1918

ACTIVITY 8.4

Study and interpret Source 81. Hurley said that his

composite photographs provided a realistic impression of
the battlefield, but many people at the time criticised them
and even called them ‘fake’. How useful is this image for an
historian studying trench warfare on the Western Front?

The first air raid of the war was on Paris on 30 August 1914.
From September, British planes raided German airfields Git
Lena
Mine
eo",

and in December 1914 German planes bombed Dover.

Source 8K: American soldiers wearing gas masks in 1918.
German Zeppelins also bombed London in May 1915, killing
seven people and causing huge damage. Zeppelins were
large and filled with inflammable hydrogen, however, so the There were three types of poison gas:
British soon developed planes that could shoot them down
easily. The British also found ways of limiting the effects of Chlorine gas: within seconds of inhaling its vapour
the raids — with blackouts, searchlights and night fighter it destroyed the victim’s respiratory organs
planes — so they were not crucial to the war overall. In late on choking attacks. Killed 1,976 and injured
164,457.
1916 Gotha bombers began bombing Britain. There were
103 air raids, killing about 1,400 people, during the war. ¢ Phosgene gas: phosgene caused less coughing :
Britain also bombed German cities. of it was inhaled; phosgene often had it:
48 hours after inhalation.
Even by 1918, the potential of aircraft was still not fully
¢ Mustard gas: the most lethal —almost odourless, it
understood. Aircraft were too small and lightly armed
burned on contact and caused serious internal and
to damage major targets. Larger planes, which were
fe

external blisters several hours after exposure. Killed

expensive, could not carry enough bombs. Overall,
4,086 and injured 16,526 during the war.
fighting in the air had no significant impact on the war.
Gas was terrifying, but it was not a decisive weapon. It
Gas could blow the wrong way pe attackers had to wear gas
Poison gas was first used at Ypres in April 1915 and proved masks, which reduced visibility and movement. British
a deadly weapon. It was used until the end of the war. figures recorded that only 3% of gas casualties were fatal,
Adolf Hitler was blinded by gas in October in 1918 and 2% were permanently invalided and 70% were fit for duty
spent the last weeks of the war recovering in hospital. again within six weeks. Despite the horrors that it caused,
Gas could be released from canisters and allowed to gas only accounted for 4% of war deaths.
drift towards the enemy, if the wind blew in the right
direction. Gas shells, which broke open when they hit the What was the significance of the battles of
eround, could also be used. Early gas masks offered little Verdun and the Somme?
protection, but later designs proved more effective.
n 1916, the Germans and the British each launched major
new offensives designed to break the Head! and win
the war on the Western Front. The German red
the war by attrition, while the British hoped fo
breakthrough. Both attacks were c
<illed over one million men.

Battle of Verdun, innaaied! December 1916

The longe st battle of the war
Germany believed that the Fre
point in early 191¢
von Falkenhayn ch

Source 8J: French soldiers wearing early gas masks at the fortress town of Verd
Second Battle of Ypres, spring 1915. Frenchn
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

; the French, the Germans could

despite outnumbering
not make a significant breakthrough. Both sides suffered
: ; appalling casualties.
On 25 February, General Pétain was put in charge of
defending Verdun. He ordered, ‘They shall not pass’, and
French resistance was strengthened. The only French
route into the city - ‘the sacred way’ - was widened and
constantly repaired after German bombardments, so that
the city received 4,000 tons of supplies each week and was
reinforced by 20,000 men per day. Harsh discipline was used
to put down developing mutiny and 1 in 10 mutineers was
shot.

KEY TERM

Source 8L: British soldiers awaiting treatment after a

gas attack in 1918.
To relieve pressure on the French, the British launched
the Battle of the Somme. On 11 July Falkenhayn ended
the Verdun offensive and transferred men to the Somme.
Fighting continued until December 1916, but nothing was
gained by either side.

Casualties at Verdun, February-December 1916

Source 8M: Gassed by J.S. Sargent, 1919. The artist French 362,000
spent several months on the Western Front in 1918. |German 337,000

Study Sources 8J and 8K. What do they tell you about Verdun showed that as long as the defending side could
the development of military technology during the sustain casualties, trench warfare made attacking virtually
Great War? What does this tell you about the changing impossible. It was the most significant use of attrition
nature of the war itself? during the war, and Verdun saw some of the most savage
Study Sources 8L and 8M. Which of these two images is righting. The Germans did not launch another major
Oriana istancalencence: offensive on the Western Front until 1918.
In 1919, Source 8M was criticised for glorifying the
Battle of the Somme, July-November 1916
suffering of gas victims. In what ways do you think the
There was a widespread belief in Britain that a major
painting might make war seem heroic? Explain your
victory on the Western Front could bring a decisive
answer, with reference to the painting.
breakthrough in the war. To support this, conscription
had been introduced in January 1916, and 100,000
French pride would never allow them to surrender it. His reinforcements were arriving every month. The British
aim was simply to force France to keep reinforcing Verdun, army numbered almost 1.3 million men by spring 1916.
| many French soldiers as possible, break the morale : |
Piheirranici amny/and reed France white’ Heaxnected Onl July 1916, a new Britisn commander, Sir Douglas

hat France would surrender and Britain would withdraw. Haig, launced a massive attack on German trenches at the
River Somme. This was supposed to be a limited offensive:
n 21 February 1916, German guns shelled the fifteen divisions would attack for fourteen days, open up
A gas attack was launched, and then a gap in the German lines through which cavalry would
man soldiers with flamethrowers attacked. pour. The German front lines, cut off from their su dplies,
captured early in the battle, but would be forced to surrender.
 8: Depth Study A: The First World War, 1914-1918

2 Infantry advanceat 7.30 a.m. or

walk slowly and clear ren
line trenches.

3. Asecond wave ofattack. inc

sweep tnrough.

The attack failed, and 1 July 1916 became the

British military history. The camp
for various reasons:

wire. German beh ers Survived the a

Source 8N: ‘Britons:
foutliichanerwanke they sheltered in deep, reinf
JOW YOUR GnuNTaY's anny crnscvere me
concrete bunkers. Once
theashelingstopped,
Germans knew an attack
the
was coming
COD. SAVE THE KING
Reproduced by permission of LONDON OPINION
British Army recruiting i biok 4: S
sprite =eae rms DOSter from 1914. ¢ The British suffered 57,470 casualties on the first day:
19,240 killed and almost 40,000 wounded. Most of
, these casualties were suffered in the first 20 minutes of
ACTIVITY 8.6
the battle

Study Source 8N. Why were posters like this produced in * When Haig ended the attack in November, on
1914? Explain your answer miles had been gained.
¢ The Somme became a battle of attrition that claimed
over a million casualties in total.
The leadership and tactics of Haig at the Somme ¢ German forces on the Western Front retreated to a
strengthened defensive position (the Hindenburg Line)
after the battle.

FACT FILE
The Hindenburg Line was a 145 km line of fortifications
from Arras to the River Aisne. Its deep and well-built
trenches were up to 5.5 km from front to rear, protected
Source 80: Sir Douglas
by extensive areas of barbed wire, underground bunkers
Haig, at his desk in the and tunnels, heavy artillery positions and concrete
railway carriage used asa machine-gun posts. Following damage from the Somme
mobile office. offensive, in February 1917 the Germans retreated to the
Hindenburg Line. They remained there until March 1918.

©| FACT FILE Haig has been severely criticised for his leadership ar
| Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig was Commander-in-Chief tactics. Some evidence suggests that he deser
of the British army on the Western Front from December nickname. the ‘Butcher of ne’
1915 until the end of the war. He was convinced that a
| large-scale attack or‘Big Push’ was the way to win on the ¢ His planning was poor.
| Western Front. ¢ Allowing the attack to continue long after it
\ RAL 5 . ; failing led to hundreds of thousands
of additic
casualties.
The plan consisted of three parts ¢ Haig was inflexible, unimaginative and d
1 Heavy shelling for 7 days, which was designed to from his mistakes. In 1917 he o
destroy German defences, inflict heavy casualties attack at Passchendaele
and clear barbed wire. Five large mines beneath the of muddy f
German trenches were to be detonated.
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

belief that cavalry would win the war, when he should « Why did Russia leave the war in 1918?
sve understood that this was impossible. He failed to * What was the impact ofwar on civilian populations?
appreciate the potential of the tank.
In addition to the Western Front, there was fighting on
* Haig refused Lloyd George’s suggestions
for a unified
various other fronts around the world. Many people
Allied Command in 1917, failed to cooperate with
believed that a breakthrough on one of the other fronts
French generals in 1917 and 1918, and only reluctantly
had the potential to end the war.
accepted Foch as his superior in 1918.
* Thewar was won on the Western Front, not through Haig’s
Who won the war at sea?
‘Big Push’ tactics but with surprise attacks without massive
Royal Navy
bombardments - tactics learned from the Germans.
Britain’s navy was seen as the most important of the
Other evidence shows Haig does not deserve this armed forces before 1914. It was the strongest navy in the
reputation: world, and it was vital to the creation and strength of the
¢ The Battle of the Somme was planned at short notice. British Empire. The British government was determined to
Haig originally planned a major battle near Ypres in proteehtt:
1916, but was forced to rethink after the German attack
on Verdun.
¢ He was only given about half the forces that be
believed he needed to win at the Somme.
¢ Haig was not alone in failing to understand how war
vad changed. Most other First World War commanders
used the same tactics as Haig.
* Haig’s tactics changed at Vimy Ridge, in April 1917.
170 Tunnels were dug to allow attackers to get closer to
enemy lines and soldiers were issued with maps so
that attacks could continue even if officers were killed.
* Haig’s tactics were costly, but they did wear down the
German forces and contribute to their defeat in 1918.
¢ Haig was a caring man and his private papers show gS

that he felt deeply sorry about the loss of his men. Source 8P: HMS Dreadnought, 1907.

In the years before 1914, the major powers had devoted

ACTIVITY 8.7
resources to developing large, powerful navies.
Try to recall what you have studied in the last section. Germany's naval construction programme sparked an
Organise a list of all the reasons why the Battle of the arms race with Great Britain that significantly increased
Somme was a significant battle in the history of the First tension. Both sides built as many Dreadnoughts as
World War. possible (see Source 8P).

There were few major naval engagements during the

First World War. Neither side really won the only major
8.3 How important were other battle. Even so, Britain’s ability to control the English
fronts? Channel and the North Sea played a significant part in
its eventual victory. A British priority was to keep open
Focus points the supply lines between Britain and its trading partners,
¢ Who won the war at sea? and between Britain and France. Another was to blockade
¢ Why did the Gallipoli campaign of 1915 fail? Germany
 : Depth Study A: The First World War, 1914-1918

When war broke out in 1914 the Royal Navy expected that
3 8December 1914: Battle of the Falkland Islands.
there would be a major battle with the German High Seas British cruisers sank four German ships and killed 1871
Fleet. Sailors. Only 10 British men died.
The German Navy’s Dreadnought-class battleships 4 16 December 1914. The German fleet bombarded
were too valuable to lose, so they were mainly used as a Scarborough, Whitby and Hartlepool on the Yorkshire
deterrent, to carry out small attacks on the Royal Navy, coast, killing 137.
to bombard English seaside towns, or to lay mines. The 5 24 January 1915: Battle of Dogger Bank. Royal Navy
German Navy used submarines more than surface ships. battlecruisers sank a German armoured cruiser, and
There were a series of minor naval battles in 1914-1915: the Germans lost 954 men.
1 28 August 1914: Battle of Heligoland Bight. The British
Battle of Jutland and its consequences
attacked Germany’s Heligoland naval base, killing
over 700 sailors and destroying 6 ships. They lost only The only major sea battle during the First World War
was at Jutland on 31 May 1916. It involved 250 ships and
35 British sailors.
100,000 men and lasted three days.
2 1 November 1914: Battle of Coronel. German cruisers
under Admiral von Spee sank two British cruisers German Admiral von Scheer’s plan was to tempt the
(killing 1,600 British sailors) near Chile. British Grand Fleet from its base at Rosyth, trap them and

Se
SCAPA FLOW aS ® ORKNEY S. Stavanger PP
&:3 Sailed
| Late
30 May

JELLICOE
1400, 31 May SKAGERRAK

_ —_— coe) HIPPER,

a J
yY
ay *:400,31
1400, 31 May on |=i

orn
\

FIRTH OF FORTH NORTH SEA Seine

1400, 31 May

Sailed early 31 May

# Sunderland DOGGER
as BANK

LEGEND
} Battlecruiser Movements
Battleship Movements — — —
Each Arrow Represents Several Ships
Destoyers and Cruisers not shown
SES TIETASS dl

NORTH SEA IN
BATTLE OF JUTLAND mC
amsterdagl
Movements on 30-31 May 1916 * :

Figure 8.2: The Battle of Jutland, 31st May 1916.

 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

destroy as many ships as possible. The aim was to reduce its attempt to starve Britain, in 1915 Germany turned to
the British numerical advantage and end the Royal Navy's a campaign of unrestricted submarine warfare. German
blockade of German ports. ships now targeted both military and merchant ships
around Britain.
Commander ofthe Grand Fleet, Admiral Jellicoe, was
aware of the plan. He sailed out of port earlier than Scheer The effects of the campaign on Britain were devastating.
expected and lay in wait. Jellicoe’s fleet outnumbered In early 1917 the Germans had 120 submarines at sea, and
Scheer’s, with faster and better armed ships, though with Germany believed that losses of 600,000 tons of shipping
some weaknesses in their armour. Fighting was intense and, per month would be enough to cause a British collapse.
realising that he was sailing into a trap, Scheer sailed home During spring and summer 1917 Britain and her allies lost
as night fell, using his submarines for cover. 1,505 merchant sailors and 2.78m tons of shipping, forcing
Britain to introduce food rationing, but it did not lead to
The result was indecisive and both sides claimed victory.
surrender. To counter the threat posed by the U-boats,
An American journalist wrote at the time: ‘The German
Britain deployed a range of strategies:
fleet has assaulted itsjailer, but it is still in jail’
¢ Qships: disguised as merchant vessels, but with guns
The results of the Battle of Jutland
hidden under fake lifeboats and funnels, Q ships were
Scheer’sGerman _| Jellicoe’s Royal deployed to lure submarines to the surface where they
High Seas Fleet Navy could be attacked. Twenty-three Q ships were sunk by
Ships lost at ll ships, including | 14 ships, U-boats in 1917, but Q ships only sank 6 U-boats.
Jutland 1 battle cruiser including3 e Mines: thousands were laid across the North Sea.
| battle cruisers * Convoy system: from summer 1916, David Lloyd
Casualties 3,058 |6,784 George, the British Prime Minister, ordered the Navy to
Serviceable ships | 10 24 sail battleships in convoys with merchant ships across
172 | after the battle | the Atlantic. Between May 1917 and November 1918
Immediate Broke off the action | Maintained only 168 merchant ships (out of a total of 16,539) were
consequences of | and returned to its control of sunk by U-boats in the Atlantic.
the battle port. Never risked | the North Sea. By October 1917 the Germans had lost more than
a major sea battle | Sustained its 50 submarines and the danger was over.
again blockade of
The failed tactic had provoked international outrage when
German ports
a German U-boat sank the British passenger liner Lusitania
on 7 May 1915, as among the 1,198 lives lost were 128
ACTIVITY 8.8 Americans. Pressure on the US government to declare war
increased when an American liner, the Arabic, was sunk in
Who do you think won the Battle of Jutland and why?
August 1915. Germany temporarily abandoned the policy,
but Germany’s unrestricted use of submarines drew the
Submarines, the U-boat campaign and the convoy USA into the war.
system
After 1916, the Royal Navy blockaded Germany, causing CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 8.3
severe food and supplies shortages. At the same time the
1 What motivated the Germans to use unrestricted
German fleet was attempting to blockade Britain. Britain
submarine warfare?
1s vulnerable to a possible German blockade in 1914,
2 Consider the consequences of Germany’s policy of
since 60% of Britain’s food was imported. Germany was
unrestricted submarine warfare. How successful
utnumbered in surface ships, so the Germans used more was it?
narines. They were effective. Just one U-boat sank
e British warships in September 1914.
All vessels, irrespective of cargo and flag, have been
Unrestricted submarine warfare sent to the bottom, without help and without mercy.
oided targeting nor military ships, Even hospital and relief ships were sunk with the same
ral nations. However, failingin reckless lack of compassion. Germany’s submarine
 8: Depth Study A: The First World War, 1914-1918

warfare is directed against the whole world. | will not campaign was Sir lan Hamilton. The lan ie)
choose the path of submission, and allow the most badly planned. T tis
sacred rights of the nation and of the people to be troops were in the area, their maps were
ignored and violated. With a profound sense of the
they relied on old tourist gui
tragic character of the step | am taking, but | advise Hamilton had been advised
Congress to declare that the recent actions of the he would need panes) men to take Galli
German Government is nothing less than war against Kitchener, who disappr
the United States. to take troops from the W
received five sae totaling 7&
Source 8Q: American president, Woodrow Wilson’s speech
inexperienced troops fr
to Congress on 3 April 1917.
(the Anzac Army Corps), tw
colonial division. It tookt
ACTIVITY 8.9 and the Ottoman forces
themselves.
Study and interpret Source 8Q. What does it tell us about
the consequences of unrestricted submarine warfare?
' i / b i ]
FACT FILE
Why did the Gallipoli campaign The Anzacs =
ee

Australia and New Zealand both declared war on

of 1915 fail?
Germany and her allies when Britain did in 1914. Around
There were disagreements in the British government 100,000 New Zealanders served overseas, of whom over
between those who thought the war must be won on the half became casualties, including around 18,000 killed.
Western Front (the ‘Westerners’) and those who believed From an Australian force of over 400,000 men, almost half
a breakthrough would come in the east. The ‘Easterners’ were killed, wounded or captured. The Gallipoli campaign
was the first time Anzac troops saw action, but they also | 173
were led by Winston Churchill.
served in most of the other theatres of war.
Churchill persuaded the British government that a naval
attack on the Turkish capital, then called Constantinople,
would force the Ottoman Empire to surrender. The British The British invading force of 70,000 suffered 20,00(
government wantted to send military aid to Russia through casualties at Cape Helles. Many casualties were suffered
the Dardanelles Straits. on V Beach, where an old coal haulier, the SS River Clyde,
was used to land the troops. Turkish machine gunners had
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 8.4 a direct line of fire on the troops as they landed, and of the
first 200 men out of the ship, only 21 survived.
What motivated the British government to launch the
Gallipoli campaign? The landing of the Anzacs, at Anzac Co’
became known 1, also failed. Strong curre
boats around a mile from the drop
The campaign was planned as a naval offensive. The Royal taced by a narrow beach, high cliffs and Turkish defenders,
Navy bombarded Turkish forts along the Dardanelles who were well dug in and who had been trained by a
Straits in March 1915. Obsolete British and French German general. Over 2,000 Australians became casualt
battleships, accompanied by fishing trawlers converted into on the first day of the landing.
minesweepers and manned by civilians, were expected to
Hamilton commanded the invasion from
clear the straits of mines and destroy the Turkish defences
outof touch with the beaches, and poor communications
easily. The minesweepers failed and the Turkish guns were
meant he could not change the plans an
not all destroyed. On 18 March 1915 alone, the Allies lost six +
were too irnexpel ‘ienced and several opportunities to advan
ships. This naval attack warned the Ottoman forces that the
inland before the Ottoman defenders reorganised v
Allies were preparing a major offensive; 70,000 new Turkish
missed. The Allies underestima
troops were sent to defend the peninsula. " ~ , toe NA et ee yA
especially after Mustafa Kemé
The Allies now began planning a land invasion of the appointed to lead the defence, th
Gallipoli peninsula. The officer appointed to lead the itself brave and effect
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

troops dug in and waited for orders, while the Ottomans | ACTIVITY 8.10
inforced their positions. There was deadlock atGallipoli. -
1 Whom do you blame for the failure of the Gallipoli
ugust 1915, the Allies landed 20,000 more men at Suvla Sariesiea ude
Bay, but this was also a failure. Facing little opposition, Se
aces ist ofof allthebee he Gallipoli
2 Constructalist ; ps eae
ey again failed to break through Turkish defences. The
fighting was as difficult as on the Western Front. Shortages campaign failed, ikee ou pe ee
of fresh water and poor food supplies caused malnutrition; 3 Study and HIterpES SOU ok How useful isthis =
and flies, rotting unburied corpses and poor sanitation source for an historian studying the Gallipoli campaign:
led to disease. In summer the men faced intense heat, in
autumn torrential rain and in winter snow and frostbite.
Why did Russia leave the war in 1918?
Hamilton was replaced in October, and the new It is important to remember that, as well as the fighting on
commander decided to withdraw the entire force, the Western Front, the First World War also saw a different

The evacuation was completed without loss of lite by but vitally important seriés of battles in the east, between
January 1916. Russia, Austria-Hungary and Germany.

Results ofthe Gallipoli campaign Events on the Eastern Front and the defeat
In total, over one million men fought in the Gallipoli campaign: of Russia

* Over one-third became casualties. The Allies lost over Vee MUI IAUe and a speedy mobilisation that
250,000 men. The Easterners’ plan had failed. surprised Austria and Germany, meant that the war
¢ The Ottoman Empire lost a similar number, and they started well for Russia
fought on. Despite early successes against the Germans in the north
* The expedition’s failure also led to a numberof political and the Austriansin the south, it became clear that the
Us consequences. Russian army had some significant weaknesses.
¢ The head of the Royal Navy resigned in May. * Russian commanders Samsonov and Rennenkampf
¢ In November 1916, Winston Churchill resigned from failed to cooperate.

Me covernaet. e The Russian army was short of rifles, ammunition and

¢ In December 1916, Asquith resigned as Prime SF
oots
Minister and was replaced by David Lloyd George. * Russian solders were brave, but many officers had little

training in modern tactics or weapons.

The Turks in the trenches facing the landing had run, * Russian wireless messages were not encoded and the
but those on the ridges kept firing upon the boats Germans could read them.
coming ashore, and that portion of the covering force
The Russians suffered two huge defeats at German hands
which landed last came under a heavy fire before it
before the end of 1914:
reached the beach. The Turks had a machine gun in
the valley on our left, and this seems to have been * At the Battle of Tannenberg (23-30 August 1914),
turned on to the boats containing part of the Twelfth the Russian losses were 170,000 killed, wounded or
Battalion. Three of these boats were still lying on captured and the loss of 350 big guns. The Germans
the beach some way before they could be rescued. suffered 20,000 casualties.
Two stretcher-bearers who went along the beach * At the First Battle of Masurian Lakes (7-14 September
during the day to effect a rescue were both shot by 1914), the Russians lost another 125,000, while the
the Turks. Finally, a party waited for dark, and crept Germans lost 10,000. The Russian commander,
along the beach, rescuing nine men who had been Samsonov, shot himself.
in the boats two days, afraid to move for fear of
: , The Russian armyy fared better
better against
agains Austria-Hungary,
stri sary
attracting fire.
but by,1915 the war was going badly.

Source 8R: An account ofthe Gallipoli campaign by Charles * One million men had been killed and the Russians had
Bean, the official war correspondent with the Australian army. retreated 600 miles.
 8: Depth Study A: The First World War, 1914-1918

St Petersburg
(The tsar changed the name
to Petrograd in 1914)

= Austrian guns shell

Belgrade
The pincer attacks
planned by the
Central Powers
e Berlin
RUSSIAN ATTACKS
Rennenkampf
THE GERMAN EMPIRE Samsonov
Polish front
Galician front

RUSSIA German and

Austrian attacks
Austrian territory
captured by
Russia 1914
e Vienna
Russian territory
captured by
Germany 1914

THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE

The Tukish Black Sea Fleet, spear-

headed by the two German ships
‘Goeben’ and ‘Breslau’, shelled
Odessa 28 October, 1914

Sarajevo ROMANIA

Figure 8.3: The war of movement, the Eastern Front 1914.

¢ There were shortages of shells and poor coordination on along a 400 km front, and took 4( 9
the front line. Austrian army never recovered, but the Russia

¢ The government was unable to organise the war effort 1 million men and could not launch ano offens T
offensive relieved pressure on the Allies on the S
effectively.
Front as Germany had to rush in troops t Op up
¢ When the army’s commander resigned,
Tsar Nicholas
Austria’s army.
decided to appoint himself as Commander-in-Chief.
Now every military problem reflected badly on the tsar The war had a serious impac D
himself.
e Russia’sm mpaigi
In 1916, General Alexei Brusilov planned a major attack 1915, 25% of the Russ
designed to knock Austria out of the war and divert wounded or cz
German forces before the Somme offensive in July 1916. ¢ The First
>The offensive lasted three months, and it was initially
a great success, The Russians advanced around 30 km
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

Having won, the Germans now transferred troops to the

Millions were directly affected by the fighting or by
Western Front for their 1918 Spring Offensive.
the casualties, and the conscription of 13 million
peasants into the army created labour shortages in
the count ryside, causing food sho rtages.
‘Pals battalions’ of war on civilian populations
The conduct of the war reflected ba dly on the
The British government decided to allow the hundreds of
government and the R ussian royal amily, as the thousands of volunteers to serve alongside friends and
Emperor was commanding the arm y. neighbou s. These were known as the ‘Pals battalions’.
Units like the Manchester Pals were in the first wave
In February 1917, a revolution forced Nicholas II to at the Somme. This meant that if a unit suffered heavy
abdicate and a Provisional Government was established losses, all the young men from a town were killed at the
to rule Russia. The Provisional Government tried to same time, with devastating effects on the areas they
maintain the war effort and was itself overthrown in a came from.
revolution led by the Bolsheviks in October 1917. The
Bolsheviks signed an armistice with Germany and Russia
withdrew. ACTIVITY 8.11 =

The Eastern Front had been important because: Why do you think that the British government was
¢ The Russian attack in 1914 helped to defeat the Schlieffen motivated to send men to fight in ‘Pals’ battalions’?
Plan because it forced the Germans to withdraw troops
from the west before they had defeated France. ? KEY TERM
* |t meant that the Germans had to fight a war on two Vd
fronts for most of the war.

176

Britain Germany Rest of the world

Restrictions on Within four days of the outbreak The government’s War On entering
the war, the USA
everyday life of war, the government Raw Materials Department passed legislation to restrict any
introduced the Defence organised the response to the action that might threaten the
of the Realm Act (DORA), British blockade. It set prices war effort. The 1917 Espionage
which gave the government a nd regulated the distribution Act made it illegal to interfere
extensive powers intended O f materials to key war with the recruitment of troops or
to secure public safety and industries. to pass on classified information.
order. These powers included Conscientious objection became
the introduction of press an offence. The 1918 Sedition
censorship, imprisonment Act made it an offence to use
without trial, reduced opening abusive language about the US
times for public houses (pubs) Constitution, the armed forces
and the introduction ofdaylight or the government.
phi savings.
|Recruitment | Britain relied on a volunteer All men served in the regular In 1914, all Frer chmen over 20 :
army for the first two years of army from age 17, then the served in the army for three
the war, managing to recruit reserves until they were 45. years, and in the reserves for
over 3 million men between The system of reserves meant a further 25. The French army
1914 and 1916. Conscription was that in August 1914, the army numbered almost 3 million at
introduced for all single men expanded from 800,000 to 3.5 the outbreak of war.
| aged 18-41 in January 1916. million soldiers.
The measure was extended to
| married men within that age
range in May 1916
 8: Depth Study A: The First World War, 1914-1918

Germany . Rest of the world

Conscientious Approximately 16,000 men | In Canada, the USA and New
objectors refused to be conscripted, Zealand, men could refuse
and these were known as * | to fight, but only if they were
conscientious objectors. While members of groups with a
approximately half of these history of pacifism.
accepted a non-combatant
role in the armed forces, a
significant minority did not
and were either imprisoned or
forced to join a military unit in
| France. | |
Food shortages and |German unrestricted submarine | Severely affected by food Food shortages in Russia were
supplies warfare and naval blockade shortages during the war, had two main causes: the
had a devastating effect on the | and took several measures, poor quality of the country’s
economy. Britain increased the | including developing ersatz railway network and the lack
area of farmland in order to (substitute) goods such as of incentive for peasants to
produce more food, increased | acorns to replace coffee beans. | produce more food as the war
imports from USA and Clocks were brought forward dragged on. The amount of
introduced rationing of sugar an hour to give people the food in the cities declined and
and meat in January 1918, opportunity to tend their | inflation rose: during 1914-1916,
extending it to other goods vegetable gardens after work. the cost of meat rose by 232%.
later. Millions of pigs were slaughtered
in order to save grain. After the
disastrous potato harvest in
1916, turnips were issued as a
replacement. Rationing was
introduced in 1916. vay
The impact on Women in Britain made up | In Russia, by 1917, 43% of the
women 37% of the workforce by 1918. industrial workforce was female.
Women in low-paid domestic Russia recruited an all-women
jobs took the opportunity to battalion in 1917 to fight.
move into better paid jobs in In France, by 1918 one-third
munitions factories and public br ihe GbbUreicein ate
USUI production was female. Women
in France benefited from
| the allowances paid by the |
government to soldiers’ wives. |
[A long-running process had been gradually increasing the number of people who could vote in
elections in many countries. The war encouraged this to go further. In 1918 Britain granted the vote
to women who passed some property-owning and age qualifications at 30 and to those men over
21 who did not have the vote. In Britain a 1928 change to the law meant that all men and women
Civilians over 21 could vote. Canada and Austria extended the suffrage to women in 1918, Germany in 1919,
and the USA in 1920.
The home front was dangerous for civilians. Approximately 940,000 civilians died as result of
military action, and another 5.9 million died of disease, malnutrition and accidents. Twent
| people died in the 1918 Spanish Flu epidemic.
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

After the autocratic Russian tsar abdicated in March

8.4 Why did Germany ask for an 1917 it was no longer contradictory to fight alongside
armistice in 1918? the Russians.

Focus points On 6 April 1917, Wilson declared war on Germany.

« What was the importance of America’s entry into the
war?
* Why was the German offensive of 1918 unsuccessful?
« Why did revolution break out in Germany in October
1918?
¢ Why was the Armistice signed?

The end of the war on the Eastern Front enabled the

Germans to move 1 million men to France. Germany
was unable to capitalise on this advantage because by
1918;

1 The British naval blockade caused starvation. The war How did the USA affect the war?
was increasingly unpopular at home. Initially, the USA sent only 300,000 soldiers to France, who
had little impact. Eventually, about 1,250,000 US soldiers
2 The USA had joined the war and thousands of fresh
served in Europe. They were not prepared for trench
American troops were arriving.
warfare and their casualty rates were high. The arrival
of large numbers of American soldiers provided a huge
What was the importance of America’s entry psychological boost to the Allies.
into the war?
The commanderof USA forces, General Pershing, allowed
178 any Americans wanted the USA to stay neutral in the
Marshal Foch, the Allied commander, to use American
First World War. Until 1916, president Woodrow Wilson
soldiers as reinforcements during 1918.
won much support by promising to keep the USA out
f the conflict. Wilson attempted to broker peace deals The USA's entry led the German High Command to launch
uring 1915-1916. By April 1917, however, there was
Cees: the Ludendorff Offensive.
growing support for the idea of entering the war on the
allied side: Why was the German offensive of 1918
unsuccessful?
« By 1917, the USA had lent £850m to Britain and
almost as much to France. This would be lost if
Germany won.
* The USA had no wish to see Europe dominated by a
FACT FILE
single power, especially an autocratic one.
General Erich von Ludendorff
¢ Unrestricted submarine warfare created popular anger: Ludendorff made his reputation when he was a
four US ships were sunk by U-boats in March 1917. commander on the Eastern Front in 1914-1915.
* The British intercepted a telegram from German | Together, Hindenburg and Ludendorff dominated the
| German government after 1916. Ludendorff was mainly
Foreign Minister Arthur Zimmermann to Germany’s
| responsible for persuading Wilhelm Il to agree to an
ambassador in Mexico. The Zimmermann telegram
: armistice in November 1918.
said that if Mexico joined the war on Germany’s
In 1918, General Ludendorff planned a massive offensive.
side and attacked the USA, Germany would give
Mexico some American territory at the end of the
war. The British showed the telegram to the USA
Zovernment in February 1917. US public opinion German Spring Offensive
Outraged. At 4.40 am on 21 March 1918 the Germans launched
* There was sympathy
in the USA for Britain
and France, a Massive surprise attack. The Germans bombarded
ratic countries fighting autocratic
empires. a 60 km line of British trenches with 3.5 million shells
 8: Depth Study A: The First World War, 1914-1918

in just five hours. They used specially trained ‘storm

The Ludendorff Offensive failed because:
troopers’ armed with light machine guns, light trench
mortars, grenades and flamethrowers. They employed * By leaving their defensive positions along the Hindenbur 2]
5
creeping barrages and poison gas in devastating highly Line, the Germans abandoned their biggest ad vantage.
coordinated surprise attacks. * Operation Michael transformed the war into one of
movement. Although German troops were better
trained for this kind offighting, the Allies had more
men, tanks and aircraft, and this proved to be decisive.
line of artinefire advancing ahead
* As German attacks pushed further into enemy territory,
ally at a ate
of 50 metres per minute.
it became harder to keep men supplied, and the salient
st used by the British at the Battle
he ethod was successful, especially on the new front line was hard to defend against
[thoughitrequired a high degree counter-attacks.
tz’ was a
creeping barrage that hit ¢ Troops from the Eastern Front were unprepared for
2d on, only to reverse and catch the
defenders ast hey emerged oat fighting on the Western Front. After fighting on the
. ‘
Eastern Front they were given no rest before being sent
to the west, arriving exhausted and with low morale.
The Germans launched four major attacks between March
Alcoholism, avoiding duties and desertion became
and July. common. Half a million German soldiers had flu by
1 21-30 March August 1918, making 11 out of 13 divisions unfit for
offensive action.
¢ The Germans attacked at the Somme, advancing
65km in three weeks, inflicting 250,000 casualties,
capturing 1000 big guns and destroying 200 tanks.
They lost almost 240,000 men. Haig and Pétain
The allied counter-attack
The Allies began to counter-attack, with huge success. On 18
were unable to co-operate, so Marshall Foch was
July, the French stopped the German advance outside Paris.
appointed supreme commander of all Allied forces
in France. Foch’s major counter-offensive began near Amiens on
2 9-30 April 8 August 1918. British, French, Canadian and Anzac
troops launched surprise attacks, with creeping barrages,
¢ The German attack in Belgium cost the Allies over
tanks and aircraft supporting infantry advances.
100,000 men (for similar losses on the German Allies’ intelligence was precise and their attacks were
side). Although the Allies were under pressure, they devastatingly effective. The German army collapsed
survived with the help of 300,000 American soldiers and lost 75,000 men, including 50,000 taken prisoner.
who arrived just in time. The Germans, who were The Allies advanced 11 km in one day and the Germans
tiring, failed to break through. retreated to the Hindenburg Line. The German retreat
3 26-30 May
continued until October.
¢ The German attack advanced 18km in one day Foch launched a final assault on 29 September.
on the road to Paris, and both sides suffered over The Hindenburg Line was broken for the first time, as
100,000 casualties. Australian, American and British troops, supported by 150
4 9-12 June tanks, attacked at the St Quentin Canal (see Source 85).
¢ German attacks pushed the Allies back to within Ludendorff’s confidence was gone: he asked the new German
chancellor, Prince Max of Baden, to request an armistice.
50km of Paris. The Allies lost over 200,000 men.
By the end of October the Hindenburg Line had been
By August, German casualties during the 1918 offensives
breached in numerous places and German troops were
had reached 1 million. These men were highly trained, and
in full retreat. By the time the Armistice was signed
their replacements were not as good. The Germans failed
on 11 November, all German troops had left French
to split the French and British forces, which had been their
territory.
main intention.
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

German gains in
Ludendorff’s Spring
Offensive March-June 1918
Under League of Nations
supervision 1919-1935

Transferred to France 1919

BELGIUM N
wv Transferred to Belgium 1919

Only German territory

occupied by the Allies
1914-1918
Front line before Allied
attack 18 July 1918

Armistice line
11 November 1918
Allied advance

SWITZERLAND
(neutral)

Figure 8.4: Operation Michael and the Allied counter-attacks.

ACTIVITY 8.12

Look back at the previous section and study Figure 8.4.

Why was the German Spring Offensive unsuccessful?

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 8.5

Why was the Allied counter-attack so successful?

Why did revolution break out in Germany in

October 1918?
Official statistics show that the blockade caused over
vilian deaths. Rationing and food shortages hit
\
ardest. Working conditions had worsened,

d, wages had fallen, prices had risen, and Souce 8S: Victorious Allied troops resting, having captured the
ripted and sent to the front. In October Riqueval Bridge over the St Quentin Canal in October 1918.
 8: Depth Study A: The First World War, 1914-1918

1916, 30,000 people attended peace demonstrations,

and with determination to destroy the whole military
socialist groups passed a Peace Resolution in July 1917,
structure. Such was the gratitude of the new
which called for an end to the fighting without punitive
terms. homeland to the German soldiers who had bled and
Taxes did not cover the costs of the war, so the German died for it in millions. The destruction of Germany’s
government took loans. By 1918, the national debt had power to defend herself - the work of Germans - was
risen to 250 billion marks. In January 1918, 500,00
0 went
the most tragic crime the world has witnessed. A tidal
on strike in Berlin, demanding political change. wave had broken over Germany, not by the force of
nature, but through the weakness of the Government,
n September 1918, Hindenburg and Ludendorff persuaded
represented by the chancellor, and the paralysis of a
the Kaiser to appoint a civilian government under Prince
leaderless people.
ax von Baden. This would create the appearance of a
democratic government, and it was hoped that in armistice Source 8T: Erich von Ludendorff’s war memoirs, published
negotiations the Allies would be more lenient than if they in 1920.
were dealing with the Kaiser or the army. This step would
also deflect blame for defeat on to the new government.
ACTIVITY 8.13

Kiel Mutiny and the German Revolution Study Source 8T and answer the following questions.
The German revolution occurred in two stages: Explain your answers, with reference to the source.
* Whom does Ludendorff blame for Germany's defeat?
3-26 October: The political stage. On 3 October,
Prince Max asked president Wilson of the USA for * Whom does Ludendorff not blame for Germany’s
an armistice. Wilson refused to negotiate with the defeat?
generals or the Kaiser. The Kaiser therefore passed the ¢ How does Ludendorff describe the German army in
October Reforms, transferring power to the Reichstag, 1918?
creating a parliamentary monarchy. ¢ Why might Ludendorff have expressed these views
in 1920?
2 28 October-9 November: The military stage. Wilhelm II
and the head of the German navy ordered the German
fleet to launch a huge naval assault. Angry at being sent
into battle against the Royal Navy when the war was Why was the Armistice ral
clearly lost, German sailors at the main naval bases of The Armistice between the Allies and the Germans was
Kiel and Wilhelmshaven mutinied. Inspired by this and signed at5amonthem eae - 11 November 1918,
by the 1917 Russian Revolution, Workers’ and Soldiers’ and came into effect at 11 am Germany surrendered
Councils (Soviets) seized major cities. Protests, food unconditionally. The terms of the Armistice were that:
riots and strikes followed in Berlin and other cities. The
Kaiser abdicated and fled to the Netherlands. ¢ Germany would evacuate all occupied territories.
¢ Treaties already pose with
On 9 November, von Baden gave control of the government were annulled.
to Friedrich Ebert, the leader ofthe largest party in the
* Germany would hand over military equipment,
Reichstag. Ebert immediately asked for a ceasefire.
including
the entire submarine
¢ Germany's surface fleet would go to the British nava
The proud German Army, after victoriously resisting
base at Scapa Flow in Scotland. (When they arr
an enemy superior in numbers for four years,
German commanders scuttled their
performing feats unprecedented in history, and hand them over.
keeping our enemies from our frontiers, disappeared Many Germans thought the terms harsh
ina moment. Our victorious fleet was handed over
government wanted peace, so the Armistice was sign
to the enemy. The authorities at home, who had anyway.
not fought against the enemy, could not hurry fast
Aiter such a long and destt
enough to pardon deserters and other military
war effort collapse? f
criminals, including themselves and their nearest
friends. They and the Soldiers’ Councils worked
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

e Which side won the war at sea.

