Applied Surface Science 637 (2023) 157882

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Applied Surface Science

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apsusc

Full Length Article

Modification of diamond tool by focused ion beam in dry single-point

diamond turning
Jianbiao Du a, Hanzhong Liu a, *, Ning Yang b, Xiaozhou Chen c, Wenjun Zong a, *
a
Center for Precision Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China
b
Sichuan Precision and Ultra-Precision Machining Engineering Technology Center, Chengdu 610200, China
c
School of Mechanical Electronic and Information Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology, Beijing 100083, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The modified diamond tools (MDT) by focused ion beam (FIB) can reduce tool wear to a certain extent while
Modified diamond tools avoiding the pollution of traditional cutting fluid. This paper investigates the dry single-point diamond turning
Focused ion beam (DSPDT) process for Al6061 alloy with MDT. DSPDT tests showed that MDT produced lower cutting forces and
Tool wear inhibition
generated smoother machined surfaces. Furthermore, MDT has a lighter wear compared with the unmodified
Dry single point diamond turning
diamond tools. The reasons why the cutting performance of MDT is better than the unmodified diamond tools are
Al6061 alloy
the reduced surface energy of modified diamonds proved by the first principle calculations and contact angle
tests, and the change of the C–C bond energy and bond length according to the first principle calculations.
Therefore, it is feasible and promising to apply the MDT in the DSPDT of Al6061 alloy, which will contribute to
carbon neutralization manufacturing.

1. Introduction diseases that vary from slight contact dermatitis to cancer. Considerable
attention has been given to reducing or completely omitting the cutting
Relevant surveys have shown that the energy used by manufacturing fluids and meeting the demands for green environmental protection
industries accounted for 37% of total global energy consumption in cutting processes [6]. Therefore, it has driven the need for developing
2006 [1], and produced 21% of greenhouse gas emissions around the several sustainable solutions for cleaner production in order to manu­
world [2]. Wherein 20% of the energy is used to overcome friction [2], facture parts with high dimensional accuracy with the lowest associated
and 14% of the energy loss is caused by friction that is a wear-related costs derived from the tool life and the energy required by the equip­
energy loss, including the energy for making new parts and equipment ment [7]. Therefore, scholars try to use auxiliary processes and devices
downtime. In addition, taking into account the cost of maintenance to realize material machining without the participation of cutting fluids,
work due to wear, the overall cost of wear represents 35% of the cost of such as cryogenic diamond turning [8], gas atmosphere protection
friction [2]. The industrial production field causes a lot of energy con­ cutting [9], ultrasonic vibration-assisted diamond cutting [10], electric
sumption due to overcoming friction and wear. field assisted diamond cutting [11], and micro laser assisted diamond
Single-point diamond turning (SPDT), as a type of subtractive cutting [12]. The machined surface quality obtained by auxiliary pro­
manufacturing, has been widely used in ultra-precision devices cesses and devices can meet expectations and reduce the energy con­
manufacturing in advanced sectors, such as aerospace, navigation, and sumption of the cutting process. However, since the auxiliary process
clean energy [3]. Cutting fluids are widely used in SPDT to reduce and device will complicate the original processing process and increase
friction and remove the cutting heat generated between the workpiece the cost of processing equipment, the energy consumption of the whole
and diamond tools, thereby improving the surface finish characteristics processing process, the total energy of which is actually increased.
[4] and realizing energy conservation. However, during the utilization, This paper attempts to achieve cutting energy consumption reduc­
disposal, and discharge processes of cutting fluids, it is unavoidable to tion and green production from the perspective of tool modification
damage the environment and the health of the workers [5], because the without the use of cutting fluid. To avoid the limitations of the cutting
direct contact with the fluids may cause dermatological and respiratory fluids, some scholars have studied the modification effect of diamond

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (H. Liu), [email protected] (W. Zong).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2023.157882
Received 31 March 2023; Received in revised form 22 June 2023; Accepted 25 June 2023
Available online 26 June 2023
0169-4332/© 2023 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
J. Du et al. Applied Surface Science 637 (2023) 157882

Fig. 1. Experimental setup: (a) dual-beam workstation, (b) schematic of the SEM and FIB system, (c) schematic of ion implantation.

