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Air Treatment Technology

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Table VII-19 has been compiled for this transition period to new filter classes. If older
filter designations are defined, the filter quality must correspond to the following test
values from ISO 16890.

Class ISO ePM1 ISO ePM2.5 ISO ePM10 ISO Coarse

G3 - - - > 80%
G4 - - - > 90%
M5 - - > 50% -
M6 - 50% - 65% > 60% -
F7 50% - 65% 65% - 80% > 85% -
F8 65% - 80% > 80% > 90% -
F9 > 80% > 95% > 95% -
Table VII-19Converting old (EN779) to new (ISO 16890) filter class.

So there are still electrostatically charged filters on the market because it cannot be
avoided in the manufacturing process of synthetic filters in particular.
In the new test method, those filters are also still measured in that delivered loaded
condition. However after that, the filters are discharged in a kind of immersion bath and
the capture rates are measured again.
For example, if a filter has the designation ePM160%, it means that the minimum
capture rate measured at PM1 is ≥ 50% and that the average capture rate between
loaded and unloaded in clean state at PM1 is ≥ 60%.
It is therefore still advisable to check whether it is a loaded synthetic filter or an
unloaded fiberglass filter. In the second case, there is more certainty about the use
efficiency of the filter.

EN 1822: High efficiency air filters (HEPA and ULPA).

The NEN-EN 1822: 2009 describes the factory test method for HEPA (High Efficiency
Particle Air) and ULPA (Ultra Low Penetration Air) filters. Within the world of ventilation
and cooling, these filters are used as secondary or final filters to protect clean room
processes in microelectronics, in pharmaceuticals, in the food industry, in nuclear
processes and in the exhaust air of various laboratories. Until 1999, various test
methods still circulated, with frequent reference to the American Dop test. The term
EU14 is also still used. It comes from Eurovent Directive 4/4, which was based on the
British standard BS 3928. EU14 was the highest filter class, with a definition range for
efficiency of > 99.999 percent (0.65 µm).

Current applications call for a clear specification on the feed efficiency and air
resistances of air filters. The specifications thus meet the requirements of
different processes.

EN 1822 consists of five parts, namely:

1. Classification, performance testing, marking;
2. Aerosol production, measuring equipment;
3. Testing of flat medium for determination of MPPS;
4. Leakage of filter element (Scanning)
5. Overall efficiency of the filter element.

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The EN 1822 classification table presents two areas of definition. Namely, overall and
local efficiency. See Table VII-20. The local value indicates when there is a leak in the
filter. A demonstrated point in the filter that falls below this efficiency value is called a
LEAK. A small leak (pin hole) has very little effect on the overall efficiency of the filter.
For the filter to fall into the appropriate class, both definitions must be met. There
should be no particles >0.5 µm on the clean side of a leaky filter.

Filter class Overall value Local value 1,2)

Efficiency (%) Penetration (%) Efficiency (%) Penetration (%)
E10 85 15 --- ---
EPA

E11 95 5 --- ---

E12 99,5 0,5 --- ---
H13 99,95 0,05 99,75 0,25
HEPA

H14 99,995 0,005 99,975 0,025

U15 99,9995 0,0005 99,9975 0,0025
ULPA

U16 99,99995 0,00005 99,99975 0,00025

U17 99,999995 0,000005 99,9999 0,0001
1) see EN 1822, part 4.
2) Other local values may also be agreed upon between manufacturer and
customer.

Table VII-20Classification table of EN 1822.

The most commonly used filter class for general clean room applications is the H14
according to EN 1822. The definition of the filter class is easy to remember. The
last number in the filter class represents the number of 9's from the overall value with
behind that the 5.
The manufacturer tests each HEPA and ULPA filter individually and labels it with a tear-
off strip for documentation of measurement data.

6.6 Filter Theory

Two types of filtration are distinguished in air filtration.

- mechanical filtration;
- molecular- or gas-filtration.

Mechanical air filtration

Five filtering principles or trapping mechanisms apply to mechanical filtration of air,
namely sieve action, inertia, interception, diffusion and electrostatics (Figure VII- 37).

Screen operation
In sieve operation, the particles are larger than the openings between the filter fibers so
they are stopped. Therefore, this principle applies only to larger particles
(> 5 µm).

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Inertia
When particles cannot follow the airflow, they fly out of control, so to speak, colliding
with the filter fiber. This is the inertia or inertia effect. This filter principle increases at
higher air velocities and larger particles (>1 µm).

Intercept
Particles partly follow the airflow around the fiber. If the particle thereby comes closer
to the fiber than the radius (rp) of the fiber, it is attracted by the fiber. This principle
takes place for particles for 0.5 to 3.0 µm and increases with increases in particle size
and decreases in fiber diameter. Thus, fine fibers are important for higher efficiency.

1 3

2 4

Figure VII-37 Differentdust collection mechanism (1-4) of filters to separate dust

particles from air.

Diffusion:
Very small particles move freely through the air as if they were molecules. This vibrating
zigzag motion, also called Brownian motion, increases the probability of particles
colliding with the fiber and "sticking" to it. This principle increases with decreasing fiber
diameter, with decreasing air velocity and with decreasing particle size (<1 µm). Also
according to this principle, fine filter fibers are important for adequate filtration.

Electrostatic
Filter fibers may be electrostatically charged. This electrostatic charge usually occurs
during production and ongoing treatments of the filter media. This electrostatic effect
increases the overall efficiency of the air filter, but is temporary in nature.
Especially moisture and fine particles originating from combustion processes, discharge
the medium, so that only the first four principles above continue and determine the
efficiency of the filter in question. With the introduction of the ISO 16890 standard, the
efficiency of filters is nowadays determined and specified without the electrostatic
charge. All principles can take place simultaneously in the filter, especially in fine filters
for ventilation and air handling systems. Interception and diffusion effects are the most
decisive for efficiency in HEPA and ULPA filters, partly because pre-filtration has already
captured the larger particles.

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Molecular or gas filtration

Another side of filtration is the removal of individual molecules from the air. Molecules
are the building blocks of everything on earth, from water to human tissue, from plastic
to fuel and from poison to food. Molecules involved here are a thousand times smaller
than the particles captured by HEPA and ULPA filters.
We specify molecules in the air with a chemical name and a concentration, measured
as volume or as weight (for example: p.p. m = part per million or µg/m3 = micrograms
per m3 ). A concentration of 1 p.p. b seems very low (part per billion), yet it is still
about 2.5 million gas molecules per mm3 .

Air molecules can affect people in different ways:

- as odor and smell (H2S or rotting eggs);
- As a toxic or poisonous substance (hydrogen cyanide or military gases);
- as irritation (onion smell);
- As a corrosive agent (sulfurous acid or chlorine).

Whereas particles can remain in the lungs via inhalation, gas molecules will pass
through the lungs and enter the bloodstream. Gas molecules can also be absorbed
through the skin. Gas molecules can cause damage to humans, to the environment, to
manufacturing processes (for example, in microelectronics) or to artifacts in museums
and archives
Gas molecules are completely invisible to HEPA and ULPA filters, which is why filtration
products based on adsorption mechanisms, such as activated
carbon, activated aluminum or "ion-exchange" materials. These materials are
characterized as micro porous. The structure of these materials is a complex network of
extremely small diameter corridors and holes. As a result, the internal surface area is
very large. In the case of activated carbon, it can be 1,000 m2 /gr and the surface is
chemically active. In molecular filtration, two principles are distinguished:
- Adsorption or physisorption (reversible process);
- Chemisorption (irreversible process).

Adsorption
Gas molecules can easily move or diffuse in the corridor structure of the medium in
which they are held by the internal surface (adsorption). Gas molecules can also be
displaced by other species (difference in affinity) or by increase in temperature.
Adsorption is thus a physical process that is reversible.

Chemisorption
Other molecules (often lighter ones) cannot be removed from the air by adsorption
alone. The medium must then be impregnated. This creates a medium with a chemical
dope, in which chemical conversion takes place with the contaminant. This process is
irreversible.

Performance of activated carbon

The removal efficiency of a molecular filter is not constant. Important parameters
affecting the efficiency and absorption capacity are:

Temperature: increasing temperature will decrease efficiency and capacity (stand time)
in all cases. The extent to which temperature affects this

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has depends very much on the molecule in question. Temperatures up to 40 °C are

acceptable.

Relative humidity: increasing RH will decrease efficiency and capacity (stand time) in all
cases. The activated carbon surface and internal corridor structure will contain water,
and where there is water, no other molecule can adhere. The degree to which RH
affects this depends very much on the molecule in question. A maximum RH of 70
percent is usually used for inlet air.