* Why the Gallipoli campaign was launched, and why it
Having gone through this chapter, and undertaken its tests Failed.
and activities, you should be able to describe, assess, * The war on the Eastern Front, the impact of the war on
understand and explain the following: Russia and why Russia pulled out of the war in
arch 1918.
* How the Schlieffen Plan was supposed to work, and the
reasons for its failure. How civilian populations in the warring countries were
Why both sides introduced trenches on the Western Front affected by the war.
before the end of 1914, and the main features of trench What kind of impact America’s entry into the war in 1917
warfare and life for ordinary soldiers in the trenches. had, and how the USA helped to win the war.
Why trench warfare led to stalemate, and why the Why Germany asked for and signed an armistice in 1918,
major offensives of 1916 failed to break the deadlock and why a revolution broke out in October 1918.
on the Western Front, as well as how important new
Ifyou can’t, go back to the relevant section and revise.
developments in technology were.

The Schlieffen Plan was supposed to defeat France within six The war on the Eastern Front was different from the
weeks and allow the Germans to avoid a war on two fronts, Western Front. The war was extremely costly for Russia
but it failed when the Belgians and the British intervened. and the government’s failure to plan and fight the
Both sides introduced trenches on the Western Front war effectively led to the March Revolution. The new
before Christmas 1914. A line of trenches stretched from the Provisional Government was equally unable to cope, so
English Channel to the Swiss border. Trench warfare was when the Bolsheviks seized power they took Russia out of
anew way of fighting, involving new weapons and tactics. the war in March 1918.
Stalemate set in, and generals were slow to learn how to Every aspect of life for civilian populations in the
break the deadlock. Casualties were heavy on both sides. belligerent countries was affected by the war. Government
Important offensives by both the Germans and the British control was increased over areas such as work, food
in 1916 failed to break the deadlock on the Western Front. supply and access to information. The war particularly
affected women, for whom the changes could be positive
The outcomes of sea battles were indecisive. The German
as well as negative.
submarine campaign and the British naval blockade
each had the potential to win the war. Both sides were so After remaining neutral for three years, America’s entry
worried about losing their expensive navies that they were into the war in 1917 had a significant impact. Although
reluctant to use their ships. Americans did not fight in large numbers until late in 1918,
their arrival was decisive.
The Allies tried to break the deadlock on the Western Front
by defeating Germany’s allies. The Gallipoli campaign was Germany’s Spring Offensive almost won the war; its failure
launched against the Ottoman Empire, but it was poorly and the mounting problems at home led the government
planned and resourced, and was a costly failure. to request an armistice in 1918.
 8: Depth Study A: The First World War, 1914-1918

The Big Challenge |

Study this list of possible reasons why Germanydost
* Germany had been outproduced in tan
the war:
ratio of approximately 320:1.
Germany had to fight on two fronts for most of the war. Allied counter-attacking tactics were
The British naval blockade forced the German people Germany's allies were unreliable. A
into starvation by 1917. Shortages contributed to needed continual support on tt
declining suppo for
rtthe war at home. 1918, allies started surrendering and sis
Four years of devastating battles had weakened the armistices: Bulgaria on 30 September,
German army and the spirit of the German people. October, Austria-Hungary on 3 November 1Ogq
oO

Americans intervened at a crucial moment. Is anything

y = missing5 from this list? Add other reason
Ludendorff’s Spring Offensive exhausted Germany's that you think are important.
reserves.
Rank these reasons.
This had been a war of attrition; German military and
civilian morale and supplies had simply been worn down. Show which reasons are connected with others.
The Allies had larger armies, better resources and Several of these points are interconnected.
more weapons in 1918: Write a paragraph to explain which one you think is
* 18,500 guns to Germany’s 14,000. most significant.
¢ 4,500 aircraft to Germany’s 3,760.

Exam-style questions
Questions in the style of Paper 1
1 a Describe trench warfare.

b Why did the Schlieffen Plan fail?

c How far was Haiga successful military leader?

2 a What were the aims of the Gallipoli campaign?

b Why did Russia pull out of the war in March 1918?

c ‘Problems at home caused Germany to ask for an armistice.’

How far do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer.

Questions in the style of Paper 4 - IGCSE only

1 Howimportant
was the fighting
on other fronts in determining the outcome of the
First World War?

2 Howsigniticant was America’s contribution to the Allied war effort b

S
&
x
:
ie
 9: Depth Study B: Germany, 1918-1945

What is this depth study about? (SPD), Ebert knew that he needed the support of
; army if he was to maintain control. He approached
This chapter covers the period in German history
Groener. The two agreed the secret Ebert-Groener Pact
from the revolution of 1918 through to the end of the
: The army would support the new government
Second World War. Germany was a well-developed turn would support the army. Both sdeswanted to avoid
and educated society - one of the most advanced in revolution.
the world — yet it failed in its democratic experiment
pat was
resulting in a dictatorship led by Adolf Hitler. Why was On 4 November Ebert's colleague Matthias Erzberg
this? The first halfofthis chapter deals with the Weimar signed the Armistice with the Allies. The conditions laid
Republic, the reasons for its failure and the rise of the down by the French were strict. The German army b
Nazis. The second half looks at life in the Third Reich, ke leave ance ane ap anae al ae ee ;
exploring the methods through which Hitler maintained An armistice is meant to be a ceasefire; tt a8
control and the consequences of his rule for all groups Sunsets
in society.
The Weimar constitution |
The four investigative questions are:
In January 1919, Germany adopted a new constitution. The
1 Was the Weimar Republic doomed from the start? new system was called the Weimar Republic after the town
2 Why was Hitler able to dominate Germany by 1934? where the constitution was signed. With the militaristic
rule of the Kaiser ended, the democratic institutions were
3 How effectively did the Nazis control Germany, strengthened and the country was a republic. |
1933-1945? |
4 What was it like to live in Nazi Germany?

4 : Look at Table 9.1 with the main features of the

9.1 Was the Weimar Auda constitution. Assess its strengths and weaknesses. —
doomed from the start?
Focus points Many observers thought the new constitution was
+ How did Germany emerge from defeat at the end of the the most democratic in the world. The emphasis on
First World War? democracy and individual rights seemed to be exactly |
- What was the impact ofthe Treaty of Versailles on the what American President Woodrow Wilson had demanded :
Republic? in 1918 as a precondition fora treaty. The Germans had |
- To what extent did the Republic recover after 1923? played their part in Femi oe We Kaiser so th ey sete a |
- What were the achievements of the Weimar period? Wilson to honour the terms of his ‘Fourteen Points’ which
suggested minimal punishment for Germany
How did Germany emerge from defeat
at the end of the First World War? What was the impact of the Treaty of Versailles
on the Republic?
The revolution of 1918 and the establishment

The Versailles Settlement and German

Poactionsiait
ae
By the end of 1918 Germany was losing the First World
ean
War. The army was retreating in disorder, attacked by the n May 1919 the German government were simply given
British, French and Americans. Kaiser Wilhelm Il ordered the provisional peace terms to accept or reject. Wilson’s
the German Navy to attack the Allies. Considering ita promises had not been kept. Not only was Germany
suicide mission, the sailors based at Kiel mutinied on 9 reavily punished, they also had to admit responsib
November. The German revolution had begun. for starting the war, The public were shocked and th

Told clearly by the head of the War Office, General government resigned in protest, but the Ge rma sha
10 option but to accept. They were faced w
Groener, that he could no longer rely on the army, the
nutiny, revolution. econom
Kaiser abdicated. He handed power to his chancellor,
who in turn passed it to the leader of the largest party in olockade and i

the Reichstag, Friedrich Ebert of the Social Democrats o0n.28 June 1919
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

| Everyone over the age of 20 could vote. Political parties were represented in a parliament called the
| Reichstag. Voting in elections was by proportional representation.

| Rigt ts : Every German citizen had freedom of speech, freedom of religion and equality before the law.
. Py

The chancellor appointed ministers and they ran the government on a daily basis. The support of
[ i T
| Chancellor
the Reichstag was needed so normally the leader of the largest party was made chancellor.
} +.

President The president was the head of state, head of the army and protector of the constitution. They
could appoint and dismiss the chancellor. In a crisis the president could allow the chancellor to use
Article 48 to pass an emergency decree.
| Regions Germany was made up of 17 individual states called ‘Lander’ which had power over, for example,
police and education.
=

Justice The President appointed judges. Anyone who tried to overthrow the new system could be charged
with treason.

Table 9.1: The constitution of the Weimar Republic.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 9.1

£ < = a8 iS a? ; : i . : se }

teeta ae : is ; sotingsten ae ; Why was the new Weimar government held responsible
une delegate a lyseats wo ee ae ul for the position Germany was in?
resembles the pr portion ofthevotes cast inthe election.
: ot
a." oe. eS ee ee ee ’ i

ACTIVITY 9.2

The French and Allied military commander Ferdinand

Foch said of the Treaty ofVersailles: ‘This is not
a treaty, it is an armistice for twenty years.’ What
causes for a future war do you think Foch might have
had in mind?

There were four commonly used phrases in 1919, and

after, which summarised popular opinion:

1 Many ex-soldiers felt that the army had been betrayed

by corrupt politicians in October and November 1918.
They had not actually lost the war on the battlefield
and were still in France when the armistice was
signed. This became known as the ‘stab in the back’
(or ‘Dolchstoss, see Source 9A). i
ia
The politicians who had signed the Armistice in ish —=* cx —
—— Se e : hiles
November
Sere 1918
; 8 were labell
z ag the ‘November
ed© = B= AWS sme tah =
ate ee SMH OO
a yi ee Ae

SORES SHO ore pare er ns ae SCurcS pieces UNS Leet from 1942 depicting
the ‘stab
in the back’ theory. Right-wing Germans believed Jews were
not loyal Germans and had not fought in the war. Jews were
eping body, the League of Nations, blamed for Germany’s defeat in the war. Here aGerman soldier
the League of Victors’ as it was believed to is being knifed. Note the Star of David on the cuffto identify
eep Germany weak the hand as Jewish and the barbed wire to show a battlefield.
 9: Depth Study B: Germany, 1918-1945

The main political divisions and the role ofthe army

At the end of the war, Germany was divided into three broad CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 9.3

groups of political opinion. They are summarised in Table 9.2. Which of the three left-wing uprisings was the greatest
.
threat to the Weimar Republic? Give reasons for your
answer.
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 9.2

How did each grouping react to: a) the Treaty ofVersailles

and b) the new constitution? Right-wing political developments
The Freikorps supported the government in 1918 and
1919 because many former soldiers hated communists
Left-wing political developments and blamed them for the 1918 defeat. Once the threat of
In January 1919, the Spartacist Party, led by Rosa revolution seemed over, Ebert ordered them to disband
Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht, seized government (in 1920).
buildings in a bid for power. President Ebert called on One Freikorps leader, General Littwitz, refus
the army and the Freikorps to help crush the uprising. joined forces with the leader of the patriotic Fathe
Liebknecht and Luxemburg were arrested by the police; Party, Wolfgang Kapp. With 12,000 Freikorps they
both were violently beaten and shot. The first attempt at a marched on Berlin in the Kapp Putsch. This time the
communist revolution failed and the Ebert-Groener Pact Ebert-Groener pact failed: the army, willing to shoot
had passed its first test of loyalty, communists and strikers, refused to fire. Kapp was made
In February 1919, the leader of Bavaria (a large state in chancellor of a new militaristic government but it had
south Germany), Kurt Eisner, was killed. Communists little popular support. Berlin workers opposed to Kapp
seized power in March so Ebert again turned to the army. organised a general strike. All public services, such as
By May 1919 order had been restored with around 600 electricity and water, stopped working. The putsch
communists killed. collapsed after only four days and Kapp fled to Sweden,
never to return.
The third attempt at a communist uprising was made in
1920 in the Ruhr valley. Workers formed the Ruhr Army, As Hitler found out in 1923, many judges sympathised
which gained 50,000 members. They were defeated by with the right wing: only one person involved in the Kapp
Putsch was actually sent to prison. Freikorps men now
the army and the Freikorps, with at least 1,000 workers
and 250 soldiers and policemen killed. founded a secret society called Organisation Consul,
which assassinated government officials. By 1923 they
Despite considerable support, communists failed to seize had killed 354 politicians including Matthias Erzberger
power. Even so, they continued to cause trouble in the and Walther Rathenau. There were only 28 convictions for
form of strikes and demonstrations up to 1923. these, with one death penalty.

Centre left and centre right

Beliefs An equal society based on Democracy and the new Return of the monarchy,
communism. They were inspired | constitution. They wanted protection of private property,
by Lenin’s Bolsheviks in Russia reform and democracy, not defeat of communism, strong
who achieved a revolution in revolution. government, rebuilt German
1917. prosperity and power.

| Supporters |The working classes and the | Working and middle classes. Conservatives, nationalists,
poor. They were represented by | Included Social Democrats, | monarchists, big business
the Spartacist party (later the Centre and various liberaland — | army and the Freikorps, peop
KPD). conservative parties. | who had lost theirs

Table 9.2: German political factions in 1919,

 Verkauf Reparalur
FACT FILE
in LAUSD geaer :
Walther Rathenau was involved in the Versailles
negotiations and was Jewish so he was hated by the Lebensmilfel |
Freikorps. He was the Foreign Mi nister and was killed by
Organisation Consul in 1922. Approximately 700,000 people |
protested in Berlin and he was given a state funeralin the
Reichstag. Until Hitler came to power, 24 June was a day of
public commemoration for opponents of anti-Semitism.

The French occupation of the Ruhr 1923

Source 9C: Here, a woman is paying for her shoes to be
In April 1921, the Reparations Committee set up by the Allies
repaired not with money but by bartering a sausage c. 1923.
reported on the damages the Ge rmans had to pay for the
The notice on the wall announces in German ‘Sales and
First World War. The amount ann ounced was £6.6 billion.
repairs in exchange for food’.
Germans were shocked and angry. In 1922 the government
announced that it could not affor rd to pay the next
istalment. Ebert tried to get con cessions, but the French in the Ruhr started to challenge the occupation forces.
were not interested. When the payment deadline had passed French soldiers killed approximately 100 protesters and
in January 1923 French and Belg an troops entered the Ruhr expelled another 100,000 from the region.
valley to seize goods (mainly coa ) in place of the payments. The government turned to a radical solution. They
The government ordered a policy of passive resistance, not owed money so they decided to print more bank notes.
fighting with the French and Be gians but not cooperating However, the debt was so high that huge amounts had to
either. However, with no foreign support coming, Germans be printed. In the short term this worked as around £2.2bn
of debt was paid off within Germany; the allies refused
German currency. As time passed it led to high levels of
inflation and hyperinflation.
Many people benefited as they were now easily able
to pay off mortgages and loans. Many others lost out:
workers’ wages did not rise as quickly as prices and those
with savings found that they were now worthless. Old
people who lived off a fixed monthly pension were sent
into poverty. Huge piles of banknotes were needed to buy
simple things (see Table 9.3 and Sources 9B and 9C).

Date |Value of $1 in marks :

1914 4.2

1919 8.9 on,

1920 14.0 y |
1921 64.9 i

1922 , 191.8 : x ——
923 - Jan 17702yr seat Gar 6 aoe =A
1924.-July. )s MASBaMe QUANG ae uette
923=Sept. | 98,860,000_ ;
Source 9B: People did things to show their contempt
923 -— Nov. 00,000,000,000
for their almost worthless currency. Here you can see
someone using bank notes as wallpaper in 1923. Table 9.3: The impact of hyperinflation.
 9: Depth Study B: Germany, 1918-1945

Gustav Stresemann became chancellor in August 1923

and To what extent did the Republic
ended the campaign of passive resistance. He resumed
recover after 1923? |
eparations payments and abolished the worthless
Stresemann’s new rc tu i aen te
currency. The French and Belgian soldiers withdrew
¥ aw
f rom the rebuild relations Ft age os
with the ge Eur
other
Ruhr. Despite these successes Stresemann was
: ae. ae, action over the Ruhr was
unpopular for giving in to the French, He resigned as widely se
i ; ee Stresemann had compromisec ~
chancellorinNovember but became foreign ministerin created t
‘the new AigcHeenee
government. iscussing Germany’s future with other government
; i ; ra
n 1923 Stresemann had destroyed € p
claiming back all notes in circulation and b g
aha pe maaan tempo :
called the Rentenmark. Late 1924 S
the aaa rich solved G a
n 1924 he negotiated the Da an with a committe
appointed by the Reparations Committee. Germany would
only pay an instalment of reparations when they could
afford to and the occupation of the Ruhr would be ended.
American banks loaned Germany 800 million Reichsmarks.
which helped to kick-start economic growth
German industry was back to level it had been at

In 1929 another agreement was reached over reparations.

Once again
o the Americans were involved. Reparations
would be cut to £1.85bn and more loans were to be gi\
Source 9D: Gustav Stresemann giving a speech to the By the time the plan came into action Stresemann had
League of Nations shortly before his death in 1929. died ar dthe American economy Nad collapsed be

of the Wall Street Crash of Oct

& By 1929 Germany had been | reery renabdititated Into tne

FACT FILE international community (seeST OUUIL

Source Jt}.
9D
Gustav Stresemann was a politician with a doctorate in
economics. Right-wing and pro-Freikorps after the war, What were the achievements
the wave of political assassinations persuaded him that of the Weimar period?
moderation was needed. He went on to become Weimar
_ Germany’s most influential politician. He shared the In the election of 1924, parties who supporter S
_ Nobel Peace Prize in 1926 with the French Foreign Minister won only 52% of the seats in the Reichstag. Opponents
Aristide Briand. His foreign policy successes are covered of the system won 39.4%. Yet by 1928. this had change
Me oie stion 2. support rose to 72.8%, opposition fell to 13 ;
Culture and society were also changing. Berlin becams
a liberal city known for late-night clubs, cabarets and
tolerance of different lifestyles. Cinema became popt
with
WEBCTMarleneAS Dietrich
Soeemerging a ae as Germany’s first film
Although many of Germany’s problems were a result of
the Treaty of Versailles, not all were. Many were more eee
to do with domestic political struggles. Organise the However, under the surface, problems remained. T
information so far into two bullet-point lists: economic recovery was based on American finance and v
1 Problems caused by the Treaty of Versailles. Stresemann had reduced reparations he had not
Versailles. In fact. he had agreed to som
2 Problems caused by German political developments.
Oy clauses, such as the d¢ Si
Evaluate each list. Which side was more problematic?
Decide for yourself if Germany’s problems mainly An worrying sign
resulted from Versailles or if they came from divisions 1925, one year befor
within the country. Germans replaced
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

FACT FILE
Hindenburg served in wars against Austria and France before What do you think people mean when they call this a
retirement in 1911. Recalled to service in 1914, he led the ‘golden era’? How should historians respond to this kind
German army alongside Ludendorff until 1918. A monarchist, of judgement? Should we focus on political and economic
he became president in 1925, and he was re-elected in 1932.
developments? How can we assess cultural and social
He despised Hitler - he called him ‘the Bohemian corporal’
or ‘Austrian corporal’ as a double insult of his nationality and
developments, and the quality of life (see Source 9F).
rank - but eventually found it impossible not to appoint him Make brief notes indicating how you would answer the
chancellor (see Source 9E). His death in 1934 removed the question ‘Was the Weimar Republic doomed from the
last obstacle to Hitler’s total authority. start?’ You will need these later.

9.2 Why was Hitler able to

dominate Germany by 1934?
Focus points
What did the Nazi Party stand for in the 1920s?
Why did the Nazis have little success before 1930?
Why was Hitler able to become chancellor by 1933?
How did Hitler consolidate his power in 1933-1934?

What did the Nazis stand for in the 1920s?

In January 1919, Anton Drexler, a railway worker in Munich
(in Bavaria), founded the German Workers Party (DAP). It
Source 9E: Hindenburg pictured at a parade with Hitler in had at most 40 members and held meetings in beer cellars
May 1933. His body language is particularly telling.
around the city. In September 1919, a 30-year-old army
corporal named Adolf Hitler attended a DAP meeting. He
worked feor the army as an informant on the new political
parties. Drexler was impressed and invited him to join the
party. Hitler was put in charge of propaganda and in 1921
successfully challenged Drexler for the leadership.

Nazi ideas and methods

Hitler made significant changes to the DAP 1920-1922:
at He changed its name to the National Socialist German
Workers Party (NSDAP - or ‘Nazi’ for short) to attract
more supporters.

He helped to write the party’s 25-Point Programme

in 1920.

He introduced the swastika as the party’s symbol.

He set up the Sturm Abteilung (SA) as the party’s
daramilitary wing (also known as the Brownshirts
Source 9F: Metropolis, a film by Fritz Lang. This 1927 yecause of their uniform).
classic film shows how futuristic thinking had replaced
the classical culture of the Kaiser’s period. It popularised Je bought a Munich newspaper called the
science fiction in world cinema and inspired many later
Volkischer Beobachter to spread party ideas and
films, for example the character C-3PO in Star Wars was yropaganda.
based on the Maschinenmensch shown in this poster. He introduced the Hitler salute = (‘Heil Hitler!’).
 9: Depth Study B: Germany, 1918-1945

KEY TERM
For, gentlemen, it is not you who pronounce judgment
upon us, it is the external Court of History which will
make its pronouncement upon the charge which is
brought against us. The verdict that you will pass
| know. But that Court will not ask of us, ‘Did you
commit high treason or did you not?’ That Court will
judge us as Germans who wanted the best for their
people and their fatherland, who wished to fight and
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING to die. You may pronounce us guilty a thousand times,
9.4
but the Goddess who presides over the Eternal Court
Organise Hitler’s reforms into a hierarchy of significance, of History will with a smile tear in pieces the charge of
with the most important at the top. the Public Prosecutor and the verdict of this court. For
she acquits us.

Source 9G: The conclusion to Hitler’s trial speech.

Why did the Nazis have little success
before 1930?
Munich Putsch 1923: the ‘Beerhall Putsch’ The trial made his name known outside Bavaria for
By 1923 the Nazis had 20,000 members, mostly in Bavaria. the first time. In the 1924 elections, Nazis won 32 seats
Hitler decided to seize power. To succeed he needed the in the Reichstag with 6.5% of the national vote. He
support of the Bavarian state government led by Gustav was guilty of hi gh treason (for which he could have
von Kahr and the army led by General Otto von Lossow. been executed), but the right-wing judge gave him a
The strategy was to lead a march on Berlin, where he lenient sentence of five years, of which he served nine
months. Ludendorff was released. Landsberg Prison
would use the army to overthrow the Weimar Republic.
was very comfortable
f
and Hitler used his time to write
On 8 November 1923, Kahr was giving a speech in a Mein Kampf (‘My struggle’) which set out at length his
Munich beer hall. Hitler entered the room and fired a political belie f (a)
gun in the air and announced that a ‘national revolution’
had begun. Men from the SA surrounded the building.
However, Kahr and Lossow were not convinced, even CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 9.6
when First World War general Ludendorff appeared in
Evaluate Source 9G. How would it be received by the
support. After some time waiting Hitler was persuaded by
public in 1924? Think about the political context after the
Ludendorff to let the men go home and put off the march.
events of 1919-1924.
On the morning of 9November 2,000 Nazis marched
towards the city centre. Kahr and Lossow had alerted
the police and army, who were waiting. At Odeonsplatz Changing methods: the legal strategy
the police opened fire killing 16 Nazis. The leaders were
Hitler was released in December 1924. With him ir
arrested.
prison the NSDAP had fallen into disarray. He reorganised
the party and announced a new strategy. Violent
revolution had failed; the Nazis would instead campaign
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 9.5
in elections to become the most popular party it
Compare and contrast the events of the Kapp Putsch Germany.
and the Munich Putsch. What similarities and differences
do you notice?
We shall have to hold our noses and enter the
Reichstag against the Catholic and Marxist deputies. If
outvoting them takes longer than outshooting them,
Hitler’s trial and sentence at least the result will be guaranteed by their own
Hitler went on trial in February 1924, where he made constitution
speeches that were widely reported. Source 9H: Hitler’s justification of his new strategy.
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 9.7

What did Hitler mean by thejustification in Source 9H?

Hitler divided Germany into different regions, each called

a ‘Gau’. Each would have a leader, a Gauleiter, who was
responsible for winning support and spreading the party
message.
Hitler also founded a number of new organisations to
appeal to different social groups:

« The Hitler Youth.

« The Order
of German Women.
« TheNazi Teachers’ Association.
« The Union of Nazi Lawyers.
From 1925 to 1928 the number of party members
increased from 27,000 to 108,000. :
In 1926 Hitler set out the idea of the FUhrerprinzip (‘leader Source 9l: SA men marching in 1933.
principle’) at the Bamberg Conference. This meant that
his authority was unquestionable. This was important as significantly down from the previous election of 1924. The
some members argued for more left-wing policies that Nazis needed more publicity and popularity. They needed
appealed to workers instead of right-wing racist policies. something to bring them publicity and respect.
=a This left-wing group was led by two brothers, Gregor and
Cities ibasser An opportunity arose in 1929 over the Young Plan.
This followed on the Dawes Plan, and would reduce
The work of the SA and SS reparations payments and spread them over 59 years.
The Sturm Abteilung (SA) had been formed in 1920 as a However, nationalists felt the deal implied acceptance
unit to protect Nazi speakers at meetings (see Source 9). of the principle of reparations, and therefore German
Under Ernst ROhm’s leadership it grew quickly and was war guilt.
heavily involved in the street-fighting of 1920-1923. After A national campaign against the plan was led in 1929 by a
the Munich Putsch Rohm left for Bolivia, so Hitler had to wealthy cinema magnate Alfred Hugenburg, leader of the
re-establish the SA in 1925. German National People’s Party (DNVP). The Nazis took
Approximately half of their members were unemployed part in Hugenberg’s campaign against the Young Plan
young men, to whom membership offered a purpose, a and successfully won the publicity and respectability that
uniform and hot meals. The Party also had SA hostels would be crucial in the 1930s.
where they could stay. From 1927 there was an annual
ally at Nuremberg, which was useful for propaganda. The
filmmaker Leni Riefenstahl made a famous documentary
on the 1934 rally called The Triumph ofthe Will. Are you surprised by Hitler’s new strategy? Give reasons
for your answer.
n 1925, Hitler created his own personal bodyguard, the
Schutzstaffel (‘protection squad’, SS), led from 1929 by
leinrich Himmler. They later became the most significant a
organisation in the Nazi state.
FACT FILE

Campaign against the Young Plan Alfred Hugenberg, the wealthy leader of the DNVP, joined
Hitler’s cabinet in 1933. That party lost members and
the changes, the Nazis
only won 12 seats in the voters to the Nazis after 1930. |
tions, only 2.6% of the national vote. This was
 9: Depth Study B: Germany, 1918-1945

ACTIVITY 9.6 ;
KEY TERM
Why did the Nazis make few gains before 1930? List ?

SVN FE .
three reasons why Hitler’s legal strategy failed to make a
significant impact in the 1920s.

Hitler's message in the 1920s wa

Leading Nazis
take money from the USA. This now
Hitler was supported by several crucial figures. These
all Germans ruined by the Wall S sh.
included: of 1930 the Nazis made their first big breakthrough by
* Ernst Rohm: a First World War captain and leade winning 107 seats, second only to the SPD.
ofrthe
SA. He was arrested in the Munich Putsch but released. Several key methods were used to exploit the widespread
* Joseph Goebbels: head of propaganda and a deputy feelings of distress:
in the Reichstag. He originally supported Gregor
* Propaganda: Goebbels used cinema and radio to spread
Strasser but became a Hitler loyalist after the Bamberg
the Nazi message. It was carefully crafted to appeal to
Conference. He edited a Nazi newspaper called Der
specific groups. Posters were designed with simple but
Angriff (‘the attack’) and was made Gauleiter of Berlin.
effective slogans that emphasised Hitler as the man who
* Herman Goring: a First World War pilot who was also
would save Germany.
involved in the Munich Putsch. He was a deputy in the
Reichstag and helped Hitler make important contacts in * Speeches: Hitler was a very persuasive speaker and
seemed to express the anger and frustration that so
business circles.
many Germans felt. In addition, 6,000 Party members
* Heinrich Himmler: head of the SS from 1929. He took part
had been trained by 1933 to deliver messages that would
in the Munich Putsch and assisted with party propaganda.
appeal to their audience. In the countryside they would
His influence grew after Hitler came to power.
talk about problems acing farmers; in the city they would
+

talk about unemployment. Nazi policies were flexible, so

ACTIVITY 9.7
many Germans could find something that appealed to
them.
Do more research on ROhm, Goebbels, Goring and
Himmler. Select information to create a profile of each man: - Political violence: Rohm returned from Bolivia in

e Name, date and place ofbirth. 1931 to lead the SA and expanded their numbers
dramatically. By the end of 1932 they had 425,000
¢ Career before joining the party.
men — over four times the size of the army. They
e Role in the party. frequently beat up communists and disrupted
e Useful facts about them. Communist Party (KPD) meetings. In the summer of
1932, 82 people died in street fighting in Berlin.
The success of these methods is reflected in the increase
Why was Hitler able to become in votes for the Nazis from 1928 to 1933 (Table 9.4).
chancellor by 1933?
Nazi % Nazi seats
impact of the Depression on Germany ; SPD
of the inthe .
Germany’s economic recovery was built on borrowing i seats seats
vote Reichstag
from American banks. When the USA stock market
crashed in October 1929, the USA banks loaning money 1928 - May 2.6 12) 153 54
to Germany wanted it back to meet their cash crisis. 1930 - Sept. 18.3 107 | 143
The effects were disastrous. In 1931 a major Austrian
1932 - July Ses 230 | “133° -] rete)
bank, Kredit Anstaldt, collapsed. This had a knock-
on effect on German banks so the crisis deepened. 1932 —- Nov. Syai al 196 12] 100
——— ee — oe —_ +—_—_— + + _-

Unemployment increased significantly. In 1929 1.4 1933 - Mar. 43.9 288 | 120 8]
million Germans were out of work. By 1933, this had
* After Hitler was appointed chancellor
increased to 6 million.
Table 9.4: Increase in Nazi votes.
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

a TOP TIP
candidates - Hindenburg, Hitler and the communist
leader Ernst Thalmann.
The percentage of votes and number of seats are excellent
Candidate Hindenburg Hitler Thalmann
evidence to use in answers about Hitler’s rise to power.
Practise recalling these statistics with a partner so you % of votes 53%
can show your detailed knowledge in a written answer.
Number of 19.4 million 13.4 million | 3.7 million
votes
What these results show is a huge increase in the Nazi
Table 9.6: Results of the 1932 presidential election run-off.
vote after the Wall Street Crash. However, the KDP also

@
increased up to November 1932. Like the Nazis, they
wanted to end the Weimar Republic. The SPD were the
largest party who supported democracy. In the last three TOP TIP
elections half the electorate backed the two parties that Make sure you know the events of 1932 and 1933 in detail.
proposed to end Weimar democracy. A lot happens here, and there are several key leaders.
Allow some additional time to revise this before the exam.

Weimar chancellors 1930-1933

The man in charge when the Wall Street Crash first
hit Germany was SPD leader Herman Muller. He led a How did Hitler become chancellor?
coalition government that disagreed over how to tackle n the election of July 1932, the Nazis won 230 seats
the depression. Muller resigned as chancellor in 1930, and overtook the SPD to become the largest party.
dying a year later. Although the SPD was the largest Hindenburg still refused to make Hitler chancellor, but six
party in the Reichstag they lacked leadership after this. months later he was persuaded to change his mind. What
caused this? The answer lies in political deals that were
194 The 1932 presidential elections done behind the scenes.

Hitler decided to challenge Hindenburg in the 1932 Von Papen was not a popular choice as chancellor in 1932.
presidential election. Goebbels organised an election He had less Reichstag support than Muller or Bruning,
campaign in which Hitler flew around Germany to address and he resigned from the Centre Party (which distrusted
crowds in different cities on the same day. him) shortly after being appointed chancellor. Schleicher
No candidate won 50% of the vote, so a second thought he would follow the army line but soon realised
round was Staged with the three most successful that von Papen lacked authority. Hindenburg agreed to
sack von Papen and make Schleicher chancellor instead.

Background Time as Chancellor Policies

Heinrich Leader of the Centre 1930 (March) to Cut government spending and increased taxes.
Bruning Party 1932 (May) This decreased Germany’s debt but was unpopular:
people called him the ‘hunger chancellor’. He
ruled using Article 48 as he had little support in the
Reichstag. He used this to ban the SA.
T
Franzvon_ |} Centre Party aristocrat. 1932 (June to November) Right-wing and a Hindenburg adviser. He tried
Papen An officer and diplomat o bring the Nazis into his government and lifted
re

in First World War he ban on the SA. The KPD and the Nazis voted
a Se = i
together to bring down his gover ment.
| Kurt von General and political 1932 (November) to Undermined Brtining. —y Although defence minister
adviser to Hindenburg 1933 (January) inder vc Papen, he decided Germany needed
a strong nan to deal with the crisis. Thought he
could split and use the Nazis.
lable 9.5: The 1930s chancellors before Hitler.
 9: Depth Study B: Germany, 1918-1945

Schleicher’s plan was to split the Nazis. He knew that some 3) nere were c ly
Nazi members preferred the Strasser brothers to Hitler,
14 mi S-H
so heoffered Gregor Strasser the ie of vice-chancellor.
The Nazis had lost votes in the election of Novemher 4 The economy wasst
1932,
dropping to 196 seats, so Hitler’s methods didn’t seem to 5 With 196 of the 584 seats he lacked a mz
be working. All the election campaigns of 1932 also left Reichstag.
them short of money. Strasser wanted to take the job and
itler’s authority was openly questioned.
Despite these problems Hitler managedt
Germany into a dictatorship by the
At a meeting of the Nazi leadership in December 1932 There were four important steps that de
itler made an emotional appeal for support. He Weimar Republic and turned Germany into thé
attacked Strasser’s disloyalty and won the backing of the Reich.
Gauleiters. It was a vital moment. The Strassers resigned
from the party and Schleicher’s plan failed. Step 1: The Reichstag fire
Von Papen now saw an opportunity to gain revenge on Hitler’s first act as chancellor was to call
Schleicher. He went to Hindenburg with a plan that Hitler as he hoped to win a majority in the Reichst 1g. Str
should be made chancellor, but in a government that had fighting left 69 people dead. He blam
few Nazi ministers. Von Papen would be vice-chancellor and Germany’s other problems - on the KPD.
there were would be many conservative ministers to limit On 27 February, just
a week before the ele
Hitler’s power. This would have one of two consequences: Reichstag burned down. A Dutch «
1 Hitler would do well and the financial crisis would end Marinus van der Lubbe was found at the scene and
So Hindenburg could take the credit for appointing him. eee feSome historians
and that van der Lubbe was merely a scapegoat (and so
2 Hitler would do badly and the crisis would get worse
did some people at tne time, see source
causing Nazi support to collapse. the real cause, Hitler persuaded Hindenburg to sign the
This seemed a win-win situation. Fearing a revolutionary ‘Decree
For The Protection Of Pe

uprising by either the Nazis or th e KPD, appointing Hitler day. This cut individual rights and gave the government
as chancellor seemed to be the east dangerous option. ore power. The leaders of the KPD were arrested a
Hindenburg invited him to form a government on 30 itler claimed they were attempting a revolutior
January 1933 — just nine years after being jailed for treason. Following the fire, hundreds of the Na pponent
arrested. Hitler won the election gaining 288
ACTIVITY 9.8 , o rule without a coalition and far less than the
reeded to change the constitution.
Why did Hitler become chancellor? Selectthe most
important information and organise it into a mind map
showing the reasons why Hitler was appointed. Cover
these key points:
JSF
e The impact of the Depression.
e The weakness of Weimar chancellors.
e —Hitler’s leadership. :

e The role played by other Nazi leaders. ont elonm

m= & bond
a S2 STO NATI
t$
Tt MnuDER
Ket

How did Hitler consolidate his power ce

- LEHI oy arn
es :;
ia
in 1933-1934? — Del STAG
When Hitler was appointed chancellor there were several
limitations to his power:

1 Hindenburg had the power to sack him

Source 9J: Protestors outside the German legation in New
2 Hedidn’t control the army. York, 1933. One banner reads ‘Nazi Leaders Set Reichstag Fire
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

The cabinet issued a decree that said simply: ‘The measures

ACTIVITY 9.9
taken on 30th June and 1st and 2nd July to suppress the
Investigate the Reichstag fire. First, decide whether the acts of high treason are legal, being necessary for the self-
Nazis were responsible. Second, what does your verdict defence of the state.’ Hitler had legalised murder.
tell us about Hitler’s decision making?
Step 4: The presidency
When Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934, Hitler became
Step 2: The Enabling Act president while also remaining chancellor. He was simply
When the Reichstag deputies met in the Kroll Opera the ‘Fuhrer’ (leader). This was approved in a country-wide
House on 23 March, Hitler proposed a measure to grant referendum by over 90% of those who voted. The army swore
dictatorial power to the government for the next four an oath of allegiance to Hitler personally. The last obstacle to
years. He made a speech to the deputies in an atmosphere his complete control of power had been removed.
of intimidation with SA men surrounding the building. The
SPD opposed the measure but the banned KPD could not
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 9.8
take part. The DNVP naturally supported the Nazis, but
Hitler needed a two-thirds majority vote as this would Which of the four steps was the most significant
change the constitution. This left the Catholic Centre turning point in Hitler’s quest to establish a
Party holding the balance of power. Hitler promised to dictatorship?
protect the Catholic Church and Catholic schools so they
supported the Enabling Act. It was passed by 444 to 94.
The passing of the Enabling Act gave Hitler enormous
power. He no longer needed the support of the Reichstag @ TOP TIP
to make laws or decisions, just Hindenburg’s backing. He To help you remember the many important events in
196 had achieved what he set out to do in 1924. 1932-1934, use this chapter to create a flow diagram so
you know in which order they go.
Make brief notes indicating how you would answer the
Step 3: The Night of the Long Knives
question ‘Why was Hitler able to dominate Germany by
By June 1933, opposition parties had been banned. 1934?’
The trade unions were outlawed in May, workers being
represented by the Nazi-led German Labour Front. The
opposition Hitler still had to fear lay within his own party.

Once in power, radical Nazi members expected action,

9.3 How effectively did the Nazis
particularly against Jews, the Treaty of Versailles and big control Germany, 1933-1945?
business. Hitler knew it was too early to make any bold moves
Focus points
for fear of alarming business leaders and foreign governments.
How much opposition was there to the Nazi regime?
The SA was not happy with Hitler’s caution. It had - How effectively did the Nazis deal with their political
2.5 million members by 1934 and ROhm was increasingly opponents?
outspoken in his criticism. He felt Hitler was too friendly
* Howdid the Nazis use culture and the mass media to
with rich conservatives and had lost touch with ordinary
control the people?
Nazis. Himmler hated Rohm and fed Hitler rumours of his
* Why did the Nazis persecute many groups in German
disloyalty. He claimed Rohm was planning a putsch and
society?
even forged evidence to prove this.
r
Was Nazi Germany a totalitarian state?
)n 30 June, Hitler made his move on what became known
1s ‘the Night of the Long Knives’. The SA were given a How much opposition was there
day; so Rohm and his entourage were staying at a to the Nazi regime?
Bavaria. Hitler travelled there with a group of SS Ihe arrest of rival political leaders in 1933 and the
irrested and executed. An estimated 200 economic recovery by 1936 both undermined opposition
ed, including, Schleicher. Gregor Strasser to the regime. Hitler’s more radical foreign policies from
1938 and the attacks on Jews increased some people’s
 9: Depth Study B: Germany, 1918-1945

concerns about the nature of his government. When the

war began this opposition became much more evident. CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 9.9
Although fear silenced much criticism, secret police Analyse Sources 9K and 9L. Write down your initial thoughts
reports reveal gradually increasing resentment and and reflections on them. How do each of them help you
mockery by the general public as the war went on. understand the mentality of many Germans in the 1930s?