materials and diamond tools [13]. Nitrogen, chromium, and titanium machined surface quality were both significantly improved. The authors
ions were implanted on the surface of a single crystal diamond with an considered that the stability improvement of the cutting process and the
acceleration voltage between 60 kV and 180 kV, and an ion dose of 1 × potential low cutting heat at the tool-chip interface were the main rea­
1017 ions/cm2 firstly. Then, the copper grinding wheel with wet dia­ sons for high wear resistance of the MDT. Although the cutting perfor­
mond suspension was used to test the mechanical property of modified mances of modified diamond tools had been confirmed by SPDT, some
diamonds. The results show that the resistance of single crystal diamond concerned topics still should be clarified further, such as the avoidance
implanted chromium ions is significantly improved, but no ultra- of channel effect during ion implantation, the relationship between the
precision cutting test was conducted. In addition, the wear resistance implanted depth and the acceleration voltage, the influence of implan­
of natural diamond tools implanted with nitrogen ions was improved tation dose on the modification effect as well as the crystal structure of
[14,15]. However, Kawasegi et al. [16] found that the ion implantation the modified layer.
will induce the amorphization of diamond tools. This is because they In light of the review and the shortcomings of previous work, a
ignored the influence of ion implantation dose on the amorphization supplement study on FIB modification of diamond tools used for ultra-
[17]. In addition, the relationship between the acceleration voltage and precision turning is performed in this paper. Firstly, the modification
the thickness of damage layer was studied with transmission electron parameters are determined. Due to the property of diamond crystal, the
microscopy and molecular dynamics simulation when the implantation channel effect needs to be avoided in ion implantation to control the
dose exceeded the critical dose of amorphization [18]. Subsequently, implantation depth. The critical implantation dose for the ion
Lee et al. [19] modified the single-crystal diamond tool with the ion implantation-induced amorphization of diamond is determined. As ex­
implantation effect of FIB for the cutting of ferrous metals. They found pected, the relationship between the acceleration voltage and the
that the modified diamond tool (MDT) wear resistance and the modification depth is acquired when the implantation dose is less than

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J. Du et al. Applied Surface Science 637 (2023) 157882

Fig. 2. Relationship between acceleration voltage and implantation depth: (a) an acceleration voltage of 30 kV, (b) an acceleration voltage of 15 kV, and (c) an
acceleration voltage of 5 kV.

the critical dose of amorphization. Secondly, the influences of implan­ channeling effect, accelerating voltage, dose, and modified size. The
tation dose on the crystal structure and the modified layer are revealed critical angle of the channeling effect was determined first as one way to
at the atomic scale, and the wear resistance of the modified tool is dis­ avoid the channeling effect. Then, accelerating voltage was selected to
cussed according to the variations of surface energy and chemical bond. obtain modified layers with a certain thickness. Third, the critical dose
Finally, the diamond tool is modified by multiple implantation doses, of amorphization was ascertained to define the maximum dose used in
and the cutting performance of which is evaluated in terms of cutting tool modification. Finally, modified sizes were confirmed to make sure
force, wear resistance and surface roughness. As a result, the influence of that the chip flow occurred on the modified rake face. Details of these
implantation dose on the wear resistance of the modified tool is clarified. modification parameters are discussed below.
(1) Critical angle of channeling effect.
2. Experiments and first principle simulations The channeling effect is inevitable because the spatial distribution of
the atoms in the diamond is regular when the single-crystal diamond is
Firstly, the modification experiments were conducted to determine modified by the FIB implantation effect, especially when the ions are
the critical value of modification parameters as a basis for the modifi­ implanted along the crystal axis. The channeling effect is very significant
cation parameter selection of the final DSPDT tests. Then, first principle for accurately controlling the depth of ion implantation because the
calculations were performed on modified and pristine diamonds to channeling effect maybe results in the concentration distribution of
obtain the surface energy and the information of chemical bonds. incident ions in the crystal deviating from the Ga distribution based on
Thirdly, contact angles were measured to confirm the surface energy the LSS theory [20], and a long “tail” appears in the concentration
calculation. Finally, DSPDT tests were carried out to evaluate the cutting distribution.
performance of MDT. Details of the experiments and simulations are In order to control the modification depth and the life of the modified
described as following. layer, the channeling effect must be suppressed. Common suppression
methods include shifting an angle of ion implantation away from the
2.1. Modification experiments crystal axis direction, amorphizing the crystal surface, increasing the
implantation dose to form an amorphous layer, and mask treatment. In
2.1.1. Modification equipment view of the characteristics of FIB technology and the purpose of modi­
Multiple single-crystal diamond samples supplied by WSS Co. used in fication, this paper adopts ion implantation at a shifting angle away from
these experiments were modified by a dual-beam workstation (Cross­ the crystal axis to inhibit the channeling effect, that is, with an im­
beam550, ZEISS, Germany) that combines a high-resolution scanning plantation angle (ψ m ) greater than the critical angle (ψ c ) of channeling
electron microscope (SEM) and a FIB using gallium (Ga) ion at room effect, so it is very important to obtain the critical angle of channeling
temperature (23℃), as shown in Fig. 1. effect.
According to previous results [21], the ψ c expression is.
2.1.2. Modification parameters
The modification parameters include the critical angle of the