Supply concentration; the supply concentration has the greatest effect on the
performance of an activated carbon filter. If the feed concentration increases, the total
amount of the contaminant that the filter will adsorb will also increase. This relationship
can be represented as an isotherm in a graph.

Air resistance and replacement

Energy is more and more a determining factor when choosing components, so too with
air filters. The air filter in the AHU will increase in resistance due to fouling. It is
therefore important to choose a filter with a low initial resistance and sufficient surface
area to keep the contamination interval at the lowest possible level. Filtering dust
increases the resistance of filters. With a fixed-speed fan, this will reduce the air
volume displaced. This is the reason one projects an average (design) resistance in an
air handling unit with a fixed-speed fan. From the ErP 1253/2014, only the clean
resistance of the filter is considered.
In systems with a critical pressure hierarchy such as clean rooms and Ok's where airflow
often needs to remain constant, the end resistance of the filter is projected. Within ErP
legislation, there is an obligation to provide a clearly audible or clearly visible warning
signal when that end resistance is reached.
Common end resistors are shown in Table VII-21. In fact, they no longer participate in
the new filter test method. In practice, filters are often replaced periodically, at least 1
to 2 times per year.

End resistance comparison

New (ISO) Old (EN 779)
Efficiency ISO course 150 Pa 250 Pa
Efficiency ISO PM10 200 Pa 450 Pa
Efficiency ISO PM1 & PM2.5 300 Pa 450 Pa
Table VII-21Comparison of end resistances of filters.

6.7 Air filters and moisture

According to a regulation such as the "VDI 6022 Raumlufttechnik, Raumluftqualität" and

the EN16798, at the site of the air filter the RH should not exceed 90 percent and
averaged over three days should not exceed 80 percent.
Since the 1990s, with the transition from "mixed-air" systems to "full-
'outdoor air' systems are known to get pre-filters wet. An F7 filter will get wet as early
as an outdoor RH of 80% or more. When a (dirty) filter gets wet, it creates an oxidation
process and a particularly acidic environment on and under the filter. The acidic liquid
under the filter is a mixture of sulfuric acid and nitric acid resulting from

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the dissolved SO2 and NO2 from the filter. The result is severe corrosion of the AHU if not
protected, see Figure VII-38 and Figure VII-39.

Figure VII-38Photographs of corrosion in and behind the filter section due to wet filter.

Figure VII-39 protection from consequences wet filter.

To extend the service life the entering section of an AHU, it is advisable to properly
protect the inside of the filter section from corrosion with, for example, stainless steel
316 filter frames and a drip tray. To protect the AHU behind the filter, any drips from the
filter should be stopped with a drip collector.
The wetting of the outdoor air filters makes proper protection of the intake filter section a
necessity if the AHU is to have a long life.

Because the average RH in the Netherlands is 80% or higher for about 6 months of the
year, the "dirty filter" signal is also the most frequently suppressed failure within the
BMS. Because resistance increases with a wet filter, the dirt filter signal does go off
several times a day.
Besides corrosion problems and malfunction signals, wet filters cause an even bigger
problem that also directly affects our health and perception. This is because fresh ventilation
air blown in through a wet filter is not perceived as fresh.
This is because the microbiological development of bacteria and mold causes odors that
then accompany the supply air so that it is not perceived as fresh outside air.

Filter paradox
Air filters have paradoxical properties. On the one hand, they clean air of solid
particles; on the other, they can become an emission source of odor. The latter is
not an initial property, but is caused by what the air filter captures.
In addition to chemical contamination, the combination of moisture and dirt in the
filter will create an environment for mold and colony formation. Air

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takes on the odor with which it comes in contact and can be perceived as a nuisance.
These so-called "hidden olf's" are determined through a trained tasting panel. Smells
are determined at different flow rates and different air ages with clean and
contaminated air filters with filter class ePM1 65%. It is found that VOCs (Volatile Organic
Compounds) in a room decrease due to mutual reactions and oxidation. With
increasing age of the air, the observed quality is better. The paradoxical fact occurs
that when the air volume doubles, the age halves and thus the odor emission increases
more than proportionally. Thus, increasing the ventilation rate worsens air quality with
respect to odors. Ventilation, therefore, requires above all clean air. If it stinks outside,
it is better to ventilate less and close the windows.
Reducing the air flow rate compromises other features of the LB system. Therefore, it is
better to change the air filter more frequently or, as indicated, to apply a so-called
combination filter. This filters both particles and VOCs for comfort purposes. Results of
this in areas of heavy traffic are very satisfactory.

Filter preheating
The above problem can be prevented by stopping the filters from getting wet. One
method to prevent the filters from getting wet is to lower the RH to below 80% by
preheating the intake air for the filter 3o C to 5o C. This can be done with an electric
preheater or with a water/glycol preheater. These can be included in the AHU or also
built into the intake plenum later. To avoid fouling, they should preferably be coils
without fins, see Figure VII-40 and Figure VII-41.

Figure VII-40Hydraulic incorporation

preheater

Figure VII-41Glad tube preheater in plenum

Practice shows that the use of preheating is particularly necessary below 5o C outside
temperature. This can also prevent the filter from freezing up and e.g. a plate
exchanger from freezing on the return side.

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VDI 6022
To avoid such phenomena, preventive measures are the best
remedy. The VDI 6022, which covers "Hygiene aspects in air handling systems,"
provides some valuable recommendations for air filters for this purpose, for both the
design and management phases of the air handling system. The most important are:

General
- interchangeable;
- reduce inputs of germs, organic and inorganic substances;
- filter chamber must be cleanable;
- Avoid leaks on seals: frames/cabinet/filters (see EN 1886);
- Apply only filters classified according to EN16798 and/or EN 1822.

Control strategy
- maximum 90 percent RH in the system (especially with air filters);
- maximum 80 percent RH averaged over three days at the inlet of air filters.

Air filter selection

Intake air (two-stage filtration is recommended):
- first stage at least ePM1 35%, preferably ePM1 65%;
- second stage at least ePM1 65%, preferably ePM1 90%;
- minimum ePM1 65% in case of one filter stage.

Management
- maintenance of performance during stand time and in accordance with the
filter class according to EN 16798;
- filters must not be microbially degraded;
- From hygienic reasons, regularly check for the following:
- pressure differential (1 month);
- recording operating hours;
- visually for leaks and sealing (3 months) according to EN 1886.

Change
- Based on resistance achieved or replace previously damaged filters:
- 1e stairs up to 1 year.
- 2e stage for up to 2 years, or extended for up to 1 year, if no unpleasant odors are
emitted and the established endotoxin concentrations behind the second stage
do not exceed 50 EU/m3 (see DIN 1946-2).
- Avoids cross-contamination during replacement of old to new filters;
- wear protective clothing with mask P2.

Because the VDI6022 is not a protected name and there are multiple forms of
implementation within the VDI6022, several products come on the market claiming to
be VDI6022 products.
However, formally, a product is never VDI6022 certified only the producer who has
shown through official audits to meet the VDI6022 production methodology and
controls may call himself VDI6022 certified.

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6.8 Filter types and classification

The most common air filters can be classified as mechanical, dedusting, ventilation and
microfilters (Table VII-22 and Figure VII-42 to Figure VII-45).

Mechanical filters (particulate

filters)
Dust filters Ventilation filters Roll filters and mats
Cyclones Cassette filters Microfilters / HEPA and ULPA filters
Hose filters (fabric filters) Bag filters Cell Filters 1)
Wassers Compact Filters Filter panels 2)
Incenerators Electrostatic Component filters
filters
Reverse-pulse filters Ionization filters
1) commonly used in cabinets for duct installation.
2) applied in ceilings and clean workbenches.

Table VII-22 Classification of mechanical filters.

Figure VII-42Example of a Figure VII-43Example of a

dust removal filter. bag filter (left) and compact
filter (right).

D
Figure VII-44Examples of
microfilters.

Figure VII-45 Exampleadsorption filters (activated carbon, left) and a chemical

filter (impregnated activated carbon, right).

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There are no clear changes yet in the guidelines for applying filters in relation to the
COVID-19 virus. Although there are all kinds of movements in the market claiming to
have found the solution.
UV-C lamps (blue light), plasma filters, photo catalytic filters and the more common
ionization and electrostatic filters are being considered. An important aspect with these
filters, however, is that there is a risk that residual products called radicals such as
ozone (O3) could end up in the supply air. If this happens unchecked, the remedy could
potentially be worse than the disease.
There seems to be a tendency for "full outdoor air" systems in relation to particulate
matter to prefer a two-stage filtration to ePM1 > 80% (ODA3-SUP2). In rooms that are
poorly ventilated, HEPA recirculation filter units can be placed.
F7 filters are increasingly used as return air filters in central air handling systems today.