We can organise the types of opposition between 1933

and 1945 into four categories. Youth
Galen’s example provided inspiration for the White Ros g
Churches in Munich. This was founded in 1942 by Hans and Sophie
The Roman Catholic Bishop of Munster August von Scholl, siblings who attended Munich University. With their
Galen gave a sermon that condemned the Aktion T-4 followers they distributed leaflets on the university campus
programme. Hitler wanted Galen arrested but Goebbels which openly attacked the Nazis. These were smuggled out of
warned he was too popular a figure to persecute. Galen Germany, reprinted and dropped by allied planes over cities.
was sent to a concentration camp in 1944, but survived. However, it was not hard for the authorities to crack down on
the group. The Scholls and their accomplices were arrested,
? KEY TERMS tortured and beheaded in February 1943.

si : Somebody, after all, had to make a start. What we

Me : ule a ie. wrote and said is also believed by many others. They
ae ea ; just don’t dare express themselves as we did.
70,000 di
Source 9L: Sophie Scholl speaking at her trial in 1943.
H Concentration camry
if 1939and in the Second
Political
The SPD’s underground movement has already been noted
and they set up an exile group called SOPADE. They were
based in Prague
oS
until Hitler invaded Czechoslovakia. The\
. ai tried to report to the outside world what was Nappening
Protestant pastor Dietrich Bonhoffer was a vocal critic
in Germany. Also on the left, the Red Orchestra was a spy
of Nazism and was arrested in 1943. He was active in the
network that sent information to the USSR from 1936. Many
resistance and helped many Jews to escape Germany. He
of their spies were tortured and killed by the Gestapo.
was executed in April 1945 at Flossenburg concentration
camp, two weeks before it was liberated by the Americans. Asmall group of conservatives formed an opposition discussion
group about how to run Germany after Hitler was gone. The
First they came for the Communists Gestapo knew them as the Kreisau Circle embe
And | did not speak out were executed in 1944 after the army bomb plot
Because | was not a Communist
Then they came for the Socialists Military
And | did not speak out Key figures within the army shared Hindenburg’
Because | was not a Socialist about Hitler. This increased as the war went on leading
Then they came for the trade unionists to an assassination attempt codenamed Operation
And | did not speak out Valkyrie. [he man chos as Colone
Because | was not a trade unionist Claus von Stauffenberg. t
Then they came for the Jews the savagery
after witnessing 194
And | did not speak out Stauffenberg attended a meeting with Hitler on
Because! was not a Jew 1944. He placed a briefcase bomb on the floo
Then they came for me room. However, the bomb was moved just before it we

And there was no one left off. Four people were kil ed but Hitler's only in Nas
To speak out for me. perforated eardrum from the
planned uprising in Ber
Source 9K: Astatement by Martin Niemoller. were executed in ths
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

ACTIVITY 9.10

There were at least 40 assassination attempts on Hitler.

Research Georg Elser online and write a brief summary
of his plot. What do you think motivated him? What does
his story tell us about opposition to Hitler?

ACTIVITY 9.11

Make a spider diagram ofthe types of opposition. Evaluate

how serious each group was. Clearly label your diagram to
show the level and nature of threat posed to the Third Reich.
Source 9M: Heydrich (on the right, pictured in 1934) was one
of the leading Nazis. A key figure in the SS, he was a major
architect of the Holocaust.
How effectively did the Nazis deal
with their political opponents?
Hitler’s consolidation of power is known as a
Gleichschaltung, which means ‘coordination’. It meant that
Germany was now a dictatorship ruled by one party and
one man. There were still limits to Hitler’s power but only
those willing to risk their lives Showed open opposition.
Authority was maintained through the police state. There

C
this:
were several levels to
ie
1e Ordo and Kripo: the regular police.
2 le Gestapo — the secret police who dealt with moral
and politic al opposition.

1e SA - under Himmler’s
control after 1934. “ij 1

4 1e SS — they expanded to take over many aspects of Source 9N: The gates at Sachsenhausen,
just outside Berlin.
the Nazi regime All concentration camps had this sign at the entrance.
ne army.

The Gestapo had a network of informers but they

Ihe most important individual in all of this was Heinrich
Himmler. In 1936 he was put in charge fF all police in
were overwhelmed with information from the public.
Germany, so wielded immense power. His deputy,
Neighbours often reported on people they didn’t like as a
hardHeydrich, was head
of the SD, the party’s internal
way of settling personal rivalries. Anyone found guilty of
urity DOU¢ and main source of intel| PeNnCe.
‘deviant behaviour’ could be sent to a concentration camp.
The first of these was Dachau, which was opened in March
1933. Goebbels made sure it was heavily publicised so that
ap potential opponents knew what would happen to them.
FACT FILE
Reinhard Heydrich (Source 9M) was one of the few Nazis How did the Nazis use culture and the mass
who conformed to the racial ideal of being blond-haired -
and blue-eyed and was tipped to bea ee leader media to control the people?
after Hitler. He ran the SD, assisted in the Gestapo and The state controlled the radio but newspapers were
was in charge of Bohemia and Moravia after the fall of privately owned. The Editors’ Law of October 1933 made
Czechoslovakia. He died in 1942 after an assassination editors re: ponsible for everyt ling published in their
attempt by Czechoslovak patriots; in retaliation the SS new:
newspaper. If a journalist wrote something critical of
murdered the population of an entire town, Lidice. tho N | ‘it
tne Nazis,
ld |
the editor would be punished Consequentl

ditors ensured no such artic es were published

 9: Depth Study B: Germany, 1918-1945

In March 1933, the Ministry for Popular Enlightenment and

intimidating all opposition parties
Propaganda was created, with Goebbels in charge. He This mea
that
nt56.1% of Ge 5 votec ‘ 0
ensured that all art and entertainment conformed to Nazi even after Hitler became chancellor. He knew that he
values. A cheap radio called the ‘People’s Receiver’ was mass- either had to win over the doubters. or intimidate ther
produced so that more Germans could receive entertainment
and propaganda. By 1939, 70% of the population had a radio,
Churches
the highest level of ownership in the world.
The churches’ moral principles led some to challenge the
In 1937 Goebbels arranged an exhibition called Nazis. In addition, church leaders offered a rival influer
‘Degenerate Art’ (Source 90). It was intended to educate for Germans. Churches could not simply be shu
the public by showing art that was immoral and repulsive like the KPD, but they could be neutralised. In July 19%
to Nazi values — mainly modern art. It included works by von Papen asVice-Chancellor signed a Concordat with the
Picasso, Matisse and Van Gogh. It was enormously popular Catholic Church, which guaranteed its freedom, rights and
as over 4 million people went to see it by 1940. property would be protected.
To gain the support of Protestants a new organisation
called the German Christians was created, led by a ReICc!i
2) —h

bishop. This aimed to blend Christian and Nazi principles,

but had little success. In 1934 Martin Niemdller and
Dietrich Bonhoffer helped to set up the Confessing Church
for non-Nazi ministers. It gained the support of 7,000 of
Germany’s 17,000 pastors. In response, priests and pastors
were arrested, church schools were closed and funds
confiscated. Niemdller was sent to a concentration camp
in 1937 and remained there until 1945.

Jews
Source 90: Hitler and Goebbels touring the exhibition on
Although there were only 503,000 Jews in Germany in
‘Degenerate Art’ in 1937.
1933, fewer than 1% of the population, the Nazis saw
them as a threat.
rev) Hitler’s priority was to revise the Treaty
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 9.10 . of Versailles, which meant making a good impression
with foreign nations. This explains why there was limited
Assess the importance of propaganda in maintaining the official action against Jews up to 1937. There was a
Nazis’ authority in Germany. Was it more important than one-day boycott of Jewish shops on 1 April 1933, but
other factors, such as the use of terror?
this was mainly to please the SA and had little impact.
In 1935 the Nuremberg Laws deprived Jews of their
Why did the Nazis persecute many citizenship.
groups in German society?
There were two main reasons for the persecution of
particular groups in society.
Nuremberg Laws: were two laws called the ‘Reich
Citizenship Law’ and the ‘Law for the Protection of German
Ideological Blood and German Honour’. Jews could not be citizens of
The 25-Point Programme of 1920 and Mein Kampf showed the Reich and were forbidden from marrying - or having
hostility to Jews, foreigners, communists and anyone who was sexual relations with - a German. Jews were defined as.
anyone with three or four Jewish grandparents, irrespective
deemed to be against the national interest. Nazi notions of
of whether or not they were religious.
racial purity (the study of ‘eugenics’) meant they discriminated
against people who were mentally or physically handicapped.
The 1936 Olympics were held in Ber
Political and Goebbels put aside anti-Semitism to ma

Hitler never won a majority of the vote in an election. Even propaganda Impression to the wo
h
in March 1933, with KPD leaders under arrest and the SA Germany was. Many Jews. t
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

back to Germany because it appeared that 4p

Ss bad as they originally feared. TOP TIP
The website of United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
in Washington DC is useful for learning about all aspects of
ACTIVITY 9.12 the Nazi regime. You can find it by searching for USAHMM.

Research the 1936 Berlin Olympics. To what extent was

it a propaganda triumph for Goebbels and Hitler?

Was Nazi Germany a totalitarian state?

A totalitarian state is one in which the government has total
In 1938 Hitler’s foreign policy became more aggressive. power over all individuals and institutions. Two American
As Austria was invaded, Jews in Vienna were mistreated historians have identified six key features of such a state:
see Source 9P) and Heydrich’s assistant, Adolf
1 an official ideology
Eichmann, deported thousands. Later that year, on 7
November, Herschel Grynszpan went into the German 2 asingle party state, led by one person
embassy in Paris and shot a minor official called Ernst
total control of the military
vom Rath. Grynszpan’s parents were Polish Jews and
had been deported from Germany against their will in total control of media and communication
October, along with 17,000 others. a police state that uses terror to suppress opposition
eo)
SS
Oni
py total control of the economy.

ACTIVITY 9.13

Look at the six criteria listed. How far do they apply

to the Third Reich? For each one select at least three
pieces of evidence that argue for or against it applying
to Germany.
Make brief notes indicating how you would answer
the question: ‘How effectively did the Nazis control
Germany, 1933-1945?’ You will need these later.

9.4 What was it like to

re
live in Nazi Germany?
Source 9P: Jews in Vienna in 1938 are forced to scrub the
streets while Austrians and Nazis shout insults and look on.
Focus points
* How did young people react to the Nazi regime?
- How successful were Nazi policies towards women and
Goebbels persuaded Hitler that the time was right to he family?
ittack German Jews. The order was given for SS men - Did most people in Germany benefit from Nazi rule?
dressed in plain clothes) to attack Jewish homes, shops
* How did the coming of war change life in Nazi Germany?
ind | synagogues. At least 100 people were killed in the
lence. The next morning city centres were littered with
How did young people react
lebris from the night before, hence the
to the Nazi regime?
th to 10th November 193% 8 became known as
The NSDAP was keen to indoctrinate young people with
nt tne Night of Broken Glass’.
Nazi principles to secure Germany’s future. Jewish and
these events and fined 1 billion politically suspect teachers were removed, The curriculum
ersecuted Their
was Changed: subjects such as biology were used to
eir children excluded from emphasise German racial superiority. Teachers went on
Nazi ide¢ logy COUISeS.
 9: Depth Study B: Germany, 1918-1945

Outside school, indoctrination continued. Fo boys there

was the Hitler Youth led by Baldur von Schirach. They went ACTIVITY 9.14

camping, sang songs and did athletics, which was meant

Change and continuity: look at Sources 9Q and 9R.
to prepare boys for the army. By 1938 it had 7.1 million In what ways had life changed for young people in
members. In 1939 membership was made compulsory. Germany since the Weimar Republic, and what had
Girls went to the League of German Maidens where they remained unchanged?
earned cooking and domestic skills. The result of this was
that children were brought up to be loyal to Hitler and the
How successful were Nazi policies towards
nation before anything else. Some children even informed
on their parents to the Gestapo if they said something that women ane the family?
contradicted what they had been taught in school or the The Firs World |War and the Weimar era saw n
Hitler Youth. changes
and eee vote under th
Not all children blindly followed. Many formed their
women used the freedom of the 1920s to g
own opposition groups, like the Edelweiss Pirates. They and socialise. The Nazis were appalled by th
listened to American jazz (‘black music’ the Nazis accused Many older women were
of being racially inferior) and dressed in their own style. younger generation and tne
They attacked the Hitler Youth and caused so much ability and employment for their ht
concern that 12 Pirates were publicly hanged in Cologne in such women tended to \
1944 as a warning to others. backed Hindenburg instead ofHitl presid
in 1932. It was only by the July 1932 election that
numbers of women had shifted their support to the
NSDAP.

His words had power. He was emotional. He was

sentimental, he was never intellectual ... The lonely
bachelor, the non-smoker, the crusading teetotaller -
the glorious fighter for Germany’s honour who had
gone to prison for his convictions. It was a richly
emotional picture for the women to gaze on.

Source 9S: Katherine Thomas was a British visitor to

Germany and published a book on German women in
1943. She wrote this extract after hearing Hitler speak
in public.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 9.11

What does Source 9S tell us about the nature of Hitler’s

appeal to women in Germany?

Nazi policies towards women

Slogan ‘Kinder, Kuche
Women could only have specialist jobs that mer
not do, such as being an

places availab
trade unions had been banned
i
protest against these po

Young5S women we

of pure blo
Sources 9Q and R: An Edelweiss Pirate group (top) and the
executions in Cologne in November 1944 (bottom).
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

3 In 1936 the SS went a step further and established

ensborn programme where officers would have
dren with unmarried women who were deemed racially
pure. There was no obligation to act as a responsible
father and the women were given financial support to raise
the child.
Things changed in the Second World War. As the war
progressed there was a greater need for workers. As
12.5 million men served in the armed forces women were
\eeded to perform war-related work. This was mainly in
weapons factories and on farms.
However, many brave women joined the resistance. They
ised Nazi stereotyping to escape questioning by feigning Source 9T: Hitler speaking at the opening of a Volkswagen
deference, or pretending to be pregnant. Some suffered factory in 1938, with the iconic cars in front of the
for opposing Nazism: a female-only concentration camp podium.
was set up at Moringen in November 1933. The largest of
the female camps was established at Ravensbrtck in 1938,
where an estimated 50,000 women died. With unemployment back down to pre-Depression
levels in 1936, Hitler set up the Four-Year Plan Office
under Goring. This wastomake Germany ready for war
Explore female opposition to Nazism by researching: with more weapons and materials and a drive towards
Minna Cammens, Maria Terwiel, and Gertrud Staewen. autarky. Schacht opposed this, but lost the argument
202 How significant
were their actions? and was removed from office in 1937.

KEY TERM
Did most people in Germany benefit
from Nazi rule?
One of the key reasons why the Nazis were able to win
support was through establishing economic stability.
Hitler was fortunate as the Depression had actually
peaked in December 1932, just before he came to power.
Economics Minister Hjaldmar Schacht (who wasn’t Goring was no economist. The Four-Year Plan Office was
a Nazi) was an experienced banker and had helped chaotic and failed to achieve its targets for production
Stresemann end hyperinflation in 1923. His New Plan (see Figure 9.1). In particular
the Nazis lacked oil and
of 1934 created jobs through public works schemes rubber which were essential war materials.
such as the building of the Autobahn (the motorway).
Another significant project was building the Volkswagen
(meaning ‘people’s car’). The government spent a lot of 100
90
noney to create these jobs but it stimulated industry.
80
In 1935 Hitler announced the army would expand 70
pie
trom 100,000 to 500,000 and that an airforce (the 60
Luftwaffe) would be built, which created
new jobs in a
50
y inufacturing.

Sve
px
3 S
ACTIVITY. 9.16
- ‘
prey 1
Synthetic0h Alumin ium Buna Steel fea]
How useful is Source 9T to an historian investigating the :
oll be
Nazi economy in the 1930s?
Figure 9.1; % of target met by the Four-Year Plan by 1942.
 9: Depth Study B: Germany, 1918-1945

Policy towards workers KEY TERM

The Nazis distrusted the workers, most of whom had
voted for the SPD and KPD. The ‘Strength Through Joy’
programme was established with two key aims. .
1 To win workers’ support by providing leisure and
holiday activities they might not otherwise be able to
afford, such as skiing or theatre trips.
The biggest problem was producing weapons. The Four-
2 To fill workers’ spare time with activities, limiting Year Plan failed spectacularly to produce the amount of
their ability to think about politics, thereby reducing equipme that
ntthe Wehrmacht (army) needed. In 1942
opposition. Hitler appointed Albert Speer as MinisterofArmaments.
By 1936 there were 30 million workers enlisted in Despite his inexperience — he was Hitler’s person
the programme but there was little evidence that it architect with no background in industry — he reorgani
converted the working class. Both internal SD reports German industry and by 1944 there was a 300% increase
and SOPADE sources reveal that workers were happy to in production. Even this wasn’t enough. In the vital year of
accept the free holidays but didn’t necessarily adopt Nazi 1944 Germany could only produce 40% of the tanks and
ideology. 25% of the planes that the USA, USSR and Britain together
could.

ACTIVITY 9.17 Effects of Allied bombing

Britain and Germany started bombing one another’s
lass debate about the reasons why Hitler was
cities in 1940. Britain aimed at economic and military
able to maintain power in the period from 1933 to 1939.
targets such as the Ruhr vall ey coal fields and naval bases.
a particular, debate these reasons:
In February 1942 British Bomber Command decided to
Goebbels’ propaganda.
target cities to undermine German civilian morale. They
ae _Himmler’s police state. used incendiary bombs that started fires on the ground
Schacht’ s economic policies. as this was the most effective method of destroying a city.
) Discuss the relative importance of each factor. American planes also took part.

One of the most infamous raids was on Hamburg in July

1943, where an estimated 30,000 people were killed and one

How did the coming of war change million left homeless by a huge blaze caused by incendiary
bombs. Another was on Dresden in February 1945, just
life in Nazi Germany?
before the end of the war. A recent commission claimed that
In the first two years of the Second World War, campaigns
between 18,000 and 25,000 people were killed; pre\
went well for the Nazis and there was little disruption to
estimates were higher. By the end of the wa r British and
life on the home front. Food rationing, introduced in 1939,
American planes had killed about 300,000 German civilians.
tIWMNNN

was not too severe. However, as autarky failed, more

restrictions were put in place. With the 1941 invasion of
the USSR, Germany began to struggle so the transition
was made to total war. The economy was oriented to FACT FILE

the war: by 1944 61% of the workforce were in war-related American author Kurt Vonnegut was held as a prisoner
of war in Dresden when the city was fire-bombed. He
employment
survived and wrote the surreal cult novel Slaughterhouse-
Five about his experiences.

eS TOP TIP CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 9.12

The BBC documentary The Nazis: AWarning from History
covers Hitler’s rise to power and life in Nazi Germany. The Look at Source 9U. Do you think the Allies s
succeeded in
interviews with Germans who lived through the period are their strategy to weaken German morale? Do you think
revealing. reduced support for Hitler?
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

A. Altreich
Ostmark
Ostgebiete
Generalgouvernement
Bialystok
Protektorat BoOhmen und Muéhren
Estland — judenfrei —
Lettland
Litauvuen
Belgien
Dinemark
Frankreich / Besetztes Gebiet
Unbesetztes Gebiet
Griechenland
Nicderlande
Norwegen

Bulgarien
Ingland
Pinnland
Irland
Source 9U: Dresden after the bombing by Allied planes in Itaiien einschl. Sardinien
1945. Albanien
Kroatien
Portugal
Ruminien einschl. Bessarabien
The impact of the war on Jews Schweden
Sohweiz
On 1 September 1939, the Wehrmacht (the army) invaded Serbien
Poland. Now 3 million additional Jews were living in Slowakei
Spanien
German-occupied territory. This presented its own Tirkei (europ: Teil)
problems. Jews were banned from working or living freely
2.994.684
so the Reich had to provide for them. The first ghetto was WeiSruBland aus—
set up in Poland in October 1939. schil. Bialystok 446.484

11.000.000

Ghetto: an area in which a specific ethnic group is forced

Source 9V: A document from the Wannsee Conference
by law or informal threat of violence to live. By the end of the
showing the Nazi estimates on the Jewish populations in
war the Nazis had set up more than 1,000. The largest was
the Warsaw ghetto, which held over 400,000 people. each country.

the SS and the Wehrmacht were ordered to focus on

The June 1941 invasion of the Soviet Union further killing all Europe’s Jews. Special camps had been built
increased the number of Jews under Nazi control. German where Jews would be murdered using Zyklon B (hydrogen
intentions in this invasion were clear. Just behind the cyanide) and their bodies cremated.
Wehrmacht were four Einsatzgruppen (‘action groups’),
which totalled around 3,000 men. Their orders were to
murder Jews and dump their bodies in mass graves. By o TOP TIP
the end of the year they had killed 700,000 people. The
The film Conspiracy made by the BBC and HBO is about the
war with the USSR was draining money and manpower. Wannsee Conference. It was filmed on location at the actual
Staffing the ghettos was costly. Killing the Jews was the villa where the meeting took place and is worth watching.
solution chosen. The SS were the driving force behind this.
However, by the end of 1941 there were concerns about the
of the ope ration. Anew method was required. ACTIVITY 9.18

The Wannsee Conference and the Final Solution

Research the term ‘genocide’. When was it first used?
Why does the Holocaust qualify as an act of genocide?
jary 1942, a meeting was held in Wannsee, just
What other examples are there? Study Source 9V: what
It was chaired by Heydrich and arranged by
does it tell us about the Nazi approach to the killing of
nn. This planned the ‘Final Solutionof
4
Jews by this stage?
ernmen departments.
 9: Depth Study B: Germany, 1918-1945

What the Nazis termed the Final Solution later came As well as Jews, the Nazis targeted other margina
to be known as the Holocaust. Approximately 6 million social groups such as homosexuals, the homeless a
people were killed. Around half of the victims died in Balkan Muslims. The Soviet army discovered the six deat
the peak period of murder, from the spring of 1942 to camps, four in the summer of 1944, Chetmno and Auschwitz
February 1943. By 1944 the war against the USSR was in January 1945. Holocaust Memorial Day is on 27 January
failing so this gradually brought an end to the Holocaust every year — the day that Auschwitz was liberated
by spring 1945.

; es Country . |No. of victims

Name of camp Estimated no. of victims f
Auschwitz 1.5 million Poland million
2.9 million |
ie Ukraine 900,000
Treblinka 750,000 ,
+
y Hungar -
450,000
Belzec 600,000 eae!
:
Majdanek 360,000‘Halle : | Romania
: 270,000
en
[ i Belarus 245,000
Chetmno 250,000
i | Lithuania | 22(
Sobibor 250,000 SS —
r ee 7 Germany )0
Table 9.7: Death camp victims. a - oe 7
Russia | 107,000

et_fssgo_____
er 7 a om |
Holland 106,00( |
France 90,00
All the death camps were outside Germany’s pre-war
borders (see Source 9W): why do you think this was? Table 9.8: Countries with the highest number
of Holocaust victims.

Ravensbruck

Bergen-Belsen Sachsenhausen

German
@‘ : Gross-Rosen Poland
ak
Majdanek
Buchenwa
Auschwitz [S|

Flossenburg Theresienstadt Birkenau Belzec

Czechoslova

France Natzweiler-Struthof
[$s] Death camps
Dachau
Mauthausen Concentrations camps
Switzerland Austria

Source 9W: A map showing the location of the six death camps that accounted for more than half of all Holocaust victims.
Concentration camps were for hard labour and were intended to contribute to the war economy. The death camps were
specifically to murder people.
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

Review your learning

TOP TIP We began with these four investigative questions:
There are many excellent films on the Holocaust.
1 Was the Weimar Republic doomed from the start?
Schindler’s List, The Pianist and Life Is Beautiful are all
strongly recommended. 2 Whywas Hitler able to dominate Germany by 1934?
3. How effectively did the Nazis control Germany,
1933-1945?

ACTIVITY 9.20 4 What was it like to live in Nazi Germany?

Having undertaken several activities and tests, you
Make brief notes indicating how you would answer the
should now be able to describe events, assess their
question, ‘What was it like to live in Nazi Germany?’ You
will need these later. significance, discuss causes and consequences in
each case, and offer opinions supported by evidence.
If you feel that you cannot do this for any of these four
questions, you should revise the relevant section. Then
read the summary points - and turn to the Big Challenge!

Summary points

The Big Challenge

In the four investigative questions for this chapter you we need to consider what other events might be
will have noticed that judging the significance of an important in this wider process. Let’s take the first
event or a person in a wider process is an important example and expand it.
skill. Here we need to put this into practice. Look at the
The Kapp Putsch is an example of right-wing
following two examples:
opposition to the Weimar government. So how
1 The Kapp Putsch 1920 important was it as an example of opposition to the
2 TheNuremburg Laws 1935 government? Let’s consider all the examples of this:

We know these events are important, but how The Kapp Putsch
important are they? To make this decision, we need * Organisation Consul
to consider first what they are important for. Then The Munich Putsch

Who was affected? Challenge to Long term Evaluation of

government? consequences significance

sation Consul
 9: Depth Study B: Germany, 1918-1945

Which of these events was the most significant Now try it with the second example of the Nuremberg
challenge to the Weimar government? We need Laws. This is an example of Nazi anti-Semitism. How
some criteria to judge this. Think about how many important was it for Jewish people in the 1930s? Think
people were affected, how close the government of all the examples ofanti-Semitism in the period from
came to collapsing, and whether there were long- 1933 to 1939. Now think ofcriteria to judge this on.
term consequences of the event. Set up a table like Construct a table again, but make sure to come up
the one given. with new criteria as the investigation is different. Now
Add a sentence in each box then reach a decision come to a conclusion based on the overall significance
about the overall significance of the event. Which was of the Nuremberg Laws. Were they the most significant
most important and why? development for Jews in the 1930s? Or were there other
changes which were more important?

Exam-style questions
Questions in the style of Paper 1
1 Describe Nazi policies towards young people in Germany.

Ps What were the main features of the Four-Year Plan?

3 Why was there a threat to the Weimar Republic from the left wing from 1919-1920?
4 Why did Hitler purge the SA in the Night of the Long Knives?

To what extent did Germans benefit from Nazi rule in the period from 1933 to 1939?

‘From 1919 to 1929 the Weimar Republic was a success.’ How far do you agree with this
statement? Explain your answer.

Questions in the style of Paper 4 - IGCSE only

1 How important was the War Guilt Clause in German opposition to the Treaty ofVersailles?

2 How significant was the collapse of the German economy after 1929 in Hitler’s rise to power?

S How significant was Hitler’s invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941 in the development of the
Holocaust?
 10: Depth Study C: Russia, 1905-1941

What is this depth study about?

n 1913, the Russian Empire covered one-sixth of the
world’s land surface. With Tsar Nicholas II celebrating
the 300th anniversary of his family’s reign, the Russian
monarchy seemed secure. Yet, within five years Russia
vad experienced two revolutions, and Nicholas Il and his
immediate family were killed. A communist government
was led first by Vladimir Lenin and then by Joseph Stalin.
Despite these dramatic changes, Russia’s economy
and society continued to be largely rural. Under a cruel
dictatorship, the USSR modernised, affecting millions of
people’s lives.
As historians, your challenge is to study this turbulent
period of Russian history and consider the causes and Source 10A: A photograph of Tsar Nicholas || and his
consequences of these events.
family, taken in 1913 at the time of the Romanov 300th
The key questions we will be examining are as follows: anniversary celebrations.
1 Why did thetsarist regime collapsein 1917?
2 Howdid the Bolsheviks gain power, and how did they KEY TERM
consolidate their rule? > - ze -

3 Howdid Stalin gain and hold onto power? Communists: believers in communism, a socie
er
and economic theory based on the comr
What was the impact of Stalin’s economic policies?
wealth and the means ofproducing and «

The Russian Empire in 1913

as it was during the reign of Nicholas II Bering Sea

Arctic Ocean 2D

e(Murmansk

Helsinki 0

Sheree U4, Athangelsk

Mogilev
e
e Okhotsk Sea
Moscow
e Perm

Kazane Ekaterinburg
3 &Tobolsk
Tyumen

Alma-Ata
Samarkand e

Figure 10.1: The Russian Empire in 1913.

 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

* poor education
a} - outdated farming methods
Ue Naor ; - harvest failures.
Nicholas || was concerned that Tsarevich Alexei, who
suffered from haemophilia, might die. He wasinfluenced | Russia’s urban workers suffered 12-hour shifts in unsafe
by his wife, Tsarina Alexandra, who in turn was influenced conditions for low wages. Trade unions were illegal. The

URI SIS Ce SURELY eM Tas army could be used to end strikes. Such repression
encouraged support for revolutionary opposition.

ACTIVITY 10.1
? KEY TERMS
Study and interpret Source 10A. What do you think was
sarevich: |
the purpose ofthis photograph in 1913? is be Pee

10.1 Why did the tsarist regime

collapse in 1917?
Focus points
How well did the tsarist regime deal with the difficulties
of ruling Russia up to 1914?
+ Howdid the tsar survive the 1905 Revolution?
* How far was the tsar weakened by the First World War?
» Why was the revolution of March 1917 successful? CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 10.1
210
How well did the tsarist regime deal with What were the main features of life for peasants in the
years before 1914?
the difficulties of ruling Russia up to 1914?
There were no legal restrictions on the tsar’s power. He
could ignore the Imperial Council’s advice or dismiss
its members. Nicholas || did not trust his government
ministers. He took advice from his German-born wife, who
dis iked public appearances. Russia had:

10 elections
* no parliament
0 political opposition.

Russian society under the tsarist regime was hierarchical

and there was great inequality.

» Aristocracy: 1.5% of the population, but owned 25% of

the land, often wealthy and influential.
Capitalists: few but influential, always in favourof
conomic progress, often of political progress.
. De; sant : 80% of Russia’s population.

1861 abolition of serfdom, peasants bought

ind over 49 years but still lacked civil rights. In 1897,
peasants largely lived in communes. Some were
| farmers (kulaks) but most were poor because of:

Source 10B: Russian peasant village, c.1900.

 10: Depth Study C: Russia, 1905-1941

| am not prepared to be a Tsar. | never wanted

to become one. | know nothing ofthe business
of ruling.

Source 10E: Nicholas II, on the death of his father.

ACTIVITY 10.3

Compare and interpret Sources 10D and 10E. What can

you learn from these sources about the reasons why
Nicholas II found ruling Russia difficult?

Russia was large and potentially wealthy, but difficult t

govern. Its size slowed communications; its long
borders with different countries made it vulner;
Source 10C: Photograph of a rural scene in 1909 taken by attack. The Empire was multi-ethnic, containir
Sergei Prokudin-Gorsky. 200 nationalities. Only 44% of the population were
Russian. Government officic
ed to corruption. Central governm
ACTIVITY 10.2 to enforce its decisions:
independently. Minister of Finance Sergei Witte had
Compare and interpret Sources 10B and 10C. What
eguN modernisation and Russia’s economy had the
similarities and differences do you notice and how
astest growth rate in the world in the per
reliable are they as evidence?
However, Russia remained one of the least industrialised
economies in Europe in 1914

The government was based in the:

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 10.2 Russia's rulers tried to unite the Empire through
Russification. This policy led many to desire
1 Create three lists showing which of Russia’s
independence.
difficulties you think were:
* unavoidable
¢ created by the government mennn
en
e worsened by the government. Multi-ethnic: made up of multiple different ethnic groups
2 Russia’s long-term problems had been building for Russification: forcing Russia’s ethnic and religious
many years. For each group, write a sentence about minorities to speak Russian and adopt Russians ways.
why there were grievances:
e workers
e peasants
e national minorities
mw Russians
e the middle classes
m@ Ukrainians
e revolutionaries.
m Poles
mw Byelorussians
mg Jews
The Emperor of all the Russias is an autocratic mw Kirghiz
and unlimited monarch. God commands that his m Tartars
supreme power be obeyed out of conscience as m Finns
well as fear. Others

Source 10D: The Fundamental Laws of Tsarism. Figure 10.2: Russia’s population in 1900.
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

The protesters never delivered their message to the tsar,

ACTIVITY 10.4
who was not even at the Winter Palace that day. Instead, the
List the problems Nicholas II faced in ruling Russia protesters were met by soldiers who opened fire, killing 200
before 1905. Put your points in order of seriousness. and wounding another 800 people. This was ‘Bloody Sunday.
The Russian Orthodox Church was a powerful spiritual It marked the beginning of a year of revolutionary events.
force, closely tied to the monarchy. Research its role
under Tsar Nicholas Il. ACTIVITY 10.5

Look at the petition delivered by Father Gapon on

now aid tne tSar SUV Viive the 1905 Revolution?
Bloody Sunday in Source 1OF.
The revolution was brought on by a mixture of errors and What complaints does it list?
reforms: What are the protesters’ demands?
Describe the tone of the petition.
Censorship was relaxed, encouraging political discussion
and opposition. Bh
WN Do you think the tsar would have been more
concerned by the content or the tone ofthe petition?
The defeats, economic effects and accounts of official
Explain your answer.
mpetence in the 1904/5 Russo-Japanese War all
iaree)
damaged the government. Research Bloody Sunday 1905 and describe the key events.

Over 100,000 workers wenton strike in January 1905. On 22

January 1905, 200,000 protesters marched through
— MOCKBA —
St Petersburg to the Winter Palace. The strikers were led by a
priest, Father Gapon, a double-agent working for the police.

Sovereign! We, workers and inhabitants ofthe city

we.
212
of St Petersburg, our wives, children, and helpless
old parents, have come to you, Sovereign, to seek
justice and protection. We are treated like slaves who
must suffer a bitter fate and keep silent. And we have
By J
suffered, but we only get pushed deeper and deeper
into an abyss of misery, ignorance, and lack of rights.

Our first request was that our employers discuss our

needs together with us. But they refused to do this on
the grounds that the law does not provide us with such
a right. Also unlawful were our other requests: to reduce
the working day to eight hours; for them to set wages
together with us and by agreement with us; to examine
our disputes with lower-level factory administrators; to
increase the wages of unskilled workers and women to
one ruble per day; to abolish overtime work; to provide
medical care attentively and without insult; to build
shops so that it is possible to work there and not face
death from the awful draughts, rain and snow.

Sovereign, this is what we face and this is the reason BCTYNAEHIE

that we have gathered before the walls of your palace. Source 10G: A revolutionary cartoon from 1905.
Do not refuse to come to the aid of your people. Tear
down the wall that separates you from your people
ACTIVITY 10.6
and let it rule the country together with you.
Study and interpret Source 10G. What message was this
Source 10F: The petition carried by protesters on Bloody
cartoon intended to convey in 1905?
inday, 1905.
 10: Depth Study C: Russia, 1905-1941

Timeline of events in 1905 | KEY TERM

January — Strikes spread across every major town
oviet:
and city. .
February Grand Duke Sergei killed by a revolutionary.
Moscow University students protested. The On the improvement of order in the state
government closed down all universities. The disturbances and unrest in St Petersburg, Moscow
Peasants began stealing from aristocrats’ and in many other parts of our Empire have filled Our
lands. The army was used 2,700 times heart with great sorrow. The disturbances could give
to control peasant uprisings before rise to national instability and present a threat to the
October 1905. unity of Our State. The oath which We took as Tsar
June Maggoty meat caused a mutiny on the compels Us to use all Our strength, intelligence and
battleship Potemkin. The captain shot the power to put a speedy end to this unrest. The relevant
rebels, so the crew shot their officers and authorities have been ordered to take measures to
sailed the ship to Odessa, where thousands deal with outbreaks of disorder and to protect people.
assisted the sailors. Soldiers killed 2,000
(i) Fundamental civil freedoms will be granted to
people. The mutiny did not spread, but
the population, including real personal inviolability,
it caused major embarrassment for the
freedom of conscience, speech, assembly and
government.
association.
_ National minorities demanded change. !n
Poland there were more strikes than in all (ii) Participation in the Duma will be granted to
the rest of the empire. Georgia declared those classes of the population which are at present
itself independent. deprived of voting powers, and this will lead to the
July A Peasants’ Union was formed, with similar development of a universal franchise.
demands to Gapon’s union. (iii) It is established as an unshakeable rule that
October — Strikes brought Russia to a standstill, no law can come into force without its approval by
Transport stopped, lights went out, the State Duma and representatives of the people
telephone lines went dead, shops closed, will be given the opportunity to take real part in the
food was scarce, robberies and lootings supervision ofthe legality of government bodies.
increased and the Moscow water system
Source 10H: The October Manifesto, 1905.
failed.
As state censorship failed, newspapers
Defeating the 1905 revolution
critical of the government sprang up.
In August 1905, Sergei Witte ended
The St Petersburg Soviet was created
War, reducing pressure on the government. Fron
to direct the strikes. Dominated by Leon
September 1905, pro-tsarist organ
Trotsky, it organised strikers, published
Black Hundreds carried out violent a
a newspaper (/zvestiia), established an
opponents. Over 3,00
army and distributed food. Similar soviets
appeared in 50 other cities. In October 1905, Nicholas issued t
granting certain civil freedoms (see S
satisfied many liberals, conservat
ACTIVITY 10.7
socialists. ln November 1905, Nicholas issued ths
Study the timeline of events in 1905. November Manifesto, wh
payments in half for 1906
1 List the groups involved in protest, strikes or political
opposition in 1905.
ACTIVITY 10.8
2 What motivated each of these groups?
Which of the events of 1905 do you think Study and interpret Source 10H. What concessions did
represented the most serious threat to tsarism? Nicholas grant?
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

oromised financial assistance for buying land. For most, After the 1905 revolution: peasants
this was not enough. A poor harvest in 1905 led to more Stolypin tried to win over the peasantry by addressing
orotests. some of their grievances. He allowed kulaks to leave the
communes and offered incentives for peasants to buy
Minister of the Interior Peter Stolypin was appointed prime
farms or move to farms in Siberia to increase the amount
minister in 1906. He sent the army into the countryside
of land available. By 1914:
with orders to show no mercy: 15,000 peasants were
executed, 45,000 were deported and the rebellion ended.
» almost2 million peasants had left communes
In December, troops arrested the St Petersburg Soviet. » peasants owned almost half of Russia’s land
A Bolshevik uprising in Moscow was crushed. The * agricultural productivity was increasing
Okhrana targeted revolutionary leaders, and by 1917
- five consecutive harvests had been good
the most important ones were dead, in Siberian exile
* peasant violence was declining.
or in hiding abroad. This did not stop the murder by
revolutionaries of 2,000 government officials in 1906. Stolypin’s policies benefited many, but most of Russia's
Opponents oftsarism were not united. Different social groups farms were small and inefficient, and peasants’ conditions
had little in common but anger and no agreed leadership. remained poor. Russia’s population increased by 21%
The tsar’s ministers skilfully used a mixture of concessions during the period 1900-1910, worsening
the problem of
and force to deal with different groups. Key parts of society - land-hunger.
especially the army — remained loyal to the tsar.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 10.3 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 10.4

How effectively did the October and November 1905 How far do you think the situation in the Russian
manifestos respond to the concerns of that year’s countryside changed after the 1905 revolution?
214 demonstrators?