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J. Du et al. Applied Surface Science 637 (2023) 157882

Fig. 3. Test of EBSP: (a) test diagram, (b) test equipment.

modified layer in this work to some extent. The depth of Ga ion im­
Table 1
plantation into diamond at different acceleration voltages (i.e., 30 kV,
Multiple doses to determine the critical dose inducing diamond amorphization.
15 kV, and 5 kV) was obtained in this study based on the line scanning
Test Time Dose [ions/cm2] Test Time Dose [ions/cm2] function of energy spectrum analysis, as shown in Fig. 2. It should be
No. [s] No. [s]
noted that the focused xenon ion beam was used for sample preparation,
1 1 6.24 × 1012 23 23 1.44 × 1014 which ensures that the Ga element obtained in energy spectrum analysis
2 2 1.25 × 1013 24 24 1.50 × 1014
was totally the Ga element implanted in the modification process.
3 3 1.87 × 1013 25 25 1.56 × 1014
4 4 2.50 × 1013 26 26 1.62 × 1014
The implantation depth of Ga ions (Orange line) was about 44 nm
5 5 3.12 × 1013 27 27 1.69 × 1014 with an acceleration voltage of 30 kV, as shown in Fig. 2(a), and the
6 6 3.74 × 1013 28 28 1.75 × 1014 implantation depth of Ga ions was about 24 nm with an acceleration
7 7 4.37 × 1013 29 29 1.81 × 1014 voltage of 15 kV, as shown in Fig. 2(b), and the implantation depth of Ga
8 8 4.99 × 1013 30 30 1.87 × 1014
ions was about 12 nm with an acceleration voltage down to 5 kV, as
9 9 5.62 × 1013 31 31 1.93 × 1014
10 10 6.24 × 1013 32 32 1.99 × 1014 shown in Fig. 2(c). The above results prove that the depth of Ga ions is
11 11 6.87 × 1013 33 33 2.06 × 1014 positively related to the acceleration voltage. To obtain a thicker
12 12 7.49 × 1013 34 34 2.12 × 1014 modified layer, the acceleration voltage of 30 kV was selected for this
13 13 8.11 × 1013 35 35 2.18 × 1014 study.
14 14 8.74 × 1013 36 36 2.25 × 1014
15 15 9.34 × 1013 37 37 2.31 × 1014
(3) Critical dose of amorphization.
16 16 9.99 × 1013 38 38 2.37 × 1014 The selection of ion implantation dose has an important influence on
17 17 1.06 × 1014 39 39 2.43 × 1014 the modification effect of the diamond. If the implantation dose is
18 18 1.12 × 1014 40 40 2.50 × 1014 greater than the critical dose of amorphization, the diamond will be
19 19 1.19 × 1014 41 41 2.56 × 1014
amorphized, which reduces the cutting performance of the MDT.
20 20 1.25 × 1014 42 42 2.62 × 1014
21 21 1.31 × 1014 43 43 2.68 × 1014 Therefore, it is necessary to obtain the critical dose of amorphization.
22 22 1.37 × 1014 44 44 2.75 × 1014 Experimental methods were used to determine this dose in this study.
The sample was prepared by mechanical polishing. The test plane of the
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ sample needs to face the phosphorus screen of the detector and be at an
2Z1 Z2 q2 angle with the horizontal direction in order to obtain the electron
ψc = (1)
Ed backscatter diffraction patterns (EBSP), as shown in Fig. 3. The dose
where Z1 and Z2 represent the atomic numbers of Ga and carbon, setting is listed in Table 1.
respectively; q is the proton charge and d is the distance between two The Ga ions were implanted onto the diamond (1 0 0) surface at an
adjacent atoms on the diamond lattice; E is the acceleration voltage. angle of 7◦ . With the increase of the implantation dose, its surface EBSP
(2) Acceleration voltage. changed from clearly visible, as shown in Fig. 4 (b), to blurred, as shown
The mathematical relationship between the depth of the modified in Fig. 4 (c), and finally disappeared, as shown in Fig. 4 (d). Since the
layer and the acceleration voltage was investigated through experiments formation of the EBSP is closely related to the integrity of the crystal
[18], which demonstrated that the damage layer depth is dependent on structure of the sample, namely the integrity of the crystal structure is
the acceleration voltage. In fact, the damage layer is referred to the positively correlated with the legibility of the EBSP [22]. Therefore, in
this experiment, when the implantation dose was 1.50 × 1014 ions/cm2,

Fig. 4. Acceleration voltage is 30 kV, inclined 7◦ implantation: (a) no ions implantation, (b) a dose of 7.49 × 1013 ions/cm2, (c) a dose of 1.19 × 1014 ions/cm2, (d) a
dose of 1.50 × 1014 ions/cm2.