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CHAPTER 7.BATTERIES/HEAT EXCHANGERS

7.1 Theory

Bernoulli's equation is used to calculate the flow of fluids. However, a flowing fluid
differs from the ideal used in Bernoulli's equation in a number of ways.
The practical theory, as for piping network calculations, also applies to the calculation
for heat exchangers.

7.2 General

A heat exchanger can be used to heat, cool and/or dehumidify air. This is always set up
behind a filter to prevent fouling of the heat exchanger.
A heat exchanger consists of one or more pipes placed behind and above each other,
which are made into a whole with fins. The pipes are often interconnected at one end
and welded to a pipe at the other, called a header (collector pipe). The pipes can have
different shapes, usually round or oval (Figure VII-46).

Figure VII-46 Multipleforms of heat exchangers: elliptical pipe (left) and round pipe
(right).

To get more heating, cooling or dehumidification capacity from a heat exchanger, multi-
row heat exchangers are used. In practice, comfort air treatment usually does not go
beyond a 10-row coil. The most commonly used are: for heating a 2-row and for cooling
a 6-row coil. For heat recovery (wtw) by means of a twin-coil system, usually

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8-row heat exchangers applied, which give the highest efficiency at the least
energy consumption of the fan motor.
The heat exchangers can be placed in the air duct system or in an air handling unit.
Heat exchangers can be made of different materials depending on the area of
application. The most commonly used materials are copper pipes and aluminum fins,
possibly with a corrosion-resistant coating.
Other commonly used material combinations are:
- copper slats/copper pipes;
- steel slats / steel pipes;
- stainless steel slats / stainless steel pipes.
The connection between aluminum lamella and copper pipe is usually a clamp
connection. For steel pipes and steel lamellae, the connection is realized by a zinc
layer. It is therefore recommended to use galvanized steel elements with a zinc layer
connection in case of large medium-side temperature differences.

7.3 Capacities of a heat exchanger

The capacity of a heat exchanger is determined by, among other things:

- air entry and desired air exit condition;
- speed of airflow across the heat exchanger;
- battery depth (number of rows);
- temperature of the cooling/heating medium flowing through the battery;
- medium speed;
- lamella shape;
- slat spacing;
- pipe shape;
- pipe spacing.

Air entry and desired air exit condition

The entering air condition of a heat exchanger means the dry bulb and wet bulb
temperature of the entering air.
In heat exchangers used to cool air, if the cooler dew point is lower than the dew point,
not only will the dry bulb temperature of the air be reduced, but also the absolute
moisture content of the air (dehumidification).
In heat exchangers used to heat the air, the dryer bulb temperature will be increased,
but the absolute moisture content will remain the same, reducing the relative humidity
of the air.
For the selection of a heat exchanger for cooling or heating, it is important, that the
data is complete.

Example
Air with a temperature of 28°C must be cooled to 14°C.
This data is incomplete because only the dry bulb temperatures are given and not the
moisture content. As a result, the battery capacity cannot be determined. If a cooling
capacity is given, it is necessary to state whether this is the total cooling capacity or only
the sensible cooling capacity.

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The rate of air flow over the heat exchanger

The air velocity across the heat exchanger affects the heat transfer from the heat
exchanger. If the air velocity across the heat exchanger is low, there is sufficient time to
exchange energy. In contrast, the heat transfer coefficient is lower.

With chillers it must be taken into account, that when dehumidifying the air, the
released moisture is not carried away with the air flow. Therefore, when chillers are
used in air handling units, droplet traps are always used for dehumidification.
Figure VII-47 shows the progression of the process of cooling and dehumidifying air as it
passes through successive rows of cooler pipes (curve D.E.F.). The line AB is defined by
the sensible and latent cooling load as shown by the cooling load calculation. The air
condition for the chiller (D) in this case is determined by mixing recirculation air (A) and
outside air (C). The curve D, E, F, KDP shows what happens to the air as it passes
through pipe rows 1 through 6. In this graph, the desired condition has been reached at
4 pipe rows. The cooling curve clearly indicates that as the number of rows increases,
less and less sensible heat is dissipated per row. If the KDP is reduced at the same heat
exchanger, the capacity of the heat exchanger will be increased.

Figure VII-47 Theprogression of the process of cooling and dehumidifying air as it

passes through cooler pipes.

Battery depth (number of rows)

As the number of battery rows increases in the direction of air flow, this air will be
cooled or heated more deeply.
The first two rows of the heat exchanger account for about 70 percent of the total
sensible heat. The influence of the third and subsequent rows on the sensible cooling
capacity is considerably smaller. This is because the temperature differences between
air and heat exchanger become smaller and smaller.

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Practice
In practice, the KDP (cooling dew point) depends on the construction of the coil. It is
determined by the heat exchanger supplier. Only they can know how much capacity a
heat exchanger can deliver. Thus, for the design of the heat exchanger, this depends
broadly on: the number of pipe rows in depth, the number of water levels, the fin
spacing and direct, counterflow or crossflow between air and cooling medium (Figure
VII-48 and Table VII-23).

Figure VII-48 Process curves of a cooling coil operating with different cooling
medium temperaturesat a constant entry condition. The graph shows
that the exit condition changes when the cooling dew point also
changes.

Cooler
1. Heat exchanger type K6, OCA-std 2. Heat exchanger type K6, OCA-st
Power 267,8 kW Power 235,6 kW
Air volume 25.000 m /h3 Air volume 25.000 m /h3
Reference temperature 20 °C Reference temperature 20 °C
Entry temperature 28 °C Entry temperature 28 °C
Relative humidity 50 % Relative humidity 50 %
Exit temperature 8,7 °C Exit temperature 10,4 °C
Relative humidity 100 % Relative humidity 100 %
Air Resistance 140 Pa Air Resistance 141 PA

Medium 0 % Glycol Medium 0 % Glycol

Entry temperature 4 °C Entry temperature 6 °C
Exit temperature 10 °C Exit temperature 12 °C

Table VII-23 Case examples.

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Temperature of the medium flowing through the heat exchanger

With the heat exchanger, there are several methods, see Figure VII-49, by which the
cooling medium can flow through the heat exchanger, relative to the air flowing
through the coil, namely in:
- direct current;
- countercurrent.

Figure VII-49 Direct current and reverse current.thatfor the direct current principle,
Δθ is large on the inlet side and small on the outlet side. This makes the
efficiency of the heat exchanger worse, compared to countercurrent,
where there are no large differences between ingress and egress.

Medium speed
As the medium velocity increases, heat transfer will increase, resulting in higher
capacitance. However, increasing medium velocity also results in a quadratic increase
in medium-side resistance.

Slat spacing
As the fin spacing decreases, the air-side VO, heated area, will increase directly
proportional. As a result, with the same number of pipe rows, capacity can be increased
significantly.
An optimum fin spacing should be sought, depending on the process application. Too small a
fin spacing will result in premature fouling of the heat exchanger.

Pipe spacing
Usually there is a fixed relationship between pipe clearance and pipe diameter. A small
pipe diameter usually also results in a small pipe clearance.

7.4 Hot water batteries

Hot water heat exchangers in air handling units or ductwork aim to heat the air, causing
the dry bulb temperature to rise, the relative humidity to fall, but the absolute moisture
content to remain constant. The medium used to supply these heat exchangers is water
with a temperature (usually) varying between 50 and 90 °C. The return water
temperature is usually 20 K below the water entering temperature. The temperature
differences between water entering and

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water exit temperature in the heat exchanger should not be too large, as otherwise a
less homogeneous air exit temperature can be expected. The maximum water
temperature is 110 °C and the maximum water pressure is approximately 16 bar.
With the most commonly used material for a hot water heat exchanger, namely copper
for the pipes and aluminum for the fins, if the difference between the inlet and outlet
water temperatures is too large, the copper pipe will expand too much. At widely
varying temperatures, the aluminum fins may then become loose, resulting in
insufficient heat transfer.