After the 1905 revolution: workers

After the 1905 revolution: Dumas Stolypin improved industrial output, but Russia still
By April 1906, with the government back in control, lagged behind Britain, Germany and the USA. He had
Nicholas issued his Fundamental Laws, restating the plans for basic education programmes and intended to
~S ‘inciples of tsarism and revising some of the promises introduce regulations on factory work. However,
in the October Manifesto. Voting laws were redesigned to workers’ basic living costs remained high and their
O sure that pro-tsarist representatives would be elected. A
conditions were still poor. There were increasing
week later, the Duma met for the first time. numbers of workers, and increasing numbers of them
Many of the first Duma deputies were optimistic about were literate and politicised. The number of political
the prospects for democratic government in Russia, strikes increased. Meanwhile, the state remained
but quickly realised that Tsar Nicholas had no intention repressive: in one strike in the Lena goldfields in Siberia
Oof allowing them real power. Four Dumas met during in April 1912, soldiers killed 270 workers and injured
1906-1914. The first two were highly critical of Nicholas many more.
and the tsar dissolved both. After electoral law changes,
the 3rd Duma from November 1907 was much less critical.
Allowed no significant power, it gradually came to oppose Number of Number of strikes
the government. The 4th Duma supported Nicholas II at strikes classed by government
outbreak
of the First World War. as ‘political’
Lead 466 24
om ott +— — ao |
A912 2,032 1,300

Dissolved: parliament i ended; elected officials are sent away. 1913 2,404 | 1,034 eS |
Okhrana: a tsarist Russian political police force formed to 1914 (Jan-July) 3,534 2,401 ‘=
combat anti-government activity.
 10: Depth Study C: Russia, 1905-1941

After the 1905 revolution: middle classes

and aristocracy (uci
Economic modernisation led to increasing wealth for
Roubles: Russia’s currency.
the middle class, but their power did not increaseafter
1905. Although increases in industrial production made
Capitalists rich, government reforms in the countryside
Petrograd price increases between
angered wealthy landowners.
August 1914 and late 1916

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING Milk 150%

10.5
Shoes and clothing_| 500%
Which of the following statements do you most closely
agree with? Explain your answerina paragraph. White bread 500% |
a Tsarism was as strong as ever in July 1914. Butter 830%
b_ Tsarism looked strong, but was weak in reality in
Meat | 900%
July 1914.
c_ Tsarism was weak - revolution was near in Table 10.2: Petrograd price increases between August 1914
July 1914. and late 1916.

Labour shortages caused factory closures and severe

How far was the Tsar weakened shortages. Food production fell, and transport problems
by the First World War? worsened things dramatically. In 1917 Petrograd received
To support Russia’s ally Serbia against Austria-Hungary, only 48% of the grain it required.
the tsar ordered his army to mobilise in July 1914,
prompting Germany to declare war. The outbreak of war Social impact
215
sparked an outburst of patriotism in Russia; the Duma
Large numbers fled the areas in which fighting occurred.
passed a vote of loyalty to Nicholas. The population of St Petersburg and Moscow swelled.
Meanwhile, 13 million peasants were conscripted into
Military impact the army, causing rural labour shortages, which affected
Russia's army of 1.4 million men was the largest in Europe aristocrats’ incomes. The government seized horses,
in 1914; a further4million had been conscripted by 1915. harming agriculture. In 1914-1915, the Russian army
By January 1915, 25% of the Russian army had been killed, suffered a huge loss of officers, the sons of aristocratic
wounded or captured in a disastrous campaign. Defeats families. Half of the peasant families lost sons. Russia
at the Battles of Tannenberg and Masurian Lakes were contained millions of discontented people and, as a result
especially costly. During 1915, the Russian army was forced to of conscription, large numbers of them were armed.
retreat nearly 1000 km into Russia, and two million soldiers
were lost. A major offensive in 1916 was very successful until Political impact
supply and reinforcement problems forced the Russians to The Duma demanded to be recalled. It criticised the
retreat. The army’s leadership was extremely incompetent. handling of the war and offered to form a new government;
Severe supply shortages meant that thousands of soldiers Nicholas refused. In August 1915, liberal and reform Duma
were sent into battle barefoot before 1916. members formed a ‘Progressive Bloc’, requesting politica
reform. Once Nicholas Il took personal command of the
Economic impact army in August 1915, all defeats reflected badly on him.
The First World War had a huge impact on Russia’s In his absence at the front, Tsarina Alexandra ran the
economy. Government spending rose from 4m roubles government. Rumours spread that she was a German spy,
a year to 30 million, while income fell because the war or that she was having an affair with a man called Gregor
reduced foreign trade, and because Nicholas tried to ban Rasputin. He was believed by many Russian aristocrats
vodka (30% of government income came from alcohol be a holy man. His apparent ability to cure the Tsare\
tax). The government printed more money, but this caused gave him huge influence over the Tsarina. Most damaging
inflation. Between July 1914 and early 1917, average wages however, were the stories that she was tal
increased by 100% but prices rose faster. politics. Several aristocrats became s
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

nfluence that they murdered him in December ACTIVITY 10.9

l w months later, a revolution broke out on the
f Petrograd. Study and interpret Sources 10I and 10J. Comment
on the events recorded and describe the nature of the
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 10.6 protests on 8 March 1917.

What were the most important ways the war made things
more difficult for the tsar?

Timeline of events in March 1917

7 March: — Workers in Petrograd’s largest factory went
on strike over low wages, poor working
The >»March
March 19 luti began as
1917 Revolution as aa series
series 0 of =
pppdiiens sade meriees
=
spontaneous and peaceful protests on the streets of
8March: More Petrograd workers went on strike.
Petrograd, and it ended with the abdication ofTsar
Many celebrated International Women’s
Nicholas Il. The people who began protesting in early
Day. Perhaps 250,000 participated in
March 1917 would never have imagined that two weeks
peaceful demonstrations. Soldiers were on
later the tsar would be gone, with political power in the
the streets, but there was no violence.
hands of some Duma deputies. As historians, your job is to
explain why this happened. 9March: Strikes spread and factories came to a
standstill. Rumours about bread shortages
caused some violence, but protesters -
with slogans like ‘Down with the war’ and
‘Bread’ - were generally peaceful (see
Source 10)).
10 March: Nicholas ordered the Petrograd garrison to
put down the protesters using force.
11 March: Some soldiers ignored orders to shoot at
demonstrators and began siding with the
crowds. Other troops opened fire and killed
50 protesters. Duma ministers sent
a message to Nicholas, saying ‘the
situation is serious ... the capital is ina
state of anarchy’ and demanding that a
new government be formed.
Nicholas disagreed, ordered the army to end
Source 10]: Protesters in Petrograd on 8 March 1917
the disturbances and suspended the Duma.
International Women’s Day.
12 March: Up to 170,000 soldiers refused to shoot
protesters. Soldiers and strikers seized
weapons, opened the prisons and rounded
up those who were loyal to the tsar. The
government resigned. Duma members
formed a Provisional Government in the
Tauride Palace. In the same building, the
Petrograd Soviet of Workers’, Sailors’ and
Soldiers’ Deputies was elected.
13 March: Most Petrograd soldiers joined the
revolution. The Provisional Government
assumed control and ordered the arrest
of tsarist ministers. Nicholas decided to
source 10J: People looking at the head of a destroyed statue
return to Petrograd,
of Tsar Alexander Ill after the March revolution in 1917,
 10: Depth Study C: Russia, 1905-1941

* Why did the Bolsheviks win the Civil War?

; 14 March: The revolution bteed to the canetea: - How far was the New Economic Policy a success?
naval base outside Petrograd, and Moscow,
Nicholas's train was stopped by railway How effectively did the Provisional
a _ workers and soldiers. His generals advised Government rule Russia in 1917?
him to abdicate. eeenevomnite
15 March:
ee
The Provisional Government was in control, € Provisional Government was made q up of p Progressive
Bloc members. The most important oe Dares
with conditional support from the Soviet.
- Nicholas abdicated. * Prince Lvov, a liberal politician from a landowning
aristocratic family: prime minister.
| - Paul Milyukov, a liberal politician from a prosperous
|( Ui middle-class family: foreign minister.
I » Alexander Kerensky, a democratic socialist politician
| Anarchy: a situation where no one is in control from a middle-class, son of a schoolteachers: justice
|
minister.

The March revolution created an atmosphere of goodwill

and the Provisional Government had the support of
many, though as it had appointed itself, and not been
| 1 Which group was the most significant in bringing
elected, it faced questions of legitimacy. Most pressing
about a revolution in March 1917? Give your reasons.
of all, it had inherited the key challenges that had faced
* working men NicholasIl.
* women
SAPS sat § CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 10.8
217
* Tsar 1 How strong was the Provisional Government in April
e Duma 1917?
¢ Petrograd Soviet 2 Which was the most serious of the problems that
the Provisional Government faced in the summer of
* generals. 1917? Explain your answer.
2 List the
:
key ‘reasons for Nicholas II's abdication.
3 | How effective were the Provisional Government’s
Explain the importance of each one.
policies?
3 Write a defence of each of these two statements:
e The First World War made little difference to me Mo
Tsarism, which was doomed even before 1914. The Provisional Government passed some significant
e The First World War directly caused the 1917 political reforms:
revolution and the tsar’s abdication. Re ane een esti eer

* Which do you agree with and why? - Political prisoners were released.
Press censorship was abolished.
- The police were replaced by a people’s militia.
10.2 How did the Bolsheviks + Independent judges and trial byjury were
gain power, and how did they ess 4)
lid t th e le? * Capital punishment and exile were abolished
Sd dette he HO - Allmen and women over age 20 were given
Focus points the vote.
- How effectively did the Provisional Government rule + Discrimination on the grounds of class, religion, race,
Russia in 1917? gender or belief was made illegal.
» Why were the Bolsheviks able to seize power in
However, byBosc mber 1917, the Provisional Government
November 1917?
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

What were the Provisional What policies did the Provisional What were the consequences of
Government’s problems in summer Government follow? these policies?
1917?
| The Petrograd Soviet: made up of Kerensky (who was also a membe The Provisional Government and
3,000 members, this was elected by of the Soviet) negotiated on behal
te
the Soviet cooperated for several
soldiers, sailors and workers, and it of the Provisional Government. The months in the ‘Dual Power’. The
had their support. It controlled the Soviet would support the Provisional Provisional Government was
railways, the postal and telegraph Government, if it granted reforms: an relieved that the Soviet did not make
communications systems, the amnesty for prisoners, civil liberties, more radical demands, and grateful
factories and the armed forces. The the end ofofficial discrimination and that the Soviet brought the army
Soviet had published Order No. lon 1 granting workers’ rights to join unions under control. Moderates in the
March, taking over the army. a nd strike. The Provisiona Government Soviet had no wish for more radical
also agreed not to send the Petrograd change.
S oldiers to fight at the front line.
The First World War: most members of In June 1917, the Provisional The army was disintegrating. Many
the Provisional Government wanted Government ordered a massive new soldiers turned to the Bolsheviks.
to continue fighting, but while some offensive. For three days things went
wanted to make territorial gains if well, then the attack fell apart. Soldiers
the Allies won, the moderates only shot their officers, and up to 2 million
wanted to fight to protect Russian Russian soldiers deserted.
erritory.
The land problem: by summer 1917 The Provisional Government wanted The Provisional Government
218 the countryside was in revolt. The Russia’s land to be redistributed fairly urged the peasants to wait for
breakdown in social and political and in an orderly fashion. national elections and the calling
order left the countryside without the of a Constituent Assembly, so that
means to stop peasants from seizing the land redistribution process
landlords’ property. Violence was could be supervised. The peasants
increasing. ignored them and the land seizures
continued.
National minorities’ demands: these When Ukraine demanded self- Liberals feared that the Russian
demanded more power as soon government, socialists in the Empire was about to break up.
as Nicholas abdicated, and the Provisional Government were prepared Prince Lvov resigned, leaving
Provisional Government could not to grant it. Kerensky to become prime minister.
agree on how to respond.
| Russia’s economic problems: food The government promised to double Factory committees became more
shortages, inflation, high prices the amount it paid peasants for powerful, and began taking control
and supply problems were causing grain, but the supply did not improve. to keep the factories working.
tremendous hardship in the cities. As Liberals in the Provisional Government Workers became disillusioned with
| conditions worsened, more strikes supported the capitalists, while the Provisional Government. One
| broke out. socialists supported the workers, but million people took part in strikes in
neither had plans for how to improve Russia in September 1917, and many
things. turned to the Bolsheviks.
ooEee

\ (ci rE ieee
Amnesty: a blanket official pardon.
 10: Depth Study C: Russia, 1905-1941

Revolutionaries — had become discredited. While the

Two events helped the Bolsheviks to de:
Bolsheviks became more powerful, the Provisional
right for them to seize contre
Government made several fatal mistakes.

The July Days’, July 1917

ACTIVITY 10.10 Bolsheviks led protests against
Government. Troops loyal to the Provisiona
Why do you think the Provisional Government failed to
opened fire on protesters, and they all fled. The Provisior
gain the support of:
Government issued arrest warrants for leading Bolsheviks
peasants and captured Trotsky, while) Lenin es
workers disguise. He stayed in hiding
soldiers and sailors
i gt
aristocrats
Capitalists
FP
oO
aA
WY national minorities?

Why were the Bolsheviks able to seize power

in November 1917?
n March 1917, the Bolsheviks were a Marxist revolutionary
party with around 10,000 members. Almost all their
eaders were in exile or abroad; they did not participate in
the March revolution.

n April 1917 the German government arranged for Lenin

to return to Petrograd by train, hoping he would create Source 10K: Protesters flee after troops open fire during
enough trouble to force Russia to pull out of the war. His the July Days’.
policies in 1917 were different from other parties and
meant a change from the Bolshevik line adopted before
ACTIVITY 10.11
his arrival:

- ‘All Power to the Soviets’ Study Source 10K. What can you learn from this image
about the nature of the protests in the July Days’?
* The Bolsheviks would stop cooperating with the
Provisional Government and other parties.
* The Soviets should seize power in the name of the
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 10.9
working class at once.
* ‘Peace, Land and Bread’ Why did the July Days help leading Bolsheviks to realise
« Animmediate end to the war. that the time was right for an uprising?
* Give the peasants the right to seize landlords’ land.
« Give the workers and peasants control of food
The Kornilov Affair, September 1917
supplies.
In August, Prime Minister Kerensky appointed
As the Provisional Government grew less effective, the Kornilov to lead the army. Kornilov agreed to send s
Bolsheviks won majorities in the Petrograd Soviet, the to defend Petrograd, but then Kerensk
Moscow council elections, the key Petrograd Vyborg the army would overthrow the
district and the Kronstadt naval base. Trotsky (who had As Kornilov’s men approached, Kerens
been a Menshevik, but joined the Bolsheviks after Lenin’s requested support from the Soviet, who «
return in 1917) was elected Chairman of the Petrograd military units in the capit
Soviet in September. They had over 250,000 supporters Bolsheviks. TI

by October 1917, and their support was strongest among volunteers. Korn
hiit Kor
soldiers, sailors and workers. ( r\t
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

discredited. The Bolsheviks were seen as defenders of the Reasons for the failure Reasons for the success
lution, and won majorities in elections to Soviets all of the Provisional of the Bolsheviks
over Russia. Government
- |twas weakened byits |+ Their policies set them
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 10.10 temporary nature and apart from the other
the existence of the parties and won them
How did the Bolsheviks become so powerful during
Soviet. support.
1917?
» Its policies made it * They were led
increasingly unpopular. by determined,
The October Revolution Kerensky made several charismatic and skilful
From Finland, Lenin wrote to the Bolshevik leadership that leaders such as Lenin
in the summer
mistakes
the time was right for revolution. Kameney, Zinoviev and and Trotsky.
of 1ONT,
even Trotsky remained unconvinced. When he returned to
t lost the support - They were lucky on
Petrograd, Lenin overruled them. several occasions.
of key groups and
was defenceless by * They gained control of
November 1917. key institutions such
Timeline of the October 1917 Revolution
as the Moscow and
2November: — The Soviet set up a Military Petrograd Soviets.
Revolutionary Committee - Trotsky als

was one of its leaders. Petrograd Table 10.3: Why were the Bolsheviks successful?
garrisons came under MRC control.
5 November: Kerensky shut down Bolshevik CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 10.11
newspapers. Lenin argued Kerensky
220 i
was Starting a counter-revolution. [he Bolsheviks were successful in November 1917
because of the failures of the Provisional Government.’
6 November: Lenin ordered the arrest of the
How far do you agree with this statement? Explain your
Provisional Government. At dawn,
answer.
Trotsky ordered Bolsheviks to take
control of Petrograd’s bridges and
railway stations.
ACTIVITY 10.13
7 November: The Bolsheviks controlled Petrograd,
but the Provisional Government was Look at Table 10.3:
still inside the Winter Palace. Kerensky
1 Provide an example for each Provisional
escaped. The battleship Aurora
Government failure and each Bolshevik success.
fired a shot, the Bolsheviks stormed
the Winter Palace and Provisional 2 Rank them in order of importance.
Government members were arrested. 3 Write asentence commenting on each one.

Why did the Bolsheviks win the Civil War?

ACTIVITY 10.12
Lenin created a new government and they issued their first
Look back at the timeline of the October Revolution: decrees:
1_ Find evidence of how important Lenin was. 8 November: Decree on Land: peasants could seize
2 Find evidence of how important Trotsky was. any land previously belonging to the tsar,
3 Which Bolshevik leader was more important, in your the Church and aristocracy
opinion? Decree on Peace: Russia asked Germany
or an armistice

12 November: Maximum eight-hour day for workers.

48-hour week
 10: Depth Study C: Russia, 1905-1941

i 14November: Social insurance (old age, unemployment, The remainder went to a range of othe a
sickness benefits) introduced and region cluding so ad fea d =
# §636©.December: Non-Bolshevik press banned eo
| _ Rights ofself-government
-

for allparts of the Russian

¥ a i > \ j

e Constituent
a cc alalviaa t far

Assembly
thea firct and

| Empire met for the first and or

on 18 January and refused to support Lenin’s propo
Be ie po) The following day he sent soldiers to close itdo
orkers control offactories introduced i
now on, Lenin ruledby decree or used Bolshevik co
Equal rights to property ownership in the Congress of Soviets to pass his laws. He admitt
that he was establishing a dictatorship, but called it a
Democratisation of the army — officers to be elected,
soldiers’ soviets assumed control of the army, and ranks, ‘dictatorship of the proletariat’.
saluting and decorations were abolished
Banks nationalised POTN Y 10-45
Cheka (secret police) set up Why was the closing down of the Constituent Assembly
an important turning point in the revolution?
Marriage and divorce became civil matters, equal rights for
women wanting a divorce.

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, March 1918

ACTIVITY 10.14 Lenin had promised an immediate end to the war. When
1 What measures, if any, did the Bolsheviks take in deace talks began in December 1917, Trots
order to please: we : = Tas
prolong negotiations until a communist revolution broke
out in Germany. The Germans, frustrated, restarted the
a peasants
war and advanced 150 miles into Russia in five days, so a 221
b workers
treaty was signed at Brest-Litovsk in March. Russia lost:
c soldiers and sailors eS 2
* 34% of the population, 60 million people
d_ aristocrats
s
* 32% of agriculturalland
‘ capitalists
© 54% ofindustr
national
ational minorities?
minorities * 89% of coal mines
3 Which ones made Russia fairer and more
- 26% of railways.
democratic? Explain.
4 Were there any that suggested that Russia might Russia also had to pay reparations of 300 million gold
become less free and fair? Explain. roubles.
Brest-Litovsk showed Lenin’s willingness to ma
| sacrifices in order to achieve his aims. Many Russians
were horrified by the treaty’s harshness. A Socia
Constituent Assembly Revolutionary tried to kill Lenin in August 1918. By the end
Many Bolshevik measures were popular, but in 1917 of 1918, a civil war had broken out.
and 1918, Lenin’s government also took unpopular
steps. Lenin had promised to allow elections for ¢ pe RS
the Constituent Assembly to go ahead, expecting a Chekas tha Bolsheviks’ political police:
30lshevik majority. When the results came in, the
Proletariat: Marxist term for the working classes.
Bolsheviks were shocked. For a party that had been
relatively unknown until recently they did very well, with
23.5% of the vote and 168 seats. But while the Bolsheviks
proved popular in the big towns and cities and among What darn oed |
in the Russian Civil War?
soldiers, the Socialist Revolutionaries, slightly less The Russian Civil War lasted from summer 1918
radical than the Bolsheviks, were better known in the spring 1921. It was
countryside and won 41% of the vote and 380 = seats.
 _ Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

twenty different armies. Bolshevik forces (the Red Army, or - Foreign armies, includingthe Czech Legion, a unit of
Reds) fought various armies: Czech nationalists who had been fighting the Austrians
on the Eastern Front.
The Whites: a broad group, including anti-Bolshevik |
socialists, liberals, tsarists and nationalists. Few wanted Trotsky, as Commissar for War, was in charge of the Red
tsarism, some wanted the Constituent Assembly Army. He turned them into a ruthless force of 3.5 million
recalled, but all wanted to beat the Bolsheviks. men by the end of 1920 by:
Otherwise, they had little in common, and sometimes * employing ex-imperial army officers, while taking their
even fought each other. families hostage to ensure loyalty
The Greens: local peasant armies who fought to defend * attaching Political Commissars to each unit to ensure
their own areas. loyalty

w Yy | ULL
Russian territorial losses after
the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 1918

[J controlled by Bolsheviks, 1919

Ea Occupied by Allied troops, 1919
<— Attacks by White forces

Ly
Attacks by non-Russian
anti-Bolshevik forces
Boundary of Soviet territory,
March 1920

222

HUNGARY
ROMANIA wes

panube iS oy

0 200 400 miles

TURKEY HK—__—1_———
E
0) 200 400 kilometers
Figure 10.3: The Russian Civil War.
 10: Depth Study C: Russia, 1905-1941

* reintroducing ranks, salutin g, and discipline, including * General Denikin’s W

he death penalty for cowardice. of Moscow and almc
* notinterfering in military decisions, but using his War Tsaritsyn but was beaten in 1
Train (see Source 10L) to travel to where fighting was * General Yudenich’s White army atta
veaviest to inspire his men. . through Estonia in October 1919, but
tne Reds
| - Britisn forces went to a aNC
eet to the Black Sea, Japanese forces capt
Viadivosto OK and
+
re Japanese. These foreign armies did
and withdrew by 1°
| - Polish forces attacked Russia 19-1920
captured Kiev.
The Reds em bac
gained largeareas of te bs PaigF
| * August 1920-December 1921: | ver a year the Red
| resistRCE USS Shy olence all over the countr
| - Peasants attack ds in Tan si0
_ Source 10L: An armoured train, like the one Trotsky used 1920. A Red 2army of
in the Civil War. The slogan on the side ofthe train reads he rebels in 1921.
‘United Russia’. ae Sa es maithe
° nN February LyZ1, Saliors In Kror
1
| rose uD in rebellion in protect at the Ro
| ACTIVITY 10.16 varsn methods, and War Communism in particular.
Kronstaat sailors had ber
Study and interpret Source 10L. What does the image ce
November revolution (see Source 10M) and now they 223
tell you about the Bolsheviks’ advantages in the Russian
agemanded political freedoms. ook 50, Red
Civil War?
Guards two weeks to defeat the revolt. Over 2.00(

| War Communism
The Bolshevik government introduced ‘War Communism’ -
harsh measures to regain control, including:

* government control of all industries

¢ strict worker discipline, including execution for strikers
* rationing food
* outlawing private trade
- forcing peasants to hand over grain and hanging any
who resisted: this policy, and poor harvests in 1920-1921,
led to a famine that killed an estimated 7 million people
the ‘Red Terror’: the Cheka arrested or executed people
suspected of being the Reds’ enemies — in July 1918, the
royal family were shot.
-

There were three phases of fighting:

- June-November 1918: The Reds fought Green armies
and the Czech Legion. Two Socialist Revolutionary
uprisings occurred, which the Whites defeated.
» November 1918-December 1920: Several White and
foreign armies threatened
the Reds.
+ Admiral Kolchak’s White army was defeated by the Source 10M: A Soviet poster that glorifies the role of the
Reds at the end of 1919 Kronstadt sailors from 1920.
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

How far was the New Economic Policy but the NEP was popular because the economy began to
a success? recover.
The Kronstadt uprising and thefailures of War | CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 10.12
Communism forced Lenin to rethink. At the Communist
Party Congress in March 1921, Lenin announced the New Why did Lenin introduce the NEP?
Economic Policy (NEP): How was the NEP different from War Communism?

State ownership of heavy industry, transport and

banking remained.
A ivate businesses were allowed - people could produce 1921 | 1922 | 1923 | 1924 |1925
goods and sell them. Grain harvest 37.6) 50:3" 1566. 1 SLA wie
Grain requisitioning ended — the state took 50% of (m tons) le
a peasant’s grain, and peasants could sell the rest Coal (m tons) 89 95 is 7elaeie ee
for profit. T r 7
: : Electricity 520 (iis) G6 | 1562 1924
Rationing was reduced. People had to buy food, but they
; (m kWhs)
had more income and there was more food available aE | 1
because private peasant farms were allowed. Steel 183 “See | 709 “Tta0 tessS
: (thousand tons) |
Lenin stated that the NEP was a tactical retreat - not a
defeat. There was still opposition from inside the party, Table 10.4: Economic recovery under the NEP.

ACTIVITY 10.17

224 Why was the defeat of the Kronstadt Rebellion an important turning point in the revolution?
Complete the table that follows, using the information in this section:

|Red strengths Opposition weaknesses

Geography The Bolsheviks controlled the centre of western | Opposition armies were separated by hundreds
Russia, including Moscow and Petrograd. This of miles, which made co-ordination impossible.
gave them control of: The areas they held were thinly populated so
recruitment was hard. They had little industry
most of the railway system
sa and poor transport links.
* industry
weapons and supplies
- the densely populated areas.
Strength The opposition armies were small and poorly
resourced. They received little assistance from
the Russian peasants, who did not want to lose
their land.
Leadership White generals treated their armies with disgust -
many White soldiers deserted.
Unity | They had no common aims, and did not cooperate.
Propaganda | The Bolsheviks used propaganda very effectively. |Opposition forces did not use propaganda
| They used posters, films, loudspeakers and to win support. Bolshevik propaganda about
| trains travelled around the country producing what would happen if the Whites won hurt the
| new material for local areas to keep morale high. | opposition forces.
| Foreign help | Foreign help for the Whites allowed the Reds to
| |

=
| portray themselves as the patriots.
=a soma :
 10: Depth Study C: Russia, 1905-1941

By 1923, 75% of all trade was in private hands, and traders

called ‘Nepmen’ supplied all kinds of goods. They were
harassed by the Cheka (now renamed the GPU). Peasants
thrived under the NEP, but urban workers struggled.
Unemployment rose, wages remained generally low and
l working conditions did not improve. Many wondered
| whether Lenin had abandoned the idea of creating a
workers’ paradise.

| CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 10.13

1 ‘Lenin’s New Economic Policy was unsuccessful.’ How

far do you agree with this view?
2 Which of the following reasons explain how the
| Bolsheviks were able to consolidate their control in
1917-1922? Comment briefly on each one:
|
Bolsheviks’ early decrees
leadership of Lenin and Trotsky
crushing of opposition by the Cheka
defeat of enemies in the Russian Civil War
War Communism
New Economic Polic be
oe ou Source 10N: Lenin and Stalin, shortly before Lenin’s death
Av)
tony
=
Way
Sob
py
GettaTreaty of Brest-Litovsk.
in January 1924.

10.3 How did Stalin gain Why did Stalin, and not Trotsky,
and hold onto power? emerge as Lenin’s successor?
Lenin had led the Bolshevik party from obscurit
Focus points success in revolution and war. In 1922-1923, he suffered
* in’
Why did Stalin, and not Trotsky, emerge as Lenin’s ‘les OF
a serles of stroke
strokesshiet
that left
ge him aha bate and unable
ee paralysed to
successor? speak. When he died in January 1924. there € severa

» Why did Stalin launch the purges? Z ors tot

contenders leade aELenin had | written | critically
f the 2 leadership.
« What methods did eas: es
Stalin use to control the Soviet WP each aeof them, but% they Kernel
about agreed to keep this OTR
a secret
eae With hindsight, we can see that there were two strong
ion? ee
ae ane ae ; candidates for the leadership.
- How complete was Stalin’s control over the Soviet Union
by 1941?

| Josef Stalin Leon Trotsky

Real name Josef Djugashvili LevBronstein,
3ackground Born to poor working family in Georgia and | Born to a prosperous family in Ukraine. Spent
attended Christian school. Expelled from school | timein prison, where he adopted the namé
for reading banned political literature. | one of his jailers as his alias, and
ee aya sale Malena Mr Lo aaa Pa Narahari : : esas
Personal qualities Seen as an efficient bureaucrat, he kept his | Independe
a c+ a SF I * l tnAanands

ambitions to himself and was regarded as brilliant speaker. Distrusted by

a potential ally for others, not a leadership | who feared he would seize pov
contender himself.
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History —

Josef Stalin Leon Trotsky

wreer in the | Joined the Bolshevik Party when it was founded | Sided with rivals the Mensheviks until 1917,
ommunist Party | in 1898 and became involved in hijackings, when hejoined Lenin’s Bolsheviks. Prominent
bank robbery and gun-running, extortion and in the 1905 Revolution. Planned the October
| murder. His dedication and working-class origins | Revolution, was a leading member of
| impressed Lenin. Editor of party newspaper the Party’s Central Committee, and was
| Pravda in 1917. Did not play a leading rolein the | Commiss ar
for War.
| October Revolution.
T
| Support base New members. As General Secretary of the The Red Army, where he was popular after
| Party, controlled invitations to party congresses, | the Civil War. Also younger party members
| where the Central Committee was chosen and especially students.
major policies were discussed.
| Lenin’s funeral | Organised it. Missed it.
4 = |
| What Lenin wrote ‘Comrade Stalin, having become Secretary- ‘Comrade Trotsky ... is distinguished not
| in his ‘Political | General, has unlimited authority concentrated only by outstanding ability. He is personally
| Testament’ | in his hands, and | am not sure whether he will perhaps the most capable man in the present
| | always be capable of using that authority with Central Committee, but he has displayed
| sufficient caution.’ excessive self-assurance and shown excessive
‘Stalin is too rude and this is intolerable in a Deora ae with the purely administ ative
| neve ; side of the work.’
| Secretary-General. | suggest that comrades
|think about a way of removing Stalin from that ‘He should not be blamed for not being a
226
| post and appointing another man [who is] more member ofthe party before 1917.’
|tolerant, more loyal, more polite, and more
|considerate.’

The leadership struggle was decided by events between

1924 and 1929.

In addition to the NEP, there was disagreement about

relations with communists abroad. Trotsky believed that
the USSR should be pursuing a poli an) y of ‘Perma Vent
Revolution’, helping communists abroad because
revolutions worldwide would strengthen the USSR.
Stalin instead proposed ‘Socialism in One Country’,
strengthening Soviet communism and creating a country
superior to the capitalist West. Stalin’s ideas were much
more popular.

ACTIVITY 10.18

Why did Stalin win the leadership struggle and not Source 100: Leon Trotsky
Trotsky? Write a sentence, with examples, about each of GiLS30:
the following factors:
1 policies
2 luck Timeline of events 1924 and 1929
oastk January 1924: — Stalin was a coffin-bearer and made a
3 ~

speech at Lenin’s funeral. He implied

4 personality and background
that he had been Lenin’s closest friend
5 mistakes,
(see Source 10N). Stalin deceived
 10: Depth Study C: Russia, 1905-1941

Trotsky, who was unwell, about the CHECK YOUR BNDERSTANDING-10.14

date of the funeral; Trotsky’s resulting Why do you think that ‘Socialism in One Country’
absence seemed disrespectful. . was a more popular policy than ‘Permanent
April 1924: Stalin created a ‘Cult of Lenin’, changed Revolution’?
Petrograd’s name to Leningrad and What mistakes did Trotsky make in his struggle for power
| published a book on Lenin, which with Stalin?
implied that he was a close colleague.
He also recruited one million young,
uneducated urban workers into the Why did Stalin launch the purges?
party: they liked Stalin’s approach and
As you will see from your study of the impact of Stalin’s
thought Trotsky too intellectual.
economic policies, by 1933 the Communist Party had lost
May 1924: The Central Committee, including support. The Soviet state always used force to achieve its
Trotsky, voted to keep Lenin’s aims, but in the period 1934-1938 up to 18 million people
Political Testament’ secret at the were imprisoned, and perhaps 1.5 million were executed
13th Party Congress because it was by the NKVD (the Cheka’s new name). These events
unflattering about all of them. During
are known as ‘the purges’, and the period 1936-1938
the Congress, Trotsky made a series
is specifically referred to as ‘The Great Terror’. In 1938
_ of attacks on Stalin’s running ofthe
alone Stalin personally approved the execution of 44,000
_ party. Stalin sided with powerful
people. Stalin also intervened to save certain people
Central Committee members
(including his old history teacher).
Kamenev and Zinoviev, and their
2 — supporters outvoted Trotsky. Victims were arrested (usually at night), given trials that
December: —Zinoviev and Kamenev attacked might be long and high profile (‘show trials’) or secret
1925 = Trotsky before the 14th Party and brief, depending on the individual, and then either
: Congress, and Trotsky retaliated. Stalin executed immediately or sent to a prison camp. As Source
happily let his rivals discredit each 10P shows, even the victims didn’t know or understand
other. At the Congress Zinoviev and why they were being punished.
Kamenev criticised the NEP and called
Source 10P: Bukharin’s last message to Stalin, shortly
for rapid industrialisation. Stalin’s
before his execution in March 1938, read:
supporters outvoted them easily.
1926 and 1927: In 1926, Zinoviev, Kamenev and Trotsky ‘Koba, why do you need me to die?’

formed the “United Opposition’. (‘Koba’ was one of Stalin’s aliases before 1917.)
They demanded an end to the NEP,
rapid industrialisation and harsh Historians have suggested many reasons for the purges:
measures against the peasants. Stalin a
| and Bukharin, a prominent central * to destroy opposition and terrorise the population
d :
Committee Convert to the NEP, defended * to destroy other, potentially rival, Bolshevik leaders
the new economics. Stalin controlled the * asthe only reliable response to enemies
programme for the 15th Party Congress, « the growing threat from Nazi Germany after 1933
and the United Opposition were not causing fear of war in USSR, which prompted the
allowed to present their ideas. Growing removal of anyone critical of Stalin
desperate, they appealed directly to * to deflect criticism from the government and on to
Moscow workers. Kameney, Zinoviev and
scapegoats: for example economic failures
Trotsky were expelled from the party for
« to provide slave labour for the logging
acting illegally.
canal-building needed to finance imports.
1928: Stalin criticised the NEP, using the |
. arguments ofthe ‘United Opposition’. The purges began after December 1934 following the
Stalin’s supporters voted Bukharin and assassination of Sergel Kirov, party boss in
his supporters out of the Politburo — Many have suggested that Stalin was responsible for
Stalin’s position was now secure. Kirov’s murder. Kirov we SA
ore votes than
mare Vat
$
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

17th Party Congress, and some wanted Kirov to be made CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 10.15
party leader. The following campaign led, within two
rs, to the deaths of many leading party members. What were the effects of the purges on the Soviet Union
by 1941?
The purges and their victims Why do you think that Stalin forced people to go through
Party members, 1934-38: one million people were show trials?
arrested in connection with Kirov’s murder. Most of
the senior party leaders were arrested and executed.
Zinoviev and Kamenev (1936) and Bukharin (1938) were What methods did Stalin use
given show trials before their executions. They were to control the Soviet Union?
forced to confess to false charges and false evidence
Stalin’s control of the USSR was not solely dependent
was provided. Trotsky was murdered by an NKVD agent
upon forcing people to obey.
in Mexico in 1940. Around 500,000 lower-ranking party
members were also arrested.
The 1936 Constitution
* Secret Police: over 3,000 NKVD members were purged.
Every citizen over 18 had a vote, and there was freedom
NKVD chief Yagoda was given a show trial and executed.
of the press, religion and organisation. There was also
His replacement, Yezhov, was executed in 1939. He was
guaranteed employment. In practice, however, the
replaced by Beria, who survived Stalin.
Constitution restricted the rights ensuring that only
Anti-Soviet spies, 1937: several politicians were accused
communist candidates could stand in elections.
of spying for Nazi Germany.
The army, 1937: 3 out of 5Marshals in the Red Army,
14 of 16 Army Commanders, 60 of 67 Corps CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 10.16
Commanders, and 35,000 officers were tried for
How democratic was the Soviet Constitution? Did the
228 treason and executed. Only one senior Soviet Air Force
reality of life in the USSR match what the Constitution
commander survived the purges.
promised?
The people: colleagues, friends and family of those
arrested were also likely to be targeted. One in 18 of
the Soviet population was arrested during the purges. Personality cult and propaganda
The cult of Lenin appeared in newspapers, statues and
the cinema to motivate the population to imitate his
commitment to the revolution. A cult of Stalin was also
developed. As early as 1923 the town of Tsaritsyn was
renamed Stalingrad in memory of Stalin’s civil war heroics
there. Stalin was portrayed as the saviour of socialism in
propaganda. By 1941 Stalin dominated the USSR physically
as well as politically. He was presented as the heir of Lenin
and sole interpreter of party ideology, with a god-like status.
There was genuine enthusiasm for Stalin in the 1930s.

Rewriting history
The History ofthe All-Union Communist Party or Short
Source 10Q: Zinoviev’s NKVD file photo, taken shortly Course was published in 1938. Stalin’s role in the
before he was shot in 1936. revolution and the Civil War were boosted, while other
Bolsheviks were relegated to minor roles. Photos were
ACTIVITY 10.19 altered with old heroes airbrushed out.

Study Sources 10N, 100 and 10Q. In what ways do they

Supervision of art and culture
contrast with one another? What different messages do
they communicate? Now read Source 10P: what do you
Government control over news, art and culture ensured that
think is the answer to Bukharin’s question? Soviet people received a narrow range of views. Leading
newspapers were used for propaganda, highlighting the
 10: Depth Study C: Russia, 1905-1941

state's achievements. Radio stations were controlled

Why did Stalin introduce the Five-Year
by the government. Cinema became a popular form of
entertainment in the 1930s: towns built huge new cinemas
Plans?
,
propaganda trains with travelling cinemas took filmsnto rural We are fifty or a hundred years behind the advanced
areas. After 1934, Socialist Realism meant all art films, books, countries. We must make good this distance in ten
theatre and music had to be straightforward, optimistic, years. Either we do it, or they will crush us.
easily understood, and feature plausible but idealised heroes.
Source 10R: Stalin, speaking in 1931.
Religion .
Stalin’s economic policies aimed to industrialise and
The Bolsheviks intended to make Russia a secular
modernise the USSR as quickly as possible (see Source 10R).
state. The teaching of religion was banned, hundreds
He wanted to do this in order to:
of churches were destroyed and religious schools were
closed. Although they suppressed it, the Bolsheviks did * Increase the USSR's military strength: the USSR needed a
not succeed in destroying religion. well-developed industrial base to protect itself from an attack.
* Make the USSR self-sufficient: Stalin did not want the
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING USSR to be dependent upon foreign countries.
10.17
- _Increase food supplies: the USSR’s agriculture was
Which method of control do you think would have been backward. Stalin wanted to produce a surplus to
most effective? guarantee food supplies, and sell grain abroad to raise
cash for industrial equipment.

How complete was Stalin’s control over the Create a socialist society: according to Marx,
communism could be built in an industrial society, but
Soviet Union by 1941? in 1928, only about 20% of Soviet people were industrial
Stalin certainly had a large degree of control over the
workers. Stalin wanted people to move from the
Soviet Union by 1941. However, his control was limited by countryside into the factories.
several factors: * Improve living standards: communism was supposed to
* Personal limits: no single person could have controlled bring higher living standards, but industrialisation, which
everything in an empire as large as USSR. creates wealth, needed to come first.
* Political limits from colleagues: members of the * Secure his position: Stalin imagined that his economic
Politburo did oppose Stalin sometimes. changes would create a second revolution comparable
* Political limits from below: more junior officials could with Lenin’s and so secure his reputation as a great
obstruct policies. leader.
At the 15th Party Congress in 1927, Stalin ended the NEP and
ACTIVITY 10.20 announced the first Five-Year Plan. There would be three
Five-Year Plans before 1941. They were all centrally planned,
Gather evidence to show that Stalin had almost total
meaning:
control over the USSR.
Gather evidence to show that Stalin was not in complete * Government planning agencies like GOSPLAN set overall
control. targets.
+ Government departments allocated targets to different
regions.
10.4 What was the impact of - Local bosses set targets for each factory.
Stalin’s economic policies? Factory managers set targets for workers.

Focus points
* Why did Stalin introduce the Five-Year Plans? CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 10.18
Why did Stalin introduce collectivisation?
What did Stalin want to achieve when he introduced the
- How successful were Stalin’s economic changes? Five-Year Plans?
- Howwere the Soviet people affected by these changes?
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

First Five-Year Plan, 1928-1932

yn heavy industry. The labour force
pled TO 23 ice oy 1932, and the production increases
e dramatic. This plan was supposed to build foundations
r future development, so 1,500 factories and many cities
> built fe?m scratch. In 1929 there were only 25 people
vingatMagnitogorsk, butby 1932, when a gigantic iron and
steel one re been built, this had risen to 250,000.