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J. Du et al. Applied Surface Science 637 (2023) 157882

Fig. 5. Evolution of EBSP and atomic structure on the (1 0 0) diamond surface with implantation dose: (a) and (e) no implanted ion; (b) and (f) a dose of 6.24 × 1012
ions/cm2; (c) and (g) a dose of 1.69 × 1014 ions/cm2; (d) and (h) a dose of 2.43 × 1014 ions/cm2 [17].

Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of modification method of the tool rake face.

important influence on the evolution of the crystal structure of the

modified diamond surface [17]. If the implantation dose is less than the
critical dose for amorphization, a few of carbon atoms in the modified
layer are replaced by Ga atoms at the atomic scale, as demonstrated in
Fig. 5(f), or local point defects, as shown in Fig. 5(g). The decrease of the
clarity of the Kikuchi diffraction patterns reflects the change of the
crystal structure, as confirmed in Fig. 5(b) and (c). If the implantation
dose exceeds the critical dose for amorphization, the carbon atoms and
gallium atoms are disorderly distributed in the modified layer, as pre­
sented in Fig. 5(h), resulting in a complete amorphization of the crystal
structure, as revealed in Fig. 5(d), which essentially reduces the tool
wear resistance [16]. Obviously, the result in Fig. 5(h) deviates from the
purpose to improve the tool wear resistance by ion implantation.
(4) Modified sizes.
To study the influence of the dose on the tool cutting performance
Fig. 7. Schematic diagram of cutting width. and reduce the influence of the tools provided by different production
batches on the ion implantation, several positions (P1 ~ P5) were
the EBSP has disappeared, indicating that the dose is the critical dose of selected on the same arc edge tool for modification, as shown in Fig. 6.
amorphization. To study the influence of the dose on the cutting per­ The dimensions of the modified area were of width (wm ) and length (lm )
formance, multiple doses were chosen, such asn1 = 1.87 × 1013 ions/ respectively. The modified area must cover the chip contact region
cm2, n2 = 3.74 × 1013 ions/cm2, n3 = 7.49 × 1013 ions/cm2 andn4 = 1.37 because the chip friction state will be improved by the ion implantation
× 1014 ions/cm2. modification, which means that wm must be larger than the chip contact
As reported in our previous work, the implantation dose has an width (wc ) and lm must be larger than the chip contact length (lc ), as

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J. Du et al. Applied Surface Science 637 (2023) 157882

Table 4
Surface energies for pristine and Ga-implanted diamond (% change is calculated
by (EGa-EP)/EP × 100%).
Sizes (C + Ga) Ep: Pristine EGa: Ga implanted Surface energy reduction
(J/m2) (J/m 2) (%)

31 + 1 6.71 4.49 − 33.08

63 + 1 6.71 5.14 − 23.40
127 + 1 6.71 5.69 − 15.20
215 + 1 6.71 5.29 − 21.16

Accordingly, it is important to determine the chip contact size ac­

cording to the above analysis, so the chip contact width is first derived
based on the mathematical geometric relationship, as shown in Fig. 7,
and the mathematical expression is described by Eq. (2).
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
( )2̅
fz
wc = + (Rn )2 − Rn − ap (2)
2
where fz is the feed per tooth; Rn is the tool nose radius; ap is the
cutting depth.
Fig. 8. Experimental setup of DSPDT tests. Then the calculation expression of chip contact length [23] can be
derived from.
⎧
Table 2 ⎪ 2ap cos(γ − φ)
⎪
⎨ lc =
Parameters of diamond tools. sinφ
(3)
Items Settings and values ⎪
⎪ cosγ
⎩ tanφ =
Rake face (1 0 0)
ξ − sinγ
Flank face (1 0 0) where γ is the tool rake angle; φ is the shear angle; ξ is the chip
Tool rake angle [◦ ] 0
Tool flank angle [◦ ] 9
deformation coefficient.
Nose radius [μm] ≈ 1500 Since the tool rake angle used in this study is 0◦ , the above equations
Included angle [◦ ] ≈ 90 are rewritten as.
Cutting edge sharpness [nm] ≈ 50
Tool edge waviness [nm] ≈ 100 2ap
lc = (4)
Flank shape Cylindrical surface tanφ

1
tanφ = (5)
ξ
Substituting Eq. (5) into Eq. (4), the expression of chip contact length
with a rake angle of 0◦ is obtained as.
lc = 2ap ξ (6)

where ξ is ranged from 1 to 8 [23], which is configured as 8 in this

work.