The distance between the fins usually varies between 1.6 and 12 mm. The closer the
fins are to each other, the more heat can be transferred. However, the more likely it is
that pollution can clog the coil and the higher the air-side resistance. In other words, if
polluted air is expected, the fin spacing will have to be chosen larger and, depending on
the required capacity, more pipe rows.
The inlet and outlet water connections of heat exchangers usually range from ¾ " to
2½ " for heat exchangers up to front dimensions of approximately 2,000 x 2,000 mm.
For larger sizes, 2 to 3 inlet and outlet connections are used, in order not to let the
water side resistance become too high and to get a good water side inlet distribution.
With multiple connections, the method of connection must be taken into account
(supplier's instructions!).
Heat exchangers are usually supplied by factory with external threaded connections. To
avoid problems at the construction site, it is recommended that the heat exchanger is
already equipped with connection flanges by the supplier.
For AHUs for outdoor installation, if the heat exchangers are supplied with water
connections lying inside the cabinet, adequate installation space must be considered
(Figure VII-50).

Figure VII-50Assembly of heat exchangers in the AHU.

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Preheater
A preheater is a normal hot water heat exchanger placed in front of a cooling coil or in
front of a spray or package humidifier, for example.
Preheating can often be used for one or more purposes, such as for
AHUs capable of moving 100 percent outside air.
The function of the preheater is then:
- heating the air so that the transmission and ventilation losses due to heating
the ventilation air are covered;
- protect any cooling coil (fed by chilled water, without glycol) placed after the
preheater from freezing;
- warm the air from -10 °C to the extent that, when humidified, sufficient
moisture can be absorbed.
If the air is humidified by a spray section, a preheater is almost always needed because
the humidification (adiabatic) cooling of the air takes place. Preheating the air from -10
to 27 °C may then be necessary for humidification (Figure VII-51). The air is then
brought to the desired blow-in condition by the post-heater. The foregoing shows that
the selection of the preheater can be critical to the proper operation of the system.

Post-heater
The reheater is usually placed as the last heat exchanger before the fan when it is placed
in the air handling unit. The purpose of the reheater is twofold:
- Covering heat needs;
- Post-heating to achieve proper blow-in condition.

Blow-in
condition

Desired room condition

in winter

Figure VII-51Air preheating for the purpose of humidification.

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7.5 Frost protection

Because hot water heat exchangers are usually fed with "clean" water (i.e., no glycol
solution), there is always a chance that this water could freeze and cause the battery to
fail. If a hot water heat exchanger is connected in direct current, the chance of the
water freezing is very small because the hottest water is brought into contact with the
coldest air. This does reduce the capacity of the heat exchanger.
It is always advisable to protect the heat exchanger using a frost protection thermostat.
If the capillary sensor is properly mounted on the heat exchanger, according to the
supplier's manual, the heat exchanger will not be able to freeze (Figure VII-52). When
the frost protection thermostat triggers, the fan motor is turned off, the outdoor air
intake valve is closed, and the hot water three-way mixing valve is also fully opened.
If the frost protection thermostat triggers at an outside air temperature well below zero
and the recirculation air temperature is about 22 °C, where the frost protection
thermostat is located, stratification of the air flow may have occurred.

Figure VII-52The location of the capillary sensor.

7.6 Steam Batteries

The most common steam heat exchangers are made of galvanized steel pipes and
galvanized fins with a fin spacing of 2.5 to 4 mm. The design is single- or double-row.
Steam elements can be used at working pressures up to 8 bar and working
temperatures of 220 °C (Table VII-24).
Depending on temperature, pressure and steam content, steam batteries fall under the
so-called Stoomwezen Keur. A major advantage of galvanized steel steam batteries is
that they are corrosion resistant and can also withstand mechanical stress.
The construction of steam elements ensures even loading of all pipes is obtained
(Figure VII-53). This avoids thermal stress and mechanical overload in the element.

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Steam elements must be mounted so that proper condensate drainage is ensured

(Figure VII-54).

Saturated steam Saturated steam

Pressure Temperature (°C) Pressure Temperature (°C)
(bar) (bar)
0,1 101,8 5,0 158,1
0,3 106,6 6,0 164,2
0,5 110,8 7,0 169,6
1,0 119,6 8,0 174,5
2,0 132,9 9,0 179,0
4,0 151,1 10,0 183,2

Table VII-24A part of the steam table.

Figure VII-53Galvanized steel hot water coil.

If condensate remains in the heat exchanger it will irrevocably bring about mechanical
damage. The selection of the condensate trap should not be underestimated.
The steam elements are easily identified by the different sizes of the connections. The
diameter of the steam pipe is always larger than that of the condensate pipe. The high
air temperature in the application of steam requires additional protection of the
bearings of the electric motor and fan.
As a precaution, the steam element can be placed press-side and included as the last
component in the air handling unit. The fan should have sufficient lag time to protect
the other cabinet components from excessive temperature.

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controller

control
valve steam pipe

condensate pot
temperature-
check valve
sight sensor
glass

auto drain
condensate pipe
collection tank

Figure VII-54 Exampleof proper installation of steam supply and

condensate discharge lines.

Figure VII-55An electric heating element.

7.7 Electric heating element

Electric air heaters are applied as:

- the price of electricity is more favorable relative to the price of gas;
- the existing plant is so stressed that further expansion is irresponsible and capacity
is still available on the power grid;
- it is cheaper from an investment point of view to absorb the heat load through
electricity, than by laying central heating pipes and the like.
An electric heating element consists of heating rods (Figure VII-55). These rods are
switched into several groups depending on the desired power. A thermostat that
prevents the bars from burning out is usually installed as a standard. This turns the
power off if the air temperature exceeds the set values. As with the steam elements,
extra attention is required to take measures to prevent overheating of the electric
heating element. The electric

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heating element must not be turned on without the fan on and the minimum amount of
air flowing over the element.
If the air volume is too low, the air outlet temperature will be too high and the
maximum temperature may be exceeded. The area of application is limited because
electric heaters cannot be used in humid or explosive areas or only with very special
provisions.

7.8 Chilled water cooling batteries

The cooling coil can be placed in an air duct, but usually this cooler is installed in an air
handling unit, fan coil unit or induction unit, for example.
As a cold medium flows through the cooling coils, the air flowing past is cooled and/or
dehumidified. In large refrigeration systems, this cold medium is usually chilled water.
In some cases, it is cooled so deeply that freezing occurs. Adding glycol or a similar
agent to the water lowers the freezing point (Figure VII-56). The higher the glycol
percentage is, the lower the freezing point is. Proper mixing of the water/glycol mixture
is necessary.
If glycol is not used, it is necessary to drain the chilled water system during the winter
period, for example in the case of free cooling. This draining is a difficult and risky
business because despite all care, water often remains in the pipes.
Glycol does affect water-side system resistance, which increases significantly. Also,
glycol also affects capacity (worse transfer). For the cooling coil, depending on the
glycol percentage and medium speed, this can amount to about a 30 percent reduction
in capacity.

Figure VII-56The influence of a glycol mixture on the freezing point

7.9 Condensation drain

If the cooling dew point of the air cooler is lower than the dew point of the air before
the heat exchanger, dehumidification of the air occurs and condensation forms on the
heat exchanger. This condensation from the air should run down the cooler and be
collected in a condensate or drip pan. If the air velocity over the finned surface of the
air cooler is greater than 2.5 m/s, this condensation will be

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droplets are entrained with the flowing air. To prevent the entrained droplets from
reaching undesirable places, such as the fan chamber or ductwork, a droplet catcher is
placed behind the cooler (Figure VII-59).
The drip catcher must not allow any droplets to pass through. Depending on the type,
the drip catcher has an optimal operation bound to a minimum and maximum air
velocity. The droplets sink into a so-called condensation trap. This condensate must
then be drained through a siphon with a water trap.

The siphon dimensions for an underpressure siphon (Figure VII-57) are calculated as follows:

negative
H [mm]
pressure[
≅
Pa] 10
H
= water level siphon when AHU is "off" and pressure differential is zero.
2

The siphon dimensions for an overpressure siphon (Figure VII-58) are calculated as follows:

excess
H [mm] ≅
pressure[
Pa] 10

Figure VII-57Unpressurized siphon in AHU.

Figure VII-58Excess pressure siphon in AHU.