Source 10U: Mayakovsky Moscow Metro station, opened

in 1938.

ACTIVITY 10.21 :

Study and interpret Sources 10S, 10T and 10U. What do

Source 10S: Modern and traditional technologies at the images have in common? Why do you think that the
Magnitogorsk in the 1930s. Moscow Metro stations were built to look so grand?

Second Five-Year Plan, 1933-1937

underground rail system) and some big projects such as
Heavy industry was the priority in the second Five-Year
the Dnieprostroi hydroelectric dam. The USSR became
230 Plan, but new industries were created, and there was more
almost self-sufficient in machine-making. Food rationing
emphasis on rail links (notably Moscow’s spectacular
was ended and families had more spare money.

Third Five-Year Plan, 1939-1941

The third Five-Year Plan was supposed to deliver more
PO consumer goods, but when the Second World War began
the government ordered increases in heavy industry.
Machinery and engineering production grew, but steel, oil
and consumer goods did not. The purges and the change
of priorities caused chaos.

The Five-Year Plans caused huge problems for the Soviet

government. There were shortages of vital supplies
and production was handicapped by unskilled and
unreliable workers. The government therefore took several
measures:

* Bonuses and incentives, such as better housing or

clothes encouraged workers to stay in their jobs.
Skilled workers received higher wages.
Workers were paid according to how much they
ane in order to increase productivity.
. pia were encouraged to break production records.
In 1935, Alexei Stakhanov mined 102 tons of coal in
Source 10T: The Dnieprostroi hydroelectric dam. ora sixteen times more than usual. Propaganda
This was the largest dam in Europe when it was built encouraged workers to compete to produce more.
in 1932. It was destroyed by the Germans in 1943. Training and education were offe
tored
workers.
 10: Depth Study C: Russia, 1905-1941

| - Workers who failed to follow rules could be fined. force. In December 1929, Stalir
| Causing damage or leaving without permission could would be eliminated. An army of 2
| lead to a prison sentence. Thousanders’) urban worker d
! » Slave labour was used on the most dangerous projects. persuade poorer peasants to join the cc
i Around 300,000 prisoners worked on the Baltic-White region was given a quota of kulaks to find
Sea Canal, and 25,000 died. were ordinary peasants who were harc
| brighter, arrestiting or murdering

What do the measures taken by the government during

| the Five-Year Plans tell you about the problems the
?
Plans created Study Source 10V. Photographs like Source 10V were
printed in Soviet media in the 1930s.
Why did Stalin introduce collectivisation? Why do you think photographs like this were used by

||
||

|
In 1928, the USSR had less grain than it needed, by around
2 million tons. The state could not get the peasants to
the
she
state?

How useful is this photograph as evidence ofthe

give the grain they had harvested. Soviet agriculture was success of collectivisation by 1932?
extremely backward — there were still an estimated
5 million wooden ploughs in the USSR. Stalin’s solution
was collectivisation. The peasants would merge their
individual farms and create large collective farms — ye
‘kolkhoz’. All their tools and animals would be shared,
| they would live together and share any profits. This was
|
considered to be a good idea because:
|
> |twas amore efficient way of farming. The government
supplied fertilisers and Machine and Tractor Stations
MTS), and expertise and labour could be shared.
+ Greater agricultural efficiency would release people for
industrialisation. Collectivisation would therefore help to
achieve the Five-Year Plan’s targets.
- Thestate would be able to collect the grain it needed.
| Grain collection and distribution would be easier, and
| the surplus could be sold abroad.
* Grain requisitioning had been used successfully in
1927-1928.
* Collectivisation was the socialist
way to farm. It would The supposed kulaks were divided into thre E
teach the peasants how to live and work communally. 3. -EOUNTERTeVOlNGHSnCS RORGREE IERIE pert
- Rich peasants were blamed for hoarding grain. Stalin - opponents of collectivisation: d ; :
imagined that richer peasants wanted to destroy USSR
the communist state. Collectivisation offered the OSU RESa ea
opportunity to attack these kulaks. the region

The logic of collectivisation Up to 10 million were deported or sent to prise

Kolkhozes were supposed to have many benefits for after 1930. Some peasants resisted. M
peasants. They had schools, libraries and hospitals property, or killed themselves or th
ittac ae to them. They ran technical lectures on modern in
farming technique

Initially, collectivisation was voluntary, but few peasants

volunteered to join collectives so the state began using disastro
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

And we have not only created these new great

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 10.19
industries, but have created them on a scale and in
1 Howwas collectivisation intended to aid the dimensions that eclipse the scale and dimensions
Five-Year Plans? of European industry.
2 Whydid Stalin use force to get peasants to join
Source 10W: Stalin, speaking about the results of the first
collective farms?
Five-Year Plan in 1933.

ACTIVITY 10.24
How successful were Stalin’s
economic changes? Compare Table 10.5 with Source 10W. Do you think that
As Table 10.5 shows, the Five-Year Plans achieved some Stalin was exaggerating the success of the Five-Year
significant increases in industrial production. Plans? Explain your answer.

1932). 1936 There were some big problems with the Five-Year
| Electricity (m kWhs) Plans, and some historians claim that the production
figures were falsified. Factory managers were under
Kepstnone B55 64.4 126.8 | 165.9
huge pressure, and there was widespread
| Oil (m tons) do A214 | 21.4 Siet corruption.
aera tons) iba 3.3 | 6.2 | iy 149
lstecliintongy =) 0 | 59 | 125 | 134 Results of collectivisation
Collectivisation was a disaster. Grain harvests dropped
Locomotives | 478 | 828 |1566 | 1220
| oa BS below 1928 levels for five of the following seven years.
Table 10.5: Output figures for Soviet industry during the Stalin refused to believe there was not enough grain -
232 Five-Year Plans. he believed that kulaks were hiding it. He ordered that
all grain found was to be confiscated. The result was
What are the results of the Five-Year Plan in four years catastrophic. Peasants could not sow crops the following
in the sphere ofindustry? year. They did not have enough food for their animals,
So 10 million horses died in five years. In the Ukraine,
Have we achieved victories in this sphere?
collectivisation caused a famine that killed 3-7 million
Yes, we have. We did not have an iron and steel people in 1932-1934.
industry, the basis for the industrialisation of the
country. Now we have one. ACTIVITY 10.25
We did not have a tractor industry. Now we have one.
List the following: a) Stalin’s economic successes,
We did not have an automobile industry. b) Stalin’s economic failures.
Now we have one.
We did not have a machine-tool industry.
Now we have one. CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 10.20

We did not have a big and modern chemical industry.

1 Inwhat ways had Stalin’s economic policies made
Now we have one. the Communist Party unpopular by 1934?
We did not have a real and big industry for the production 2 How successful were Stalin’s economic policies?
of modern agricultural machinery. Now we have one. Explain your answer.

We did not have an aircraft industry. Now we have one.

In output of electric power we were last on the list. How were the Soviet people affected by
Now we rank among the first.
these changes?
In output of oil products and coal we were last on the For most groups, Stalin’s economic policies had both
list. Now we rank among the first. positive and negative effects.
 10: Depth Study C: Russia, 1905-1941

1928 | 1929
Grain harvest (million tons) 158 Ti 83.5 69.5 60 & A
j == os “2 — = —_ = 3 a he SSS : a = ey ch —* —
| State procurement ofgrain (m tons) Ue aac Viet Kot OM NS 228 18.5 PEM
} |Grain export (m tons) 0.03 0.18 4.76 5.06
} | iy é:. 1.69
= sy . ; a | = —>—————}—
| | Cattle (million) OFaprerd | 523 | “479 | aot seq ane woe
—
:
—
" | eal ae ——
. Pigs (million) 26.0 20.4 13.6 | 14.4 11.6 l 121 | 174 22
} | Sheep and goats (million) 146.7 | 1470 | 1088
Hie
| 777 s21 | 502 | si9 | 612
= = =

Table 10.6: The results of collectivisation.

|
Workers taught to young people through membership of a youth
Many urban workers — 33% of the population by 1939 - organisation: the Komsomol. Members were organised
supported the Five-Year Plans. Some benefited from in brigades and had their own banners, flags, uniforms
better education opportunities. Exceeding targets brought and songs. There was a wide range of activities, including
| rewards such as higher pay, and better conditions and demonstrations, editing newspapers, voluntary work,
| housing. For most, overcrowding, shortages and inadequate plays and concerts.
facilities meant that living standards fell. Average incomes
fell by about 50% after 1928. Fresh foods, luxury goods, SIEHAHCKOMY KOMCOMONY
housing, shoes and clothing were not available. ant
gee rg ‘
y) sy
Y7 \

Women BS \

Stalin’s social policies had a significant impact on women. 233

The revolution had promised liberation and equality, but
most still had their traditional roles. Also, collectivisation
left women to do much of the work in the countryside,
and the Five-Year Plans saw the female workforce increase
by 10 million after 1928. Women gained higher education
opportunities — 40% of engineering students were women
by 1940. However, Stalin disliked and reversed many of the
early reforms:

* marriage became more important

* divorce became more expensive
- awards were given to ‘mother-heroines’ who produced
| 10 or more children

* abortion became illegal. Source 10X: A poster advertising the Komsomol, 1933.
The slogan declares ‘Leninist Komsomol, decent change’
Youth
Education policies had significant results:

* |n 1930, universal primary education for four years was ACTIVITY 10.26
poe tcec. With a partner study Source 10X; discuss why many
- Numbers in secondary education increased from 1.8m in young people joined the Komsomol.
1926 to 12m by 1938.
* |n 1913, 78% of the population were illiterate, but by
1934 It was Just 8%. National minorities
In addition to the opportunities provided through Despite being Georgian, Stalin haa t
education, the state ensured that communism was the non
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

1r to the tsars’ Russification policies. In the

hole populations, including Poles, Finns and
e relocated because Stalin did not Russia was a difficult country to rule, with a numberof
political, social and economic problems. Removing the
tsar did not solve many of them. The failure of the 1905
Revolution shows that tsarist structures had some strength
ACTIVITY 10.27 eft in them. However, the impact of the First World War was
unprecedented, creating a series of shocks far greater than
1 Compare the situation under Nicholas || and Stalin.
the earlier controversial Russo-Japanese War. The fact that
How far had things changed for:
the poorly organised Duma itself could even briefly form
a workers a Provisional Government shows the weakness of tsarism
b women by March 1917. The better organised Bolsheviks, efficiently
c youth ed by the more ruthless Lenin, were able to seize power in
d__ national minorities? ovember 1917. The same ruthlessness shaped their victory in
the Civil War and their style of government. In such a system,
2 For each of the social groups mentioned in this
section, explain how much you think they benefited it is not surprising, in retrospect, that the more ruthless Stalin
from Stalin’s rule. outwitted Trotsky to become the party’s and country’s
eader. Once in charge, Stalin favoured radical change in the
economy, but in some issues was socially conservative.

e Thetsarist government was backward and inefficient. e The NEP was a success in the short term, but caused
e Nicholas II survived the 1905 Revolution because of the political problems.
weakness of his opponents and the loyalty of the army. ¢ Stalin’s cunning and Trotsky’s mistakes combined to
¢ The First World War discredited Nicholas II and his regime. ensure that Stalin won the leadership struggle after
Lenin died.
¢ Therevolution in March 1917 was popular, but the army
was central. ¢ Stalin launched the purges to rid the USSR of all those he
considered his enemies.
e The Provisional Government faced difficulties and made
mistakes. e Stalin used a mixture of repression, rewards and
propaganda in order to control the USSR.
e Organisation, ruthlessness and military power enabled the
Bolsheviks to seize power in November 1917. e Stalin’s Five-Year Plans were intended to modernise Soviet
industry, and collectivisation agriculture.
e The Bolsheviks won the Civil War in Russia because of
the divisions among their opponents, geographical * Stalin’s economic policies changed society, increased
advantages and Trotsky’s leadership. industrial production and wrecked agriculture.

The Big Challenge

This list includes aspects of Russia 1905-1941: Divide it into two lists: issues where things changed;
Tsarism was replaced with communism.
issues where things stayed the same. Which
issues:
The government relied on repression.
Industry was modernised and expanded. 1 are you unsure about? Why do you think that is?
eligion was banned and the church persecuted. 2 are missing from the lists?
[ture was backward and inefficient.
3 do you think are most important and why?
ulture was collectivised.
le had little or no choice who governed.
Now write explaining how far you think Russian society
and economy changed in the period 1905-194]
le pr Ve d and worshipped God.
 10: Depth Study C: Russia, 1905-1941

Exam-style questions
Questions in the style of Paper 1
1 a _ What happened on Bloody Sunday, 1905?

b Why was the tsar able to survive the 1905 Revolution?

¢ ‘Discontent among the working classes was the main reason for the downfall
of the tsar in March 1917. How far do you agree with this statement?

What was the Stalin Cult?

Why did Stalin carry out the purges?

‘Stalin’s rule was a disaster for the Soviet Union.’ How far do you agree
with this view?

Questions in the style of Paper4 - IGCSE only

1 How important was the dissatisfaction of the peasantry in causing the 1905 Revolution?

2 How significant were changes brought about by Stalin’s policies after 1929?
236

Depth Study D : The USA, 1919 -1941

 11: Depth Study D: The USA, 1919-1941

What is this depth study about? CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 11.1

In this chapter you will be learning about the United
States in a time of great change, from the end of the First List three ways in which the United States benefited from
its involvement in the First World War.
World War up to its entry into the Second World War. We
will be looking at the reasons for the economic prosperity
of the 1920s, how this affected the American people and
the extent to which different groups in society enjoyed On what factors was the economic boom
the benefits of the ‘boom years’. We will then examine based?
the reasons why, in 1929, the cou ntry experienced the After a brief slump in the immediate post-war period,
Wall Street Crash, followed by a long period of business the 1920s saw a sustained economic boom. The annual
failure, mass unemployment and poverty. Finally, the Gross National Product increased by 40% in the period
chapter looks at the policies of Franklin Delano Roosevelt, - 1922-1929. There were a number of reasons for this. The
president from 1933 to 1945, who introduced the ‘New First World War gave the US several advantages over
Deal’ in an attempt to bring about recovery from the competitors. It had plentiful natural resources such as
crisis. | oil, coal and iron. Immigration provided an abundant
supply of cheap labour: almost 14 million people arrived
The key questions we will be examining are as follows:
in the US during 1900-1920, mostly from Europe.
1 How far did the US economy boom in the 1920s?
2 How far did US society change in the 1920s? |
3 What were the causes and consequences of the Wall Gross National Product: the total value of all the goods
Street Crash? and services produced by a country.

4 How successful was the New Deal?

There were also several new factors that promoted
economic growth after the war.
11.1 How far did the US economy
boom in the 1920s? Mass production and standardisation
Car maker Henry Ford used an assembly line method
The USA and the First World War
of production. The body of the car was moved ona
The US reluctantly joined the First World War in April 1917,
conveyor belt past a series of workers, each of whom
almost three years after the European powers had started
carried out a specific task as part of the manufacturing
fighting. It contributed almost one million troops and gave
process. This speeded up the work — by the mid-1920s,
financial support to Britain and France.
7,500 cars were being produced every day - and
The end of the war in November 1918 left the US in a reduced manufacturing costs. Ford explained that it was
strong position. Its losses were relatively small and there important to ‘keep everything in motion and take the
was no damage to its own land. In fact, the US economy work to the man and not the man to the work’. This ‘mass
benefited in several ways. Its European allies received production’ technique was adopted by other industries.
food and goods from American farms and factories, and
Ford also made sure factories made just one type of car
almost $10 million in loans from US banks during and
to a standardised specification. These developments
immediately after the war. The US expanded into new
meant that the car ceased to be a luxury item and became
overseas markets as its competitors struggled to recover
affordable to ordinary Americans. The best known car of the
from the war.
period, the Model T Ford, cost almost $1,000 when it was
Another effect of the war was the US policy of introduced in 1908 but by 1927 its price had fallen to less
isolationism. It refused to join the League of Nations, than $300. By the mid-1920s there was a car for one in every
preferring to stand aloof from overseas quarrels. Congress five Americans, whereas the figure in Britain was one to 43.
imposed tariffs on imports, in order to protect US
The mass production of cars affected the whole economy,
industries and encourage the buying of American-made
creating a demand for rubber for tyres, glass for windscreens
goods.
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

The
ELECTROLUX
WATER SOFTENER
ens
ply

The
ELECTROLUX
REFRIGERATOR

“a rere
Wy BEN you give a
_ - woman an Electro-
Th nd ‘ta lux Suction Cleaner you
e os & — Wg are NOt only giving her
ELECTROLUX the means of keeping the
CLEANER home clean, you are pre-
senting her with extra
hours of leisure every day
—all the year through—
and for many years, too.
S70 7G-3-8-20 And the home which also
possesses the Electrolux
Refrigerator and the Elec-
Source 11A: An assembly line in one of Henry Ford’s car trolux Water Softener is
completely equipped with
the finest appliances which
factories in the 1920s, showing how cars were constructed in Please Post this
domestic science has yet
produced for ensuring
Coupon NOW wholesome food and clean,
stages as they passed along a conveyor belt. Lam interested in your,
soft water.

and other materials. Garages were built to provide petrol,

cia ELECTROLUX Max J WORLDS Hi uiry
LTO
HERS
NERS.

servicing and repairs; hotels and restaurants appeared to HEAD OFFICE 153-155 REGENT STREET. LONDON WI
WORKS: LUTON. BEDFORDSHIRE
S Branches and 506 Distritwrory dkroughout Great Britain
meet the needs of travellers. Suburbs expanded, as people
could travel further to their workplace; rural areas became
less isolated. Source 11B: An advertisement for a refrigerator in the
mid-1920s.
238
ACTIVITY 11.1
been shame attached to buying something if you could
not afford to pay for it entirely. This now disappeared as
Using Source 11A and other evidence in this section,
write your own explanation of how Henry Ford made his people accepted increasing levels of debt. This would be
factories work efficiently. one cause offuture problems, as people’s ability to make
repayments was dependent on continued economic
growth. As we will see in Section 11.3, this stopped after
Consumer culture the Wall Street Crash of October 1929.
The average wage rose by 8% between 1923 and 1929. At
the same time the price of consumer goods fell, so people’s Table 11.1: The growth of mass consumption in US
spending power grew, increasing demand. Newspapers, households, 1920-1930.
magazines and the radio carried advertisements designed
to make people feel that they needed items such as Consumer item Percentage of Percentage of
refrigerators, washing machines and vacuum cleaners. Many homes in 1920. homes in 1930
targeted women, who were responsible for housework, Radio sets
‘Ncourage them to purchase labour-saving devices.
Vacuum cleaners
nN sold goods directly to people in their homes.
Washing machines
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 11.2

Study Source 11B. How does this advertisement make ACTIVITY 11.2
the product appear more attractive to potential
IuUTrCNnasers?
DUTCNASEeYLS: How useful is Table 11.1 for studying the economic
boom of the 1920s? What other information would
you need in order to understand how far American
people benefited from the increased production of
hire purchase lying of goods on credit manufactured goods?
 11: Depth Study D: The USA, 1919-1941

Republican government policy produced electrical cor

Republican presidents Warren Harding, Calvin Coolidge which stocked these, appear
and Herbert Hoover, in power from 1921 to 1933, reduced new jobs, and the workers spent their wage
taxes and left businesses to make their own decistons, a goods, thus stimulating further productior
policy known as laissez-faire. Hoover called for ‘rugged
The decade also saw the constructior
individualism’: people should succeed through their own
enjoying a period of strong growth, <
talents and work. The tax cuts left people with more
business produced a demand for new office bu
money, fuelling a spending boom.
New building materials and techniques enable
Governments did abandon laissez-faire on one issue, The construction of skyscrapers, which 1
1922 Fordney-McCumber Act raised tariffs to their highest part of the urban landscape. The
ever level and allowed the government to increase them York, 319 metres high (1046 feet) tt
annually. This made imports more expensive, protecting when completed in 1
US industries from foreign competition. State Building (381 metres or 1250 feet h

rench term meaning ‘leave alone’. a policy

ment involvement especially in the
ay
ts

ACTIVITY 11.3

= Consider the main reasons for the economic boom of

the 1920s:
oe “impact of the First World War
- plentiful natural resources
e cheap labour Source 11C: Construction work on a skyscraper in the
~* mass production 1920s, showing workmen on the scaffolding high above the
city streets.
e advertising
e hire purchase
e Republican government policies. CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 11.3

In your opinion, which of these were the most important What do Table 11.1 and Source 11C tell you about the
causes of growth? Give reasons for your answer. Can you booming US economy of the 1920s?
link the various factors together in your answer?

ot all industries were able to adapt to change t

Why did some industries prosper introducing new methods suchch as a assemb
while others did not? production. Some older industries only gre
The automobile industry was a success story and drove partly because of competition An fram
from n newar tachn

successes in related industries such as road-building: the Demand for coal declined as oil, ga
US road network had doubled in length by 1930. Among became more widely use
new industries, commercial flying became feasible with the compete with the expansion of road traffic. Ra
appearance of larger and more comfortable aeroplanes. transported freight, but 1
Aviator Charles Lindbergh became the first person to fly solo increasingly import
across the Atlantic in 1927, making flying seem glamorous.
The textile ind

Electricity was supplied to many homes and factories dresses were rac}

in the 1920s, encouraging the growth of industries that r

\
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

uch as rayon, made in factories requiring fewer workers, Attempts by the government to help farmers made things
was a threat to older textiles such as cotton. worse. Increasing tariffs on imported food in the early
1920s caused other countries to retaliate with tariffs
of their own, thereby making American produce less
ACTIVITY 11.4
competitive. The McNary-Haugen Farm Relief Bill was
introduced by Congress in 1924. This would have created
What do you think were the main reasons why some US
a Federal Farm Board to buy up surplus food. However,
industries performed better than others in the 1920s?
president Coolidge, who believed that government
intervention in the economy was undesirable, vetoed
the bill.
Why did agriculture not share in the Demand for cotton and wool declined as artificial fibres
prosperity? were increasingly used. Fewer animals were needed as the
Agriculture experienced a boom during the war. car industry boomed,so reducing
the demand foranimal
However, as European producers began to recover and foodstuffs such as hay and oats.
competition from Canada, Argentina and elsewhere
Rural communities lagged behind the towns. In 1930 more
emerged, prices for American farm produce fell. Wheat
than 90% of American farms were still not connected to
went from $183 a bushel in 1920 to 38 cents in 1929.
the electricity network.
Farmers who had taken out loans in order to increase
the size of their farm and buy tractors and combine early half the US population lived in the countryside in
harvesters could not repay the banks. Mechanisation the 1920s and so the effects of the farming crisis were
enabled farmers to produce more, but this only drove severe. There were, however, some exceptions. Large-
prices down further. By 1924 600,000 farmers were scale wheat farmers in the Mid-West, and fruit growers
bankrupt and over one million farm workers had left the in California and Florida, continued to make a good
240 land in search of other jobs. living.

Nearly everything was done on credit ... the small

farmers back at that time ... They all had to borrow
money every year to make a profit. So, if they hada
bad crop year, a lot of them, that’s the way they lost
their farms. The bad times back there, was 1920 and
you just can’t imagine the number of people then that
was big men the year before who had lost everything
they had.

Source 11D: Clay East, who ran a petrol station in a rural

community in Arkansas, recalls the problems faced by
tenant farmers in the 1920s.

ACTIVITY 11.6
ACTIVITY 11.5
Make a mind map to show the various reasons why
How useful is Source 11D for a study of agriculture in the farmers experienced problems in the 1920s.
US in the 1920s?

high demand farmers borrowed bought land and

in Wartime high prices orosperity
for food money machinery y

coe a
labourers

laid off
farmers went
bankrupt
prices collapsed
demand for food
fell — >| poverty
 11; Depth Study D: The USA, 1919-1941

Table 11.2: Changing average weekly pay of farm and

factory workers, 1919-1930.
FACT FILE
People in newer and older industries, or in urban and
1919 1930
rural US, or in different social classes or ethnic groups,
had different experiences. While farm-workers’ wages Average farm-worker $13.5 f
§75s¢
|$7.5
were falling, skilled factory workers’ pay rose. There were
variations across the country, with the South doing worse
Skilled factory worker 5223
than the North. Any analysis of the period has to take
account of this variation. they tended to be confined to poorly paid employment,
often living in overcrowded conditions in segregated
areas known as ghettoes. Many farm workers in the
Did all Americans benefit from the boom? South were black, and one million of them lost their
The US remained an unequal society in the boom jobs in the 1920s.
years. A survey in 1929 found that 18 million people (just
under 15% ofthe total population) lived in poverty, and
that 78% of profits from industry went to 0.3% of the ACTIVITY 11.7
population.

Unskilled and casual workers, and the two million

unemployed, were unable to purchase the goods available
to better-off Americans. For them, life was a matter of
survival rather than of participation in the consumer
boom.

New immigrants often had a lower standard of education

than more established Americans. They had to take
whatever work was available.
Workers in older industries faced unemployment or
wages that failed to keep up. Coal miners’ standard of
living dropped: by 1929 their wages had fallen to a third
of the national average. Textile industry employers,
faced with rising competition, employed cheaper female
or child labour in order to reduce costs. Strikes for
higher wages were rarely successful, partly because the 11.2 How far did US society
police suppressed disturbances. Trade-union power change in the 1920s?
remained limited. Some firms only hired non-union
labourto avoid strikes. What were the ‘Roaring 20s’?
The prosperity created by the economic boom of the
Farmers and farm workers were badly affected by the
1920s led to major changes in American society. There
agricultural slump of the 1920s. Many farmers who
were new opportunities for entertainment. Women
had overextended themselves by taking out loans had
enjoyed greater freedom. On the other hand, there was
their farms repossessed by the banks to whom they
a backlash from older and more conservative people,
owed money. Bankruptcy turned some into tenants on
and life changed much less in the countryside than in the
their own land. Others moved to industrial cities or to cities.
California, where fruit farms were creating employment.
Some travelled the country in search of work. Share-
Consumer boom
croppers rented farmland; when prices of farm produce
Better-off people bought new consumer goods and
fell, they struggled to pay the rent. Eviction brought
services. With wages rising for those who were employed
both unemployment and homelessness.
in the newer industries, and factories producing more
Black Americans formed a disproportionate part of the products for them to buy, this was a good time to be
country’s poor. In cities such as New York or Chicago young and with money to spare.
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

New inventions independent lifestyle were known as ‘flappers’. The term

implied immorality.
_refrigerators and record players improved the
4terial quality of life. Labour-saving devices in the home Not all Americans welcomed these developments.
such as vacuum Cleaners created more leisure time. Some feared that new musical styles and dance crazes
Advertising in newspapers and magazines, and on the encouraged immoral contact between unmarried young
radio and at the cinema, made people aware of what they people. They thought that the depiction of smoking,
could spend their money on. drinking and violence in films would be copied by
impressionable viewers, leading to a decline in moral
Social and cultural change standards.
Jazz originated among the black population of the
southern states, spreading to northern cities after the First
ACTIVITY 11.8
World War. This music was sometimes condemned as
immoral, perhaps only serving to make it more popular.
Research one of the following, and make a PowerPoint
Band leaders such as Duke Ellington and Louis Armstrong
presentation for your class on how it contributed to
became well known and eventually jazz became part of
social change in the 1920s:
the cultural mainstream in the US.
e film
° sport
e music and dance.

How widespread was intolerance

in US society?
The 1920s were a time when a number of minority groups
faced intolerance, discrimination and persecution.

immigrants
The US had been founded on the idea of immigration. The
inscription on the Statue of Liberty in New York harbour
famously welcomes the world’s ‘huddled masses’ to a new
life of freedom and opportunity. However, immigrants
Source 11E: A jazz band giving a performance circa 1924.
became less welcome in the early twentieth century for
several reasons.
Spectator sports attracted large crowds. By 1930 40%
of American homes had a radio set and radio reporting Whereas most early immigrants had originally come
generated interest in sporting stars. ‘Babe Ruth’, the most from parts of northern Europe such as Germany
successful baseball player of his time, became a celebrity. and Scandinavia, a growing number now came from
Cheaply available motor cars enabled people to travel Eastern Europe or Asia. Many people feared that these
further for pleasure as well as for work. New crazes such immigrants would not be easily assimilated into society
jazz and dances like the Charleston were fashionable. because their racial and cultural background was
his was also the golden age of cinema, with the rise of different from that of established American citizens.
Hollywood. Film , were silent, cinemas hiring a pianist or Working-class Americans feared competition for jobs, at
to play suitable music to accompany events a time when employment opportunities were reduced by
reen. From 1927, with the success
of Al Jolson’s mechanisation in industry.
talkies’ appeared, in which the actors’
Congress responded to these fears by introducing
heard. By 1930 more than 100 million
quotas for immigrants in 1921. This meant that the
Delt Id ear eel
number of immigrants admitted from a particular
Or horter skirts and country must be proportional to the number of people
fy
fromy that country living in the US « ten years earlier. This
 11; Depth Study D: The USA, 1919-1941

was intended to reduce the number of people comin

g The vulnerability of immig
IMIgrants yach

from Eastern Europe, because there had been relati

vely Sacco and Vanzetti case. This was a notorious
few immigrants from there before the First World War.
trial in 1921, in whichtwo Italian anarchists. Nicola
The quota was reduced from 3% to 2% in 1924, and in
Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti, were
1929 a further measure allowed the entry of only 150,00
0 during an armed robbery. The case was a controversial
immigrants a year. The entry of Asians was completely
one, with unclear evidence and si
banned. the stories given by witnesses. Th :
and both were executed in 1927. Although the ca
14,000,000 7
revealed widespread prejudice against foreig
12,000,000 was also considerable Salas: for the men’
10,000,000 al and many felt that they were victims of a mi
justice.
8,000,000 in

6,000,000 4—

4,000,000
African Americans
Black Americans suffered from discrimination across the
2,000,000
US. Although slavery had been ended as a result of the
American Civil War (1861-1865) many southern states
found ways to limit the freedom of black people. The Jim
Crow’ laws, named after a popular depiction of a black
character, enforced segregation — the separation of black
Figure 11.1: Immigration into the United States. and white people in public facilities such as cafes and
public transport. In some states, literacy tests or other
qualifications were imposed to make it more difficult for
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 11.4 black people to register to vote. 243

What does Figure 11.1 suggest about the impact of The North had no formal segregation, and many black
immigration laws in the US in the 1920s? people moved to northern cities in the 1920s in the hope
of fi nding employment and better treatment
Nonetheless, black people tended to live in specific areas,
Communists and anarchists and experienced poorer housing and education. Black
people across the US suffered violence, especially in the
Fear of immigrants was linked to the ‘Red Scare’. The
South. The authorities often paid no attention to
1917 Russian revolution led many Americans to make a
lynchings.
link between extreme political ideas and the arrival of
immigrants from Eastern Europe. The atmosphere of White fears can be seen in the growthof the Ku Klux
suspicion was heightened by a series of bomb outrages Klan. By 1925 the Klan had an esti d fi
associated with anarchists, including in 1919 an attack members and enjoyed the private support ofa number
on the home of the government’s chief law officer, of politicians, judges and senior policemen in some
Attorney-General Mitchell Palmer. Up to 6,000 suspected southern states. One Klan leader, David Stephenson
communists and anarchists were arrested in the ‘Palmer
raids’ of 1920. Conservative Americans feared that their
capitalist system was under attack from a foreign-inspired
conspiracy.
Lynchings: executions carried out by mobs, not by judicial
process.

Sr tii stn The Ku Klux Klan: a white supremacist organisation

founded in the South following its Civil War defeat. Its aim
Communists: people who believe that government should — is to ensure continued white power in part by making black
take over all private businesses and land. people too frightened to participate in elections, strikes or
Anarchists: people who believe in the abolition of demonstrations. It has also been hostile to Catholics, Jews,
government. immigrants, communists and anarchists.
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

be brought against him and the issue aired in public.

The fundamentalist point of view was put by William
Jennings Bryan, who had stood for the presidency on
two occasions. The court found against Scopes but the
trial exposed the lack of coherence of his opponents’
arguments.
Tennessee, Arkansas and Mississippi continued to
outlaw the teaching of human evolution - the ban
was not overturned for 40 years. The remaining 45
states making US in the 1920s did not impose such
restrictive laws.

KEY TERMS
|
?

Source 11F: Ku Klux Klan officers in their robes and hoods,

initiating a new member (seen kneeling) into their secret
rituals in November 1922.

declared, ‘| am the law in Indiana.’ He was put on trial

for raping and assaulting a woman who later died. This
scandal affected the Klan’s standing and its membership
and influence declined in the second half of the decade.

ACTIVITY 11.9
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 11.5
244
Jews are both a religious and an ethnic minority in —
Use the evidence in this section, including Source 11F,
the US. Research their situation there in the 1920s,
to explain why the Ku Klux Klan had such a fearsome
reputation. making connections with what you have learned about
East-European immigration, and religious and racial.
prejudice. . :
Despite all this, African Americans made advances in this
period. Jazz was only one part of a flowering ofAfrican
American culture (see Source 11E). Black artists and
ACTIVITY 11.10 :
performers became well known, notably the dancer
Josephine Baker. There was a growing black middle class Does the evidence of this section suggest that
in Chicago and New York. The National Association for the intolerance was universal in American society in the
=i

Advancement of Coloured People (NAACP), founded in 1920s? Remember to take account of different social
1909, continued to campaign for the rights of black people, classes, ethnic groups and regions in the US.
and its investigations into lynching (2) helped to reduce the
number of attacks. There was, though, little change in
African Amer icans’ political, economic and social position
the 1950s and 1960s. Why was Prohibition introduced, and then
later repealed?
Religious intolerance in the 1920s Religious campaigners, such as the Anti-Saloon League,
\not irea in which some Americans sought to suppress had argued since the late 19th century that alcohol
lom of others was the attempt by Christian created poverty and undermined family life and morals.
to ban the teaching of the theory of Some industrialists believed that alcohol impaired
evolution. Fundamentalists,who were numerous in the workers’ efficiency. These feelings gained strength during
Bible belt hn, argued that God created the the First World War, partly because many brewers were of
5, the so-called ‘monkey trial’ took German origin, so prohibition of beer became regarded
ee town of Dayton.
A teacher named as a patriotic issue. Several individual states passed thei
tion so that a test case could own laws banning alcohol.
 11; Depth Study D: The USA, 1919-1941

Atter the war, anti-drink campaigners had enough

support Why did Prohibition come to an end in 1933?
in Congress to secure the passing of the Eighteenth
Even after the Federal Bureau of Invest tigation (FB
Amendment to the US Constitution in 1919, banning the
eee Ndat the t t g
‘manufacture, sale or transportation of intoxicat ting liquors
’. impossibleto enforce.A cc ttee set up
The Volstead Act of 1920 defined ‘intoxicating liquors by p
’ as Hooverin 1 929 coricluded that Prohibition
anything containing more than 5% alcohol. was
working. The 0 vernment was fighting a losing battle
the ruleof law was being brought into disrepute. F 6
What were the effects of Prohibition? the baenadeeGee Depression and the electio F
Legal breweries and distilleries quickly closed down and Roosevelt, the Eighteenth Amen
the consumption of alcohol dropped. However, continuing
The government ho ped that making alcohol legal onc
demand financed illegal ‘stills’ that produced often
again would create jobs, stimulate economic rec
poor-quality ‘moonshine’ whisky, leading to increased
createa legal industry that could be taxed and reg d
alcohol-related deaths. Previously law-abiding Americans
now bought alcohol in illegal bars known as ‘speakeasies’,
which charged high prices. Illegal traders known as CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 11.6
‘bootleggers’ flourished. The US’s long land and sea
borders made alcohol smuggling impossible to prevent. What were the main reasons for the failure of
Prohibition?
Organised criminal gangs fought for control of the now
illegal drink trade. With too few government agents
to enforce the law, and widespread police and official
corruption, the gangsters thrived. Al Capone (1899-1947, How far did the roles of women change during
see Source 11G) was a gang leader who gained control of the 1920s?
the illegal drink trade in Chicago, and dominated the city’s Greater political rights?
political scene through bribery and election fixing. In the 3efore the First World War, wom 245

1929 St Valentine’s Day Massacre, his gang killed seven State elections, but not in federal on
members of a rival gang in a Chicago garage. He was Nineteenth Amendment to the Cc
eventually prosecuted and imprisoned not for his gangster equal voting rights with men. 7 d
activities but for income tax evasion. result of many women having successful
Nad traditior ally en men’s jobs during the First World
War. Also, a campaign for voting rights had been gaining
in strength befor e the war, including groups such as th
Congressional Union (later the National Women’s Part
founded in 1912 by Ali
Following the passing of the Nineteenth Amendment, few
suffrage campaigners «an ued to pursue active politica
careers. Women such as Nellie Tayloe Ross of ning
first female state governor, were the exception ratt
the rule. Hers wasa special case in that she was elected to
replace her husband, who died suddenly in 1924 whilst in
office, and she refused to campaign for the post.

Source 11G: Al More independent lifestyles?

Capone pictured The 1920s saw the appearance of a new kind of

i after his conviction in urbe an woman.s ometime Ss known asth

November 1931. wore fashion ably short skirts witho

na Jarmantc of tha nr
unaergarme S OF UNE

Prohibition thus u nintentionally damaged people's <

Some
WMO
WentOu
\Asantn + +r

health, turned law-abiding citizens into law breakers, and SMOKINE an

promoted corruption and violenc

Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

and selling them for a profit. This practice is known

as speculation. It relied on the expectation that the
companies would continue to perform well and
therefore the value of shares would keep rising. This
was the case until October 1929 when the Great Crash
occurred and, almost overnight, the value of shares
collapsed, leaving many investors facing huge losses.
This was the start of a period known as the Great
Depression, when millions of people lost their jobs as
banks and businesses failed.

ik eee -
Source 11H: A ‘flapper’ striking a pose daring for the 1920s.

Women in rural areas did not usually enjoy the same

amenities as urban women; their lives remained
hard. Most women continued to be dependent first
on fathers and then husbands. They could not get
credit independently of their husbands and had no
legal protection against domestic abuse. Access to
contraception was improving, with campaigner Margaret
Sanger establishing the first birth-control clinic in 1923,
but was still limited in availability and efficiency, and still Source 111: Anxious investors milling around in Wall Street,
controversial. Married women were still responsible for New York’s financial district, at the time of the 1929 Crash.
domestic life including child-care.
Wall Street in New York is where the stock market is
The proportion of womer 1 the workforce did rise in the based. In the 1920s, when its activities were not regulated
1920s, but only from 20.4% to 22%. Women were generally by government, growing numbers of ordinary people
paid less than men, and employment tended to occur bought shares in the hope of making money. Many
in areas traditionally seen as ‘female’, such a teaching, borrowed money to do so. When share prices rose, they
nursing and librarianship. could sell their shares, repay the loan and still make a
profit. By 1929 20 million Americans owned shares. More
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 11.7 people bought shares, pushing share prices beyond their
real value. Too little attention was paid to the actual
Do you agree that the overall position of women in
performance of the companies themselves, and too
American society did not improve significantly in the
1920s? What do you think Source 11H can tell us about much to the performance of their shares on the stock
the situation of women in American in the 1920s? market. In addition, the rising stock market was based on
shareholders’ confidence.
With the value’of shares rising even when the demand
11.3 What were the causes and for goods was falling, US companies were extremely
consequences of the Wall Street overvalued. In the autumn of 1929, people who
Crash? understood the situation became worried enough
to begin selling shares. As prices came down small
How far was speculation responsible for the investors panicked (See Source 111). On ‘Black Thursday’,
Wall Street Crash? 24 October, almost 13 million shares were sold in one
om years of the 1920s many people made day. Fewer people were willing to buy shares and their
hare n US companies prices fell alarmingly. The low prices made some people
 11: Depth Study D: The USA, 1919-1941

think there were bargains to be picked up and the stock manufactured goods slowed. Once hc
market briefly rallied, only to have its worst ever day on 29 bought an item, they Uy an<
October, when more than 16 million shares were traded. replacement one. As firms found that they cc
There were too many sellers and too few buyers; the value goods, they cut their employees’ wages or reduced tl
of the shares collapsed, causing large numbers of people size of their workforce.
to lose their money.
Similarly, in the countryside, farmers faced fa
210 throughout the decade becausefy ot y ) ) >)

more than the market coul

190
=
oO US companies had benefited from the tariffs wh
ce

" 170
i<e)
reduced foreign competition. At the same time, retaliatory
N
(o>)
a= tariffs reduced the companies’ income from exports. In .
150
vo
aS
addition, European countries, strugeli
Z 130 money the US had lent them durin
VU

£ were buying less.