2.2. First principle calculations

2.2.1. Surface energy

To verify the implications of ion implantation on a diamond tool, the
first principles [24,25] were employed to perform all spin-polarization
density functional theory (DFT) calculations within the generalized
gradient approximation (GGA) using the Perdew-Burke-Ernzerhof (PBE)
Fig. 9. Preprocessing of sample: (a) machined by machine tool, (b) PCD tool, [26] formulation. The projected augmented wave (PAW) potentials
(c) sample preprocessed.
[27,28] were used to describe the ionic cores and valence electrons were
considered using a plane wave basis set with a kinetic energy cutoff of
Table 3
450 eV. Partial occupancies of the Kohn-Sham orbitals were allowed
Modified parameters of diamond tools. using the Gaussian smearing method with a width of 0.05 eV. The
electronic energy was self-consistent if the energy change was less than
Serial Implantation angle (deg) Acceleration voltage (kV) Dose
No. (ions/cm2)
10− 5 eV. A geometry optimization was convergent if the energy change
was less than 0.02 eV but more than 10− 5 eV. The 18 Å vacuum layer
M1 7 30 1.87 × 1013
was normally added to the surface to eliminate the artificial interactions
M2 3.74 × 1013
M3 0 with periodic images.
M4 7.49 × 1013 To estimate the effects of Ga atoms on the surface properties of the
M5 1.37 × 1014 modified diamond, the surface energy was computed for slabs of four
sizes. For each system of 32, 64, 128, and 216C atoms, one Ga atom was
positioned in the middle to qualitatively represent different dopant
presented in the left enlarged figure of Fig. 6.
concentrations. The surface energy is expressed by Eq. (7) [29].

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J. Du et al. Applied Surface Science 637 (2023) 157882

Fig. 10. Optical measurements of contact angles from wettability test, (a-e) MDT with M3, M1, M2, M4, and M5, respectively.

Table 5
The bond length of C–C and C-Ga bonds in diamond crystals.
Crystal Bond length (Å)

C–C C-Ga

Diamond 1.5398 Non-existent

Diamond-Ga 1.4914 1.7115
Diamond-Ga-hollow 1.3915 1.7715

hkl
Eslab (n) − nEbulk
γ hkl = (7)
2S
where Ehkl
slab and Ebulk are the energy of the slab model associated to the
(hkl) surface and the bulk system respectively; n is the number of bulk
unit in the the slab model, and S is the surface area of the model.

2.2.2. Chemical bond

To study the bond energy between the C atom in diamond and the Ga Fig. 12. Average cutting force under different modified parameters.
atom, all calculations were performed via the Vienna ab initio simula­
tion package (VASP) [24,25] with the projector augmented wave (PAW) fully relax with the conjugate gradient method until the maximum force
pseudopotentials [28]. The exchange–correlation interaction was of each atom was smaller than 0.02 eV/Å. The Brillouin zone was
calculated with the GGA method of the PBE [30,31] pure functional. The sampled with 5 × 5 × 1 Monkhorst-Pack k-points grids.
long-range van der Waals interactions were treated as Grimme’s DFT-D3
scheme [32]. The spin polarization was incorporated to Gain the ground
2.3. Contact angle measurements
state energy. A 2 × 2 supercell of graphene was built, and the vacuum
layer was set to 15 Å to avoid the interaction among mirror images
The adhesion work was decided by the surface energy of the two
[33,34].
materials in contact [37]. Moreover, the surface energy can be indirectly
For the parameters of calculations, the kinetic energy cutoff of the
characterized by the contact angle [38]. Considering the above analysis,
plane-wave basis set was chosen as 500 eV. Gaussian smearing with a
contact angles on unmodified and modified diamond tool rake faces
width of σ = 0.1 eV was set for the occupation of the electronic levels
were measured by surface tension meter (100S, KRUSS, Germany) using
[35,36]. As for the structure optimization, all the atoms were allowed to
0.2 μl of water at room temperature 23 ℃.

Fig. 11. The optimized geometries for diamond and Ga doping structures, where the gray and pink atoms are C and Ga atoms: (a) diamond-100, (b) diamond-100-
Ga, (c) diamond-100-Ga-vacancy.