During the summer period, when the chillers are running at full capacity and the chiller
batteries are in full dehumidification mode, a complaint of waterlogging at an air
handling unit occurs frequently. The cause of this complaint is usually the improper
connection of a siphon or even the lack thereof. The connection of the siphon should be
after the cooling coil. In addition, the siphon must have sufficient height to
accommodate a pressure differential. If this is not properly calculated, condensation
water will flow into the condensate collection tank and the water will be sucked over
the edge due to pressure differences. The condensation water will exit through the
plating of the air handling unit.
Whether the siphon is properly connected is easy to check. When the fan is turned off,
the pressure differential will decrease. If then water with large amounts from

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the condensate drain, this is a sign that something is wrong at the trap. There is then
an underpressure at the condensate trap relative to the setup environment. This
negative pressure depends on the air resistance across the cooler and on the air
resistance across other components such as valves, filters, ductwork, diffusers and so
on. Figure VII-59 shows the most common situation encountered in practice.
To ensure proper condensate drainage, pay attention to the following points:
- the outlet must be located on the outlet side of the cooler;
- the condensate collection tray must be mounted on a slope to the drain point;
- a siphon must be provided with sufficient height, at least 40 mm or as much more
as the air side differential pressure that prevails during operation between the
discharge point in the condensate collection tank and the point where the
condensate drains;
- the top level of the water trap should be below the bottom of the
condensate collection tank;
- the siphon should be easy to clean to remove any debris;
- After the water seal, there should be no back pressure;
- the siphon should be filled with water before commissioning and refilled if
necessary (this is due to the evaporation of the water if no or little cooling is
used).
-

Good

Error

Error

Error

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Figure VII-59Several options when connecting a condensate tray drain.

7.10 DX cooler batteries

The chilled water cooling batteries described in Section 5.8 are cooling batteries with
indirect cooling because an intermediate medium is used to transfer cold (Figure VII-
60).

Figure VII-60 Chilled-water cooling coil.

Figure VII-61Direct expansion refrigeration battery.

If the evaporator of the chiller is placed directly in the air handler or in the ductwork
(Figure VII-61), it is called a "direct expansion battery" (also called DX refrigeration
battery). Instead of water, an evaporating refrigerant (for example, R32, R134a, R410a
and so on) is now used.

Because the DX cooling coil is a part of the refrigeration circuit, which is directly
connected to the air handling system, it is necessary to coordinate the two properly.
The heat required for the evaporation process is extracted from the air to be cooled.
For the evaporation process to work properly, sufficient, certainly not too little, heat
must be available. If too little heat is supplied, the refrigeration cycle will be disrupted.
The amount of refrigerant for

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evaporation introduced into the DX cooler is controlled by the expansion valve. If the
supplied air does not have a constant heat content, it is understandable that the
amount of refrigerant supplied may not be constant either, and if the air volume varies
all the time, the amount of refrigerant supplied must also vary widely. So this requires
attention.
The evaporation temperature is usually chosen between 5 and 8 °C. This means that,
also depending on the air velocity across the coil, a droplet trap is required since
dehumidification will occur at these temperatures.
The material of a DX cooling coil is the same as that of the chilled-water coil, with or
without a corrosion-resistant coating. Direct expansion chillers are most commonly used
in small AC equipment and in air handling units where the air volume and air entry
temperature for the cooling coil will vary little, as can be the case with 100 percent
recirculation.

Because the evaporation process of the refrigerant takes place in the heat exchanger, it
is important that the refrigerant is injected well distributed over the heat exchanger,
which is what the "spider head" is for. When working with multiple refrigeration
circuits, the heat exchanger will also be equipped with multiple spider heads, this also
lowers the internal resistance of the refrigeration circuit.
Most commonly, 1, 2 or 3 circuit cooling batteries are used for DX. If a DX
cooling coil is mounted in an air handling unit that also contains a heating coil,
care must be taken that:
- the compressor should never run when there is no air flow in the
air handling unit;
- when freezing the cooling coil, the heating coil may be affected in such a way that
the heating coil may freeze to pieces.

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CHAPTER 8. HUMIDIFICATION

8.1 General

Humidification is defined as "artificially increasing the absolute moisture content, in

g/kg of air, by adding water vapor. Increasing the absolute moisture content of air may
be necessary for comfort or for production technical reasons. Production processes may
include: printing, paper and textile industries, electronics manufacturing.
Air humidification in comfort systems has received a negative image in relation to
legionella problems resulting in a recent Rehva document on COVID-19 and ventilation
stating that air humidification is not necessary most of the time.
Humidification has also been approached very critically as part of the hunt for energy
savings with the result that it now scores points in office energy labeling if
humidification is turned off.
It is traditionally known that an RH < 30% leads to increased risk of electrostatic
discharges and that an RH > 70% is oppressive and increases the risk of accelerated
mold growth.
However very recently, attention has returned to the direct relationship with human
health. Although viruses care little about relative humidity, it has been scientifically
demonstrated, see Figure VII-62 that in humans susceptibility to respiratory infections is
lowest at: 40% ≤ RH ≤ 60% (A) and RH < 40% (B). This originates in the condition of the
mucosa and cilia in our airways which work best at these conditions.
It is of course important that humidification is done safely. This means that if
humidification is done with water instead of steam that this water has been purified via
reverse osmosis. It is also very important that no water remains in the humidification
section of the AHU. This must be dry when no humidification is taking place.

Figure VII-62 Research result; Dr. Stephanie Taylor, Harvard Medical School

8.2 Methods of wetting

There are several methods of humidification, including adiabatic (cold evaporation and
atomization) and isothermal (evaporation).

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Cold Vapor
In cold evaporation, air is passed through an intermediate medium in which water
evaporates and is carried in the air. The heat required by evaporation is extracted from
the displaced air (adiabatic process).

Atomizing and vaporizing

In atomization, water is very finely atomized by mechanical means. This mist is
introduced into an air stream or directly into the room and evaporates there. As with
cold evaporation, with atomization the heat required for evaporation is extracted from
the air (adiabatic process). The best-known atomizers are spray humidifiers and
ultrasonic humidifiers.

Evaporation and steam humidification

Evaporation involves heating water in a steam boiler or steam tank to above its boiling
point. The resulting water vapor is either fed directly into the room, ductwork, or part of
the air handling unit. This is called "steam humidification.
In electric steam humidifiers, the energy required for evaporation is drawn from the
electrical grid. Cold evaporation and atomization is an adiabatic process, while steam
humidification is an isothermal humidification process.

8.3 The choice of humidification

The choice of humidification depends on several factors, such as:

- Installation form;
- adjustability;
- hygiene;
- cost aspect.
-
Installation form
- in the room: steam humidifier, water atomizer.
- in the ductwork: steam humidifier.
- in the air handling unit: steam humidifier, spray humidifier, package
humidifier, ultrasonic humidifier.
-
Controllability
The way the humidifier is controlled determines its control accuracy. The control affects
the cost of the humidifier.

Hygiene
In certain cases, being bacteria-free in the air and environment is important. With water
humidifiers, there is a danger that bacteria may be transferred to the air with the water.

Cost aspect
(See 8.8).

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8.4 Adiabatic humidifiers

For adiabatic humidification, there are different types of humidifiers such as:
spray humidifiers, package humidifiers, ultrasonic humidifiers and infrasonic
humidifiers. Adiabatic humidification can have advantages in industrial
application. Thanks to the cooling effect here, excess heat is dissipated. It is
possible to recover moisture with a heat wheel with moisture transfer. This
reduces the need for humidification (see section 10.4). It is certainly worth
investigating whether this is profitable in ventilation systems with 100 percent
outside air.

Spray humidifiers
The spray humidifier (Figure VII-63) consists of:
- An integrated or separately intermediate built part of the air handling unit;
- a rectifier in the suction inlet, to obtain a uniform inflow of air through the
humidifier;
- a spray tank;
- a drip catcher in the air exit opening to stop drips;
- a water tank to buffer and collect spray water.

Figure VII-63 A spray humidifier (Gea).

The water tank is provided with a drain and spout connection to prevent thickening of
the water. The level in the water basin is maintained at a constant level with a float
valve in the water supply. From this water tank, a pump draws water which is
distributed through the nozzles as a water curtain of fine water droplets in the section.
The water that is not carried with the air in evaporated form is collected in the water
tank and reused.
The efficiency of the spray humidifier depends, among other things, on the length of the
spray section (the so-called "intake path"), the air velocity, the amount of water
pumped, the water pressure and the position of the nozzles. The nozzles can be
mounted in different ways:
- in direct current, where small droplets are sprayed into the section along with
the air device;
- in cross-flow, where relatively large water droplets are introduced at a constant
velocity at right angles to the airflow;
- in counterflow where spraying is done against the airflow.
- Because of legionalla prevention, these types of water humidifiers are no longer
found in the supply air of air handling systems for comfort applications.

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-Sometimes the older type water humidifiers fed with normal untreated water still
occur in the return air to cool it before it passes through a heat recovery device. This
is called indirect adiabatic cooling.