Y
< 110
£

25 90 What impact did the Crash have

S
2aa 70
on the economy?
= Many banks had invested their customers’
50 shares, which were now worthless. To try to avoid their
own collapse, these banks began calling in loans f
1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 repayment. Many firms and private individuals could not
repay the money they had borrowed. Seeing the bank
Figure 11.2: The changing value of shares on Wall Street, 247
in trouble, people lost confidence in them and queued to
1926-1933. withdraw their money. By 1933 more than 4,000 banks had
gone out of business.
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING. 11.8 —
A vicious cycle developed:
What can you learn from Figure 11.2 about the
background to the Wall Street Crash? Companies cannot repay t

Workers in
ACTIVITY 11.11 these firms lose
their jobs
Make a flow chart showing the different factors leading
up to the Wall Street Crash. Highlight in different colours
Unemployed people
the factors that relate to the stock market, and those.
that have to do with the wider problems of the US have less money to
economy. spend

Was the Wall Street Crash the only cause Unemployment reached 4.3 million (almost 9% o
of the Depression? workforce) in 1930, by 1932 it had rocketed
The US economy had problems even before October 1929. (almost 24% of the workforce). Those who fo
Older industries such as coal and textiles, and agriculture, usually had to work for lower wages, |
were struggling from the early 1920s onwards. -yroblem of falling5 demand
La ntare annad
tr +} a mic
By the late 1920s mass production, a crucial component Additional factors added U

of the boom, led to overproduction and so demand fo! government introduced the Smoot-t
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

higher than previous import tariffs. Other countries about this new development. In an original
did the same for US imports, causing world trade to attempt to disband these shantytowns and
shrink, further damaging US industry. At home, the unemployed ‘jungles’, city officials burned down
unequal distribution of wealth played a part. Poorer the entire community, giving the men only seven
people who might have spent money on goods did not days’ eviction notice ... Hooverville residents,
have the means to do so. For all these reasons the amount for their part, were not thwarted by the city’s
of money circulating in the economy contracted. attempt to disband them. They simply dug deeper
embankments for their homes and re-established the
This was the Great Depression.
community.

ap TOP TIP
Source 11J: From an account of a Hooverville in
Seattle, Washington State, on the North-West coast of
Events are not experienced in the same way by different the USA.
groups in society. Would a poor farmer or coal miner, for
example, have agreed that the Depression had begun in
19297 ACTIVITY 11.12

What does Source 11J tell you about the attitudes of the
unemployed towards the Great Depression?
What were the social co
of the Crash?
The Depression in the cities The Depression affected family life. It discouraged people
Unemployment rose steadily until, by 1933, almost a from marrying and having children. Marriages fell from
quarter of the workforce was jobless. The industrial areas 1.23 million in 1929 to 982,000 in 1932. The suicide rate
of the North and West, where entire factories closed, were went up from 14 per 100,000 people to 17 between 1929
248
worst hit. It was almost impossible to find another job in and 1932.
these areas. The social problems of the Depression were worsened
One consequence of unemployment was homelessness by the absence of a welfare state run by the federal
as householders became unableto meet mortgage or government. Instead, individual towns and cities ran
rent payments. Many slept on the streets or resorted to limited programmes of assistance, and there were
travelling in search of work. In 1932 an estimated two also charities that provided soup kitchens. In some
million hobos risked their lives by hitching rides on long- cases unemployed people joined together to help
distance trains. Several hundred thousand people built themselves. Sometimes farmers allowed them to
shanty towns of wood and cardboard on the edges of collect food that could not be sold. Desperate people
cities. These were known as ‘Hoovervilles’ in mockery of begged or stole.
Herbert Hoover, president at the time of the Wall Street
Crash. These were unhealthy places without running water The Depression in rural USA
ind sewage systems. The Depression worsened the problems of US farmers.
Customers had become so poor that they struggled to
afford their produce. Prices of farm produce fell further,
KEY TERMS
sometimes making the harvesting of crops pointless. In
Oregon, farmers killed thousands of sheep because the
price they would fetch at market would not cover the cost
of transporting themthere. Banks repossessed the farms
of those who could no longer pay their mortgages. Some
farmers physically resisted the agents who came to evict
Jesse Jackson, the self-declared mayor of Hooverville bd
them, but eventually they too had little option but to leave
was one of the men who had a strong distaste for
and move on.
organized charity ... Jackson and his friends rounded
up whatever they could find and began to create In Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, New Mexico and Colorado.
shelters. Seattle city officials were not thrilled farmers faced an additional challenge from nature.
 11: Depth Study D: The USA, 1919-1941

| A combination of poor farming methods, drought and bought the property of

. strong winds led to severe soil erosion in the 1930s. The Nevertheless, most p .
: resulting dust storms ruined thousands of farmers: many
early 1930s
i} sold and left. :
Many farmers from the ‘Dust Bowl’ areas of Oklahoma
} and Arkansas, known respectively as ‘Okies’ and ‘Arkies’,
moved to the west coast in search of work, but they
rarely found the opportunities they expected. Locals
often viewed them suspiciously as potentially criminal
outsiders. The newcomers usually had to work for low CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 11.9
wages, living in temporary camps.
Did the Depression affect all Americans equally? Giv (ap)

reasons for your answer.

Why did Roosevelt win the election of 1932?

Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR). the De atic f
candidate, defeated the sitting pre
Party leader Herbert Hoover, in th
election. FDR went on to t
president, winning three f
1944. He was the US’s leader in the Secon
dying in office in April 1945, sh
victory over Germany. 249

Roosevelt took over the government when the Depr

vas at its worst. He was popular because he offered a
message of hope at atin
Source 11K: A still from the film adaptation of John predecessor seemed to h
Steinbeck’s 1939 novel The Grapes of Wrath. This tells the his fellow Americans.
story of a farming family who move from Oklahoma to
California in search of work picking fruit.

:
ACTIVITY 11.13

How would you assess the reliability of a novel like The

Grapes of Wrath as an historical source? What message
or information does the image in Source 11K give us?

Did all Americans face hardship?

Although they were affected by the Wall Street Crash,
the rich tended to suffer less than the rest of society.
Some had not invested everything in stocks and Source 11L: Roosevelt (right) greeting his defeated
shares but had kept a proportion of their wealth in predecessor, Herbert Hoover, on the day he took over as
gold and property, which retained their value. Some president, March 1933.
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

Hoover’s policies What did Roosevelt offer?

Herbert Hoover (1874-1964) was a self-made man Franklin Roosevelt (1882-1945) came from a privileged
Oo pecame V vealthy as a mining engineer. A
first-rate background and was noted for his easy charm as well as
ministrator, he organised the distribution of food to his skill as a politician (see for example Source 11L). He
people in Europe affected by the fighting in the First served as Assistant Secretary of the Navy in Woodrow
orld War. After serving as Secretary of Commerce in the Wilson’s administration. Personal tragedy struck him just
Republican administrations of the 1920s, he was elected before the age of 40, however, when he contracted polio,
president in 1928. He believed that hard work was the key which left him unable to walk. Roosevelt was a man of
to continued prosperity. This was an appealing message great determination. In 1928 he was elected governor of
while the boom lasted, but after the Great Crash, people New York State and in 1933 became the US's first disabled
wanted positive action from the government. president.

Hoover seemed complacent about the problems of those Roosevelt did not explain his policy proposals for dealing
whom the Depression had hit. In the first year of the with the Depression in muéh detail. The measures he
Depression he insisted that the good times would return introduced turned out to be an extension of Hoover's.
if government maintained its traditional laissez-faire The key difference between the two was that Roosevelt
approach. Individual states and charities could relieve created the impression that if elected, he would lead an
9overty, not the federal government. If government active, energetic government. He emphasised his support
intervened, it would undermine people’s self-reliance. for ‘the forgotten man at the bottom of the economic
pyramid’ and travelled the country to make himself known
Hoover was willing to increase public spending but refused
to the people. He spoke of a ‘new deal’ for the US, making
to incur large debts. He set up a Farm Board to help
it clear that he would take whatever action was necessary
armers by buying up surplus food. His Reconstruction
to get the economy moving again.
Finance Corporation, created in 1932, provided $2 billion
250
in loans to businesses. His government financed public FDR offered hope to poor people but also reassurance
works schemes, including the Boulder Dam on the to the many middle-class Americans who feared that
Colorado River, which was completed after he had left without urgent action, the country might slide into
office and was later renamed the Hoover Dam. Yet these revolution. Roosevelt seemed best placed to avert such
neasures were not enough to deal with the scale of the a catastrophe. He won with the support of 23 million
problems that the US economy faced. As we have seen, people, equivalent to 57% of the vote, and carried all but
the 1930 Smoot-Hawley tariff actually caused as many six of the 48 states of the US.
roblems as it solved.
As aresult, Hoover seemed not to care about the plight ACTIVITY 11.14
of many ordinary Americans. ‘In Hoover we trusted, now
Write election leaflets for Hoover and Roosevelt in the
we are busted’ was one well-known farmers’ protest
slogan. He was criticised in particular for his handling of 1932 election, setting out their policies and why people
should vote for them.
the ‘Bonus Marchers’, 20,000 army veterans who had been
promised an extra payment in 1945. In 1932 some of them
came to Washington to call for the money to be paid early,
as they were in desperate need. They set up acamp on 11.4 How successful was the
the edges of the city with their families. Hoover misread New Deal?
the situation and, acting in the belief that communist
revolution would occur unless he took drastic action, he What was the New Deal, as introduced
sent in the army with tanks and tear gas to disperse the in 1933?
onus marchers. Many saw this as unnecessarily harsh. The New Deal was not a fully worked out plan when
Roosevelt came to office. It evolved over time, reflecting
his election statement that what the country needed was
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 11.10
‘bold, persistent experimentation’. Historians speak of
Vhy did Hoover fail to appeal to American voters in the a First New Deal’ in 1933, followed by a second one in
1935, Roosevelt's first year in office was a period of intense
government activit y, focused on 1 reviving the economy,
 11: Depth Study D: The USA, 1919-1941

getting people working again and stopping them from

persuaded Congress to give him the necessary emer :
losing their homes and farms. Its Purpose was summe
d up powers to tacklthe
e most immediate problems in his
in the ‘three Rs’ - relief, recovery and reform. first hundred days in office. The first task was to restore
confidence in the banking system, which was nearing
Roosevelt’s inaugural speech, March 1933 collapse as so many people had withdrawn their savir gs
Each new US president makes a speech at the and businesses had been unable to repay loans. Roosevelt
inauguration ceremony when they are installed in office. imposed a temporary closure of the banks and on y
Roosevelt’s is one of the most famous and important of allowed those banks to reopen that the government had
all time. Words would not solve the US’s problems, but certified as sound and properly run. He succeeded in
it was important to give the country a lead and generate getting people to start saving money in the banks once
a spirit of optimism. This he succeeded in doing. He again. This was followed by the Glass-Steagal Act, which
told his audience that ‘the only thing we have to fear introduced government regulation of Wall Street and
is fear itself’. Roosevelt followed this up with a series protected ordinary people from having their savings wiped
of radio addresses, known as ‘fireside chats’ for their out by the reckless investment decisions of the banks.
informal manner, in which he explained his policies and Another decision was the ending of Prohibition. This c UL +
encouraged people to look to the future. Radio was the ground from under the bootleg gangs and provided
a relatively new medium and Roosevelt was the first the government with a new source of tax revenue.
president to master it as a means of communicating with
the people.
The alphabet agencies
Roosevelt set up a number of government bodies known
We are working toward a definite goal, which is by their initial letters, which, for this reason, were called
to prevent the return of conditions which came the ‘alphabet agencies’. Their aim was to drive economic
very close to destroying what we call modern recovery and to provide assistance to the most vulnerable
civilization. The actual accomplishment of our groups in American society. This dramatically extended 251
purpose cannot be attained in a day. Our policies the role of the federal government in people’s lives. It
are wholly within purposes for which our American brought relief to millions but aroused opposition from
Constitutional Government was established 150 conservatives who saw it as undue interference in the
years ago. working of the market and the lives of individuals. Another
| know that the people of this country will understand criticism was that the New Deal was not fully planned
this ... |do not deny that we may make mistakes in advance, and some of the agencies overlapped with
of procedure as we carry out the policy. | have no others in what they did.
expectation of making a hit every time | come to bat. The alphabet agencies were important in three main
What | seek is the highest possible batting average, areas:
not only for myself but for the team.
Helping the poor and unemployed
Source 11M: Roosevelt addresses the nation in his second
‘fireside chat’, 7 May 1933. * Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC): provided men aged
18-25 with work on conservation projects such as
planting trees to combat soil erosion. More than
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 11.11 2 million men had taken part in this work by the time
the US entered the Second World War. It developed
How effective do you think the extract from Roosevelt’s useful practical skills and gave participants a sense of
broadcast in Source 11M is? Look at the use of language
purpose.
and the tone of the passage. Bear in mind the mood
of the people listening to Roosevelt at a time ofgreat * Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA):
national uncertainty. provided assistance for the poor, in the form of grants to
State governments.
* Civil Works Administration (CWA): provided employment
The Hundred Days for 4million people for a short-term period in 1933-1934
The economic crisis actually worsened in the early months Its job-creation schemes varied from road-b
of 1933. Strengthened by his election victory, Roosevelt sweeping leaves.
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

Public Works Administration (PWA): sponsored How far did the character of the New Deal
building projects, such as the construction of dams change after 1933?
and bridges. In 1935 the Supreme Court ruled that the NRA and the
Home Owners’ Loan Corporation (HOLC): supplied loans AAA were illegal because federal government had no
to people unable to pay their mortgages and in danger right to interfere in states’ affairs. Roosevelt had to think
of losing their homes. about how to secure re-election in 1936, and he was under
pressure from radical critics who wanted more done. The
Promoting industrial recovery
Second New Deal brought a change of emphasis, in that
National Recovery Administration (NRA): was set up by it was concerned with longer-term plans for social justice
the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA). It aimed and welfare, and establishing workers’ rights. There were
to revive industrial production by setting fair prices for several major developments in 1935.
goods, whilst raising workers’ wages and improving
conditions in the workplace. Companies taking part
signed codes of practice agreed with the government, Works Progress Administration (WPA)
and in return were issued with a ‘Blue Eagle’ logo to The WPA was a new initiative to deal with unemployment
show that they were good employers, and to encourage through major building projects. Examples of its work
people to buy from them. Over 5,000 industries had included the San Francisco Bay Bridge and New York’s
decided to participate by September 1933 and the La Guardia airport. It also supported the work of artists
symbol became widely known. and writers, helping to improve the quality of life in
many communities as well as giving work to more than
Helping the farmers 8 million people. By enabling people to work in return
* Farm Credit Administration (FCA): provided low-interest for money it avoided the stigma attached to receiving
loans to farmers. handouts.
Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA): controversially
252
rewarded farmers for cutting production levels. Many National Labour Relations Act
were angry to see animals slaughtered and crops
The NLRA affirmed the right of workers to form and
ploughed back into the ground, but farm incomes
join trade unions and to engage in collective
doubled during 1933-1939. It did not help farm
bargaining. |t also set up the National Labour Relations
labourers and share-croppers, many of whom were
Board to protect workers who were victimised by
replaced by new machinery.
employers.
- Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA): set up to help an area
of the South 80,000 square miles in size, covering parts
of seven states from Mississippi to Virginia. The region Social Security Act
was prone to flooding and soil erosion, and there were The SSA was a major move away from the idea that
high levels of poverty and unemployment. Tree planting individuals alone should make their own provision for
helped to prevent soil from being washed away, and old age and other hazards of life. It created the first
the building of government-funded dams created jobs, pensions for the elderly, together with benefits for
controlled the flow ofthe river and generated electricity orphans and victims of industrial accidents. It also set up
with which to modernise the area’s economy. This a national system of insurance against unemployment.
programme helped both agriculture and industry and is Although the payments were small, it marked an
generally regarded as one of the New Deal’s outstanding important change in the relationship between
successes. To business interests, this was further government and citizen.
sovernment encroachment.

Resettlement Administration (RA) and Farm

Security Administration (FSA)
ACTIVITY 11.15
The RA helped farm workers and share-croppers move to
How far did the First New Deal achieve the aims of better land. In 1937 it was replaced by the FSA, which gave
bringing about economic recovery and relieving loans to help these people buy their own land. Its effects
poverty? on the position of the poorest people in rural areas were,
however, limited.
 11: Depth Study D: The USA, 1919-1941

(OF COURSE WE MAY HAVE |

To CHANGE REMEDIES IF WE These more traditional Americans were attac
Bd). DONT GET ResuCTS
idea of self-help and many of them accused R
promoting socialist or even communist ideas. They felt
that Roosevelt’s policies increased the power of trade
unions and interfered with the right of business |
to run their companies. Press o} a
Hearst, for example, referred to ‘Stalin Delano Roosevelt’
NEY Den Such people resented the highe EP regen Mean YB ee
r Taxes they nad to pa\
ae
REMEDIES
and argued that many of the New Deal schemes were a
waste of money.
Although Roosevelt faced bitter hostility from the

Kd&
political right, it was never sufficiently well-organised to
I Zi (— be a serious challenge to his position as president. The
"ie 7 Republicans were divided on what they felt about the
" i wo
f ee oz

A All fy, 4
fr
New Deal, with moderates not opposing it outright. The
party's candidate for the presidency in the 1936 election,
Source 11N: A cartoon showing Roosevelt as a doctor, Alf Landon, found it hard to develop a distinctive policy
visiting ‘Uncle Sam’ (the symbol of the US), depicted as his position in opposition to Roosevelt.
patient, 6 May 1935.

Opposition from the left

ACTIVITY 11.16 At the other end ofthe political spectrum were those radicals
who felt that the New Deal had not done enough to deal with
_ Whatis the cartoon, Source 11N, saying about the way unemployment and poverty. Three individuals in particular
that Roosevelt approached the US’s problems? wanted to go further than Roosevelt in redistributing wealth
o the poor: Huey Long, Dr Francis Townsend a nd Father
Charles Coughlin (see Sources 110, 11P > and 110).
Long, Townsend and Coughlin appealed in different ways
to different sections of the American public, and they
Collective bargaining: negotiations between trade unions
may have indirectly influenced Roosevelt to adopt more
and employers on wages and conditions of work.
‘adical policies in the Second New Deal. Like Roosevelt’s
right-wing critics, however, they were not able to offer a
united front to oppose him. The three men’s supporters
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 11.12
came together in 1936, to form the Union Party, but their
What were the similarities and differences between the candidate, William Lemke, won only 2% of the vote in the
First and the Second New Deal? presidential election.

Roosevelt won another term in the White House in

1936, with over 27 million votes, because victims of th (a)
Why did the New Deal encounter opposition? Depression were grateful for what he had done to help
them or decided he should be given a chance to finish the
Opposition from the right
work he had started.
The New Deal faced opposition from conservatives who
felt that it undermined individual initiative and excessively
extended the power of the federal government. They
ACTIVITY 11.17
included members of the official opposition party, the
Republicans,~) and many business leaders. There were also Study the profiles of the three radical opponents of
some more conservative members of the Democrat Party the New Deal. Why do you think none of them in the
in the South who did not support the New Deal. The short- end presented a serious challenge to Roosevelt as
lived American Liberty League was headed by two former president?
Democrat Party presidential candidates.
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

Source 110: Huey Long (1893-1935) served as state governor

and then senator for Louisiana. He was a Democrat who Source 11Q: Father Charles Coughlin (1891-1979). Like
initially supported the New Deal but called for more radical Long, he turned against the New Deal after initially
action from 1934. His ‘Share the Wealth’ campaign called supporting it. The ‘radio priest’ used his broadcasts to call
for higher taxation of the rich to fund welfare reforms. Long for increased workers’ rights and state control of industry.
was a persuasive speaker and his movement was popular, He was particularly popular in the industrial North and
attracting 8 million supporters. FDR’s supporters feared him Mid-West and had an audience of30 million by 1936. He
254 as a possible presidential candidate in the 1936 election but lost influence after he started expressing admiration of
he was assassinated in September 1935. European fascism.

Opposition from the Supreme Court

The Supreme Court consists of nine senior judges whose
ole is to act as a check on the president and Congress.
They monitor laws to ensure that they are in line with the
ules laid down in the US Constitution. Roosevelt faced
difficulties with the Supreme Court because most of its
members had been appointed by earlier Republican
administrations. Once installed in office, they had the right
eu
to serve for life.

n two key legal cases, the Supreme Court ruled

that Roosevelt had exceeded his powers in creating
ew Deal agencies. One of these was the 1935 ‘Sick
Chickens Case’. The Schechter poultry firm was
prosecuted under the National Industrial Recovery
Act for selling chickens unfit for human consumption.
The company appealed to the Supreme Court, which
Source 11P: Dr Francis Townsend (1867-1960), pictured decided that the NIRA was unconstitutional because
circa 1930, was a retired doctor who campaigned for the federal government did not have powers to regulate
government pensions of $200 a month for all citizens aged businesses. In the 1936 US v Butler Case the Supreme
over 60. Recipients would be obliged to spend the money, Court ruled against the Agricultural Adjustment
in order to stimulate the economy. The plan would also free Act. The Court said that it was the responsibility
up jobs for younger workers. Townsend secured 20 million of individual state governments, not the federal
signatures on a petition to Congress promoting his ideas. government, to support farmers.
 11; Depth Study D: The USA, 1919-1941

Roosevelt’s reaction Why did unemployment persist despite the

Frustrated, Roosevelt declared in 1937 that he would New Deal?
impose a retirement age of 70 on Supreme Court justices.
He intended to appoint younger judges who would
The case for the New Deal
support his policies. This plan to ‘pack’ the Court seemed Some historians argue that the New Deal
high-handed and unconstitutional. Roosevelt lost some role in lifting the US out of the Depression. Acc
public support and met opposition in Congress. to this reading ofevents, Roosevelt’s actions
Although he did not get his way, some judges took voluntary wee days cea Hite of businesse
The New Deal halted the slideoem cde
retirement and their successors were more cautious in their
attitude towards New Deal measures. They accepted both bankruptcy, which had be
the National Labour Relations Act and the Social Security Act. The New Deal saved the most vulnerable memb
society from starvation and homelessness, and g
[ Do We Want A Ventriloquist Act In The Supreme Court? ae jobs and hope to millions. It was much bett
negative, limited approach of Hoover and the R

Outstanding successes of the New Deal era included tl

regeneration of th arreteesan Valley, the major bu
projects of the Publiic Works Administration and th
employment created by the Works Progress Admir
" a ea TP
’
The Second New Deal enhanced worker
a rudimentary welfare state with the Social Securit

Roosevelt saved the US from tt

communism, which ruined the lives of millions in equa
desperate countries across the Atlantic. The US entered 255
the Second World War in good shape, with its morale high.

The case against

The New Deal’s critics point out that, altt
unemployment initially fell, it was not abolish
1937, concerned about government debt, Roosevelt cut
public spending and there followed another slowdowr
economic activity. Unemployment, whi
stubbornly high at 7.7 million, rose to almost 11 n
Source 11R: A cartoon from 14 February 1937, on the
1938. The government then resumed spending
subject of Roosevelt’s plan to pack the Supreme Court. The
works schemes and unemployment began to fa
figure on the left is Uncle Sam, symbol of the US.
; According
to this reading, it was preparing for the Second
; World War, not the New Deal, that was the mo
ACTIVITY 11.18 ie cause of sustained economic recover
What view of Roosevelt do you an Us cartoons Seay The position of certain groups in society imp
Source 11R is taking? nee imited extent. Women benefited less than men
of the jobs created by the New Deal were in traditiona
nale occupations involving manual labour. They contin
eb to be paid on average less than men. Some states
TOP TIP their responsibility to provide welfare payments t
Historians are divided about the success of the New Deal. for example by disqualifying thos
It is importantthat you consider some ofthe arguments outside marriage. Nor did black Ame
that have been put forward on both sides. Then you
trom the New Deal. Ro
should make your own assessment of what you have been
studying.
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

Some critics argue that Roosevelt actually delayed Review your learning
economic recovery by over-regulating industry and
Having gone through this chapter, and undertaken its tests
allowing the growth of powerful trade unions. Free-market
and activities, you should be able to assess, understand
capitalism, left to its own devices, would have ended the
slump. Instead. Roosevelt was the creator of an over- and explain the following:
powerful government, which discouraged people from Why the 1920s saw an economic boom in the US, and
relying on their own efforts and initiative. how far the benefits of this prosperity were felt across
American society.

a TOP TIP
How American society changed in the 1920s, and
whether society was becoming more open and tolerant
Although you can check the facts, it is virtually in this period.
impossible finally to prove or disprove the The causes ofthe Wall Street Crash, and the impact of
interpretations of them. We cannot know how much the crash on the US economy and society from 1929.
better or worse conditions would have been with
The response of Franklin Roosevelt to the Great
alternative policies. Our assessment of the New Deal
depends to some extent on the choice of a baseline Depression as president, and why his policies attracted
figure for measuring economic performance. Are we opposition as well as support.
comparing the situation in 1939 with that in 1933, at the How far Roosevelt’s New Deal was successful in dealing
lowest point of the Depression, or with statistics from
with the problems of the US economy.
1928, before the Wall Street Crash?
If not, go back to the section in question and revise!

256
The Big Challenge
Use Table 11.3 below and the evidence in this chapter to answer the following question: Overall, do you consider the
New Deal to have been at best only a partial success?
Table 11.3: Some indicators of US economic performance, 1928-1939.

| 1928 | 1933 | 1939

Gross National Product (S billion)
Value of consumer goods purchased (S billion)
Unemployment (millions)

Summary points
 11: Depth Study D: The USA, 1919-1941

Exam-style questions
Questions in the style of Paper 1
1 The decade after the First World War in the US is sometimes called the ‘Roaring 20s’.
| a What were the main features of the ‘Roaring 20s’?
b =Why was Prohibition introduced in the US?
| c¢ Do you agree that for most Americans, the 1920s was a time of increasing
freedom and tolerance?
2 The Wall Street Crash of 1929 was followed by a prolonged economic depression in the US.

a What happened in the Wall Street Crash?

| b Why was the Great Depression in the US so severe?

¢ ‘The main reason why Franklin Roosevelt won the 1932 presidential election
was that president Hoover’s policies had failed to end the Depression.’
How far do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer.

Questions in the style of Paper 4 - IGCSE only

1 How significant was the introduction of mass production as a cause of the economic boom
of the 1920s in the United States? =
a 2 How important a part did the New Deal play in bringing the United States out of depression
in the 1930s?
Chapter 12
Prepar ing for assessment
 12: Preparing for assessment

12.1 What skills are being tested

and what you need to know TOP TIP
There are three sets of skills which you will develep When sitting an assessment, it is helpful to look at the
during your course. These are called ‘assessment time allocated and work out how long to spend on each
question. Remember that as well as writing the answer,
objectives’ (AOs):
you will also need time to read the questions carefully,
AO1: an ability to recall, select, organise and deploy choose those you will answer, and plan your answers. It is
knowledge of the syllabus content. a good idea to practise this using past papers.

AO2: an ability to construct historical explanations using

an understanding of:
Paper2
* Cause and consequence, change and continuity, Paper2 is unique because it is mainly based on AO3
similarity and difference. which covers source skills. This makes it different t
* the motives, emotions, intentions and beliefs of people other papers for two reasons:
in the past.
1 You are given sources and questions which test
AO3: an ability to understand, interpret, evaluate and use ability to analyse texts and pictures, as well as using
a range of sources as evidence, in their historical context. your own knowledge.
This section will show you how you can demonstrate 2 The format of the exam paper can change, unlike the
these skills. otherpaper number of sources
Thes. and the mark
each question are not fixed. You'll need t

12.2 The structure of the about how long

to spend preparing the sources and how
much time you need to write each answer
assessment
Let’s begin with the format of the assessment. Paper 3 (Coursework)
- IGCSE only
Ifyou are taking this route, you will be expected
Cambridge IGCSE History: There are four parts to the
produce one piece of extended writing b
assessment, of which you have to do three. Paper 1 and
study. It carries 40 marks - equivalent to
Paper 2 are compulsory, and for the third part your school
qualification. Coursework is marked by you
f

will opt to do either the coursework or Paper 4. Make sure

externally moderated by Cambridge. The coursework
you know which option you are doing.
assignment can be based on oneT of the Cambridge deptt
(

Cambridge O Level History: There are two parts to the studies or, if your school orc oO gQ
assessment, Paper 1 and Paper 2. Both of the papers are approval of Cambridge, on a depth stu
compulsory. own teachers.

The following table shows the content of the components. Your completed coursework ass
a maximum of2,000 words long
Syllabus Assessment | Core — -| Depth on the assessment ofthe significance of one ast
Content | Study of your chosen depth study. Possible examples
IGCSE and O Level Yes could be:
IGCSE and O Level Paper2 ¢ Assess the significance of the use of terr
IGCSE Coursework Yes

Paper4 Yes =
the period 1917 to 1924.

Paper1 Although your teacher can give genera

In Paper 1 you need to answer three questions, each of coursework must be your ow!
which has three parts. One of these questions is on the acknowledge the source of any n
depth study you’ve learned about while the other two are Coursework tests AO]

on core content. Organise and Gep

 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

the ability to construct a supported explanation. In protected American industries and helped them
do really well, you must ensure that everything to grow. An example was the 1922 Fordney-
yOU W clearly fod sed on the question. You need to McCumber tariff.
know the topic well, so that you support your argument
Guidance: This part (a) question is targeted at AOL. You
and conclusion about significance with accurate, relevant
should state the relevant points and any supporting detail.
information.
Teacher comment: This is a good answer. It makes two
lritten paper - Alternative to major points and develops them, without becoming overly
long - for example it does not just state that taxes were cut,
Coursewor IGCSE only
but explains why this was important.
This paper is one hour long and carries the same marks as
Paper 3. It consists solely of essay questions on the depth b Henry Ford made a fortune out of motor car
Studies. manufacturing. The most important reason why
he was successfukwas his introduction of the
As in Paper 1, each depth study will have a choice of two
assembly line method, which made possible
questions, of which you should answer one.
mass production. This involved the body ofthe
car being passed on a conveyor belt to different
12.3 Tackling short answer and workers, who each carried out a particular task
such as attaching the doors or wheels. The
extended response questions importance ofthis was that it speeded up the
In Paper 1, all questions are in the form of structured work and therefore cut the costs of production.
essays, divided into three parts: a, b and c. Part a tests Another reason for Ford’s success was the
your ability to recall factual information, part b tests your standardisation of parts. His factories made
ability to explain this information, and part ¢ tests your cars to a standard specification. For example, he
260 ability to explain both sides of an argument and reach a famously said that his customers could have any
Supported judgement. colour car they liked as long as it was black. Again
this kept the costs down. Ford believed that it was
Look at the sample answer (written by the author) to
a Paper 1-type question which follows. It is the kind of
better to sell a large number of cars cheaply than
a smaller number of more expensive cars. His best
question that might be asked in Depth Study D: The US,
known car, the Model T Ford, became affordable
1919-1941.
to ordinary Americans as its price fell from almost
In the 1920s the US experienced an economic boom. $1,000 to under $300 between 1908 and 1927.
a Describe the main economic policies of the
Guidance: This part (b) question is aimed at both AO1 and
Republican governments in the 1920s. [4]
AQ2. Here you should show an understanding ofrelevant
b Why was Henry Ford successful as a businessman? — [6] concepts such as cause and consequence, change and
continuity or similarity and difference. The motives,
¢ Almost all Americans enjoyed a rising standard of
emotions, intentions and beliefs of people in the past may
living in the 1920s.’ How far do you agree with this
statement? Explain your answer. [10]
be relevant to the answer. In order to reach the highest level
for this answer, TWO reasons must be explained.
a The Republican governments believed in laissez-
faire, aa meant leaving businesses alone to make Teacher comment: This answer identifies two reasons
profits. They helped firms by cutting taxes, which for Ford’s success -assembly line production and
standardisation — and explains why they were important.
meant that people had more money to spend on
the goods that they made. Businesses also had less Ford's beliefs about what made for successful business
ney taken away from them in taxes.
practice are noted. There is an appropriate level
ofdetail.
cond policy was the use of tariffs (taxes on
c The US was avery unequal society in which
orted goods), which or American goods
opportunities to make money varied greatly
than foreign products. This
 12: Preparing for assessment

across the country. The people who benefited Teacher comment: This is a good answer because it
most were those who owned or worked in newer gives equal weight to both sides of the argument and
industries such as car manufacture, electricity provides a developed, fully supported explanation.
generation or the new department stores which The closing paragraph reaches a conclusion, expiaining
sold all kinds of consumer goods. The successful how far the student agrees with the statement in the
industries were linked together. For example question.
as businesses expanded, they needed larger
office premises. This meant that there were
many job opportunities for those who worked 12.4 Tackling source-based
in the construction industry, building the new questions
skyscrapers in the business districts of New York.
Paper 2 requires you to answer six questions on one topic
These workers, and those employed in factories
which were making consumer goods which from the core content. These questions require you to use
people wanted to buy, found that their wages source material that is provided.
increased and so they in turn could buy goods
and perhaps shares on the stock exchange. Reading and preparing the sources
Under pressure of time it can be difficult to spot everything
On the other hand people who worked in older you need to in the sources. This is why you should try to
industries such as coal and textiles, which were
read them twice - the second time round you'll notice
facing competition and losing customers in the things that you didn’t see straight away. You are allowed
1920s, found that their standard of living declined. to use highlighters to annotate the exam paper, but you
Their wages were cut as their employers made can’t use them on your answer script. This means you can
losses, and some lost their jobs. New immigrants, highlight the key parts of a source if that helps you pick
who usually had to take the poorest paid jobs, out the best information.
were affected particularly badly. Small farmers 261
and farm workers also suffered, as agriculture was Another good tip is to label the sources with the question
number it relates to. This way you think about the exact
experiencing a slump long before the Wall Street
Crash of 1929. Banks took over the farms of those skills you need to tackle the source; for example, one
who could not pay their mortgages, forcing them to question might ask what the message of Source 12C is.
look for work elsewhere. The most vulnerable were Write ‘message’ next to the source and you'll be on the
the share-croppers in the South, many of whom right track. This also stops you making a classic exam
were black. They rented land and paid their landlords error — writing about the wrong source in relation to a
question.
a proportion of what they produced, so when prices
of farm produce fell they were unable to pay.
Reading and answering the questions
On balance it is not true to argue that almost all
Double-check that you’re writing about the correct
Americans were better off in the 1920s. Nearly half
source (or sources) before beginning each question. Also
the population lived in the countryside, where the make sure you focus on the key words in the question. In
conditions were worst; for example, 90% offarms particular watch out for the command ‘Use the sources
were still not connected to the electricity grid in and your own knowledge’ - this means you have to add
1930. However, until the Wall Street Crash, which information which isn’t given in the exam paper. Equally,
wiped out fortunes on a devastating scale, life was do not add your own knowledge in an answer that doesn’t
good for many millions of people. require it. Don’t waste time!

Guidance: This part (c) question is targeting AO1 and AO2. Three little letters to remember: ATQ. Answer The
It requires you to consider the arguments for and against Question! You must never just describe the sources or
an idea, and you must examine both sides. Ifyou focus on write vague answers. You have to provide an answer that
only one side you cannot achieve highly, even ifyou have is exactly on what you were asked. If the question is about
provided a high level of accurate supporting detail. For a the message, say ‘the message ofthe source is ...’ If the
good answer, you must offer some evaluation - on balance, question asks why the source was published, say ‘this
to what extent do you believe that the statement is correct? source was published because...
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

the question asks about how far they agree - look at both
Different styles of questions
agree and disagree to reach your answer.
When studying History, there are a variety of questions
that you may come across. These can include: Note that you should try to compare the message or
purpose of the sources, not just factual details.
¢ What is the message of a source?
* How far does one source support another source?
* Does one source prove that another source Is lying? Evaluation
¢ Why was this source produced when it was? Some questions will require you to evaluate a source.
* How far do all the sources support a particular There are two main types of source evaluation questions:
argument?
« How useful
is the source?
We can group these questions into the following types. ¢ Howreliable
is the source?

A few basic tips apply here, It is never a good idea to say

interpretation
that a source isn’t useful at all. This is because all sources
This means understanding what the source is saying. This
are useful for something, it’s a question of what they can
is usually tested by questions which ask you about the
be used for. Equally, you won’t be given a source that is
message of the source. What is the author trying to say?
flawless. Carefully consider the question then ask yourself
Think about who the author is and when the source was
what aspects of the source help you to answer it. Then
produced. Then think about who the source is aimed at.
think about limitations of the source. What is not ideal
If you think about these issues then the meaning of the
about the source? What else would you want to have a
source will become much clearer.
fuller knowledge of the issue in the question?
Purpose Questions about reliability can often prompt students to
Some questions will ask why a source was produced. write simplistic and incorrect statements. For example:
262
Sources don’t just appear by themselves - someone ‘this is a primary source so it is reliable because they were
has to make them. Therefore think about who made the there at the time’ or ‘it is a secondary source so it is not
source and why? Use the details given to you before the reliable because they weren’t alive when it happened’.
source: for example, it should have information such as Avoid these at all costs. If a primary source is written by
the author, date of the source and maybe events that had a liar and a secondary source is written by a world-class
just taken place. These are all good pointers to consider historian, it changes our view of the reliability. Instead,
in your answer. What you need to arrive at is a conclusion evaluate the source based on its merits. In what ways
about what the author intended when they made the might the author be credible? Is there any reason to doubt
source. What was their purpose? What were they trying to the quality of information they present? Think about these
achieve? issues and you are on the right track.
Finally, the trickiest questions require you to work out
Comparison
what you have to evaluate. You might be asked ‘How far
Questions that focus on two sources are usually
does source X prove that source Y is wrong?’ This is a ‘how
comparison questions. This means you need to look for
far’ question so that should always prompt you to think
similarities and differences. A good way to answer this
about both sides. In some aspects, source X will challenge
question is to write two paragraphs; one that looks at the
or contradict source Y. However, it should also support it.
vays in which the sources agree, and one that looks at You need to decide if, on balance, there is enough contrast
the ways in which they disagree. Then it’s a simple case of
to prove or disprove the issue in the question.
ATQ - answer the question - to round it off.

tch out for the wording of the question, for example: Testing a hypothesis
Questions that ask you to judge how far sources support
far do these sources disagree?
a particular argument are usually found at the end of the
é like YOu JUS
paper and require the longest responses. You need to use
{ have tos 1IOW their disagreement,

re | the Start Is ‘how far’. This means you all the sources to test a particular argument. A good way
milarity too. The same appliesif to prepare this is to write out a simple table like this:
 12: Preparing for assessment

Disagree What types of sources can a iid

There are two basic types of sources:
IIL LYVCS U text

Textual sources
These are written sources, for example from
history book, a diary, a speech, a letter c
document. Each t Pe eleQuiKs is slightly different
about why. One ol
fora different audience, so their purpose will be different
A diary is for personal rerection, a letter is to at
person, an official document might just 0
Go through all the sources and decide, based on the issue the government, and a speech is for a very w 3 :
in the question, if they agree or disagree. You migh t end up Think about these issues when preparing your <
with something like this:
Visual sources
Disagree The most common type is a political carte
photographs and posters can be used too. Carto
a variety of ies es: symbolism, stereotype, humour
and sign-posting. Sign-posting means inserting text t
the reader un derStand the meaning
attention to the text in a cartoon — it’s there for
Students often find photographs very hard, esr
as they believe that the
consider here is that the pl
a picture at a specific moment, looking at a |
Once you have identified which sources support and
These are both decisions that m
which sources challenge the hypothesis, you can s tart
to convey a message. This means that photograpt
writing. The most important thing is to ensure tha YOu
biased, and perhaps misleading. The camera m
explain how each source either supports or challe Nees
but the photographer can mislead. Be on your guard
the hypothesis. Make this absolutely clear: for example,
you could start sentences with ‘Source 12A suppo rts the Finally, some things to keep in mind. Too often
Statement because...’ ’. This will lead to explanation rather spend time talkingabout primary and secondar
than description of the source. . sources when it isn’t needed. They also make pointless
assumptions like ‘secondary sources are unre
There are two ways that you could structure yout
because the author wasn’t there at the time’. If this
answer:
true we couldn't write meaningful history. Equally, saying
- either write about each source in turn as it appea rSon that a ‘primary source is reliable because it was produced
the paper, making sure you make a clear judgment for at the time’ is also flawed. What if the auth
each one pathological liar? It wouldn’
or not —- they would still be unreliable. Don’t waste tim
- or write about the sources that support the hypothesis
on these issues
— deal with each sou:
first and then the sources that disagree with it. This
approach might help you to address the ‘how far’ element
are limitedIn some way. However, all Sources a!
in the conclusion
tor something - it just depend
You must ensure that you address each source separately li
looking
+ at
ata
4 thn
LNe
WR EGit
POSITIVES a
DAA + ~

and you must explain how each source supports o I |

make Snap
mt jag"
dei Ae eS DAR
4: r
DM hor iho ss

disagrees with the hypothesis. books

and their covers
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic,

an iron curtain has descended across the Continent.
Answer these three questions and then look at the Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient
advice below to see if you’re on the right track. states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw,
Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade,
1 Areyou surprised by Source 12A? Explain your Bucharest and Sofia, all these famous cities and
answer. the populations around them lie in what | must call
What is the message ofthe cartoon in Source 12B? the Soviet sphere, and all are subject in one form
Why was the speech in Source 12C given in 1946? or another, not only to Soviet influence but to a
very high and, in many cases, increasing measure of
control from Moscow.