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J. Du et al. Applied Surface Science 637 (2023) 157882

2.4. Dry single point diamond turning tests

The dry single point diamond turning (DSPDT) tests were carried out
on a homemade four-axis ultraprecision machine tool, which uses an
ultraprecision motion unit and drive technology to ensure that the
machined surface roughness (Sa) is less than 3 nm, as shown in Fig. 8.
Two unmodified diamond tools supplied by WSS Co. were used with a
round shaped (with a nose radius of 1.5 mm) and with a cutting edge
radius and waviness of about 50 nm and 100 nm. The cutting edge radius
and waviness were respectively measured on the atomic force micro­
scopy (Nanite B, Nanosurf, Switzerland) and diamond tool radius check
microscope (DTRC, Chase Co. Ltd., Germany). The other geometrical
parameters of unmodified diamond tools are presented in Table 2. The
tools were fixed on a tool holder that was installed on the top of a
dynamometer (9119AA2, Kistler, Switzerland) used to collect cutting
forces, as shown in Fig. 8. The above cutting and measurement experi­
ments were conducted in a clean room, during which the ambient
temperature and humidity were precisely controlled at 22 ± 0.5 ℃ and
20 %±1% Relative Humidity, respectively. Al6061 alloy samples sup­
plied by Chaoyue Co. with a cylindrical diameter of 110 mm and a
thickness of 30 mm were used as the workpiece (an underside as the
work surface). Before the cutting experiments, it is necessary to pre-
process the end surface of the Al6061 alloy samples with a poly­
crystalline diamond (PCD) turning tool to obtain a surface roughness Sa
of about 50 nm, aiming to eliminate the breakage of diamond tools
caused by the rough surface, as shown in Fig. 9. The surface roughness
Sa was measured with a 3D optical surface profiler (Newview9000,
Zygo, USA).
Three levels of cutting depth (i.e., 2 μm, 2.5 μm, and 3 μm) were
tested in the cutting experiments. The spindle speed and feed rate were
set as constants of 300 rpm and 0.01 mm/s, respectively. No cutting fluid
was applied during the machining tests. Firstly, for diamond tool No. 1,
five regions (P1-P5) on the rake face were modified with FIB, and the
modification parameters were listed in Table 3. Then, the above five
regions were used for the dry ultra-precision turning with a cutting
depth of 2 μm. For diamond tool No. 2, it was used to perform ultra-
precision turning with five regions (P1-P5) on its rake face respectively
with the same cutting depth levels of tool No. 1. After that, diamond tool
No. 2 was ground and modified at the five regions (P1-P5). M5 was
chosen as the modification parameter, as shown in Table 3.

3. Results and discussions

3.1. Surface energy

The ion implantation effects on the surface energy of diamond with

Fig. 14. Cutting forces at different cutting distances: (a) thrust force, (b)
principal force, (c) feeding force.

four different cell sizes (Ga atom concentrations) for (1 0 0) and is

summarized in Table 4. It is noted that the surface energies across all
four systems remain constant at 6.71 J/m2 for the (1 0 0) of a pristine
Fig. 13. The fluctuation range of cutting forces under different modi­
diamond. As shown in Table 4, Ga ion implantation is observed to
fied parameters.

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J. Du et al. Applied Surface Science 637 (2023) 157882

Fig. 15. Tool cutting edge of MDT modified with M1 at cutting distances of 15 km, 30 km, and 45 km, respectively: (a)-(c) 3D topography, (d)-(f) 2D cross-
sectional profile.

Fig. 16. Tool cutting edge of MDT modified with M2 at cutting distances of 15 km, 30 km, and 45 km, respectively: (a)-(c) 3D topography, (d)-(f) 2D cross-
sectional profile.

reduce the surface energy within 33% as compared with pure diamond Young’s equation [38], which corresponds well with the first principle
varying with concentration of Ga, which means that the modified sur­ calculation findings of the implantation influence on the diamond sur­
face is more stable than the pristine diamond surface. face energy as presented in Table 5. The decrease is becoming more
Fig. 10 shows a clear decrease in solid surface energy of the modified remarkable with the increasing dose, so diamond tools will be modified
diamond based on the droplet contact angle relative to the surface in with a higher dose in the following. In addition, according to physical

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J. Du et al. Applied Surface Science 637 (2023) 157882

Fig. 17. Tool cutting edge of MDT modified with M3 at cutting distances of 15 km, 30 km, and 45 km, respectively: (a)-(c) 3D topography, (d)-(f) 2D cross-
sectional profile.