In industry, spray humidifiers, whether or not in combination with air filters, are used
as filters, so-called "air scrubbers. The air scrubber can be used to filter CO2 or ammonia
from the air, for example. Calculations show that the quantity and diameter of the
droplets can have a great influence on the saturation efficiency.

Figure VII-64 Package Figure VII-65 Ultrasonic

humidifier humidifier.
(Munsters).

Package Humidifiers
The package humidifier (Figure VII-64), like the spray humidifier, is an adiabatic
humidifier. In the package humidifier, the water is fed at the top into a special package
of (impregnated) plates, which are provided with a specially prepared surface. Over this,
under the influence of capillary forces, the water will spread evenly and quickly over the
surface and flow down into the collection tray.
This achieves that with relatively little water yet the entire package is wetted and a
large surface area becomes available over which air evaporation can take place.
There are package humidifiers with and without a pump. With the humidifier without a
pump, the humidifier is connected directly to the water supply and the water quantity is
controlled via a solenoid valve. A disadvantage of this control is the higher water
consumption. In the application with pump, the water is pumped from the water
collection tank, which is placed under the package. The control of a package humidifier
is on/off: the solenoid valve is opened or closed, the pump is turned on and off. If
proportional control is to be used, this must be done with a bypass control, in which
part of the air is directed through, and part around outside the package humidifier.

The new generation package humidifiers operate with reverse osmosis water (RO
water) and have a very sophisticated control that ensures that no more water is sprayed
on the package than is needed to achieve humidification efficiency. Thus, they operate
without excess water, are dry on the underside and do not use more of the relatively
expensive RO water than necessary.

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Ultrasonic humidifiers
Vibrations occur as a result of pressure changes. These vibrations are detectable by the
human ear when they are between 16 and 20,000 Hz. When the tones have a
frequency higher than 20 kHz, they are called "ultrasonic vibrations. Therefore, these
ultrasonic vibrations are not audible to the human ear. In ultrasonic humidifiers (Figure
VII-65), an ultrasonic frequency is converted into a mechanical vibration. This is done
through a vibration transducer which, as the thickness changes due to the electrical
voltage variation, causes the surface of the vibrating plates to vibrate. The vibration
transducer is installed in water and puts water particles into high vibration velocity.
When the vibration velocity is so high that the water can no longer follow the vibrating
surface, short moments of vacuum and compression occur. This leads to an explosive
formation of air bubbles in the water that burst apart with great force. This is called
"cavitation. This gives the water particles an enormous energy of movement.
If you apply a transducer to the bottom of a water tank in such a way that ultrasonic
vibrations reach the surface of the water, this will cause cavitation near the surface.
Here, very small aerosol particles are then ejected into the air.
These water particles expand into the air without difficulty, overcoming water surface
tension and viscosity and forming a particularly fine mist. Ultrasonic humidification will
certainly require water treatment (demineralized water). For humidification plants
with small capacities, so-called "ion exchangers" will suffice. For larger installations, an
installation for so-called 'reverse osmosis' can be applied. By 'larger installations' is
meant a humidity requirement of more than 40 m3 per year.
An ultrasonic humidifier consists of the following main components:
- a water care module;
- one or more nebulizer modules with mounted discharge hood;
- one or more atomization boards;
- a transformer;
- a fan (of your choice).
The housing is made of plastic or stainless steel. The water supply is controlled
automatically via a solenoid valve. The water level, including water shortage, is
controlled by encapsulated sensors.

Infrasone humidifiers
The infrasonic humidifier is a special water humidifier because it can achieve saturation
efficiencies of up to 100 percent RH. In order of air direction, the humidifier consists of
a number of components (Figure VII-66). This humidifier also requires pretreatment of
water and the water is atomized into the air stream at a pump pressure of up to 80 bar.

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Figure VII-66Construction of an infrasonic humidifier (Galipag).

xB xC
xA

θB
B
θc
C

Figure VII-67Adiabatic wetting in the Mollier h/x diagram.

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Saturation efficiency and moisture absorption efficiency

The adiabatic humidification process is shown in Figure VII-67. The saturation efficiency
(or wetting efficiency) of the adiabatic humidifier is defined as the ratio of the increase
in absolute humidity (B) achieved in the humidification section to the dew point (C)
- xA - θB
η = xB ⋅ 100% ≈ θA ⋅ 100%
wetting
xC - xA θA - θC

In which:
θ =temperature in °C;
x =absolute moisture content in g/kg of dry air.

The moisture absorption efficiency is the ratio of the amount of moisture absorbed in
the air stream to the amount of moisture supplied.

8.5 Isothermal humidifiers

Steam humidifiers
Steam humidification takes place almost isothermically. As a result of the enthalpy
difference between steam and air and the heating through the steam distribution pipe,
only a small temperature difference occurs. Steam air humidification is hygienic,
requires little maintenance of the air handling unit and can be precisely controlled. The
quality of the make-up water determines the degree of calcification in the steam
cylinder and thus the time period when exchange of the cylinder should take place.
Steam humidifiers can be divided into:
- steam humidifiers powered by steam, where the steam is generated with a steam
boiler;
- steam humidifiers, in which the steam is produced with an electric heating
element.

The steam humidifier consists of three main components:

- the steam generator, if no plant steam is available;
- the steam distribution pipe;
- the control unit.

With the steam humidifier, humidification takes place by introducing steam into the air
stream to be passed. In the case of externally supplied steam, it flows through a valve,
filter and control valve into the steam distribution pipe before being injected into the
air. There are also systems on the market where the steam is first passed through the
outer wall of the steam distribution pipe to prevent condensation in the pipe.
Controlling the relative humidity here is done by controlling the control valve.
If humidification is done with its own electric power generation, it can be done either by
so-called "electrode evaporators" or by electric heating elements. Both systems cause
water to evaporate using electrical energy.
When evaporating with heating elements, these elements are hermetically sealed and
therefore the current-carrying wires do not come into contact with water. Control is by
switching heating elements on and off. Via a

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microprocessor-controlled pulse control, steam output can be infinitely controlled from

0 to 100 percent.

Electrode evaporators, on the other hand, are placed directly in the water, with the
water being the electrical resistance. As the electrodes become more submerged, the
electrical resistance decreases and the steam absorption increases. In this way, steam
output can be infinitely controlled between 20 and 100 percent by changing the water
level.
Examples of steam humidification are given in Figure VII-68, Figure VII-69 and
Figure VII-70.

Figure VII-68An electrical Figure VII-69Principle diagram

steam humidifier electrical
(Nordmann). steam humidifier.

Figure VII-70Stream humidifier with externally supplied steam.

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8.6 Calculation examples

Example 1
An air handling unit with preheater and adiabatic humidifier, moves air with an entering
condition of 10 °C and 60 percent RH. What exit condition occurs after the humidifier
with a saturation efficiency of 70 percent when the preheater warms the air to 20 °C
and 30 °C, respectively?

Solution (Figure VII-71):

h 1 = 31.7 kJ/kg (enthalpy)
B-B
x 1 = x + η ⋅ (x - x ) = 0.0046 + 0.7 ⋅ (0.0082 - 0.0046)
B B B D B
x 1 = 0.0071 kg/kg
B
The exit condition is 13.8 °C / 72 % RH

h 1 = 41.8 kJ/kg (enthalpy)

C-C
x 1 = x + η ⋅ (x - x )= 0.0046 + 0.7 ⋅ (0.0106 - 0.0046)
C C B E C
x 1 = 0.0088 kg/kg
C

The exit condition is 19.5 °C / 62 % RH.

Conclusion: the air outlet temperature of the humidifier can be shifted by the preheater.

xB xC
xA

C
A

C1
B

B1
θB E
θc
D

Figure VII-71Example 1.

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Example 2
An air handling unit with steam humidifier. Air displacement is 2.5 m3 /s (9,000 m3 /h),
air entry condition is 12 °C / 50 percent RH. The exit condition should be 18 °C / 70
percent RH. Steam pressure 1 bar (110 °C). What electrical power is required for steam
humidification?