Source 12C: A speech by Winston Churchill given on 5

March, 1946 in Fulton, Missouri (US). President Truman was
in the audience when the speech was given.

why this isn’t too surprising. First, it’s in Berlin so the

team would be under pressure to show respect for their
hosts. Second, it was in 1938 before the war began
and the British government was still pursuing a policy
of appeasement. If the official government policy
Source 12A: The England football team giving the was to work with Hitler to achieve peace then we can
Hitler salute before a match in Berlin in 1938. understand why the English football team made this
264 The Other Ascent Into The Unknown
salute. If they hadn’t it might have caused a breakdown
in relations, which the British Prime Minister, Neville
Chamberlain, very much wanted to avoid.

Source 12B
Source 12B:A
Washington This cartoon is full of symbolism. The soldier represents
Post cartoon all American servicemen, and the ‘ascent into the
from 1965 about unknown’ means he has no idea what lies ahead. This is
increasing made all the more difficult by the smoke up the staircase
American (representing Vietnam), which makes it hard to see
involvement in where the danger lies. The cartoon was drawn by an
Vietnam. The American cartoonist in 1965 just a year after president
title is ‘the other Johnson got Congress to agree to send ground troops
ascent into the into Vietnam after the Gulf of Tonkin incident. Clearly the
iste RBLocK
TOE GLAS lever Perr
unknown’. cartoonist feels this is unwise and will possibly lead to
disaster.
Guidance
Source 12C
Source 12A This speech was given in the US in 1946 by Winston
pri juestic¢ you need to identify what Churchill. Remember, Churchill wasn’t prime minister at
ut the source and then try to find an this time as he ost the election of 1945.The speech tells
his ( quite easy: we wouldn’t us about his fear of the ‘increasing measure of control
Nn tootb yl| te am To be giving a Hi ley
from Moscow’ in Eastern Europe. |=ee calls this the ‘iron
/ ODDO ite to what British curtain’. His audience is American and includes president
fe the ene NY Iruman, so he is trying to influence American policy in
Urprising the hope that they might take action against Stalin. By
td}
in
this point Stalin had control of most of Eastern Europe
 12: Preparing for assessment

and even the countries outside the ‘Soviet sphere’ The most obvious contribution made by
such as Czechoslovakia were under threat. Therefore, arrival of large numbers of new troops. The US rapidly
this speech was made because relations had broken expanded its army until by the end of the war it had
down since Yalta and Potsdam and Churchill wanted over 2 million troops in France. The US entered the war
the US to make a stand against the USSR to prevent the at a critical time for the Allies, when there was reason to
permanent loss of ‘the capitals of the ancient states’ to believe that Germany had a chance of winning. Thousands
the outside world. of tons of merchant shipping had been sunk by German
U-boats in the Atlantic. Russia dropped out of the war after
the Bolshevik Revolution and in March 1918 signed the
TOP TIP
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany. This freed up tens
Do quote from the sources, but make your quotations of thousands of German troops, who were transferred to
short. Anything from one to six words is fine. Avoid copying take part in the Ludendorff offensive on the Western Front.
! out whole chunks of the source. Focus on strong language where they met with strong initial success. The arrival of
| and key evidence. Look at the way quotations are used in large numbers of American troops therefore came just at
| | the guidance on Source 12C and follow this style. the right moment, when Britain and France were badly in
need of reinforcements.
The US forces, under General John Pershing, made a
crucial contribution to victory in the ‘Hundred Days’
_ 12.5 Tackling essay questions campaign in the summer and autumn of 1918. In
September they made a decisive assault in the Meuse-
| This section is relevant to IGCSE students only.
Argonne region, cutting off important German supply
routes. One of the reasons why the German leaders
asked for peace talks was that they knew that increasing
TOP TIP
numbers of Americans would continue to arrive, making it
Before starting to write your essay make a brief plan. Your
pointless to continue fighting.
essay needs to demonstrate your ability to select relevant
evidence, and to produce a coherent argument, not just to The US also had huge industrial strength which could be
recall facts. brought to bear. It produced three times as much steel
as Germany and Austria-Hungary combined. The US had
a population of 90 million and large amounts of natural
In Paper4, you will only be asked essay questions about
resources, making it a formidable opponent in a war which
the depth studies, and the guidance that follows applies
had become a slogging match between rival economies.
specifically to Paper 4. These essay questions require you to
It had provided Britain and France with loans before April
assess the importance or significance of a historical event.
1917 and this aid was continued.
Here is a sample answer (written by the author) to the
However, the US contribution should not be exaggerated.
following question, which is similar to those which occur in
The US was slow to mobilise its manpower and its great
Depth Study A: The First World War, 1914-1918. numbers did not begin to make a decisive difference until
How important was the US’s entry into the First World War the summer of 1918. Full US involvement was slowed
| in bringing about the defeat of Germany? Explain your down by disputes between Pershing and his French and
answer. [40] British counterparts. He insisted on the Americans fighting
as an ‘associated power’, largely independent of the allied
The United States made an important contribution to
armies.
allied victory in the First World War for several reasons.
After joining the war in April 1917 it was able to provide Other factors were important in bringing about allied
Britain and France with additional manpower and victory. The British and French had significantly
economic resources. It entered the war when the Allies improved their fighting methods by 1918. They no longer
were facing major challenges and morale was low. launched costly frontal attacks, after prolonged artillery
American involvement provided psychological as well as bombardments which failed to disrupt the enemy defences.
material support. They had learned more flexible tactics and becc
hacnme more
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

accurate in directing artillery fire, using the ‘creeping Allies with vital support and boosted their morale at a
barrage’ to cover infantry assaults. US troops were not critical stage.
battle-hardened as the British and French were, and they Guidance: Excellent answers should demonstrate the
had to learn on thejob. They also used large amounts of effective deployment ofa range ofskills:
allied equipment, including French tanks and artillery.
¢ Accurate, relevant knowledge used to support the answer
It is also important to note that Germany was more
and the conclusion.
~exhausted than Britain and France by mid-1918. It was
* Agood understanding of the key features that are relevant
struggling to replace lost manpower and was not in
to the question.
a position to stage another large-scale assault after
the Ludendorff offensive fizzled out. The British naval ¢ Awell-argued and supported conclusion.
blockade was starving Germany of food and vital ¢ Writing which is precise and to the point, as part of an
raw materials, imposing an unbearable strain on |US
we answer which is well structured, balanced and focused.
economy. Teacher comment: This is an excellent answer. There is a
Overall the US made a vital contribution to the outcome clear structure, with an introduction which gets straight to
of the war. Although Britain and France successfully the core of the argument, showing that the student has a
repelled the Ludendorff offensive, there is a question clear sense ofdirection. A range of relevant and accurate
mark as to whether, on their own, they could have contextual knowledge is used to support the argument.
launched a new campaign to dislodge the Germans from The role of the US is addressed fully but this is balanced by
the ground they already held. The arrival of US forces discussion of other factors. Finally, there is a well-reasoned
was certainly not the only reason for the victory but it conclusion which draws the argument together in a
was one of the most important, because it provided the satisfying way.

266
 Glossary
25-Point Programme: set out Hitler’s early ideas. It
Autonomy: the independence of an individual. or a
opposed the Versailles Treaty. Only pure Germans could
or a region to make decisions for itself without always
be German citizens; Jews could not be. It also opposed
asking permission e.g. from a central government.
large-scale capitalism.
Ayatollahs: are respected and influential Islamic jurists,
Abdicate (as head of state): when a king or emperor experts on Islamic theology, philosophy and law, acting as
steps down or gives up the throne.
religious judges.
Aktion T-4: a euthanasia programme. It started at the Ba’ath Party: was founded in 1947 in Syria. It aimed to unite
beginning of the war and ran officially until August 1941. It Arabs in one single state and remove western influence.
involved the killing of mentally handicapped, mentally ill
Bible belt: approximately the south-east quarter of the
and terminally ill people by doctors administering lethal
USA, so called because of the large number of socially-
injections; 70,000 died.
conservative evangelical Christians living there.
Agency: an organisation which acts on behalf of others.
Blockade: a form of economic warfare where one country
Within the League different agencies focused on specific
attempts to prevent goods being imported to its rival. The
issues under the authority of the Council.
Royal Navy’s blockade in the Great War also ensured that
Alliance: a collection of two or more countries that agree German ships could not get out of port.
to support the other/s if they are attacked by another
Brezhnev Doctrine: this stated that Moscow had the right
country.
to interfere with military force if any country in Eastern
Amnesty: a blanket official pardon. Europe attempted to abandon communism.
Anarchists: people who believe in the abolition of Buffer zone: a group of countries that surround a major
government. State and act as a protective barrier. The countries of
Eastern Europe that shared a border with the USSR were
Anarchy: a situation where no one is in control
taken over by Stalin to create a buffer zone against the West.
Annihilation: complete destruction.
Bushel: a dry measure of 8 gallons, roughly equivalent to
Appeasement: pacifying, seeking to calm down an angry 36 litres.
opponent by giving in to some or all of their demands.
Capitalism: an economic and social system in which
Arbitration: a method of resolving a dispute peacefully property is privately owned, the role of the state is small
using an independent person or authority that is neutral and people enjoy freedom of expression, of religion and
who will listen to all the evidence like a judge and then have a choice of political party to elect as the government.
issue a ruling.
Capitalists: practitioners of capitalism, in which wealth
Armistice: an end of fighting as a prelude to peace and the means of producing and distributing goods are
negotiations. privately owned and used for profit. Typically bankers,
traders and industrialists.
Attrition: A strategy where both evenly balanced sides
try to wear each other down gradually, hoping that the Cavalry: soldiers who fought mounted on horses.
toll on the enemy, especially in terms of casualties, will Central Powers: a term used to refer to the German and
be heavier than the cost to themselves. Victory comes Austro-Hungarian empires at the beginning ofthe First World
from exhausting the opponent rather than capturing their War. The Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers later in
territory. 1914 and in 1915, the Kingdom of Bulgaria also did so.
Autarky: complete economic self-sufficiency. A state Cheka: the Bolsheviks’ political police.
that is autarkic has no need of imports or exports and
CIA: Central Intelligence Agency. It was founded in 1947 by the
produces everything it needs by itself. This is virtually
National Security Act. Its mission statement was to collect,
impossible in a modern economic setting
evaluate and share intelligence relating to national security.
Autocratic state: one ruled by an autocrat, someone who taliielelatalliatat: Apc
Civil war: a warin one country between two or more sides
cannot be challenged and whose power is not limited.
from within that country.
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

Coalition government: a government made up of several an election. It puts political power into the hands of those
oT
+ a a) ct (a)
with the power of armaments not arguments.

Collective bargaining: negotiations between trade Creeping barrages: a line of artillery fire advancing ahead
ons and employers on wages and conditions of work. of attacking infantry, usually at a rate of 50 metres per
minute.
Comintern: a Soviet- ied organisation designedtoO
promote communistideology in countries outside the Defect: when a person changes allegiance and physically
moves across a political divide from one state to the other,
they are said to have defected.
Commission: a kind of committee, a small group of
officials who together investigate an issue or dispute and Demilitarisation: an area of land in which no soldiers and
then produces a report with conclusions. no weapons are permitted.

Commune: a village in which people share property, Democracies: societies where the government has
resources and labour. been elected by voters in free and fair elections. Liberal
democracies feature freedom of speech, freedom of
Communism: an economic and social system in which
religion, freedom ofthe press and the right to a fair trial.
property and economic activity are controlled by the
state. In communist countriesRRL RHE rights and Desertion: when soldiers leave their post, refuse to obey
eedoms: religion banned and the media is censored. their officers and walk away from the front.
aeryone works for the state.
Deterrent: an action that puts off or deters a country from
Communists: believers in communism. being aggressive towards others.

Concentration camp: prisons for political opponents Dictatorship: one person governs a country without
up to 1939 and in the Second World War Jews were sent holding elections, and without being restrained by a
to them as well. The idea was that opponents would be parliament, keeping themself in power using the army
268
‘purified’ by hard labour, so the slogan ‘Arbeit Macht Frei’ and police.
(‘work sets [you] free’) was written ab
Diktat: a treaty or other agreement which has not been
Conference of Ambassadors: based in Paris, this but imposed, presented to the defeated
group was a diplomatic body representing the Great without any discussions.
Powers, formed at the Paris Peace Conference in order
Disarmament: the process of destroying of some or all
to supervise the completion of issues not resolved by the
weapons and armed forces that could be used in fighting a war.
treaties. It was this body that had sent Tellini to Greece to
clarify the border between Greece and Albania. Dissolved: parliament is ended; elected officials are sent
away.
Congress: the USA's elected law-making body, which
helps to govern the country. It consists of two houses: the Dolchstoss: a German word meaning ‘stab in the back’.
Senate and the House of Representa
ES VICoe
tives
a VCs

Conscription: compulsory military service.

ghbours
in turn - falli= gq
— a) a¥) =, (ap) O
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BG).
oO
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—) oO (ap)(7a) 4> (ap)

ineory was Tirst outlined by Eisenhower in 1954 at a press

eR
ering 2 eee
on Pe
Vietnam. a Gl ee
The ee
exact phraseAR heneused
7See
wasmy the
ralling domino principle’
Containment 5 the USSR within certain
eee named after HMS Dreadnought (a British
and bor eventing them trom advancing Dattlesnip launched in 1906), was a type of battleship that
O fast, and so heavily armed and armoured that no
Convention: an agreement that does not have the forceof pe of battleship could match it.
Embargo: a partial or complete end to trade wit
Corps: nt t 1 example of a trade sanction

Coup or Putsch:
 Glossary

Epidemic: an infectious disease that has spread over

a hard for their enemies to identify; the Vietcong would
wide area affecting thousands of people.
use children and old people to pass messages and hide
Eradicate: to abolish or get rid of. weapons. Fidel Castro and Che Guevara were also expert
.
guerrilla fighters.
Ex-Comm: ‘the Executive Committee of the National
Security Council’. It included the usual NSC people but Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC): founded in 1981,
Kennedy also invited significant non-military figures: his and consists of six Arab states that surround the Gulf.
brother Robert Kennedy (the Attorney-General); Theodo These states had loaned substantial sums to Saddam to
re
Sorensen (White House Counsel); Truman’s Secretary of fight Iran.
State Dean Acheson; and former ambassador to the USSR
Haemophilia: a hereditary disorder that causes bleeding
Tommy Thompson who knew Khrushchev personally.
and is potentially fatal.
Exile: a person who has been forced out of or escaped
Hobos: homeless, unemployed people travelling in search
their own country; also the process of driving out or fleeing:
of work.
also the state of being in a foreign country against your will.
Humanitarian: taking action to promote the welfare of
Exploitation: a process in which a person or group is people.
treated unfairly at work; it may be the result of, e.g. their
age or ethnicity making them weak in negotiations, Hyperinflation: when prices go up a lot, quickly.
leading to overwork and underpayment. Immortal: undying.
Federal: a ‘federation’ is a group of states; in the Federal Import tariffs: taxes on goods imported into a country.
Republic of Germany a collection of what had historically
been independent German-speaking countries had a Inflation: when prices go up.
central government which sat in Bonn. In the USA the Intertribal: an activity that is carried out between tribes
federal government is the central government, based of people rather than different countries.
269
in Washing DC, which deals with national issues such as
lranian Revolutionary Guard: the |ranian Revolutionary
taxation, defence and foreign policy. Each state has its
Guards Corps (‘Pasdaran’ in Farsi) was founded in 1979
own government, responsible for local matters such as
to protect the Islamic revolution. It is separate from the
education.
regular army so there was often tension between the two,
Five-Year Plans: the basis for communist economies. not least because the IRGC were usually paid more and
These involved the government deciding what was had preferential treatment. They are considered to be
needed by the population and then setting targets for lran’s elite troops.
production. There was no private business and little
Ku Klux Klan: a white supremacist organisation founded
incentive to create new products.
in the southern states of the USA following its Civil-War
Gangrene: a medical condition caused by loss of blood defeat. Its aim is to ensure continued white power in part
supply, especially to parts of the body farthest from the by making black people too frightened to participate in
heart (e.g. toes), which leads the flesh there to die. elections, strikes or demonstrations. It has also been
hostile to Catholics, Jews, immigrants, communists and
Geneva Agreements 1954: the main points set out in the
anarchists.
peace treaty on Indo-China.
Kulak: prosperous peasant.
Ghetto: an area in which a specific ethnic group is forced
by law or informal threat of violence to live. Kurds: mainly based in northern Iraq, are an ethnic,
not a religious grouping; most Kurds are Sunni, but they
Great Powers: countries with considerable military,
include also Shias, as well as Christians and other faiths
diplomatic and economic power and influence.
and traditions. The Kurds are the largest ethnic group in
Gross National Product: the total value of all the goods the world who do not have their own state. As well as |
and services produced by a country. there are large populations in Iran, Syria and Turkey.

Guerrilla: ‘little war’ in Spanish. A guerrilla war is on Laissez-faire: French term meaning ‘leave alone’, a policy
in which small groups use raids, assassinations and of minimising government involvement especially in the
sabotage against larger armies. Guerrilla fighters are economy.
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

Latrines: field toilets. Nuremberg Laws: two laws called the ‘Reich Citizenship
Law’ and the ‘Law for the Protection of German Blood and
League of Nations: a membership organisation for German Honour’. Jews could not be citizens of the Reich
nations (1920-1946), intended to promote international
and were forbidden from marrying - or having sexual
discussion, solve international disputes and so avoid war.
relations with - a German. Jews were defined as anyone
Leprosy: a contagious disease that affects the skin and with three or four Jewish grandparents, irrespective of
the nervous system. whether or not they were religious.
Lynchings: executions carried out by mobs, not byjudicial Okhrana: a Tsarist Russian policital police force formed to
Orocess. combat anti-government activity.
Mandates: those countries that the Paris Peace OPEC: the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting
Conference had asked great powers to administer. Countries was founded in 1960 and is dominated by
Minority: a recognisable group of people whose religion, Middle Eastern countries. Its aim is to regulate the
anguage, culture or ethnicity is different from that of most production and supply ofdil among its members to keep
people (the majority) in a country or region. the price ofoil stable.

Mobilisation: all the various actions that need to be taken Pacifism: opposition to violence and war.
to prepare for war, not just by the soldiers and sailors but Pact: a treaty, a written agreement between two or more
oy the civilians as well. countries to act together in a particular way.
Muharram: the first month of the Islamic calendar. During Patriotism: having strong support for your country.
this period Shia Muslims remember the death of the Imam
Ali at the Battle of Kerbala. It is an emotional religious Peace treaty: a document that sets out what should
Deriod of mourning that lasts for ten days. happen after a war is over. It is signed by the victors and
the losers.
270 Multi-ethnic: made up of multiple different ethnic groups.
Plebiscite: a popular vote on a specific question. These
Mustard gas: a chemical weapon that was used during aren't usually held on the ordinary business of government
the First World War. It causes large blisters on exposed (that’s generally left up to a country’s government and
skin and lungs.
parliament to decide), but on major decisions such as
Mutiny: when a group openly rebels against or overthrows rewriting the constitution. Some people use the words
a military authority. ‘plebiscite’ and ‘referendum’ as though they mean the
same thing, others make a distinction, but both are a vote
Mutually Assured Destruction: concept put forward by
by the entire electorate of a country or region on a single
the Secretary of Defence Robert McNamara in a speech in
important question.
1962. At this point the USA had 25,000 nuclear weapons
and the USSR had about halfas many. His logic was that Proletariat: Marxist term for the working classes.
neither side would risk war due to inevitable death and
Proportional representation: a voting system in
destruction for all.
which the proportion of assembly seats won by parties
Napalm: a petrol-based chemical weapon. It sticks to closely resembles the proportion of the votes cast in the
its target and burns at a very high temperature. It is often election.
used to clear forests (preventing the enemy from having a
Provisional: temporary.
place to hide) but when it comes into contact with skin it
1uUSses horrific burns. Punitive: intended as a punishment.

Nationalise: when a government takes possession Puppet state: a state lacking all independence, being run
of a business, so that it is no longer owned by private by the government of another country. It pretends to bea
lividuals but by the state. real country, but does what it’s told.

Naval supremacy: achieved when a country has when it Quota: a strict quantity of goods that may be exported o1
hips than their competitors. imported under government control.

No man’s land: the area of contested ground between two Radio Free Europe: founded in 1950 to provide radio
ntries’ border controls. broadcasts for people living in communist countries in
 Glossary

Eastern Europe. It was funded by the US Congress and

Secular: ‘non-religious’. A secular government is
assisted by the CIA. It reached tens of millions of people not founded on religious principles, isn’t committed to a
and had broadcasts in 15 different languages. religious programme and doesn’t promote religion.
Rearmament: increasing the numbers of weapons and Self-determination: the ability of an ethnic or other group
personnel in the navy, army and air force. to make their own decisions and pursue an independent
Reichstag: Germany’s parliament during the imperial course rather than be part of a larger national unit in which
(Kaiser), republic (Weimar) and Nazi periods, their wishes are subsumed or overruled.

Reparations: a kind offine paid by an aggressor and Serfdom: a condition similar to slavery in which peasants
intended to make up for loss or damage suffered by a are owned by a landowner and have few rights.
victim. Slavs: a number of ethnic groups of people in eastern
Repression: the use ofspies and harsh punishments to and south-eastern Europe. They and their languages -
crush opposition. e.g. Russian, Polish, Czech, Serbian - are related and
many (though not all) of them belong historically to the
Republic: a state with no monarchy. Orthodox Christian churches.
Republican Guard: formed in 1969, they were the elite ‘Socialism with a human face’: this term was meant to
troops of the Iraqi state. They were separate from the show that socialist (in this context communist) policies
army. could and should be more about human needs than
Revolutionary Command Council (RCC): the main power politics.
decision-making and law-making body of the Iraqi Sortie: an aeroplane, ship or unit of troops going out ona
government after 1968. specific mission.
Right-wing: refers to a group or an individual Soviet Bloc: the group of east-European states that
that believes in an ordered society where discipline were aligned with the Soviet Union, taking their political 271
and tradition are valued. In general, right-wingers are direction from Moscow. It is also sometimes called the
nationalist and in favour of strong government. Right- Communist Bloc or the Eastern Bloc.
wingers oppose socialism and communism because they
Soviet: Russian for ‘council’ or ‘committee’: also used as
think that social inequality is natural and desirable, and
short form of Soviet Union or USSR.
because both pose a threat to private property.
Stock market: the place where stocks and shares
Roubles: Russia’s currency.
(ownership of companies) are bought and sold.
Russification: forcing Russia’s ethnic and religious
Strategy: a plan intended to achieve an overall, long-term
minorities to speak Russian and adopt Russians ways.
military aim.
Sanctions: penalties or punishments imposed by some
Successor states: new countries formed following the
official body such as a court of law. A typical sanction in
break-up of an older one, as in the case of Czechoslovakia,
international relations is a ban on trade, which has an
Austria and Hungary following the break up of Austria-
impact on the country targeted. The intention is to affect
Hungary.
the country’s decision-makers so that they change their
policies, such as ending a war. Suez Crisis: the Suez Canal, which had been built by the
French, was owned by the British and lay in Egypt. When
Sarin gas: a nerve agent which, in sufficient quantities,
the Egyptian leader Nasser had nationalised it, Britair
leads to a painful death. Victims lose control of their body and France secretly planned with Israel to attack Egypt.
and suffer convulsions, then paralysis. The following Suez Crisis distracted public attention from
SAVAK: the Iranian government's Organisation for events in Hungary which were happening at the same time
Intelligence and Security. They used torture to obtain Sunni and Shia: the two main branches of Islam. This
information and were greatly feared. The exact number of goes back to a disagreement about the leadership
agents is not known but could have been as many as 60,000. (caliphate) in the 7th century CE. The majority
é of Muslims
Scuttle: deliberately sinking a ship. In wartime navies may across
the world are Sunni but Iran is 95% Shia. Iraq has
do this so that the enemy cannot capture a vessel and a slight majority of Shia but the Ba’ath Party leadership
begin to use it themselves. was largely Sunni.
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

Tactics: manoeuvring troops and weapons in battlein development, peace and human rights, it replaced the
achieve a short-term military aim. League of Nations.

Tariff: a tax imposed by the government that has to be USSR: Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, also known as
paid on imports or exports. the Soviet Union.

mea of evolution: the idea, put forward by biologist Veto: the right to stop a bill from becoming law.
arles Darwin in the 19th century, that life on earth ‘Viet Minh’ and ‘Viet Cong’ are both names given
c
enelopee over millions of years and that humans and by western politicians and journalists to Vietnamese
apes were descended from a common ancestor.
communist forces. The former is a contraction of
Trade unions: organisations campaigning for increased ‘Vietnamese’ and ‘Ho Chi Minh’, while the latter is a
ages and improved working conditions for members. contraction of a Vietnamese expression for ‘Vietnamese
f communists’.
Tsar: Russian word for emperor.
Vietnamisation: meant reducing USA troop levels and
Tsarevich: the official title of the son of the tsar.
getting the South Vietnamese Army (ARVN) to do more of
Ulama: Muslim clerics are known collectively as the the fighting.
ulama. In Iran they are highly influential.
Violation: an action that has broken a rule or agreement
UN Resolution: a decision taken by the United Nations made between countries or individuals.
which is meant to be binding on its members. Twelve
resolutions were passed during the Gulf War, starting with War of the Cities: five major attacks on urban areas
Resolution 660 which condemned the attack. during the Iran-Iraq War. The aim of destroying
civilian morale failed to do its job, much as in the
UN Security Council: the main decision-making body Second World War. Instead, it only intensified hatred for
of the UN for military and security matters. It has 15 the enemy on both sides and may even have prolonged
272 nembers in total, 5 permanent and 10 temporary. The 5 the war.
ermanent members are the USA, Britain, China, France,
and the USSR (later Russia). At Stalin’s insistence, each Warsaw Pact: a defence treaty signed in 1955 as a
yermanent member had the power of veto which meant response to NATO. Also the defensive military alliance
hey could block any measures. of Eastern European states which the treaty created.
Hungary, Czechoslovakia, East Germany and Poland were
Unanimous: a decision has the support of every
all members. However, the main decisions were made by
vational representative who Is voting in a decision-making
the USSR.
process, and so no one has opposed the proposal being
voted on. Watergate scandal: a group of men were arrested
breaking into the Watergate hotel in Washington DC to
UNESCO: the United Nations Educational, Scientific and
steal documents from the Democrats’ offices there during
cultural Organization
the USA presidential campaign. They were caught and
United Nations: an international membership when it was revealed that Nixon was involved he had to
organisation for states founded in 1946 to promote resign in disgrace.
 Acknowledgements
The authors and publishers acknowledge the following sources
of copyright material and are grateful for the
permissions granted. While every effort has been made, it has
not always been possible to identify the sources of all
the material used, or to trace all copyright holders. If any omissi
ons are brought to our notice, we will be happy to
include the appropriate acknowledgements on reprinting.

Cover John Parrot/Stocktrek Images/Getty Images; Low, The conference excuses itself. Evening Standard.
Introduction Part 1. Nick Lee / Getty Images; Source 23 May 1934, Solo Syndication / Assoc ated New spapers
PIA. Matt Car / Stringer
dy /Getty images; Source P1B. Ltd, British Cartoon Archive; Source 2H. Bettmann
Mr Standfast/ Alamy Stock Photo; Source P1C. SPUTNIK / mages; Source 2J. David Low, The Doormat. Evening
Alamy Stock Photo; Source P1D. Daniel Simon / Gamma- Standard, 19 Jan 1933, Solo Syndication / Associate 4
Rapho / Getty Images; Introduction Part 2 & Source ewspapers Ltd, British Cartoon Archive; Source 2K.
P2D. Universal History Archive / Getty Images; Source David Low, Trial by Geneva. Evening Standard, 24 No\
P2E. Crew of 2 Gun, Royal Marine Artillery loading ‘Granny’, 1932, Solo Syndication /Associated Newspapers Ltd,
a 15 inch Howitzer (heavy artillery gun), near the Menin British Cartoon Archive; Source 2L. Keystone-France
Road, in the Ypres sector, 5 October 1917 (b/w photo), Gamma-Rapho / Getty Images; Source 2N. David Low,
Australian Photographer (20th century) / Australian War Self-Portrait. Evening Standard, 15 Feb 1935, Solo
Memorial, Canberra, Australia / Bridgeman Images; Syndication / Associated Newspapers Ltd, British Cartoon
Source P2F. Popperfoto / Getty Images; Source P2G. Archive; Chapter 3 & Source 3F. Bettmann / Getty
Horace Nicholls /IWM / Getty Images; Source P21. mages; Source 3A. Galerie Bilderwelt /Getty Images;
Mediacolor’s / Alamy Stock Photo; Chapter 1 & Source Source 3B. Keystone / Getty Images; Source 3C.
1B. Bettmann / Getty Images; Source 1C. Front cover Universal History Archive; Source 3D. German
cartoon by SEM, in ‘La Baionnette’, 13 March 1919 / Mary Propaganda poster, 1931 (colour litho), German School.
Evans Picture Library; Source 1F. ullsteinbild / TopFoto; (20th century) / Private Collection /Archives Charmet
Source 1H. Return of the Guard from the War, December Bridgeman Images; Source 3E. Fotosearch / Stringer
1918, from ‘Deutsche Gedenkhalle: Das Neue Deutschland’ Getty Images; Source 3G. Hulton Archive / Stringer / Gett
compiled by General Von Eisenhart Rothe, 1939 mages; Source 3H. Imperial War Museums / Gett'
(photogravure), German Photographer (20th Century) / mages; Source 31. Universal Images Group / Gett
Private Collection/ The Stapleton Collection / Bridgeman mages; Source 3M. Universal History Archive / Getty
Images; Source 11. Waldemar Titzenthaler / ullsteinbild / mages; Source 3N. ullstein bild /Getty Images; Source
Getty Images; Source 1J. Bettmann / Getty Images; 30. Universal History Archive /Getty Images; Source 3P.
Source 1M. ullstein bild / Getty Images; Source 1N. David Low, Increasing Pressure. Evening Standard, 18 Feb
Keystone / Getty Images; Source 10. Based on map by 1938, Solo Syndication /Associated Newspapers Ltd,
| AlphaCentauri and P.S.Burton, Wikimedia.org; Source 1R. British Cartoon Archive; Source 3Q. ullstein bild / Gett
| Cartoon by Will Dyson in ‘The Daily Herald’ / Mary Evans Images; Source 3R. Past Pix/ SSPL / Getty Images;
| Picture Library; Source 1T. The Reckoning /Reproduced Source 3S. David Low, Stepping Stones to Glory. E g
by permission of Punch Ltd www.punch.co.uk; Chapter 2 Standard, 1936. Solo Syndication / Associated
& Source 2A. Central Press /Hulton Archive / Getty Newspapers Ltd, British Cartoon Archive; Source 3T. Print
Images; Source 2B. Lewis W. Hine / Buyenlarge / Getty Collector /Getty Images; Source 3U. Topham
Images; Source 2C. Schomburg General Research and Picturepoint; Source 3W. David Low, The End
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York Public Library Digital Collections. 1919. http:// Newspapers Ltd, British Cartoon Archive; Source 3BB.
digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47de-7bc8-a3d9- Fox Photos / Getty Images; Chapter 4. NATO / Gett
e040-e00a18064a99; Source 2D. Fine Art Images / Images; Source 4B. Soviet World War 2 poster t
Heritage Images / Getty Images; Source 2E. Keystone- Kukryniksy, 1942. ‘We will cut off all roads to th
France /Gamma-Keystone / Getty Images; Source 2F. enemy, he will not escape from this noo
Photo by Evans, Walker, 1936, U.S. Farm Security depicting Hitler being strangled by |
Administration/Office of War Information. Library of Russian, British, and Am
Congress, Prints & Photographs Division, FSA/OW| Collection / Bridgeman Images; Source 4C, 7
Collection LC-USF33- 031322-M5 [P&P]; Source 2G. David Stork / Leslie
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

Punch Ltd; Source 4E. USA: US Government poster Source 6H. John Bryson / The LIFE Images Collection/
lentifying a Russian soldier as a friend who ‘fights for Getty Images; Source 61. Carl Mydans / The LIFE Picture
freedom’. 1942. /Pictures from History / Bridgeman Collection / Getty Images; Source 6K. Keystone-France/
Images; Source 4G. Trouble with some of the pieces/ Getty Images; Source 6L. Wolfgang Bera / ullsteinbild /
Reproduced by permission of Punch Ltd; Source 4M. Getty Images; Source 6M. Topham / AP / TopFoto;
Universal Images Group / Getty Images; Source 4N. David Source 60. Hulton Archive / Getty Images; Source 6P.
Low, Why can’t we work together in mutual trust & Francois LOCHON / Gamma-Rapho / Getty Images;
confidence?. Evening Standard, 30 Nov 1945, Solo Source 6Q. Sovfoto / Getty Images; Source 68S. Tiit
Syndication / Associated Newspapers Ltd, British Cartoon Veermae / Alamy Stock Photo; Chapter 7 & Source 7A.
Archive; Source 4Q. Illingworth, Leslie Gilbert, Peep under Keystone Pictures USA / Alamy Stock Photo; Source 7B.
the Iron curtain [Published caption]. Daily Mail, 6 March KARIM SAHIB / AFP / Getty Images; Source 7D. Riad
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British Cartoon Archive; Source 4R. Granger Historical Georges Galmiche / INA /Getty Images; Source 7F. 2.4./.
Picture Archive / Alamy Stock Photo; Source 4T. The Films / REX / Shutterstock: Source 7H. A 1979 Herblock
Granger Collection / TopFoto; Source 4V. Sovfoto / Getty Cartoon, © The Herb Block Foundation; Source 71. AP/
Images; Source 4Y. Fototeca Gilardi /AKG-Images; Press Association Images / PA Photos; Source 7J. A 1987
Source 4Z The Marshall Tree / EH Shepard / Reproduced Herblock Cartoon, © The Herb Block Foundation;
by permission of Punch Ltd; Source 4AA. Rival Buses /E Source 7L. Kaveh Kazemi / Hulton Archive / Getty Images;
H Shephard / Reproduced by permission of Punch Ltd; Source 7N. Saddam Hussein squeezing the world. Front
Source 4BB. [he Bird Watcher/ E H Shephard / cover 17 August 1990. Reproduced by permission of Punch
Reproduced by permission of Punch Ltd; Source 4CC. Ltd; Source 70. William Foley / The LIFE Images Collection
Henry Grant Compton / FPG / Getty Images; Source 4FF. / Getty Images; Source 7P. Danita Delimont / Alamy Stock
Fototeca Gilardi /AKG-Images; Source 4GG. Marcus, Photo; Source 7Q. David Turnley / Corbis /VCG / Getty
Edwin, Artist. While the Shadow Lengthens. 1948. Image. Images; Chapter 8 & Source 8J. Hulton Archive / Getty
274
Retrieved from the Library of Congress, <https://www.loc. images; Source 8A. Everett Collection Historical
/ Alamy
gov/item/acd1996005659/PP/>, by permission ofthe Stock Photo; Source 8B. Chronical / Alamy Stock Photo;
arcus Family; Chapter 5 & Source 5F. Bettmann / Getty Source 8C. Everett Collection Historical /Alamy Stock
mages; Source 5A. imageBROKER / Alamy Stock Photo; Photo; Source 8D. AT History / Alamy Stock Photo;
Source 5C. David Low, History Doesn’t Repeat Itself. Daily Source 8E. |\WM / Getty Images; Source 8G. Universal
terald, 30 Jun 1950. Solo Syndication / Associated History Archive / Getty Images; Source 8H. Hulton Archive
ewspapers Ltd, British Cartoon Archive; Source 5D. / Getty Images; Source 81. A Hop Over, c.1918 (gelatin
Believe it or Knout / Leslie Illingworth / Reproduced by silver print), Hurley, Frank (1885-1962) / National Gallery of
permission of Punch Ltd; Source 5E. The Washington Victoria, Melbourne, Australia / Bridgeman Images;
Post / Getty Images; Source 5G. Keystone / Getty Images; Source 8K. Everett Collection Historical /Alamy Stock
Source 5H. Bettmann / Getty Images; Source 5I. A 1962 Photo; Source 8L. 2nd Lt. T K Aitken / IWM / Getty Images;
Herblock Cartoon, © The Herb Block Foundation; Source Source 8M. John Singer Sargent / |WM / Getty Images;
5J. Sean Pavone / Alamy Stock Photo; Source 5K. Source 8N & Source 80. Universal History Archive / Getty
ITAR-TASS / TopFoto; Source 5L. Carl T. Gossett Jr /New Images, PSource 8P, Lord Price Collection / Alamy Stock
York Times Co / Getty Images; Source 5M. Bettmann / Photo; Source 8S. Three Lions / Getty Images; Chapter 9
Getty Images; Source 5N. Communist China Poster reads, & Source 91. ullsteinbild /TopFoto; Source 9A.
‘U.S. imperialism, get out of South Viet Nam!’ c. 1970. AKG-|mages; Source 9B & Source 9C. Hulton Archive /
Poster depicts men and women soldiers of North Vietnam Getty Images; Source 9D. ullsteinbild / Getty Images;
eroic poses in a jungle / Photo © Everett Collection/ Source 9E. Hulton Archive / Getty Images; Source 9F.
brcgeman images; Source 50, Source 5P, Source 5Q, Photo by Samuel Dietz / Getty Images; Source 9J.
Source 5R. Bettmann / Getty Images; Chapter 6 & Keystone-France / Gamma-Keystone / Getty Images;
Source 6J. ullstein bild /Getty Images; Source 6A. Ed Source 9M. ullsteinbild / Getty Images; Source 9N.
randir NY Daily News Archive / Getty Images; NurPhoto / Getty Images; Source 90. Heinrich Hoffmann
Source 6B, Source 6C. Keystone / Getty Images; Source / ullsteinbild / Getty Images; Source 9P.Bettmann / Getty
6E. 168 Hert k Cartoon, © The Herb Block mages; Source 9Q, Universal History Archive / Getty
Source 6G. Hulton Archive / Getty Images: mages; Source 9R. Chronical / Alamy Stock Photo:
 Acknowledgements