Fig. 18. Tool cutting edge of MDT modified with M4 at cutting distances of 15 km, 30 km, and 45 km, respectively: (a)-(c) 3D topography, (d)-(f) 2D cross-
sectional profile.

chemistry theory, a higher surface energy promotes the formation of 3.2. Chemical bond
atomic bonds between two surfaces [39]. Therefore, the reduction in
surface energy on a modified diamond means that the chip and the tool 3.2.1. Bond energy
are not easy to bond together, so the chip can freely flow out on the rake The C–C bond energy of the (1 0 0) diamond (diamond-100) is 2.210
face of the modified tool, which is beneficial to improve the wear eV, as shown in Fig. 11 (a). When Ga atoms were implanted into the
resistance of the tool. diamond in the form of substitution (diamond-100-Ga), as shown in

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J. Du et al. Applied Surface Science 637 (2023) 157882

Fig. 19. Tool cutting edge of MDT modified with M5 at cutting distances of 15 km, 30 km, and 45 km, respectively: (a)-(c) 3D topography, (d)-(f) 2D cross-
sectional profile.

Fig. 11 (b), the C-Ga bond energy is 2.872 eV, which is obviously greater Fig. 12 shows an average-value comparison of three cutting force
than the C–C bond energy of the (1 0 0) diamond, increasing the wear components of the different MDT when the cutting distance reached 30
resistance of modified layer. km. It can be found that the measured average values of the three cutting
When Ga atoms were implanted into the diamond crystal filling a force components exhibit a decreasing trend with the increase of dose.
vacancy (diamond-100-Ga- vacancy), as shown in Fig. 11 (c), although For example, compared with the tool modified with M3, the average
the C-Ga bond energy (1.095 eV) forming at this time was less than the thrust force of the tool modified with M1, M2, M4, and M5 reduced by
C–C bond energy of the (1 0 0) diamond, the C–C bond energy around the 28.76%, 33.99%, 39.22%, and 43.14%, the reason of which may be
bond (2.911 eV) is much greater than the C–C bond energy of the (1 0 0) explanted as follows. Firstly, the surface energy of the modified area
diamond, increasing the difficulty that two C–C bonds were broken. reduced with the increase of the dose, as shown in Table 4 and Fig. 10.
Secondly, when Ga atoms were implanted into the (1 0 0) diamond in the
3.2.2. Bond length form of substitution, the C-Ga bonds with a bond energy 2.872 eV is
When the Ga atoms were implanted into the diamond in the form of obviously higher than the C–C bond energy of the (1 0 0) diamond
substitution, although the C-Ga bond length (1.7115 Å) is slightly longer (2.210 eV), as shown in Fig. 11. Thirdly, when Ga atoms were implanted
than the C–C bond length (1.5398 Å) in diamond lattice, it shortens the into the diamond filling the vacancies, the C–C bond length of the dia­
length of the C–C bond around it (1.4914 Å). When Ga atoms were mond was significantly shortened, increasing the surrounding C–C bond
implanted into the diamond crystal filling a vacancy, the C-Ga bond energy, as shown in Table 5.
length (1.7715 Å) is slightly longer than the C–C bond (1.5398 Å) length Fig. 13 shows a fluctuation range comparison of the three cutting
in diamond lattice, but it can also shorten the length of the C–C bond force components of the different MDT when the cutting distance
around it (1.3915 Å), as listed in Table 5. reached 30 km. It can also be found that the fluctuation range of the
It can be concluded from the above quantitative analyses that when three cutting force components exhibit a decreasing trend as the dose
Ga atoms are implanted into the diamond both in the form of substitu­ increase. For example, the thrust force fluctuation range of the tool
tion and filling a vacancy, the length of the C–C bond in the diamond is modified with M1, M2, M4, and M5 reduced by 40%, 50%, 53.33%, and
significantly shortened, which is conducive to improving the wear 60%, compared to the tool modified with M3. Ion implantation in­
resistance of the modified diamond. troduces vacancy defects generating magnetic moments, which results
in macro magnetism inside the MDT. The macro magnetism of the MDT
may be conducive to the suppression of vibration of the tooltip, because
3.3. Cutting force the vacancy concentration affects the magnetic moment [42] and the
viscous damper effect in the ultra-precision turning of the Al6061 alloy
Diamond tool wear and machined surface quality are influenced by [43]. Therefore, the cutting force fluctuation range of the MDT is
the cutting forces directly [40]. Moreover, they are also related to the decreased. In light of the cutting force amplitude reduction, it can be
lubricating conditions in the cutting areas because poor lubrication indicated that the cutting process of MDT is more stable than the un­
conditions generally exacerbate friction and adhesion at the tool-chip modified tool. Furthermore, it means that the surface roughness
interface, which causes the increase of cutting forces [41]. Figs. 12-14 machined with a MDT is superior to that machined with an unmodified
show a comparison of three cutting force components of the MDT under tool, which will be discussed in section 3.5.
various modified parameters (i.e., M1, M2, M3, M4, and M5) with Fig. 14 shows a change trend of the three cutting force components of
different cutting distances (i.e., 15 km, 30 km, and 45 km).