Solution (see Figure VII-72)

For dry air is: qmLA = qmLB = qmLC For
water vapor is: xa-qmL + qms = xb-qmL

In which:
qms = mass flow of steam [m3 /s] ;
qmL = mass flow of dry air [m3 /s]; x=
absolute moisture content [g/kg];
h= enthalpy [kJ/kg].

q ms = (xB- x )A⋅q mL
= qms
Δx = xB - x A q
mL

For moist air:

qmL ⋅hB - qmL .hA - qs ⋅hs = 0

qmL
⋅(hB - hA )
qms =
hs
Δh
h=
s Δx
.hs
Δh = hB - hA = qms
q
mL

The state change can be plotted in the Mollier h/x diagram, Figure VII-
72. The exit condition is determined from the mass flow rate of the supplied steam.
The air condition at point A can be determined from the intersection of the
temperature change in the heater at constant humidity and the state change in the
steam humidifier ending at point B with the rise:

Δh
=h
Δx

Δh
= 2691.3kJ/kg
Δx

Item θ (°C) RH (%) x (g/kg) h (kJ/kg)

A 17,2 36 4,4 28,2
B 18 70 9,1 41,0
C 12 50 4,4 23,1

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At an air volume of 9,000 m3 /h with a specific gravity ρ of 1.22 kg/m3 is:

9000⋅1,22 - 0,0044 ⋅(9000⋅1,22- 0,0044)
qL = = 3.036kg/s dry air
3600

Power Φ heater = qmL - (hA- hC) = 3.036 - (28.2 - 23.1) kJ/kg = 15.48 kW
Power Φ steam = qmL - (hB - hA) = 3.036 - (41.0 - 28.2) kJ/kg = 38.86 kW

C A B
+ w

B
A

2,691 kJ/kg

Figure VII-72Example 2.

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8.7 Water Quality

Bacteria and germs

Humidification systems that are cleaned too little, or not at all, can lead to a variety of
problems. This is partly because the water humidification chamber in humidification
systems provides an ideal breeding ground for bacteria and
germs. 'Legionnaires' disease' is caused by legionella or legionnaires' bacteria.
Legionella, as well as "Sick building syndrome," has cast air systems in a bad light.
Legionella is a natural constituent of the microflora and is therefore found in large
numbers in water. In low concentration, they are also found in drinking water. As a
result, they also occur in technical installations, such as cooling towers, water supply
systems and hot water spray tanks. Legionella, like all germs and bacteria, is
transmitted mainly by aerosols. Thus, humidifiers can pose a risk, because a
multiplication of Legionella occurs when the water is heated and stopped. Below 20°C,
Legionella bacteria are viable over a longer period of time, but no multiplication occurs.
As the water temperature rises to about 45 °C, their growth increases explosively, from
55 °C onwards this growth decreases noticeably.
It is particularly risky at water temperatures of 30 to 40°C. By thorough cleaning and
subsequent drying, undesirable side effects can be prevented. The drinking water, with
which the humidifier is filled, should contain only 100 germs/ml. In practice, drinking
water contains about 40 to 60 germs/ml.
When the humidifier is filled cleanly, this situation is maintained for only a few hours.
After three to four days, the contamination has risen to 100,000 to
10,000,000 germs/ml, depending on the water temperature. In this situation, the
number of germs/ml remains stable.
In order for a water humidifier to operate as germ-free as possible, the water
collection tank should be emptied every night, and certainly before the weekend. If the
system is to operate germ-free, it is important to note that germs remain alive for
about 20 minutes. If a humidifier collection tank is emptied, the fan should run for
about 1 hour afterward to dry the humidifier.

Sediments and cleaning

Because in spray humidifiers and package humidifiers with circulation pumps, lime
residue is separated from the water by evaporation, the quality of the water
deteriorates. This, combined with sometimes stagnant water, can lead to bacterial
growth. To prevent water quality from deteriorating, the necessary measures should be
taken, such as:
- calculate and set the minimum spray water volume, using the thickening factor;
- cleaning the spray humidifier at regular intervals, using, for example, a citric acid
descaler, as is used with washing machines, to descale and disinfect;
- cleaning the package humidifier - depending on the manufacture - in
consultation with the manufacturer. If necessary, the package must be replaced;
- cleaning the nozzles, manifold, pump, float, drip catcher and rectifier;
- automatically draining the humidifier daily after operating time and later
automatically filling it with clean water; this costs more tap water;
- incorporation of a UV-c lamp in the pressure line of the pump which makes the
water bacteria-free and inactivates microorganisms, such as algae formation, on a
purely physical basis. UV irradiation of the water is suitable for

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inhibit growth of germ colonies. One cannot reduce the germ concentration. UV
irradiation combined with a low humidification water temperature is a good
possibility to keep the germ concentration low. Microorganisms grow faster above
10 °C. At temperatures above 70 °C, they are killed.

Steam humidifiers introduce germ-free vapor into the air and provide security at
hospitals and retirement homes. This is even mandatory in several countries.

8.8 Cost aspect

- To make a good comparison between the different systems, the

- following aspects are taken into account:
- how large is the humidification requirement?
- Is 100 percent outside air used, or can air also be recirculated?
- Is heat recovery being considered, and if so, is a heat wheel with moisture
recovery interesting?
- which humidification systems can be used, from a hygienic point of view?
- how is the accuracy of the arrangement?
- what are the total investment costs?
- how high are the total energy costs?
- what is the available installation length?
-
- Cost aspect of a steam humidifier if steam is available:
- investment for steam pipeline network modification;
- investment of the steam humidifier;
- investment of the scheme;
- energy costs of the steam humidifier;
- maintenance costs of the steam humidifier.
-
- Cost aspect of a steam humidifier when steam is not available:
- investment of the electric steam humidifier;
- investment of the scheme;
- energy costs of the steam humidifier;
- maintenance costs of the steam humidifier.
-
- Cost aspect of a spray humidifier:
- investment of the spray humidifier;
- investment of the scheme;
- investment of the reheater with pump and control;
- energy costs of the spray humidifier;
- maintenance costs of the spray humidifier;
- energy costs of the reheater.
-

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- Cost aspect of a package humidifier:

- investment of the package humidifier;
- investment of the scheme;
- investment of the reheater with pump and control;
- energy costs of the package humidifier;
- maintenance costs of the package humidifier;
- energy costs of the reheater.
-
- Cost aspect of an ultrasonic humidifier:
- investment of the ultrasonic humidifier;
- investment of the scheme;
- investment of the reheater with pump and control;
- energy costs of the ultrasonic humidifier;
- maintenance costs of the ultrasonic humidifier;
- investment cost of ion exchangers or reverse osmosis plant;
- energy costs of the reheater.

8.9 Examples of the wetting process progression in the Mollier h/x diagram

Figure VII-73 shows the course of a heating and humidification process, showing
schematically the structure of the system. With the spray humidifier, it must be noted
that the spray water temperature or water temperature change, affects humidification.

Figure VII-74 shows humidification with water of different temperatures.

1. Humidification and heating of air with energy supply to water;
2. Humidification and cooling of air with energy supply to water;
3. Humidification and cooling of the air without energy input to the water
(adiabatic process);
4. Humidification and cooling of air with energy extraction from water;
5. Cooling of air with energy extraction from water;
6. Cooling and dehumidification of air with energy extraction from water.

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1 3 4 5 6
+ w +

4 2

1. Outdoor air condition

2. Room air condition
3 3. Mixing temperature
4. Preheater
5. Humidifier
6. Post-heater

Figure VII-73Course of the heating and humidification process

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5 1. 20 °C
2. 18 °C
6 3. 12 °C
4. 9 °C
5. 6 °C
6. 1 °C

Figure VII-74 Airof 20 °C and 40% RH sprayed with water of different,

descending temperatures, namely 20, 18, 12.3, 9, 6 and 1 °C.

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CHAPTER 9. SOUND DIMPERS

9.1 Introduction

The components in air handling systems not only generate sound but also have the
property of attenuating sound. Fan and flow noise do propagate through the duct
system but are attenuated on this path by various parts of the system.
Here a distinction can be made between the in-house damping of the air handling
system and the duct system (natural damping) and any additional damping to be
applied (to meet the requirements to be met in the ventilated areas).

The natural damping of the various components in the air handling system will be
discussed in more detail in this section. This includes filters, humidifiers, batteries, etc.
The natural damping of the duct system is beyond the scope of this lesson. For this,
please refer to lesson 5 and lesson 13.

In addition, particular attention will be paid to the additional soundproofing devices to

be installed, such as silencers.

Sound is a very complex matter and deserves explicit attention in installations. Further
depth is possible through the TVVL course 'Sound in Technical Installations'.

9.2 Natural damping in installation parts

The attenuation in filters, humidifiers, batteries and the like, is usually small and also
depends on their construction and dimensions. These elements can be included in the
calculation only if the attenuation values have been determined by measurement.

In contrast, the damping in, for example, the pressure reduction boxes of variable-volume
systems and in induction devices can be very significant. These damping values should be
specified by the manufacturer.