Source 9T. Hugo Jaeger / Timepix / The LIFE Picture

Chapter 11 & Source 11I. Ke ystone-France
Collection / Getty Images; Source 9U. Fred Ramage / Gamma-Keystone / Getty Im eects 11A&
Keystone Features / Getty Images; Source 9V. INTERFOTO
Source 11C. aie Acivad Getty er
m ages POUNCE 11B.
/ Alamy Stock Photo; Chapter 10 & Source 10M.
Chronical / Alamy Stock Photo; Source 11E. JP Jazz
Bettmann / Getty Images; Source 10A, Source 10B, Archiv / Redferns
e /Getty Images; Source 11F. Topica
Source 10C, Source 10K. Universal History Archive/ Press Agency / Getty Images; Source 11G.
Getty Images; Source 106. Fine Art Images / Heritage GangsterknigAlCapone, Photographie, 3,5 1932 Getty
Images / TopFoto; Source 101. Universal History Archive/ Images; Source 11H. General Phot Norantk
V5 CV
Getty Images; Source 10J. ITAR-TASS Photo Agency / Getty Images; Source 11K. 20th Ce NT
\ j
> amy Stock photo; Source 10L. INTERFOTO / Alamy Images; Source 11L. Hulton Archive coe mages;
Stock Photo; Source 10N & Source 100. Hulton Archive/ Source 11N. MP! /Getty |mages; Source 110, Source
Getty Images; Source 10Q. Fine Art Images / Heritage 11Q, Source 11R. Fotosearch / Getty ‘mages; Source
mages / Getty Images; Source 10S. SPUTNIK / Alamy 11P. Pictorial Parade / Getty Images; Chapter 12.
Stock
+
Photo; Source 10T. Bettmann / Getty Images; Horace Nicholls /|WM /Getty Images; Source 12A.
Source 10U. ITAR-TASS Photo Agency / Alamy Stock The Print Collector / Hulton Archive /Getty Images;c:
Photo; Source 10V. Sovfoto / Getty Images; Source 10X. Source 12B. A 1965 Herblock Cartoon, © The Herb-
Heritage Image Partnership Ltd / Alamy Stock Photo; Block Foundation

275
 Index
abdication, 15, 91 autocratic empires, 178
Abyssinian Crisis (1935-1936), 54-56, 55, 66 autonomy, 42
Adamthwaite, Anthony, 76 Ayatollah, 143, 144
Adenauer, Konrad, 99
Afghanistan, 48, 135, 138 Ba’ath Party:;
Aflag, Michel, 144 rise of 1958-1968, 144-45;
Africa, 5, 12 social changes, 147
African Americans, 243-44 Baden, Max von, 179, 181
agency, 48 al-Bakr, Ahmad Hasan, 145
Agent Orange, 119 Balkans, 9
Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA), 252 Baltic Chain, 138, 138
aircrafts, fighter, 166-67 Battle of Al Khafji, 157
Aktion T-4 programme, 197 Battle of Amiens, 166
Aland Islands., 42, 42 Battle of Coronel, 171
Algiers Agreement, 152-53 Battle of Dogger Bank, 171
Ali, Muhammad, 120 Battle of Flers, 166
Ali, Rashed, 144 Battle of Heligoland Bight, 171
Allies/Allied Powers, 8, 11-12; Battle of Jutland, 171-72, 171
additional, 12; Battle of Masurian Lakes, First, 174
bombing effects on Germany, 203-4; Battle of Tannenberg, 174
cost of First World War, 19; Battle of the Falkland Islands, 171
276 counter-attack by, 179-80; Battle of the Marne, 163
First World War victory, 13. Battle of the Somme, July-November 1916, 168;
See also specific nations Haig’s leadership and tactics, 169-70
alphabet agencies, 251-52 Battle of Verdun, February-December 1916, 167-68
alternative energies, 4 Battle of Ypres, First, 163
amnesty, 218 Bay of Pigs, 113
annihilation, 28 Bean, Charles, 174
Anschluss, 69-72 Beer Hall Putsch, 29, 32, 191
Anti-Comintern Pact, 61, 66 Belgium, reaction to Schlieffen Plan, 162
Anzacs, 173 Benes, Edvard, 90
appeasement, 66; Berlin blockade, 97-100;
justification, 72-76 and Berlin airlift, 98-100
Arab nationalism, 144 Berlin Wall, 131;
Arabs, 144 building the, 133-34:
arbitration, 40, 41 crisis of October 1961, 134;
Arif, Abd al-Rahman, 145 East Germany, 132;
Arif, Abd al-Salam, 145 fall of, 138-39;
Armistice, 15, 16, 29, 30, 178-81, 181 films about, 139;
Asia, 5 Inter-Continental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs), 131-32:
atomic bomb, 89-90, 92, 100 U2 incident, 132-33;
Attlee, Clement, 86 USA's response to, 134-35;
attrition, 152 Vienna summit 1961, 133
Austria, 33: Bible belt, 244
and Hitler, 69-72; Big Three. See David Lloyd George; Georges Clemenceau:
Treaty of Saint-Germain, 33, 34 Woodrow Wilson
Austria-Hungary, 8, 12, 33 Bizone (or Bizonia), 98, 101
autarky, 202, 62
Black Friday, 151
 blockade, 10, 170 short answer and extended response questions,
‘Bloody Easter on the Ruhr’, 31
260-61;
Bloody Sunday, 212 source-based questions, 261-65
Bolsheviks, 13-14, 219; : Capa, Robert, 62
Civil War victory, 220-23: capitalism, 47, 95
Constituent Assembly, 221; Capone, Al, 245
‘July Days’, 219; carbon dioxide emission, 5
Kornilov Affair, September 1917, 219-20; Carter, Jimmy, 2, 150
New Economic Policy (NEP), 224-25, 224: Castro, Fidel, 112-13, 112 115-16
October Revolution, 220: Castro, Raul, 113, 116
and Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 221: cavalry, 163
War Communism, 223 Cecil, Robert, 43, 52
Bonhoffer, Dietrich, 197, 199 Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 113, 118
Brandt, Willy, 134 Central Powers, 8, 9, 11-12, 20;
Bretton Woods Conference (1944), 89 cost of First World War, 19
Brezhnev, Leonid Ilyich, 2-3, 115, 129 Chamberlain, Neville, 66, 71, 75, 77, 77
Brezhnev Doctrine, 129, 137-38 Chiang Kai-shek, 109
Britain, 5; China, 107;
blockade, 13, 14; and Brezhnev, 129;
control over Iraq’s oil, 144; and Japan, 52-54, 65;
declaration of war on Germany, 1939, 76-78; and Korean War, 110;
and mist World War-Sy 1, 12.13, 22896907. revolution in, 116
64-65; chlorine gas, 167
and League of Nations, 47: chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 4
naval supremacy, 23; Churchill, Winston, 94, 173
‘Pals battalions’, 176-77; Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), 251
Royal Navy, 170-71; Civil War (1918-1920), 47
and Treaty ofVersailles, 64-65; Civil Works Administration (CWA), 251
war at sea, 1/0-/3; Clemenceau, Georges, 20, 21-22, 26
women working in a munitions factory during the coalition government, 32
First World War, 12 Cold War, 81-82, 95;
British Expeditionary Force (BEF), 162-63 Berlin Blockade, 97-100;
British Foreign Office, 73 USA to blame for, 101-3;
Broz, Josip. See Josef Tito USSR to blame for, 100-101
Bruning, Heinrich, 194, 194 collective bargaining, 252, 253
Brusilov, Alexei, 175 collective security, 41
buffer zone, 88, 125 collectivisation, 231;
Bulgaria, 34; logic of, 231;
and First World War, 11, 12; national minorities, impact on, 233-34;
Treaty of Neuilly, 34; results of, 232;
USSR control over, 91 women, impact on, 233;
Burns, Lucy, 245 workers, impact on, 233;
Bush, George H. W., 156 youth, impact on, 233
Byrne, James, 90 colonialism, 5
Cominform, 96, 97
Calley, William, 120 Comintern, 66
Cambridge IGCSE History:; Commission for Refugees, 48-49
assessment objectives, 259; communism, 29, 47, 90-91, 100-101, 140, 209
assessment structure, 259-60; concentration camps, 197, 198, 198, 205-6, 205
essay questions, 265-66; female-only, 202
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

onference of Ambassadors, 43 Domino Theory, 118

sressional Union (later National Women’s Party), 245 Dreadnoughts, 51
onscription, 12 Drexler, Anton, 190
constitution, 25 Dubéek, 129
onsumption, 4 Dust Bowl, 249
containment approach, 89
conventions, 48 Eastern Europe:
convoy system, 172 1949 map, 125;
Coolidge, Calvin, 239 Berlin Wall, 131-35
Corfu Incident (1923), 42-43, 43 Eastern Europe, Soviet control:
corruption, 137 and Solidarity in Poland, 135-37;
Coughlin, Charles, 253, 254 Gorbachev responsibility for the collapse of, 137-40;
Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON), opposition in Czechoslovakia, 128-31;
100, 101 opposition in Hungary, 126-28, 130-31;
countries and nations, 5-6 Reagan’s role in collapse of, 139-40
coup, 29, 32 Eastern Front, 174-76, 175
creeping barrages, 179 Ebert, Friedrich, 15, 181, 185
crisis of October 1961, 134 Ebert-Groener Pact, 185, 187
Cuban Missile Crisis, 112, 114; economic sanctions,41
aftermath, 116; Edelweiss Pirate group, 201, 201
causes of, 113-16; Egypt, 144
films on, 116 Eichmann, Adolf, 200
Cuban Revolution, USA’s reaction to, 112-13 ial)senhower, Dwight ‘Ike’, 111, 131, 132
Czechoslovakia, 64, 71, 72; Eisner, Kurt, 187
278
opposition to Soviet control, 128; embargo, 55
opposition to Soviet control, causes of, 128-29; empires, 5
opposition to Soviet control, compared with Hungary Enabling Act, 196
situation, 130-31; energy consumption, 4
Prague Spring 1968, 129; © pidemic, 20
Soviet invasion and its consequences, 129; 2 zberger, Matthias, 29, 29, 185, 187
USSR control over, 90-91 E urope:;
Allied and Central powers, 8;
Daladier, Edouard, 66, 71 and colonisation, 5;
Dawes Plan (1924), 33, 189 First World War, 9;
defecting population, 133 impact of World Wars, 5;
deforestation, 5 post-First World War, 19;
demilitarisation, 25, 88 Spanish Civil War (1936-1939), 68.
democracy, 31 See also specific countries
desertions, 14 Ex-Comm, 113
terrent,65 exploitation, 47
Deutsches Reich, 67

jictatorship, 50 Faisal, King, 143

dictatorship
of the proletariat, 221 Falkenhayn, Erich von, 167-68
lem, Ngo Dinh, 118, 118 Farm Credit Administration (FCA), 252
iktat, 24, 28, 186 Farm Security Administration (FSA), 252
Wsarmament,
21, 26, 4] Fatherland Front, 91, 187
nament Conference, 51-52 Fechter, Peter, 134-35
Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA), 251
Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany), 99-100
Ferdinand, Archduke Franz, 161
 fighter aircrafts, 166-67
Galen, Munster August von, 197
Finland, 42
Gallipoli campaign, 173-74;
First World War, 4, 5;
results of, 174
aircrafts in, 166-67; gangrene, 164
allied counter-attack, 179-80;
gas, poison, 167,179
Armistice, 178-81; gas masks, 167
Armistice, reasons for Signing, 181;
gasoline (petrol), 4
Battle of Jutland, 171-72; Geddes, Eric, 22
causes of, 8-9; Geneva Agreements, 117
COstot22: Gerd, Ernd, 127
estimate of dead, wounded and missing, 9-10, 10; German Christians, 199
events on the Eastern Front and the defeat of Russia, German Democratic Republic (East Germany), 100
174-76; German Workers Party (DAP), 190
Gallipoli campaign, 173-74: Germany, 5;
German Spring Offensive, 178-79: 1936 Olympics, 199-200;
global spread, 11-12; aggression in 1930s, 60;
impact on civilians, 11, 11: Armistice, 181, 186;
machine guns in, 166; attack on Poland, 77, 77:
poison gas use in, 167; Berlin blockade, 97;
Royal Navy, 170-71; blockade, 170, 172;
Schlieffen Plan, 161-63; Britain and France’s declaration of war on
submarines, U-boat and convoy system, 172; (1939), 76-78;
tanks in, 166; establishment of the republic, 185;
technology and, 10-11; and First World War, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14-15;
279
total war, 13; and France, border issue, 5;
trenches. See trench warfare; French occupation of the Ruhr 1923,
and United States, 178; 188-89;
unrestricted submarine warfare, 172-73: German Spring Offensive, 178-79;
victory ofAllies, 13; Hitler's dominance over, 190-96;
war at sea, 170-73; impact of Great Depression, 193;
Western Front, 163-68 inflation and hyperinflation, 31, 31, 188, 188;
five-year plans, 137 and League of Nations, 46;
flappers, 245, 246 left-wing political developments, 187;
Foch, Marshall, 36, 179 Navy, 171;
Ford, Henry, 237 Nazis. See Nazis/Nazism;
Fordney-McCumber Act, 239 oil business, 4;
France, 162-63, 168-69; peace threat during 1930s, 61-63, 61;
declaration of war on Germany, 1939, 76-78; political factions in 1919, 187-88, 187;
and First World War, 13, 16-17, 16; reactions to Treaty ofVersailles, 185-86;
and Germany, border issue, 5; revolution, 181, 185;
and League of Nations, 47; revolution, outbreak of, 180-81;
occupation of the Ruhr 1923, 188-89; right-wing political developments, 187-88;
and Treaty of Versailles, 64-65; Schlieffen Plan, 161-63;
war in Vietnam, 116; ‘stab in the back’ theory, 186;
Western Front, lJ Treaty of Versailles, 20, 24-25, 27-33;
Franco, Francisco, 68 and Treaty ofVersailles, 63;
Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871, 21 war at sea, 170-73;
Freikorps, 29, 187 Weimar Republic. See Weimar Republic;
Fuller, John, 166 Western Front. See Western Front
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

Health Organization, 49
Gierek, Edvard, 135 Henlein, Konrad, 71
glasnost, 138 Heydrich, Reinhard, 198, 198
Glass-Steagal Act, 251 highway ofdeath, 157, 158
global warming, 5 Himmler, Heinrich, 193, 196, 198
Goebbels, Joseph, 193, 198-99, 200 Hindenburg, Paul von, 189-90, 190
Gomulka, Wladyslaw, 135 Hindenburg Line, 169, 179
Gorbachev, Mikhail, 137, 137, 140; ire purchase, 238
reforms, 138; iroshima,
22 nuclear bombing, 89, 90, 92
reforms, consequences of, 138-39 ae itler, AdoliS2,.46.52; 63 66)72, (5,167;
Goring, Herman, 193, 202 25-Point Programme, 190, 191;
Grand Alliance, 82-84, 1932 presidential election, 194;
end of, 94-95, 98; appointment as chancellor, 194-95;
between February and July 1945, 86; campaign against Young Plan, 192-93;
ideological differences, 83; consolidation of power in 1933-1934, 195-96;
Lend-Lease system, 83, 86; Enabling Act, 196;
Potsdam Conference 1945, 86-88, 92: foreign policy, 64, 66-72;
Tehran Conference 1943, 84; message during Great Depression, 193-94;
tension in, 83-84; and Munich Putsch 1923, 29, 32, 191;
war disagreements, 83; azi ideas and methods, 190-91. See also
Yalta Conference 1945, 85-86 Nazi/Nazism;
Great Depression: azis leadership, 193;
consequences, 51; new legal strategy, 191-92;
impact on Germany, 193; Night of the Long Knives, 196;
280
and League of Nations, 50-51; presidency, 196;
in the rural USA, 248-49: and Reichstag fire, 195-96;
in the urban USA, 248: Rhineland, 67-68;
and Wall Street Crash, 247-48 Saar Plebiscite, 67;
Great Power, 4, 5 Spanish Civil War (1936-1939), 68;
Greco-Bulgarian confrontation, 43-44 trial and sentence of, 191;
Greece, 42-43; union with Austria (Anschluss) (1938), 69-72;
and First World War, 12 work of Sturm Abteilung (SA) and Schutzstaffel (SS), 192
Green Berets, 118 Hoare-Laval Pact, 55, 66
Groener, General, 185 Ho Chi Minh, 116, 117
Grynszpan, Herschel, 200 Ho Chi Minh Trail, 117, 118
guerrilla Campaigns, 112, 117 Holocaust, 205-6, 205, 205
Guevara, Che, 113 Home Owners’ Loan Corporation (HOLC), 252
Gulf Cooperation Council, 155 Honecker, Erich, 138
Gulf War, 146-47, 147; Hoover, Herbert, 239, 250
causes of, 155-56: Hoovervilles, 248
end of, 158; Hugenburg, Alfred, 192
Operation Desert Shield, 156; humanitarian disasters, 46
Operation Desert Storm, 156-58 human trafficking, 48
rhe Hague Convention 1899, 6 Hungary, 33;
Treaty of Trianon, 33;
Haig, Sir Douglas, 166, 168-70 USSR control over, 91
Hamilton, Sirlan, 173 Hungary, opposition to Soviet control, 126;
Harding, Warren, 239 causes of, 126-28:
Harriman, A Jé rell, 92 compared with Czechoslovakia situation, 130-31:
faciav, 128-29, 139 USSR response to, 128
 Hymans, Paul, 44
and League of Nations, 47:
Hymans Plan,44 peace threat during 1930s, 61-63, 61
hyperinflation, 31 Jaruzelski, Wojciech, 136
Jellicoe, John, 172
immigration, into USA, 242-43, 243 Jews:
import tariffs, 248 impact of Second World War, 204:
industrialisation, impact of, 4-5 persecution by Nazis, 199-200
inflation, 31 Jim Crow laws, 243
Inter-Continental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs), 131-32, 139
John Paul Il, Pope, 136, 136
Intermediate Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty, 138 Johnson, Lyndon, and Vietnam War, 118-19
International Labour Organization (ILO), 47-48 ‘July Days’, 219
intertribal slavery, 48
Iran: Kahr, Gustav von, 191
oil and Cold War, 148-49; Kania, Stanistaw, 135
under the Pahlavis 1926-1953, 148-49; Kapp, Wolfgang, 29, 187
revolution, 150-51; Kapp Putsch, 187
Shah. See Muhammad Reza Shah: Kemal, Mustapha, 34
USSR control over, 91 Kennan, George, 94
lran-Contra Scandal, 154 Kennedy, John F., 113, 115, 118;
lranian Revolutionary Guard, 152 and Khrushchev, 133
lran—lraq War, 1980-1988; Kent State University protests (1970), 120, 120
causes of, 151-52; Kerensky, Alexander, 217
foreign involvement, 153-54: kerosene, 4
peace and consequences of, 154-55; Khan, Reza, 148 jak
war at sea, 153; Khomeini, Ruhollah (Ayatollah), 143, 149-52, 154
war in the air, 153; Khrushchev, Nikita, 111, 113, 115, 126, 127, 131-32:
war on the ground, 152 and Kennedy, 133;
Iraq: secret speech against Stalin, 126
borders, 144; Kiel Mutiny, and German revolution, 181
chemical attacks by, 155; Kim Il-sung, 108
development of, from 1920 to 1958, 143-44; Kirov, Sergei, 227-28
invasion of Kuwait, 4; Kissinger, Henry, 121
and Iran, war between. See Iran-Iraq War, Korean War:
1980-1988; : background, 107;
oil industry, 144; cause of, 107-9;
rise of Ba’ath Party 1958-1968, 144-45; Chinese counter-attack, 110;
Saddam Hussein. See Saddam Hussein end of, 111-12;
lron Curtain speech, 94 liberation of South, 109-10;
Israel, 157 prisoners of war, 111;
Italy, 42-43, 54-56; stalemate and peace talks, 110-11;
aggression in 1930s, 60; UN invasion of North, 110
and First World War, 11, 12; Kornilov Affair, September 1917, 219-20
and League of Nations, 47; Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass), 200
peace threat during 1930s, 61-63, 61; Kronstadt Rebellion, 223-24
and Treaty ofVersailles, 63 Ku Klux Klan, 243-44, 244
Kurds, 144;
Japan: Saddam Hussein's relations with, 147-48
aggression in 1930s, 59; Kuwait, 155-56
aggression in Manchuria (1931), 52-54, 65; laissez-faire policy, 239
and First World War, 11, 12; latrines, 164
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

Lausanne,
A
34: acArthur, Douglas, 109, 110
Council, 45 nachine guns, 166
L eague of Nations, 23-24, 26, 30, 40; aginot Line, 64-65f
Abyssinian Crisis (1935-1936), 54-56, 66; anchuria Crisis, 52-54, 52, 53, 54, 65
Aland Islands, 42, 42; nandates, 27
Assembly, 45; ao Zedong, 107, 111, 116
and Britain, 47, 66; arshall, George, 97
collective security, 41; arshall Plan, 94, 101, 128
and Commission for Refugees, 48-49; asaryk, Jan,
91, 128
Corfu f
Incident (1923), 42-43, 43; nass production, 237-38
Covenant of, 40-41; McNary-Haugen Farm Relief Bill, 240
crisis and conflict interventions, 41; ichael, King, abdication of, 91
Disarmament Conference, 51-52; militarism, 62
and France, 47, 66; nilitary sanctions,
41, 42
and Germany, 46; military strategy, 13
and Great Depression, 50-51; ilyukov, Paul, 217
Greco-Bulgarian confrontation, 43-44; indszenty, Cardinal, 126
Health Organization, 49; minority, 42
and International Labour Organization (ILO), mobilisation, 8
4/-48; olotov, Vyacheslav Mikhailovich, 86
and Italy, 47; moral disapproval,41
and Japan, 47; oscow Conference of Foreign Ministers, 98
Japanese aggression in Manchuria (1931), 52-54; ossadeq, Mohammad, 148-49
Secretariat, 45: uharram, 151
282
and Slavery Commission, 48; uller, Herman, 194
and Soviet Union, 47; Munich Agreement, 72, 76, 128
successes of, 42-44, 47-50, 51-56; Munich Putsch. See Beer Hall Putsch
and United States of America, 46; ussolini, Benito, 43, 54, 55, 56, 61, 66, 72
Vilnius, 44; mustard gas, 55, 167
weaknesses and failure, 45-47, 65-66 nutiny, 168
end-Lease system, 83, 86, 92 utually Assured Destruction, 112
enin, Vladimir, 14, 221; y Lai massacre, 120
New Economic Policy (NEP), 224-25, 224
eprosy, 49 agasaki, nuclear bombing, 90, 92
Liebknecht, Karl, 187 agy, Imry, 126, 127
ife expectancy, 3 ansen, Fridtjof, 48, 49, 49
indbergh, Charles, 239 \apalm, 111, 119-20
eracy corps, 149 asser, Gamal Abdel, 144
ithuania,44 ational Association for the Advancement of Coloured
oyd George, David, 20, 22-23, 27 People (NAACP), 244
ong, Huey, 253, 254 ationalisation, 146
oos-Hulluch trench system, 165 rationalism, 5-6, 9, 62
ossow, General Otto von, 191 ational Labour Relations Act, 252
udendorff, Erich von, 166, 178-79, 181, 19] ational Liberation Front, Vietnam, 117
Luttwitz, Walther von, 187 ational Recovery Administration (NRA), 252
Luxemburg, Rosa, 187 \ational self-determination, 23, 24, 26
Prince, 217 NATO. See North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
hing, of African Americans, 243 vatural gas,4
laval Supremacy, 23
 Nazis/Nazism:
North America, 5
in the 1920s, 190-91:
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), 81. 82:
autarky, 202;
formation of, 99-100
benefit from rule of, 202-3: Norway, and First World War, 12
churches, opposition from, 197;
Novotny, Antonin, 129
churches, persecution of, 199;
nuclear bomb, 89-90, 100
concentration camps, 197, 198, 198;
nuclear missiles, 112
concentration camps, fernale-only, 202;
Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, 116
Four-Year Plan, 202; Nuremberg Laws, 199
Holocaust, 205-6, 205, 205;
ideological groups, persecution of, 199; October Revolution, 220
Jews, persecution of, 199-200; oil industry, 4
Lebensborn programme, 202: Okhrana, 214
little success before 1930, 191-93; Operation Big Switch, 111
military opposition, 197: Operation Desert Shield, 156
opposition to, 196-97; Operation Desert Storm, 156-58
policies towards women and family, 201-2: Operation Instant Thunder, 156
political groups, persecution of, 199; Operation Linebacker | and II, 121
political opposition, 197; Operation Michael, and Allied counter-attack, 179-80, 180
political opposition, dealing with, 198; Operation Valkyrie, 197
and Second World War, 203-6; Organisation Consul, Freikorps, 29, 187
totalitarianism, 200; Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries
use of culture and mass media, 198-99: (OPEC), 146
and Wannsee Conference and Final Solution, 204-6: Ottoman Empire, 143;
workers, policy towards, 203; and First World War, 11, 12;
young people’s reaction to, 200-201; and Treaty of Sevres with Turkey, 34
youth, opposition from, 197 Overy, R. J., 76
Nazi-Soviet pact, 76 ozone layer, hole in, 4
Netherlands, and First World War, 12
Neuilly, 34 pacifism, 176
New Deal: Pahlavis 1926-1953, 148-49
in 1933, 250-51; Palmer, Mitchell, 243
and alphabet agencies, 251-52; ‘Pals battalions’ 176-77
case against, 255-56; pan-Arabism, 144
case for, 255; Paris Peace Conference. See Treaty of Saint-Germain with
the left, opposition from, 253-54; Austria; Treaty of Versailles
post-1933, 252-53; Patch, Harry, 2
the right, opposition from, 253; Pathet Lao, 117
Roosevelt’s inaugural speech, 251; patriotism, 9
Roosevelt’s reaction to oppositions, 255; Paul, Alice, 245
Supreme Court, opposition from, 254; peace threat, during 1930s, 60-63, 61
and unemployment, 255-56 peace treaty, 13-14
New Economic Policy (NEP), Lenin’s, 224-25, 224 Pearl Harbor, 82
Nicholas, Tsar, Il, 209 perestroika, 138
Niemoller, Martin, 197, 199 Pershing, John J., 178
Night of the Long Knives, 196 Peétain, Philippe, 168
Nixon, Richard, 120-21; phosgene gas, 167
Watergate scandal, 121 plebiscite, 67
Nol, Lon, 120 plebiscites, 25
no man’s land, 134-35, 165 Poincare, Raymond, 31
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

Romania:
and First World War, 12;
Solidarity, and Soviet control, 135-37; USSR control over, 91
JSSR control over, 91 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 89;
Popietuszko, Jerzy, 136 1932 election victory, 249;
Potsdam Conference 1945, 86-88, 92 New Deal. See New Deal
Powers, Gary, 132 policies, 250
Prague, 128 Ross, Nellie Tayloe, 245
Prague Spring 1968, 129, 131 rugged individualism, 239
Prohibition, 244-45; Ruhr, 31-32;
effects of, 245: French occupation of, 188-89
end of, 245 Ruhr Army, 187
proportional representation, voting system, 186 Russia, 8, 209, 209;
provisional border, 44 Bolsheviks. See Bolsheviks;
Provisional Government rulein Russia, 217-19 Civil War, 221-23, 222;
Public Works Administration (PWA), 252 communes, 210;
ouNItiveness, 27 and First World War, 174-76;
ouppet state, 53 multi-ethnicity, 211;
urges, 227-28 October Manifesto, 1905, 213;
Outsch, 29 peasant village, 210;
population in 1900, 211;
Jasim, Abd al-Karim, 144 Provisional Government rule in 1917, 217-19;
quotas, 23 serfdom, 210;
Stalin. See Josef Stalin;
284
Radio Free Europe, 127, 131 territorial losses during First World War, 14;
Rajchman, Ludwig, 49 tsar. See tsarist regime.
Rajk, Laszlo, 126 See also USSR
Xakosi, Matyas, 126 Russification, 211
Rath, Ernst vom, 200
Rathenau, Walther, 29, 29, 187, 188 Saar Plebiscite, 67;
Xeagan,
v
Ronald, 136; effects of, 67
and Soviet control decline in Eastern Europe, 139-40 Saddam Hussein, 143, 152, 156;
earmament, 52 economy and oil policies, 146-47;
Red Army, 85, 88, 125, 126 government and propaganda under, 145-46;
Red Orchestra, 197 Gulf War. See Gulf War;
Reich, 67 lran—lraq War. See lran-lraq War, 1980-1988;
Reichstag, 36 relations with the Shi’ites and Kurds, 147-48:
Rentenmark, 1: rise to power, 145;
eparations, 14, 28, 189 social changes, 147
xeparations Commission, 24, 30, 36, 188 Saint-Germain, 33
repression, 210 Sanctions, 40, 41
Republican Guard, 145 sarin gas, 152 |
republicanism, 29 Saudi Arabia, 156
Resettlement Administration (RA), 252 SAVAK, 149, 150
tionary Command Council (RCC), 145 Schacht, Hjaldmar, 202
neman, 108. 109
Schirach, Baldur von, 201
Schlageter, Albert Leo, 32
schleicher, Kurt von, 194-95, 194
Schlieffen, Alfred von, 161
Schlieffen Plan, 161-62:
 Belgium’s reaction to, 162:
Spartacist Party, 187
British Expeditionary Force (BEF), 162-63:
Speer, Albert, 203
failure of, 163: Stalin, Josef, 76, 87-88, 90, 91:
modifications to, 162;
1936 Constitution, 228;
and Russian mobilisation, 162
and Berlin blockade, 98-100:
Scholl, Hans and Sophie, 197
collectivisation, 231-32:
Schumann, Hans Conrad, 135, 135
concern about Marshall Plan, 97:
Schuschnigg, Kurt, 70 control over Soviet Union by 1941, 229:
Schwarzkopf, Norman ‘Stormin’, aly ealey
emergence as Lenin’s successor, 225-27:
scuttle, 27
foreign policy, 88;
search and destroy missions, 119 personality cult and propaganda, 228;
Second World War, 4, 5; reasons for launching purges, 227-28;
Allied bombing, effects of, 203-4; and religion, 229;
deaths by country, 102: rewriting history, 228;
impact on Jews, 204: role in Cold War, 101;
and Nazi Germany, 203-6; supervision of art and culture, 228-29
total war, 203 Stalin, Josef, economic policies:
secularism, 144 Five-Year Plan, 1928-1932, 230:
Security Council, 85, 107 Five-Year Plan, 1933-1937, 230:
Selassie, Haile, 55 Five-Year Plan, 1939-1941, 230-31:
Serbia, 8; Five-Year Plan, reasons for, 229:
and First World War, 12 impact of, 229-31, 232-34, 232:
Sevres, 34 impact of economic policies of
Shah, Muhammad Reza, 148; Stauffenberg, Claus von, 197
285
government and reform under, 149; Stephenson, David, 243
from protest to revolution, 150-51: Stevenson, Adlai, 115
religious opposition, 149-50 Stimson, Henry, 90
Shah, Reza, 148 stock market, 193
Shamir, Yitzhak, 157 Stolypin, 214
Shariati, Ali, 150 Stolypin, Peter, 214
Shatt al-Arab, 152, 153 Strasser, Gregor, 195
Shia Muslims, 144 Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI), 139
Shi'ites, Saddam Hussein’s relations with, 147-48 Stresemann, Gustav, 32, 189, 189
Slavery Commission, 48 ; submarines, 172:
Slav population, 8 unrestricted warfare, 172-73
Smoot-Hawley tariff, 247-48 successor States, 26
Social Democrats (SPD), 185 Sudentenland, 71, 72
socialism, 29 Sudeten Germans, 71
‘socialism with a human face’, 129 Suez Crisis, 128
Socialist Unity Party, 100 Sunni Muslims, 144
Social Security Act, 252 Superpower’rs, 5
Solidarity (‘Solidarnosc’), 1980-1989, 135-36; Sweden, 42;
reasons for success of, 136-37 and First World War, 12
SOPADE, 197 Switzerland, and First World War, 12
sorties, 156
Soviet, 213 tanks, 166
Soviet Bloc, 91, 100 tariffs, 23
Soviet Union. See USSR Tehran, 149
Spain, and First World War, 12 Tellini, Enrico, 42
Spanish Civil War (1936-1939), 68 Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), 252
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

policy towards USSR, 92-97;

itcher, Margaret, 139, 156 role in Cold War, 102
theory of evolution, 244 Truman Doctrine, 95-96, 102;
Third Reich, 67 Soviet Union’s reaction to, 97
Thomas, Katherine, 201 tsarist regime, 2;
Thompson, Hugh, 120 and 1917 revolution, 216-17;
Tito, Josef, 91, 125, 125 collapse of, 210-17;
total war, 203 dealing with the difficulties of ruling Russia up to
Townsend, Francis, 253, 254 1914, 210-12;
trade unions, 129; Dumas, after 1905 revolution, 214;
Solidarity, 135-37 Fundamental Laws of, 211, 214
trafficking, 48 tsarist regime, 1905 revolution ;
Traianon, 33 middle classes and aristocracy after, 215;
treaties, fairness of, 19 peasants after, 214;
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 13-14, 67, 221 survival of, 212-14;
Treaty of Lausanne with Turkey, 34, 35 workers after, 214
Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria, 34 tsarist regime, impact of First World War:
Treaty of Rapallo, 30 economic impact, 215;
Treaty of Saint-Germain with Austria, 33; military impact, 215;
and territorial changes, 34 political impact, 215-16;
reaty of Sevres with Turkey, 34 social impact, 215
Treaty of Trianon with Hungary, 33; Tudeh, 149
and territorial changes, 34 Turkey, 34;
Treatyof Versailles, 20-21; Treaty of Lausanne, 34, 35;
286
Article 231, 24, 28; Treaty of Sevres, 34;
ana Britain, 64-65; USSR control over, 91
Clemenceau’s motives and aims,
21-22, 26; U2 incident, 112, 113, 132-33
and France, 64-65; U-boats, 172
and Italy, 63; ulama, 149
justification, 35-36; Ulbricht, Walter, 133
key points, 24-25; Unanimous decisions, 41
loyd George’s motives and aims, United Kingdom. See Britain
22-23, 21; United Nations, 48, 89, 156.
ong-term consequences of, 63-65; See also League of Nations
revision of reparations, 33; United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
erritorial changes by, 25; Organization (UNESCO), 147
Wilson’s motives and aims, 23-24, 26 United States of America (USA), 5;
Treaty of Versailles, and Germany, 24, 63, 185-86; African Americans, 243-44;
economic impact, 30-31; agricultural prosperity, 240;
impacts, 27-33, 28; anarchists in, 243;
political impact, 29-30 capitalist democracy in, 83;
trench warfare, 163-65, 164, 165: Cold War blame, 101-3. See also Cold War:
living and fighting in trenches, 164-65 communists in, 243;
consumer boom, 241;
Th ey AF 4 Spay 47. consumer culture, 238:
economic boom in 1920s, 237-41:
economic boom in 1920s, benefits from, 241:
and events in Korea (1950-1953). 107 ie
and First World War, 12, 178, 237:
 Gross National Product, 237;
veto, 87
hire purchase, 238; Vienna summit 1961, 133
Hoover's policies, 250; Viet Cong, 116, 117, 119
immigrants in, 242-43, 243: R Viet Minh, 116, 117
independent lifestyle of women, 245-46: Vietnamisation, 120, 121
industrial prosperity, variations in, 239-40; Vietnam War:
,

intolerance in the 1920s, 242-44:

American defeat in, 121-22:
and Iran-Iraq War, 153; American involvement, 117-19;
laissez-faire policy, 239: American tactics, 119-21;
and League of Nations, 46: background, 116-17;
and Lend-Lease system, 83, 86, 92: effects of, 121;
mass consumption,
238; Johnson and, 118-19
mass production and standardisation, 237-38; Vilnius, 44
New Deal, 250-56; violation, 52
new inventions, 242: Volstead Act of 1920, 245
oil business, 4: Vonnegut, Kurt, 203
peace-making attitude, 89-90: von Papen, Franz, 194, 194, 195
political rights of women, 245; von Scheer, Reinhard, 171-72
Prohibition, 244-45;
reactions to South Korea invasion, 109; Wall Street Crash, 50, 194;
religious intolerance in the 1920s, 244; affected groups, 249;
Republican government policy, 239; causes of, 246-47;
response to Berlin Wall, 134-35; and Great Depression, 247-48;
Roosevelt’s policies, 250; impact on economy, 247-48;
287
Roosevelt victory in 1932 election, 249: social consequences, 248-49:
social and cultural change, 242: and speculation, 246-47
society change in the 1920s, 241-46; Wannsee Conference, 204-6
and Soviet expansionism, 92-97; war and peace, 5-6
unemployment during Great Depression, 50; War Communism, 223
and Vietnam War. See Vietnam War; War of the Cities, 153
and Wall Street Crash, 246-50; Warsaw Pact, 81, 82, 126;
war disagreements, 83: formation of, 100
war on Germany, 13; Watesa, Lech, 136, 136
women’s role during the 1920s, 245-46 wealth, 4
US Congress, 26 weapons, 11, 89-90, 92, 100, 111, 112, 119, 166-67
USSR, 5, 6: Weimar chancellors 1930-1933, 194
Berlin Wall. See Berlin Wall: Weimar Republic, 29, 30, 185;
Cold War blame, 100-101. See also Cold War; achievements, 189-90;
communism in, 83; constitution of, 186;
control of Eastern Europe, 90-92; and Treaty ofVersailles, 185-89
impact of Second World War, 88; welfare states, 248, 249
and League of Nations, 47; Western Europe, 5
and Lend-Lease system, 83, 86, 92; Western Front:
peace-making attitude, 88; Battle of the Somme, July-November 1916, 1
Truman’s policy towards, 92-97; Battle of Verdun, February-December 1916, 1
war disagreements, 83 fighter aircraft, 166-67;
machine guns, 166;
van der Lubbe, Marinus, 195 poison gas, 167;
Velvet Revolution (or Gentle Revolution), 139 tanks, 166;
Versailles Peace Conference. See Treaty ofVersailles trench warfare, 163-66
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History

te Revolution, 149, 150 Works Progress Administration (WPA), 252

te Rose group, 197 World Health Organization, 49
Vilhelm, Kaiser, Il, 15, 30, 185 world population by region (1900 and 2000), 3
Wilson, Woodrow, 20, 23-24, 26, 35, 178, 185
Nitte, Sergei, 211, 213 Yalta Conference, 90
vomen: Yorkshire coast, bombardment on, 171
collectivisation impact on, 233: Yugoslavia, USSR control over, 91
Nazi policies towards, 201-2;
role during the 1920s’ USA, 245-46; Zeppelins, 11, 11
and work, 12, 13 Zorin, Valerian, 115

288
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Cambridge IGCSE® and O Level History
Option B: the 20th Century
Coursebook
Second edition
Paul Grey, Rosemarie Little, Robin Macpherson,
John Etty and Graham Goodlad
This coursebook helps students to take an enquiry-led approach
to historical learning. Full of activities and primary and secondary
sources, it encourages the application of historical skills, including the
use of evidence, and enables investigative questioning of cause and
consequence.
Written by a team of experienced teachers, this coursebook provides
comprehensive coverage of all of the Key Questions and four of the Depth
Studies for syllabus Option B: the 20th Century.

Key features:
e Activities encourage an exploratory approach to learning
e Definitions of key terms displayed alongside relevant text to support
English as an Additional Language students
e |ntroductory chapters give context to prepare students for learning
e A dedicated chapter to help students to prepare for assessment
e ‘Review your learning’ sections will provide students with opportunities
to reflect on what they have studied

Also available:
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International Education and experienced authors, to produce high-quality
endorsed textbooks and digital resources that support Cambridge
teachers and encourage Cambridge learners worldwide.
To find out more about Cambridge University Press visit
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(ee me
Provides support for Option B for the
Cambridge IGCSE, IGCSE 9-1 and O Level
Se,
a Q
syllabuses (0470/097 7/2147) for examination Bema
from 2020

Has passed Cambridge International's rigorous eeepames a ign :

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