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J. Du et al. Applied Surface Science 637 (2023) 157882

Fig. 20. Sa machined with different MDT at cutting distances of 15 km, 30 km, and 45 km: (a)-(c) machined by MDT modified with M3; (d)-(f) machined by MDT
modified with M1; (g)-(i) machined by MDT modified with M2; (j)-(l) machined by MDT modified with M4; (m)-(o) machined by MDT modified with M5.

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J. Du et al. Applied Surface Science 637 (2023) 157882

Fig. 21. 3D morphology machined with different tools under various cutting depths.

the different MDT with different cutting distances. As shown in Fig. 14, [40]. The cutting-edge radius of the MDT modified with M1 is smaller
the difference in cutting forces of the tools increases gradually with the than that of the MDT modified with M3 at the same cutting distance. The
increment of cutting distance, especially for the thrust force. The thrust reason is that the modification reduces the cutting forces and cutting
force of MDT modified with M1, M2, M4, and M5 reduced by 28.10%, vibration, which is consistent with the results shown in Figs. 12-13.
33.06%, 35.54%%, and 37.19%, compared with the MDT modified with Meanwhile, the results presented in Figs. 15-19, also indicate that the
M3, respectively, at a cutting distance of 15 km. Although the thrust cutting-edge radius is dependent on the modified parameters. Further
force of the MDT was smaller than that of the unmodified tool, the observation shows that the influence degree of the dose is positive
modified parameters had a limited influence on the reduction of the correlation to the cutting-edge radius, which can be attributed to the
cutting forces in the initial cutting stage. However, when the cutting reduced cutting forces and cutting vibration, as shown in Figs. 12-13.
distance reached 45 km, the thrust forces of the MDT modified with M1,
M2, M4, and M5 reduced by 30.77%, 37.91%, 46.15%, and 52.75%,
3.5. Surface roughness
compared with the MDT modified with M3. Obviously, the modified
parameters have a great influence on the reduction of the cutting forces
The cutting performances of MDT modified by different parameters
as the cutting distance increases.
were further evaluated by analyzing the machined surface roughness
In addition, Fig. 14 shows that the reduction of cutting forces is
(Sa). Fig. 20 shows the surface roughness Sa machined at different
positively related to the dose, which is because the surface energy of the
cutting distances (i.e., 15 km, 30 km, and 45 km). The Sa values of the
modified area decreases with the dose increasing, as shown in Table 5
machined surfaces increase with the cutting distances, and the corre­
and Fig. 10. The thrust force reduction of the MDT modified with M1,
sponding increments of MDT modified with M3 are maximum, as shown
M2, M4, and M5 may be related to the light tool wear, which relieves
in Fig. 20 (a)-(c), while the MDT modified with M5 was minimal as
severe friction and extrusion between the tool flank face and the
shown in Fig. 20 (m)-(o) at the cutting distances of 15 km, 30 km and 45
machined surface, which will be discussed in the following section.
km, consistent with the results in Fig. 13. Moreover, the experiment
results in Fig. 20 (d)-(o) suggest that the MDT has an advantage in
3.4. Tool wear improving the surface roughness, and the advantage becomes obvious
with the the dose increasing. Therefore, a conclusion can be drawn that
Diamond tools are widely used in ultra-precision machining because MDT exhibited an excellent cutting performance and wear resistance,
of their extremely sharp cutting edge. In this work, the cutting-edge and MDT is promising to be applied in the DSPDT of Al6061 alloy
radius (or called as cutting-edge sharpness) is used to evaluate the cut­ components.
ting performance of MDT with different modification parameters and Fig. 21 shows the roughness Sa of the surface machined with the
cutting distances in the early stage of diamond tool wear, as shown in unmodified and modified diamond tools modified with M5 using
Figs. 15-19. It can be seen from the Figs. 15-19 that all the cutting-edge different cutting depths (i.e., 2 μm, 2.5 μm, and 3 μm) at the cutting
radii of MDT modified with various parameters increase with the distance of 50 km. It can be observed that with the cutting depth
increment of cutting distances, which is because the cutting forces and increasing, the Sa of the surface machined with unmodified and modi­
cutting vibration increase significantly with the increase of cutting dis­ fied tools exhibits the same increasing tendency, as shown in Fig. 21 (a)-
tance, as shown in Fig. 14, also agreeing well with the recent results (c) and Fig. 21 (d)-(f). Moreover, in the range of the cutting depth used

13
J. Du et al. Applied Surface Science 637 (2023) 157882

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