Table VII-25 gives the attenuation values to be observed in practice for a number of plant
parts.

Section 63 125 250 500 1.000 2.000 4.000 8,000 Hz

Filter coarse 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 4
(300 mm)
Filter fine (600 mm) 0 1 2 3 3 4 6 7
Heating battery 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
Cooling Battery 1 1 2 3 2 3 4 4
Heat Wheel 3 5 4 3 4 3 4 4

Table VII-25Noise attenuation of installation parts in dB

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9.3 Silencers

Often in a ventilation system, sufficient damping cannot be achieved by the natural

damping in the system, whether or not supplemented by absorbent lining of air ducts
and bends.
There is usually a lack of sound attenuation in the lower frequencies. The sound levels in
the 63, 125 and 250 Hz octave bands are normative for the sound level in the living
spaces. As a result, silencer manufacturers have done everything in their power to
develop silencers that provide optimum performance in this frequency range. Among
other things, measurement methods have also been developed with which the
performance, sound attenuation and sound production, can be determined objectively
and reproducibly.
The apparent simplicity of coulisse silencers has led to widespread counterfeiting. The
attenuation and noise production data presented therein usually appear to be "derived"
from those of the reputable manufacturers. The guarantee on the realization of the
offered performance is then usually based on the malfunctioning of the silencer to be
demonstrated by the customer. By asking for certificates, measurement reports and
measurement conditions, it is quite possible to separate the wheat from the chaff in
advance.
Dampers come in various designs and can be specially manufactured dampers and
dampers marketed as standard products.

Standard silencers can be divided as follows:

1. Coulis silencers (rectangular)
2. Cylindrical (round) silencers (without or with core)
3. Flexible soundproofing hoses

In air handling units, the coulisse dampers are used.

9.4 Coulis silencers

Coulisse silencers are composed of a rectangular channel piece, containing a number of

wings (official translation: movable side piece in stage scenery), that is, a number of
elements that can be placed at different positions within the channel piece.
Figure VII-75 shows an example of a coulisse silencer.

Figure VII-75Example of a coulisse silencer.

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The wings consist of a metal frame (cassette) into which sound-absorbing material
(glass wool) is inserted. The glass wool is usually coated (black) to prevent loosening of
fibers. The wings may further be covered over half their length with a steel plate of
small thickness. This cladding acts as a resonator. When the cladding is resonated by
sound impingement, it absorbs sound energy from the impinging sound, thus
attenuating it. A resonator works most effectively at low frequencies.
Figure VII-76 shows examples of the various coulors mentioned.

Absorption couloirs Resonation/absorption

couloirs

Figure VII-76Examples of backdrops.

Sound attenuation of coulisse dampers

The sound attenuation of coulisse silencers depends on the type of coulisse
(absorption, resonance or combination of resonance/absorption), thickness of the
coulisse, length of the coulisse, and the spacing or gap distance between the coulisse
or free passage of the silencer. Furthermore, the absorption material affects the sound
attenuation. Average attenuation values of coulisse silencers are given in Table VII-26.
In practice, the sound attenuation of a silencer is limited to 50 dB. This is in connection with
flanking noise transmission through the duct housing. Higher sound attenuation values than
50 dB are possible but are not used in practice.

(Hz) Coulisse distance S (mm)

80 100 120 140 160 180 200
63 4 4 3 3 3 2 2
125 16 15 13 12 11 10 9
250 32 29 25 22 20 18 17
500 34 29 25 22 20 17 16
1.000 39 34 28 23 20 17 15
2.000 31 24 20 18 15 14 13
4.000 19 15 13 12 11 10 9
8.000 16 13 11 9 9 8 7

Table VII-26Damping values of a silencer.

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Noise production of coulisse attenuators

Due to the air flow between the wings, sound is generated in the silencer. The noise
production here depends on the extent to which the air undergoes a change in
direction, it is greater if the free passage is restricted.
Also, noise production depends on the air velocity between the wings and this is related
to the free passage in the silencer.

9.5 Cylindrical (round) silencers

Cylindrical silencers are composed of a closed cylindrical metal outer casing, a package
of sound absorbing material and a perforated metal inner casing among other things to
hold the absorbing material in the desired position. These silencers normally possess
the same inner diameters as the connecting ductwork. Due to the absorbing material
(thickness 50 or 100 mm), the outer diameter is at least 100 or 200 mm larger. There
are cylindrical silencers without and with core. In this case, the core also consists of a
cylindrical perforated steel (outer) casing within which an amount of sound-absorbing
material is placed.

Figure VII-77 shows the principle construction of a cylindrical silencer without core,
together with a practical example, in Figure VII-78 the principle construction as well as a
practical example of a cylindrical silencer with core.

The sound attenuation values of cylindrical silencers without core are lower than
those of coulisse silencers simply because of the absence of coulisse. However, due to
the applied thickness of the absorption material (50 or 100 mm), higher sound
attenuation than in the situation of relatively thin (12.5 mm or 25 mm) internal duct
lining can be obtained.

With cylindrical silencers with core, the same sound attenuation values can be
obtained as with coulisse silencers with corresponding silencer length and
composition.

Principle constructionPractical exampleVII-77

silencer without core.

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Principle constructionPracticalexample Figure

VII-78 silencer with core.

Noise production of cylindrical dampers

For cylindrical silencers, to date, no formulas have been developed for determining the
noise production generated by the air flow. One reason for this is that cylindrical
silencers are used less frequently than coulisse silencers; on the other hand, the
differences in construction of cylindrical silencers are greater than for coulisse silencers.
One therefore has to rely on the information to be provided by the supplier.

Flexible soundproofing hoses

Flexible silencing hoses have a similar principle construction as the cylindrical silencers
without core, however, the materialization of both the inner jacket and outer jacket
differs greatly from that of the steel cylindrical silencers. The location of the silencer
hose in the duct system is also completely different from that of the previously
described silencers. The previously described silencers are usually placed in the
immediate vicinity of fans (beginning of duct system), the silencing hoses near the air
vents (end of duct system).
A distinction can be made between sound-damping hoses that possess relatively hard
(perforated) inner jacket and hard outer jacket, and relatively soft inner and outer
jacket, respectively.
Figure VII-79 shows examples of flexible soundproofing hoses.

The sound attenuation of sound absorbing hoses depends on the construction of the inner
jacket, the intermediate absorption material and thickness thereof as well as on the
construction of the outer jacket. With increasing diameter, sound attenuation decreases;
with increasing length, sound attenuation increases.

Hard coat

Hard coatSoft coat

Figure VII-79Examples of flexible silencing hoses.

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CHAPTER 10. HEAT RECOVERY SYSTEMS

10.1 Introduction

Heat recovery or sometimes called energy recovery, if moisture recovery and/or cold
recovery are also involved, is substantially different from recirculation. With
recirculation, substantial percentage, 30% to sometimes as much as 90% return air goes
back into the supply air stream via mixing. With heat recovery, these percentages are
only a few percent (0.5% to 3%) due to internal leakage. A normative maximum has
been set for internal leakage from return to supply (EATR = Exhaust Air Transfer Ratio)
at 5%.
The internal leakage rate (EATR) for heat wheels and plate exchangers is similar in most
cases <3%). If absolutely no internal leakage is allowed, a separate supply and return
box with a twin-coil system should be chosen. For outside mounted cabinets the
external leakage is also important (dilution factor). With the introduction of the new
NEN1087 as part of the NTA8800, this must also be carefully considered for AHUs larger
than 1 m3 /s. Annex C of the NEN1087 outlines various situations for a roof installation
indicating how the suction and blow-off should be positioned.

Heat recovery is required by law ErP 2014/1253 for most balance ventilation systems.
In ISSO report 10740 exceptions are further explained, roughly it can be said that if the
exhaust air is so contaminated that it is not safe or becomes unaffordable to apply
heat recovery that it is not required. This can also be found in the implementation
document with explanatory FAQ of the 2014/1253 and also in the EVIA-Eurovent
Guidance document.

Due to the statutory requirements for heat recovery efficiency in the 2014/1253, the heat
recovery device market is focusing on heat wheels, plate exchangers and twin-coil systems.
Heat recovery (WT) occurs when heat can be transferred from the exhaust air to be
extracted to the supply air. Heat recovery is possible by recovering sensible and latent
heat, the latter for example in the form of condensation heat.

By wtw device
Fresh (cold) preheated outside
outdoor air air

heat

By wtw device
spent (cooled)
exhaust air Exhaust air out
the space

Figure VII-80The principle of heat recovery.

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